Datasets:
tom-010
/
diffusing-embeddings-sections-and-paragraphs

Dataset card Data Studio Files
xet
Community
text
stringlengths
791
228k
parts
listlengths
6
567
Biography --------- ### Early years Alfred Fabian Young, known to family and friends as "Al," was born January 17, 1925,{{cite news \|title\=Alfred Young Obituary \|work\=The News \& Observer \|location\=Raleigh, NC \|date\=November 11, 2012 }} in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City "New York City").Michael D. Hattem, ["Roundtable: The Legacy of Alfred F. Young,"](https://earlyamericanists.com/2014/11/03/roundtable-the-legacy-of-alfred-f-young/) *The Junto,* Nov. 3, 2014\. He was the second son of Gerson Yungowitz, a [Polish](/wiki/Poland "Poland")\-born [Jew](/wiki/Jews "Jews") who had grown up in [London](/wiki/London "London"), and the former Fanny Denitzen, an East European émigré to America.Gary B. Nash, ["In Memoriam: Alfred F. Young,"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130512114335/https://oieahc.wm.edu/uncommon/131/young_nash.cfm) *Uncommon Sense,* Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, no. 131 (Winter 2013\). The family surname was Americanized to Young after his father's arrival in America. His parents divorced when Al was a child and he was raised by his mother in suburban [Jamaica, New York](/wiki/Jamaica%2C_Queens "Jamaica, Queens")."An Outsider and the Progress of a Career in History," *William and Mary Quarterly,* vol. 52, no. 3 (July 1995\), pg. 500\. Young attended [public schools](/wiki/State_school "State school"), graduating from [Jamaica High School](/wiki/Jamaica_High_School "Jamaica High School") in [Jamaica, Queens](/wiki/Jamaica%2C_Queens "Jamaica, Queens") at the age of 16, academically ranked 4th in his class of 400 students. He subsequently attended [Queens College](/wiki/Queens_College%2C_City_University_of_New_York "Queens College, City University of New York"), from which he graduated in 1946 with a [Bachelor of Arts](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts "Bachelor of Arts") degree in [Economics](/wiki/Economics "Economics"). His experience at Queens College was important in his intellectual development as a budding [social historian](/wiki/Social_history "Social history") with an emphasis on the [working class](/wiki/Working_class "Working class"), as it was there that he studied under pioneer industrial historian [Vera Shlakman](/wiki/Vera_Shlakman "Vera Shlakman") as well as scholar of the [Haymarket affair](/wiki/Haymarket_affair "Haymarket affair") and biographer of [Terence Powderly](/wiki/Terence_Powderly "Terence Powderly"), Henry David. Young went on to earn a Master's degree from [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University "Columbia University") in 1947, from whence he moved to [Northwestern University](/wiki/Northwestern_University "Northwestern University") near Chicago, where he began work on a [PhD](/wiki/PhD "PhD"). After three years of course work at Northwestern, Young took a series of teaching jobs at three eastern universities, while continuing to work on his [dissertation](/wiki/Dissertation "Dissertation") in his spare time. He was ultimately awarded his PhD by Northwestern in 1958\. His thesis title was "The Democratic\-Republican movement in New York State, 1788\-1797".{{cite book\|title\=Catalogue record for Young's PhD thesis\|url\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/39081901\|publisher\=Worldcat\|oclc \= 39081901\|access\-date\=10 September 2017}} In 1952 Young married Marilyn Mills, with whom he ultimately raised three daughters. ### Academic career After working in a series of temporary positions, in 1964 Young was hired by [Northern Illinois University](/wiki/Northern_Illinois_University "Northern Illinois University") to a tenure track position in the field of American history. He would continue to teach there for a quarter century before his retirement in 1989\. His first book, *The Democratic Republicans of New York: The Origins, 1763\-1797,* was published in 1967 and won accolades from the [Institute of Early American History and Culture](/wiki/Institute_of_Early_American_History_and_Culture "Institute of Early American History and Culture"), which awarded it its Jamestown Prize. During the tumultuous era of the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War"), Young emerged as an outspoken advocate of [academic freedom](/wiki/Academic_freedom "Academic freedom") and the defense of college professors with political views outside the mainstream from employment retaliation. He was the founder of the Committee on Academic Freedom in Illinois in 1968, an organization formed to halt the [blacklisting](/wiki/Blacklisting "Blacklisting") of radical historian [Staughton Lynd](/wiki/Staughton_Lynd "Staughton Lynd"), and was active in the [Committee on the Rights of Historians](/wiki/Committee_on_the_Rights_of_Historians "Committee on the Rights of Historians") of the [American Historical Association](/wiki/American_Historical_Association "American Historical Association") from its inception in 1971\.Jesse Lemisch, ["Remembering Al Young,"](https://www.lawcha.org/2012/11/16/remembering-al-young-leon-fink-jesse-lemisch/) Labor and Working\-Class History Association, Nov. 16, 2012\. After his retirement from teaching, Young took a position as a Senior Scholar in Residence at the [Newberry Library](/wiki/Newberry_Library "Newberry Library") in Chicago.Chris Cantwell, ["In Memorium: Al Young,"](https://www.newberry.org/memorium-al-young) The Newberry, Nov. 14, 2012\. Freed from the constraints of the classroom, Young managed to increase his literary productivity, releasing several essays collections and expanding his influential 1981 article on colonial shoemaker George Roberts Twelves Hewes into book form as *The Shoemaker and the Tea Party: Memory and the American Revolution* (1999\). He also published an important biography of a seldom\-remembered colonial woman who assumed a male gender identity in order to fight in the Revolutionary War, *Masquerade: The Live and Times of Deborah Sampson, Continental Soldier* (2005\). In 2004, Young was a founding editor of the academic journal *[Labor: Studies in Working\-Class History of the Americas](/wiki/Labor:Studies_in_Working-Class_History_of_the_Americas "Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas"),* published today by [Duke University Press](/wiki/Duke_University_Press "Duke University Press").Leon Fink, ["Remembering Al Young,"](https://www.lawcha.org/2012/11/16/remembering-al-young-leon-fink-jesse-lemisch/) Labor and Working\-Class History Association, Nov. 16, 2012\. ### Death and legacy Al Young was stricken by his first [heart attack](/wiki/Heart_attack "Heart attack") in May 2012\.Gregory Nobles, ["In Memoriam: Alfred F. Young (1925\-2012\),"](https://www.fromthesquare.org/in-memoriam-alfred-f-young-1925-2012/#.WbKSPSMrIkA) *From the Square,* New York University Press blog, Nov. 13, 2012\. His productive work as a working historian was thereby brought to an end. Young died November 6, 2012, in [Durham](/wiki/Durham%2C_North_Carolina "Durham, North Carolina"), [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina "North Carolina"), following a second heart attack — this time fatal. He was 87 years old at the time of his death. Young was remembered by his peers as a scholar of broad intellect with an exhaustive knowledge of his area of specialization. Historian Gregory Nobles, a collaborator with Young on a book project, recalled: "It’s hard to imagine anyone who knew the field better or cared more about really getting history right, especially about getting ordinary people — and their politics — into the picture." Characterizing him as a "[New Left](/wiki/New_Left "New Left") historian before there was a New Left," historian Michael D. Hattem declared that "Young’s greatest historiographical legacy may be his commitment to the idea that everyday people were historical actors, and the fact that that hardly seems revolutionary or revelatory is largely *because* of Al Young."
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Early years", "Alfred Fabian Young, known to family and friends as \"Al,\" was born January 17, 1925,{{cite news \\|title\\=Alfred Young Obituary \\|work\\=The News \\& Observer \\|location\\=Raleigh, NC \\|date\\=November 11, 2012 }} in [New York City](/wiki/New_York_City \"New York City\").Michael D. Hattem, [\"Roundtable: The Legacy of Alfred F. Young,\"](https://earlyamericanists.com/2014/11/03/roundtable-the-legacy-of-alfred-f-young/) *The Junto,* Nov. 3, 2014\\. He was the second son of Gerson Yungowitz, a [Polish](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\")\\-born [Jew](/wiki/Jews \"Jews\") who had grown up in [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), and the former Fanny Denitzen, an East European émigré to America.Gary B. Nash, [\"In Memoriam: Alfred F. Young,\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130512114335/https://oieahc.wm.edu/uncommon/131/young_nash.cfm) *Uncommon Sense,* Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, no. 131 (Winter 2013\\). The family surname was Americanized to Young after his father's arrival in America. His parents divorced when Al was a child and he was raised by his mother in suburban [Jamaica, New York](/wiki/Jamaica%2C_Queens \"Jamaica, Queens\").\"An Outsider and the Progress of a Career in History,\" *William and Mary Quarterly,* vol. 52, no. 3 (July 1995\\), pg. 500\\.", "Young attended [public schools](/wiki/State_school \"State school\"), graduating from [Jamaica High School](/wiki/Jamaica_High_School \"Jamaica High School\") in [Jamaica, Queens](/wiki/Jamaica%2C_Queens \"Jamaica, Queens\") at the age of 16, academically ranked 4th in his class of 400 students. He subsequently attended [Queens College](/wiki/Queens_College%2C_City_University_of_New_York \"Queens College, City University of New York\"), from which he graduated in 1946 with a [Bachelor of Arts](/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts \"Bachelor of Arts\") degree in [Economics](/wiki/Economics \"Economics\"). His experience at Queens College was important in his intellectual development as a budding [social historian](/wiki/Social_history \"Social history\") with an emphasis on the [working class](/wiki/Working_class \"Working class\"), as it was there that he studied under pioneer industrial historian [Vera Shlakman](/wiki/Vera_Shlakman \"Vera Shlakman\") as well as scholar of the [Haymarket affair](/wiki/Haymarket_affair \"Haymarket affair\") and biographer of [Terence Powderly](/wiki/Terence_Powderly \"Terence Powderly\"), Henry David.", "Young went on to earn a Master's degree from [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University \"Columbia University\") in 1947, from whence he moved to [Northwestern University](/wiki/Northwestern_University \"Northwestern University\") near Chicago, where he began work on a [PhD](/wiki/PhD \"PhD\").", "After three years of course work at Northwestern, Young took a series of teaching jobs at three eastern universities, while continuing to work on his [dissertation](/wiki/Dissertation \"Dissertation\") in his spare time. He was ultimately awarded his PhD by Northwestern in 1958\\. His thesis title was \"The Democratic\\-Republican movement in New York State, 1788\\-1797\".{{cite book\\|title\\=Catalogue record for Young's PhD thesis\\|url\\=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/39081901\\|publisher\\=Worldcat\\|oclc \\= 39081901\\|access\\-date\\=10 September 2017}}", "In 1952 Young married Marilyn Mills, with whom he ultimately raised three daughters.", "### Academic career", "After working in a series of temporary positions, in 1964 Young was hired by [Northern Illinois University](/wiki/Northern_Illinois_University \"Northern Illinois University\") to a tenure track position in the field of American history. He would continue to teach there for a quarter century before his retirement in 1989\\.", "His first book, *The Democratic Republicans of New York: The Origins, 1763\\-1797,* was published in 1967 and won accolades from the [Institute of Early American History and Culture](/wiki/Institute_of_Early_American_History_and_Culture \"Institute of Early American History and Culture\"), which awarded it its Jamestown Prize.", "During the tumultuous era of the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\"), Young emerged as an outspoken advocate of [academic freedom](/wiki/Academic_freedom \"Academic freedom\") and the defense of college professors with political views outside the mainstream from employment retaliation. He was the founder of the Committee on Academic Freedom in Illinois in 1968, an organization formed to halt the [blacklisting](/wiki/Blacklisting \"Blacklisting\") of radical historian [Staughton Lynd](/wiki/Staughton_Lynd \"Staughton Lynd\"), and was active in the [Committee on the Rights of Historians](/wiki/Committee_on_the_Rights_of_Historians \"Committee on the Rights of Historians\") of the [American Historical Association](/wiki/American_Historical_Association \"American Historical Association\") from its inception in 1971\\.Jesse Lemisch, [\"Remembering Al Young,\"](https://www.lawcha.org/2012/11/16/remembering-al-young-leon-fink-jesse-lemisch/) Labor and Working\\-Class History Association, Nov. 16, 2012\\.", "After his retirement from teaching, Young took a position as a Senior Scholar in Residence at the [Newberry Library](/wiki/Newberry_Library \"Newberry Library\") in Chicago.Chris Cantwell, [\"In Memorium: Al Young,\"](https://www.newberry.org/memorium-al-young) The Newberry, Nov. 14, 2012\\. Freed from the constraints of the classroom, Young managed to increase his literary productivity, releasing several essays collections and expanding his influential 1981 article on colonial shoemaker George Roberts Twelves Hewes into book form as *The Shoemaker and the Tea Party: Memory and the American Revolution* (1999\\). He also published an important biography of a seldom\\-remembered colonial woman who assumed a male gender identity in order to fight in the Revolutionary War, *Masquerade: The Live and Times of Deborah Sampson, Continental Soldier* (2005\\).", "In 2004, Young was a founding editor of the academic journal *[Labor: Studies in Working\\-Class History of the Americas](/wiki/Labor:Studies_in_Working-Class_History_of_the_Americas \"Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas\"),* published today by [Duke University Press](/wiki/Duke_University_Press \"Duke University Press\").Leon Fink, [\"Remembering Al Young,\"](https://www.lawcha.org/2012/11/16/remembering-al-young-leon-fink-jesse-lemisch/) Labor and Working\\-Class History Association, Nov. 16, 2012\\.", "### Death and legacy", "Al Young was stricken by his first [heart attack](/wiki/Heart_attack \"Heart attack\") in May 2012\\.Gregory Nobles, [\"In Memoriam: Alfred F. Young (1925\\-2012\\),\"](https://www.fromthesquare.org/in-memoriam-alfred-f-young-1925-2012/#.WbKSPSMrIkA) *From the Square,* New York University Press blog, Nov. 13, 2012\\. His productive work as a working historian was thereby brought to an end.", "Young died November 6, 2012, in [Durham](/wiki/Durham%2C_North_Carolina \"Durham, North Carolina\"), [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina \"North Carolina\"), following a second heart attack — this time fatal. He was 87 years old at the time of his death.", "Young was remembered by his peers as a scholar of broad intellect with an exhaustive knowledge of his area of specialization. Historian Gregory Nobles, a collaborator with Young on a book project, recalled: \"It’s hard to imagine anyone who knew the field better or cared more about really getting history right, especially about getting ordinary people — and their politics — into the picture.\"", "Characterizing him as a \"[New Left](/wiki/New_Left \"New Left\") historian before there was a New Left,\" historian Michael D. Hattem declared that \"Young’s greatest historiographical legacy may be his commitment to the idea that everyday people were historical actors, and the fact that that hardly seems revolutionary or revelatory is largely *because* of Al Young.\"", "" ]
### Academic career After working in a series of temporary positions, in 1964 Young was hired by [Northern Illinois University](/wiki/Northern_Illinois_University "Northern Illinois University") to a tenure track position in the field of American history. He would continue to teach there for a quarter century before his retirement in 1989\. His first book, *The Democratic Republicans of New York: The Origins, 1763\-1797,* was published in 1967 and won accolades from the [Institute of Early American History and Culture](/wiki/Institute_of_Early_American_History_and_Culture "Institute of Early American History and Culture"), which awarded it its Jamestown Prize. During the tumultuous era of the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War"), Young emerged as an outspoken advocate of [academic freedom](/wiki/Academic_freedom "Academic freedom") and the defense of college professors with political views outside the mainstream from employment retaliation. He was the founder of the Committee on Academic Freedom in Illinois in 1968, an organization formed to halt the [blacklisting](/wiki/Blacklisting "Blacklisting") of radical historian [Staughton Lynd](/wiki/Staughton_Lynd "Staughton Lynd"), and was active in the [Committee on the Rights of Historians](/wiki/Committee_on_the_Rights_of_Historians "Committee on the Rights of Historians") of the [American Historical Association](/wiki/American_Historical_Association "American Historical Association") from its inception in 1971\.Jesse Lemisch, ["Remembering Al Young,"](https://www.lawcha.org/2012/11/16/remembering-al-young-leon-fink-jesse-lemisch/) Labor and Working\-Class History Association, Nov. 16, 2012\. After his retirement from teaching, Young took a position as a Senior Scholar in Residence at the [Newberry Library](/wiki/Newberry_Library "Newberry Library") in Chicago.Chris Cantwell, ["In Memorium: Al Young,"](https://www.newberry.org/memorium-al-young) The Newberry, Nov. 14, 2012\. Freed from the constraints of the classroom, Young managed to increase his literary productivity, releasing several essays collections and expanding his influential 1981 article on colonial shoemaker George Roberts Twelves Hewes into book form as *The Shoemaker and the Tea Party: Memory and the American Revolution* (1999\). He also published an important biography of a seldom\-remembered colonial woman who assumed a male gender identity in order to fight in the Revolutionary War, *Masquerade: The Live and Times of Deborah Sampson, Continental Soldier* (2005\). In 2004, Young was a founding editor of the academic journal *[Labor: Studies in Working\-Class History of the Americas](/wiki/Labor:Studies_in_Working-Class_History_of_the_Americas "Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas"),* published today by [Duke University Press](/wiki/Duke_University_Press "Duke University Press").Leon Fink, ["Remembering Al Young,"](https://www.lawcha.org/2012/11/16/remembering-al-young-leon-fink-jesse-lemisch/) Labor and Working\-Class History Association, Nov. 16, 2012\.
[ "### Academic career", "After working in a series of temporary positions, in 1964 Young was hired by [Northern Illinois University](/wiki/Northern_Illinois_University \"Northern Illinois University\") to a tenure track position in the field of American history. He would continue to teach there for a quarter century before his retirement in 1989\\.", "His first book, *The Democratic Republicans of New York: The Origins, 1763\\-1797,* was published in 1967 and won accolades from the [Institute of Early American History and Culture](/wiki/Institute_of_Early_American_History_and_Culture \"Institute of Early American History and Culture\"), which awarded it its Jamestown Prize.", "During the tumultuous era of the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\"), Young emerged as an outspoken advocate of [academic freedom](/wiki/Academic_freedom \"Academic freedom\") and the defense of college professors with political views outside the mainstream from employment retaliation. He was the founder of the Committee on Academic Freedom in Illinois in 1968, an organization formed to halt the [blacklisting](/wiki/Blacklisting \"Blacklisting\") of radical historian [Staughton Lynd](/wiki/Staughton_Lynd \"Staughton Lynd\"), and was active in the [Committee on the Rights of Historians](/wiki/Committee_on_the_Rights_of_Historians \"Committee on the Rights of Historians\") of the [American Historical Association](/wiki/American_Historical_Association \"American Historical Association\") from its inception in 1971\\.Jesse Lemisch, [\"Remembering Al Young,\"](https://www.lawcha.org/2012/11/16/remembering-al-young-leon-fink-jesse-lemisch/) Labor and Working\\-Class History Association, Nov. 16, 2012\\.", "After his retirement from teaching, Young took a position as a Senior Scholar in Residence at the [Newberry Library](/wiki/Newberry_Library \"Newberry Library\") in Chicago.Chris Cantwell, [\"In Memorium: Al Young,\"](https://www.newberry.org/memorium-al-young) The Newberry, Nov. 14, 2012\\. Freed from the constraints of the classroom, Young managed to increase his literary productivity, releasing several essays collections and expanding his influential 1981 article on colonial shoemaker George Roberts Twelves Hewes into book form as *The Shoemaker and the Tea Party: Memory and the American Revolution* (1999\\). He also published an important biography of a seldom\\-remembered colonial woman who assumed a male gender identity in order to fight in the Revolutionary War, *Masquerade: The Live and Times of Deborah Sampson, Continental Soldier* (2005\\).", "In 2004, Young was a founding editor of the academic journal *[Labor: Studies in Working\\-Class History of the Americas](/wiki/Labor:Studies_in_Working-Class_History_of_the_Americas \"Studies in Working-Class History of the Americas\"),* published today by [Duke University Press](/wiki/Duke_University_Press \"Duke University Press\").Leon Fink, [\"Remembering Al Young,\"](https://www.lawcha.org/2012/11/16/remembering-al-young-leon-fink-jesse-lemisch/) Labor and Working\\-Class History Association, Nov. 16, 2012\\.", "" ]
Career ------ ### Television Glang began her TV career with supporting roles in German TV series and films in 2007\. In 2009, this led to a leading role in the popular series *[Unter uns](/wiki/Unter_uns "Unter uns")*. She appeared in nearly 300 episodes.[http://www.bild.de/unterhaltung/tv/serien/stirbt\-den\-serien\-tod\-16644024\.bild.html](http://www.bild.de/unterhaltung/tv/serien/stirbt-den-serien-tod-16644024.bild.html) Birte Glang left "Under one Roof". During her two\-year stint on the show, she also appeared on covers of several fashion and TV magazines. Glang appeared in TV films highlighted by the 2009 German historical drama *Schicksalsjahr*, where she co\-starred alongside lead actress [Maria Furtwängler](/wiki/Maria_Furtw%C3%A4ngler "Maria Furtwängler"). In 2010, she appeared in [Sony Pictures](/wiki/Sony_Pictures "Sony Pictures")' tragic\-comedy *{{ill\|The Great Comeback\|de\|Das große Comeback}}*[http://www.kino.de/kinofilm/das\-grosse\-comeback/fotoshow/131934/663102](http://www.kino.de/kinofilm/das-grosse-comeback/fotoshow/131934/663102) Birte Glang starring in "Das große Comeback". with German actors [Uwe Ochsenknecht](/wiki/Uwe_Ochsenknecht "Uwe Ochsenknecht") and [Andrea Sawatzki](/wiki/Andrea_Sawatzki "Andrea Sawatzki"). The TV film was nominated for the [Adolf Grimme Award](/wiki/Adolf_Grimme_Award "Adolf Grimme Award"). In 2016, Glang starred in *Was kostet die Liebe – Ein Großstadtmärchen*, the German comedic version of the fairytale [Cinderella](/wiki/Cinderella "Cinderella"), which was broadcast on [Sat.1](/wiki/Sat.1 "Sat.1"). ### Film In 2011, Glang left her television show for the pursue a film career. Six months later, she was cast for the lead in [Constantin Film's](/wiki/Constantin_Film "Constantin Film") action comedy *Agent Ranjid rettet die Welt*. In the film, she plays the assistant\-in\-crime of villain [Rutger Hauer](/wiki/Rutger_Hauer "Rutger Hauer") and the love interest of [Kaya Yanar](/wiki/Kaya_Yanar "Kaya Yanar"). She also produced and starred in a short film about the need for [organ donations](/wiki/Organ_donation "Organ donation"). *Im Himmel braucht man kein Gepäck* ("You Don't Need Luggage in Heaven") was shown as a public service announcement during the preview of feature films in German theaters. It has won several awards, for instance the "Golden Delphin" at the Cannes Cooperate Media \& TV Awards 2013,[http://www.cannescorporate.com/en/winners2013\.php](http://www.cannescorporate.com/en/winners2013.php) Golden Delphin Award Cannes.[http://www.fbw\-filmbewertung.com/film/im\_himmel\_braucht\_man\_kein\_gepaeck](http://www.fbw-filmbewertung.com/film/im_himmel_braucht_man_kein_gepaeck) Award "Prädikat besonders wertvoll" Deutsche Film\- und Medienbewertung.<http://archive.worldmediafestival.org> intermedia\-globe award SILVER WorldMediaFestival 2013\. and is in regular television circulation.[http://www.fuers\-leben.de/informieren/news\-einzelansicht/article/2013/10/fuers\-leben\-kurzfilm\-im\-himmel\-braucht\-man\-kein\-gepaeck\-gewinnt\-goldenen\-delphin\-in\-cann.html](http://www.fuers-leben.de/informieren/news-einzelansicht/article/2013/10/fuers-leben-kurzfilm-im-himmel-braucht-man-kein-gepaeck-gewinnt-goldenen-delphin-in-cann.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109110619/http://www.fuers\-leben.de/informieren/news\-einzelansicht/article/2013/10/fuers\-leben\-kurzfilm\-im\-himmel\-braucht\-man\-kein\-gepaeck\-gewinnt\-goldenen\-delphin\-in\-cann.html \|date\=9 November 2013 }} Award for "Im Himmel braucht man kein Gepäck". Since the beginning of 2019, Glang was a recast in the role of Lena Öztürk in the RTL series Alles was zählt, after actress Juliette Greco could no longer continue to embody the role.{{Cite web \|last\=Online \|first\=R. T. L. \|title\=Lena Öztürk bei "Alles was zählt": Birte Glang springt für Juliette Greco ein \|url\=https://www.rtl.de/cms/lena\-oeztuerk\-bei\-alles\-was\-zaehlt\-birte\-glang\-springt\-fuer\-juliette\-greco\-ein\-4248818\.html \|access\-date\=2022\-09\-26 \|website\=RTL Online \|language\=de}} ### Modeling In 2006, Glang agreed to a four\-year worldwide campaign for [Audi Quattro](/wiki/Audi_Quattro "Audi Quattro"). She appeared in ad campaigns for [Pierre Cardin](/wiki/Pierre_Cardin "Pierre Cardin"), for Italian clothing line Prima Donna, [Oriflame](/wiki/Oriflame "Oriflame"), and German sports nutrition company Multipower Sportsfood. Since 2013, she has an endorsement deal with 'Cellagon' and 'Cellagon Cosmetics'.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cellagon.de/de/kosmetik/index.php \|title\=Cellagon – Cellagon cosmetics – Natürlich.Schön.Gepflegt \|access\-date\=3 November 2013 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110031705/http://www.cellagon.de/de/kosmetik/index.php \|archive\-date\=10 November 2013 }} Cellagon Cosmetics". In April 2019, Glang was on the cover of Playboy. ### Commercials In 2000, she was cast for her first television commercial for [Esso](/wiki/Esso "Esso"). Since then, she has appeared in many commercials, like [Persil](/wiki/Persil "Persil"), [Bitburger](/wiki/Bitburger "Bitburger"), and [Ergo](/wiki/ERGO_Insurance_Group "ERGO Insurance Group").[http://www.horizont.net/aktuell/marketing/pages/protected/Spot\-Premiere\-Ergo\-startet\-Werbeoffensive\-fuer\-den\-Kundenanwalt\_101806\.html](http://www.horizont.net/aktuell/marketing/pages/protected/Spot-Premiere-Ergo-startet-Werbeoffensive-fuer-den-Kundenanwalt_101806.html) Ergo Commercial with Birte Glang. ### Philosophy and philanthropy Glang is a spokesperson for [green living](/wiki/Green_living "Green living"). She hosted Miss Eco 2011 in [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg "Hamburg"), the "GREENshowroom" in Berlin 2012, and has appeared as a presenter for the Fairtrade Award.[http://www.mygreenlife.de/veranstaltungen/e\-cross\-germany\-party\-2011/](http://www.mygreenlife.de/veranstaltungen/e-cross-germany-party-2011/) Miss ECO 2011\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.fairtrade\-deutschland.de/top/news/detailseite\-news/?no\_cache%3D1%26tx\_ttnews%5Btt\_news%5D%3D429%26cHash%3D9dea67280cf482f6cc1c268babce31d1 \|title\=Fairtrade: Zweiter Fairtrade\-Award verliehen \|access\-date\=3 November 2013 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110041225/http://www.fairtrade\-deutschland.de/top/news/detailseite\-news/?no\_cache\=1\&tx\_ttnews%5Btt\_news%5D\=429\&cHash\=9dea67280cf482f6cc1c268babce31d1 \|archive\-date\=10 November 2013 }} Fairtrade Award In 2010, she participated in a fundraiser for children\-in\-need that was broadcast on [RTL Television](/wiki/RTL_Television "RTL Television"). Since January 2011, she has been an official ambassador for the German Organ Transplantation Foundation (DSO).[http://www.dso.de/nbsp/german\-organ\-transplantation\-foundation\-dso.html](http://www.dso.de/nbsp/german-organ-transplantation-foundation-dso.html) German\-Organ\-Transplantation\-Foundation In 2012, Glang was made a special ambassador for the organization "Für's Leben – Für Organspende" ("For Life – For Organ Donation"),[http://www.fuers\-leben.de/bildgalerie\-einzelansicht.html?tx\_zvmgallery\_pi1%5Buid%5D\=718\&cHash\=a79293e7d6a27affe8ebec923762554e](http://www.fuers-leben.de/bildgalerie-einzelansicht.html?tx_zvmgallery_pi1%5Buid%5D=718&cHash=a79293e7d6a27affe8ebec923762554e) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109110617/http://www.fuers\-leben.de/bildgalerie\-einzelansicht.html?tx\_zvmgallery\_pi1%5Buid%5D\=718\&cHash\=a79293e7d6a27affe8ebec923762554e \|date\=9 November 2013 }} Fürs Leben a charity of the DSO. ### In the media Glang has appeared on the covers of *[FHM](/wiki/FHM "FHM")*, *TV Digital*, *BeStyled*, *[TV Guide](/wiki/TV_Guide "TV Guide")*, *TV 4x7*, and *TV Direkt*.[http://www.mopo.de/promi\-\-\-show/heisse\-fhm\-bilder\-ex\-\-unter\-uns\-\-star\-birte\-glang\-als\-sexy\-agentin,5066870,17291028\.html](http://www.mopo.de/promi---show/heisse-fhm-bilder-ex--unter-uns--star-birte-glang-als-sexy-agentin,5066870,17291028.html) Birte Glang FHM[http://www.tvdigital.de/magazin/digital\-tv\-news/tv\-sender/tv\-digital\-heft\-16\-im\-handel](http://www.tvdigital.de/magazin/digital-tv-news/tv-sender/tv-digital-heft-16-im-handel) TV Digital[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=NZTqfm0kmxU](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NZTqfm0kmxU) Making of Bestyled Shooting with Birte Glang She has also been featured in *[Elle](/wiki/Elle_%28magazine%29 "Elle (magazine)")*, *[Woman](/wiki/Woman_%28UK_magazine%29 "Woman (UK magazine)")*, *In*, *[OK!](/wiki/OK%21 "OK!")*,[http://www.ok\-magazin.de/fotostrecken/1669/agent\-ranjid\-rettet\-die\-welt\-premiere/7\#7](http://www.ok-magazin.de/fotostrecken/1669/agent-ranjid-rettet-die-welt-premiere/7#7) Birte Glang OK Magazine *[InStyle](/wiki/InStyle "InStyle")*, *Linea Intima*, and *[Viva](/wiki/Viva_%28Dutch_magazine%29 "Viva (Dutch magazine)")*.{{Cite web \|date\=2012\-12\-31 \|title\=fuers\-leben.de: Cherno Jobatey \|url\=http://www.fuers\-leben.de/botschafter/prominente.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231012203/http://www.fuers\-leben.de/botschafter/prominente.html \|archive\-date\=2012\-12\-31 \|access\-date\=2022\-09\-26 }}
[ "Career\n------", "### Television", "Glang began her TV career with supporting roles in German TV series and films in 2007\\. In 2009, this led to a leading role in the popular series *[Unter uns](/wiki/Unter_uns \"Unter uns\")*. She appeared in nearly 300 episodes.[http://www.bild.de/unterhaltung/tv/serien/stirbt\\-den\\-serien\\-tod\\-16644024\\.bild.html](http://www.bild.de/unterhaltung/tv/serien/stirbt-den-serien-tod-16644024.bild.html) Birte Glang left \"Under one Roof\". During her two\\-year stint on the show, she also appeared on covers of several fashion and TV magazines.", "Glang appeared in TV films highlighted by the 2009 German historical drama *Schicksalsjahr*, where she co\\-starred alongside lead actress [Maria Furtwängler](/wiki/Maria_Furtw%C3%A4ngler \"Maria Furtwängler\"). In 2010, she appeared in [Sony Pictures](/wiki/Sony_Pictures \"Sony Pictures\")' tragic\\-comedy *{{ill\\|The Great Comeback\\|de\\|Das große Comeback}}*[http://www.kino.de/kinofilm/das\\-grosse\\-comeback/fotoshow/131934/663102](http://www.kino.de/kinofilm/das-grosse-comeback/fotoshow/131934/663102) Birte Glang starring in \"Das große Comeback\". with German actors [Uwe Ochsenknecht](/wiki/Uwe_Ochsenknecht \"Uwe Ochsenknecht\") and [Andrea Sawatzki](/wiki/Andrea_Sawatzki \"Andrea Sawatzki\"). The TV film was nominated for the [Adolf Grimme Award](/wiki/Adolf_Grimme_Award \"Adolf Grimme Award\").", "In 2016, Glang starred in *Was kostet die Liebe – Ein Großstadtmärchen*, the German comedic version of the fairytale [Cinderella](/wiki/Cinderella \"Cinderella\"), which was broadcast on [Sat.1](/wiki/Sat.1 \"Sat.1\").", "### Film", "In 2011, Glang left her television show for the pursue a film career. Six months later, she was cast for the lead in [Constantin Film's](/wiki/Constantin_Film \"Constantin Film\") action comedy *Agent Ranjid rettet die Welt*. In the film, she plays the assistant\\-in\\-crime of villain [Rutger Hauer](/wiki/Rutger_Hauer \"Rutger Hauer\") and the love interest of [Kaya Yanar](/wiki/Kaya_Yanar \"Kaya Yanar\"). She also produced and starred in a short film about the need for [organ donations](/wiki/Organ_donation \"Organ donation\"). *Im Himmel braucht man kein Gepäck* (\"You Don't Need Luggage in Heaven\") was shown as a public service announcement during the preview of feature films in German theaters. It has won several awards, for instance the \"Golden Delphin\" at the Cannes Cooperate Media \\& TV Awards 2013,[http://www.cannescorporate.com/en/winners2013\\.php](http://www.cannescorporate.com/en/winners2013.php) Golden Delphin Award Cannes.[http://www.fbw\\-filmbewertung.com/film/im\\_himmel\\_braucht\\_man\\_kein\\_gepaeck](http://www.fbw-filmbewertung.com/film/im_himmel_braucht_man_kein_gepaeck) Award \"Prädikat besonders wertvoll\" Deutsche Film\\- und Medienbewertung.<http://archive.worldmediafestival.org> intermedia\\-globe award SILVER WorldMediaFestival 2013\\. and is in regular television circulation.[http://www.fuers\\-leben.de/informieren/news\\-einzelansicht/article/2013/10/fuers\\-leben\\-kurzfilm\\-im\\-himmel\\-braucht\\-man\\-kein\\-gepaeck\\-gewinnt\\-goldenen\\-delphin\\-in\\-cann.html](http://www.fuers-leben.de/informieren/news-einzelansicht/article/2013/10/fuers-leben-kurzfilm-im-himmel-braucht-man-kein-gepaeck-gewinnt-goldenen-delphin-in-cann.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109110619/http://www.fuers\\-leben.de/informieren/news\\-einzelansicht/article/2013/10/fuers\\-leben\\-kurzfilm\\-im\\-himmel\\-braucht\\-man\\-kein\\-gepaeck\\-gewinnt\\-goldenen\\-delphin\\-in\\-cann.html \\|date\\=9 November 2013 }} Award for \"Im Himmel braucht man kein Gepäck\". Since the beginning of 2019, Glang was a recast in the role of Lena Öztürk in the RTL series Alles was zählt, after actress Juliette Greco could no longer continue to embody the role.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Online \\|first\\=R. T. L. \\|title\\=Lena Öztürk bei \"Alles was zählt\": Birte Glang springt für Juliette Greco ein \\|url\\=https://www.rtl.de/cms/lena\\-oeztuerk\\-bei\\-alles\\-was\\-zaehlt\\-birte\\-glang\\-springt\\-fuer\\-juliette\\-greco\\-ein\\-4248818\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-09\\-26 \\|website\\=RTL Online \\|language\\=de}}", "### Modeling", "In 2006, Glang agreed to a four\\-year worldwide campaign for [Audi Quattro](/wiki/Audi_Quattro \"Audi Quattro\"). She appeared in ad campaigns for [Pierre Cardin](/wiki/Pierre_Cardin \"Pierre Cardin\"), for Italian clothing line Prima Donna, [Oriflame](/wiki/Oriflame \"Oriflame\"), and German sports nutrition company Multipower Sportsfood. Since 2013, she has an endorsement deal with 'Cellagon' and 'Cellagon Cosmetics'.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cellagon.de/de/kosmetik/index.php \\|title\\=Cellagon – Cellagon cosmetics – Natürlich.Schön.Gepflegt \\|access\\-date\\=3 November 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110031705/http://www.cellagon.de/de/kosmetik/index.php \\|archive\\-date\\=10 November 2013 }} Cellagon Cosmetics\". In April 2019, Glang was on the cover of Playboy.", "### Commercials", "In 2000, she was cast for her first television commercial for [Esso](/wiki/Esso \"Esso\"). Since then, she has appeared in many commercials, like [Persil](/wiki/Persil \"Persil\"), [Bitburger](/wiki/Bitburger \"Bitburger\"), and [Ergo](/wiki/ERGO_Insurance_Group \"ERGO Insurance Group\").[http://www.horizont.net/aktuell/marketing/pages/protected/Spot\\-Premiere\\-Ergo\\-startet\\-Werbeoffensive\\-fuer\\-den\\-Kundenanwalt\\_101806\\.html](http://www.horizont.net/aktuell/marketing/pages/protected/Spot-Premiere-Ergo-startet-Werbeoffensive-fuer-den-Kundenanwalt_101806.html) Ergo Commercial with Birte Glang.", "### Philosophy and philanthropy", "Glang is a spokesperson for [green living](/wiki/Green_living \"Green living\"). She hosted Miss Eco 2011 in [Hamburg](/wiki/Hamburg \"Hamburg\"), the \"GREENshowroom\" in Berlin 2012, and has appeared as a presenter for the Fairtrade Award.[http://www.mygreenlife.de/veranstaltungen/e\\-cross\\-germany\\-party\\-2011/](http://www.mygreenlife.de/veranstaltungen/e-cross-germany-party-2011/) Miss ECO 2011\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.fairtrade\\-deutschland.de/top/news/detailseite\\-news/?no\\_cache%3D1%26tx\\_ttnews%5Btt\\_news%5D%3D429%26cHash%3D9dea67280cf482f6cc1c268babce31d1 \\|title\\=Fairtrade: Zweiter Fairtrade\\-Award verliehen \\|access\\-date\\=3 November 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110041225/http://www.fairtrade\\-deutschland.de/top/news/detailseite\\-news/?no\\_cache\\=1\\&tx\\_ttnews%5Btt\\_news%5D\\=429\\&cHash\\=9dea67280cf482f6cc1c268babce31d1 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 November 2013 }} Fairtrade Award", "In 2010, she participated in a fundraiser for children\\-in\\-need that was broadcast on [RTL Television](/wiki/RTL_Television \"RTL Television\"). Since January 2011, she has been an official ambassador for the German Organ Transplantation Foundation (DSO).[http://www.dso.de/nbsp/german\\-organ\\-transplantation\\-foundation\\-dso.html](http://www.dso.de/nbsp/german-organ-transplantation-foundation-dso.html) German\\-Organ\\-Transplantation\\-Foundation In 2012, Glang was made a special ambassador for the organization \"Für's Leben – Für Organspende\" (\"For Life – For Organ Donation\"),[http://www.fuers\\-leben.de/bildgalerie\\-einzelansicht.html?tx\\_zvmgallery\\_pi1%5Buid%5D\\=718\\&cHash\\=a79293e7d6a27affe8ebec923762554e](http://www.fuers-leben.de/bildgalerie-einzelansicht.html?tx_zvmgallery_pi1%5Buid%5D=718&cHash=a79293e7d6a27affe8ebec923762554e) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109110617/http://www.fuers\\-leben.de/bildgalerie\\-einzelansicht.html?tx\\_zvmgallery\\_pi1%5Buid%5D\\=718\\&cHash\\=a79293e7d6a27affe8ebec923762554e \\|date\\=9 November 2013 }} Fürs Leben a charity of the DSO.", "### In the media", "Glang has appeared on the covers of *[FHM](/wiki/FHM \"FHM\")*, *TV Digital*, *BeStyled*, *[TV Guide](/wiki/TV_Guide \"TV Guide\")*, *TV 4x7*, and *TV Direkt*.[http://www.mopo.de/promi\\-\\-\\-show/heisse\\-fhm\\-bilder\\-ex\\-\\-unter\\-uns\\-\\-star\\-birte\\-glang\\-als\\-sexy\\-agentin,5066870,17291028\\.html](http://www.mopo.de/promi---show/heisse-fhm-bilder-ex--unter-uns--star-birte-glang-als-sexy-agentin,5066870,17291028.html) Birte Glang FHM[http://www.tvdigital.de/magazin/digital\\-tv\\-news/tv\\-sender/tv\\-digital\\-heft\\-16\\-im\\-handel](http://www.tvdigital.de/magazin/digital-tv-news/tv-sender/tv-digital-heft-16-im-handel) TV Digital[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=NZTqfm0kmxU](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NZTqfm0kmxU) Making of Bestyled Shooting with Birte Glang She has also been featured in *[Elle](/wiki/Elle_%28magazine%29 \"Elle (magazine)\")*, *[Woman](/wiki/Woman_%28UK_magazine%29 \"Woman (UK magazine)\")*, *In*, *[OK!](/wiki/OK%21 \"OK!\")*,[http://www.ok\\-magazin.de/fotostrecken/1669/agent\\-ranjid\\-rettet\\-die\\-welt\\-premiere/7\\#7](http://www.ok-magazin.de/fotostrecken/1669/agent-ranjid-rettet-die-welt-premiere/7#7) Birte Glang OK Magazine *[InStyle](/wiki/InStyle \"InStyle\")*, *Linea Intima*, and *[Viva](/wiki/Viva_%28Dutch_magazine%29 \"Viva (Dutch magazine)\")*.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2012\\-12\\-31 \\|title\\=fuers\\-leben.de: Cherno Jobatey \\|url\\=http://www.fuers\\-leben.de/botschafter/prominente.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231012203/http://www.fuers\\-leben.de/botschafter/prominente.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-12\\-31 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-09\\-26 }}", "" ]
Career ------ Segre then worked as a reporter at the liberal newspaper "L'Opinione", which replaced "[La Stampa](/wiki/La_Stampa "La Stampa")". It is in this position that he met [Alcide De Gasperi](/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi "Alcide De Gasperi"), [Ferruccio Parri](/wiki/Ferruccio_Parri "Ferruccio Parri"), [Gaetano Salvemini](/wiki/Gaetano_Salvemini "Gaetano Salvemini"), [Piero Calamandrei](/wiki/Piero_Calamandrei "Piero Calamandrei"), [Leo Valiani](/wiki/Leo_Valiani "Leo Valiani"), [Giuliano Vassalli](/wiki/Giuliano_Vassalli "Giuliano Vassalli") and numerous other figures.{{Cite web \|last\=Rainews \|first\=Redazione di \|date\=27 January 2024 \|title\=Giornata della Memoria: addio a Bruno Segre, partigiano e avvocato, aveva 105 anni \|url\=https://www.rainews.it/articoli/2024/01/giornata\-della\-memoria\-addio\-a\-bruno\-segre\-partigiano\-e\-avvocato\-aveva\-105\-anni\-d9a76dbd\-54eb\-49e1\-8ac5\-8661fa186f6f.html \|access\-date\=27 January 2024 \|website\=RaiNews \|language\=it}} After the closure of "L'Opinione", in 1947 he was editor of the social democratic newspaper "Mondo Nuovo". After the publication of this newspaper ceased in 1948, he resumed his legal practice. He passed the prosecutor's exam, while continuing to collaborate with "[Paese Sera](/wiki/Paese_Sera "Paese Sera")", "Il Corriere di Trieste", "Corriere di Sicilia" and other newspapers. In the 1970s, during his press campaign in favor of [divorce](/wiki/Divorce "Divorce"), he rented a small tourist plane from which 50,000 leaflets were dropped over Turin with this text: "Divorce does not come from heaven, but from the law of the Hon. Fortune". From 1958 to 1968 he was councilor of the Psychiatric Hospitals of Turin, Collegno, Grugliasco, then councilor of the Piedmont\-Valle d'Aosta regional order of journalists and national councilor of the Italian National Press Federation. From 1975 to 1980 he was group leader of the [Italian Socialist Party](/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party "Italian Socialist Party") in the Turin City Council, but left the party at the time of [Bettino Craxi](/wiki/Bettino_Craxi "Bettino Craxi"); from 1980 to 1990 he was effective president of the San Paolo Banking Institute of Turin and director of various companies owned by the institute.{{Cite web \|date\=27 January 2024 \|title\=È morto a 105 anni Bruno Segre, partigiano e monumento dell'antifascismo \|url\=https://torino.repubblica.it/cronaca/2024/01/27/news/bruno\_segre\_morto\-421995036/ \|access\-date\=27 January 2024 \|website\=la Repubblica \|language\=it}} Segre was president of the Turin provincial Federation of the National Association of Italian Anti\-Fascist Political Persecuted People (ANPPIA), honorary president of the National Association of Free Thought "Giordano Bruno" (of whose official body, Libero Pensiero, he was director for years) and honorary president of Turin council for the secularity of institutions. He was also vice\-president of the Turin Cremation Society (SOCREM), after having been president of the Italian Federation of SOCREM for 40 years, founder and director of the magazine "L'ara". Segre was awarded honorary citizenship by the municipalities of [Bollengo](/wiki/Bollengo "Bollengo"), [Sarzana](/wiki/Sarzana "Sarzana") and [Giaveno](/wiki/Giaveno "Giaveno").{{Cite web \|date\=27 January 2024 \|title\=Bruno Segre, partigiano morto a 105 anni. L'intervista inedita a Fanpage: "Mai arreso alle dittature" \|url\=https://www.fanpage.it/attualita/bruno\-segre\-partigiano\-morto\-a\-105\-anni\-lintervista\-inedita\-a\-fanpage\-mai\-arreso\-alle\-dittature/ \|access\-date\=27 January 2024 \|website\=Fanpage \|language\=it}} Segre inaugurated a plaque in [Dronero](/wiki/Dronero "Dronero") in memory of the partisan commander and illustrious journalist [Giorgio Bocca](/wiki/Giorgio_Bocca "Giorgio Bocca") and on the staircase of the [University of Turin](/wiki/University_of_Turin "University of Turin") a plaque in memory of Prof. Gioele Solari, professor of philosophy of law. Segre died in Turin on 27 January 2024, at the age of 105\.{{Cite web \|date\=27 January 2024 \|title\=Morto a Torino Bruno Segre, aveva 105 anni: avvocato, giornalista, partigiano e difensore di libertà e democrazia \|url\=https://www.lastampa.it/torino/2024/01/27/news/morto\_torino\_bruno\_segre\_105\_anni\-14025204/ \|access\-date\=27 January 2024 \|website\=La Stampa \|language\=it}}
[ "Career\n------", "Segre then worked as a reporter at the liberal newspaper \"L'Opinione\", which replaced \"[La Stampa](/wiki/La_Stampa \"La Stampa\")\". It is in this position that he met [Alcide De Gasperi](/wiki/Alcide_De_Gasperi \"Alcide De Gasperi\"), [Ferruccio Parri](/wiki/Ferruccio_Parri \"Ferruccio Parri\"), [Gaetano Salvemini](/wiki/Gaetano_Salvemini \"Gaetano Salvemini\"), [Piero Calamandrei](/wiki/Piero_Calamandrei \"Piero Calamandrei\"), [Leo Valiani](/wiki/Leo_Valiani \"Leo Valiani\"), [Giuliano Vassalli](/wiki/Giuliano_Vassalli \"Giuliano Vassalli\") and numerous other figures.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Rainews \\|first\\=Redazione di \\|date\\=27 January 2024 \\|title\\=Giornata della Memoria: addio a Bruno Segre, partigiano e avvocato, aveva 105 anni \\|url\\=https://www.rainews.it/articoli/2024/01/giornata\\-della\\-memoria\\-addio\\-a\\-bruno\\-segre\\-partigiano\\-e\\-avvocato\\-aveva\\-105\\-anni\\-d9a76dbd\\-54eb\\-49e1\\-8ac5\\-8661fa186f6f.html \\|access\\-date\\=27 January 2024 \\|website\\=RaiNews \\|language\\=it}}", "After the closure of \"L'Opinione\", in 1947 he was editor of the social democratic newspaper \"Mondo Nuovo\". After the publication of this newspaper ceased in 1948, he resumed his legal practice. He passed the prosecutor's exam, while continuing to collaborate with \"[Paese Sera](/wiki/Paese_Sera \"Paese Sera\")\", \"Il Corriere di Trieste\", \"Corriere di Sicilia\" and other newspapers.", "In the 1970s, during his press campaign in favor of [divorce](/wiki/Divorce \"Divorce\"), he rented a small tourist plane from which 50,000 leaflets were dropped over Turin with this text: \"Divorce does not come from heaven, but from the law of the Hon. Fortune\".", "From 1958 to 1968 he was councilor of the Psychiatric Hospitals of Turin, Collegno, Grugliasco, then councilor of the Piedmont\\-Valle d'Aosta regional order of journalists and national councilor of the Italian National Press Federation.", "From 1975 to 1980 he was group leader of the [Italian Socialist Party](/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party \"Italian Socialist Party\") in the Turin City Council, but left the party at the time of [Bettino Craxi](/wiki/Bettino_Craxi \"Bettino Craxi\"); from 1980 to 1990 he was effective president of the San Paolo Banking Institute of Turin and director of various companies owned by the institute.{{Cite web \\|date\\=27 January 2024 \\|title\\=È morto a 105 anni Bruno Segre, partigiano e monumento dell'antifascismo \\|url\\=https://torino.repubblica.it/cronaca/2024/01/27/news/bruno\\_segre\\_morto\\-421995036/ \\|access\\-date\\=27 January 2024 \\|website\\=la Repubblica \\|language\\=it}}", "Segre was president of the Turin provincial Federation of the National Association of Italian Anti\\-Fascist Political Persecuted People (ANPPIA), honorary president of the National Association of Free Thought \"Giordano Bruno\" (of whose official body, Libero Pensiero, he was director for years) and honorary president of Turin council for the secularity of institutions. He was also vice\\-president of the Turin Cremation Society (SOCREM), after having been president of the Italian Federation of SOCREM for 40 years, founder and director of the magazine \"L'ara\".", "Segre was awarded honorary citizenship by the municipalities of [Bollengo](/wiki/Bollengo \"Bollengo\"), [Sarzana](/wiki/Sarzana \"Sarzana\") and [Giaveno](/wiki/Giaveno \"Giaveno\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=27 January 2024 \\|title\\=Bruno Segre, partigiano morto a 105 anni. L'intervista inedita a Fanpage: \"Mai arreso alle dittature\" \\|url\\=https://www.fanpage.it/attualita/bruno\\-segre\\-partigiano\\-morto\\-a\\-105\\-anni\\-lintervista\\-inedita\\-a\\-fanpage\\-mai\\-arreso\\-alle\\-dittature/ \\|access\\-date\\=27 January 2024 \\|website\\=Fanpage \\|language\\=it}}", "Segre inaugurated a plaque in [Dronero](/wiki/Dronero \"Dronero\") in memory of the partisan commander and illustrious journalist [Giorgio Bocca](/wiki/Giorgio_Bocca \"Giorgio Bocca\") and on the staircase of the [University of Turin](/wiki/University_of_Turin \"University of Turin\") a plaque in memory of Prof. Gioele Solari, professor of philosophy of law.", "Segre died in Turin on 27 January 2024, at the age of 105\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=27 January 2024 \\|title\\=Morto a Torino Bruno Segre, aveva 105 anni: avvocato, giornalista, partigiano e difensore di libertà e democrazia \\|url\\=https://www.lastampa.it/torino/2024/01/27/news/morto\\_torino\\_bruno\\_segre\\_105\\_anni\\-14025204/ \\|access\\-date\\=27 January 2024 \\|website\\=La Stampa \\|language\\=it}}", "" ]
Plot ---- The film opens up on birdwatcher Sally and her photographer Victor, who are making love in the woods of Camp Blackwood. They are suddenly attacked by a person wearing a boiler suit and clown mask, wielding a [machete](/wiki/Machete "Machete"). The clown kills Victor and chases Sally through the woods, swinging the machete at her before the film cuts to the opening credits. The story then focuses on Tricia, her boyfriend Steve, Steve's friend Jay and Jay's girlfriend Nicole. These four are going on a trip to Camp Blackwood. But Tricia has reservations about the trip to Camp Blackwood, due to the newspaper reporting on the disappearance of Sally, for her car was found at Camp Blackwood. Steve convinces Tricia otherwise, and the two couples head out to the camp in Jay's car. Meanwhile, at the camp, two deer hunters, Gus and George, discover Sally still alive, bloodied and bruised. The clown then appears and murders the three of them. Back with the main characters, they’ve been on the road for over an hour, and are in need of directions to the camp. On the side of the road, they stop and talk to a nutty town local by the name of Bromley Thatcher. Thatcher gives them grief for polluting the town with their loud music, fast food trash, ignorance and disrespect to the locals. After a brief exchange that includes a warning from Thatcher about the clown, Thatcher begrudgingly gives them directions to the camp, now known to them and the audience as 'Camp Blood'. In the woods, they meet their guide, a butch lesbian known as Harris, who seems to be attracted to Nicole, creepily watching her and Jay from time to time. Tricia asks Harris if she's heard anything about the clown or why the place is nicknamed 'Camp Blood', but Harris says she has no idea. After spending the day doing menial tasks such as collecting firewood and setting up camp, the group have a campfire, wanting to tell ghost stories. Harris reveals that she does indeed know the story of the Camp and of the clown, and tells them the story. Twenty years prior, a man by the name of Stanley Cunningham was fired from his job, and came home to find his girlfriend Marylou in bed with a man named Nathan. Stanley knocked them both out in a fit of rage, put them in the trunk of his car, donned a clown mask, and drove them out to the camp where he proceeded to murder them. The police found the bodies three weeks later, but Stanley Cunningham disappeared, never to be seen again. Although, over the years people have gone missing, and some townsfolk claim to have seen the clown wander the woods from time to time. Steve, Jay and Nicole enjoy the story, believing it to be just a story Harris made up to spook them. But Tricia gets creeped out by it, and is unnerved for the rest of the night. After the group settles down into their respective tents for the night, the group awake in the morning to find the burnt\-out carcass of Harris on the campfire. Tricia begins to panic, believing that the clown story is true, and they're going to be picked off one by one. Steve calms her down, reaffirming that it was just a story Harris concocted to scare them, and nothing more. Whoever killed Harris, though, has to still be out in the woods, and they need to leave as soon as possible. Steve begins to lead the group back to Jay's car, but Nicole sprains her ankle, forcing the group to have to carry her. The clown appears, and gets into a fight with Steve, who pulls out his survival knife to defend himself. The fight ends with Steve’s death as he gets his arm and head hacked into with the machete. The clown punches Tricia, and intimidates Jay to back off as the clown carries Nicole away. Tricia and Jay fight over Steve's knife, but Jay punches Tricia, and goes to get Nicole back, leaving Tricia on her own to escape on her own. Jay gets lost looking for the clown and Nicole, and begins to lose his mind. Nicole managed to get away from the clown off\-screen, but bumps into Jay, who turns around and accidentally stabs Nicole, fatally killing her. The clown appears, and Jay, having completely lost it, allows the clown to snap his neck, killing him. Tricia manages to get back to the car, but runs into Thatcher. Tricia pleads him to help her, for the clown is after her and has killed her friends. Thatcher reveals that the clown story was made up by him and some of the other locals to scare tourists like her and her friends away. The clown then appears, and Thatcher reveals that he is in cahoots with the clown when he tries to chloroform Tricia. Tricia manages to fight the two of them off, and begins to run away, with the clown in pursuit. Thatcher, now in possession of Jay's car keys, gets in and follows them with the car. In his frustration and anger, Thatcher accidentally hits the clown with the car, supposedly killing the clown. Thatcher bawls over his loss as Tricia takes the machete and hacks Thatcher to death. Tricia unmasks the clown, revealing the killer to be Harris. As Tricia gets into the car, Harris dons the mask again, and Tricia hits her again, finally killing her. As Tricia drives away in hysterics, she hallucinates the clown appearing in the backseat, who proceeds to choke Tricia out. Tricia stops the car, and loses consciousness as she hallucinates this. Tricia regains consciousness, finding herself in a padded room. A doctor and a detective come in to check up on Tricia. She was [catatonic](/wiki/Catatonia "Catatonia") when the police found her four days prior, and she has been in there ever since. The detective then asks about all of the victims throughout the movie, and Tricia tells him that it was Harris who did it, dressed as a clown. The detective, however, states that they did not find a clown, but they found Harris Stanley's blood all over Trica's hands, face, and all over Jay's car when they found her four days ago. Tricia then realizes that Harris Stanley *was* Stanley Cunningham in the story, and Harris had been using the clown legend to get away with killing people. But Tricia also realizes that Marylou and Nathan were never found; the town believes that the two of them ran off together twenty years ago, for the 'Camp Blood' story to the locals is just a story they made up to scare tourists away. Meaning, Tricia's claim to Harris being the clown can't be proven, and now with both her doctor and the detective believing her to be insane, she will be charged with the murders of her friends and others. Tricia hysterically tries to explain to the detective and the doctor, but they restrain her and have a nurse give her a sedative. As Tricia begins to lose consciousness, and everyone leaves her in the room alone, she hallucinates the clown being in the room with her and screams.
[ "Plot\n----", "The film opens up on birdwatcher Sally and her photographer Victor, who are making love in the woods of Camp Blackwood. They are suddenly attacked by a person wearing a boiler suit and clown mask, wielding a [machete](/wiki/Machete \"Machete\"). The clown kills Victor and chases Sally through the woods, swinging the machete at her before the film cuts to the opening credits.", "The story then focuses on Tricia, her boyfriend Steve, Steve's friend Jay and Jay's girlfriend Nicole. These four are going on a trip to Camp Blackwood. But Tricia has reservations about the trip to Camp Blackwood, due to the newspaper reporting on the disappearance of Sally, for her car was found at Camp Blackwood. Steve convinces Tricia otherwise, and the two couples head out to the camp in Jay's car.", "Meanwhile, at the camp, two deer hunters, Gus and George, discover Sally still alive, bloodied and bruised. The clown then appears and murders the three of them.", "Back with the main characters, they’ve been on the road for over an hour, and are in need of directions to the camp. On the side of the road, they stop and talk to a nutty town local by the name of Bromley Thatcher. Thatcher gives them grief for polluting the town with their loud music, fast food trash, ignorance and disrespect to the locals. After a brief exchange that includes a warning from Thatcher about the clown, Thatcher begrudgingly gives them directions to the camp, now known to them and the audience as 'Camp Blood'.", "In the woods, they meet their guide, a butch lesbian known as Harris, who seems to be attracted to Nicole, creepily watching her and Jay from time to time. Tricia asks Harris if she's heard anything about the clown or why the place is nicknamed 'Camp Blood', but Harris says she has no idea.", "After spending the day doing menial tasks such as collecting firewood and setting up camp, the group have a campfire, wanting to tell ghost stories. Harris reveals that she does indeed know the story of the Camp and of the clown, and tells them the story. Twenty years prior, a man by the name of Stanley Cunningham was fired from his job, and came home to find his girlfriend Marylou in bed with a man named Nathan. Stanley knocked them both out in a fit of rage, put them in the trunk of his car, donned a clown mask, and drove them out to the camp where he proceeded to murder them. The police found the bodies three weeks later, but Stanley Cunningham disappeared, never to be seen again. Although, over the years people have gone missing, and some townsfolk claim to have seen the clown wander the woods from time to time. Steve, Jay and Nicole enjoy the story, believing it to be just a story Harris made up to spook them. But Tricia gets creeped out by it, and is unnerved for the rest of the night.", "After the group settles down into their respective tents for the night, the group awake in the morning to find the burnt\\-out carcass of Harris on the campfire. Tricia begins to panic, believing that the clown story is true, and they're going to be picked off one by one. Steve calms her down, reaffirming that it was just a story Harris concocted to scare them, and nothing more. Whoever killed Harris, though, has to still be out in the woods, and they need to leave as soon as possible. Steve begins to lead the group back to Jay's car, but Nicole sprains her ankle, forcing the group to have to carry her. The clown appears, and gets into a fight with Steve, who pulls out his survival knife to defend himself. The fight ends with Steve’s death as he gets his arm and head hacked into with the machete. The clown punches Tricia, and intimidates Jay to back off as the clown carries Nicole away. Tricia and Jay fight over Steve's knife, but Jay punches Tricia, and goes to get Nicole back, leaving Tricia on her own to escape on her own.", "Jay gets lost looking for the clown and Nicole, and begins to lose his mind. Nicole managed to get away from the clown off\\-screen, but bumps into Jay, who turns around and accidentally stabs Nicole, fatally killing her. The clown appears, and Jay, having completely lost it, allows the clown to snap his neck, killing him.", "Tricia manages to get back to the car, but runs into Thatcher. Tricia pleads him to help her, for the clown is after her and has killed her friends. Thatcher reveals that the clown story was made up by him and some of the other locals to scare tourists like her and her friends away. The clown then appears, and Thatcher reveals that he is in cahoots with the clown when he tries to chloroform Tricia. Tricia manages to fight the two of them off, and begins to run away, with the clown in pursuit. Thatcher, now in possession of Jay's car keys, gets in and follows them with the car. In his frustration and anger, Thatcher accidentally hits the clown with the car, supposedly killing the clown. Thatcher bawls over his loss as Tricia takes the machete and hacks Thatcher to death. Tricia unmasks the clown, revealing the killer to be Harris. As Tricia gets into the car, Harris dons the mask again, and Tricia hits her again, finally killing her. As Tricia drives away in hysterics, she hallucinates the clown appearing in the backseat, who proceeds to choke Tricia out. Tricia stops the car, and loses consciousness as she hallucinates this.", "Tricia regains consciousness, finding herself in a padded room. A doctor and a detective come in to check up on Tricia. She was [catatonic](/wiki/Catatonia \"Catatonia\") when the police found her four days prior, and she has been in there ever since. The detective then asks about all of the victims throughout the movie, and Tricia tells him that it was Harris who did it, dressed as a clown. The detective, however, states that they did not find a clown, but they found Harris Stanley's blood all over Trica's hands, face, and all over Jay's car when they found her four days ago. Tricia then realizes that Harris Stanley *was* Stanley Cunningham in the story, and Harris had been using the clown legend to get away with killing people. But Tricia also realizes that Marylou and Nathan were never found; the town believes that the two of them ran off together twenty years ago, for the 'Camp Blood' story to the locals is just a story they made up to scare tourists away. Meaning, Tricia's claim to Harris being the clown can't be proven, and now with both her doctor and the detective believing her to be insane, she will be charged with the murders of her friends and others. Tricia hysterically tries to explain to the detective and the doctor, but they restrain her and have a nurse give her a sedative. As Tricia begins to lose consciousness, and everyone leaves her in the room alone, she hallucinates the clown being in the room with her and screams.", "" ]
Military career --------------- After Wellington College, Willison came first in the army entrance exam and attended the [Royal Military Academy, Woolwich](/wiki/Royal_Military_Academy%2C_Woolwich "Royal Military Academy, Woolwich"), passing out top of his year and winning the [Pollock Medal](/wiki/Pollock_Medal "Pollock Medal") for the highest academic achievement of his term. He was commissioned into the Royal Engineers in 1939, and in 1942 he was an instructor at the [School of Military Engineering](/wiki/Royal_School_of_Military_Engineering "Royal School of Military Engineering") (specialising in [bailey bridges](/wiki/Bailey_bridge "Bailey bridge")). Willison's first active service was briefly at [Sword Beach](/wiki/Sword_Beach "Sword Beach") at [Ouistreham](/wiki/Ouistreham "Ouistreham") in [Normandy](/wiki/Normandy "Normandy") on [D\-Day](/wiki/D-Day "D-Day"). He was in command of 17th Field Company, attached to the [3rd Divisional](/wiki/3rd_Infantry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "3rd Infantry Division (United Kingdom)") engineers and, during fighting at [Bénouville](/wiki/B%C3%A9nouville%2C_Calvados "Bénouville, Calvados") on the evening of D\-Day, he was seriously wounded by shrapnel and did not return to service until the following August. The wound caused pain for much of his life. On his return to the 3rd Divisional engineers, Willison took command of 246 Field Company, near [Venray](/wiki/Venray "Venray") in the Netherlands. In March 1945, during the advance on [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen "Bremen"), his company had to reopen a mined road and a demolished bridge through flooded low\-lying lands, in preparation for an assault. Working under heavy shelling, he supervised the installation of a bailey bridge and the clearance of mines and obstructions. In particular, he personally made safe a [naval mine](/wiki/Naval_mine "Naval mine"), for which he was awarded the [Military Cross](/wiki/Military_Cross "Military Cross"). Over the following several postwar years, Willison attended the [Staff College, Camberley](/wiki/Staff_College%2C_Camberley "Staff College, Camberley") (where he was judged to be one of the most outstanding students), served as [brigade major](/wiki/Brigade_major "Brigade major") with [1st Indian Infantry Brigade](/wiki/1st_Indian_Infantry_Brigade "1st Indian Infantry Brigade") as part of the reoccupation force in [Java](/wiki/Java "Java"), served as a [staff officer](/wiki/Staff_officer "Staff officer") at HQ [Malaya Command](/wiki/Malaya_Command "Malaya Command"), posted to the [War Office](/wiki/War_Office "War Office") in London and took command of 16 Field Company, Royal Engineers, stationed in Egypt. In 1953, he was posted to [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin") to command the Royal Engineers there. While in Berlin, Willison assisted with a clandestine Anglo\-American effort to tap a major Russian military telephone cable, by constructing an underground facility (the Russians discovered the security breach a few months later). After a spell from 1955 to 1958 as an instructor at the Staff College, Camberley, Willison was posted to [Aden](/wiki/Aden "Aden") where he supported the [Special Air Service](/wiki/Special_Air_Service "Special Air Service")'s assistance to the [Sultan of Oman](/wiki/Sultan_of_Oman "Sultan of Oman") in the [Djebel Akhdar](/wiki/Sultan_of_Oman%27s_Armed_Forces%23Jebel_Akhdar_campaigns "Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces#Jebel Akhdar campaigns") during a pro\-[Nasser](/wiki/Nasser "Nasser") rebellion. He subsequently commanded [38 Engineer Regiment](/wiki/38_Engineer_Regiment "38 Engineer Regiment") from 1960\. This unit was part of the [Strategic reserve](/wiki/Strategic_reserve "Strategic reserve"), with detachments in several trouble spots; this gave Willison additional international experience. In 1963, Willison was appointed as Colonel [MI4](/wiki/MI4 "MI4") at the War Office with assessments of Middle Eastern issues as his main concern. Key Intelligence appointments followed his acknowledged success at MI4: Brigadier Defence Intelligence in 1967, Assistant Chief of Staff (Intelligence) in [Northern Army Group](/wiki/Northern_Army_Group "Northern Army Group") in 1970, Director of Service Intelligence in 1971 and finally [Deputy Chief of Defence Staff (Intelligence)](/wiki/Deputy_Chief_of_the_Defence_Staff "Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff") in 1972\.
[ "Military career\n---------------", "After Wellington College, Willison came first in the army entrance exam and attended the [Royal Military Academy, Woolwich](/wiki/Royal_Military_Academy%2C_Woolwich \"Royal Military Academy, Woolwich\"), passing out top of his year and winning the [Pollock Medal](/wiki/Pollock_Medal \"Pollock Medal\") for the highest academic achievement of his term. He was commissioned into the Royal Engineers in 1939, and in 1942 he was an instructor at the [School of Military Engineering](/wiki/Royal_School_of_Military_Engineering \"Royal School of Military Engineering\") (specialising in [bailey bridges](/wiki/Bailey_bridge \"Bailey bridge\")).", "Willison's first active service was briefly at [Sword Beach](/wiki/Sword_Beach \"Sword Beach\") at [Ouistreham](/wiki/Ouistreham \"Ouistreham\") in [Normandy](/wiki/Normandy \"Normandy\") on [D\\-Day](/wiki/D-Day \"D-Day\"). He was in command of 17th Field Company, attached to the [3rd Divisional](/wiki/3rd_Infantry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"3rd Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\") engineers and, during fighting at [Bénouville](/wiki/B%C3%A9nouville%2C_Calvados \"Bénouville, Calvados\") on the evening of D\\-Day, he was seriously wounded by shrapnel and did not return to service until the following August. The wound caused pain for much of his life.", "On his return to the 3rd Divisional engineers, Willison took command of 246 Field Company, near [Venray](/wiki/Venray \"Venray\") in the Netherlands. In March 1945, during the advance on [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen \"Bremen\"), his company had to reopen a mined road and a demolished bridge through flooded low\\-lying lands, in preparation for an assault. Working under heavy shelling, he supervised the installation of a bailey bridge and the clearance of mines and obstructions. In particular, he personally made safe a [naval mine](/wiki/Naval_mine \"Naval mine\"), for which he was awarded the [Military Cross](/wiki/Military_Cross \"Military Cross\").", "Over the following several postwar years, Willison attended the [Staff College, Camberley](/wiki/Staff_College%2C_Camberley \"Staff College, Camberley\") (where he was judged to be one of the most outstanding students), served as [brigade major](/wiki/Brigade_major \"Brigade major\") with [1st Indian Infantry Brigade](/wiki/1st_Indian_Infantry_Brigade \"1st Indian Infantry Brigade\") as part of the reoccupation force in [Java](/wiki/Java \"Java\"), served as a [staff officer](/wiki/Staff_officer \"Staff officer\") at HQ [Malaya Command](/wiki/Malaya_Command \"Malaya Command\"), posted to the [War Office](/wiki/War_Office \"War Office\") in London and took command of 16 Field Company, Royal Engineers, stationed in Egypt. In 1953, he was posted to [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\") to command the Royal Engineers there. While in Berlin, Willison assisted with a clandestine Anglo\\-American effort to tap a major Russian military telephone cable, by constructing an underground facility (the Russians discovered the security breach a few months later).", "After a spell from 1955 to 1958 as an instructor at the Staff College, Camberley, Willison was posted to [Aden](/wiki/Aden \"Aden\") where he supported the [Special Air Service](/wiki/Special_Air_Service \"Special Air Service\")'s assistance to the [Sultan of Oman](/wiki/Sultan_of_Oman \"Sultan of Oman\") in the [Djebel Akhdar](/wiki/Sultan_of_Oman%27s_Armed_Forces%23Jebel_Akhdar_campaigns \"Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces#Jebel Akhdar campaigns\") during a pro\\-[Nasser](/wiki/Nasser \"Nasser\") rebellion. He subsequently commanded [38 Engineer Regiment](/wiki/38_Engineer_Regiment \"38 Engineer Regiment\") from 1960\\. This unit was part of the [Strategic reserve](/wiki/Strategic_reserve \"Strategic reserve\"), with detachments in several trouble spots; this gave Willison additional international experience.", "In 1963, Willison was appointed as Colonel [MI4](/wiki/MI4 \"MI4\") at the War Office with assessments of Middle Eastern issues as his main concern. Key Intelligence appointments followed his acknowledged success at MI4: Brigadier Defence Intelligence in 1967, Assistant Chief of Staff (Intelligence) in [Northern Army Group](/wiki/Northern_Army_Group \"Northern Army Group\") in 1970, Director of Service Intelligence in 1971 and finally [Deputy Chief of Defence Staff (Intelligence)](/wiki/Deputy_Chief_of_the_Defence_Staff \"Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff\") in 1972\\.", "" ]
Biography --------- {{BLP unsourced section\|date\=February 2016}} ### Early life Gov was born in [Rehovot](/wiki/Rehovot "Rehovot"), [Israel](/wiki/Israel "Israel"), to Daniel and Tzipora Gov. As a child Gov suffered from [asthma](/wiki/Asthma "Asthma"). Gov's father died when he was very young, which made his mother move with him from place to place, including [Tel Aviv](/wiki/Tel_Aviv "Tel Aviv") and [Eilat](/wiki/Eilat "Eilat"). Growing up, Gov never dreamed of becoming a singer. When he enlisted to the [IDF](/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces "Israel Defense Forces") in 1969 [Yair Rosenblum](/wiki/Yair_Rosenblum "Yair Rosenblum") recommended that Gov be auditioned for the [Nahal entertainment troupe](/wiki/The_Nahal_Band "The Nahal Band"). Gov passed the auditions and joined the [Nahal](/wiki/Nahal "Nahal") entertainment troupe. There Gov actually began his acting and singing career. ### 1970s [thumb\|250px\|right\|Gidi Gov (center) on the set of the 1978 film "[Khirbet Khize](/wiki/Ram_Loevy%23Khirbet_Khize "Ram Loevy#Khirbet Khize")"](/wiki/File:Khirbet_Khize_cast.jpg "Khirbet Khize cast.jpg") Gov's first major breakthrough occurred when Gov sang in the 1973 Israeli "Song and chorus Festival" (פסטיבל הזמר והפזמון) the song "Rise up and arrive" (יעלה ויבוא). The song reached only number eight, but become one of the songs most identified with the competition. During the same year Gov established along with some of the former Nahal troupe members (Efraim Shamir, [Danny Sanderson](/wiki/Danny_Sanderson "Danny Sanderson") and Alon Olearchik) and two others ([Yoni Rechter](/wiki/Yoni_Rechter "Yoni Rechter") and Yitzhak Klepter) the band [Kaveret](/wiki/Kaveret "Kaveret"). The band became one of the most popular Israeli bands in the 1970s and is still considered today as one of the most successful Israeli bands in the history of popular music and entertainment in Israel. The band released three albums, represented Israel in the [1974 Eurovision Song Contest](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_1974 "Eurovision Song Contest 1974") with the song "[Natati La Khayay](/wiki/Natati_La_Khayay "Natati La Khayay")" and won the title "Band of the Year" four times in succession in the Israeli annual Hebrew song chart of [Kol Yisrael](/wiki/Kol_Yisrael "Kol Yisrael"). The band was eventually disbanded in 1976\. After the breakup of Kaveret Gov joined the short\-lived band "Parnasa Tova", which included [Yehudit Ravitz](/wiki/Yehudit_Ravitz "Yehudit Ravitz") and Shmulik Bilu. The band recorded several cover versions of old songs and produced an album. In 1978, Gov put out his first solo album ("Taklit Rishon", or "first album"). In addition to his musical career, during the 1970s Gov also participated in the 1974 Israeli TV series "The Magic Door" (דלת הקסמים), and in the 1977 Israeli film "Masa Alonkot" (מסע אלונקות), and in [Ram Loevy](/wiki/Ram_Loevy "Ram Loevy")'s 1978 film "[Khirbet Khize](/wiki/Ram_Loevy%23Khirbet_Khize "Ram Loevy#Khirbet Khize")", the 1978 film "Ha\-Lehaka" ("The Troupe") which described the life in an Israeli military band, and the 1979 film "[Dizengoff 99](/wiki/Dizengoff_99 "Dizengoff 99")", and the 1979 film "Do not ask if I love" (אל תשאלי אם אני אוהב). In 1979, Gov became a co\-host in the successful Israeli entertainment show "[Zehu Ze!](/wiki/Zehu_Ze%21 "Zehu Ze!")" ("That's it!"). Gov appeared intermittently in this show until it ended in 1993\. In 1979, Gov formed the successful Israeli pop\-rock band "[Gazoz](/wiki/Gazoz_%28band%29 "Gazoz (band)")" together with Danny Sanderson, which recorded and released the albums "Gazoz" (גזוז) and "second incarnation" (גלגול שני). ### 1980s [thumb\|250px\|right\|Gidi Gov (front\-left) performing with his pop group [Doda](/wiki/Doda_%28band%29 "Doda (band)") in the Mann Auditorium in Tel Aviv, 13 April 1981](/wiki/File:Flickr_-_Government_Press_Office_%28GPO%29_-_DODA_DURING_A_PERFORMANCE_IN_THE_TELETROM_CONTRIBUTIONS_EVENING_IN_THE_MANN_AUDITORIUM_IN_TEL_AVIV.jpg "Flickr - Government Press Office (GPO) - DODA DURING A PERFORMANCE IN THE TELETROM CONTRIBUTIONS EVENING IN THE MANN AUDITORIUM IN TEL AVIV.jpg") In 1980 Gov and Sanderson formed their third band Doda, which succeeded less than Kaveret and Gazoz. During the early 1980s Gov participated in several Israeli children's music festivals. In 1983 Gov released his second album, "40:06", named after the album's total length. Later on Gov appeared in the 1983 Israeli film "The silver platter" (מגש הכסף). In 1985 Gov released his third solo album, "Tnu Ligdol Besheket" ("Let Me Grow Up in Peace"), which included mostly children's songs. From 1986 to 1992 Gov participated in almost all the Israeli children's music, and even hosted it 1986\. In 1987 Gov decided to release the rock oriented album "Derech Eretz" (דרך ארץ), produced by Louie Lahav. The majority of songs on the album were composed by [Yehuda Poliker](/wiki/Yehuda_Poliker "Yehuda Poliker"). The album was a big success and sold more than 50,000 copies – the best selling album of the Gov until then. In 1989 Gov participated in the play "The Gigolo from Congo" by [Hanoch Levin](/wiki/Hanoch_Levin "Hanoch Levin"), and performed the title song "What do you know about love" (מה אתה בכלל יודע על אהבה) for the film "Ehad Mishelano". ### 1990s [thumb\|180px\|right\|Gidi Gov performing at the memorial service held for PM [Yitzhak Rabin](/wiki/Yitzhak_Rabin "Yitzhak Rabin"). 11 February 1996](/wiki/File:Flickr_-_Government_Press_Office_%28GPO%29_-_SINGER_GIDI_GOV_PERFORMING_AT_THE_MEMORIAL_SERVICE_HELD_FOR_PM_YITZHAK_RABIN-2.jpg "Flickr - Government Press Office (GPO) - SINGER GIDI GOV PERFORMING AT THE MEMORIAL SERVICE HELD FOR PM YITZHAK RABIN-2.jpg") In 1991 Gov released one of his most successful solo albums – Ein Od Yom ("No Other Day"). The album sold more than 70,000 copies. In 1993 Gov released the compilation album "שירים שהתפזרו", which containing different original songs performed by Gov between 1973 and 1992 which did not appear in his previous solo albums. In 1994 he left "[Zehu Ze!](/wiki/Zehu_Ze%21 "Zehu Ze!")" to his own host musical/talk show, "Laila Gov" (a play on the phrase "laila tov", meaning "good night"), on [Channel 2](/wiki/Channel_2_%28Israel%29 "Channel 2 (Israel)"), Israel's first commercial TV channel. The show which aired from 1994 to 1998 became very successful. During the show Gov used to regularly perform different songs along with different popular Israeli singers whom were guests on the show. Subsequently, in 1995 Gov released the double disc compilation album "שירים מלילה גוב", and in 1997 released the triple disc compilation album "שירים מלילה גוב 2" which both contained the songs Gov performed during the show with his guests. ### 2000s In 2000 Gov began hosting a dining TV show on the Israeli Channel 8 called "Gidi Gov goes to eat" (גידי גוב הולך לאכול) and appeared in a one time special Kaveret reunion concert designed to raise money for an urgent surgery of the band member Isaac Klepter. This year also instructed the Tammuz Awards Israeli music, held for the first time was broadcast on Channel 2\. Gov off the ceremony again the following year, until it was decided to stop at the end of 2002 to comply. In 2001 Gov participated in Danny Sanderson's album "תולדות המים – שירים לאחרים" in which Gov performed Sanderson's song "רק את". In 2002 Gov returned to Channel with the show "Laila Gov 2", which was similar to his previous talk show, but failed to repeat its success and was eventually canceled after the first season. In 2003, 12 years after his last solo studio album was released, Gov recorded the album "Rikud Yare'ach" ("Moon Dance"). In 2004 Gov recorded the album "At the end of the mountain" (בקצה ההר) which was mainly written and composed by Amir Benayon. The album was released in early 2005\. In 2006 Gov hosted the morning program on Channel 2\. In 2007 Gov participated in the Israeli reality show "Once in a lifetime" (פעם בחיים), in which he went to a spiritual commune in the jungles of [Costa Rica](/wiki/Costa_Rica "Costa Rica") for two weeks together with the Israeli journalist Gil Riva. In 2008 Gov participated in satire show "גם להם מגיע " together with [Lior Ashkenazi](/wiki/Lior_Ashkenazi "Lior Ashkenazi") and Anat Magen. In 2009 the Israeli label [Hed Artzi](/wiki/Hed_Artzi "Hed Artzi") released the triple disc compilation album "שלל שיריו" which contained Gov's biggest hits through the years. ### 2010s In June 2011, Israel TV channel [Channel 10](/wiki/Channel_10_%28Israel%29 "Channel 10 (Israel)") started broadcasting the series "[Aharoni \& Gidi's Wonderful Journey](/wiki/Aharoni_%26_Gidi%27s_Wonderful_Journey "Aharoni & Gidi's Wonderful Journey")" with Gidi Gov and chef [Yisrael Aharoni](/wiki/Yisrael_Aharoni "Yisrael Aharoni"). A month later [Channel 2](/wiki/Channel_2_%28Israel%29 "Channel 2 (Israel)") started broadcasting the series "The most beautiful years", in which Gov plays a school principal who dies. That same year, he started doing commercials for [Bezeq](/wiki/Bezeq "Bezeq") WiFi. In 2012 Gidi appears as a judge on the 10th season of the Israeli version of American Idol – [Kohav nolad](/wiki/Kohav_nolad "Kohav nolad"). In August 2015 he released the album Im Hayinu (If We Were).
[ "Biography\n---------", "{{BLP unsourced section\\|date\\=February 2016}}", "### Early life", "Gov was born in [Rehovot](/wiki/Rehovot \"Rehovot\"), [Israel](/wiki/Israel \"Israel\"), to Daniel and Tzipora Gov. As a child Gov suffered from [asthma](/wiki/Asthma \"Asthma\"). Gov's father died when he was very young, which made his mother move with him from place to place, including [Tel Aviv](/wiki/Tel_Aviv \"Tel Aviv\") and [Eilat](/wiki/Eilat \"Eilat\"). Growing up, Gov never dreamed of becoming a singer. When he enlisted to the [IDF](/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces \"Israel Defense Forces\") in 1969 [Yair Rosenblum](/wiki/Yair_Rosenblum \"Yair Rosenblum\") recommended that Gov be auditioned for the [Nahal entertainment troupe](/wiki/The_Nahal_Band \"The Nahal Band\"). Gov passed the auditions and joined the [Nahal](/wiki/Nahal \"Nahal\") entertainment troupe. There Gov actually began his acting and singing career.", "### 1970s", "[thumb\\|250px\\|right\\|Gidi Gov (center) on the set of the 1978 film \"[Khirbet Khize](/wiki/Ram_Loevy%23Khirbet_Khize \"Ram Loevy#Khirbet Khize\")\"](/wiki/File:Khirbet_Khize_cast.jpg \"Khirbet Khize cast.jpg\")\nGov's first major breakthrough occurred when Gov sang in the 1973 Israeli \"Song and chorus Festival\" (פסטיבל הזמר והפזמון) the song \"Rise up and arrive\" (יעלה ויבוא). The song reached only number eight, but become one of the songs most identified with the competition.", "During the same year Gov established along with some of the former Nahal troupe members (Efraim Shamir, [Danny Sanderson](/wiki/Danny_Sanderson \"Danny Sanderson\") and Alon Olearchik) and two others ([Yoni Rechter](/wiki/Yoni_Rechter \"Yoni Rechter\") and Yitzhak Klepter) the band [Kaveret](/wiki/Kaveret \"Kaveret\"). The band became one of the most popular Israeli bands in the 1970s and is still considered today as one of the most successful Israeli bands in the history of popular music and entertainment in Israel. The band released three albums, represented Israel in the [1974 Eurovision Song Contest](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest_1974 \"Eurovision Song Contest 1974\") with the song \"[Natati La Khayay](/wiki/Natati_La_Khayay \"Natati La Khayay\")\" and won the title \"Band of the Year\" four times in succession in the Israeli annual Hebrew song chart of [Kol Yisrael](/wiki/Kol_Yisrael \"Kol Yisrael\"). The band was eventually disbanded in 1976\\.", "After the breakup of Kaveret Gov joined the short\\-lived band \"Parnasa Tova\", which included [Yehudit Ravitz](/wiki/Yehudit_Ravitz \"Yehudit Ravitz\") and Shmulik Bilu. The band recorded several cover versions of old songs and produced an album. In 1978, Gov put out his first solo album (\"Taklit Rishon\", or \"first album\"). In addition to his musical career, during the 1970s Gov also participated in the 1974 Israeli TV series \"The Magic Door\" (דלת הקסמים), and in the 1977 Israeli film \"Masa Alonkot\" (מסע אלונקות), and in [Ram Loevy](/wiki/Ram_Loevy \"Ram Loevy\")'s 1978 film \"[Khirbet Khize](/wiki/Ram_Loevy%23Khirbet_Khize \"Ram Loevy#Khirbet Khize\")\", the 1978 film \"Ha\\-Lehaka\" (\"The Troupe\") which described the life in an Israeli military band, and the 1979 film \"[Dizengoff 99](/wiki/Dizengoff_99 \"Dizengoff 99\")\", and the 1979 film \"Do not ask if I love\" (אל תשאלי אם אני אוהב).", "In 1979, Gov became a co\\-host in the successful Israeli entertainment show \"[Zehu Ze!](/wiki/Zehu_Ze%21 \"Zehu Ze!\")\" (\"That's it!\"). Gov appeared intermittently in this show until it ended in 1993\\.", "In 1979, Gov formed the successful Israeli pop\\-rock band \"[Gazoz](/wiki/Gazoz_%28band%29 \"Gazoz (band)\")\" together with Danny Sanderson, which recorded and released the albums \"Gazoz\" (גזוז) and \"second incarnation\" (גלגול שני).", "### 1980s", "[thumb\\|250px\\|right\\|Gidi Gov (front\\-left) performing with his pop group [Doda](/wiki/Doda_%28band%29 \"Doda (band)\") in the Mann Auditorium in Tel Aviv, 13 April 1981](/wiki/File:Flickr_-_Government_Press_Office_%28GPO%29_-_DODA_DURING_A_PERFORMANCE_IN_THE_TELETROM_CONTRIBUTIONS_EVENING_IN_THE_MANN_AUDITORIUM_IN_TEL_AVIV.jpg \"Flickr - Government Press Office (GPO) - DODA DURING A PERFORMANCE IN THE TELETROM CONTRIBUTIONS EVENING IN THE MANN AUDITORIUM IN TEL AVIV.jpg\")\nIn 1980 Gov and Sanderson formed their third band Doda, which succeeded less than Kaveret and Gazoz.", "During the early 1980s Gov participated in several Israeli children's music festivals.", "In 1983 Gov released his second album, \"40:06\", named after the album's total length.", "Later on Gov appeared in the 1983 Israeli film \"The silver platter\" (מגש הכסף).", "In 1985 Gov released his third solo album, \"Tnu Ligdol Besheket\" (\"Let Me Grow Up in Peace\"), which included mostly children's songs.", "From 1986 to 1992 Gov participated in almost all the Israeli children's music, and even hosted it 1986\\.", "In 1987 Gov decided to release the rock oriented album \"Derech Eretz\" (דרך ארץ), produced by Louie Lahav. The majority of songs on the album were composed by [Yehuda Poliker](/wiki/Yehuda_Poliker \"Yehuda Poliker\"). The album was a big success and sold more than 50,000 copies – the best selling album of the Gov until then.", "In 1989 Gov participated in the play \"The Gigolo from Congo\" by [Hanoch Levin](/wiki/Hanoch_Levin \"Hanoch Levin\"), and performed the title song \"What do you know about love\" (מה אתה בכלל יודע על אהבה) for the film \"Ehad Mishelano\".", "### 1990s", "[thumb\\|180px\\|right\\|Gidi Gov performing at the memorial service held for PM [Yitzhak Rabin](/wiki/Yitzhak_Rabin \"Yitzhak Rabin\"). 11 February 1996](/wiki/File:Flickr_-_Government_Press_Office_%28GPO%29_-_SINGER_GIDI_GOV_PERFORMING_AT_THE_MEMORIAL_SERVICE_HELD_FOR_PM_YITZHAK_RABIN-2.jpg \"Flickr - Government Press Office (GPO) - SINGER GIDI GOV PERFORMING AT THE MEMORIAL SERVICE HELD FOR PM YITZHAK RABIN-2.jpg\")\nIn 1991 Gov released one of his most successful solo albums – Ein Od Yom (\"No Other Day\"). The album sold more than 70,000 copies. In 1993 Gov released the compilation album \"שירים שהתפזרו\", which containing different original songs performed by Gov between 1973 and 1992 which did not appear in his previous solo albums. In 1994 he left \"[Zehu Ze!](/wiki/Zehu_Ze%21 \"Zehu Ze!\")\" to his own host musical/talk show, \"Laila Gov\" (a play on the phrase \"laila tov\", meaning \"good night\"), on [Channel 2](/wiki/Channel_2_%28Israel%29 \"Channel 2 (Israel)\"), Israel's first commercial TV channel. The show which aired from 1994 to 1998 became very successful. During the show Gov used to regularly perform different songs along with different popular Israeli singers whom were guests on the show. Subsequently, in 1995 Gov released the double disc compilation album \"שירים מלילה גוב\", and in 1997 released the triple disc compilation album \"שירים מלילה גוב 2\" which both contained the songs Gov performed during the show with his guests.", "### 2000s", "In 2000 Gov began hosting a dining TV show on the Israeli Channel 8 called \"Gidi Gov goes to eat\" (גידי גוב הולך לאכול) and appeared in a one time special Kaveret reunion concert designed to raise money for an urgent surgery of the band member Isaac Klepter. This year also instructed the Tammuz Awards Israeli music, held for the first time was broadcast on Channel 2\\. Gov off the ceremony again the following year, until it was decided to stop at the end of 2002 to comply.", "In 2001 Gov participated in Danny Sanderson's album \"תולדות המים – שירים לאחרים\" in which Gov performed Sanderson's song \"רק את\". In 2002 Gov returned to Channel with the show \"Laila Gov 2\", which was similar to his previous talk show, but failed to repeat its success and was eventually canceled after the first season. In 2003, 12 years after his last solo studio album was released, Gov recorded the album \"Rikud Yare'ach\" (\"Moon Dance\"). In 2004 Gov recorded the album \"At the end of the mountain\" (בקצה ההר) which was mainly written and composed by Amir Benayon. The album was released in early 2005\\. In 2006 Gov hosted the morning program on Channel 2\\. In 2007 Gov participated in the Israeli reality show \"Once in a lifetime\" (פעם בחיים), in which he went to a spiritual commune in the jungles of [Costa Rica](/wiki/Costa_Rica \"Costa Rica\") for two weeks together with the Israeli journalist Gil Riva. In 2008 Gov participated in satire show \"גם להם מגיע \" together with [Lior Ashkenazi](/wiki/Lior_Ashkenazi \"Lior Ashkenazi\") and Anat Magen. In 2009 the Israeli label [Hed Artzi](/wiki/Hed_Artzi \"Hed Artzi\") released the triple disc compilation album \"שלל שיריו\" which contained Gov's biggest hits through the years.", "### 2010s", "In June 2011, Israel TV channel [Channel 10](/wiki/Channel_10_%28Israel%29 \"Channel 10 (Israel)\") started broadcasting the series \"[Aharoni \\& Gidi's Wonderful Journey](/wiki/Aharoni_%26_Gidi%27s_Wonderful_Journey \"Aharoni & Gidi's Wonderful Journey\")\" with Gidi Gov and chef [Yisrael Aharoni](/wiki/Yisrael_Aharoni \"Yisrael Aharoni\"). A month later [Channel 2](/wiki/Channel_2_%28Israel%29 \"Channel 2 (Israel)\") started broadcasting the series \"The most beautiful years\", in which Gov plays a school principal who dies. That same year, he started doing commercials for [Bezeq](/wiki/Bezeq \"Bezeq\") WiFi.\nIn 2012 Gidi appears as a judge on the 10th season of the Israeli version of American Idol – [Kohav nolad](/wiki/Kohav_nolad \"Kohav nolad\"). In August 2015 he released the album Im Hayinu (If We Were).", "" ]
Plot ---- City banker Mark lives with his pregnant wife Laura in a large house in an upper\-middle\-class neighbourhood. Although he has just made a fortune in a financial deal, Mark refuses to give money to a beggar in an underground station, but later regrets this behaviour and begins to feel guilty about his success and opulent lifestyle. Another day, he returns to find the homeless man and gives him 100 pounds. Mark then resolves to use his wealth to help the indigent and volunteer as an outreach worker. As the film develops, it becomes clear that his newfound concern for the poor is also a form of escapism from his materialistic wife, and that he feels trapped and frightened by his life. Robert, a convicted murderer, is released from prison and moves into a hostel in [Swiss Cottage](/wiki/Swiss_Cottage "Swiss Cottage"). There he meets the pregnant Michelle, who has been relocated with her young daughter by a social worker to protect them from her [abusive husband](/wiki/Domestic_violence "Domestic violence"). Robert and Michelle form an intriguing relationship, while Robert continues looking for his mother, whom he has not seen for many years. In the hostel also lives a Nigerian immigrant family – journalist Yemi, his wife Itshe, and their daughter. Yemi works as kitchen help in a restaurant and Itshe as a house cleaner. They desperately need to raise 5,000 pounds to bring Yemi's father from Nigeria to London, before the political gangs who forced them into emigrating kill him. Mark begins to collaborate with Sally, the social worker who placed Michelle in the hostel, and helps to allot 17\-year\-old runaway Zoe a room there. He soon becomes very close to the teenager. One night at the hostel, Zoe kisses him, but he rejects her advances and returns home to his wife, who seems distraught by his absences and is convinced that he is having an affair. Robert finds out that his mother died while he was in prison and breaks off his relationship with Michelle. Mark and Laura manage to settle their differences in a restaurant: he explains the reasons of his being away and apologizes for having been so cruel in his neglect. While driving home after the dinner out, Mark almost hits Robert, who is walking back to the hostel. Enraged by the near\-accident, Robert follows them and stabs Mark to death when he comes to the door.
[ "Plot\n----", "City banker Mark lives with his pregnant wife Laura in a large house in an upper\\-middle\\-class neighbourhood. Although he has just made a fortune in a financial deal, Mark refuses to give money to a beggar in an underground station, but later regrets this behaviour and begins to feel guilty about his success and opulent lifestyle. Another day, he returns to find the homeless man and gives him 100 pounds. Mark then resolves to use his wealth to help the indigent and volunteer as an outreach worker. As the film develops, it becomes clear that his newfound concern for the poor is also a form of escapism from his materialistic wife, and that he feels trapped and frightened by his life.", "Robert, a convicted murderer, is released from prison and moves into a hostel in [Swiss Cottage](/wiki/Swiss_Cottage \"Swiss Cottage\"). There he meets the pregnant Michelle, who has been relocated with her young daughter by a social worker to protect them from her [abusive husband](/wiki/Domestic_violence \"Domestic violence\"). Robert and Michelle form an intriguing relationship, while Robert continues looking for his mother, whom he has not seen for many years.", "In the hostel also lives a Nigerian immigrant family – journalist Yemi, his wife Itshe, and their daughter. Yemi works as kitchen help in a restaurant and Itshe as a house cleaner. They desperately need to raise 5,000 pounds to bring Yemi's father from Nigeria to London, before the political gangs who forced them into emigrating kill him.", "Mark begins to collaborate with Sally, the social worker who placed Michelle in the hostel, and helps to allot 17\\-year\\-old runaway Zoe a room there. He soon becomes very close to the teenager. One night at the hostel, Zoe kisses him, but he rejects her advances and returns home to his wife, who seems distraught by his absences and is convinced that he is having an affair.", "Robert finds out that his mother died while he was in prison and breaks off his relationship with Michelle.", "Mark and Laura manage to settle their differences in a restaurant: he explains the reasons of his being away and apologizes for having been so cruel in his neglect. While driving home after the dinner out, Mark almost hits Robert, who is walking back to the hostel. Enraged by the near\\-accident, Robert follows them and stabs Mark to death when he comes to the door.", "" ]
Geography and geology --------------------- [325px\|thumb\|left\|Historical evolution of the Danube Delta (AD 1 – 2015\)](/wiki/File:Danube_Delta_evolution.gif "Danube Delta evolution.gif") The modern Danube Delta began to form after 4000 BC in a bay of the [Black Sea](/wiki/Black_Sea "Black Sea") when the sea rose to its present level. A sandy barrier blocked the Danube bay where the river initially built its delta. Upon filling the bay with [sediment](/wiki/Sediment "Sediment"), the delta advanced outside this barrier\-blocked estuary after 3500 BC, building several successive lobes:{{cite journal \|last1\=Giosan \|first1\=Liviu \|last2\=Donnelly \|first2\=Jeffrey P. \|last3\=Constantinescu \|first3\=Stefan \|last4\=Filip \|first4\=Florin \|last5\=Ovejanu \|first5\=Ionut \|last6\=Vespremeanu\-Stroe \|first6\=Alfred \|last7\=Vespremeanu \|first7\=Emil \|last8\=Duller \|first8\=Geoff A.T. \|title\=Young Danube delta documents stable Black Sea level since the middle Holocene: Morphodynamic, paleogeographic, and archaeological implications \|journal\=Geology \|date\=2006 \|volume\=34 \|issue\=9 \|pages\=757–760 \|doi\=10\.1130/G22587\.1\|bibcode\=2006Geo....34\..757G }} the St. George I (3500–1600 BC), the Sulina (1600–0 BC), the St. George II (0 BC–present) and the Chilia or Kilia (1600 AD–present). Several other internal lobes were constructed in the lakes and lagoons bordering the Danube Delta to the north (Chilia I and II) and toward the south (Dunavatz). Much of the [alluvium](/wiki/Alluvium "Alluvium") in the delta and major expansion of its surface area in the form of lobes resulted from [soil erosion](/wiki/Erosion%23Vegetative_cover "Erosion#Vegetative cover") associated with human clearing of [forests](/wiki/Forest "Forest") in the Danube basin during the [1st](/wiki/1st_millennium "1st millennium") and 2nd millennium.{{cite news\|title\=Comments From Ancient Deforestation, a Delta Is Born\|url\=http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/09/14/from\-ancient\-deforestation\-a\-delta\-is\-born/\|access\-date\=September 17, 2012\|newspaper\=The New York Times\|date\=September 14, 2012\|author\=Rachel Newer}}{{cite journal\|title\=Early Anthropogenic Transformation of the Danube\-Black Sea System\|journal\=Scientific Reports\|date\=August 30, 2012\|volume\=2\|issue\=article number 582\|pages\=582\|doi\=10\.1038/srep00582\|author1\=Liviu Giosan \|author2\=Marco J. L. Coolen \|author3\=Jed O. Kaplan \|author4\=Stefan Constantinescu \|author5\=Florin Filip \|author6\=Mariana Filipova\-Marinova \|author7\=Albert J. Kettner \|author8\=Nick Thom \|quote\=Sediment loads delivered by Danube River, the main tributary of the Black Sea, significantly increased as land use intensified in the last two millennia, which led to a rapid expansion of its delta. \|pmid\=22937219 \|pmc\=3430877\|bibcode\=2012NatSR...2E.582G }} Geologist [Liviu Giosan](/wiki/Liviu_Giosan "Liviu Giosan") told *The New York Times*: > Probably 40 percent of the Delta was built in the last 1000 years. Finding that was like a eureka moment. At present, the delta suffers from a large [sediment deficit](/wiki/Sedimentary_budget "Sedimentary budget"), after the construction of dams on the Danube and its tributaries in the later half of the 20th century. However, construction of a dense network of shallow channels in the delta over the same period, a [sedimentation enhancing strategy](/wiki/Sedimentation_enhancing_strategies "Sedimentation enhancing strategies"), attenuated the deficit on the delta plain but increased erosion along the coast{{cite journal \|last1\=Giosan \|first1\=Liviu \|last2\=Constantinescu \|first2\=Stefan \|last3\=Filip \|first3\=Florin \|last4\=Deng \|first4\=Bing \|title\=Maintenance of large deltas through channelization: Nature vs. humans in the Danube delta \|journal\=Anthropocene \|date\=2013 \|volume\=1 \|pages\=35–45 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.ancene.2013\.09\.001\|bibcode\=2013Anthr...1\...35G }}{{cite web \|title\=Study Offers Economical Solutions for Maintaining Critical Delta Environments \|url\=http://www.whoi.edu/news\-release/maintaining\_deltas \|website\=\|access\-date\=10 June 2021}} The Danube Delta is a low [alluvial plain](/wiki/Alluvial_plain "Alluvial plain"), mostly covered by [wetlands](/wiki/Wetlands "Wetlands") and water. It consists of an intricate pattern of marshes, channels, streamlets and lakes. The average altitude is 0\.52 m, with 20% of the territory below sea level, and more than half not exceeding one meter in altitude. Dunes on the most extensive [strand plains](/wiki/Strand_plain "Strand plain") of the delta (Letea and Caraorman strand plains) stand higher (12\.4 m and 7 m respectively). The largest lakes are lakes Dranov (21\.7 km2), Roșu (14\.5 km2) and Gorgova (13\.8 km2). [thumb\|left\|upright\=1\.35\| Danube Delta – Dalmatian pelican and great cormorant](/wiki/File:Dalmatian_Pelican_and_Great_Cormorant_in_danube_delta.jpg "Dalmatian Pelican and Great Cormorant in danube delta.jpg") ### Distributaries of the Danube The [Danube](/wiki/Danube "Danube") branches into three main [distributaries](/wiki/Distributary "Distributary") into the [delta](/wiki/River_delta "River delta"), **[Chilia](/wiki/Chilia_branch "Chilia branch")**, **[Sulina](/wiki/Sulina_branch "Sulina branch")**, and **[Sfântul Gheorghe](/wiki/Sf%C3%A2ntu_Gheorghe_branch "Sfântu Gheorghe branch") (Saint George)**. The last two branches form the **Tulcea** channel, which continues as a single body for several kilometers after the separation from the Chilia. At the mouths of each channel [gradual formation of new land](/wiki/Alluvion "Alluvion") takes place, as the delta continues to expand. | \+ Main distributaries of the Danube | | --- | | Danube arm | Length (km) | Flow (m3/s)(1921–1990\) | | **[Chilia](/wiki/Chilia_branch "Chilia branch")** | 120 | 3800 | | **[Sulina](/wiki/Sulina_branch "Sulina branch")** | 64 | 1250 | | **[Sfântu Gheorghe](/wiki/Sf%C3%A2ntu_Gheorghe_branch "Sfântu Gheorghe branch")** **(Saint George)** | 70 | 1500 | | [thumb\|Danube Delta Distributary in Kyslytsia village, Ukraine](/wiki/File:Danube_Delta_Distributary.jpg "Danube Delta Distributary.jpg") **[Chilia](/wiki/Chilia_branch "Chilia branch")**, in the north, the longest, youngest, and most vigorous, with two secondary internal deltas and one microdelta in full process of formation at its mouth (to Ukraine). **[Sulina](/wiki/Sulina_branch "Sulina branch")**, the central and thus the shortest arm, which consequently led to its extensive use for traffic and severe transformation. At its mouth is located the main port and a single settlement with urban characteristics of the Romanian part of the delta. Because of the [alluvium](/wiki/Alluvium "Alluvium") deposited at its mouth, a channel gradually advancing into the sea (presently it has 10 km) was built in order to protect navigation. [Sfântul Gheorghe](/wiki/Sf%C3%A2ntu_Gheorghe_branch "Sfântu Gheorghe branch") (**Saint George** in [English](/wiki/English_language "English language")), in the south, is the oldest and most sparsely populated. Its [alluvium](/wiki/Alluvium "Alluvium") has led to the creation, beginning in 1897, of the [Sacalin Islands](/wiki/Sacalin_Island "Sacalin Island"), which today measures 19 km in length. [600px\|thumb\|center\|Map created in 2010](/wiki/File:Danube_delta_chart.png "Danube delta chart.png") [thumb\|Danube Delta in Romania](/wiki/File:Ca%C3%B1as_%28Phragmites_australis%29%2C_Delta_del_Danubio%2C_Ruman%C3%ADa%2C_2016-05-28%2C_DD_18.jpg "Cañas (Phragmites australis), Delta del Danubio, Rumanía, 2016-05-28, DD 18.jpg") ### Climate The climate of the Danube Delta is continental, with strong influences from the vicinity of the [Black Sea](/wiki/Black_Sea "Black Sea") and its prevalent amphibian environment. It is the driest and sunniest region of Romania. The mean annual temperature is 11 °C (−1 °C in January and 22 °C in July), with mean precipitation between 400 mm/year and 300 mm/year, decreasing from west to east. Evaporation is around 1,000 mm/year, amplified by strong and frequent winds, resulting in long periods of drought in the summer. The northwest winds cause frequent storms in spring and autumn. In the interior of the delta, the continental character of the climate is very pronounced. ### {{anchor\|Main ecosytems}}Main ecosystems [thumb\|Danube Delta in Romania](/wiki/File:Denube_Delta_Bank.JPG "Denube Delta Bank.JPG") [thumb\|upright\|Danube Delta: old mill in [Letea](/wiki/Letea "Letea")](/wiki/File:LeteaMill.jpg "LeteaMill.jpg") The Danube Delta falls within the [Pannonian steppe](/wiki/Pannonian_steppe "Pannonian steppe") [ecosystem](/wiki/Ecosystem "Ecosystem") of eastern Europe, with Mediterranean influences. As a young region in full process of consolidation, the Danube Delta represents a very favourable place for the development of highly diverse [flora](/wiki/Flora "Flora") and [fauna](/wiki/Fauna "Fauna"), unique{{clarify\|date\=January 2016}} in [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"), with numerous rare species. It hosts 23 natural ecosystems, but due to the extent of [wetlands](/wiki/Wetlands "Wetlands") an aquatic environment is prevalent; a terrestrial environment is also present on the higher grounds of the continental [levees](/wiki/Levees "Levees"), where [xerophile](/wiki/Xerophile "Xerophile") ecosystems have developed. Between the aquatic and terrestrial environments is interposed a swampy, easily flooded strip of original flora and fauna, with means of adaptation to water or land, depending on the season or [hydrological](/wiki/Hydrological "Hydrological") regime. At the contact between freshwater and sea water, some special physical, chemical and biological processes take place, which have led biologists to consider this area as a very different ecosystem called **beforedelta**. Musura Gulf, north of Sulina, and Saint George Gulf are considered the most representative of this type of ecosystem. Situated on major migratory routes, and providing adequate conditions for nesting and hatching, the Danube Delta is a magnet for birds from six major [ecoregions](/wiki/Ecoregions "Ecoregions") of the world, including the Mongolian, Arctic and Siberian. There are over 320 species of birds found in the delta during summer,[Danube Delta – UNESCO World Heritage Centre](https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/588/video) of which 166 are hatching species and 159 are migratory. Over one million individual birds (swans, wild ducks, [coots](/wiki/Eurasian_coot "Eurasian coot"), etc.) winter here. #### Ecosystem of running water This comprises the arms of the Danube, and a series of its more important streamlets and channels. It is an environment rich in [plankton](/wiki/Plankton "Plankton"), [worms](/wiki/Worm "Worm"), [molluscs](/wiki/Mollusc "Mollusc"), [grubs](/wiki/Larva "Larva"), and [sponges](/wiki/Sponge "Sponge"), with numerous species of fish, such as the [carp](/wiki/Carp "Carp"), [pike](/wiki/Pike_%28disambiguation%29%23Fishes "Pike (disambiguation)#Fishes"), [pike perch](/wiki/Pike_perch "Pike perch"), [sheat\-fish](/wiki/Sheat-fish "Sheat-fish"), and freshwater [sturgeons](/wiki/Sturgeons "Sturgeons") ([sterlet](/wiki/Sterlet "Sterlet"), Vyza{{Typo help inline\|reason\=Vyza? Please give Latin name\|date\=February 2021}} and Danube mackerel{{Typo help inline\|reason\=Suspicious vernacular name. Please give Latin name\|date\=February 2021}}). #### Ecosystem of stagnant water [thumb\|*[Nymphaea alba](/wiki/Nymphaea_alba "Nymphaea alba")* in the Danube Delta](/wiki/File:Danube_Flower.jpg "Danube Flower.jpg") This environment includes the lakes, and various ponds, streamlets and channels. It is characterized by a rich floating and submerse flora (*[Myriophyllum](/wiki/Myriophyllum "Myriophyllum")*, *[Ceratophyllum](/wiki/Ceratophyllum "Ceratophyllum")*, *[Vallisneria](/wiki/Vallisneria "Vallisneria")* etc., under the water; *[Nymphaea alba](/wiki/Nymphaea_alba "Nymphaea alba")*, *[Nuphar lutea](/wiki/Nuphar_lutea "Nuphar lutea")*, *[Trapa natans](/wiki/Trapa_natans "Trapa natans")*, *[Alisma plantago](/wiki/Alisma_plantago "Alisma plantago")* etc., floating plants with roots near the lakes' borders; and *[Salvinia natans](/wiki/Salvinia_natans "Salvinia natans")*, *[Stratiotes aloides](/wiki/Stratiotes_aloides "Stratiotes aloides")*, *[Spirogyra](/wiki/Spirogyra "Spirogyra")* etc., floating plants without roots, having negative effect for aquatic [bioproductivity](/wiki/Bioproductivity "Bioproductivity")). Of the fish, the most important are [Tench](/wiki/Tench "Tench") (*Tinca tinca*), [common bream](/wiki/Common_bream "Common bream") (*Abramis brama*), [common rudd](/wiki/Common_rudd "Common rudd") (*Scardinius erythropthalmus*), [Prussian carp](/wiki/Prussian_carp "Prussian carp") (*Carassius auratus gibelio*), [wels catfish](/wiki/Wels_catfish "Wels catfish") (*Silurus glanis*), [European perch](/wiki/European_perch "European perch") (*Perca fluviatilis*), and [northern pike](/wiki/Northern_pike "Northern pike") (*Esox lucius*). #### Ecosystem of marshy and flooding areas [thumb\|Pelicans in Danube Delta](/wiki/File:Pelicani_din_Delta_Dunarii.PNG "Pelicani din Delta Dunarii.PNG") [thumb\|The Danube Delta birds: [grey heron](/wiki/Grey_heron "Grey heron") (*Ardea cinerea*), [mallard](/wiki/Mallard "Mallard") or wild duck (*Anas platyrhynchos*), [great white pelican](/wiki/Great_white_pelican "Great white pelican") (*Ardea cinerea*), [great crested grebe](/wiki/Great_crested_grebe "Great crested grebe") (*Podiceps cristatus*). Stamp of Romania, 2004](/wiki/File:RO004MS-04.jpg "RO004MS-04.jpg") Reed plants and floating reed islands (called **plaur** in [Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania")) are the most common and well\-known components of the Danube Delta. Vegetation of this ecosystem consists of the common reed (*[Phragmites communis](/wiki/Phragmites_communis "Phragmites communis")*) and, on near river banks, mace reed/cattail (*[Typha latifolia](/wiki/Typha_latifolia "Typha latifolia")*, *[Typha angustifolia](/wiki/Typha_angustifolia "Typha angustifolia")*), sedge (*[Carex dioica](/wiki/Carex_dioica "Carex dioica")*, *[Carex stricta](/wiki/Carex_stricta "Carex stricta")*), Dutch rush (*[Scirpus radicans](/wiki/Scirpus_radicans "Scirpus radicans")*, *[Schoenoplectus lacustris](/wiki/Schoenoplectus_lacustris "Schoenoplectus lacustris")*), and brook mint (*[Mentha aquatica](/wiki/Mentha_aquatica "Mentha aquatica")*), etc. They provide ideal spawning and nesting grounds. The **plaur** are a mixture of reed roots, grass and soil, usually floating or anchored to the riverbed. As a rule, the reed surrounds the lakes and ponds, and slowly invades the water surface. This type of ecosystem is noted for its variety and large population of birds, some of them are very rare. The most important are the [tufted duck](/wiki/Tufted_duck "Tufted duck") (*Aythya fuligula*), [red\-crested pochard](/wiki/Red-crested_pochard "Red-crested pochard") (*Netta rufina*), [mallard](/wiki/Mallard "Mallard") (*Anas platyrhynchos*), [greylag goose](/wiki/Greylag_goose "Greylag goose") (*Anser anser*), [pygmy cormorant](/wiki/Pygmy_cormorant "Pygmy cormorant") (*Microcarbo pygmeus*), [purple heron](/wiki/Purple_heron "Purple heron") (*Ardea purpurea*), [great white egret](/wiki/Great_egret "Great egret") (*Egretta alba*), [little egret](/wiki/Little_egret "Little egret") (*Egretta garzetta*), [Eurasian spoonbill](/wiki/Eurasian_spoonbill "Eurasian spoonbill")(*Platalea leucorodia*), [great white pelican](/wiki/Great_white_pelican "Great white pelican") (*Pelecanus onocrotalus*), [Dalmatian pelican](/wiki/Dalmatian_pelican "Dalmatian pelican") (*Pelecanus crispus*), [mute swan](/wiki/Mute_swan "Mute swan") (*Cygnus olor*), and [glossy ibis](/wiki/Glossy_ibis "Glossy ibis") (*Plegadis falcinellus*). A recent and welcomed newcomer is the [pheasant](/wiki/Common_pheasant "Common pheasant") (*Phasianus colchicus*). Among the mammals, there is the [Eurasian otter](/wiki/Eurasian_otter "Eurasian otter") (*Lutra lutra*), [European mink](/wiki/European_mink "European mink") (*Mustela lutreola*), [little ermine](/wiki/Stoat "Stoat") (*Mustela erminea aestiva*), [wild boar](/wiki/Wild_boar "Wild boar") (*Sus scrofa*), and [wild cat](/wiki/Wildcat "Wildcat") (*Felis silvestris*), in winter the [European hare](/wiki/European_hare "European hare") (*Lepus europaeus*) and, on the brink of disappearing from the delta, the wolf and the fox. During the Middle Ages, the [Caspian tiger](/wiki/Caspian_tiger "Caspian tiger") (*Panthera tigris tigris*) was a resident across the steppes of Ukraine, including Danube Delta, and once, they were hunted to extinction and they're extirpated. The [East Asian raccoon dog](/wiki/Raccoon_dog "Raccoon dog") (*Nyctereutes procyonoides*), bizam/introduced [muskrat](/wiki/Muskrat "Muskrat") (*Ondatra zibethica*), and to some extent South American [nutria](/wiki/Nutria "Nutria") (*Myocastor coypus*), are recent species that have successfully adapted. #### River bank and levee ecosystems [thumb\|Black\-crowned night heron](/wiki/File:Nycticorax_nycticorax%27_AM1_slepowron.jpg "Nycticorax nycticorax' AM1 slepowron.jpg") The firm land of the delta used to be covered with large groves of willow trees, which have been cut down almost entirely and replaced with Canadian poplars. On the river banks kept in their natural state, small groves of willow trees (*[Salix alba](/wiki/Salix_alba "Salix alba")*, *[Salix fragilis](/wiki/Salix_euxina "Salix euxina")*, *[Salix purpurea](/wiki/Salix_purpurea "Salix purpurea")*, *[Salix pentandra](/wiki/Salix_pentandra "Salix pentandra")*, *[Salix triandra](/wiki/Salix_triandra "Salix triandra")* etc.) can still be found, mixed with white poplar (*[Populus alba](/wiki/Populus_alba "Populus alba")*). Occasionally, the willow trees form corridors along the arms and bigger channels of the Danube. On the [levees](/wiki/Levees "Levees") of [Letea](/wiki/Letea "Letea") and [Caraorman](/wiki/Caraorman "Caraorman"), mixed forests of oak (*[Quercus robur](/wiki/Quercus_robur "Quercus robur")*, *[Quercus pedunculiflora](/wiki/Quercus_pedunculiflora "Quercus pedunculiflora")*) with various trees (*[Fraxinus pallisiae](/wiki/Fraxinus_pallisiae "Fraxinus pallisiae")*, *[Ulmus foliaceae](/wiki/Ulmus_foliaceae "Ulmus foliaceae")*, *[Populus tremula](/wiki/Populus_tremula "Populus tremula")*), shrubs (*[Prunus spinosa](/wiki/Prunus_spinosa "Prunus spinosa")*, *[Crataegus monogyna](/wiki/Crataegus_monogyna "Crataegus monogyna")*, *[Rosa canina](/wiki/Rosa_canina "Rosa canina")*, *[Berberis vulgaris](/wiki/Berberis_vulgaris "Berberis vulgaris")* etc.), and vines (*[Vitis sylvestris](/wiki/Vitis_sylvestris "Vitis sylvestris")*, *[Hedera helix](/wiki/Hedera_helix "Hedera helix")*, *[Humulus lupulus](/wiki/Humulus_lupulus "Humulus lupulus")*, *[Periploca graeca](/wiki/Periploca_graeca "Periploca graeca")*, which reaches up to 25m) grow on [sand dune](/wiki/Sand_dune "Sand dune") areas. On the Letea levee, these exotic\-looking forests grow especially in the depressions between the sand dunes, in small groves called **hasmace**. Fauna of this region include the [meadow viper](/wiki/Meadow_viper "Meadow viper") (*Vipera ursinii*), [osprey](/wiki/Osprey "Osprey") (*Pandion haliaetus*), and [Eurasian eagle owl](/wiki/Eurasian_eagle_owl "Eurasian eagle owl") (*Bubo bubo*), etc.
[ "Geography and geology\n---------------------", "[325px\\|thumb\\|left\\|Historical evolution of the Danube Delta (AD 1 – 2015\\)](/wiki/File:Danube_Delta_evolution.gif \"Danube Delta evolution.gif\")\nThe modern Danube Delta began to form after 4000 BC in a bay of the [Black Sea](/wiki/Black_Sea \"Black Sea\") when the sea rose to its present level. A sandy barrier blocked the Danube bay where the river initially built its delta. Upon filling the bay with [sediment](/wiki/Sediment \"Sediment\"), the delta advanced outside this barrier\\-blocked estuary after 3500 BC, building several successive lobes:{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Giosan \\|first1\\=Liviu \\|last2\\=Donnelly \\|first2\\=Jeffrey P. \\|last3\\=Constantinescu \\|first3\\=Stefan \\|last4\\=Filip \\|first4\\=Florin \\|last5\\=Ovejanu \\|first5\\=Ionut \\|last6\\=Vespremeanu\\-Stroe \\|first6\\=Alfred \\|last7\\=Vespremeanu \\|first7\\=Emil \\|last8\\=Duller \\|first8\\=Geoff A.T. \\|title\\=Young Danube delta documents stable Black Sea level since the middle Holocene: Morphodynamic, paleogeographic, and archaeological implications \\|journal\\=Geology \\|date\\=2006 \\|volume\\=34 \\|issue\\=9 \\|pages\\=757–760 \\|doi\\=10\\.1130/G22587\\.1\\|bibcode\\=2006Geo....34\\..757G }} the St. George I (3500–1600 BC), the Sulina (1600–0 BC), the St. George II (0 BC–present) and the Chilia or Kilia (1600 AD–present). Several other internal lobes were constructed in the lakes and lagoons bordering the Danube Delta to the north (Chilia I and II) and toward the south (Dunavatz). Much of the [alluvium](/wiki/Alluvium \"Alluvium\") in the delta and major expansion of its surface area in the form of lobes resulted from [soil erosion](/wiki/Erosion%23Vegetative_cover \"Erosion#Vegetative cover\") associated with human clearing of [forests](/wiki/Forest \"Forest\") in the Danube basin during the [1st](/wiki/1st_millennium \"1st millennium\") and 2nd millennium.{{cite news\\|title\\=Comments From Ancient Deforestation, a Delta Is Born\\|url\\=http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/09/14/from\\-ancient\\-deforestation\\-a\\-delta\\-is\\-born/\\|access\\-date\\=September 17, 2012\\|newspaper\\=The New York Times\\|date\\=September 14, 2012\\|author\\=Rachel Newer}}{{cite journal\\|title\\=Early Anthropogenic Transformation of the Danube\\-Black Sea System\\|journal\\=Scientific Reports\\|date\\=August 30, 2012\\|volume\\=2\\|issue\\=article number 582\\|pages\\=582\\|doi\\=10\\.1038/srep00582\\|author1\\=Liviu Giosan \\|author2\\=Marco J. L. Coolen \\|author3\\=Jed O. Kaplan \\|author4\\=Stefan Constantinescu \\|author5\\=Florin Filip \\|author6\\=Mariana Filipova\\-Marinova \\|author7\\=Albert J. Kettner \\|author8\\=Nick Thom \\|quote\\=Sediment loads delivered by Danube River, the main tributary of the Black Sea, significantly increased as land use intensified in the last two millennia, which led to a rapid expansion of its delta. \\|pmid\\=22937219 \\|pmc\\=3430877\\|bibcode\\=2012NatSR...2E.582G }} Geologist [Liviu Giosan](/wiki/Liviu_Giosan \"Liviu Giosan\") told *The New York Times*:", "", "> Probably 40 percent of the Delta was built in the last 1000 years. Finding that was like a eureka moment.", "At present, the delta suffers from a large [sediment deficit](/wiki/Sedimentary_budget \"Sedimentary budget\"), after the construction of dams on the Danube and its tributaries in the later half of the 20th century. However, construction of a dense network of shallow channels in the delta over the same period, a [sedimentation enhancing strategy](/wiki/Sedimentation_enhancing_strategies \"Sedimentation enhancing strategies\"), attenuated the deficit on the delta plain but increased erosion along the coast{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Giosan \\|first1\\=Liviu \\|last2\\=Constantinescu \\|first2\\=Stefan \\|last3\\=Filip \\|first3\\=Florin \\|last4\\=Deng \\|first4\\=Bing \\|title\\=Maintenance of large deltas through channelization: Nature vs. humans in the Danube delta \\|journal\\=Anthropocene \\|date\\=2013 \\|volume\\=1 \\|pages\\=35–45 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.ancene.2013\\.09\\.001\\|bibcode\\=2013Anthr...1\\...35G }}{{cite web \\|title\\=Study Offers Economical Solutions for Maintaining Critical Delta Environments \\|url\\=http://www.whoi.edu/news\\-release/maintaining\\_deltas \\|website\\=\\|access\\-date\\=10 June 2021}} The Danube Delta is a low [alluvial plain](/wiki/Alluvial_plain \"Alluvial plain\"), mostly covered by [wetlands](/wiki/Wetlands \"Wetlands\") and water. It consists of an intricate pattern of marshes, channels, streamlets and lakes. The average altitude is 0\\.52 m, with 20% of the territory below sea level, and more than half not exceeding one meter in altitude. Dunes on the most extensive [strand plains](/wiki/Strand_plain \"Strand plain\") of the delta (Letea and Caraorman strand plains) stand higher (12\\.4 m and 7 m respectively). The largest lakes are lakes Dranov (21\\.7 km2), Roșu (14\\.5 km2) and Gorgova (13\\.8 km2).", "[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=1\\.35\\| Danube Delta – Dalmatian pelican and great cormorant](/wiki/File:Dalmatian_Pelican_and_Great_Cormorant_in_danube_delta.jpg \"Dalmatian Pelican and Great Cormorant in danube delta.jpg\")", "### Distributaries of the Danube", "The [Danube](/wiki/Danube \"Danube\") branches into three main [distributaries](/wiki/Distributary \"Distributary\") into the [delta](/wiki/River_delta \"River delta\"), **[Chilia](/wiki/Chilia_branch \"Chilia branch\")**, **[Sulina](/wiki/Sulina_branch \"Sulina branch\")**, and **[Sfântul Gheorghe](/wiki/Sf%C3%A2ntu_Gheorghe_branch \"Sfântu Gheorghe branch\") (Saint George)**. The last two branches form the **Tulcea** channel, which continues as a single body for several kilometers after the separation from the Chilia. At the mouths of each channel [gradual formation of new land](/wiki/Alluvion \"Alluvion\") takes place, as the delta continues to expand.", "", "| \\+ Main distributaries of the Danube |\n| --- |\n| Danube arm | Length (km) | Flow (m3/s)(1921–1990\\) |\n| **[Chilia](/wiki/Chilia_branch \"Chilia branch\")** | 120 | 3800 |\n| **[Sulina](/wiki/Sulina_branch \"Sulina branch\")** | 64 | 1250 |\n| **[Sfântu Gheorghe](/wiki/Sf%C3%A2ntu_Gheorghe_branch \"Sfântu Gheorghe branch\")** **(Saint George)** | 70 | 1500 |\n|", "[thumb\\|Danube Delta Distributary in Kyslytsia village, Ukraine](/wiki/File:Danube_Delta_Distributary.jpg \"Danube Delta Distributary.jpg\")\n**[Chilia](/wiki/Chilia_branch \"Chilia branch\")**, in the north, the longest, youngest, and most vigorous, with two secondary internal deltas and one microdelta in full process of formation at its mouth (to Ukraine).", "**[Sulina](/wiki/Sulina_branch \"Sulina branch\")**, the central and thus the shortest arm, which consequently led to its extensive use for traffic and severe transformation. At its mouth is located the main port and a single settlement with urban characteristics of the Romanian part of the delta. Because of the [alluvium](/wiki/Alluvium \"Alluvium\") deposited at its mouth, a channel gradually advancing into the sea (presently it has 10 km) was built in order to protect navigation.", "[Sfântul Gheorghe](/wiki/Sf%C3%A2ntu_Gheorghe_branch \"Sfântu Gheorghe branch\") (**Saint George** in [English](/wiki/English_language \"English language\")), in the south, is the oldest and most sparsely populated. Its [alluvium](/wiki/Alluvium \"Alluvium\") has led to the creation, beginning in 1897, of the [Sacalin Islands](/wiki/Sacalin_Island \"Sacalin Island\"), which today measures 19 km in length.", "[600px\\|thumb\\|center\\|Map created in 2010](/wiki/File:Danube_delta_chart.png \"Danube delta chart.png\")\n[thumb\\|Danube Delta in Romania](/wiki/File:Ca%C3%B1as_%28Phragmites_australis%29%2C_Delta_del_Danubio%2C_Ruman%C3%ADa%2C_2016-05-28%2C_DD_18.jpg \"Cañas (Phragmites australis), Delta del Danubio, Rumanía, 2016-05-28, DD 18.jpg\")", "### Climate", "The climate of the Danube Delta is continental, with strong influences from the vicinity of the [Black Sea](/wiki/Black_Sea \"Black Sea\") and its prevalent amphibian environment. It is the driest and sunniest region of Romania. The mean annual temperature is 11 °C (−1 °C in January and 22 °C in July), with mean precipitation between 400 mm/year and 300 mm/year, decreasing from west to east. Evaporation is around 1,000 mm/year, amplified by strong and frequent winds, resulting in long periods of drought in the summer. The northwest winds cause frequent storms in spring and autumn. In the interior of the delta, the continental character of the climate is very pronounced.", "### {{anchor\\|Main ecosytems}}Main ecosystems", "[thumb\\|Danube Delta in Romania](/wiki/File:Denube_Delta_Bank.JPG \"Denube Delta Bank.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Danube Delta: old mill in [Letea](/wiki/Letea \"Letea\")](/wiki/File:LeteaMill.jpg \"LeteaMill.jpg\")", "The Danube Delta falls within the [Pannonian steppe](/wiki/Pannonian_steppe \"Pannonian steppe\") [ecosystem](/wiki/Ecosystem \"Ecosystem\") of eastern Europe, with Mediterranean influences. As a young region in full process of consolidation, the Danube Delta represents a very favourable place for the development of highly diverse [flora](/wiki/Flora \"Flora\") and [fauna](/wiki/Fauna \"Fauna\"), unique{{clarify\\|date\\=January 2016}} in [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"), with numerous rare species. It hosts 23 natural ecosystems, but due to the extent of [wetlands](/wiki/Wetlands \"Wetlands\") an aquatic environment is prevalent; a terrestrial environment is also present on the higher grounds of the continental [levees](/wiki/Levees \"Levees\"), where [xerophile](/wiki/Xerophile \"Xerophile\") ecosystems have developed. Between the aquatic and terrestrial environments is interposed a swampy, easily flooded strip of original flora and fauna, with means of adaptation to water or land, depending on the season or [hydrological](/wiki/Hydrological \"Hydrological\") regime. At the contact between freshwater and sea water, some special physical, chemical and biological processes take place, which have led biologists to consider this area as a very different ecosystem called **beforedelta**. Musura Gulf, north of Sulina, and Saint George Gulf are considered the most representative of this type of ecosystem.", "Situated on major migratory routes, and providing adequate conditions for nesting and hatching, the Danube Delta is a magnet for birds from six major [ecoregions](/wiki/Ecoregions \"Ecoregions\") of the world, including the Mongolian, Arctic and Siberian. There are over 320 species of birds found in the delta during summer,[Danube Delta – UNESCO World Heritage Centre](https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/588/video) of which 166 are hatching species and 159 are migratory. Over one million individual birds (swans, wild ducks, [coots](/wiki/Eurasian_coot \"Eurasian coot\"), etc.) winter here.", "#### Ecosystem of running water", "This comprises the arms of the Danube, and a series of its more important streamlets and channels. It is an environment rich in [plankton](/wiki/Plankton \"Plankton\"), [worms](/wiki/Worm \"Worm\"), [molluscs](/wiki/Mollusc \"Mollusc\"), [grubs](/wiki/Larva \"Larva\"), and [sponges](/wiki/Sponge \"Sponge\"), with numerous species of fish, such as the [carp](/wiki/Carp \"Carp\"), [pike](/wiki/Pike_%28disambiguation%29%23Fishes \"Pike (disambiguation)#Fishes\"), [pike perch](/wiki/Pike_perch \"Pike perch\"), [sheat\\-fish](/wiki/Sheat-fish \"Sheat-fish\"), and freshwater [sturgeons](/wiki/Sturgeons \"Sturgeons\") ([sterlet](/wiki/Sterlet \"Sterlet\"), Vyza{{Typo help inline\\|reason\\=Vyza? Please give Latin name\\|date\\=February 2021}} and Danube mackerel{{Typo help inline\\|reason\\=Suspicious vernacular name. Please give Latin name\\|date\\=February 2021}}).", "#### Ecosystem of stagnant water", "[thumb\\|*[Nymphaea alba](/wiki/Nymphaea_alba \"Nymphaea alba\")* in the Danube Delta](/wiki/File:Danube_Flower.jpg \"Danube Flower.jpg\")\nThis environment includes the lakes, and various ponds, streamlets and channels. It is characterized by a rich floating and submerse flora (*[Myriophyllum](/wiki/Myriophyllum \"Myriophyllum\")*, *[Ceratophyllum](/wiki/Ceratophyllum \"Ceratophyllum\")*, *[Vallisneria](/wiki/Vallisneria \"Vallisneria\")* etc., under the water; *[Nymphaea alba](/wiki/Nymphaea_alba \"Nymphaea alba\")*, *[Nuphar lutea](/wiki/Nuphar_lutea \"Nuphar lutea\")*, *[Trapa natans](/wiki/Trapa_natans \"Trapa natans\")*, *[Alisma plantago](/wiki/Alisma_plantago \"Alisma plantago\")* etc., floating plants with roots near the lakes' borders; and *[Salvinia natans](/wiki/Salvinia_natans \"Salvinia natans\")*, *[Stratiotes aloides](/wiki/Stratiotes_aloides \"Stratiotes aloides\")*, *[Spirogyra](/wiki/Spirogyra \"Spirogyra\")* etc., floating plants without roots, having negative effect for aquatic [bioproductivity](/wiki/Bioproductivity \"Bioproductivity\")). Of the fish, the most important are [Tench](/wiki/Tench \"Tench\") (*Tinca tinca*), [common bream](/wiki/Common_bream \"Common bream\") (*Abramis brama*), [common rudd](/wiki/Common_rudd \"Common rudd\") (*Scardinius erythropthalmus*), [Prussian carp](/wiki/Prussian_carp \"Prussian carp\") (*Carassius auratus gibelio*), [wels catfish](/wiki/Wels_catfish \"Wels catfish\") (*Silurus glanis*), [European perch](/wiki/European_perch \"European perch\") (*Perca fluviatilis*), and [northern pike](/wiki/Northern_pike \"Northern pike\") (*Esox lucius*).", "#### Ecosystem of marshy and flooding areas", "[thumb\\|Pelicans in Danube Delta](/wiki/File:Pelicani_din_Delta_Dunarii.PNG \"Pelicani din Delta Dunarii.PNG\")\n[thumb\\|The Danube Delta birds: [grey heron](/wiki/Grey_heron \"Grey heron\") (*Ardea cinerea*), [mallard](/wiki/Mallard \"Mallard\") or wild duck (*Anas platyrhynchos*), [great white pelican](/wiki/Great_white_pelican \"Great white pelican\") (*Ardea cinerea*), [great crested grebe](/wiki/Great_crested_grebe \"Great crested grebe\") (*Podiceps cristatus*). Stamp of Romania, 2004](/wiki/File:RO004MS-04.jpg \"RO004MS-04.jpg\")", "Reed plants and floating reed islands (called **plaur** in [Romania](/wiki/Romania \"Romania\")) are the most common and well\\-known components of the Danube Delta. Vegetation of this ecosystem consists of the common reed (*[Phragmites communis](/wiki/Phragmites_communis \"Phragmites communis\")*) and, on near river banks, mace reed/cattail (*[Typha latifolia](/wiki/Typha_latifolia \"Typha latifolia\")*, *[Typha angustifolia](/wiki/Typha_angustifolia \"Typha angustifolia\")*), sedge (*[Carex dioica](/wiki/Carex_dioica \"Carex dioica\")*, *[Carex stricta](/wiki/Carex_stricta \"Carex stricta\")*), Dutch rush (*[Scirpus radicans](/wiki/Scirpus_radicans \"Scirpus radicans\")*, *[Schoenoplectus lacustris](/wiki/Schoenoplectus_lacustris \"Schoenoplectus lacustris\")*), and brook mint (*[Mentha aquatica](/wiki/Mentha_aquatica \"Mentha aquatica\")*), etc. They provide ideal spawning and nesting grounds. The **plaur** are a mixture of reed roots, grass and soil, usually floating or anchored to the riverbed. As a rule, the reed surrounds the lakes and ponds, and slowly invades the water surface.", "This type of ecosystem is noted for its variety and large population of birds, some of them are very rare. The most important are the [tufted duck](/wiki/Tufted_duck \"Tufted duck\") (*Aythya fuligula*), [red\\-crested pochard](/wiki/Red-crested_pochard \"Red-crested pochard\") (*Netta rufina*), [mallard](/wiki/Mallard \"Mallard\") (*Anas platyrhynchos*), [greylag goose](/wiki/Greylag_goose \"Greylag goose\") (*Anser anser*), [pygmy cormorant](/wiki/Pygmy_cormorant \"Pygmy cormorant\") (*Microcarbo pygmeus*), [purple heron](/wiki/Purple_heron \"Purple heron\") (*Ardea purpurea*), [great white egret](/wiki/Great_egret \"Great egret\") (*Egretta alba*), [little egret](/wiki/Little_egret \"Little egret\") (*Egretta garzetta*), [Eurasian spoonbill](/wiki/Eurasian_spoonbill \"Eurasian spoonbill\")(*Platalea leucorodia*), [great white pelican](/wiki/Great_white_pelican \"Great white pelican\") (*Pelecanus onocrotalus*), [Dalmatian pelican](/wiki/Dalmatian_pelican \"Dalmatian pelican\") (*Pelecanus crispus*), [mute swan](/wiki/Mute_swan \"Mute swan\") (*Cygnus olor*), and [glossy ibis](/wiki/Glossy_ibis \"Glossy ibis\") (*Plegadis falcinellus*). A recent and welcomed newcomer is the [pheasant](/wiki/Common_pheasant \"Common pheasant\") (*Phasianus colchicus*).", "Among the mammals, there is the [Eurasian otter](/wiki/Eurasian_otter \"Eurasian otter\") (*Lutra lutra*), [European mink](/wiki/European_mink \"European mink\") (*Mustela lutreola*), [little ermine](/wiki/Stoat \"Stoat\") (*Mustela erminea aestiva*), [wild boar](/wiki/Wild_boar \"Wild boar\") (*Sus scrofa*), and [wild cat](/wiki/Wildcat \"Wildcat\") (*Felis silvestris*), in winter the [European hare](/wiki/European_hare \"European hare\") (*Lepus europaeus*) and, on the brink of disappearing from the delta, the wolf and the fox. During the Middle Ages, the [Caspian tiger](/wiki/Caspian_tiger \"Caspian tiger\") (*Panthera tigris tigris*) was a resident across the steppes of Ukraine, including Danube Delta, and once, they were hunted to extinction and they're extirpated. The [East Asian raccoon dog](/wiki/Raccoon_dog \"Raccoon dog\") (*Nyctereutes procyonoides*), bizam/introduced [muskrat](/wiki/Muskrat \"Muskrat\") (*Ondatra zibethica*), and to some extent South American [nutria](/wiki/Nutria \"Nutria\") (*Myocastor coypus*), are recent species that have successfully adapted.", "#### River bank and levee ecosystems", "[thumb\\|Black\\-crowned night heron](/wiki/File:Nycticorax_nycticorax%27_AM1_slepowron.jpg \"Nycticorax nycticorax' AM1 slepowron.jpg\")\nThe firm land of the delta used to be covered with large groves of willow trees, which have been cut down almost entirely and replaced with Canadian poplars. On the river banks kept in their natural state, small groves of willow trees (*[Salix alba](/wiki/Salix_alba \"Salix alba\")*, *[Salix fragilis](/wiki/Salix_euxina \"Salix euxina\")*, *[Salix purpurea](/wiki/Salix_purpurea \"Salix purpurea\")*, *[Salix pentandra](/wiki/Salix_pentandra \"Salix pentandra\")*, *[Salix triandra](/wiki/Salix_triandra \"Salix triandra\")* etc.) can still be found, mixed with white poplar (*[Populus alba](/wiki/Populus_alba \"Populus alba\")*). Occasionally, the willow trees form corridors along the arms and bigger channels of the Danube. On the [levees](/wiki/Levees \"Levees\") of [Letea](/wiki/Letea \"Letea\") and [Caraorman](/wiki/Caraorman \"Caraorman\"), mixed forests of oak (*[Quercus robur](/wiki/Quercus_robur \"Quercus robur\")*, *[Quercus pedunculiflora](/wiki/Quercus_pedunculiflora \"Quercus pedunculiflora\")*) with various trees (*[Fraxinus pallisiae](/wiki/Fraxinus_pallisiae \"Fraxinus pallisiae\")*, *[Ulmus foliaceae](/wiki/Ulmus_foliaceae \"Ulmus foliaceae\")*, *[Populus tremula](/wiki/Populus_tremula \"Populus tremula\")*), shrubs (*[Prunus spinosa](/wiki/Prunus_spinosa \"Prunus spinosa\")*, *[Crataegus monogyna](/wiki/Crataegus_monogyna \"Crataegus monogyna\")*, *[Rosa canina](/wiki/Rosa_canina \"Rosa canina\")*, *[Berberis vulgaris](/wiki/Berberis_vulgaris \"Berberis vulgaris\")* etc.), and vines (*[Vitis sylvestris](/wiki/Vitis_sylvestris \"Vitis sylvestris\")*, *[Hedera helix](/wiki/Hedera_helix \"Hedera helix\")*, *[Humulus lupulus](/wiki/Humulus_lupulus \"Humulus lupulus\")*, *[Periploca graeca](/wiki/Periploca_graeca \"Periploca graeca\")*, which reaches up to 25m) grow on [sand dune](/wiki/Sand_dune \"Sand dune\") areas. On the Letea levee, these exotic\\-looking forests grow especially in the depressions between the sand dunes, in small groves called **hasmace**. Fauna of this region include the [meadow viper](/wiki/Meadow_viper \"Meadow viper\") (*Vipera ursinii*), [osprey](/wiki/Osprey \"Osprey\") (*Pandion haliaetus*), and [Eurasian eagle owl](/wiki/Eurasian_eagle_owl \"Eurasian eagle owl\") (*Bubo bubo*), etc.", "" ]
### {{anchor\|Main ecosytems}}Main ecosystems [thumb\|Danube Delta in Romania](/wiki/File:Denube_Delta_Bank.JPG "Denube Delta Bank.JPG") [thumb\|upright\|Danube Delta: old mill in [Letea](/wiki/Letea "Letea")](/wiki/File:LeteaMill.jpg "LeteaMill.jpg") The Danube Delta falls within the [Pannonian steppe](/wiki/Pannonian_steppe "Pannonian steppe") [ecosystem](/wiki/Ecosystem "Ecosystem") of eastern Europe, with Mediterranean influences. As a young region in full process of consolidation, the Danube Delta represents a very favourable place for the development of highly diverse [flora](/wiki/Flora "Flora") and [fauna](/wiki/Fauna "Fauna"), unique{{clarify\|date\=January 2016}} in [Europe](/wiki/Europe "Europe"), with numerous rare species. It hosts 23 natural ecosystems, but due to the extent of [wetlands](/wiki/Wetlands "Wetlands") an aquatic environment is prevalent; a terrestrial environment is also present on the higher grounds of the continental [levees](/wiki/Levees "Levees"), where [xerophile](/wiki/Xerophile "Xerophile") ecosystems have developed. Between the aquatic and terrestrial environments is interposed a swampy, easily flooded strip of original flora and fauna, with means of adaptation to water or land, depending on the season or [hydrological](/wiki/Hydrological "Hydrological") regime. At the contact between freshwater and sea water, some special physical, chemical and biological processes take place, which have led biologists to consider this area as a very different ecosystem called **beforedelta**. Musura Gulf, north of Sulina, and Saint George Gulf are considered the most representative of this type of ecosystem. Situated on major migratory routes, and providing adequate conditions for nesting and hatching, the Danube Delta is a magnet for birds from six major [ecoregions](/wiki/Ecoregions "Ecoregions") of the world, including the Mongolian, Arctic and Siberian. There are over 320 species of birds found in the delta during summer,[Danube Delta – UNESCO World Heritage Centre](https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/588/video) of which 166 are hatching species and 159 are migratory. Over one million individual birds (swans, wild ducks, [coots](/wiki/Eurasian_coot "Eurasian coot"), etc.) winter here. #### Ecosystem of running water This comprises the arms of the Danube, and a series of its more important streamlets and channels. It is an environment rich in [plankton](/wiki/Plankton "Plankton"), [worms](/wiki/Worm "Worm"), [molluscs](/wiki/Mollusc "Mollusc"), [grubs](/wiki/Larva "Larva"), and [sponges](/wiki/Sponge "Sponge"), with numerous species of fish, such as the [carp](/wiki/Carp "Carp"), [pike](/wiki/Pike_%28disambiguation%29%23Fishes "Pike (disambiguation)#Fishes"), [pike perch](/wiki/Pike_perch "Pike perch"), [sheat\-fish](/wiki/Sheat-fish "Sheat-fish"), and freshwater [sturgeons](/wiki/Sturgeons "Sturgeons") ([sterlet](/wiki/Sterlet "Sterlet"), Vyza{{Typo help inline\|reason\=Vyza? Please give Latin name\|date\=February 2021}} and Danube mackerel{{Typo help inline\|reason\=Suspicious vernacular name. Please give Latin name\|date\=February 2021}}). #### Ecosystem of stagnant water [thumb\|*[Nymphaea alba](/wiki/Nymphaea_alba "Nymphaea alba")* in the Danube Delta](/wiki/File:Danube_Flower.jpg "Danube Flower.jpg") This environment includes the lakes, and various ponds, streamlets and channels. It is characterized by a rich floating and submerse flora (*[Myriophyllum](/wiki/Myriophyllum "Myriophyllum")*, *[Ceratophyllum](/wiki/Ceratophyllum "Ceratophyllum")*, *[Vallisneria](/wiki/Vallisneria "Vallisneria")* etc., under the water; *[Nymphaea alba](/wiki/Nymphaea_alba "Nymphaea alba")*, *[Nuphar lutea](/wiki/Nuphar_lutea "Nuphar lutea")*, *[Trapa natans](/wiki/Trapa_natans "Trapa natans")*, *[Alisma plantago](/wiki/Alisma_plantago "Alisma plantago")* etc., floating plants with roots near the lakes' borders; and *[Salvinia natans](/wiki/Salvinia_natans "Salvinia natans")*, *[Stratiotes aloides](/wiki/Stratiotes_aloides "Stratiotes aloides")*, *[Spirogyra](/wiki/Spirogyra "Spirogyra")* etc., floating plants without roots, having negative effect for aquatic [bioproductivity](/wiki/Bioproductivity "Bioproductivity")). Of the fish, the most important are [Tench](/wiki/Tench "Tench") (*Tinca tinca*), [common bream](/wiki/Common_bream "Common bream") (*Abramis brama*), [common rudd](/wiki/Common_rudd "Common rudd") (*Scardinius erythropthalmus*), [Prussian carp](/wiki/Prussian_carp "Prussian carp") (*Carassius auratus gibelio*), [wels catfish](/wiki/Wels_catfish "Wels catfish") (*Silurus glanis*), [European perch](/wiki/European_perch "European perch") (*Perca fluviatilis*), and [northern pike](/wiki/Northern_pike "Northern pike") (*Esox lucius*). #### Ecosystem of marshy and flooding areas [thumb\|Pelicans in Danube Delta](/wiki/File:Pelicani_din_Delta_Dunarii.PNG "Pelicani din Delta Dunarii.PNG") [thumb\|The Danube Delta birds: [grey heron](/wiki/Grey_heron "Grey heron") (*Ardea cinerea*), [mallard](/wiki/Mallard "Mallard") or wild duck (*Anas platyrhynchos*), [great white pelican](/wiki/Great_white_pelican "Great white pelican") (*Ardea cinerea*), [great crested grebe](/wiki/Great_crested_grebe "Great crested grebe") (*Podiceps cristatus*). Stamp of Romania, 2004](/wiki/File:RO004MS-04.jpg "RO004MS-04.jpg") Reed plants and floating reed islands (called **plaur** in [Romania](/wiki/Romania "Romania")) are the most common and well\-known components of the Danube Delta. Vegetation of this ecosystem consists of the common reed (*[Phragmites communis](/wiki/Phragmites_communis "Phragmites communis")*) and, on near river banks, mace reed/cattail (*[Typha latifolia](/wiki/Typha_latifolia "Typha latifolia")*, *[Typha angustifolia](/wiki/Typha_angustifolia "Typha angustifolia")*), sedge (*[Carex dioica](/wiki/Carex_dioica "Carex dioica")*, *[Carex stricta](/wiki/Carex_stricta "Carex stricta")*), Dutch rush (*[Scirpus radicans](/wiki/Scirpus_radicans "Scirpus radicans")*, *[Schoenoplectus lacustris](/wiki/Schoenoplectus_lacustris "Schoenoplectus lacustris")*), and brook mint (*[Mentha aquatica](/wiki/Mentha_aquatica "Mentha aquatica")*), etc. They provide ideal spawning and nesting grounds. The **plaur** are a mixture of reed roots, grass and soil, usually floating or anchored to the riverbed. As a rule, the reed surrounds the lakes and ponds, and slowly invades the water surface. This type of ecosystem is noted for its variety and large population of birds, some of them are very rare. The most important are the [tufted duck](/wiki/Tufted_duck "Tufted duck") (*Aythya fuligula*), [red\-crested pochard](/wiki/Red-crested_pochard "Red-crested pochard") (*Netta rufina*), [mallard](/wiki/Mallard "Mallard") (*Anas platyrhynchos*), [greylag goose](/wiki/Greylag_goose "Greylag goose") (*Anser anser*), [pygmy cormorant](/wiki/Pygmy_cormorant "Pygmy cormorant") (*Microcarbo pygmeus*), [purple heron](/wiki/Purple_heron "Purple heron") (*Ardea purpurea*), [great white egret](/wiki/Great_egret "Great egret") (*Egretta alba*), [little egret](/wiki/Little_egret "Little egret") (*Egretta garzetta*), [Eurasian spoonbill](/wiki/Eurasian_spoonbill "Eurasian spoonbill")(*Platalea leucorodia*), [great white pelican](/wiki/Great_white_pelican "Great white pelican") (*Pelecanus onocrotalus*), [Dalmatian pelican](/wiki/Dalmatian_pelican "Dalmatian pelican") (*Pelecanus crispus*), [mute swan](/wiki/Mute_swan "Mute swan") (*Cygnus olor*), and [glossy ibis](/wiki/Glossy_ibis "Glossy ibis") (*Plegadis falcinellus*). A recent and welcomed newcomer is the [pheasant](/wiki/Common_pheasant "Common pheasant") (*Phasianus colchicus*). Among the mammals, there is the [Eurasian otter](/wiki/Eurasian_otter "Eurasian otter") (*Lutra lutra*), [European mink](/wiki/European_mink "European mink") (*Mustela lutreola*), [little ermine](/wiki/Stoat "Stoat") (*Mustela erminea aestiva*), [wild boar](/wiki/Wild_boar "Wild boar") (*Sus scrofa*), and [wild cat](/wiki/Wildcat "Wildcat") (*Felis silvestris*), in winter the [European hare](/wiki/European_hare "European hare") (*Lepus europaeus*) and, on the brink of disappearing from the delta, the wolf and the fox. During the Middle Ages, the [Caspian tiger](/wiki/Caspian_tiger "Caspian tiger") (*Panthera tigris tigris*) was a resident across the steppes of Ukraine, including Danube Delta, and once, they were hunted to extinction and they're extirpated. The [East Asian raccoon dog](/wiki/Raccoon_dog "Raccoon dog") (*Nyctereutes procyonoides*), bizam/introduced [muskrat](/wiki/Muskrat "Muskrat") (*Ondatra zibethica*), and to some extent South American [nutria](/wiki/Nutria "Nutria") (*Myocastor coypus*), are recent species that have successfully adapted. #### River bank and levee ecosystems [thumb\|Black\-crowned night heron](/wiki/File:Nycticorax_nycticorax%27_AM1_slepowron.jpg "Nycticorax nycticorax' AM1 slepowron.jpg") The firm land of the delta used to be covered with large groves of willow trees, which have been cut down almost entirely and replaced with Canadian poplars. On the river banks kept in their natural state, small groves of willow trees (*[Salix alba](/wiki/Salix_alba "Salix alba")*, *[Salix fragilis](/wiki/Salix_euxina "Salix euxina")*, *[Salix purpurea](/wiki/Salix_purpurea "Salix purpurea")*, *[Salix pentandra](/wiki/Salix_pentandra "Salix pentandra")*, *[Salix triandra](/wiki/Salix_triandra "Salix triandra")* etc.) can still be found, mixed with white poplar (*[Populus alba](/wiki/Populus_alba "Populus alba")*). Occasionally, the willow trees form corridors along the arms and bigger channels of the Danube. On the [levees](/wiki/Levees "Levees") of [Letea](/wiki/Letea "Letea") and [Caraorman](/wiki/Caraorman "Caraorman"), mixed forests of oak (*[Quercus robur](/wiki/Quercus_robur "Quercus robur")*, *[Quercus pedunculiflora](/wiki/Quercus_pedunculiflora "Quercus pedunculiflora")*) with various trees (*[Fraxinus pallisiae](/wiki/Fraxinus_pallisiae "Fraxinus pallisiae")*, *[Ulmus foliaceae](/wiki/Ulmus_foliaceae "Ulmus foliaceae")*, *[Populus tremula](/wiki/Populus_tremula "Populus tremula")*), shrubs (*[Prunus spinosa](/wiki/Prunus_spinosa "Prunus spinosa")*, *[Crataegus monogyna](/wiki/Crataegus_monogyna "Crataegus monogyna")*, *[Rosa canina](/wiki/Rosa_canina "Rosa canina")*, *[Berberis vulgaris](/wiki/Berberis_vulgaris "Berberis vulgaris")* etc.), and vines (*[Vitis sylvestris](/wiki/Vitis_sylvestris "Vitis sylvestris")*, *[Hedera helix](/wiki/Hedera_helix "Hedera helix")*, *[Humulus lupulus](/wiki/Humulus_lupulus "Humulus lupulus")*, *[Periploca graeca](/wiki/Periploca_graeca "Periploca graeca")*, which reaches up to 25m) grow on [sand dune](/wiki/Sand_dune "Sand dune") areas. On the Letea levee, these exotic\-looking forests grow especially in the depressions between the sand dunes, in small groves called **hasmace**. Fauna of this region include the [meadow viper](/wiki/Meadow_viper "Meadow viper") (*Vipera ursinii*), [osprey](/wiki/Osprey "Osprey") (*Pandion haliaetus*), and [Eurasian eagle owl](/wiki/Eurasian_eagle_owl "Eurasian eagle owl") (*Bubo bubo*), etc.
[ "### {{anchor\\|Main ecosytems}}Main ecosystems", "[thumb\\|Danube Delta in Romania](/wiki/File:Denube_Delta_Bank.JPG \"Denube Delta Bank.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Danube Delta: old mill in [Letea](/wiki/Letea \"Letea\")](/wiki/File:LeteaMill.jpg \"LeteaMill.jpg\")", "The Danube Delta falls within the [Pannonian steppe](/wiki/Pannonian_steppe \"Pannonian steppe\") [ecosystem](/wiki/Ecosystem \"Ecosystem\") of eastern Europe, with Mediterranean influences. As a young region in full process of consolidation, the Danube Delta represents a very favourable place for the development of highly diverse [flora](/wiki/Flora \"Flora\") and [fauna](/wiki/Fauna \"Fauna\"), unique{{clarify\\|date\\=January 2016}} in [Europe](/wiki/Europe \"Europe\"), with numerous rare species. It hosts 23 natural ecosystems, but due to the extent of [wetlands](/wiki/Wetlands \"Wetlands\") an aquatic environment is prevalent; a terrestrial environment is also present on the higher grounds of the continental [levees](/wiki/Levees \"Levees\"), where [xerophile](/wiki/Xerophile \"Xerophile\") ecosystems have developed. Between the aquatic and terrestrial environments is interposed a swampy, easily flooded strip of original flora and fauna, with means of adaptation to water or land, depending on the season or [hydrological](/wiki/Hydrological \"Hydrological\") regime. At the contact between freshwater and sea water, some special physical, chemical and biological processes take place, which have led biologists to consider this area as a very different ecosystem called **beforedelta**. Musura Gulf, north of Sulina, and Saint George Gulf are considered the most representative of this type of ecosystem.", "Situated on major migratory routes, and providing adequate conditions for nesting and hatching, the Danube Delta is a magnet for birds from six major [ecoregions](/wiki/Ecoregions \"Ecoregions\") of the world, including the Mongolian, Arctic and Siberian. There are over 320 species of birds found in the delta during summer,[Danube Delta – UNESCO World Heritage Centre](https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/588/video) of which 166 are hatching species and 159 are migratory. Over one million individual birds (swans, wild ducks, [coots](/wiki/Eurasian_coot \"Eurasian coot\"), etc.) winter here.", "#### Ecosystem of running water", "This comprises the arms of the Danube, and a series of its more important streamlets and channels. It is an environment rich in [plankton](/wiki/Plankton \"Plankton\"), [worms](/wiki/Worm \"Worm\"), [molluscs](/wiki/Mollusc \"Mollusc\"), [grubs](/wiki/Larva \"Larva\"), and [sponges](/wiki/Sponge \"Sponge\"), with numerous species of fish, such as the [carp](/wiki/Carp \"Carp\"), [pike](/wiki/Pike_%28disambiguation%29%23Fishes \"Pike (disambiguation)#Fishes\"), [pike perch](/wiki/Pike_perch \"Pike perch\"), [sheat\\-fish](/wiki/Sheat-fish \"Sheat-fish\"), and freshwater [sturgeons](/wiki/Sturgeons \"Sturgeons\") ([sterlet](/wiki/Sterlet \"Sterlet\"), Vyza{{Typo help inline\\|reason\\=Vyza? Please give Latin name\\|date\\=February 2021}} and Danube mackerel{{Typo help inline\\|reason\\=Suspicious vernacular name. Please give Latin name\\|date\\=February 2021}}).", "#### Ecosystem of stagnant water", "[thumb\\|*[Nymphaea alba](/wiki/Nymphaea_alba \"Nymphaea alba\")* in the Danube Delta](/wiki/File:Danube_Flower.jpg \"Danube Flower.jpg\")\nThis environment includes the lakes, and various ponds, streamlets and channels. It is characterized by a rich floating and submerse flora (*[Myriophyllum](/wiki/Myriophyllum \"Myriophyllum\")*, *[Ceratophyllum](/wiki/Ceratophyllum \"Ceratophyllum\")*, *[Vallisneria](/wiki/Vallisneria \"Vallisneria\")* etc., under the water; *[Nymphaea alba](/wiki/Nymphaea_alba \"Nymphaea alba\")*, *[Nuphar lutea](/wiki/Nuphar_lutea \"Nuphar lutea\")*, *[Trapa natans](/wiki/Trapa_natans \"Trapa natans\")*, *[Alisma plantago](/wiki/Alisma_plantago \"Alisma plantago\")* etc., floating plants with roots near the lakes' borders; and *[Salvinia natans](/wiki/Salvinia_natans \"Salvinia natans\")*, *[Stratiotes aloides](/wiki/Stratiotes_aloides \"Stratiotes aloides\")*, *[Spirogyra](/wiki/Spirogyra \"Spirogyra\")* etc., floating plants without roots, having negative effect for aquatic [bioproductivity](/wiki/Bioproductivity \"Bioproductivity\")). Of the fish, the most important are [Tench](/wiki/Tench \"Tench\") (*Tinca tinca*), [common bream](/wiki/Common_bream \"Common bream\") (*Abramis brama*), [common rudd](/wiki/Common_rudd \"Common rudd\") (*Scardinius erythropthalmus*), [Prussian carp](/wiki/Prussian_carp \"Prussian carp\") (*Carassius auratus gibelio*), [wels catfish](/wiki/Wels_catfish \"Wels catfish\") (*Silurus glanis*), [European perch](/wiki/European_perch \"European perch\") (*Perca fluviatilis*), and [northern pike](/wiki/Northern_pike \"Northern pike\") (*Esox lucius*).", "#### Ecosystem of marshy and flooding areas", "[thumb\\|Pelicans in Danube Delta](/wiki/File:Pelicani_din_Delta_Dunarii.PNG \"Pelicani din Delta Dunarii.PNG\")\n[thumb\\|The Danube Delta birds: [grey heron](/wiki/Grey_heron \"Grey heron\") (*Ardea cinerea*), [mallard](/wiki/Mallard \"Mallard\") or wild duck (*Anas platyrhynchos*), [great white pelican](/wiki/Great_white_pelican \"Great white pelican\") (*Ardea cinerea*), [great crested grebe](/wiki/Great_crested_grebe \"Great crested grebe\") (*Podiceps cristatus*). Stamp of Romania, 2004](/wiki/File:RO004MS-04.jpg \"RO004MS-04.jpg\")", "Reed plants and floating reed islands (called **plaur** in [Romania](/wiki/Romania \"Romania\")) are the most common and well\\-known components of the Danube Delta. Vegetation of this ecosystem consists of the common reed (*[Phragmites communis](/wiki/Phragmites_communis \"Phragmites communis\")*) and, on near river banks, mace reed/cattail (*[Typha latifolia](/wiki/Typha_latifolia \"Typha latifolia\")*, *[Typha angustifolia](/wiki/Typha_angustifolia \"Typha angustifolia\")*), sedge (*[Carex dioica](/wiki/Carex_dioica \"Carex dioica\")*, *[Carex stricta](/wiki/Carex_stricta \"Carex stricta\")*), Dutch rush (*[Scirpus radicans](/wiki/Scirpus_radicans \"Scirpus radicans\")*, *[Schoenoplectus lacustris](/wiki/Schoenoplectus_lacustris \"Schoenoplectus lacustris\")*), and brook mint (*[Mentha aquatica](/wiki/Mentha_aquatica \"Mentha aquatica\")*), etc. They provide ideal spawning and nesting grounds. The **plaur** are a mixture of reed roots, grass and soil, usually floating or anchored to the riverbed. As a rule, the reed surrounds the lakes and ponds, and slowly invades the water surface.", "This type of ecosystem is noted for its variety and large population of birds, some of them are very rare. The most important are the [tufted duck](/wiki/Tufted_duck \"Tufted duck\") (*Aythya fuligula*), [red\\-crested pochard](/wiki/Red-crested_pochard \"Red-crested pochard\") (*Netta rufina*), [mallard](/wiki/Mallard \"Mallard\") (*Anas platyrhynchos*), [greylag goose](/wiki/Greylag_goose \"Greylag goose\") (*Anser anser*), [pygmy cormorant](/wiki/Pygmy_cormorant \"Pygmy cormorant\") (*Microcarbo pygmeus*), [purple heron](/wiki/Purple_heron \"Purple heron\") (*Ardea purpurea*), [great white egret](/wiki/Great_egret \"Great egret\") (*Egretta alba*), [little egret](/wiki/Little_egret \"Little egret\") (*Egretta garzetta*), [Eurasian spoonbill](/wiki/Eurasian_spoonbill \"Eurasian spoonbill\")(*Platalea leucorodia*), [great white pelican](/wiki/Great_white_pelican \"Great white pelican\") (*Pelecanus onocrotalus*), [Dalmatian pelican](/wiki/Dalmatian_pelican \"Dalmatian pelican\") (*Pelecanus crispus*), [mute swan](/wiki/Mute_swan \"Mute swan\") (*Cygnus olor*), and [glossy ibis](/wiki/Glossy_ibis \"Glossy ibis\") (*Plegadis falcinellus*). A recent and welcomed newcomer is the [pheasant](/wiki/Common_pheasant \"Common pheasant\") (*Phasianus colchicus*).", "Among the mammals, there is the [Eurasian otter](/wiki/Eurasian_otter \"Eurasian otter\") (*Lutra lutra*), [European mink](/wiki/European_mink \"European mink\") (*Mustela lutreola*), [little ermine](/wiki/Stoat \"Stoat\") (*Mustela erminea aestiva*), [wild boar](/wiki/Wild_boar \"Wild boar\") (*Sus scrofa*), and [wild cat](/wiki/Wildcat \"Wildcat\") (*Felis silvestris*), in winter the [European hare](/wiki/European_hare \"European hare\") (*Lepus europaeus*) and, on the brink of disappearing from the delta, the wolf and the fox. During the Middle Ages, the [Caspian tiger](/wiki/Caspian_tiger \"Caspian tiger\") (*Panthera tigris tigris*) was a resident across the steppes of Ukraine, including Danube Delta, and once, they were hunted to extinction and they're extirpated. The [East Asian raccoon dog](/wiki/Raccoon_dog \"Raccoon dog\") (*Nyctereutes procyonoides*), bizam/introduced [muskrat](/wiki/Muskrat \"Muskrat\") (*Ondatra zibethica*), and to some extent South American [nutria](/wiki/Nutria \"Nutria\") (*Myocastor coypus*), are recent species that have successfully adapted.", "#### River bank and levee ecosystems", "[thumb\\|Black\\-crowned night heron](/wiki/File:Nycticorax_nycticorax%27_AM1_slepowron.jpg \"Nycticorax nycticorax' AM1 slepowron.jpg\")\nThe firm land of the delta used to be covered with large groves of willow trees, which have been cut down almost entirely and replaced with Canadian poplars. On the river banks kept in their natural state, small groves of willow trees (*[Salix alba](/wiki/Salix_alba \"Salix alba\")*, *[Salix fragilis](/wiki/Salix_euxina \"Salix euxina\")*, *[Salix purpurea](/wiki/Salix_purpurea \"Salix purpurea\")*, *[Salix pentandra](/wiki/Salix_pentandra \"Salix pentandra\")*, *[Salix triandra](/wiki/Salix_triandra \"Salix triandra\")* etc.) can still be found, mixed with white poplar (*[Populus alba](/wiki/Populus_alba \"Populus alba\")*). Occasionally, the willow trees form corridors along the arms and bigger channels of the Danube. On the [levees](/wiki/Levees \"Levees\") of [Letea](/wiki/Letea \"Letea\") and [Caraorman](/wiki/Caraorman \"Caraorman\"), mixed forests of oak (*[Quercus robur](/wiki/Quercus_robur \"Quercus robur\")*, *[Quercus pedunculiflora](/wiki/Quercus_pedunculiflora \"Quercus pedunculiflora\")*) with various trees (*[Fraxinus pallisiae](/wiki/Fraxinus_pallisiae \"Fraxinus pallisiae\")*, *[Ulmus foliaceae](/wiki/Ulmus_foliaceae \"Ulmus foliaceae\")*, *[Populus tremula](/wiki/Populus_tremula \"Populus tremula\")*), shrubs (*[Prunus spinosa](/wiki/Prunus_spinosa \"Prunus spinosa\")*, *[Crataegus monogyna](/wiki/Crataegus_monogyna \"Crataegus monogyna\")*, *[Rosa canina](/wiki/Rosa_canina \"Rosa canina\")*, *[Berberis vulgaris](/wiki/Berberis_vulgaris \"Berberis vulgaris\")* etc.), and vines (*[Vitis sylvestris](/wiki/Vitis_sylvestris \"Vitis sylvestris\")*, *[Hedera helix](/wiki/Hedera_helix \"Hedera helix\")*, *[Humulus lupulus](/wiki/Humulus_lupulus \"Humulus lupulus\")*, *[Periploca graeca](/wiki/Periploca_graeca \"Periploca graeca\")*, which reaches up to 25m) grow on [sand dune](/wiki/Sand_dune \"Sand dune\") areas. On the Letea levee, these exotic\\-looking forests grow especially in the depressions between the sand dunes, in small groves called **hasmace**. Fauna of this region include the [meadow viper](/wiki/Meadow_viper \"Meadow viper\") (*Vipera ursinii*), [osprey](/wiki/Osprey \"Osprey\") (*Pandion haliaetus*), and [Eurasian eagle owl](/wiki/Eurasian_eagle_owl \"Eurasian eagle owl\") (*Bubo bubo*), etc.", "" ]
Work ---- Young was sometimes labelled a conceptual artist, due to a generative approach that clusters diverse objects, materials, mediums, and ideas to achieve its expression.Buckley, Annie. "The Horror of Tradition," *ArtScene*, September 2008\. She differed from such artists, however, in her commitment to workmanship, materiality, and leaving evidence of ritualistic, labor\-intensive processes such as industrial fabrication and needlecraft.McGrew, Rebecca. ["Liz Young"](https://www.pomona.edu/museum/exhibitions/1999/project-series-2) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202936/https://www.pomona.edu/museum/exhibitions/1999/project\-series\-2 \|date\=2019\-05\-24 }}, Museum Exhibitions, Claremont, CA: [Pomona College Museum of Art](/wiki/Benton_Museum_of_Art "Benton Museum of Art"), 1999\. Retrieved May 17, 2019\. Her work combined fabricated elements (ranging from welded cages and hand\-crafted nails to clothing and taxidermy animals), organic materials, and familiar objects evoking memory, which she refashioned and recontextualized. She explored themes involving the body and its limits, the human condition, loss, and the inevitability of nature;Otis College of Art and Design. ["Fine Arts Alumnae Awarded Guggenheim Fellowships,"](https://www.otis.edu/news/fine-arts-alumnae-awarded-guggenheim-fellowships) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202935/https://www.otis.edu/news/fine\-arts\-alumnae\-awarded\-guggenheim\-fellowships \|date\=2019\-05\-24 }} News, April 6, 2016\. Retrieved May 17, 2019\. writers described her art, variously, as challenging and visceral,Myers, Holly. ["City Too, benefits from grants,"](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2001-jun-07-ca-7492-story.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202924/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-2001\-jun\-07\-ca\-7492\-story.html \|date\=2019\-05\-24 }} *Los Angeles Times*, June 14, 2001\. Retrieved May 17, 2019\. unsettling, black\-humored,Calame, Ingrid. "Liz Young at Post," *LA Weekly*, March 14, 1997\.Kandel, Susan. ["Personal Meaning,"](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1997-03-07-ca-35583-story.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202924/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1997\-03\-07\-ca\-35583\-story.html \|date\=2019\-05\-24 }} *Los Angeles Times*, March 7, 1997\. Retrieved May 17, 2019\. and autobiographical, emotional and haunting.Tanney, Kathy. "Pick of the Week," *LA Weekly*, May, 1986\.Oginz, Richard. *The Building of Ritual*, Exhibition essay, Los Angeles: Los Angeles Contemporary Exhibits (LACE), 1985\. ### Body\-related sculpture, installations and paintings (1985–2004\) Young's early work (e.g., *Psychic Bleeding*, 1986; *The Allowance of Pain*, 1990–2\), featured crudely\-wrought assemblage "machines," arranged in theater\-like installations and used in performances (which she termed "live procedures") that investigate bodily issues of endurance, struggle, constraint, and the transcendence of pain and limitation.Wilson, Susanna. "Creating Utopias…," *FAD Magazine*, 1988\.Rickles, Lawrence. "Already Given at the Office: Techno Feminism," *Parallax*, September 1997\. The apparatuses drew on a vocabulary of forms derived from positions of the human body (seated, standing, etc.) and recalled hospital gurneys, operating tables, dunking and electric chairs, confessionals or coffin/cradles.O'Donnell, Shauna M. "The Way of Flesh: The Allowance of Pain," Exhibition essay, San Francisco: New Langton Arts, 1990\. The contrary processes and materials of their fabrication, however, often precluded practical function, rendering them, in one description, "ominous and unknowable." Critics such as [Roberta Smith](/wiki/Roberta_Smith "Roberta Smith") of *New York Times* and [Suzanne Muchnic](/wiki/Suzanne_Muchnic "Suzanne Muchnic") of the *Los Angeles Times* identified them as homespun and antiquated\-looking implements of torture, humiliation or extreme toil that comprised a "horrific prison" of heavy metal contraptions conjuring institutional and political confinement. Vacillating between public and private spheres, the installations physically positioned viewers as complicit voyeurs, potential victims, or perpetrators within spaces and situations implying danger, imprisonment, or ritual. [thumb\|left\|210px\|Liz Young, *Cross Bed*, latex, fabric, wood, 30" x 60" x 60", 1997\.](/wiki/File:Liz_Young_Cross_Bed_1997.jpg "Liz Young Cross Bed 1997.jpg") Like earlier works, *The Dignity of Survival* (1992–3\) served as both an explorable environment and site for Young's physically demanding "live procedures." The work's charged objects, displayed in suspended cage\-like structures that viewers could enter, included a medical\-like device; a vest\-like, pregnant\-man "coat of shame" with an umbilical cord leading to a rock; a shaving/shearing stand; and *The Birth/Death Chair*, a fabricated birthing chair connected to a ball\-and\-chain\-like trail of cast\-iron bones and human viscera.Barron, Stephanie, et al. [*Made in California: Art, Image, and Identity, 1900\-2000*](https://www.amazon.com/Made-California-Image-Identity-1900-2000/dp/0520227646/ref=sr_1_1?keywords=9780520227644&linkCode=qs&qid=1558553109&s=books&sr=1-1) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217071521/https://www.amazon.com/Made\-California\-Image\-Identity\-1900\-2000/dp/0520227646/ref\=sr\_1\_1?keywords\=9780520227644\&linkCode\=qs\&qid\=1558553109\&s\=books\&sr\=1\-1 \|date\=2024\-02\-17 }}, University of California Press, 2000\. Retrieved May 17, 2019\. Young's subsequent installations extended outward to larger family and social bodies. *Mendacity* (1996\) featured miniature scaled institutional structures (city hall, church, bank, school, hospital, home) clustered like a city block and surrounded by hanging thrift store clothing. *Frieze* critic [Michelle Grabner](/wiki/Michelle_Grabner "Michelle Grabner") wrote that its tactile, construction\-grade materials and household objects created an "uncanny physical life" capturing the tension between the seductions of institutions and their function of control. For *Skin Inn* (1997\), Young constructed an oddly furnished (the cruciform *Cross Bed*, a grafted junk chair\-and\-love seat, and seesawing dining chairs) mobile home, which housed a silent, opening\-night performance by a "family" of three as viewers peered in through doors and windows.Ehmke, Ronald. "In artist's nightmare scenario, a sinister sameness," *The Buffalo News*, October 1, 1997\. Writers interpreted the installation and mysterious, ritual\-like performance—which included cutting Young out of a cocoon\-like dress—as a satirical subversion of everyday rituals expressing the horror of confinement and repetition.Ise, Claudine. "[Articulating Grief through the Art of Loss](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1999-apr-16-ca-27920-story.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202924/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-1999\-apr\-16\-ca\-27920\-story.html \|date\=2019\-05\-24 }}," *Los Angeles Times*, April 16, 1999\. Retrieved May 17, 2019\.Min, Susette. Catalogue essay, *The Mourning After*, Catalogue, Los Angeles: Los Angeles Municipal Gallery, 1999\. Young's body\-related art also included paintings and fabricated objects, such as clothing made to look like flesh, mannequin\-like figures and prosthetics. In 1997, she exhibited thirteen, small, commonplace portraits of her deceased relatives, painted with her own blood; critics described them as haunting, morbid, and intimate, noting the delicate handling of the pigment, which featured transparent glazes and areas of thick application that cracked like Old Master surfaces.Vista, Sandra. ["Feeding the Spirit Monkey,"](https://www.artslant.com/la/articles/show/8671-feeding-the-spirit-monkey) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202925/https://www.artslant.com/la/articles/show/8671\-feeding\-the\-spirit\-monkey \|date\=2019\-05\-24 }} *ArtSlant*, July 18, 2009\. ### Nature\-related installations, sculpture, drawings (1998– ) During a 1998 residency at the [Ucross Foundation](/wiki/Ucross_Foundation "Ucross Foundation")Ucross Foundation. ["Visual Arts Residencies"](http://www.ucrossfoundation.org/residency-program/alumni-list/visual-arts/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611023040/http://www.ucrossfoundation.org/residency\-program/alumni\-list/visual\-arts \|date\=2015\-06\-11 }} Residency Program. Retrieved May 17, 2019\.—a working ranch—Young began incorporating images of nature, displacing some of her characteristic themes, such as the fragility and pathos of human experience onto animals and plants. In a 2001 [Skirball Cultural Center](/wiki/Skirball_Cultural_Center "Skirball Cultural Center") show of COLA Fellowship winners, her installation combined life\-size models of farm animals covered with flesh\-like material rather than fur, and a business suit and nurse's uniform fabricated from skin\-like industrial bags; *Los Angeles Times* critic Holly Myers described them as "simultaneously vague and uncomfortably visceral." Going forward, her work would also draw on the themes, landscape and literature of the American West, images of Americana, and processes such as taxidermy, embroidery and other handicrafts.Wagley, Catherine. ["5 Art Shows to See in L.A. This Week,"](https://www.laweekly.com/arts/5-art-shows-to-see-in-la-this-week-6968471) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202925/https://www.laweekly.com/arts/5\-art\-shows\-to\-see\-in\-la\-this\-week\-6968471 \|date\=2019\-05\-24 }} *LA Weekly*, June 1, 2016\. Retrieved May 17, 2019\.Martens, Anne. "The Horror of Tradition," *Artillery Magazine*, November/December 2008\. [thumb\|right\|360px\|Liz Young, *Still Life*, installation view with graphite drawings on wood paneling and taxidermy, 120” x 96” x 96”, 2013\.](/wiki/File:Liz_Young_Still_Life_2013_installation.jpg "Liz Young Still Life 2013 installation.jpg") Young's embroidered drawings of the late 2000s were described as balancing finely wrought craft technique and rigorous conceptual underpinnings.Matla, Taras. ["The Horror of Tradition,"](http://tmitf.blogspot.com/2008/08/horror-of-tradition-at-andrew-shire.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202927/http://tmitf.blogspot.com/2008/08/horror\-of\-tradition\-at\-andrew\-shire.html \|date\=2019\-05\-24 }} *20 Minutes into the Future*, August 15, 2008\. Working with and into freighted, found objects of Americana (flags, deer targets, stuffed animals), she offered both humor—a coat sewn from stuffed animal pelts, including ear flaps and plastic eyes or locusts and rats stitched onto old farming magazine covers—and social critique, as in *Balmy Birds* (2006\),Liz Young. ["Misc. Drawings,"](https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/misc-drawings.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202942/https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/misc\-drawings.html \|date\=2019\-05\-24 }} Drawings. Retrieved May 17, 2019\. an upside\-down American flag whose embroidered black birds conveyed a sense of political anxiety and chaos.Ollman, Leah. ["Reaping What They Sew,"](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2008-aug-22-et-galleries22-story.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202925/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\-xpm\-2008\-aug\-22\-et\-galleries22\-story.html \|date\=2019\-05\-24 }} *Los Angeles Times*, August 22, 2008\. Retrieved May 17, 2019\. Her 2013 show, "Still Life," incorporated taxidermy animals (a bird and deer) and graphite drawings on wood paneling of the same animals; together they functioned as contemporary *[memento mori](/wiki/Memento_mori "Memento mori")* or *nature morte* depicting images of nature as lifeless, still, and dislocated.Liz Young. ["Still Life,"](https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/still-life.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202924/https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/still\-life.html \|date\=2019\-05\-24 }} Installations. Retrieved May 17, 2019\. Young's later installations, *Freed of The Tie Between Root and Soil* (Fellows of Contemporary Art, 2017\)Liz Young. ["Freed from the Tie Between Root and Soil,"](https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/freed-from-the-tie-between-root-and-soil.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202926/https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/freed\-from\-the\-tie\-between\-root\-and\-soil.html \|date\=2019\-05\-24 }} Installations. Retrieved May 17, 2019\. and "Of Blood and Dirt" (PØST, 2017\),Liz Young. ["Of Blood and Dirt,"](https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/of-blood-and-dirt.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202925/https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/of\-blood\-and\-dirt.html \|date\=2019\-05\-24 }} Installations. Retrieved May 17, 2019\. explore the cycle of life and mortality through motifs of landscape and nature, the body, blood, and earth. Both shows employ two\- and three\-dimensional, positive and negative images in sculpture and drawings that often focus on the absence of the body or nature; these images include a cut\-out window silhouette of a dead or dormant tree out of which graphic, red, sculptural roots/arteries emanate (*Blood in the Roots*, 2017\), and isolated, silhouette\-like drawings of bare trees, text, dead birds and deer emerging out of dark fields of gunpowder, graphite, and ballpoint pen.Liz Young. ["Drawings"](https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/drawings.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202927/https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/drawings.html \|date\=2019\-05\-24 }}. Retrieved May 17, 2019\.
[ "Work\n----", "Young was sometimes labelled a conceptual artist, due to a generative approach that clusters diverse objects, materials, mediums, and ideas to achieve its expression.Buckley, Annie. \"The Horror of Tradition,\" *ArtScene*, September 2008\\. She differed from such artists, however, in her commitment to workmanship, materiality, and leaving evidence of ritualistic, labor\\-intensive processes such as industrial fabrication and needlecraft.McGrew, Rebecca. [\"Liz Young\"](https://www.pomona.edu/museum/exhibitions/1999/project-series-2) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202936/https://www.pomona.edu/museum/exhibitions/1999/project\\-series\\-2 \\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-24 }}, Museum Exhibitions, Claremont, CA: [Pomona College Museum of Art](/wiki/Benton_Museum_of_Art \"Benton Museum of Art\"), 1999\\. Retrieved May 17, 2019\\. Her work combined fabricated elements (ranging from welded cages and hand\\-crafted nails to clothing and taxidermy animals), organic materials, and familiar objects evoking memory, which she refashioned and recontextualized. She explored themes involving the body and its limits, the human condition, loss, and the inevitability of nature;Otis College of Art and Design. [\"Fine Arts Alumnae Awarded Guggenheim Fellowships,\"](https://www.otis.edu/news/fine-arts-alumnae-awarded-guggenheim-fellowships) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202935/https://www.otis.edu/news/fine\\-arts\\-alumnae\\-awarded\\-guggenheim\\-fellowships \\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-24 }} News, April 6, 2016\\. Retrieved May 17, 2019\\. writers described her art, variously, as challenging and visceral,Myers, Holly. [\"City Too, benefits from grants,\"](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2001-jun-07-ca-7492-story.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202924/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-2001\\-jun\\-07\\-ca\\-7492\\-story.html \\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-24 }} *Los Angeles Times*, June 14, 2001\\. Retrieved May 17, 2019\\. unsettling, black\\-humored,Calame, Ingrid. \"Liz Young at Post,\" *LA Weekly*, March 14, 1997\\.Kandel, Susan. [\"Personal Meaning,\"](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1997-03-07-ca-35583-story.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202924/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1997\\-03\\-07\\-ca\\-35583\\-story.html \\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-24 }} *Los Angeles Times*, March 7, 1997\\. Retrieved May 17, 2019\\. and autobiographical, emotional and haunting.Tanney, Kathy. \"Pick of the Week,\" *LA Weekly*, May, 1986\\.Oginz, Richard. *The Building of Ritual*, Exhibition essay, Los Angeles: Los Angeles Contemporary Exhibits (LACE), 1985\\.", "### Body\\-related sculpture, installations and paintings (1985–2004\\)", "Young's early work (e.g., *Psychic Bleeding*, 1986; *The Allowance of Pain*, 1990–2\\), featured crudely\\-wrought assemblage \"machines,\" arranged in theater\\-like installations and used in performances (which she termed \"live procedures\") that investigate bodily issues of endurance, struggle, constraint, and the transcendence of pain and limitation.Wilson, Susanna. \"Creating Utopias…,\" *FAD Magazine*, 1988\\.Rickles, Lawrence. \"Already Given at the Office: Techno Feminism,\" *Parallax*, September 1997\\. The apparatuses drew on a vocabulary of forms derived from positions of the human body (seated, standing, etc.) and recalled hospital gurneys, operating tables, dunking and electric chairs, confessionals or coffin/cradles.O'Donnell, Shauna M. \"The Way of Flesh: The Allowance of Pain,\" Exhibition essay, San Francisco: New Langton Arts, 1990\\. The contrary processes and materials of their fabrication, however, often precluded practical function, rendering them, in one description, \"ominous and unknowable.\" Critics such as [Roberta Smith](/wiki/Roberta_Smith \"Roberta Smith\") of *New York Times* and [Suzanne Muchnic](/wiki/Suzanne_Muchnic \"Suzanne Muchnic\") of the *Los Angeles Times* identified them as homespun and antiquated\\-looking implements of torture, humiliation or extreme toil that comprised a \"horrific prison\" of heavy metal contraptions conjuring institutional and political confinement. Vacillating between public and private spheres, the installations physically positioned viewers as complicit voyeurs, potential victims, or perpetrators within spaces and situations implying danger, imprisonment, or ritual.", "[thumb\\|left\\|210px\\|Liz Young, *Cross Bed*, latex, fabric, wood, 30\" x 60\" x 60\", 1997\\.](/wiki/File:Liz_Young_Cross_Bed_1997.jpg \"Liz Young Cross Bed 1997.jpg\")\nLike earlier works, *The Dignity of Survival* (1992–3\\) served as both an explorable environment and site for Young's physically demanding \"live procedures.\" The work's charged objects, displayed in suspended cage\\-like structures that viewers could enter, included a medical\\-like device; a vest\\-like, pregnant\\-man \"coat of shame\" with an umbilical cord leading to a rock; a shaving/shearing stand; and *The Birth/Death Chair*, a fabricated birthing chair connected to a ball\\-and\\-chain\\-like trail of cast\\-iron bones and human viscera.Barron, Stephanie, et al. [*Made in California: Art, Image, and Identity, 1900\\-2000*](https://www.amazon.com/Made-California-Image-Identity-1900-2000/dp/0520227646/ref=sr_1_1?keywords=9780520227644&linkCode=qs&qid=1558553109&s=books&sr=1-1) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217071521/https://www.amazon.com/Made\\-California\\-Image\\-Identity\\-1900\\-2000/dp/0520227646/ref\\=sr\\_1\\_1?keywords\\=9780520227644\\&linkCode\\=qs\\&qid\\=1558553109\\&s\\=books\\&sr\\=1\\-1 \\|date\\=2024\\-02\\-17 }}, University of California Press, 2000\\. Retrieved May 17, 2019\\.", "Young's subsequent installations extended outward to larger family and social bodies. *Mendacity* (1996\\) featured miniature scaled institutional structures (city hall, church, bank, school, hospital, home) clustered like a city block and surrounded by hanging thrift store clothing. *Frieze* critic [Michelle Grabner](/wiki/Michelle_Grabner \"Michelle Grabner\") wrote that its tactile, construction\\-grade materials and household objects created an \"uncanny physical life\" capturing the tension between the seductions of institutions and their function of control. For *Skin Inn* (1997\\), Young constructed an oddly furnished (the cruciform *Cross Bed*, a grafted junk chair\\-and\\-love seat, and seesawing dining chairs) mobile home, which housed a silent, opening\\-night performance by a \"family\" of three as viewers peered in through doors and windows.Ehmke, Ronald. \"In artist's nightmare scenario, a sinister sameness,\" *The Buffalo News*, October 1, 1997\\. Writers interpreted the installation and mysterious, ritual\\-like performance—which included cutting Young out of a cocoon\\-like dress—as a satirical subversion of everyday rituals expressing the horror of confinement and repetition.Ise, Claudine. \"[Articulating Grief through the Art of Loss](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1999-apr-16-ca-27920-story.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202924/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-1999\\-apr\\-16\\-ca\\-27920\\-story.html \\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-24 }},\" *Los Angeles Times*, April 16, 1999\\. Retrieved May 17, 2019\\.Min, Susette. Catalogue essay, *The Mourning After*, Catalogue, Los Angeles: Los Angeles Municipal Gallery, 1999\\.", "Young's body\\-related art also included paintings and fabricated objects, such as clothing made to look like flesh, mannequin\\-like figures and prosthetics. In 1997, she exhibited thirteen, small, commonplace portraits of her deceased relatives, painted with her own blood; critics described them as haunting, morbid, and intimate, noting the delicate handling of the pigment, which featured transparent glazes and areas of thick application that cracked like Old Master surfaces.Vista, Sandra. [\"Feeding the Spirit Monkey,\"](https://www.artslant.com/la/articles/show/8671-feeding-the-spirit-monkey) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202925/https://www.artslant.com/la/articles/show/8671\\-feeding\\-the\\-spirit\\-monkey \\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-24 }} *ArtSlant*, July 18, 2009\\.", "### Nature\\-related installations, sculpture, drawings (1998– )", "During a 1998 residency at the [Ucross Foundation](/wiki/Ucross_Foundation \"Ucross Foundation\")Ucross Foundation. [\"Visual Arts Residencies\"](http://www.ucrossfoundation.org/residency-program/alumni-list/visual-arts/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611023040/http://www.ucrossfoundation.org/residency\\-program/alumni\\-list/visual\\-arts \\|date\\=2015\\-06\\-11 }} Residency Program. Retrieved May 17, 2019\\.—a working ranch—Young began incorporating images of nature, displacing some of her characteristic themes, such as the fragility and pathos of human experience onto animals and plants. In a 2001 [Skirball Cultural Center](/wiki/Skirball_Cultural_Center \"Skirball Cultural Center\") show of COLA Fellowship winners, her installation combined life\\-size models of farm animals covered with flesh\\-like material rather than fur, and a business suit and nurse's uniform fabricated from skin\\-like industrial bags; *Los Angeles Times* critic Holly Myers described them as \"simultaneously vague and uncomfortably visceral.\" Going forward, her work would also draw on the themes, landscape and literature of the American West, images of Americana, and processes such as taxidermy, embroidery and other handicrafts.Wagley, Catherine. [\"5 Art Shows to See in L.A. This Week,\"](https://www.laweekly.com/arts/5-art-shows-to-see-in-la-this-week-6968471) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202925/https://www.laweekly.com/arts/5\\-art\\-shows\\-to\\-see\\-in\\-la\\-this\\-week\\-6968471 \\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-24 }} *LA Weekly*, June 1, 2016\\. Retrieved May 17, 2019\\.Martens, Anne. \"The Horror of Tradition,\" *Artillery Magazine*, November/December 2008\\.", "[thumb\\|right\\|360px\\|Liz Young, *Still Life*, installation view with graphite drawings on wood paneling and taxidermy, 120” x 96” x 96”, 2013\\.](/wiki/File:Liz_Young_Still_Life_2013_installation.jpg \"Liz Young Still Life 2013 installation.jpg\")\nYoung's embroidered drawings of the late 2000s were described as balancing finely wrought craft technique and rigorous conceptual underpinnings.Matla, Taras. [\"The Horror of Tradition,\"](http://tmitf.blogspot.com/2008/08/horror-of-tradition-at-andrew-shire.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202927/http://tmitf.blogspot.com/2008/08/horror\\-of\\-tradition\\-at\\-andrew\\-shire.html \\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-24 }} *20 Minutes into the Future*, August 15, 2008\\. Working with and into freighted, found objects of Americana (flags, deer targets, stuffed animals), she offered both humor—a coat sewn from stuffed animal pelts, including ear flaps and plastic eyes or locusts and rats stitched onto old farming magazine covers—and social critique, as in *Balmy Birds* (2006\\),Liz Young. [\"Misc. Drawings,\"](https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/misc-drawings.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202942/https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/misc\\-drawings.html \\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-24 }} Drawings. Retrieved May 17, 2019\\. an upside\\-down American flag whose embroidered black birds conveyed a sense of political anxiety and chaos.Ollman, Leah. [\"Reaping What They Sew,\"](https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2008-aug-22-et-galleries22-story.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202925/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la\\-xpm\\-2008\\-aug\\-22\\-et\\-galleries22\\-story.html \\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-24 }} *Los Angeles Times*, August 22, 2008\\. Retrieved May 17, 2019\\. Her 2013 show, \"Still Life,\" incorporated taxidermy animals (a bird and deer) and graphite drawings on wood paneling of the same animals; together they functioned as contemporary *[memento mori](/wiki/Memento_mori \"Memento mori\")* or *nature morte* depicting images of nature as lifeless, still, and dislocated.Liz Young. [\"Still Life,\"](https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/still-life.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202924/https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/still\\-life.html \\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-24 }} Installations. Retrieved May 17, 2019\\.", "Young's later installations, *Freed of The Tie Between Root and Soil* (Fellows of Contemporary Art, 2017\\)Liz Young. [\"Freed from the Tie Between Root and Soil,\"](https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/freed-from-the-tie-between-root-and-soil.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202926/https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/freed\\-from\\-the\\-tie\\-between\\-root\\-and\\-soil.html \\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-24 }} Installations. Retrieved May 17, 2019\\. and \"Of Blood and Dirt\" (PØST, 2017\\),Liz Young. [\"Of Blood and Dirt,\"](https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/of-blood-and-dirt.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202925/https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/of\\-blood\\-and\\-dirt.html \\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-24 }} Installations. Retrieved May 17, 2019\\. explore the cycle of life and mortality through motifs of landscape and nature, the body, blood, and earth. Both shows employ two\\- and three\\-dimensional, positive and negative images in sculpture and drawings that often focus on the absence of the body or nature; these images include a cut\\-out window silhouette of a dead or dormant tree out of which graphic, red, sculptural roots/arteries emanate (*Blood in the Roots*, 2017\\), and isolated, silhouette\\-like drawings of bare trees, text, dead birds and deer emerging out of dark fields of gunpowder, graphite, and ballpoint pen.Liz Young. [\"Drawings\"](https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/drawings.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524202927/https://lizyoungproduce.weebly.com/drawings.html \\|date\\=2019\\-05\\-24 }}. Retrieved May 17, 2019\\.", "" ]
Career ------ Misson was a right\-arm opening bowler who bowled outswingers at a lively pace and could use the short ball effectively.*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket*, Oxford, Melbourne, 1996, p. 367\. Early in his career he sometimes put so much energy into his deliveries that he fell over in his [follow\-through](/wiki/Bowling_action%23Follow_through "Bowling action#Follow through") "in a thoroughly disorganised but highly diverting heap".[R. T. Brittenden](/wiki/R._T._Brittenden "R. T. Brittenden"), *New Zealand Cricketers*, A. H. \& A. W. Reed, Wellington, 1961, pp. 15\. He made his first\-class debut for [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales_cricket_team "New South Wales cricket team") in the last match of the 1958–59 [Sheffield Shield](/wiki/Sheffield_Shield "Sheffield Shield") season against [Western Australia](/wiki/Western_Australia_cricket_team "Western Australia cricket team"), replacing the injured [Gordon Rorke](/wiki/Gordon_Rorke "Gordon Rorke"). He took three wickets in each innings as New South Wales won easily.*[Wisden](/wiki/Wisden_Cricketers%27_Almanack "Wisden Cricketers' Almanack")* 1960, p. 878\.{{cite web \|title\=Western Australia v New South Wales 1958\-59 \|url\=http://static.espncricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/1950S/1958\-59/AUS\_LOCAL/SS/WA\_NSW\_SS\_27FEB\-03MAR1959\.html \|website\=Cricinfo \|access\-date\=13 December 2021}} He continued this good form throughout the 1959–60 season and was selected to tour New Zealand at the end of the season with the [Australian team](/wiki/Australian_cricket_team_in_New_Zealand_in_1959%E2%80%9360 "Australian cricket team in New Zealand in 1959–60") [captained](/wiki/Captain_%28cricket%29 "Captain (cricket)") by [Ian Craig](/wiki/Ian_Craig "Ian Craig"). He took 17 wickets in three matches against [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_cricket_team "New Zealand cricket team") at an average of 12\.47\.[Don Neely](/wiki/Don_Neely "Don Neely") \& Richard Payne, *Men in White: The History of New Zealand International Cricket, 1894–1985*, Moa, Auckland, 1986, pp. 294–98\. Misson made his Test debut in the Second Test of the series against [West Indies in 1960–61](/wiki/West_Indian_cricket_team_in_Australia_in_1960%E2%80%9361 "West Indian cricket team in Australia in 1960–61"), replacing [Ian Meckiff](/wiki/Ian_Meckiff "Ian Meckiff"). He dismissed [Conrad Hunte](/wiki/Conrad_Hunte "Conrad Hunte") with his second delivery, also took the wicket of [Frank Worrell](/wiki/Frank_Worrell "Frank Worrell"), and Australia won, but Meckiff returned for the Third Test. Misson played in the Fourth Test after [Alan Davidson](/wiki/Alan_Davidson_%28cricketer%2C_born_1929%29 "Alan Davidson (cricketer, born 1929)") was injured, taking three wickets and falling as the third victim in a [hat\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick_%28cricket%29 "Hat-trick (cricket)") taken by [Lance Gibbs](/wiki/Lance_Gibbs "Lance Gibbs").[Gideon Haigh](/wiki/Gideon_Haigh "Gideon Haigh"), *The Summer Game*, Text, Melbourne, 1997, p. 150\. He kept his place for the Fifth Test, when he took four wickets in Australia's victory.*Wisden* 1962, pp. 832–53\. He toured England in 1961 with the [Australia team](/wiki/Australian_cricket_team_in_England_in_1961 "Australian cricket team in England in 1961"). In the match against [Sussex](/wiki/Sussex_County_Cricket_Club "Sussex County Cricket Club"), the last match before the First Test, he took his best first\-class figures of 6 for 75 and added 136 for the eighth wicket with [Peter Burge](/wiki/Peter_Burge_%28cricketer%29 "Peter Burge (cricketer)").{{cite web \|title\=Sussex v Australians 1961 \|url\=http://static.espncricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/1960S/1961/AUS\_IN\_ENG/AUS\_SUSSEX\_03\-06JUN1961\.html \|website\=Cricinfo \|access\-date\=13 December 2021}} He played in the first two Tests, taking seven wickets. In the Second Test he also made 25 [not out](/wiki/Not_out "Not out") batting at number 11, adding a valuable 49 for the last wicket with [Ken Mackay](/wiki/Ken_Mackay "Ken Mackay"). Australia won.*Wisden* 1962, pp. 290–97\. Misson was a fitness fanatic, but injuries to a calf and [achilles tendon](/wiki/Achilles_tendon "Achilles tendon") during the 1961 tour affected his form, and he never played Test cricket again. Using a shorter run\-up and a changed action, he played three more seasons of Sheffield Shield cricket but with only moderate success.Haigh, p. 34\. He had a season as a professional with [Accrington](/wiki/Accrington_Cricket_Club "Accrington Cricket Club") in the [Lancashire League](/wiki/Lancashire_League_%28cricket%29 "Lancashire League (cricket)") in 1967, taking 50 wickets and scoring 340 runs; Accrington finished third.*Wisden* 1968, pp. 749–50\. He retired from cricket to concentrate on his executive sales career.
[ "Career\n------", "Misson was a right\\-arm opening bowler who bowled outswingers at a lively pace and could use the short ball effectively.*The Oxford Companion to Australian Cricket*, Oxford, Melbourne, 1996, p. 367\\. Early in his career he sometimes put so much energy into his deliveries that he fell over in his [follow\\-through](/wiki/Bowling_action%23Follow_through \"Bowling action#Follow through\") \"in a thoroughly disorganised but highly diverting heap\".[R. T. Brittenden](/wiki/R._T._Brittenden \"R. T. Brittenden\"), *New Zealand Cricketers*, A. H. \\& A. W. Reed, Wellington, 1961, pp. 15\\.", "He made his first\\-class debut for [New South Wales](/wiki/New_South_Wales_cricket_team \"New South Wales cricket team\") in the last match of the 1958–59 [Sheffield Shield](/wiki/Sheffield_Shield \"Sheffield Shield\") season against [Western Australia](/wiki/Western_Australia_cricket_team \"Western Australia cricket team\"), replacing the injured [Gordon Rorke](/wiki/Gordon_Rorke \"Gordon Rorke\"). He took three wickets in each innings as New South Wales won easily.*[Wisden](/wiki/Wisden_Cricketers%27_Almanack \"Wisden Cricketers' Almanack\")* 1960, p. 878\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Western Australia v New South Wales 1958\\-59 \\|url\\=http://static.espncricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/1950S/1958\\-59/AUS\\_LOCAL/SS/WA\\_NSW\\_SS\\_27FEB\\-03MAR1959\\.html \\|website\\=Cricinfo \\|access\\-date\\=13 December 2021}} He continued this good form throughout the 1959–60 season and was selected to tour New Zealand at the end of the season with the [Australian team](/wiki/Australian_cricket_team_in_New_Zealand_in_1959%E2%80%9360 \"Australian cricket team in New Zealand in 1959–60\") [captained](/wiki/Captain_%28cricket%29 \"Captain (cricket)\") by [Ian Craig](/wiki/Ian_Craig \"Ian Craig\"). He took 17 wickets in three matches against [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand_cricket_team \"New Zealand cricket team\") at an average of 12\\.47\\.[Don Neely](/wiki/Don_Neely \"Don Neely\") \\& Richard Payne, *Men in White: The History of New Zealand International Cricket, 1894–1985*, Moa, Auckland, 1986, pp. 294–98\\.", "Misson made his Test debut in the Second Test of the series against [West Indies in 1960–61](/wiki/West_Indian_cricket_team_in_Australia_in_1960%E2%80%9361 \"West Indian cricket team in Australia in 1960–61\"), replacing [Ian Meckiff](/wiki/Ian_Meckiff \"Ian Meckiff\"). He dismissed [Conrad Hunte](/wiki/Conrad_Hunte \"Conrad Hunte\") with his second delivery, also took the wicket of [Frank Worrell](/wiki/Frank_Worrell \"Frank Worrell\"), and Australia won, but Meckiff returned for the Third Test. Misson played in the Fourth Test after [Alan Davidson](/wiki/Alan_Davidson_%28cricketer%2C_born_1929%29 \"Alan Davidson (cricketer, born 1929)\") was injured, taking three wickets and falling as the third victim in a [hat\\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick_%28cricket%29 \"Hat-trick (cricket)\") taken by [Lance Gibbs](/wiki/Lance_Gibbs \"Lance Gibbs\").[Gideon Haigh](/wiki/Gideon_Haigh \"Gideon Haigh\"), *The Summer Game*, Text, Melbourne, 1997, p. 150\\. He kept his place for the Fifth Test, when he took four wickets in Australia's victory.*Wisden* 1962, pp. 832–53\\.", "He toured England in 1961 with the [Australia team](/wiki/Australian_cricket_team_in_England_in_1961 \"Australian cricket team in England in 1961\"). In the match against [Sussex](/wiki/Sussex_County_Cricket_Club \"Sussex County Cricket Club\"), the last match before the First Test, he took his best first\\-class figures of 6 for 75 and added 136 for the eighth wicket with [Peter Burge](/wiki/Peter_Burge_%28cricketer%29 \"Peter Burge (cricketer)\").{{cite web \\|title\\=Sussex v Australians 1961 \\|url\\=http://static.espncricinfo.com/db/ARCHIVE/1960S/1961/AUS\\_IN\\_ENG/AUS\\_SUSSEX\\_03\\-06JUN1961\\.html \\|website\\=Cricinfo \\|access\\-date\\=13 December 2021}} He played in the first two Tests, taking seven wickets. In the Second Test he also made 25 [not out](/wiki/Not_out \"Not out\") batting at number 11, adding a valuable 49 for the last wicket with [Ken Mackay](/wiki/Ken_Mackay \"Ken Mackay\"). Australia won.*Wisden* 1962, pp. 290–97\\.", "Misson was a fitness fanatic, but injuries to a calf and [achilles tendon](/wiki/Achilles_tendon \"Achilles tendon\") during the 1961 tour affected his form, and he never played Test cricket again. Using a shorter run\\-up and a changed action, he played three more seasons of Sheffield Shield cricket but with only moderate success.Haigh, p. 34\\. He had a season as a professional with [Accrington](/wiki/Accrington_Cricket_Club \"Accrington Cricket Club\") in the [Lancashire League](/wiki/Lancashire_League_%28cricket%29 \"Lancashire League (cricket)\") in 1967, taking 50 wickets and scoring 340 runs; Accrington finished third.*Wisden* 1968, pp. 749–50\\. He retired from cricket to concentrate on his executive sales career.", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1810\= 864 \|1820\= 1266 \|1830\= 1743 \|1840\= 2153 \|1850\= 1881 \|1860\= 1682 \|1870\= 1467 \|1880\= 1255 \|1890\= 1049 \|1900\= 982 \|1910\= 850 \|1920\= 743 \|1930\= 664 \|1940\= 605 \|1950\= 466 \|1960\= 366 \|1970\= 430 \|1980\= 631 \|1990\= 877 \|2000\= 1002 \|2010\= 1032 \|2020\= 1020 \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|accessdate\=June 4, 2015}} }} ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=December 16, 2012}} of 2010, there were 1,032 people, 433 households, and 294 families living in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|24\.2\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 553 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|13\.0\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 96\.1% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.4% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.4% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.7% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 2\.3% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.2% of the population. There were 433 households, of which 32\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55\.0% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 6\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 6\.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 32\.1% were non\-families. 25\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.38 and the average family size was 2\.83\. The median age in the town was 43\.6 years. 22\.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 4\.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25\.1% were from 25 to 44; 32\.8% were from 45 to 64; and 14\.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 49\.7% male and 50\.3% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=January 31, 2008\|title\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 1,002 people, 391 households, and 279 families living in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|23\.5\|/mi2\|/km2\|disp\=preunit\|people \|people}}. There were 483 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|11\.3\|/mi2\|/km2}}. The racial makeup of the town was 98\.00% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.10% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.10% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.10% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.90% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 0\.80% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 1\.00% of the population. There were 391 households, out of which 35\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 5\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28\.4% were non\-families. 21\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.56 and the average family size was 3\.00\. In the town, the population was spread out, with 26\.4% under the age of 18, 6\.7% from 18 to 24, 29\.7% from 25 to 44, 27\.3% from 45 to 64, and 9\.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 102\.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100\.3 males. The median income for a household in the town was $32,434, and the median income for a family was $37,917\. Males had a median income of $25,391 versus $23,583 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the town was $14,112\. About 9\.9% of families and 14\.5% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 18\.0% of those under age 18 and 12\.2% of those age 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1810\\= 864\n\\|1820\\= 1266\n\\|1830\\= 1743\n\\|1840\\= 2153\n\\|1850\\= 1881\n\\|1860\\= 1682\n\\|1870\\= 1467\n\\|1880\\= 1255\n\\|1890\\= 1049\n\\|1900\\= 982\n\\|1910\\= 850\n\\|1920\\= 743\n\\|1930\\= 664\n\\|1940\\= 605\n\\|1950\\= 466\n\\|1960\\= 366\n\\|1970\\= 430\n\\|1980\\= 631\n\\|1990\\= 877\n\\|2000\\= 1002\n\\|2010\\= 1032\n\\|2020\\= 1020\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=December 16, 2012}} of 2010, there were 1,032 people, 433 households, and 294 families living in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|24\\.2\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 553 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|13\\.0\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 96\\.1% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.4% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.4% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.7% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 2\\.3% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.2% of the population.", "There were 433 households, of which 32\\.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55\\.0% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 6\\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 6\\.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 32\\.1% were non\\-families. 25\\.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8\\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.38 and the average family size was 2\\.83\\.", "The median age in the town was 43\\.6 years. 22\\.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 4\\.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25\\.1% were from 25 to 44; 32\\.8% were from 45 to 64; and 14\\.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 49\\.7% male and 50\\.3% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=January 31, 2008\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 1,002 people, 391 households, and 279 families living in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|23\\.5\\|/mi2\\|/km2\\|disp\\=preunit\\|people \\|people}}. There were 483 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|11\\.3\\|/mi2\\|/km2}}. The racial makeup of the town was 98\\.00% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.10% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.10% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.10% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.90% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 0\\.80% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1\\.00% of the population.", "There were 391 households, out of which 35\\.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59\\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 5\\.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28\\.4% were non\\-families. 21\\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6\\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.56 and the average family size was 3\\.00\\.", "In the town, the population was spread out, with 26\\.4% under the age of 18, 6\\.7% from 18 to 24, 29\\.7% from 25 to 44, 27\\.3% from 45 to 64, and 9\\.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 102\\.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100\\.3 males.", "The median income for a household in the town was $32,434, and the median income for a family was $37,917\\. Males had a median income of $25,391 versus $23,583 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the town was $14,112\\. About 9\\.9% of families and 14\\.5% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 18\\.0% of those under age 18 and 12\\.2% of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
Biography --------- Nina Usatova was born on October 1, 1951, in the settlement at the station [Malinovoye Ozero](/wiki/Malinovoye_Ozero "Malinovoye Ozero"), [Mikhaylovsky District](/wiki/Mikhaylovsky_District%2C_Altai_Krai "Mikhaylovsky District, Altai Krai"), [Altai Krai](/wiki/Altai_Krai "Altai Krai"), [Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic](/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic"), [Union of Soviet Socialist Republics](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union"), now the settlement at the station does not exist. She graduated from high school number 30 in [Kurgan](/wiki/Kurgan%2C_Kurgan_Oblast "Kurgan, Kurgan Oblast").[Лица Зауралья: УСАТОВА Нина Николаевна](http://persona.kurganobl.ru/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=838%3A2012-01-13-04-37-10&catid=56%3A2012-01-23-17-03-52&Itemid=290) From 1969 to 1973, she tried to enter the Boris Shchukin Theatre Institute at the [Vakhtangov State Academic Theatre](/wiki/Vakhtangov_State_Academic_Theatre "Vakhtangov State Academic Theatre"). Worked again at cloth factory *Red October* in [Borovsk](/wiki/Borovsk "Borovsk") Kaluga region, as director for the House of Culture and was preparing for the entrance exams. In 1974 she entered the directing faculty [Boris Shchukin Theatre Institute](/wiki/Boris_Shchukin_Theatre_Institute "Boris Shchukin Theatre Institute") (course [Boris Zakhava](/wiki/Boris_Zakhava "Boris Zakhava") and Marianna Ter\-Zakharova), and graduated in 1979\. After finishing her studies in 1979, Nina went to practice in the city of [Kotlas](/wiki/Kotlas "Kotlas"), [Arkhangelsk Oblast](/wiki/Arkhangelsk_Oblast "Arkhangelsk Oblast"). She played in the local theater twelve roles. At this time, opened in Leningrad [Youth Theatre on the Fontanka](/wiki/Youth_Theatre_on_the_Fontanka "Youth Theatre on the Fontanka"), and in 1980, the aspiring actress went there. Played in the performances of Vladimir Malyshitsky and Efim Padve. In 1989, Nina Usatova joined the troupe of the Leningrad Academic Bolshoi Drama Theater named after M. Gorky, now the [Tovstonogov Bolshoi Drama Theater](/wiki/Tovstonogov_Bolshoi_Drama_Theater "Tovstonogov Bolshoi Drama Theater"). The actress made her film debut in 1981, her first role was in the TV movie *Where did Fomenko?*. Fame came after the role of the mute cook Lidiya Matveyevna in the film *[The Cold Summer of 1953](/wiki/The_Cold_Summer_of_1953 "The Cold Summer of 1953")* (1987\). In 1995, Nina Usatova participated in a series of television commercials under the general title of the Russian project. The actress played a provincial woman who arrived in Moscow and saw her son in the honor guard on Red Square. The phrase "Dima, wave your hand to mama" became popular.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Nina Usatova was born on October 1, 1951, in the settlement at the station [Malinovoye Ozero](/wiki/Malinovoye_Ozero \"Malinovoye Ozero\"), [Mikhaylovsky District](/wiki/Mikhaylovsky_District%2C_Altai_Krai \"Mikhaylovsky District, Altai Krai\"), [Altai Krai](/wiki/Altai_Krai \"Altai Krai\"), [Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic](/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic \"Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic\"), [Union of Soviet Socialist Republics](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"), now the settlement at the station does not exist.", "She graduated from high school number 30 in [Kurgan](/wiki/Kurgan%2C_Kurgan_Oblast \"Kurgan, Kurgan Oblast\").[Лица Зауралья: УСАТОВА Нина Николаевна](http://persona.kurganobl.ru/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=838%3A2012-01-13-04-37-10&catid=56%3A2012-01-23-17-03-52&Itemid=290)", "From 1969 to 1973, she tried to enter the Boris Shchukin Theatre Institute at the [Vakhtangov State Academic Theatre](/wiki/Vakhtangov_State_Academic_Theatre \"Vakhtangov State Academic Theatre\"). Worked again at cloth factory *Red October* in [Borovsk](/wiki/Borovsk \"Borovsk\") Kaluga region, as director for the House of Culture and was preparing for the entrance exams.", "In 1974 she entered the directing faculty [Boris Shchukin Theatre Institute](/wiki/Boris_Shchukin_Theatre_Institute \"Boris Shchukin Theatre Institute\") (course [Boris Zakhava](/wiki/Boris_Zakhava \"Boris Zakhava\") and Marianna Ter\\-Zakharova), and graduated in 1979\\.", "After finishing her studies in 1979, Nina went to practice in the city of [Kotlas](/wiki/Kotlas \"Kotlas\"), [Arkhangelsk Oblast](/wiki/Arkhangelsk_Oblast \"Arkhangelsk Oblast\"). She played in the local theater twelve roles. At this time, opened in Leningrad [Youth Theatre on the Fontanka](/wiki/Youth_Theatre_on_the_Fontanka \"Youth Theatre on the Fontanka\"), and in 1980, the aspiring actress went there. Played in the performances of Vladimir Malyshitsky and Efim Padve.", "In 1989, Nina Usatova joined the troupe of the Leningrad Academic Bolshoi Drama Theater named after M. Gorky, now the [Tovstonogov Bolshoi Drama Theater](/wiki/Tovstonogov_Bolshoi_Drama_Theater \"Tovstonogov Bolshoi Drama Theater\").", "The actress made her film debut in 1981, her first role was in the TV movie *Where did Fomenko?*. Fame came after the role of the mute cook Lidiya Matveyevna in the film *[The Cold Summer of 1953](/wiki/The_Cold_Summer_of_1953 \"The Cold Summer of 1953\")* (1987\\).", "In 1995, Nina Usatova participated in a series of television commercials under the general title of the Russian project. The actress played a provincial woman who arrived in Moscow and saw her son in the honor guard on Red Square. The phrase \"Dima, wave your hand to mama\" became popular.", "" ]
Life ---- {{Moresources\|section\|date\=December 2022}} He was the son of Edward Wilmot of [Culham](/wiki/Culham "Culham") (otherwise of [Newent, Gloucestershire](/wiki/Newent%2C_Gloucestershire "Newent, Gloucestershire") and [Witney, Oxfordshire](/wiki/Witney%2C_Oxfordshire "Witney, Oxfordshire")) and Elizabeth Stafford. On 6 July 1587 he matriculated at [Magdalen College, Oxford](/wiki/Magdalen_College%2C_Oxford "Magdalen College, Oxford"), aged 16, but left the university without a degree, and took service in the Irish wars, perhaps in attendance on his neighbour, [Sir Thomas Norris](/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Norris "Sir Thomas Norris"), who was also a member of Magdalen College. In 1592, he became a captain, and early in 1595 he was sent to [Newry](/wiki/Newry "Newry"); in the same year he was also in command of sixty foot at [Carrickfergus](/wiki/Carrickfergus "Carrickfergus"). In 1597 Norris, now [President of Munster](/wiki/President_of_Munster "President of Munster"), made Wilmot sergeant\-major of the forces in that province; he was promoted colonel in 1598\. He was knighted by [Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex](/wiki/Robert_Devereux%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Essex "Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex") at Dublin on 5 August 1599, and on the 16th was sent with instructions to the council of Munster for its government during Norris's illness. On 23 June 1600, [Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy](/wiki/Charles_Blount%2C_8th_Baron_Mountjoy "Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy") directed [George Carew](/wiki/George_Carew%2C_1st_Earl_of_Totnes "George Carew, 1st Earl of Totnes") to swear in Wilmot as a member of the Munster council, and during the next two years he took a prominent part in the closing stages of the [Nine Years' War](/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War_%28Ireland%29 "Nine Years' War (Ireland)"). In July 1600, Wilmot was left by Carew in command of [Carrigafoyle Castle](/wiki/Siege_of_Carrigafoyle_Castle "Siege of Carrigafoyle Castle") on the [River Shannon](/wiki/River_Shannon "River Shannon"); shortly afterwards he was given command of a force of 1,050\-foot and fifty horse, with which in October he defeated [Thomas Fitzmaurice, 18th Baron Kerry](/wiki/Thomas_Fitzmaurice%2C_18th_Baron_Kerry "Thomas Fitzmaurice, 18th Baron Kerry"), and in November captured [Listowel Castle](/wiki/Listowel_Castle "Listowel Castle") after sixteen days' siege. [Florence Maccarthy Reagh](/wiki/Florence_Maccarthy_Reagh "Florence Maccarthy Reagh") is said to have urged Wilmot's assassination at this time, but Wilmot was reportedly forewarned by Florence's wife. On 8 December 1600, he was granted the office of constable of [Castle Maine](/wiki/Castle_Maine "Castle Maine"), and, in July 1601, was appointed [governor of County Cork](/wiki/Governor_of_County_Cork "Governor of County Cork"). On 5 March 1602, he took [Rahinnane Castle](/wiki/Rahinnane_Castle "Rahinnane Castle"). In July 1602 Carew left Munster, suggesting Wilmot's appointment as vice\-president; [Robert Cecil](/wiki/Robert_Cecil%2C_1st_Earl_of_Salisbury "Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury"), however, wrote that the queen would not "accept Wilmot or any such", but Wilmot became commander\-in\-chief of the forces during Carew's absence, and in September 1602 was made [governor of Kerry](/wiki/Governor_of_Kerry "Governor of Kerry"); in the same month he captured 'Mocrumpe,' and throughout the winter was engaged in clearing Kerry of the rebels. In the last week of December and during the first week of January 1602–03, he inflicted a series of reverses on the Irish in [Beare](/wiki/Beara_Peninsula "Beara Peninsula") and [Bantry](/wiki/Bantry "Bantry"), completely over\-running the country. In February he turned north\-west, again captured [Lixnaw](/wiki/Lixnaw "Lixnaw"), and subdued the [Dingle peninsula](/wiki/Dingle_peninsula "Dingle peninsula"), effecting a junction with Carew over the [Mangerton pass](/wiki/Mangerton_pass "Mangerton pass"). In the following March, Wilmot was associated with Sir George Thornton in the government of Munster during Carew's absence. Cork, however, refused to acknowledge his authority and proclaim James I, and shut its gates against him. Wilmot sat down before it, and turned his guns on the inhabitants to prevent their demolishing the forts erected against the Spanish. He refused, however, to attack the city, and waited until Carew's return, when its submission was arranged. Wilmot now settled down as governor of Kerry. In 1606, he was again acting with Thornton as joint\-commissioner for the government of Munster, and in November 1607 was granted a pension and sworn of the Irish privy council. On 20 May 1611, he was granted in reversion the marshalship of Ireland, but surrendered it on 24 August 1617\. He sat in the English House of Commons for [Launceston](/wiki/Launceston_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Launceston (UK Parliament constituency)") from 5 April to 17 June 1614\. On 3 June 1616 he was appointed [President of Connaught](/wiki/President_of_Connaught "President of Connaught"), the seat of his government being Athlone; and, on 4 January 1621, he was created Viscount Wilmot of Athlone in the peerage of Ireland. Among the rewards for his services were grants of, among other lands, the abbey of Carrickfergus in 1614\. While president of Connaught Wilmot embarked on a scheme for rebuilding Athlone; and in 1621 [Sir Charles Coote](/wiki/Sir_Charles_Coote%2C_1st_Baronet "Sir Charles Coote, 1st Baronet") accused him of leasing and alienating crown lands and reserving the profits to himself; these charges were referred to commissioners, but Wilmot's defence was accepted for the time being, and on 7 November 1625 he received a pardon. Charles I also renewed his appointment as president of Connaught, and in October 1627 selected him as commander of a relief expedition to be sent to the [Isle of Rhé](/wiki/Isle_of_Rh%C3%A9 "Isle of Rhé"). His fleet was, however, delayed at [Plymouth](/wiki/Plymouth "Plymouth"), first by want of supplies, and then by storms, which damaged the ships and drove them back into port. Meanwhile, the English at [La Rochelle](/wiki/La_Rochelle "La Rochelle") had been compelled to retreat, and Wilmot returned to Ireland, where he was appointed, on 6 November 1629, general and commander\-in\-chief of the forces. On 11 September 1630, [Roger Jones, 1st Viscount Ranelagh](/wiki/Roger_Jones%2C_1st_Viscount_Ranelagh "Roger Jones, 1st Viscount Ranelagh") was associated with him in the presidency of Connaught, and, on 6 August 1631, he was one of the commissioners appointed to govern [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin "Dublin") and [Leinster](/wiki/Leinster "Leinster") during the absence of the lords justices. In 1631, when it was resolved to supersede the lords justices of Ireland by the nomination of a lord deputy, Wilmot had hopes of being selected for the post. [Thomas Wentworth](/wiki/Thomas_Wentworth%2C_1st_Earl_of_Strafford "Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford")'s appointment he resented as a slight, and the new lord\-deputy's inquisition into financial abuses soon brought him into collision with Wilmot. In September 1634, proceedings at Athlone were again called in question; a commission of inquiry was issued early in 1635, and the Irish law officers instituted suits against Wilmot before the castle chamber on the ground of misdemeanour and in the court of exchequer for recovery of the crown lands he had alienated. Wilmot, in revenge, abetted Barr's petition against Wentworth, but, on 3 October 1635, was forced to submit, and, on 13 July 1636, sought the lord\-deputy's favour. Wentworth insisted on restitution of the crown lands, but ineffectively, before his recall from Ireland. Wilmot's age prevented his serving against the [Irish Rebellion of 1641](/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641 "Irish Rebellion of 1641"), but he retained his joint\-presidency of Connaught till his death, probably in the early part of 1644\. He was alive on 29 June 1643, but dead before April 1644, when his son Henry and Sir Charles Coote were appointed joint\-presidents of Connaught. His will dated 21 May 1643 refers to a house near [Charing Cross](/wiki/Charing_Cross "Charing Cross") adjoining [Scotland Yard](/wiki/Scotland_Yard "Scotland Yard").
[ "Life\n----", "{{Moresources\\|section\\|date\\=December 2022}}\nHe was the son of Edward Wilmot of [Culham](/wiki/Culham \"Culham\") (otherwise of [Newent, Gloucestershire](/wiki/Newent%2C_Gloucestershire \"Newent, Gloucestershire\") and [Witney, Oxfordshire](/wiki/Witney%2C_Oxfordshire \"Witney, Oxfordshire\")) and Elizabeth Stafford. On 6 July 1587 he matriculated at [Magdalen College, Oxford](/wiki/Magdalen_College%2C_Oxford \"Magdalen College, Oxford\"), aged 16, but left the university without a degree, and took service in the Irish wars, perhaps in attendance on his neighbour, [Sir Thomas Norris](/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Norris \"Sir Thomas Norris\"), who was also a member of Magdalen College.", "In 1592, he became a captain, and early in 1595 he was sent to [Newry](/wiki/Newry \"Newry\"); in the same year he was also in command of sixty foot at [Carrickfergus](/wiki/Carrickfergus \"Carrickfergus\"). In 1597 Norris, now [President of Munster](/wiki/President_of_Munster \"President of Munster\"), made Wilmot sergeant\\-major of the forces in that province; he was promoted colonel in 1598\\. He was knighted by [Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex](/wiki/Robert_Devereux%2C_2nd_Earl_of_Essex \"Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex\") at Dublin on 5 August 1599, and on the 16th was sent with instructions to the council of Munster for its government during Norris's illness.", "On 23 June 1600, [Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy](/wiki/Charles_Blount%2C_8th_Baron_Mountjoy \"Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy\") directed [George Carew](/wiki/George_Carew%2C_1st_Earl_of_Totnes \"George Carew, 1st Earl of Totnes\") to swear in Wilmot as a member of the Munster council, and during the next two years he took a prominent part in the closing stages of the [Nine Years' War](/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War_%28Ireland%29 \"Nine Years' War (Ireland)\").", "In July 1600, Wilmot was left by Carew in command of [Carrigafoyle Castle](/wiki/Siege_of_Carrigafoyle_Castle \"Siege of Carrigafoyle Castle\") on the [River Shannon](/wiki/River_Shannon \"River Shannon\"); shortly afterwards he was given command of a force of 1,050\\-foot and fifty horse, with which in October he defeated [Thomas Fitzmaurice, 18th Baron Kerry](/wiki/Thomas_Fitzmaurice%2C_18th_Baron_Kerry \"Thomas Fitzmaurice, 18th Baron Kerry\"), and in November captured [Listowel Castle](/wiki/Listowel_Castle \"Listowel Castle\") after sixteen days' siege. [Florence Maccarthy Reagh](/wiki/Florence_Maccarthy_Reagh \"Florence Maccarthy Reagh\") is said to have urged Wilmot's assassination at this time, but Wilmot was reportedly forewarned by Florence's wife.", "On 8 December 1600, he was granted the office of constable of [Castle Maine](/wiki/Castle_Maine \"Castle Maine\"), and, in July 1601, was appointed [governor of County Cork](/wiki/Governor_of_County_Cork \"Governor of County Cork\"). On 5 March 1602, he took [Rahinnane Castle](/wiki/Rahinnane_Castle \"Rahinnane Castle\"). In July 1602 Carew left Munster, suggesting Wilmot's appointment as vice\\-president; [Robert Cecil](/wiki/Robert_Cecil%2C_1st_Earl_of_Salisbury \"Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury\"), however, wrote that the queen would not \"accept Wilmot or any such\", but Wilmot became commander\\-in\\-chief of the forces during Carew's absence, and in September 1602 was made [governor of Kerry](/wiki/Governor_of_Kerry \"Governor of Kerry\"); in the same month he captured 'Mocrumpe,' and throughout the winter was engaged in clearing Kerry of the rebels.", "In the last week of December and during the first week of January 1602–03, he inflicted a series of reverses on the Irish in [Beare](/wiki/Beara_Peninsula \"Beara Peninsula\") and [Bantry](/wiki/Bantry \"Bantry\"), completely over\\-running the country. In February he turned north\\-west, again captured [Lixnaw](/wiki/Lixnaw \"Lixnaw\"), and subdued the [Dingle peninsula](/wiki/Dingle_peninsula \"Dingle peninsula\"), effecting a junction with Carew over the [Mangerton pass](/wiki/Mangerton_pass \"Mangerton pass\").", "In the following March, Wilmot was associated with Sir George Thornton in the government of Munster during Carew's absence. Cork, however, refused to acknowledge his authority and proclaim James I, and shut its gates against him. Wilmot sat down before it, and turned his guns on the inhabitants to prevent their demolishing the forts erected against the Spanish. He refused, however, to attack the city, and waited until Carew's return, when its submission was arranged. Wilmot now settled down as governor of Kerry.", "In 1606, he was again acting with Thornton as joint\\-commissioner for the government of Munster, and in November 1607 was granted a pension and sworn of the Irish privy council. On 20 May 1611, he was granted in reversion the marshalship of Ireland, but surrendered it on 24 August 1617\\. He sat in the English House of Commons for [Launceston](/wiki/Launceston_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Launceston (UK Parliament constituency)\") from 5 April to 17 June 1614\\. On 3 June 1616 he was appointed [President of Connaught](/wiki/President_of_Connaught \"President of Connaught\"), the seat of his government being Athlone; and, on 4 January 1621, he was created Viscount Wilmot of Athlone in the peerage of Ireland. Among the rewards for his services were grants of, among other lands, the abbey of Carrickfergus in 1614\\.", "While president of Connaught Wilmot embarked on a scheme for rebuilding Athlone; and in 1621 [Sir Charles Coote](/wiki/Sir_Charles_Coote%2C_1st_Baronet \"Sir Charles Coote, 1st Baronet\") accused him of leasing and alienating crown lands and reserving the profits to himself; these charges were referred to commissioners, but Wilmot's defence was accepted for the time being, and on 7 November 1625 he received a pardon.", "Charles I also renewed his appointment as president of Connaught, and in October 1627 selected him as commander of a relief expedition to be sent to the [Isle of Rhé](/wiki/Isle_of_Rh%C3%A9 \"Isle of Rhé\"). His fleet was, however, delayed at [Plymouth](/wiki/Plymouth \"Plymouth\"), first by want of supplies, and then by storms, which damaged the ships and drove them back into port. Meanwhile, the English at [La Rochelle](/wiki/La_Rochelle \"La Rochelle\") had been compelled to retreat, and Wilmot returned to Ireland, where he was appointed, on 6 November 1629, general and commander\\-in\\-chief of the forces.", "On 11 September 1630, [Roger Jones, 1st Viscount Ranelagh](/wiki/Roger_Jones%2C_1st_Viscount_Ranelagh \"Roger Jones, 1st Viscount Ranelagh\") was associated with him in the presidency of Connaught, and, on 6 August 1631, he was one of the commissioners appointed to govern [Dublin](/wiki/Dublin \"Dublin\") and [Leinster](/wiki/Leinster \"Leinster\") during the absence of the lords justices.", "In 1631, when it was resolved to supersede the lords justices of Ireland by the nomination of a lord deputy, Wilmot had hopes of being selected for the post. [Thomas Wentworth](/wiki/Thomas_Wentworth%2C_1st_Earl_of_Strafford \"Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford\")'s appointment he resented as a slight, and the new lord\\-deputy's inquisition into financial abuses soon brought him into collision with Wilmot.", "In September 1634, proceedings at Athlone were again called in question; a commission of inquiry was issued early in 1635, and the Irish law officers instituted suits against Wilmot before the castle chamber on the ground of misdemeanour and in the court of exchequer for recovery of the crown lands he had alienated. Wilmot, in revenge, abetted Barr's petition against Wentworth, but, on 3 October 1635, was forced to submit, and, on 13 July 1636, sought the lord\\-deputy's favour. Wentworth insisted on restitution of the crown lands, but ineffectively, before his recall from Ireland.", "Wilmot's age prevented his serving against the [Irish Rebellion of 1641](/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641 \"Irish Rebellion of 1641\"), but he retained his joint\\-presidency of Connaught till his death, probably in the early part of 1644\\. He was alive on 29 June 1643, but dead before April 1644, when his son Henry and Sir Charles Coote were appointed joint\\-presidents of Connaught. His will dated 21 May 1643 refers to a house near [Charing Cross](/wiki/Charing_Cross \"Charing Cross\") adjoining [Scotland Yard](/wiki/Scotland_Yard \"Scotland Yard\").", "" ]
Plot ---- Some time after the events of *[A Crack in Time](/wiki/Ratchet_%26_Clank_Future:A_Crack_in_Time "A Crack in Time")*, Ratchet and Clank (having joined the Polaris Defense Force), along with Cronk and Zephyr, are assigned to escort criminal Vendra Prog to a remote prison to serve her life sentence, aboard the ship *Nebulox Seven*. While Vendra is being prepped for the handoff, she uses her psychic powers to disable the ship's power, putting the crew's survival at risk. Although Ratchet manages to fix the damage, a small army of Thugs\-4\-Less mercenaries led by Vendra's twin brother Neftin attack the ship and rescue her. The mercenaries blow up the *Nebulox* with explosives, killing [Cronk and Zephyr](/wiki/Ratchet_%26_Clank%23Cronk_and_Zephyr "Ratchet & Clank#Cronk and Zephyr"). Ratchet and Clank escape and manage to stow away on one of their ships headed towards planet Yerek in the Zarkov Sector. Upon landing, Ratchet informs his superior [Talwyn Apogee](/wiki/Ratchet_%26_Clank%23Talwyn_Apogee "Ratchet & Clank#Talwyn Apogee") of the situation and is urged to return. Instead, he and Clank set out to investigate the Prog siblings' activities on Yerek. They meet Pollyx, a Terachnoid scientist who once worked for their old enemy Dr. Nefarious. Pollyx reveals that the Progs kidnapped him for his research on the "Netherverse", an alternate world inhabited by a race of demonic entities known as the Nethers. While exploring the Meero Orphanage, where the Progs lived as children, the duo come across Vendra communicating with the leader of the Nethers, a creature she calls "Mr. Eye". After being discovered, they are saved by the timely intervention of [Captain Qwark](/wiki/Captain_Qwark "Captain Qwark"), who provides them with their old ship, Aphelion. With Qwark monitoring the Progs from space, Ratchet and Clank fly to planet Kragg to compete in Destructapalooza, a tournament organized by Neftin's mercenaries, winning a jetpack upgrade for Clank. They then head to Weeblesnog City, the capital city of planet Silox, where the Progs are experimenting with a device resembling the Dimensionator. The duo confronts and defeat Neftin, but Vendra manages to open a portal to the Netherverse, allowing Mr. Eye and his soldiers to enter the real world. Revealing his manipulation of Vendra, Mr. Eye has her cast into the Netherverse. Ratchet and Clank escape and make contact with Neftin, who instructs them to travel to his hideout on planet Thram. On the planet the duo reunite with the Smuggler, who hires them to hunt the native wildlife in exchange for a pair of Hoverboots. Tracking down Neftin, they learn that the device used to free the Nethers was modeled after the original Dimensionator, which has been put on display in the Intergalactic Museum of History on planet Igliak. As it is now the only thing capable of breaching the Netherverse, Neftin asks Ratchet to retrieve it for him. The latter agrees on one condition: that the Progs turn themselves in afterwards. With the help of a Tourbot stolen by Neftin, the duo make their way through the museum and locate the Dimensionator, just as the Nethers launch an invasion. While Neftin, Pollyx, and Qwark work to restore the machine to working order, Ratchet and Clank engage and defeat the invaders. As Mr. Eye moves to attack them, Ratchet maneuvers him into a one\-on\-one battle. Using the Dimensionator, Neftin sends Clank into the Netherverse, where he rescues Vendra from captivity. Combining their powers, the Progs banish Mr. Eye and the Nethers back to their own dimension before surrendering to galactic authorities. Clank takes possession of the Dimensionator in the hopes that he can use it to [locate the Lombax race](/wiki/Ratchet_%26_Clank:Rift_Apart "Rift Apart"), despite Ratchet's admission that he has no desire to leave Talwyn. In a [post\-credits scene](/wiki/Post-credits_scene "Post-credits scene"), Cronk and Zephyr are shown as ghosts in front of a display dedicated to them in the Museum's main hall. After briefly trading insults, the two leave.
[ "Plot\n----", "Some time after the events of *[A Crack in Time](/wiki/Ratchet_%26_Clank_Future:A_Crack_in_Time \"A Crack in Time\")*, Ratchet and Clank (having joined the Polaris Defense Force), along with Cronk and Zephyr, are assigned to escort criminal Vendra Prog to a remote prison to serve her life sentence, aboard the ship *Nebulox Seven*. While Vendra is being prepped for the handoff, she uses her psychic powers to disable the ship's power, putting the crew's survival at risk. Although Ratchet manages to fix the damage, a small army of Thugs\\-4\\-Less mercenaries led by Vendra's twin brother Neftin attack the ship and rescue her. The mercenaries blow up the *Nebulox* with explosives, killing [Cronk and Zephyr](/wiki/Ratchet_%26_Clank%23Cronk_and_Zephyr \"Ratchet & Clank#Cronk and Zephyr\"). Ratchet and Clank escape and manage to stow away on one of their ships headed towards planet Yerek in the Zarkov Sector.", "Upon landing, Ratchet informs his superior [Talwyn Apogee](/wiki/Ratchet_%26_Clank%23Talwyn_Apogee \"Ratchet & Clank#Talwyn Apogee\") of the situation and is urged to return. Instead, he and Clank set out to investigate the Prog siblings' activities on Yerek. They meet Pollyx, a Terachnoid scientist who once worked for their old enemy Dr. Nefarious. Pollyx reveals that the Progs kidnapped him for his research on the \"Netherverse\", an alternate world inhabited by a race of demonic entities known as the Nethers.", "While exploring the Meero Orphanage, where the Progs lived as children, the duo come across Vendra communicating with the leader of the Nethers, a creature she calls \"Mr. Eye\". After being discovered, they are saved by the timely intervention of [Captain Qwark](/wiki/Captain_Qwark \"Captain Qwark\"), who provides them with their old ship, Aphelion. With Qwark monitoring the Progs from space, Ratchet and Clank fly to planet Kragg to compete in Destructapalooza, a tournament organized by Neftin's mercenaries, winning a jetpack upgrade for Clank.", "They then head to Weeblesnog City, the capital city of planet Silox, where the Progs are experimenting with a device resembling the Dimensionator. The duo confronts and defeat Neftin, but Vendra manages to open a portal to the Netherverse, allowing Mr. Eye and his soldiers to enter the real world. Revealing his manipulation of Vendra, Mr. Eye has her cast into the Netherverse. Ratchet and Clank escape and make contact with Neftin, who instructs them to travel to his hideout on planet Thram.", "On the planet the duo reunite with the Smuggler, who hires them to hunt the native wildlife in exchange for a pair of Hoverboots. Tracking down Neftin, they learn that the device used to free the Nethers was modeled after the original Dimensionator, which has been put on display in the Intergalactic Museum of History on planet Igliak. As it is now the only thing capable of breaching the Netherverse, Neftin asks Ratchet to retrieve it for him. The latter agrees on one condition: that the Progs turn themselves in afterwards.", "With the help of a Tourbot stolen by Neftin, the duo make their way through the museum and locate the Dimensionator, just as the Nethers launch an invasion. While Neftin, Pollyx, and Qwark work to restore the machine to working order, Ratchet and Clank engage and defeat the invaders. As Mr. Eye moves to attack them, Ratchet maneuvers him into a one\\-on\\-one battle.", "Using the Dimensionator, Neftin sends Clank into the Netherverse, where he rescues Vendra from captivity. Combining their powers, the Progs banish Mr. Eye and the Nethers back to their own dimension before surrendering to galactic authorities. Clank takes possession of the Dimensionator in the hopes that he can use it to [locate the Lombax race](/wiki/Ratchet_%26_Clank:Rift_Apart \"Rift Apart\"), despite Ratchet's admission that he has no desire to leave Talwyn.", "In a [post\\-credits scene](/wiki/Post-credits_scene \"Post-credits scene\"), Cronk and Zephyr are shown as ghosts in front of a display dedicated to them in the Museum's main hall. After briefly trading insults, the two leave.", "" ]
Street life ----------- [thumb\|Jane Cakebread by [Phil May](/wiki/Phil_May_%28caricaturist%29 "Phil May (caricaturist)") At](/wiki/File:Jane_Cakebread_by_Phil_May_1863-1903.jpg "Jane Cakebread by Phil May 1863-1903.jpg") some point, Jane Cakebread started living on the streets, possibly after she had squandered her windfall or had been robbed. This led to her first appearances in London [police courts](/wiki/Magistrates%27_court_%28England_and_Wales%29 "Magistrates' court (England and Wales)") charged with being "[drunk and disorderly](/wiki/Drunk_and_disorderly "Drunk and disorderly")". For more than fifteen years, Cakebread was a familiar figure on Worship Street, [Clerkenwell](/wiki/Clerkenwell "Clerkenwell"), and in the [North London](/wiki/North_London "North London") police courts. Homeless and penniless, she was arrested frequently, and her life became an endless cycle from police court to prison, from prison to the streets, and then back to court. A recent biographical account states that she appeared in court 277 times, while her widely cited obituary claimed that she had been "convicted" 281 times. Medical lobbyists and moral reformers during this period drew attention to the case of Jane Cakebread to show that legislation in the 1870s and 1880s had failed to help the "poor, mainly female, inebriates" who appeared before the courts often, and "represented a growing public scandal."{{cite journal \|last1\=Zedner \|first1\=Lucia \|date\=1991 \|title\=Women, Crime, and Penal Responses: A Historical Account \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1147464 \|journal\=Crime and Justice \|volume\=14 \|page\=333 \|doi\=10\.1086/449189 \|jstor\=1147464\|s2cid\=144473964 }} ### Homelessness In the weeks when Cakebread was out of jail, she stayed outdoors all day and night, unless Holmes was able to find shelter for her. Toward the end of her life, he struggled to find anyone willing to take her in, regardless of how much he was willing to pay. During the [great frost of 1895](/wiki/Winter_of_1894%E2%80%9395_in_the_United_Kingdom "Winter of 1894–95 in the United Kingdom"), for nine weeks, Cakebread slept outdoors using a bed made from a bundle of sticks, and she washed in the icy [River Lea](/wiki/River_Lea "River Lea"). She was "defiant" about the cold weather, and liked to say, "Ladies always wash in cold water." She was completely sober during this time. "Miss Cakebread", as she called herself, or "Jane", was regularly baited by boys in the street. She had memorised chapters of the Bible, including one from the [Book of Job](/wiki/Book_of_Job "Book of Job") concerning the uncertainty of human life, which she often recited when quarrels broke out. Her prized possessions were three brown\-paper parcels which she carried at all times, containing ten years' worth of clothing which Holmes had given to her. She took very good care of her teeth, using brick dust which she ground up herself as "tooth\-powder". ### Alcohol usage Despite her reputation as an "inebriate" who was constantly drinking, in reality, Jane Cakebread was classified as a "periodic drinker". She drank alcohol only in small quantities. She went for long stretches of time without liquor; she craved it only intermittently and sometimes refused it. She did, however, have an extreme reaction to small quantities of alcohol, and was given drinks by people who knew her who wanted to "hear her talk and see the fireworks". The sale and procurement of liquor for "habitual drunkards" and "drunken people" was made illegal after Cakebread's death, when the [Licensing Act 1902](/wiki/Licensing_Act_1902 "Licensing Act 1902") was enacted by [Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom "Parliament of the United Kingdom").{{Cite web \|title\=Licensing Act 1902 \|url\=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Edw7/2/28/enacted \|access\-date\=2022\-04\-02 \|website\=legislation.gov.uk – The National Archives}} ### Interactions with the police and magistrate Cakebread willingly gave herself up to police custody on a regular basis. She frequently chased after the police for protection, or to take her into custody, and they would often flee when they saw her coming. Some even bribed her to leave them alone. When she was unsuccessful, she would lie down and scream "Murder!" and "Police!" The police would then have no choice but to arrest her. Once arrested, she would refuse to move until she was strapped into an [ambulance](/wiki/History_of_the_ambulance%23Hospital-based_services_begin "History of the ambulance#Hospital-based services begin"), which she called a "perambulator". According to Holmes, Jane Cakebread's appearances in court were a highlight in her life. She reveled in the attention she received, and the notoriety that it gave her. In contrast to other women who ended up in the dock, Cakebread took an active interest in the proceedings, and would comment on them loudly "to the amusement and the occasional embarrassment of the court." Holmes wrote: > To hear the hum of amused wonder and scarcely suppressed laughter when 'No. 12, Jane Cakebread, your worship,' was announced by the gaoler was the very breath of life, and proved ample compensation for the discomfort of the cells... When before the magistrate, she was always at her best, and the knowledge that she was sure to be the cause of many paragraphs next day seemed to brace her up for a special effort; and oh the dear delight if she could but make the majesty of the law to unbend, and cause a smile to appear on the magistrate's face! For that smile she would cheerfully 'do' her month. 'Mr. Holmes,' she has said to me many times, 'did you see me make the magistrate laugh?' And in the cells she would hug herself, and fall to her hymns and prayers with rare enjoyment. On one occasion, the judge discharged her, because she looked well rested, and she was ushered out of court without a chance to speak. Disappointed, the next day, Cakebread made sure the police had more evidence to present on her behalf, so she could interrupt proceedings and have her turn to speak. Cakebread was frequently imprisoned at [Millbank Prison](/wiki/Millbank_Prison "Millbank Prison"), up to 1890\. When Millbank closed, females were received into [Holloway Prison](/wiki/HM_Prison_Holloway "HM Prison Holloway"). On at least one occasion, she spent one month at Cambridge Gaol.
[ "Street life\n-----------", "[thumb\\|Jane Cakebread by [Phil May](/wiki/Phil_May_%28caricaturist%29 \"Phil May (caricaturist)\") At](/wiki/File:Jane_Cakebread_by_Phil_May_1863-1903.jpg \"Jane Cakebread by Phil May 1863-1903.jpg\") some point, Jane Cakebread started living on the streets, possibly after she had squandered her windfall or had been robbed. This led to her first appearances in London [police courts](/wiki/Magistrates%27_court_%28England_and_Wales%29 \"Magistrates' court (England and Wales)\") charged with being \"[drunk and disorderly](/wiki/Drunk_and_disorderly \"Drunk and disorderly\")\".", "For more than fifteen years, Cakebread was a familiar figure on Worship Street, [Clerkenwell](/wiki/Clerkenwell \"Clerkenwell\"), and in the [North London](/wiki/North_London \"North London\") police courts. Homeless and penniless, she was arrested frequently, and her life became an endless cycle from police court to prison, from prison to the streets, and then back to court. A recent biographical account states that she appeared in court 277 times, while her widely cited obituary claimed that she had been \"convicted\" 281 times.", "Medical lobbyists and moral reformers during this period drew attention to the case of Jane Cakebread to show that legislation in the 1870s and 1880s had failed to help the \"poor, mainly female, inebriates\" who appeared before the courts often, and \"represented a growing public scandal.\"{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Zedner \\|first1\\=Lucia \\|date\\=1991 \\|title\\=Women, Crime, and Penal Responses: A Historical Account \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1147464 \\|journal\\=Crime and Justice \\|volume\\=14 \\|page\\=333 \\|doi\\=10\\.1086/449189 \\|jstor\\=1147464\\|s2cid\\=144473964 }}", "### Homelessness", "In the weeks when Cakebread was out of jail, she stayed outdoors all day and night, unless Holmes was able to find shelter for her. Toward the end of her life, he struggled to find anyone willing to take her in, regardless of how much he was willing to pay. During the [great frost of 1895](/wiki/Winter_of_1894%E2%80%9395_in_the_United_Kingdom \"Winter of 1894–95 in the United Kingdom\"), for nine weeks, Cakebread slept outdoors using a bed made from a bundle of sticks, and she washed in the icy [River Lea](/wiki/River_Lea \"River Lea\"). She was \"defiant\" about the cold weather, and liked to say, \"Ladies always wash in cold water.\" She was completely sober during this time.", "\"Miss Cakebread\", as she called herself, or \"Jane\", was regularly baited by boys in the street. She had memorised chapters of the Bible, including one from the [Book of Job](/wiki/Book_of_Job \"Book of Job\") concerning the uncertainty of human life, which she often recited when quarrels broke out. Her prized possessions were three brown\\-paper parcels which she carried at all times, containing ten years' worth of clothing which Holmes had given to her. She took very good care of her teeth, using brick dust which she ground up herself as \"tooth\\-powder\".", "### Alcohol usage", "Despite her reputation as an \"inebriate\" who was constantly drinking, in reality, Jane Cakebread was classified as a \"periodic drinker\". She drank alcohol only in small quantities. She went for long stretches of time without liquor; she craved it only intermittently and sometimes refused it. She did, however, have an extreme reaction to small quantities of alcohol, and was given drinks by people who knew her who wanted to \"hear her talk and see the fireworks\". The sale and procurement of liquor for \"habitual drunkards\" and \"drunken people\" was made illegal after Cakebread's death, when the [Licensing Act 1902](/wiki/Licensing_Act_1902 \"Licensing Act 1902\") was enacted by [Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Parliament of the United Kingdom\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Licensing Act 1902 \\|url\\=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Edw7/2/28/enacted \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-04\\-02 \\|website\\=legislation.gov.uk – The National Archives}}", "### Interactions with the police and magistrate", "Cakebread willingly gave herself up to police custody on a regular basis. She frequently chased after the police for protection, or to take her into custody, and they would often flee when they saw her coming. Some even bribed her to leave them alone. When she was unsuccessful, she would lie down and scream \"Murder!\" and \"Police!\" The police would then have no choice but to arrest her. Once arrested, she would refuse to move until she was strapped into an [ambulance](/wiki/History_of_the_ambulance%23Hospital-based_services_begin \"History of the ambulance#Hospital-based services begin\"), which she called a \"perambulator\".", "According to Holmes, Jane Cakebread's appearances in court were a highlight in her life. She reveled in the attention she received, and the notoriety that it gave her. In contrast to other women who ended up in the dock, Cakebread took an active interest in the proceedings, and would comment on them loudly \"to the amusement and the occasional embarrassment of the court.\" Holmes wrote:\n> To hear the hum of amused wonder and scarcely suppressed laughter when 'No. 12, Jane Cakebread, your worship,' was announced by the gaoler was the very breath of life, and proved ample compensation for the discomfort of the cells... When before the magistrate, she was always at her best, and the knowledge that she was sure to be the cause of many paragraphs next day seemed to brace her up for a special effort; and oh the dear delight if she could but make the majesty of the law to unbend, and cause a smile to appear on the magistrate's face! For that smile she would cheerfully 'do' her month. 'Mr. Holmes,' she has said to me many times, 'did you see me make the magistrate laugh?' And in the cells she would hug herself, and fall to her hymns and prayers with rare enjoyment.", "On one occasion, the judge discharged her, because she looked well rested, and she was ushered out of court without a chance to speak. Disappointed, the next day, Cakebread made sure the police had more evidence to present on her behalf, so she could interrupt proceedings and have her turn to speak.", "Cakebread was frequently imprisoned at [Millbank Prison](/wiki/Millbank_Prison \"Millbank Prison\"), up to 1890\\. When Millbank closed, females were received into [Holloway Prison](/wiki/HM_Prison_Holloway \"HM Prison Holloway\"). On at least one occasion, she spent one month at Cambridge Gaol.", "" ]
History ------- Error : Confusion between Vitry\-en\-Artois (B\-50, northern France) and Vitry\-le\-François (A\-67, Champagne region). ### German use during World War II A small grass airfield prior to World War II, it was seized by the Germans in late May 1940\. After its capture, Vitry\-En\-Artois was used by the Luftwaffe as a combat airfield during the [Battle of France](/wiki/Battle_of_France "Battle of France"). As part of the [Blitzkrieg](/wiki/Blitzkrieg "Blitzkrieg"), the Germans assigned the following units to the airfield during the battle, carrying out air attacks on the defending French and British Expeditionary Force: [The Luftwaffe, 1933\-45](http://www.ww2.dk)[Identification codes of units of the Luftwaffe 1939 \- 1945](http://www.rlm.at/cont/archiv02_e.htm) * Jagdgeschwader 54 (JS 54\) 28 May\-6 June 1940 [Messerschmitt Bf 109E](/wiki/Messerschmitt_Bf_109 "Messerschmitt Bf 109") * Jagdgeschwader 51 (JS 51\) 1–9 June 1940 [Messerschmitt Bf 109E](/wiki/Messerschmitt_Bf_109 "Messerschmitt Bf 109") * Lehrgeschwader 1 (LG 1\) 14–25 June 1940 [Junkers Ju 88A](/wiki/Junkers_Ju_88 "Junkers Ju 88") After the [Second Armistice at Compiègne](/wiki/Second_Armistice_at_Compi%C3%A8gne "Second Armistice at Compiègne") on 22 June, the Luftwaffe moved Kampfgeschwader 53 (KG 53\) to the airfield on 12 July. KG 53 was a [Heinkel He 111](/wiki/Heinkel_He_111 "Heinkel He 111") medium bomber unit that participated in the ensuing [Battle of Britain](/wiki/Battle_of_Britain "Battle of Britain"), remaining assigned to Vitry until 18 June 1941\. Later in 1941, the Germans improved the facility into a permanent Luftwaffe airfield by expanding the support area with numerous maintenance shops, hangars, and laying down two 1500m concrete all\-weather runways, aligned 03/21 and 09/27 (A possible third runway, aligned 13/31 is visible in aerial photography, only part of the 13 (northwest) end still remains). Numerous taxiways and dispersal aircraft parking areas were also constructed. As Vitry is located in the [Pas\-de\-Calais](/wiki/Pas-de-Calais "Pas-de-Calais"), it was believed by the Germans that when the Americans and British tried to land in France to open a Second Front, the airfield would have a key role in the defence of France. In 1943, Vitry\-En\-Artois became a day interceptor airfield which housed fighters to attack the USAAF [Eighth Air Force](/wiki/Eighth_Air_Force "Eighth Air Force") heavy bomber fleets attacking targets in Occupied Europe and Germany. Known units assigned (all from Luftflotte 3, Fliegerkorps IV): * Jagdgeschwader 2 (JS 2\) August–December 1943 [Focke\-Wulf Fw 190A](/wiki/Focke-Wulf_Fw_190 "Focke-Wulf Fw 190") * Kampfgeschwader 2 (KG 2\) 22 January\-6 February 1944 [Messerschmitt Me 410A](/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_410 "Messerschmitt Me 410")/U * Jagdgeschwader 26 (JS 26\) 21–29 August 1944 [Focke\-Wulf Fw 190A](/wiki/Focke-Wulf_Fw_190 "Focke-Wulf Fw 190") Largely due to its use as a base for interceptors, and also as part of [Operation Quicksilver](/wiki/Operation_Quicksilver_%28WWII%29 "Operation Quicksilver (WWII)"), which was designed to deceive the Germans about where the invasion of France would take place, Vitry\-En\-Artois was attacked several times by Eighth Air Force [B\-17 Flying Fortress](/wiki/B-17_Flying_Fortress "B-17 Flying Fortress") heavy bomber groups in 1943 and 1944\.[USAFHRA Document 01024964](http://airforcehistoryindex.org/data/001/024/964.xml)[USAFHRA Document 00209394](http://airforcehistoryindex.org/data/000/209/394.xml) ### Allied use Vitry\-en\-Artois was cleared of German forces in late August 1944 by elements of the [First Canadian Army](/wiki/First_Canadian_Army "First Canadian Army"). Before withdrawing, hangars, buildings, electrical generators, water treatment and other facilities that had not yet been destroyed by Allied bombing, were blown up by German combat engineers. After capture by Allied forces, Airfield Construction Teams from the [Royal Engineers](/wiki/Royal_Engineers "Royal Engineers") and [No. 85 Group RAF](/wiki/No._85_Group_RAF "No. 85 Group RAF") cleared and repaired the airfield to bring it back to operational status as [Advanced Landing Ground](/wiki/Advanced_Landing_Ground "Advanced Landing Ground") "B\-50". B\-50 was used by the following RAF units, and as a marshalling and assembly area for transport units for elements of the [First Allied Airborne Army](/wiki/First_Allied_Airborne_Army "First Allied Airborne Army") during [Operation Varsity](/wiki/Operation_Varsity "Operation Varsity") in March 1945\. * [No. 184 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._184_Squadron_RAF "No. 184 Squadron RAF"), 4–15 September 1944 ([Hawker Typhoon IB](/wiki/Hawker_Typhoon "Hawker Typhoon")) * [No. 226 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._226_Squadron_RAF "No. 226 Squadron RAF") "Sussex Missions" ([No. 137 Wing RAF](/wiki/No._137_Wing_RAF "No. 137 Wing RAF")), 17 October 1944 – 22 April 1945 ([Mitchell II](/wiki/North_American_B-25_Mitchell "North American B-25 Mitchell")) * [No. 88 (Hong Kong) Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._88_Squadron_RAF "No. 88 Squadron RAF") (No. 137 Wing), 17 October 1944 – 6 April 1945 ([Douglas Boston III \& IV](/wiki/Douglas_A-20_Havoc "Douglas A-20 Havoc")) * [No. 342 (GB I/20 'Lorraine') Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._342_Squadron_RAF "No. 342 Squadron RAF") "FAFL Groupe Lorraine" (No. 137 Wing), 17 October 1944 – 22 April 1945 (Douglas Boston III \& IV, Mitchell II) With the war ended, it was also used as a storage area for surplus allied (mostly American) aircraft after the war by [Air Technical Service Command](/wiki/Air_Technical_Service_Command "Air Technical Service Command").[USAFHRA Document 00072767](http://airforcehistoryindex.org/data/000/072/767.xml){{dead link\|date\=March 2024}} Vitry\-en\-Artois was returned to French control on 18 December 1945\. ### Postwar In French control after the war, the airfield sat abandoned for years. There was much unexploded ordnance at the site which needed to be removed, as well as the wreckage of German and Allied aircraft. All of the buildings at the base were destroyed by the Allied air attacks or demolition, and although some had been repaired, most were in ruins. The French Air Force wanted nothing to do with a Nazi airfield on French soil, and as a result, the Air Ministry leased the land, concrete runways, structures and all, out to farmers for agricultural use, sending in unexploded ordnance teams to remove the dangerous munitions. Eventually the facility was cleared of much of the rubble and ruins of the German airfield. Concrete taxiways, parking ramps and dispersal pads were removed and turned into hardcore aggregate, eventually clearing the land which was leased to farmers for agricultural fields. Relics of both wartime runways still exist, and single\-lane agricultural roads are the remains of some of the former taxiways. The runways are still littered with bomb craters, now grown in by soil and grass and other vegetation. At some time in more recent years, a small General Aviation airfield was established south of the wartime air base, along the D950\. It had minimal facilities, and no connection to the wartime field. On 8 March 2024 this airfield was closed, allowing development of a wind\-turbine farm.
[ "History\n-------", "Error : Confusion between Vitry\\-en\\-Artois (B\\-50, northern France) and Vitry\\-le\\-François (A\\-67, Champagne region).", "### German use during World War II", "A small grass airfield prior to World War II, it was seized by the Germans in late May 1940\\. After its capture, Vitry\\-En\\-Artois was used by the Luftwaffe as a combat airfield during the [Battle of France](/wiki/Battle_of_France \"Battle of France\"). As part of the [Blitzkrieg](/wiki/Blitzkrieg \"Blitzkrieg\"), the Germans assigned the following units to the airfield during the battle, carrying out air attacks on the defending French and British Expeditionary Force: [The Luftwaffe, 1933\\-45](http://www.ww2.dk)[Identification codes of units of the Luftwaffe 1939 \\- 1945](http://www.rlm.at/cont/archiv02_e.htm)", "* Jagdgeschwader 54 (JS 54\\) 28 May\\-6 June 1940 [Messerschmitt Bf 109E](/wiki/Messerschmitt_Bf_109 \"Messerschmitt Bf 109\")\n* Jagdgeschwader 51 (JS 51\\) 1–9 June 1940 [Messerschmitt Bf 109E](/wiki/Messerschmitt_Bf_109 \"Messerschmitt Bf 109\")\n* Lehrgeschwader 1 (LG 1\\) 14–25 June 1940 [Junkers Ju 88A](/wiki/Junkers_Ju_88 \"Junkers Ju 88\")", "After the [Second Armistice at Compiègne](/wiki/Second_Armistice_at_Compi%C3%A8gne \"Second Armistice at Compiègne\") on 22 June, the Luftwaffe moved Kampfgeschwader 53 (KG 53\\) to the airfield on 12 July. KG 53 was a [Heinkel He 111](/wiki/Heinkel_He_111 \"Heinkel He 111\") medium bomber unit that participated in the ensuing [Battle of Britain](/wiki/Battle_of_Britain \"Battle of Britain\"), remaining assigned to Vitry until 18 June 1941\\.", "Later in 1941, the Germans improved the facility into a permanent Luftwaffe airfield by expanding the support area with numerous maintenance shops, hangars, and laying down two 1500m concrete all\\-weather runways, aligned 03/21 and 09/27 (A possible third runway, aligned 13/31 is visible in aerial photography, only part of the 13 (northwest) end still remains). Numerous taxiways and dispersal aircraft parking areas were also constructed. As Vitry is located in the [Pas\\-de\\-Calais](/wiki/Pas-de-Calais \"Pas-de-Calais\"), it was believed by the Germans that when the Americans and British tried to land in France to open a Second Front, the airfield would have a key role in the defence of France.", "In 1943, Vitry\\-En\\-Artois became a day interceptor airfield which housed fighters to attack the USAAF [Eighth Air Force](/wiki/Eighth_Air_Force \"Eighth Air Force\") heavy bomber fleets attacking targets in Occupied Europe and Germany. Known units assigned (all from Luftflotte 3, Fliegerkorps IV):", "* Jagdgeschwader 2 (JS 2\\) August–December 1943 [Focke\\-Wulf Fw 190A](/wiki/Focke-Wulf_Fw_190 \"Focke-Wulf Fw 190\")\n* Kampfgeschwader 2 (KG 2\\) 22 January\\-6 February 1944 [Messerschmitt Me 410A](/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_410 \"Messerschmitt Me 410\")/U\n* Jagdgeschwader 26 (JS 26\\) 21–29 August 1944 [Focke\\-Wulf Fw 190A](/wiki/Focke-Wulf_Fw_190 \"Focke-Wulf Fw 190\")", "Largely due to its use as a base for interceptors, and also as part of [Operation Quicksilver](/wiki/Operation_Quicksilver_%28WWII%29 \"Operation Quicksilver (WWII)\"), which was designed to deceive the Germans about where the invasion of France would take place, Vitry\\-En\\-Artois was attacked several times by Eighth Air Force [B\\-17 Flying Fortress](/wiki/B-17_Flying_Fortress \"B-17 Flying Fortress\") heavy bomber groups in 1943 and 1944\\.[USAFHRA Document 01024964](http://airforcehistoryindex.org/data/001/024/964.xml)[USAFHRA Document 00209394](http://airforcehistoryindex.org/data/000/209/394.xml)", "### Allied use", "Vitry\\-en\\-Artois was cleared of German forces in late August 1944 by elements of the [First Canadian Army](/wiki/First_Canadian_Army \"First Canadian Army\"). Before withdrawing, hangars, buildings, electrical generators, water treatment and other facilities that had not yet been destroyed by Allied bombing, were blown up by German combat engineers. After capture by Allied forces, Airfield Construction Teams from the [Royal Engineers](/wiki/Royal_Engineers \"Royal Engineers\") and [No. 85 Group RAF](/wiki/No._85_Group_RAF \"No. 85 Group RAF\") cleared and repaired the airfield to bring it back to operational status as [Advanced Landing Ground](/wiki/Advanced_Landing_Ground \"Advanced Landing Ground\") \"B\\-50\".", "B\\-50 was used by the following RAF units, and as a marshalling and assembly area for transport units for elements of the [First Allied Airborne Army](/wiki/First_Allied_Airborne_Army \"First Allied Airborne Army\") during [Operation Varsity](/wiki/Operation_Varsity \"Operation Varsity\") in March 1945\\.", "* [No. 184 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._184_Squadron_RAF \"No. 184 Squadron RAF\"), 4–15 September 1944 ([Hawker Typhoon IB](/wiki/Hawker_Typhoon \"Hawker Typhoon\"))\n* [No. 226 Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._226_Squadron_RAF \"No. 226 Squadron RAF\") \"Sussex Missions\" ([No. 137 Wing RAF](/wiki/No._137_Wing_RAF \"No. 137 Wing RAF\")), 17 October 1944 – 22 April 1945 ([Mitchell II](/wiki/North_American_B-25_Mitchell \"North American B-25 Mitchell\"))\n* [No. 88 (Hong Kong) Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._88_Squadron_RAF \"No. 88 Squadron RAF\") (No. 137 Wing), 17 October 1944 – 6 April 1945 ([Douglas Boston III \\& IV](/wiki/Douglas_A-20_Havoc \"Douglas A-20 Havoc\"))\n* [No. 342 (GB I/20 'Lorraine') Squadron RAF](/wiki/No._342_Squadron_RAF \"No. 342 Squadron RAF\") \"FAFL Groupe Lorraine\" (No. 137 Wing), 17 October 1944 – 22 April 1945 (Douglas Boston III \\& IV, Mitchell II)", "With the war ended, it was also used as a storage area for surplus allied (mostly American) aircraft after the war by [Air Technical Service Command](/wiki/Air_Technical_Service_Command \"Air Technical Service Command\").[USAFHRA Document 00072767](http://airforcehistoryindex.org/data/000/072/767.xml){{dead link\\|date\\=March 2024}}\nVitry\\-en\\-Artois was returned to French control on 18 December 1945\\.", "### Postwar", "In French control after the war, the airfield sat abandoned for years. There was much unexploded ordnance at the site which needed to be removed, as well as the wreckage of German and Allied aircraft. All of the buildings at the base were destroyed by the Allied air attacks or demolition, and although some had been repaired, most were in ruins. The French Air Force wanted nothing to do with a Nazi airfield on French soil, and as a result, the Air Ministry leased the land, concrete runways, structures and all, out to farmers for agricultural use, sending in unexploded ordnance teams to remove the dangerous munitions.", "Eventually the facility was cleared of much of the rubble and ruins of the German airfield. Concrete taxiways, parking ramps and dispersal pads were removed and turned into hardcore aggregate, eventually clearing the land which was leased to farmers for agricultural fields. Relics of both wartime runways still exist, and single\\-lane agricultural roads are the remains of some of the former taxiways. The runways are still littered with bomb craters, now grown in by soil and grass and other vegetation.", "At some time in more recent years, a small General Aviation airfield was established south of the wartime air base, along the D950\\. It had minimal facilities, and no connection to the wartime field. On 8 March 2024 this airfield was closed, allowing development of a wind\\-turbine farm.", "" ]
Application in various fields ----------------------------- Through data philanthropy, corporations such as [social networking sites](/wiki/Social_networking_sites "Social networking sites"), telecommunication companies and [search engines](/wiki/Search_engines "Search engines") amongst others {{Clarification needed\|date\=September 2024}}, collect and make user generated information available to a data sharing system. This also permits institutions to give back to a cause widely seen as beneficial. With the onset of [technological](/wiki/Technological "Technological") advancements, sharing data on a global scale and an in\-depth analysis of these data structures could alter the reaction towards certain occurrences, be it [natural disasters](/wiki/Natural_disaster "Natural disaster"), [epidemics](/wiki/Epidemics "Epidemics"), worldwide [economic](/wiki/Economic "Economic") problems and other events. Robert Kirkpatrick, the Director of the United Nations Global Pulse, has argued that this aggregated Information is beneficial for the common good, and can lead to developments in [research](/wiki/Research "Research") and [data](/wiki/Data "Data") production in a range of varied fields.[Data Philanthropy is Good for Business](https://www.forbes.com/sites/oreillymedia/2011/09/20/data-philanthropy-is-good-for-business), by Robert Kirkpatrick, Forbes, 2011\-09\-20 ### Digital disease detection By using data gathered from [social media](/wiki/Social_media "Social media"), [cell phones](/wiki/Mobile_phone "Mobile phone"), and other communication modes {{Elaborate\|date\=September 2024}}, [health researchers](/wiki/Health_researchers "Health researchers") have been able to track the [spread of diseases](/wiki/Disease_spread "Disease spread").Schmidt, C. (2012\). [Trending Now: Using Social Media to Predict and Track Disease Outbreaks.](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3261963/) Environ Health Perspect, 120(1\), A30–a33\-A30–a33\. In the United States, [HealthMap](/wiki/HealthMap "HealthMap") is using data philanthropy related tactics to track the outbreak of diseases. HealthMap analyses data from publicly available media sources such as news websites, government alerts, and social media sites like X (formerly known as [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter "Twitter")) for outbreaks of various illnesses around the world.Reddy, E. (2015, July 14\). [Using Twitter data to study the world's health](https://blog.twitter.com/2015/twitter-data-public-health) Twitter. Another website, *Flu Near You*, allows users to report their own health status on a weekly basis. Traditional flu surveillance can take up to 2 weeks to confirm outbreaks, and Doctors must wait for a virological test to confirm the outbreak before reporting it to the Centers for Disease Control. This form of data philanthropy allows for up to date information regarding various health concerns, by using publicly available information gathered from news outlets, government alerts, and social media sites. HealthMap and Flu Near You are considered data philanthropy as users' data is gathered from social media sites without their knowledge. The [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention") collaborated with [Google](/wiki/Alphabet_Inc. "Alphabet Inc.") and launched [Google Flu Trends](/wiki/Google_Flu_Trends "Google Flu Trends") in 2008, a website that tracks flu\-related searches and user location to track the spread of the flu. Users can visit the website to compare the amount of flu\-related search activity versus the reported numbers of flu outbreaks on a graphical map. The difficulty with this method of tracking is that Google searches are sometimes performed due to curiosity, rather than when an individual is suffering from the flu. According to Ashley Fowlkes, an epidemiologist in the CDC Influenza division, "The Google Flu Trends system tries to account for that type of [Media bias](/wiki/Media_bias "Media bias") by modeling search terms over time to see which ones remain stable". Google Flu Trends is no longer publishing current flu estimates on the public website, however visitors to the site can still view and download previous estimates. Current data can be shared with verified researchers.O'Connor, F. (2015, August 20\). [Google Flu Trends calls out sick, indefinitely](http://www.pcworld.com/article/2974153/websites/google-flu-trends-calls-out-sick-indefinitely.html) PC World. A study by [Harvard School of Public Health](/wiki/Harvard_School_of_Public_Health "Harvard School of Public Health") (HSPH) released in the October 12, 2012 issues of the journal Science discussed how phone data helped curb the spread of [malaria](/wiki/Malaria "Malaria") in Kenya. The researchers mapped phone calls and texts made by 14,816,521 Kenyan [mobile phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone "Mobile phone") subscribers.Datz, T. (2012, October 11\). [Using cell phone data to curb the spread of malaria.](http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/press-releases/cell-phone-data-malaria/) Harvard Chan. When individuals left their primary living location the destination and length of journey was calculated. This data was then compared to a 2009 malaria [prevalence](/wiki/Prevalence "Prevalence") map to estimate the disease's commonness in each location. Combining all this information, the researchers can estimate the probability of an individual carrying malaria and map the movement of the disease. This research can be used to track the spread of similar diseases. ### Humanitarian Aid Calling patterns of [mobile phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone "Mobile phone") users can determine the [socioeconomic](/wiki/Socioeconomic "Socioeconomic") standings of the populace which can be used to deduce "its access to housing, education, healthcare, and basic services such as water and electricity". Researchers from Columbia University and Karolinska Institute utilize information from [mobile phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone "Mobile phone") providers, in order to assist in the dispersal of resources by deducing the movement of those displaced by natural disasters. Big data can also provide information on looming disasters and can assist relief organizations in rapid response and locating displaced individuals. By analysing certain patterns within this 'big data', could successfully transform the response to destructive occurrences like natural disasters, [outbreaks](/wiki/Outbreak "Outbreak") of diseases and global economic distress, by employing real\-time information to achieve a comprehension of the welfare of individuals. Corporations utilize digital services, such as human sensor systems, to detect and solve impending problems within [communities](/wiki/Communities "Communities"). This is a strategy implemented by the private sector in order to protect its citizens by anonymously dispersing customer information to the public sector, whilst also ensuring the protection of their privacy. ### Corporate Data philanthropy incorporates aspects of social philanthropy by permitting [corporations](/wiki/Corporations "Corporations") to create profound impacts through the act of giving back by dispersing proprietary datasets.[Data Philanthropy for Humanitarian Response](http://irevolution.net/2012/06/04/big-data-philanthropy-for-humanitarian-response/Big), by Irevolution, 2012\-07\-04 The [public sector](/wiki/Public_sector "Public sector") collect and preserve information, which has been considered to be an essential asset. Company's track and analyse users online activities, so as to gain more insight into their needs in relation to new products and services.{{Cite news \|last\=Stempeck \|first\=Matt \|date\=2014\-07\-24 \|title\=Sharing Data Is a Form of Corporate Philanthropy \|url\=https://hbr.org/2014/07/sharing\-data\-is\-a\-form\-of\-corporate\-philanthropy \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092019/https://hbr.org/2014/07/sharing\-data\-is\-a\-form\-of\-corporate\-philanthropy/Sharing \|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-04 \|access\-date\=2024\-10\-09 \|work\=Harvard Business Review \|issn\=0017\-8012}} These companies view the welfare of the population as a vital key to the expansion and progression of businesses by using their data to places a spotlight on the plight of global citizens. [Experts](/wiki/Expert "Expert") in the private sector contend the importance of merging various data streams such as retail, mobile phone and social media data to create necessary solutions to handle global issues.{{Citation needed\|date\=September 2024\|reason\='Experts' is used to provide a claim, however no citation is given. Do these 'experts' exist?}} According to Robert Kirkpatrick, despite the inevitable risk of sharing private information, it works in a beneficial manner and serves the interest of the public.[A New Type of Philanthropy: Donating Data](https://hbr.org/2013/03/a-new-type-of-philanthropy-don&cm_sp=Article-_-Links-_-Top%20of%20Page%20Recirculation), by Robert Kirkpatrick,Harvard Business Review 2013\-03\-21{{Subscription required\|via\=Harvard Business Review}} The digital revolution causes an extensive production of [Big data](/wiki/Big_data "Big data") that is user\-generated and available on the web. Corporations accumulate information on customer preferences through the digital services they utilize and products they purchase, in order to gain a clear insight on their clientele and future market opportunities. However, the rights of individuals concerning privacy and ownership of data are a controversial issue, as governments and other institutions can use this collective data for other [unethical](/wiki/Unethical "Unethical") purposes. Companies monitor and probe consumer online activities in order to better comprehend and develop tailored needs for their clientele, and in turn increase their profits.[Big Data Means More Than Big Profits](https://hbr.org/2013/03/big-data-means-more-than-big-p), by Jim Fruchterman, Harvard Business Review, 2013\-03\-19 ### Academia Data philanthropy plays an important role in [academia](/wiki/Academia "Academia"). Researchers encounter countless obstacles whilst attempting to access data. This data is available to a limited number of researchers with sole access to restricted resources who are authorized to utilize this information; like social media streams enabling them to produce more [knowledge](/wiki/Knowledge "Knowledge") and develop new studies. For example, X (formerly known as Twitter) markets access to its real\-time APIs at various prices, e.g $5,000 for reading 1,000,000 posts per month, which often surpasses the budgets of most researchers. ### Human Rights Data philanthropy aids the [Human rights](/wiki/Human_rights "Human rights") movement, by assisting in the dispersal of evidence for truth commissions and war crimes tribunals. Proponents of human rights accumulate data on abuse occurring within states, which is then used for scientific analysis and propels awareness and action. For example, non\-profit organizations compile data from human rights monitors in war zones in order to assist the [UN High Commissioner for Human Rights](/wiki/Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights "Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights"). This data uncovers inconsistencies in the number of casualties of war, which in turn leads to international attention and exerts influence on discussions relating to global policy.
[ "Application in various fields\n-----------------------------", "Through data philanthropy, corporations such as [social networking sites](/wiki/Social_networking_sites \"Social networking sites\"), telecommunication companies and [search engines](/wiki/Search_engines \"Search engines\") amongst others {{Clarification needed\\|date\\=September 2024}}, collect and make user generated information available to a data sharing system. This also permits institutions to give back to a cause widely seen as beneficial. With the onset of [technological](/wiki/Technological \"Technological\") advancements, sharing data on a global scale and an in\\-depth analysis of these data structures could alter the reaction towards certain occurrences, be it [natural disasters](/wiki/Natural_disaster \"Natural disaster\"), [epidemics](/wiki/Epidemics \"Epidemics\"), worldwide [economic](/wiki/Economic \"Economic\") problems and other events. Robert Kirkpatrick, the Director of the United Nations Global Pulse, has argued that this aggregated Information is beneficial for the common good, and can lead to developments in [research](/wiki/Research \"Research\") and [data](/wiki/Data \"Data\") production in a range of varied fields.[Data Philanthropy is Good for Business](https://www.forbes.com/sites/oreillymedia/2011/09/20/data-philanthropy-is-good-for-business), by Robert Kirkpatrick, Forbes, 2011\\-09\\-20", "### Digital disease detection", "By using data gathered from [social media](/wiki/Social_media \"Social media\"), [cell phones](/wiki/Mobile_phone \"Mobile phone\"), and other communication modes {{Elaborate\\|date\\=September 2024}}, [health researchers](/wiki/Health_researchers \"Health researchers\") have been able to track the [spread of diseases](/wiki/Disease_spread \"Disease spread\").Schmidt, C. (2012\\). [Trending Now: Using Social Media to Predict and Track Disease Outbreaks.](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3261963/) Environ Health Perspect, 120(1\\), A30–a33\\-A30–a33\\.", "In the United States, [HealthMap](/wiki/HealthMap \"HealthMap\") is using data philanthropy related tactics to track the outbreak of diseases. HealthMap analyses data from publicly available media sources such as news websites, government alerts, and social media sites like X (formerly known as [Twitter](/wiki/Twitter \"Twitter\")) for outbreaks of various illnesses around the world.Reddy, E. (2015, July 14\\). [Using Twitter data to study the world's health](https://blog.twitter.com/2015/twitter-data-public-health) Twitter. Another website, *Flu Near You*, allows users to report their own health status on a weekly basis. Traditional flu surveillance can take up to 2 weeks to confirm outbreaks, and Doctors must wait for a virological test to confirm the outbreak before reporting it to the Centers for Disease Control. This form of data philanthropy allows for up to date information regarding various health concerns, by using publicly available information gathered from news outlets, government alerts, and social media sites. HealthMap and Flu Near You are considered data philanthropy as users' data is gathered from social media sites without their knowledge.", "The [Centers for Disease Control and Prevention](/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention \"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\") collaborated with [Google](/wiki/Alphabet_Inc. \"Alphabet Inc.\") and launched [Google Flu Trends](/wiki/Google_Flu_Trends \"Google Flu Trends\") in 2008, a website that tracks flu\\-related searches and user location to track the spread of the flu. Users can visit the website to compare the amount of flu\\-related search activity versus the reported numbers of flu outbreaks on a graphical map. The difficulty with this method of tracking is that Google searches are sometimes performed due to curiosity, rather than when an individual is suffering from the flu. According to Ashley Fowlkes, an epidemiologist in the CDC Influenza division, \"The Google Flu Trends system tries to account for that type of [Media bias](/wiki/Media_bias \"Media bias\") by modeling search terms over time to see which ones remain stable\". Google Flu Trends is no longer publishing current flu estimates on the public website, however visitors to the site can still view and download previous estimates. Current data can be shared with verified researchers.O'Connor, F. (2015, August 20\\). [Google Flu Trends calls out sick, indefinitely](http://www.pcworld.com/article/2974153/websites/google-flu-trends-calls-out-sick-indefinitely.html) PC World.", "A study by [Harvard School of Public Health](/wiki/Harvard_School_of_Public_Health \"Harvard School of Public Health\") (HSPH) released in the October 12, 2012 issues of the journal Science discussed how phone data helped curb the spread of [malaria](/wiki/Malaria \"Malaria\") in Kenya. The researchers mapped phone calls and texts made by 14,816,521 Kenyan [mobile phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone \"Mobile phone\") subscribers.Datz, T. (2012, October 11\\). [Using cell phone data to curb the spread of malaria.](http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/press-releases/cell-phone-data-malaria/) Harvard Chan. When individuals left their primary living location the destination and length of journey was calculated. This data was then compared to a 2009 malaria [prevalence](/wiki/Prevalence \"Prevalence\") map to estimate the disease's commonness in each location. Combining all this information, the researchers can estimate the probability of an individual carrying malaria and map the movement of the disease. This research can be used to track the spread of similar diseases.", "### Humanitarian Aid", "Calling patterns of [mobile phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone \"Mobile phone\") users can determine the [socioeconomic](/wiki/Socioeconomic \"Socioeconomic\") standings of the populace which can be used to deduce \"its access to housing, education, healthcare, and basic services such as water and electricity\". Researchers from Columbia University and Karolinska Institute utilize information from [mobile phone](/wiki/Mobile_phone \"Mobile phone\") providers, in order to assist in the dispersal of resources by deducing the movement of those displaced by natural disasters. Big data can also provide information on looming disasters and can assist relief organizations in rapid response and locating displaced individuals. By analysing certain patterns within this 'big data', could successfully transform the response to destructive occurrences like natural disasters, [outbreaks](/wiki/Outbreak \"Outbreak\") of diseases and global economic distress, by employing real\\-time information to achieve a comprehension of the welfare of individuals. Corporations utilize digital services, such as human sensor systems, to detect and solve impending problems within [communities](/wiki/Communities \"Communities\"). This is a strategy implemented by the private sector in order to protect its citizens by anonymously dispersing customer information to the public sector, whilst also ensuring the protection of their privacy.", "### Corporate", "Data philanthropy incorporates aspects of social philanthropy by permitting [corporations](/wiki/Corporations \"Corporations\") to create profound impacts through the act of giving back by dispersing proprietary datasets.[Data Philanthropy for Humanitarian Response](http://irevolution.net/2012/06/04/big-data-philanthropy-for-humanitarian-response/Big), by Irevolution, 2012\\-07\\-04 The [public sector](/wiki/Public_sector \"Public sector\") collect and preserve information, which has been considered to be an essential asset. Company's track and analyse users online activities, so as to gain more insight into their needs in relation to new products and services.{{Cite news \\|last\\=Stempeck \\|first\\=Matt \\|date\\=2014\\-07\\-24 \\|title\\=Sharing Data Is a Form of Corporate Philanthropy \\|url\\=https://hbr.org/2014/07/sharing\\-data\\-is\\-a\\-form\\-of\\-corporate\\-philanthropy \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092019/https://hbr.org/2014/07/sharing\\-data\\-is\\-a\\-form\\-of\\-corporate\\-philanthropy/Sharing \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-04 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-10\\-09 \\|work\\=Harvard Business Review \\|issn\\=0017\\-8012}} These companies view the welfare of the population as a vital key to the expansion and progression of businesses by using their data to places a spotlight on the plight of global citizens. [Experts](/wiki/Expert \"Expert\") in the private sector contend the importance of merging various data streams such as retail, mobile phone and social media data to create necessary solutions to handle global issues.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=September 2024\\|reason\\='Experts' is used to provide a claim, however no citation is given. Do these 'experts' exist?}} According to Robert Kirkpatrick, despite the inevitable risk of sharing private information, it works in a beneficial manner and serves the interest of the public.[A New Type of Philanthropy: Donating Data](https://hbr.org/2013/03/a-new-type-of-philanthropy-don&cm_sp=Article-_-Links-_-Top%20of%20Page%20Recirculation), by Robert Kirkpatrick,Harvard Business Review 2013\\-03\\-21{{Subscription required\\|via\\=Harvard Business Review}} The digital revolution causes an extensive production of [Big data](/wiki/Big_data \"Big data\") that is user\\-generated and available on the web. Corporations accumulate information on customer preferences through the digital services they utilize and products they purchase, in order to gain a clear insight on their clientele and future market opportunities. However, the rights of individuals concerning privacy and ownership of data are a controversial issue, as governments and other institutions can use this collective data for other [unethical](/wiki/Unethical \"Unethical\") purposes. Companies monitor and probe consumer online activities in order to better comprehend and develop tailored needs for their clientele, and in turn increase their profits.[Big Data Means More Than Big Profits](https://hbr.org/2013/03/big-data-means-more-than-big-p), by Jim Fruchterman, Harvard Business Review, 2013\\-03\\-19", "### Academia", "Data philanthropy plays an important role in [academia](/wiki/Academia \"Academia\"). Researchers encounter countless obstacles whilst attempting to access data. This data is available to a limited number of researchers with sole access to restricted resources who are authorized to utilize this information; like social media streams enabling them to produce more [knowledge](/wiki/Knowledge \"Knowledge\") and develop new studies. For example, X (formerly known as Twitter) markets access to its real\\-time APIs at various prices, e.g $5,000 for reading 1,000,000 posts per month, which often surpasses the budgets of most researchers.", "### Human Rights", "Data philanthropy aids the [Human rights](/wiki/Human_rights \"Human rights\") movement, by assisting in the dispersal of evidence for truth commissions and war crimes tribunals. Proponents of human rights accumulate data on abuse occurring within states, which is then used for scientific analysis and propels awareness and action. For example, non\\-profit organizations compile data from human rights monitors in war zones in order to assist the [UN High Commissioner for Human Rights](/wiki/Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights \"Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights\"). This data uncovers inconsistencies in the number of casualties of war, which in turn leads to international attention and exerts influence on discussions relating to global policy.", "" ]
History ------- [thumb\|Mount Taranaki (Mt Egmont), from Inglewood, New Zealand, 1896](/wiki/File:Mount_Taranaki_1896_SLNSW_FL10386956.jpg "Mount Taranaki 1896 SLNSW FL10386956.jpg") [thumb\|NASA satellite photo of Taranaki. The forested area matches the national park boundary fairly closely.](/wiki/Image:NEO_egmont_big.jpg "NEO egmont big.jpg") The mountain was [tapu](/wiki/Tapu_%28Polynesian_culture%29 "Tapu (Polynesian culture)") in [Māori culture](/wiki/M%C4%81ori_culture "Māori culture") and at the time of European settlement not climbed by them.{{cite thesis\|url\=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/35462541\.pdf\|last\=Langton\|first\=Graham\|publisher \=University of Canterbury\|location\= Christchurch, New Zealand \|year \=1996\|title \=A History of Mountain Climbing in New Zealand to 1953\|access\-date\=3 August 2024\|pp\=1\-337}}{{rp\|56–57}} In 1839 the mountain was climbed by James Heberley, a whaler who reached the summit first and the Swiss trained doctor and naturalist [Ernst Dieffenbach](/wiki/Ernst_Dieffenbach "Ernst Dieffenbach"). During his initial ascent, he identified the fast\-flowing streams as being well suited to water driven mills.Ascent of Egmont. pp. 260–264\. Ernest. Dieffenbach. Random House. 2008\.{{nonspecific\|date\=May 2014\|reason\=Unable to identify a work that matches this citation}} Dieffenbach was employed by the [New Zealand Company](/wiki/New_Zealand_Company "New Zealand Company") to advise on the potential of land he explored in the North Island in 1839–40\. In 1865 the mountain was [confiscated](/wiki/New_Zealand_land_confiscations "New Zealand land confiscations") from Māori by the New Zealand Government under the powers of the [New Zealand Settlements Act 1863](/wiki/New_Zealand_land_confiscations "New Zealand land confiscations"), ostensibly as a means of establishing and maintaining peace amid the [Second Taranaki War](/wiki/Second_Taranaki_War "Second Taranaki War"). The legislation was framed with the intention of seizing and dividing up the land of Māori "in rebellion" and providing it as farmland for military settlers. The mountain was returned to the people of Taranaki in 1978 by means of the Mount Egmont Vesting Act 1978, which vested it to the Taranaki Maori Trust Board. By means of the same Act, it was immediately passed back to the Government as a gift to the nation.{{cite web\| url\=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1978/0038/latest/DLM21219\.html\| title\=Mount Egmont Vesting Act 1978\| work\=New Zealand Legislation\| publisher\=Parliamentary Counsel Office\| access\-date\=19 April 2016\| archive\-date\=8 May 2016\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508152609/http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1978/0038/latest/DLM21219\.html\| url\-status\=live}} The [Waitangi Tribunal](/wiki/Waitangi_Tribunal "Waitangi Tribunal"), in its 1996 report, Kaupapa Tuatahi,{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.waitangi\-tribunal.govt.nz/reports/northislandwest/ \|title\=Waitangi Tribunal: Kaupapa Tuatahi report, 1996, chapter 11 \|access\-date\=2 February 2007 \|archive\-date\=20 February 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220193001/http://www.waitangi\-tribunal.govt.nz/reports/northislandwest/ \|url\-status\=live }} observed: "We are unaware of the evidence that the [hapū](/wiki/Hap%C5%AB "Hapū") agreed to this arrangement. Many who made submissions to us were adamant that most knew nothing of it." It cited a submission that suggested the political climate of 1975 was such that the board felt it was necessary to perform a gesture of goodwill designed to create a more favourable environment within which a monetary settlement could be negotiated. Because of its resemblance to [Mount Fuji](/wiki/Mount_Fuji "Mount Fuji"), Taranaki provided the backdrop for the 2003 film *[The Last Samurai](/wiki/The_Last_Samurai "The Last Samurai")*. In 2017, a record of understanding was signed between Taranaki iwi and the New Zealand government that will see the mountain become a legal personality.{{cite news\| url\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/taranaki\-daily\-news/news/100085814/mt\-taranaki\-to\-become\-legal\-personality\-under\-agreement\-between\-iwi\-and\-government\| title\=Mt Taranaki to become legal personality under agreement between iwi and government\| date\=21 December 2017\| first\=Blanton\| last\=Smith\| publisher\=Taranaki Daily News\| access\-date\=21 December 2017\| archive\-date\=7 October 2018\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181007071102/https://www.stuff.co.nz/taranaki\-daily\-news/news/100085814/mt\-taranaki\-to\-become\-legal\-personality\-under\-agreement\-between\-iwi\-and\-government\| url\-status\=live}} It is the third geographic feature in the country to be granted a legal personality, after [Te Urewera](/wiki/Te_Urewera "Te Urewera") and [Whanganui River](/wiki/Whanganui_River "Whanganui River"). On 2 December 2019, an agreement between the crown and [Ngā Iwi o Taranaki](/wiki/Ng%C4%81_Iwi_o_Taranaki "Ngā Iwi o Taranaki") was announced that the mountain was to only be referred to as Taranaki Maunga. The national park will be renamed from [Egmont National Park](/wiki/Egmont_National_Park "Egmont National Park") to Te Papakura o Taranaki.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/te\-manu\-korihi/404717/taranaki\-maunga\-to\-be\-recognised\-solely\-for\-its\-maori\-name\|title\=Taranaki Maunga to be recognised solely for its Māori name\|publisher\=Radio New Zealand\|date\=3 December 2019\|access\-date\=3 December 2019\|archive\-date\=3 December 2019\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203055150/https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/te\-manu\-korihi/404717/taranaki\-maunga\-to\-be\-recognised\-solely\-for\-its\-maori\-name\|url\-status\=live}} The name change has not yet been ratified by the New Zealand Geographic Board.{{cite web \|title\=New Zealand Gazetteer, Mount Taranaki or Mount Egmont \|url\=https://gazetteer.linz.govt.nz/place/3830 \|website\=Land Information New Zealand \|access\-date\=3 August 2024 \|archive\-date\=24 February 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224065227/https://gazetteer.linz.govt.nz/place/3830 \|url\-status\=live }}
[ "History\n-------", "[thumb\\|Mount Taranaki (Mt Egmont), from Inglewood, New Zealand, 1896](/wiki/File:Mount_Taranaki_1896_SLNSW_FL10386956.jpg \"Mount Taranaki 1896 SLNSW FL10386956.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|NASA satellite photo of Taranaki. The forested area matches the national park boundary fairly closely.](/wiki/Image:NEO_egmont_big.jpg \"NEO egmont big.jpg\")", "The mountain was [tapu](/wiki/Tapu_%28Polynesian_culture%29 \"Tapu (Polynesian culture)\") in [Māori culture](/wiki/M%C4%81ori_culture \"Māori culture\") and at the time of European settlement not climbed by them.{{cite thesis\\|url\\=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/35462541\\.pdf\\|last\\=Langton\\|first\\=Graham\\|publisher \\=University of Canterbury\\|location\\= Christchurch, New Zealand \\|year \\=1996\\|title \\=A History of Mountain Climbing in New Zealand to 1953\\|access\\-date\\=3 August 2024\\|pp\\=1\\-337}}{{rp\\|56–57}}", "In 1839 the mountain was climbed by James Heberley, a whaler who reached the summit first and the Swiss trained doctor and naturalist [Ernst Dieffenbach](/wiki/Ernst_Dieffenbach \"Ernst Dieffenbach\"). During his initial ascent, he identified the fast\\-flowing streams as being well suited to water driven mills.Ascent of Egmont. pp. 260–264\\. Ernest. Dieffenbach. Random House. 2008\\.{{nonspecific\\|date\\=May 2014\\|reason\\=Unable to identify a work that matches this citation}} Dieffenbach was employed by the [New Zealand Company](/wiki/New_Zealand_Company \"New Zealand Company\") to advise on the potential of land he explored in the North Island in 1839–40\\.", "In 1865 the mountain was [confiscated](/wiki/New_Zealand_land_confiscations \"New Zealand land confiscations\") from Māori by the New Zealand Government under the powers of the [New Zealand Settlements Act 1863](/wiki/New_Zealand_land_confiscations \"New Zealand land confiscations\"), ostensibly as a means of establishing and maintaining peace amid the [Second Taranaki War](/wiki/Second_Taranaki_War \"Second Taranaki War\"). The legislation was framed with the intention of seizing and dividing up the land of Māori \"in rebellion\" and providing it as farmland for military settlers.", "The mountain was returned to the people of Taranaki in 1978 by means of the Mount Egmont Vesting Act 1978, which vested it to the Taranaki Maori Trust Board. By means of the same Act, it was immediately passed back to the Government as a gift to the nation.{{cite web\\| url\\=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1978/0038/latest/DLM21219\\.html\\| title\\=Mount Egmont Vesting Act 1978\\| work\\=New Zealand Legislation\\| publisher\\=Parliamentary Counsel Office\\| access\\-date\\=19 April 2016\\| archive\\-date\\=8 May 2016\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508152609/http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1978/0038/latest/DLM21219\\.html\\| url\\-status\\=live}} The [Waitangi Tribunal](/wiki/Waitangi_Tribunal \"Waitangi Tribunal\"), in its 1996 report, Kaupapa Tuatahi,{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.waitangi\\-tribunal.govt.nz/reports/northislandwest/ \\|title\\=Waitangi Tribunal: Kaupapa Tuatahi report, 1996, chapter 11 \\|access\\-date\\=2 February 2007 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 February 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220193001/http://www.waitangi\\-tribunal.govt.nz/reports/northislandwest/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} observed: \"We are unaware of the evidence that the [hapū](/wiki/Hap%C5%AB \"Hapū\") agreed to this arrangement. Many who made submissions to us were adamant that most knew nothing of it.\" It cited a submission that suggested the political climate of 1975 was such that the board felt it was necessary to perform a gesture of goodwill designed to create a more favourable environment within which a monetary settlement could be negotiated.", "Because of its resemblance to [Mount Fuji](/wiki/Mount_Fuji \"Mount Fuji\"), Taranaki provided the backdrop for the 2003 film *[The Last Samurai](/wiki/The_Last_Samurai \"The Last Samurai\")*.", "In 2017, a record of understanding was signed between Taranaki iwi and the New Zealand government that will see the mountain become a legal personality.{{cite news\\| url\\=https://www.stuff.co.nz/taranaki\\-daily\\-news/news/100085814/mt\\-taranaki\\-to\\-become\\-legal\\-personality\\-under\\-agreement\\-between\\-iwi\\-and\\-government\\| title\\=Mt Taranaki to become legal personality under agreement between iwi and government\\| date\\=21 December 2017\\| first\\=Blanton\\| last\\=Smith\\| publisher\\=Taranaki Daily News\\| access\\-date\\=21 December 2017\\| archive\\-date\\=7 October 2018\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181007071102/https://www.stuff.co.nz/taranaki\\-daily\\-news/news/100085814/mt\\-taranaki\\-to\\-become\\-legal\\-personality\\-under\\-agreement\\-between\\-iwi\\-and\\-government\\| url\\-status\\=live}} It is the third geographic feature in the country to be granted a legal personality, after [Te Urewera](/wiki/Te_Urewera \"Te Urewera\") and [Whanganui River](/wiki/Whanganui_River \"Whanganui River\").", "On 2 December 2019, an agreement between the crown and [Ngā Iwi o Taranaki](/wiki/Ng%C4%81_Iwi_o_Taranaki \"Ngā Iwi o Taranaki\") was announced that the mountain was to only be referred to as Taranaki Maunga. The national park will be renamed from [Egmont National Park](/wiki/Egmont_National_Park \"Egmont National Park\") to Te Papakura o Taranaki.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/te\\-manu\\-korihi/404717/taranaki\\-maunga\\-to\\-be\\-recognised\\-solely\\-for\\-its\\-maori\\-name\\|title\\=Taranaki Maunga to be recognised solely for its Māori name\\|publisher\\=Radio New Zealand\\|date\\=3 December 2019\\|access\\-date\\=3 December 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=3 December 2019\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203055150/https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/te\\-manu\\-korihi/404717/taranaki\\-maunga\\-to\\-be\\-recognised\\-solely\\-for\\-its\\-maori\\-name\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The name change has not yet been ratified by the New Zealand Geographic Board.{{cite web \\|title\\=New Zealand Gazetteer, Mount Taranaki or Mount Egmont \\|url\\=https://gazetteer.linz.govt.nz/place/3830 \\|website\\=Land Information New Zealand \\|access\\-date\\=3 August 2024 \\|archive\\-date\\=24 February 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224065227/https://gazetteer.linz.govt.nz/place/3830 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "" ]
Biography --------- Rafael Ambrose O'Neill was born in [Durango, Durango](/wiki/Durango%2C_Durango "Durango, Durango"), [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico") on 17 December 1896 to father Ralph Lawrence O'Neill, an [Irish Catholic](/wiki/Irish_Catholic "Irish Catholic") candidate for Senator in Arizona; and to a Mexican mother, Dolores (Avila) O'Neill, of Castilian lineage. He was raised in the United States and began a career in the mining industry where his father operated the newspaper for the border town of [Nogales, Arizona](/wiki/Nogales%2C_Arizona "Nogales, Arizona"). O'Neill entered the United States Air Service in August 1917\. In March 1918, he was assigned to the [147th Aero Squadron](/wiki/147th_Aero_Squadron "147th Aero Squadron"), flying the [Nieuport 28](/wiki/Nieuport_28 "Nieuport 28") and the [SPAD S.XIII](/wiki/SPAD_S.XIII "SPAD S.XIII"). From 2 July to 31 October 1918, teaming with such squadron mates as [Kenneth Porter](/wiki/Kenneth_Porter_%28aviator%29 "Kenneth Porter (aviator)"), [James Meissner](/wiki/James_Meissner "James Meissner"), [Francis Simonds](/wiki/Francis_Simonds "Francis Simonds"), and [James Healy](/wiki/James_Healy_%28aviator%29 "James Healy (aviator)"), he shot down five German airplanes. He was awarded a total of three of the army's highest honor, the [Distinguished Service Cross](/wiki/Distinguished_Service_Cross_%28United_States%29 "Distinguished Service Cross (United States)") with two Oak Leaf Clusters along with the [Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)](/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_%28United_States%29 "Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)") and the French [Croix de Guerre](/wiki/Croix_de_Guerre "Croix de Guerre") with palm. O'Neill claimed to have made an additional six unconfirmed victories for a total of eleven. He was the winner of the Tilton prize for becoming one of the first five American aviation aces of World War I.{{cite book \|title\= ''American Aces of World War I'' \|page\= 74 }} A real character amongst his squadron, O'Neill was given the nickname "The Snake" for his unorthodox flying techniques, and fierce aggression in seemingly unfavorable odds. He was amongst the first combat pilots to paint the now\-infamous "Sharks Teeth" [Nose art](/wiki/Nose_art "Nose art") in order to strike fear into the enemy. After gaining notoriety, he was also said to go into battle sitting on a large frying pan, which subsequently saved his life from machine gunfire.[https://www.russellsmithart.com/workszoom/3743265\#/](https://www.russellsmithart.com/workszoom/3743265#/) After the war, with his fluency in Spanish, O'Neill was hired to be the South American representative for [Boeing](/wiki/Boeing "Boeing") and the [Pratt \& Whitney](/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney "Pratt & Whitney") Aircraft Company, affording him introductions to many heads of state. [thumb\|General O'Neill Standing with President Obregon](/wiki/File:GeneralONeillStandingwithPresidentObregon.jpg "GeneralONeillStandingwithPresidentObregon.jpg") In August 1920, he signed a five\-year contract to build a functional [Mexican Air Force](/wiki/Mexican_Air_Force "Mexican Air Force") and train Mexican pilots, as [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico "Mexico") was undergoing numerous violent ideological uprisings and military coups following the [Plan of Agua Prieta](/wiki/Plan_of_Agua_Prieta "Plan of Agua Prieta"). On September 9, he was made Chief of the Department of Aviation of the Mexican Army. In anticipation of O'Neill's arrival, French [Farman F.50](/wiki/Farman_F.50 "Farman F.50") twin\-engine night bombers were purchased. According to the Secretary of War, in August 1920 the entire inventory consisted of only 13 aircraft. Nine were ill\-equipped, mixed and matched engine, nationally\-constructed biplanes. These were broadly considered still to be prototypes not suitable for concerted battle. Four more were monoplane scouts, five other planes were in repair and the rest at the [TNCA](/wiki/TNCA "TNCA") were considered antiquated, wrecked, or beyond repair. The branch consisted of 27 pilots, only 4 possessing over 40 hours of flight time, and 17 of which were new cadets. With the current arsenal underwhelming and obsolete, O'Neill began to acquire air\-cooled engines and new aircraft such as French [Morane\-Saulnier](/wiki/Morane-Saulnier "Morane-Saulnier") and 35 British [Avro 504](/wiki/Avro_504 "Avro 504") model K and J for the flight school. These would later be copied and produced in Mexico under the name Avro Anáhuac. "Jefe Rodolfo" as he was then known, would present himself to manufacturers and foreign leaders under made\-up titles such as "Major\-General" in order to garner prominence and legitimacy. He was the first to introduce the term "[Fuerza Aérea Mexicana](/wiki/Fuerza_A%C3%A9rea_Mexicana "Fuerza Aérea Mexicana")" (FAM) naming the organization as such. The next step was the formation of classified fighter, bomber, observation and forward reconnaissance squadrons, as well as the decentralization of Air Force units throughout the country at strategic bases. Other than the infrastructure itself, O'Neill was responsible for the invention of tactics, standard procedures and other scenario protocols never before implemented. O'Neill then set to work with his co\-instructors German [Fritz Bieler](/wiki/Fritz_Bieler "Fritz Bieler") and Frenchman Joe Ben Lievre, using the first intercom, basically a hose and funnel to communicate in an open cockpit, known as the "Gosport System", invented by [Robert Smith\-Barry](/wiki/Robert_Smith-Barry "Robert Smith-Barry"). In 1923, O'Neill flew several decisive combat missions against ex\-president [Adolfo de la Huerta](/wiki/Adolfo_de_la_Huerta "Adolfo de la Huerta") who had started an armed rebellion with sitting president [Álvaro Obregón](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_Obreg%C3%B3n "Álvaro Obregón")(O'Brien). The irony being that De La Huerta had been the one who hired and first equipped O'Neill; De La Huerta was soon to be the architect of his own demise. Under O'Neill's command, the Mexican Air Force achieved victory against overwhelming odds, where some 60% of the original Mexican army had been enticed to turn against the sitting government. After securing 17 new [De Havilland DH\-4B](/wiki/De_Havilland_DH-4B "De Havilland DH-4B") aircraft from America, O'Neill's patriots easily out\-maneuvered the insurgents. On January 29, 1924, at Esperanza station, the tide of the war changed in favor of the loyalists thanks to better\-organized ground and air co\-operation along with new formations of synchronized aerial [strafing](/wiki/Strafing "Strafing") runs and relentless resupply. <https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/3172/fasciculo_6_momentos_estelares.pdf>. Many of the rebels had never encountered combat aircraft before and were left in utter dismay. During one such mission, O'Neill was able to single\-handedly free a hi\-jacked passenger train, as the rebels abandoned their posts. The loyalist forces eventually crushed the strongholds in [Veracruz](/wiki/Veracruz "Veracruz") and [Jalisco](/wiki/Jalisco "Jalisco") and De La Huerta Fled the country. O'Neill became the first to prove the resilience of air superiority on a truly grand scale. On December 19, 1924, O'Neill was promoted to the now official rank of [Brigadier General](/wiki/Brigadier_General "Brigadier General"), being amongst the youngest in history, at the age of 28\. A military dictatorship had clearly been averted, but this was not the end of the country's woes. Many influential political and military commanders were executed by Obregón after the failed [coup](/wiki/Coup "Coup"). Since Obregón could not run for reelection, the power vacuum was filled by an anti\-catholic regime. The new Mexican president [Plutarco Elías Calles](/wiki/Plutarco_El%C3%ADas_Calles "Plutarco Elías Calles") promoted the creation of the [Mexican Catholic Apostolic Church](/wiki/Mexican_Catholic_Apostolic_Church "Mexican Catholic Apostolic Church"), independent from Rome, which led to a civil war, known as the [Cristero War](/wiki/Cristero_War "Cristero War") killing 100,000\. Soon, state control was exerted over all public broadcasts. In addition, Calles rejected the [Bucareli Treaty](/wiki/Bucareli_Treaty "Bucareli Treaty"), almost starting a war with America. In the ensuing turmoil, O'Neill left Mexico in December 1925 and returned to the United States Army Air Reserve where he was reinstated to the rank of [Colonel (United States)](/wiki/Colonel_%28United_States%29 "Colonel (United States)"). O'Neill is widely considered to be one of the founders of civil aviation and was one of the few to see the potential of building a vast international mail and leisure network. Most did not have confidence in the future of flight outside of war. O'Neill aimed to change the public's mind. In 1929, O'Neill created his dream company, [New York, Rio, and Buenos Aires Line](/wiki/New_York%2C_Rio%2C_and_Buenos_Aires_Line "New York, Rio, and Buenos Aires Line"), which operated the first airmail route from Argentina to Miami in a [Sikorsky S\-38](/wiki/Sikorsky_S-38 "Sikorsky S-38"). He constructed the majority of Latin America's first landing areas, which ran up the entire Atlantic seaboard. At 8,000 miles it was the world's longest trans\-continental travel service. In his autobiography, "A Dream of Eagles", O'Neill describes the birth of the flying industry and his relationship with other notable friends such as [Charles Lindbergh](/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh "Charles Lindbergh") and the first use of the [Consolidated Commodore](/wiki/Consolidated_Commodore "Consolidated Commodore") luxury travel [seaplanes](/wiki/Seaplanes "Seaplanes"). The airline was to become the forerunner for both [Pan American World Airways](/wiki/Pan_American_World_Airways "Pan American World Airways") and [Panair do Brasil](/wiki/Panair_do_Brasil "Panair do Brasil"). After a forced merger, over the right to acquisition United States government mail contracts and a heated power struggle with [Juan Trippe](/wiki/Juan_Trippe "Juan Trippe") for control of the industry, [NYRBA](/wiki/NYRBA "NYRBA") was absorbed.[Ralph ONeills Magic Carpet. The Once and Future Commodore](https://www.panam.org/images/Stories/Ralph-ONeills-Magic-Carpet-The-Once-And-Future-Commodore.pdf) panam.org{{cite episode \|title\=Latin Laboratory \|series\=Across The Pacific \|first1\=Lyons \|last1\=Stephen \|network\=PBS \|date\=May 2020}} This was a sore point of contention with O'Neill who felt cheated of having laid the groundwork for an entire industry. O'Neill described the entire politically motivated affair as "a shotgun wedding after a damnable rape."{{cite book \|last1\=Grigore \|first1\=Julius \|title\=The Black Swan and the Rape of an Airline \|publisher\= Createspace Company \|date\=2012 \|isbn\=9781475070989}} His South American contacts and prowess as a diplomat allowed O'Neill to resume a career in mining exploration. In 1932, his new aerial venture, the Bol\-inca Mining Corporation, opened up previously inaccessible [gold](/wiki/Gold "Gold") deposits high in the [Andes](/wiki/Andes "Andes"). He had combined his two lifelong passions. The company flourished for over 35 years and was such a boon to the [Bolivian](/wiki/Bolivia "Bolivia") Government that it was forcefully expropriated and later nationalized in the 1960s. During WWII O'Neill started a Metalcraft Company to troubleshoot issues encountered with war material in the field. After patenting various inventions and donating others to the war effort, a major breakthrough was made in the creation of an exhaust manifold for battle tanks which contributed to the victory of the Americans and British in the desert war against Rommel. O'Neill retired to [Atherton, California](/wiki/Atherton%2C_California "Atherton, California"), where he was laid to rest in 1980\. He is a member of the OX5 Aviation Pioneers Hall of Fame and the Arizona Aviation Hall of Fame.{{cite journal\|journal\=Skyways\|date\=January 1999}}His autobiography book, entitled "A Dream of Eagles," was published in 1973\. Publisher: Houghton Mifflin; 1st edition (January 1, 1973\). {{ISBN\|978\-0395166109}}[Ralph O'Neill in México](http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/apjinternational/apj-s/2006/1tri06/flores.html). Santiago A. Flores (Article in Spanish).
[ "Biography\n---------", "Rafael Ambrose O'Neill was born in [Durango, Durango](/wiki/Durango%2C_Durango \"Durango, Durango\"), [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\") on 17 December 1896 to father Ralph Lawrence O'Neill, an [Irish Catholic](/wiki/Irish_Catholic \"Irish Catholic\") candidate for Senator in Arizona; and to a Mexican mother, Dolores (Avila) O'Neill, of Castilian lineage. He was raised in the United States and began a career in the mining industry where his father operated the newspaper for the border town of [Nogales, Arizona](/wiki/Nogales%2C_Arizona \"Nogales, Arizona\"). O'Neill entered the United States Air Service in August 1917\\. In March 1918, he was assigned to the [147th Aero Squadron](/wiki/147th_Aero_Squadron \"147th Aero Squadron\"), flying the [Nieuport 28](/wiki/Nieuport_28 \"Nieuport 28\") and the [SPAD S.XIII](/wiki/SPAD_S.XIII \"SPAD S.XIII\"). From 2 July to 31 October 1918, teaming with such squadron mates as [Kenneth Porter](/wiki/Kenneth_Porter_%28aviator%29 \"Kenneth Porter (aviator)\"), [James Meissner](/wiki/James_Meissner \"James Meissner\"), [Francis Simonds](/wiki/Francis_Simonds \"Francis Simonds\"), and [James Healy](/wiki/James_Healy_%28aviator%29 \"James Healy (aviator)\"), he shot down five German airplanes. He was awarded a total of three of the army's highest honor, the [Distinguished Service Cross](/wiki/Distinguished_Service_Cross_%28United_States%29 \"Distinguished Service Cross (United States)\") with two Oak Leaf Clusters along with the [Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)](/wiki/Distinguished_Flying_Cross_%28United_States%29 \"Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)\") and the French [Croix de Guerre](/wiki/Croix_de_Guerre \"Croix de Guerre\") with palm. O'Neill claimed to have made an additional six unconfirmed victories for a total of eleven. He was the winner of the Tilton prize for becoming one of the first five American aviation aces of World War I.{{cite book \\|title\\= ''American Aces of World War I'' \\|page\\= 74 }}", "A real character amongst his squadron, O'Neill was given the nickname \"The Snake\" for his unorthodox flying techniques, and fierce aggression in seemingly unfavorable odds. He was amongst the first combat pilots to paint the now\\-infamous \"Sharks Teeth\" [Nose art](/wiki/Nose_art \"Nose art\") in order to strike fear into the enemy. After gaining notoriety, he was also said to go into battle sitting on a large frying pan, which subsequently saved his life from machine gunfire.[https://www.russellsmithart.com/workszoom/3743265\\#/](https://www.russellsmithart.com/workszoom/3743265#/)", "After the war, with his fluency in Spanish, O'Neill was hired to be the South American representative for [Boeing](/wiki/Boeing \"Boeing\") and the [Pratt \\& Whitney](/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney \"Pratt & Whitney\") Aircraft Company, affording him introductions to many heads of state.", "[thumb\\|General O'Neill Standing with President Obregon](/wiki/File:GeneralONeillStandingwithPresidentObregon.jpg \"GeneralONeillStandingwithPresidentObregon.jpg\")", "In August 1920, he signed a five\\-year contract to build a functional [Mexican Air Force](/wiki/Mexican_Air_Force \"Mexican Air Force\") and train Mexican pilots, as [Mexico](/wiki/Mexico \"Mexico\") was undergoing numerous violent ideological uprisings and military coups following the [Plan of Agua Prieta](/wiki/Plan_of_Agua_Prieta \"Plan of Agua Prieta\"). On September 9, he was made Chief of the Department of Aviation of the Mexican Army. In anticipation of O'Neill's arrival, French [Farman F.50](/wiki/Farman_F.50 \"Farman F.50\") twin\\-engine night bombers were purchased. According to the Secretary of War, in August 1920 the entire inventory consisted of only 13 aircraft. Nine were ill\\-equipped, mixed and matched engine, nationally\\-constructed biplanes. These were broadly considered still to be prototypes not suitable for concerted battle. Four more were monoplane scouts, five other planes were in repair and the rest at the [TNCA](/wiki/TNCA \"TNCA\") were considered antiquated, wrecked, or beyond repair. The branch consisted of 27 pilots, only 4 possessing over 40 hours of flight time, and 17 of which were new cadets. With the current arsenal underwhelming and obsolete, O'Neill began to acquire air\\-cooled engines and new aircraft such as French [Morane\\-Saulnier](/wiki/Morane-Saulnier \"Morane-Saulnier\") and 35 British [Avro 504](/wiki/Avro_504 \"Avro 504\") model K and J for the flight school. These would later be copied and produced in Mexico under the name Avro Anáhuac.", "\"Jefe Rodolfo\" as he was then known, would present himself to manufacturers and foreign leaders under made\\-up titles such as \"Major\\-General\" in order to garner prominence and legitimacy. He was the first to introduce the term \"[Fuerza Aérea Mexicana](/wiki/Fuerza_A%C3%A9rea_Mexicana \"Fuerza Aérea Mexicana\")\" (FAM) naming the organization as such. The next step was the formation of classified fighter, bomber, observation and forward reconnaissance squadrons, as well as the decentralization of Air Force units throughout the country at strategic bases. Other than the infrastructure itself, O'Neill was responsible for the invention of tactics, standard procedures and other scenario protocols never before implemented. O'Neill then set to work with his co\\-instructors German [Fritz Bieler](/wiki/Fritz_Bieler \"Fritz Bieler\") and Frenchman Joe Ben Lievre, using the first intercom, basically a hose and funnel to communicate in an open cockpit, known as the \"Gosport System\", invented by [Robert Smith\\-Barry](/wiki/Robert_Smith-Barry \"Robert Smith-Barry\").", "In 1923, O'Neill flew several decisive combat missions against ex\\-president [Adolfo de la Huerta](/wiki/Adolfo_de_la_Huerta \"Adolfo de la Huerta\") who had started an armed rebellion with sitting president [Álvaro Obregón](/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_Obreg%C3%B3n \"Álvaro Obregón\")(O'Brien). The irony being that De La Huerta had been the one who hired and first equipped O'Neill; De La Huerta was soon to be the architect of his own demise. Under O'Neill's command, the Mexican Air Force achieved victory against overwhelming odds, where some 60% of the original Mexican army had been enticed to turn against the sitting government. After securing 17 new [De Havilland DH\\-4B](/wiki/De_Havilland_DH-4B \"De Havilland DH-4B\") aircraft from America, O'Neill's patriots easily out\\-maneuvered the insurgents. On January 29, 1924, at Esperanza station, the tide of the war changed in favor of the loyalists thanks to better\\-organized ground and air co\\-operation along with new formations of synchronized aerial [strafing](/wiki/Strafing \"Strafing\") runs and relentless resupply. <https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/3172/fasciculo_6_momentos_estelares.pdf>. Many of the rebels had never encountered combat aircraft before and were left in utter dismay. During one such mission, O'Neill was able to single\\-handedly free a hi\\-jacked passenger train, as the rebels abandoned their posts. The loyalist forces eventually crushed the strongholds in [Veracruz](/wiki/Veracruz \"Veracruz\") and [Jalisco](/wiki/Jalisco \"Jalisco\") and De La Huerta Fled the country. O'Neill became the first to prove the resilience of air superiority on a truly grand scale. On December 19, 1924, O'Neill was promoted to the now official rank of [Brigadier General](/wiki/Brigadier_General \"Brigadier General\"), being amongst the youngest in history, at the age of 28\\.", "A military dictatorship had clearly been averted, but this was not the end of the country's woes. Many influential political and military commanders were executed by Obregón after the failed [coup](/wiki/Coup \"Coup\"). Since Obregón could not run for reelection, the power vacuum was filled by an anti\\-catholic regime. The new Mexican president [Plutarco Elías Calles](/wiki/Plutarco_El%C3%ADas_Calles \"Plutarco Elías Calles\") promoted the creation of the [Mexican Catholic Apostolic Church](/wiki/Mexican_Catholic_Apostolic_Church \"Mexican Catholic Apostolic Church\"), independent from Rome, which led to a civil war, known as the [Cristero War](/wiki/Cristero_War \"Cristero War\") killing 100,000\\. Soon, state control was exerted over all public broadcasts. In addition, Calles rejected the [Bucareli Treaty](/wiki/Bucareli_Treaty \"Bucareli Treaty\"), almost starting a war with America. In the ensuing turmoil, O'Neill left Mexico in December 1925 and returned to the United States Army Air Reserve where he was reinstated to the rank of [Colonel (United States)](/wiki/Colonel_%28United_States%29 \"Colonel (United States)\").", "O'Neill is widely considered to be one of the founders of civil aviation and was one of the few to see the potential of building a vast international mail and leisure network. Most did not have confidence in the future of flight outside of war. O'Neill aimed to change the public's mind. In 1929, O'Neill created his dream company, [New York, Rio, and Buenos Aires Line](/wiki/New_York%2C_Rio%2C_and_Buenos_Aires_Line \"New York, Rio, and Buenos Aires Line\"), which operated the first airmail route from Argentina to Miami in a [Sikorsky S\\-38](/wiki/Sikorsky_S-38 \"Sikorsky S-38\"). He constructed the majority of Latin America's first landing areas, which ran up the entire Atlantic seaboard. At 8,000 miles it was the world's longest trans\\-continental travel service. In his autobiography, \"A Dream of Eagles\", O'Neill describes the birth of the flying industry and his relationship with other notable friends such as [Charles Lindbergh](/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh \"Charles Lindbergh\") and the first use of the [Consolidated Commodore](/wiki/Consolidated_Commodore \"Consolidated Commodore\") luxury travel [seaplanes](/wiki/Seaplanes \"Seaplanes\"). The airline was to become the forerunner for both [Pan American World Airways](/wiki/Pan_American_World_Airways \"Pan American World Airways\") and [Panair do Brasil](/wiki/Panair_do_Brasil \"Panair do Brasil\"). After a forced merger, over the right to acquisition United States government mail contracts and a heated power struggle with [Juan Trippe](/wiki/Juan_Trippe \"Juan Trippe\") for control of the industry, [NYRBA](/wiki/NYRBA \"NYRBA\") was absorbed.[Ralph ONeills Magic Carpet. The Once and Future Commodore](https://www.panam.org/images/Stories/Ralph-ONeills-Magic-Carpet-The-Once-And-Future-Commodore.pdf) panam.org{{cite episode \\|title\\=Latin Laboratory \\|series\\=Across The Pacific \\|first1\\=Lyons \\|last1\\=Stephen \\|network\\=PBS \\|date\\=May 2020}} This was a sore point of contention with O'Neill who felt cheated of having laid the groundwork for an entire industry. O'Neill described the entire politically motivated affair as \"a shotgun wedding after a damnable rape.\"{{cite book \\|last1\\=Grigore \\|first1\\=Julius \\|title\\=The Black Swan and the Rape of an Airline \\|publisher\\= Createspace Company \\|date\\=2012 \\|isbn\\=9781475070989}}", "His South American contacts and prowess as a diplomat allowed O'Neill to resume a career in mining exploration. In 1932, his new aerial venture, the Bol\\-inca Mining Corporation, opened up previously inaccessible [gold](/wiki/Gold \"Gold\") deposits high in the [Andes](/wiki/Andes \"Andes\"). He had combined his two lifelong passions. The company flourished for over 35 years and was such a boon to the [Bolivian](/wiki/Bolivia \"Bolivia\") Government that it was forcefully expropriated and later nationalized in the 1960s.", "During WWII O'Neill started a Metalcraft Company to troubleshoot issues encountered with war material in the field. After patenting various inventions and donating others to the war effort, a major breakthrough was made in the creation of an exhaust manifold for battle tanks which contributed to the victory of the Americans and British in the desert war against Rommel.", "O'Neill retired to [Atherton, California](/wiki/Atherton%2C_California \"Atherton, California\"), where he was laid to rest in 1980\\.", "He is a member of the OX5 Aviation Pioneers Hall of Fame and the Arizona Aviation Hall of Fame.{{cite journal\\|journal\\=Skyways\\|date\\=January 1999}}His autobiography book, entitled \"A Dream of Eagles,\" was published in 1973\\. Publisher: Houghton Mifflin; 1st edition (January 1, 1973\\). {{ISBN\\|978\\-0395166109}}[Ralph O'Neill in México](http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/apjinternational/apj-s/2006/1tri06/flores.html). Santiago A. Flores (Article in Spanish).", "" ]
Notable cases ------------- ### Sears Tower litigation On March 28, 1972, as construction of the building neared the 50th storey, the state's attorney of neighboring Lake County brought suit against Sears, Roebuck and Co. in the name of the People of the State of Illinois to halt construction and limit the height of the building claiming that the completed building would interfere with television reception to the north and west of Chicago.*Chicago Tribune*, April 9, 1972 Shortly thereafter, on March 28, 1972, a similar suit was filed in Cook County by several Chicago suburbs.*Chicago Tribune*, May 7, 1972 The firm defended the lawsuits and won both of them in the trial courts.*Chicago Tribune*, May 18, 1972; *Chicago Tribune*, June 13, 1972 On June 6, 1972, Lake County appealed and because of the importance of the litigation the suits were consolidated, the Appellate Courts were by\-passed and the matter went directly to the Supreme Court of Illinois.*Chicago Tribune*, June 7, 1972 The suit by the Chicago suburbs were subsequently added.*Chicago Tribune*, June 13, 1972 On June 30, 1972, the Supreme Court entered a letter order upholding the decision of the trial courts to permit the construction as planned and followed it with a written opinion on September 20, 1972\.*People Ex Rel. Hoogasian v. Sears, Roebuck \& Co.*, 52 Ill. 2d 301 (1972\); Chicago Daily Law Bulletin, August 31, 1995; *Chicago Tribune*, July 1, 1972\. ### Japanese Electronic Products antitrust litigation – MDL189 (*Zenith Radio Corporation v. Matsushita Electric Industrial Co.*) In the 1970s, one of this country's largest and most complex antitrust suits began when an antitrust and dumping suit was filed in 1972 in New Jersey by National Union Electric Corp. against many of its Japanese competitors alleging a conspiracy to destroy the United States television industry.*The Philadelphia Inquirer*, December 6, 1983 In 1974, Zenith Radio Corporation filed a similar suit seeking $900,000,000\.00 in Philadelphia federal court against the same defendants and added Motorola and Sears as co\-conspirators.New York Times, September 21, 1974; *Chicago Tribune*, September 30, 1974 The suits were consolidated for trial in the United States District Court in Philadelphia. The firm defended Sears. The suit first made legal history in 1980 when the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit ruled that a plaintiff does not have an absolute right to a trial by jury in a civil case.Jury Trials in Complex Cases, New England Law Review; Washington University Law Review 58 Wash V.L.G. 1055 (1980\) Subsequently, the defendants, including Sears, filed Motions for Summary Judgment on both the antitrust and dumping claims. After summer long hearings on a daily basis to determine what evidence could be considered on the Summary Judgment Motions, Judge Edward R. Becker entered summary judgment for all defendants on both claims and dismissed what was then a $1,500,000,000\.00 lawsuit.Associated Press, March 27, 1981; *The New York Times*, Late Edition (East Coast), March 28, 1981 Plaintiffs appealed and the Third Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the summary judgments for all the defendants, but affirmed the decision for Sears and two other defendants.*Chicago Tribune*, December 6, 1983; *The New York Times*, Late Edition (East Coast), December 6, 1983 The Supreme Court of the United States later reinstated the summary judgments for the Japanese defendants.*The New York Times*, Late Edition (East Coast), March 27, 1986 ### Adamo Wrecking Co. In 1977, the firm handled a case involving regulations promulgated by the Environmental Protection Agency under the Clean Air Act that went as far as the Supreme Court of the United States. In the early 1970s, the Environmental Protection Agency promulgated a “National Emission Standard for Asbestos” and specified a certain procedure be followed in demolition of buildings containing asbestos but not limiting asbestos emissions that occur during a demolition.National Resources Journal, Vol. 18, p. 875 The National Association of Demolition Contractors retained the firm to defend criminal charges brought against member demolition contractors throughout the country for violation of what the government termed an “emission standard”. One such indictment was returned on February 20, 1973, in the federal court in Detroit, Michigan, against Adamo Wrecking Co.*The Washington Post*, April 5, 1977; 1977 Preview of U.S. Supreme Court Case, Issue 3, September 17, 1977 The district court trial judge agreed with the firm that the regulation was not an “emission standard” but rather a “work rule” the violation of which was not a criminal offense.National Resources Journal, Vol. 18, P. 677 On appeal, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the district court on the basis it did not have jurisdiction to review the validity of the standard in a criminal proceeding.Environmental Law Reporter, 7 ELR 2001 The firm petitioned the Supreme Court of the United States to grant certiorari to review the ruling and the Court did.*The New York Times*, April 5, 1977 On January 10, 1978, the Supreme Court in a 5 to 4 decision first ruled that the District Court did have jurisdiction to determine the validity of the EPA regulation in a criminal proceeding and then upheld the decision of the District Court that the regulation was not an “emission standard” rather than a “work rule” which a failure to follow was not a criminal activity.New York Times, January 11, 1978; Environmental Law Reporter, 8 ELR 20171 ### [Dupont Plaza Hotel arson](/wiki/Dupont_Plaza_Hotel_arson "Dupont Plaza Hotel arson") In San Juan, Puerto Rico, on New Year's Eve in 1986, 97 people perished and over 200 were injured in a fire which spread through the hotel and casino after being set by disgruntled employees in a vacant ballroom.New York Times, February 4, 1988 Within a few months 2,300 plaintiffs had filed 264 separate lawsuits in Puerto Rico and throughout the United States seeking $1,800,000\.00 in damages. The judicial panel for Multidistrict Litigation transferred these related cases to San Juan, Puerto Rico, for discovery and subsequently for trial against approximately 230 defendants.New York Times, May 13, 1989\. The United States 1st Circuit Court of Appeals called this litigation “a litigatory monster.” *The Philadelphia Inquirer*, May 12, 1989; *In re Recticel Foam Corp.*, 859 F. 2d 1000 (1st Cir. 1988\). The trial court divided the lawsuit into three trial phases.*The Wall Street Journal*, May 15, 1989 All of the defendants in the first trial phase settled.*The Wall Street Journal*, Eastern Addition (New York, N.Y.), May 15, 1989\. The second trial phase dealt with product liability defendants and suppliers to the hotel.The National Law Journal, October 15, 1990\. The case was tried in a specially built federal courtroom in a vacant hotel in Hato Ray, Puerto Rico. The attorneys for Plaintiffs and Defendants were each given floor for offices and conference rooms.Connecticut Post, December 30, 2011 Over objection by the defendants, the court allowed live satellite testimony beamed into the courtroom from various locations in the United States.PR Newswire *National Law Journal*, January 12, 1990; *Chicago Daily Law Bulletin*, September 29, 1996\. ne of the defendants was Johnson Controls, Inc. of Milwaukee defended by the firm. Plaintiffs claimed that Johnson Controls sold and installed an energy management system which failed to give an early warning of the fire. After nine months of trial, Johnson Controls was one of only three defendants to receive a directed verdict at the close of the plaintiffs’ case.*Chicago Tribune*, May 15, 1990; *Merrill’s Illinois Legal Times*, July 1, 1990; *The National Law Journal*, October 15, 1990, as corrected on November 5, 1990 When this trial phase was completed there was approximately $220,908,549\.00 accumulated in a settlement fund for the plaintiffs as a result of the various settlement agreements and a jury verdict against some of the defendants.In re San Juan Dupont Plz. Hotel, 768 F. Supp. 912, 936 (Puerto Rico U.S. Dist. 1991\).
[ "Notable cases\n-------------", "### Sears Tower litigation", "On March 28, 1972, as construction of the building neared the 50th storey, the state's attorney of neighboring Lake County brought suit against Sears, Roebuck and Co. in the name of the People of the State of Illinois to halt construction and limit the height of the building claiming that the completed building would interfere with television reception to the north and west of Chicago.*Chicago Tribune*, April 9, 1972 Shortly thereafter, on March 28, 1972, a similar suit was filed in Cook County by several Chicago suburbs.*Chicago Tribune*, May 7, 1972 The firm defended the lawsuits and won both of them in the trial courts.*Chicago Tribune*, May 18, 1972; *Chicago Tribune*, June 13, 1972 On June 6, 1972, Lake County appealed and because of the importance of the litigation the suits were consolidated, the Appellate Courts were by\\-passed and the matter went directly to the Supreme Court of Illinois.*Chicago Tribune*, June 7, 1972 The suit by the Chicago suburbs were subsequently added.*Chicago Tribune*, June 13, 1972 On June 30, 1972, the Supreme Court entered a letter order upholding the decision of the trial courts to permit the construction as planned and followed it with a written opinion on September 20, 1972\\.*People Ex Rel. Hoogasian v. Sears, Roebuck \\& Co.*, 52 Ill. 2d 301 (1972\\); Chicago Daily Law Bulletin, August 31, 1995; *Chicago Tribune*, July 1, 1972\\.", "### Japanese Electronic Products antitrust litigation – MDL189", "(*Zenith Radio Corporation v. Matsushita Electric Industrial Co.*)", "In the 1970s, one of this country's largest and most complex antitrust suits began when an antitrust and dumping suit was filed in 1972 in New Jersey by National Union Electric Corp. against many of its Japanese competitors alleging a conspiracy to destroy the United States television industry.*The Philadelphia Inquirer*, December 6, 1983 In 1974, Zenith Radio Corporation filed a similar suit seeking $900,000,000\\.00 in Philadelphia federal court against the same defendants and added Motorola and Sears as co\\-conspirators.New York Times, September 21, 1974; *Chicago Tribune*, September 30, 1974 The suits were consolidated for trial in the United States District Court in Philadelphia. The firm defended Sears. The suit first made legal history in 1980 when the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit ruled that a plaintiff does not have an absolute right to a trial by jury in a civil case.Jury Trials in Complex Cases, New England Law Review; Washington University Law Review 58 Wash V.L.G. 1055 (1980\\) Subsequently, the defendants, including Sears, filed Motions for Summary Judgment on both the antitrust and dumping claims. After summer long hearings on a daily basis to determine what evidence could be considered on the Summary Judgment Motions, Judge Edward R. Becker entered summary judgment for all defendants on both claims and dismissed what was then a $1,500,000,000\\.00 lawsuit.Associated Press, March 27, 1981; *The New York Times*, Late Edition (East Coast), March 28, 1981 Plaintiffs appealed and the Third Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the summary judgments for all the defendants, but affirmed the decision for Sears and two other defendants.*Chicago Tribune*, December 6, 1983; *The New York Times*, Late Edition (East Coast), December 6, 1983 The Supreme Court of the United States later reinstated the summary judgments for the Japanese defendants.*The New York Times*, Late Edition (East Coast), March 27, 1986", "### Adamo Wrecking Co.", "In 1977, the firm handled a case involving regulations promulgated by the Environmental Protection Agency under the Clean Air Act that went as far as the Supreme Court of the United States. In the early 1970s, the Environmental Protection Agency promulgated a “National Emission Standard for Asbestos” and specified a certain procedure be followed in demolition of buildings containing asbestos but not limiting asbestos emissions that occur during a demolition.National Resources Journal, Vol. 18, p. 875 The National Association of Demolition Contractors retained the firm to defend criminal charges brought against member demolition contractors throughout the country for violation of what the government termed an “emission standard”.", "One such indictment was returned on February 20, 1973, in the federal court in Detroit, Michigan, against Adamo Wrecking Co.*The Washington Post*, April 5, 1977; 1977 Preview of U.S. Supreme Court Case, Issue 3, September 17, 1977 The district court trial judge agreed with the firm that the regulation was not an “emission standard” but rather a “work rule” the violation of which was not a criminal offense.National Resources Journal, Vol. 18, P. 677 On appeal, the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the district court on the basis it did not have jurisdiction to review the validity of the standard in a criminal proceeding.Environmental Law Reporter, 7 ELR 2001", "The firm petitioned the Supreme Court of the United States to grant certiorari to review the ruling and the Court did.*The New York Times*, April 5, 1977 On January 10, 1978, the Supreme Court in a 5 to 4 decision first ruled that the District Court did have jurisdiction to determine the validity of the EPA regulation in a criminal proceeding and then upheld the decision of the District Court that the regulation was not an “emission standard” rather than a “work rule” which a failure to follow was not a criminal activity.New York Times, January 11, 1978; Environmental Law Reporter, 8 ELR 20171", "### [Dupont Plaza Hotel arson](/wiki/Dupont_Plaza_Hotel_arson \"Dupont Plaza Hotel arson\")", "In San Juan, Puerto Rico, on New Year's Eve in 1986, 97 people perished and over 200 were injured in a fire which spread through the hotel and casino after being set by disgruntled employees in a vacant ballroom.New York Times, February 4, 1988 Within a few months 2,300 plaintiffs had filed 264 separate lawsuits in Puerto Rico and throughout the United States seeking $1,800,000\\.00 in damages.", "The judicial panel for Multidistrict Litigation transferred these related cases to San Juan, Puerto Rico, for discovery and subsequently for trial against approximately 230 defendants.New York Times, May 13, 1989\\. The United States 1st Circuit Court of Appeals called this litigation “a litigatory monster.” *The Philadelphia Inquirer*, May 12, 1989; *In re Recticel Foam Corp.*, 859 F. 2d 1000 (1st Cir. 1988\\). The trial court divided the lawsuit into three trial phases.*The Wall Street Journal*, May 15, 1989 All of the defendants in the first trial phase settled.*The Wall Street Journal*, Eastern Addition (New York, N.Y.), May 15, 1989\\. The second trial phase dealt with product liability defendants and suppliers to the hotel.The National Law Journal, October 15, 1990\\.", "The case was tried in a specially built federal courtroom in a vacant hotel in Hato Ray, Puerto Rico. The attorneys for Plaintiffs and Defendants were each given floor for offices and conference rooms.Connecticut Post, December 30, 2011 Over objection by the defendants, the court allowed live satellite testimony beamed into the courtroom from various locations in the United States.PR Newswire *National Law Journal*, January 12, 1990; *Chicago Daily Law Bulletin*, September 29, 1996\\.", "ne of the defendants was Johnson Controls, Inc. of Milwaukee defended by the firm. Plaintiffs claimed that Johnson Controls sold and installed an energy management system which failed to give an early warning of the fire. After nine months of trial, Johnson Controls was one of only three defendants to receive a directed verdict at the close of the plaintiffs’ case.*Chicago Tribune*, May 15, 1990; *Merrill’s Illinois Legal Times*, July 1, 1990; *The National Law Journal*, October 15, 1990, as corrected on November 5, 1990", "When this trial phase was completed there was approximately $220,908,549\\.00 accumulated in a settlement fund for the plaintiffs as a result of the various settlement agreements and a jury verdict against some of the defendants.In re San Juan Dupont Plz. Hotel, 768 F. Supp. 912, 936 (Puerto Rico U.S. Dist. 1991\\).", "" ]
Technical specifications ------------------------ The Comfort uses [MacPherson strut](/wiki/MacPherson_strut "MacPherson strut") [independent](/wiki/Independent_suspension "Independent suspension") front suspension and a [coil\-sprung](/wiki/Coil_spring "Coil spring") [solid rear axle](/wiki/Beam_axle "Beam axle").{{cite web \|url\=https://www.toyota\-global.com/company/history\_of\_toyota/75years/vehicle\_lineage/car/id60005626/index.html \|title\=History of Toyota \- 75 years \- Crown Comfort vehicle lineage \|publisher\=Toyota \|access\-date\=2022\-01\-27}} The earlier short\-wheelbase Comforts were powered by either the 2L\-TE diesel engine, 3S\-FE/4S\-FE gasoline engine, or a 3Y\-PE [LPG](/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gas "Liquefied petroleum gas") engine. Starting in 2008, they were only offered with the 1998 cc 1TR\-FPE and 1TR\-FE engine, producing {{cvt\|83\|kW\|PS\|0}} at 4,800 rpm, and {{cvt\|100\|kW\|PS\|0}} at 5,600 rpm respectively.{{cite web\|url\=http://toyota.jp/comfort/spec/spec/index.html\|title\=Comfort Specs\|access\-date\=2011\-03\-14\|publisher\=Toyota\|year\=2010\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101216035653/http://toyota.jp/comfort/spec/spec/index.html\|archive\-date\=2010\-12\-16}} The long\-wheelbase Crown Comfort had more variety when it came to engine choices. Early export models to Hong Kong, Indonesia and Singapore offered 2L and 5L diesel engines, while domestic Japanese models received the 3Y\-PE and 1G\-GPE LPG engine only. Hong Kong eventually received the 3Y\-PE engine a few years later, but Indonesia and Singapore only received diesel models. The 1G\-GPE engine was phased out in 2002, and in 2008, the 3Y\-PE model was phased out in favour of the new 1TR powered vehicles. Some Super Deluxe and Crown Sedan models received the six\-cylinder 1G\-GPE initially and later the 1G\-FE, the former of which was dropped after 2002, and the latter after 2007; [BAS](/wiki/BAS_hybrid "BAS hybrid") [mild hybrid](/wiki/Mild_hybrid "Mild hybrid") drivetrains with the 1G\-FE were also available from 2002 until 2008\. After the discontinuation of the mild hybrid, they were only offered with 1TR\-FPE engines. Six\-cylinder engines were not offered in the short\-wheelbase Comfort and lower trim levels of the Crown Comfort. ### Models **YXS10/YXS10H** — The YXS10 was the first vehicle to be identified as the **Crown Comfort**. It came equipped with a lever\-activated remote control rear passenger door, and a 4\-speed automatic transmission (A43D) became standard in 2004 in some markets. The YXS10H is a four\-cylinder Crown Sedan Super Saloon built from 2002 to 2008 equipped with the 3Y\-PE LPG engine. **YXS11/YXS11Y** ー The YXS11/YXS11Y are 3Y\-PE powered LPG models. The 11 series denotes a short\-wheelbase version, identified as Toyota Comfort (without the word Crown on the nameplate). At 2680 mm, its wheelbase is identical to that of the X80 Mark II and 100 mm shorter than that of the long\-wheelbase 10 series models. Additionally, cars with a Y suffix denotes that the car is a driver's education vehicle. **LXS10** – The LXS10 is an export\-only vehicle equipped with the naturally aspirated 2L diesel motor, with a column\-mounted 4\-speed/floor\-mounted 5\-speed manual transmission only. **LXS11/LXS11Y** ー The LXS11/LXS11Y are powered by the 2L\-TE Turbodiesel engine. It was sold from 1996 to 1999, but was ultimately phased out in favour of the petrol\-powered [S\-engined](/wiki/Toyota_S_engine "Toyota S engine") cars. The LXS11 taxi models only came in four\-speed automatic, and only 6680 of these models were made. **LXS12** – The LXS12 is an export\-only Crown Comfort equipped with a naturally aspirated 5L diesel engine and a column\-mounted 4\-speed/floor\-mounted 5\-speed manual transmission. In Singapore, this model was identified simply as Toyota Crown (without the word Comfort on the nameplate). **SXS11Y/SXS13Y** ー The SXS11Y is powered by the 4S\-FE engine, and was made from 1996 to 2001\. The SXS11Y was replaced by the 3S\-FE powered SXS13Y in 2001\. These models were only offered to driving schools; the TRD Comfort GT\-Z Supercharger is also on the SXS13Y chassis. **GXS10/GXS12** ー The GXS10/GXS12 are powered by the 6\-cylinder 1G engine. All GXS10 models were equipped with the 1G\-GPE LPG engine, while the GXS12s had a 1G\-FE petrol engine. GXS10 models were sold under the Crown Comfort nameplate between December 1995 and February 2001, offered exclusively in the *Super Deluxe* trim level, and the **Crown Sedan** nameplate between October 2001 and October 2002\.{{Cite web\|title\=Spare parts for GXS10 frame Crown\|url\=https://toyota.epc\-data.com/crown/gxs10/\|access\-date\=2022\-03\-17\|work\=Japanese cars online catalogs}} Unlike the four\-cylinder Crown Sedans, early *Super Saloon* models with the 1G\-GPE engine (produced only in 2002\) were simply identified as GXS10s without the H suffix. The GXS12 designation exclusively denotes Crown Sedan *Super Deluxe* models manufactured between August 2001 and August 2007\.{{r\|Crown Lineage}}{{Cite web\|title\=Spare parts for GXS12 frame Crown\|url\=https://toyota.epc\-data.com/crown/gxs12/\|access\-date\=2022\-03\-17\|work\=Japanese cars online catalogs}} **GBS12** ー The GBS12 is a [mild hybrid](/wiki/Mild_hybrid "Mild hybrid") version of the 6\-cylinder petrol\-powered Crown Sedan *Super Deluxe* manufactured between October 2002 and April 2008\.{{r\|Crown Lineage}} **TSS10/TSS10H** ー The TSS10 is a Crown Comfort or Crown Sedan, built from August 2008 to January 2018, powered by the 1TR\-FPE LPG engine.{{r\|Comfort Lineage}} The TSS10H is a Crown Sedan Super Saloon, built during the same period and utilising the same engine.{{r\|Crown Lineage}} **TSS11/TSS11Y** ー The TSS11/TSS11Y are short\-wheelbase Comforts powered by the 1TR\-FPE LPG engine.{{Cite web\|title\=Crown Motors Ltd.\|url\=https://www.crown\-motors.com/eng/toyota/detail.aspx?id\=137\#\|access\-date\=2022\-02\-24\|website\=www.crown\-motors.com}} **TSS13Y** – The TSS13Y is a short\-wheelbase driver's education model utilising a petrol powered 1TR\-FE. ### Engines | Model | Engine | Cyl. | Fuel | Power | Torque | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | YXS10 (1995\-2008\) | {{convert\|1998\|cc\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} OHV [3Y\-PE](/wiki/Toyota_Y_engine%233Y-PE "Toyota Y engine#3Y-PE") | I4 | LPG | {{convert\|79\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|16\.3\|kgm\|Nm lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} | | YXS10H (2002\-2008\) | | YXS11 (1995\-2008\) | | YXS11Y (1995\-2008\) | | LXS10 (1995\-1999\) | {{convert\|2446\|cc\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} SOHC [2L\-II](/wiki/Toyota_L_engine%232L-II "Toyota L engine#2L-II") | Diesel | {{convert\|85\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|16\.8\|kgm\|Nm lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} | | LXS11 (1995\-1999\) | {{convert\|2446\|cc\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} SOHC turbo [2L\-TE(II)](/wiki/Toyota_L_engine%232L-TE%28II%29 "Toyota L engine#2L-TE(II)") | {{convert\|97\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|22\.5\|kgm\|Nm lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} | | LXS11Y (1996\-1999\) | | LXS12 (1998\-2006\) | {{convert\|2985\|cc\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} SOHC [5L](/wiki/Toyota_L_engine%235L "Toyota L engine#5L") | {{convert\|91\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|19\.5\|kgm\|Nm lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} | | SXS11Y (1996\-2001\) | {{convert\|1838\|cc\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} DOHC [4S\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_S_engine%234S-FE "Toyota S engine#4S-FE") | Petrol | {{convert\|125\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|16\.5\|kgm\|Nm lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} | | SXS13Y (2001\-2007\) | {{convert\|1998\|cc\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} DOHC [3S\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_S_engine%233S-FE "Toyota S engine#3S-FE") | {{convert\|128\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|18\.3\|kgm\|Nm lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} | | GXS10 (1995\-2002\) | {{convert\|1998\|cc\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} DOHC [1G\-GPE](/wiki/Toyota_G_engine%231G-GPE "Toyota G engine#1G-GPE") | I6 | LPG | {{convert\|110\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|15\.5\|kgm\|Nm lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} | | GXS12 (2001\-2007\) | {{convert\|1998\|cc\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} DOHC VVT\-i [1G\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_G_engine%231G-FE "Toyota G engine#1G-FE") | Petrol | {{convert\|160\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|20\.4\|kgm\|Nm lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} | | GBS12 (2002\-2008\) | {{convert\|1998\|cc\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} DOHC mild hybrid [1G\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_G_engine%231G-FE "Toyota G engine#1G-FE") | {{convert\|143\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|20\.0\|kgm\|Nm lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} | | TSS10 (2008\-2018\) | {{convert\|1998\|cc\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} DOHC VVT\-i [1TR\-FPE](/wiki/Toyota_TR_engine%231TR-FPE "Toyota TR engine#1TR-FPE") | I4 | LPG | {{cvt\|113\|PS\|kW hp\|0}} | {{cvt\|19\.0\|kgm\|Nm lbft\|0}} | | TSS10H (2008\-2018\) | | TSS11 (2008\-2018\) | | TSS11Y (2008\-2018\) | | TSS13Y (2007\-2015\) | {{convert\|1998\|cc\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} DOHC VVT\-i [1TR\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_TR_engine%231TR-FE "Toyota TR engine#1TR-FE") | Petrol | {{convert\|136\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|18\.6\|kgm\|Nm lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} | | TSS13Y (2015\-2018\) | {{convert\|1998\|cc\|L\|1\|abbr\=on}} DOHC Dual VVT\-i [1TR\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_TR_engine%231TR-FE "Toyota TR engine#1TR-FE") | {{convert\|139\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} | {{convert\|18\.7\|kgm\|Nm lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} | ### Equipment {{Multiple image \| align \= right \| direction \= vertical \| width \= 220 \| image1 \= Toyota Crown Super Deluxe Mild Hybrid (2\).jpg \| image2 \= Toyota Crown Daiwa Taxi (cropped).jpg \| caption2 \= Toyota Crown Sedan (facelift) \| image3 \= Crownsedaninterior.jpg \| caption3 \= Interior }} While the Comfort shares its underpinnings with the X80 Mark II, its body was thoroughly redesigned to increase interior space with an emphasis on rear passenger comfort.{{r\|Comfort Lineage}} To reduce unnecessary cost and weight while provisioning for the installation of taxi equipment, the more luxurious dashboard and interior fittings of the Mark II were replaced with a modified version of the base [S130 Crown](/wiki/Toyota_Crown_%28S130%29 "Toyota Crown (S130)")'s dashboard and less bulky all\-plastic fittings with very simple designs. Comfort\-based Crown Sedans received a facelift comprising chrome\-accented bumpers and body\-coloured side mouldings, redesigned taillights, and a new boot panel with additional light clusters and a chrome\-rimmed number plate garnish. Crown Sedans also received an updated interior with a more elegant instrument panel, various elements derived from those found in the preceding [tenth generation Crown Sedan](/wiki/Toyota_Crown_%28S150%29 "Toyota Crown (S150)"), and a steering wheel shared with consumer\-oriented models like the [XV30 Camry](/wiki/Toyota_Camry_%28XV30%29 "Toyota Camry (XV30)"). Taxi models came equipped with fender mirrors, while the private use and driver's education cars were equipped with door\-mounted mirrors. Early Comforts below the SG trim level had manual windows on all four doors; power front windows were optional, and standardised in the beginning of 1997\. In 2007, Toyota added power windows at all four doors as an option. The front bumper is designed to be able to split in two, and driving lamps can be quickly removed for ease of repair in case of an accident. *Welcab* ([paratransit](/wiki/Paratransit "Paratransit")) versions of the taxi models were offered, adding a rear passenger seat that rotates outwards to aid the entry and exit of passengers with limited mobility; these cars can be identified by the [International Symbol of Access](/wiki/International_Symbol_of_Access "International Symbol of Access") on the corresponding door.{{cite AV media \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=JVXDE0gbFSw\&t\=111s \|title\=japanese taxi toyota クラウン コンフォート ニコニコタクシー LPG 広島市 \|trans\-title\=japanese taxi toyota Crown Comfort Nico Nico Taxi LPG Hiroshima City \|via\=Youtube \|date\=2016\-12\-04 \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-18}} A "swing roof" option was also offered for Crown Comforts and Crown Sedans used in [Shinto weddings](/wiki/Shinto_wedding "Shinto wedding"), adding a hinged roof panel above the rear passenger door that opens upwards to allow for the clearance of a bride's wig and headdress during entry and exit. [thumb\|right\|A "swing roof"\-equipped Crown Comfort with the roof panel opened](/wiki/File:%E8%8A%B1%E5%AB%81%E3%81%95%E3%82%93%E7%94%A8%E3%81%AE%E3%82%BF%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B7%E3%83%BC_%285852403599%29.jpg "花嫁さん用のタクシー (5852403599).jpg") In 2002, all models received [ABS](/wiki/Anti-lock_braking_system "Anti-lock braking system") and a driver's airbag as standard. In 2004, an [LED](/wiki/Light-emitting_diode "Light-emitting diode") [third brake light](/wiki/Automotive_lighting%23Center_high_mount_stop_lamp_%28CHMSL%29 "Automotive lighting#Center high mount stop lamp (CHMSL)") replaced the original incandescent unit while [side turn signals](/wiki/Automotive_lighting%23Side_turn_signals "Automotive lighting#Side turn signals") (shared with the [XP30 bB](/wiki/Toyota_bB%23First_generation_%28XP30%3B_2000%29 "Toyota bB#First generation (XP30; 2000)")) were added to the front fenders. In August 2007, the Crown Comfort was facelifted for the Hong Kong market by adopting the Japanese market Crown Sedan's chrome\-accented bumpers, taillights, and redesigned boot panel. In late 2007, a minor update was made to the Comfort's emissions system to meet more stringent emission standards set by Toyota, while the use of LED lights for instrument panel illumination was increased. Larger headrests were gradually phased in beginning with *SG* and Crown Sedan models circa 2001, and ending with *Standard* and *Deluxe* taxi models in 2012\. All Comforts eventually gained a passenger airbag and [start\-stop system](/wiki/Start-stop_system "Start-stop system") as standard equipment; the latter being offered exclusively in the Japanese market. Comforts configured for driver's education use were only offered in the *Deluxe* trim level and are equipped with a secondary brake pedal on the passenger footwell for instructor use. A radio delete option was offered for the driver's education model. Most (if not all) models from 1995 to 1997 were equipped with a digital auxiliary speedometer on the centre console as standard. In 1996, an optional brake light indicator was added to the centre console. Cars built in 1997 had this light moved to the passenger side of the dash, with clutch and accelerator indicator lights added to the mix. All cars made after 1998 had the indicator lights moved to a redesigned centre console stack. ### Trim levels [thumb\|right\|Crown Sedan Super Saloon](/wiki/File:Hitachi-crown-ss.JPG "Hitachi-crown-ss.JPG") * *Standard* ー included steel wheels (initially 14\-inch, later 15\-inch), three\-point seat belts, air conditioning, a radio with two dash\-mounted speakers, vinyl interior upholstery and power steering. * *Deluxe* ー added cloth interior upholstery (seating surfaces only before 2004\); power locks, mirrors and windows were optional. * *SG* ー added standard power features, faux wood interior trim, premium cloth interior upholstery and wheel covers; 15\-inch alloy wheels from the [V30 Camry](/wiki/Toyota_Camry_%28V30%29 "Toyota Camry (V30)") were optional. This was the highest trim level available for the short\-wheelbase Comfort and was not offered for long\-wheelbase models.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.toyota\-global.com/company/history\_of\_toyota/75years/vehicle\_lineage/car/id60005630/index.html \|title\=History of Toyota \- 75 years \- Comfort vehicle lineage \|publisher\=Toyota \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-26}}{{r\|Comfort Lineage}} * *Super Deluxe* ー *Super Deluxe* models were marketed under the Crown Comfort nameplate before August 2001 and the Crown Sedan nameplate from August 2001 onwards. While the original *Super Deluxe* models were equipped similarly to the short\-wheelbase *SG*, available with an optional "Q Package" which added luxury cloth upholstery and faux wood interior trim, the change of nameplate in 2001 added more upscale exterior styling with wider taillights, chrome\-accented painted exterior trim, deluxe wheel covers and chrome\-finished versions of the optional alloy wheels; interior equipment included luxury seats with a rear fold\-down armrest, a premium dashboard and interior fittings, four cupholders, and an upgraded audio system with four door\-mounted speakers. The front passenger seat could now be configured with a fold\-down centre section so that a rear passenger may stretch his feet forward. The "Q Package" was renamed "G Package" and gained an air purifier as part of its equipment.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.toyota.co.jp/jpn/company/history/75years/vehicle\_lineage/catalog/60005626/html5\.html\#page\=15 \|title\=History of Toyota \- 75 years \- Crown Comfort Catalog \|publisher\=Toyota \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-26}} * *Super Saloon* — introduced in 2002, this trim level was only marketed under the Crown Sedan nameplate. It added the "G Package" and chrome\-finished alloy wheels as standard equipment, as well as longer bumpers. It was only available with LPG engines and was aimed primarily at corporate, government and [sedan service](/wiki/Sedan_service "Sedan service") buyers; door mirrors were standard, while fender mirrors were available for cars used in taxi service.{{cite web \|url\=http://cdn.toyota\-catalog.jp/catalog/pdf/crown\-sedan\-3/crown\-sedan\-3\_200210\.pdf \|title\=2002 Crown Sedan \|publisher\=Toyota \|access\-date\=2022\-04\-14}}{{cite web \|url\=http://cdn.toyota\-catalog.jp/catalog/pdf/crown\-sedan\-3/crown\-sedan\-3\_200808\.pdf \|title\=2008 Crown Sedan \|publisher\=Toyota \|access\-date\=2022\-04\-14}} Due to the extended bumpers, Super Saloons exceeded the {{convert\|4\.7\|m\|ft\|1\|abbr\=on}} length threshold of Japan's "small\-size passenger vehicle" [classification](/wiki/Vehicle_size_class%23Japan "Vehicle size class#Japan") and were instead classified as "normal\-size passenger vehicles" as a result.{{r\|Crown Lineage}} ### TRD Comfort GT\-Z Supercharger [thumb\|right\|TRD Comfort GT\-Z Supercharger](/wiki/File:Comfortgtz_2012.jpg "Comfortgtz 2012.jpg") The TRD Comfort GT\-Z Supercharger was a limited production high\-performance version of the SXS13Y model produced from July 2003 until February 2004\. A total of 59 GT\-Z units were produced.{{cite web \|url\=http://jalopnik.com/is\-this\-supercharged\-toyota\-taxi\-the\-most\-ridiculous\-pe\-1750994017 \|title\=Is This Supercharged Toyota Taxi The Most Ridiculous Performance Car Ever Made? \|website\=Jalopnik \|date\=2016\-01\-05 \|access\-date\=2017\-08\-25}} It is equipped with the same [3S\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_S_engine%233S-FE "Toyota S engine#3S-FE") [DOHC](/wiki/DOHC "DOHC") 2\.0 L inline\-four petrol engine as the base car but fitted with an ORC\-TX07 [supercharger](/wiki/Supercharger "Supercharger"), increasing power output to {{convert\|160\|PS\|kW hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 6100 rpm and torque to {{convert\|22\.5\|kgm\|Nm lbft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3300 rpm.
[ "Technical specifications\n------------------------", "The Comfort uses [MacPherson strut](/wiki/MacPherson_strut \"MacPherson strut\") [independent](/wiki/Independent_suspension \"Independent suspension\") front suspension and a [coil\\-sprung](/wiki/Coil_spring \"Coil spring\") [solid rear axle](/wiki/Beam_axle \"Beam axle\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.toyota\\-global.com/company/history\\_of\\_toyota/75years/vehicle\\_lineage/car/id60005626/index.html \\|title\\=History of Toyota \\- 75 years \\- Crown Comfort vehicle lineage \\|publisher\\=Toyota \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-01\\-27}} The earlier short\\-wheelbase Comforts were powered by either the 2L\\-TE diesel engine, 3S\\-FE/4S\\-FE gasoline engine, or a 3Y\\-PE [LPG](/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gas \"Liquefied petroleum gas\") engine. Starting in 2008, they were only offered with the 1998 cc 1TR\\-FPE and 1TR\\-FE engine, producing {{cvt\\|83\\|kW\\|PS\\|0}} at 4,800 rpm, and {{cvt\\|100\\|kW\\|PS\\|0}} at 5,600 rpm respectively.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://toyota.jp/comfort/spec/spec/index.html\\|title\\=Comfort Specs\\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-03\\-14\\|publisher\\=Toyota\\|year\\=2010\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101216035653/http://toyota.jp/comfort/spec/spec/index.html\\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-12\\-16}}", "The long\\-wheelbase Crown Comfort had more variety when it came to engine choices. Early export models to Hong Kong, Indonesia and Singapore offered 2L and 5L diesel engines, while domestic Japanese models received the 3Y\\-PE and 1G\\-GPE LPG engine only. Hong Kong eventually received the 3Y\\-PE engine a few years later, but Indonesia and Singapore only received diesel models. The 1G\\-GPE engine was phased out in 2002, and in 2008, the 3Y\\-PE model was phased out in favour of the new 1TR powered vehicles.", "Some Super Deluxe and Crown Sedan models received the six\\-cylinder 1G\\-GPE initially and later the 1G\\-FE, the former of which was dropped after 2002, and the latter after 2007; [BAS](/wiki/BAS_hybrid \"BAS hybrid\") [mild hybrid](/wiki/Mild_hybrid \"Mild hybrid\") drivetrains with the 1G\\-FE were also available from 2002 until 2008\\. After the discontinuation of the mild hybrid, they were only offered with 1TR\\-FPE engines. Six\\-cylinder engines were not offered in the short\\-wheelbase Comfort and lower trim levels of the Crown Comfort.", "### Models", "**YXS10/YXS10H** — The YXS10 was the first vehicle to be identified as the **Crown Comfort**. It came equipped with a lever\\-activated remote control rear passenger door, and a 4\\-speed automatic transmission (A43D) became standard in 2004 in some markets. The YXS10H is a four\\-cylinder Crown Sedan Super Saloon built from 2002 to 2008 equipped with the 3Y\\-PE LPG engine.", "**YXS11/YXS11Y** ー The YXS11/YXS11Y are 3Y\\-PE powered LPG models. The 11 series denotes a short\\-wheelbase version, identified as Toyota Comfort (without the word Crown on the nameplate). At 2680 mm, its wheelbase is identical to that of the X80 Mark II and 100 mm shorter than that of the long\\-wheelbase 10 series models. Additionally, cars with a Y suffix denotes that the car is a driver's education vehicle.", "**LXS10** – The LXS10 is an export\\-only vehicle equipped with the naturally aspirated 2L diesel motor, with a column\\-mounted 4\\-speed/floor\\-mounted 5\\-speed manual transmission only.", "**LXS11/LXS11Y** ー The LXS11/LXS11Y are powered by the 2L\\-TE Turbodiesel engine. It was sold from 1996 to 1999, but was ultimately phased out in favour of the petrol\\-powered [S\\-engined](/wiki/Toyota_S_engine \"Toyota S engine\") cars. The LXS11 taxi models only came in four\\-speed automatic, and only 6680 of these models were made.", "**LXS12** – The LXS12 is an export\\-only Crown Comfort equipped with a naturally aspirated 5L diesel engine and a column\\-mounted 4\\-speed/floor\\-mounted 5\\-speed manual transmission. In Singapore, this model was identified simply as Toyota Crown (without the word Comfort on the nameplate).", "**SXS11Y/SXS13Y** ー The SXS11Y is powered by the 4S\\-FE engine, and was made from 1996 to 2001\\. The SXS11Y was replaced by the 3S\\-FE powered SXS13Y in 2001\\. These models were only offered to driving schools; the TRD Comfort GT\\-Z Supercharger is also on the SXS13Y chassis.", "**GXS10/GXS12** ー The GXS10/GXS12 are powered by the 6\\-cylinder 1G engine. All GXS10 models were equipped with the 1G\\-GPE LPG engine, while the GXS12s had a 1G\\-FE petrol engine. GXS10 models were sold under the Crown Comfort nameplate between December 1995 and February 2001, offered exclusively in the *Super Deluxe* trim level, and the **Crown Sedan** nameplate between October 2001 and October 2002\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Spare parts for GXS10 frame Crown\\|url\\=https://toyota.epc\\-data.com/crown/gxs10/\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-17\\|work\\=Japanese cars online catalogs}} Unlike the four\\-cylinder Crown Sedans, early *Super Saloon* models with the 1G\\-GPE engine (produced only in 2002\\) were simply identified as GXS10s without the H suffix. The GXS12 designation exclusively denotes Crown Sedan *Super Deluxe* models manufactured between August 2001 and August 2007\\.{{r\\|Crown Lineage}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=Spare parts for GXS12 frame Crown\\|url\\=https://toyota.epc\\-data.com/crown/gxs12/\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-17\\|work\\=Japanese cars online catalogs}}", "**GBS12** ー The GBS12 is a [mild hybrid](/wiki/Mild_hybrid \"Mild hybrid\") version of the 6\\-cylinder petrol\\-powered Crown Sedan *Super Deluxe* manufactured between October 2002 and April 2008\\.{{r\\|Crown Lineage}}", "**TSS10/TSS10H** ー The TSS10 is a Crown Comfort or Crown Sedan, built from August 2008 to January 2018, powered by the 1TR\\-FPE LPG engine.{{r\\|Comfort Lineage}} The TSS10H is a Crown Sedan Super Saloon, built during the same period and utilising the same engine.{{r\\|Crown Lineage}}", "**TSS11/TSS11Y** ー The TSS11/TSS11Y are short\\-wheelbase Comforts powered by the 1TR\\-FPE LPG engine.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Crown Motors Ltd.\\|url\\=https://www.crown\\-motors.com/eng/toyota/detail.aspx?id\\=137\\#\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-24\\|website\\=www.crown\\-motors.com}}", "**TSS13Y** – The TSS13Y is a short\\-wheelbase driver's education model utilising a petrol powered 1TR\\-FE.", "### Engines", "", "| Model | Engine | Cyl. | Fuel | Power | Torque |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| YXS10 (1995\\-2008\\) | {{convert\\|1998\\|cc\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} OHV [3Y\\-PE](/wiki/Toyota_Y_engine%233Y-PE \"Toyota Y engine#3Y-PE\") | I4 | LPG | {{convert\\|79\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|16\\.3\\|kgm\\|Nm lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} |\n| YXS10H (2002\\-2008\\) |\n| YXS11 (1995\\-2008\\) |\n| YXS11Y (1995\\-2008\\) |\n| LXS10 (1995\\-1999\\) | {{convert\\|2446\\|cc\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} SOHC [2L\\-II](/wiki/Toyota_L_engine%232L-II \"Toyota L engine#2L-II\") | Diesel | {{convert\\|85\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|16\\.8\\|kgm\\|Nm lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} |\n| LXS11 (1995\\-1999\\) | {{convert\\|2446\\|cc\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} SOHC turbo [2L\\-TE(II)](/wiki/Toyota_L_engine%232L-TE%28II%29 \"Toyota L engine#2L-TE(II)\") | {{convert\\|97\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|22\\.5\\|kgm\\|Nm lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} |\n| LXS11Y (1996\\-1999\\) |\n| LXS12 (1998\\-2006\\) | {{convert\\|2985\\|cc\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} SOHC [5L](/wiki/Toyota_L_engine%235L \"Toyota L engine#5L\") | {{convert\\|91\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|19\\.5\\|kgm\\|Nm lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} |\n| SXS11Y (1996\\-2001\\) | {{convert\\|1838\\|cc\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} DOHC [4S\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_S_engine%234S-FE \"Toyota S engine#4S-FE\") | Petrol | {{convert\\|125\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|16\\.5\\|kgm\\|Nm lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} |\n| SXS13Y (2001\\-2007\\) | {{convert\\|1998\\|cc\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} DOHC [3S\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_S_engine%233S-FE \"Toyota S engine#3S-FE\") | {{convert\\|128\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|18\\.3\\|kgm\\|Nm lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} |\n| GXS10 (1995\\-2002\\) | {{convert\\|1998\\|cc\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} DOHC [1G\\-GPE](/wiki/Toyota_G_engine%231G-GPE \"Toyota G engine#1G-GPE\") | I6 | LPG | {{convert\\|110\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|15\\.5\\|kgm\\|Nm lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} |\n| GXS12 (2001\\-2007\\) | {{convert\\|1998\\|cc\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} DOHC VVT\\-i [1G\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_G_engine%231G-FE \"Toyota G engine#1G-FE\") | Petrol | {{convert\\|160\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|20\\.4\\|kgm\\|Nm lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} |\n| GBS12 (2002\\-2008\\) | {{convert\\|1998\\|cc\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} DOHC mild hybrid [1G\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_G_engine%231G-FE \"Toyota G engine#1G-FE\") | {{convert\\|143\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|20\\.0\\|kgm\\|Nm lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} |\n| TSS10 (2008\\-2018\\) | {{convert\\|1998\\|cc\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} DOHC VVT\\-i [1TR\\-FPE](/wiki/Toyota_TR_engine%231TR-FPE \"Toyota TR engine#1TR-FPE\") | I4 | LPG | {{cvt\\|113\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0}} | {{cvt\\|19\\.0\\|kgm\\|Nm lbft\\|0}} |\n| TSS10H (2008\\-2018\\) |\n| TSS11 (2008\\-2018\\) |\n| TSS11Y (2008\\-2018\\) |\n| TSS13Y (2007\\-2015\\) | {{convert\\|1998\\|cc\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} DOHC VVT\\-i [1TR\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_TR_engine%231TR-FE \"Toyota TR engine#1TR-FE\") | Petrol | {{convert\\|136\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|18\\.6\\|kgm\\|Nm lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} |\n| TSS13Y (2015\\-2018\\) | {{convert\\|1998\\|cc\\|L\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} DOHC Dual VVT\\-i [1TR\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_TR_engine%231TR-FE \"Toyota TR engine#1TR-FE\") | {{convert\\|139\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} | {{convert\\|18\\.7\\|kgm\\|Nm lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} |", "### Equipment", "{{Multiple image \\| align \\= right \\| direction \\= vertical \\| width \\= 220\n\\| image1 \\= Toyota Crown Super Deluxe Mild Hybrid (2\\).jpg\n\\| image2 \\= Toyota Crown Daiwa Taxi (cropped).jpg\n\\| caption2 \\= Toyota Crown Sedan (facelift)\n\\| image3 \\= Crownsedaninterior.jpg\n\\| caption3 \\= Interior\n}}", "While the Comfort shares its underpinnings with the X80 Mark II, its body was thoroughly redesigned to increase interior space with an emphasis on rear passenger comfort.{{r\\|Comfort Lineage}} To reduce unnecessary cost and weight while provisioning for the installation of taxi equipment, the more luxurious dashboard and interior fittings of the Mark II were replaced with a modified version of the base [S130 Crown](/wiki/Toyota_Crown_%28S130%29 \"Toyota Crown (S130)\")'s dashboard and less bulky all\\-plastic fittings with very simple designs.", "Comfort\\-based Crown Sedans received a facelift comprising chrome\\-accented bumpers and body\\-coloured side mouldings, redesigned taillights, and a new boot panel with additional light clusters and a chrome\\-rimmed number plate garnish. Crown Sedans also received an updated interior with a more elegant instrument panel, various elements derived from those found in the preceding [tenth generation Crown Sedan](/wiki/Toyota_Crown_%28S150%29 \"Toyota Crown (S150)\"), and a steering wheel shared with consumer\\-oriented models like the [XV30 Camry](/wiki/Toyota_Camry_%28XV30%29 \"Toyota Camry (XV30)\").", "Taxi models came equipped with fender mirrors, while the private use and driver's education cars were equipped with door\\-mounted mirrors. Early Comforts below the SG trim level had manual windows on all four doors; power front windows were optional, and standardised in the beginning of 1997\\. In 2007, Toyota added power windows at all four doors as an option. The front bumper is designed to be able to split in two, and driving lamps can be quickly removed for ease of repair in case of an accident.", "*Welcab* ([paratransit](/wiki/Paratransit \"Paratransit\")) versions of the taxi models were offered, adding a rear passenger seat that rotates outwards to aid the entry and exit of passengers with limited mobility; these cars can be identified by the [International Symbol of Access](/wiki/International_Symbol_of_Access \"International Symbol of Access\") on the corresponding door.{{cite AV media \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=JVXDE0gbFSw\\&t\\=111s \\|title\\=japanese taxi toyota クラウン コンフォート ニコニコタクシー LPG 広島市 \\|trans\\-title\\=japanese taxi toyota Crown Comfort Nico Nico Taxi LPG Hiroshima City \\|via\\=Youtube \\|date\\=2016\\-12\\-04 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-18}} A \"swing roof\" option was also offered for Crown Comforts and Crown Sedans used in [Shinto weddings](/wiki/Shinto_wedding \"Shinto wedding\"), adding a hinged roof panel above the rear passenger door that opens upwards to allow for the clearance of a bride's wig and headdress during entry and exit.", "[thumb\\|right\\|A \"swing roof\"\\-equipped Crown Comfort with the roof panel opened](/wiki/File:%E8%8A%B1%E5%AB%81%E3%81%95%E3%82%93%E7%94%A8%E3%81%AE%E3%82%BF%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B7%E3%83%BC_%285852403599%29.jpg \"花嫁さん用のタクシー (5852403599).jpg\")", "In 2002, all models received [ABS](/wiki/Anti-lock_braking_system \"Anti-lock braking system\") and a driver's airbag as standard. In 2004, an [LED](/wiki/Light-emitting_diode \"Light-emitting diode\") [third brake light](/wiki/Automotive_lighting%23Center_high_mount_stop_lamp_%28CHMSL%29 \"Automotive lighting#Center high mount stop lamp (CHMSL)\") replaced the original incandescent unit while [side turn signals](/wiki/Automotive_lighting%23Side_turn_signals \"Automotive lighting#Side turn signals\") (shared with the [XP30 bB](/wiki/Toyota_bB%23First_generation_%28XP30%3B_2000%29 \"Toyota bB#First generation (XP30; 2000)\")) were added to the front fenders. In August 2007, the Crown Comfort was facelifted for the Hong Kong market by adopting the Japanese market Crown Sedan's chrome\\-accented bumpers, taillights, and redesigned boot panel.", "In late 2007, a minor update was made to the Comfort's emissions system to meet more stringent emission standards set by Toyota, while the use of LED lights for instrument panel illumination was increased. Larger headrests were gradually phased in beginning with *SG* and Crown Sedan models circa 2001, and ending with *Standard* and *Deluxe* taxi models in 2012\\. All Comforts eventually gained a passenger airbag and [start\\-stop system](/wiki/Start-stop_system \"Start-stop system\") as standard equipment; the latter being offered exclusively in the Japanese market.", "Comforts configured for driver's education use were only offered in the *Deluxe* trim level and are equipped with a secondary brake pedal on the passenger footwell for instructor use. A radio delete option was offered for the driver's education model. Most (if not all) models from 1995 to 1997 were equipped with a digital auxiliary speedometer on the centre console as standard. In 1996, an optional brake light indicator was added to the centre console. Cars built in 1997 had this light moved to the passenger side of the dash, with clutch and accelerator indicator lights added to the mix. All cars made after 1998 had the indicator lights moved to a redesigned centre console stack.", "### Trim levels", "[thumb\\|right\\|Crown Sedan Super Saloon](/wiki/File:Hitachi-crown-ss.JPG \"Hitachi-crown-ss.JPG\")", "* *Standard* ー included steel wheels (initially 14\\-inch, later 15\\-inch), three\\-point seat belts, air conditioning, a radio with two dash\\-mounted speakers, vinyl interior upholstery and power steering.\n* *Deluxe* ー added cloth interior upholstery (seating surfaces only before 2004\\); power locks, mirrors and windows were optional.\n* *SG* ー added standard power features, faux wood interior trim, premium cloth interior upholstery and wheel covers; 15\\-inch alloy wheels from the [V30 Camry](/wiki/Toyota_Camry_%28V30%29 \"Toyota Camry (V30)\") were optional. This was the highest trim level available for the short\\-wheelbase Comfort and was not offered for long\\-wheelbase models.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.toyota\\-global.com/company/history\\_of\\_toyota/75years/vehicle\\_lineage/car/id60005630/index.html \\|title\\=History of Toyota \\- 75 years \\- Comfort vehicle lineage \\|publisher\\=Toyota \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-26}}{{r\\|Comfort Lineage}}\n* *Super Deluxe* ー *Super Deluxe* models were marketed under the Crown Comfort nameplate before August 2001 and the Crown Sedan nameplate from August 2001 onwards. While the original *Super Deluxe* models were equipped similarly to the short\\-wheelbase *SG*, available with an optional \"Q Package\" which added luxury cloth upholstery and faux wood interior trim, the change of nameplate in 2001 added more upscale exterior styling with wider taillights, chrome\\-accented painted exterior trim, deluxe wheel covers and chrome\\-finished versions of the optional alloy wheels; interior equipment included luxury seats with a rear fold\\-down armrest, a premium dashboard and interior fittings, four cupholders, and an upgraded audio system with four door\\-mounted speakers. The front passenger seat could now be configured with a fold\\-down centre section so that a rear passenger may stretch his feet forward. The \"Q Package\" was renamed \"G Package\" and gained an air purifier as part of its equipment.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.toyota.co.jp/jpn/company/history/75years/vehicle\\_lineage/catalog/60005626/html5\\.html\\#page\\=15 \\|title\\=History of Toyota \\- 75 years \\- Crown Comfort Catalog \\|publisher\\=Toyota \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-26}}\n* *Super Saloon* — introduced in 2002, this trim level was only marketed under the Crown Sedan nameplate. It added the \"G Package\" and chrome\\-finished alloy wheels as standard equipment, as well as longer bumpers. It was only available with LPG engines and was aimed primarily at corporate, government and [sedan service](/wiki/Sedan_service \"Sedan service\") buyers; door mirrors were standard, while fender mirrors were available for cars used in taxi service.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://cdn.toyota\\-catalog.jp/catalog/pdf/crown\\-sedan\\-3/crown\\-sedan\\-3\\_200210\\.pdf \\|title\\=2002 Crown Sedan \\|publisher\\=Toyota \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-04\\-14}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://cdn.toyota\\-catalog.jp/catalog/pdf/crown\\-sedan\\-3/crown\\-sedan\\-3\\_200808\\.pdf \\|title\\=2008 Crown Sedan \\|publisher\\=Toyota \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-04\\-14}} Due to the extended bumpers, Super Saloons exceeded the {{convert\\|4\\.7\\|m\\|ft\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} length threshold of Japan's \"small\\-size passenger vehicle\" [classification](/wiki/Vehicle_size_class%23Japan \"Vehicle size class#Japan\") and were instead classified as \"normal\\-size passenger vehicles\" as a result.{{r\\|Crown Lineage}}", "### TRD Comfort GT\\-Z Supercharger", "[thumb\\|right\\|TRD Comfort GT\\-Z Supercharger](/wiki/File:Comfortgtz_2012.jpg \"Comfortgtz 2012.jpg\")", "The TRD Comfort GT\\-Z Supercharger was a limited production high\\-performance version of the SXS13Y model produced from July 2003 until February 2004\\. A total of 59 GT\\-Z units were produced.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://jalopnik.com/is\\-this\\-supercharged\\-toyota\\-taxi\\-the\\-most\\-ridiculous\\-pe\\-1750994017 \\|title\\=Is This Supercharged Toyota Taxi The Most Ridiculous Performance Car Ever Made? \\|website\\=Jalopnik \\|date\\=2016\\-01\\-05 \\|access\\-date\\=2017\\-08\\-25}} It is equipped with the same [3S\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_S_engine%233S-FE \"Toyota S engine#3S-FE\") [DOHC](/wiki/DOHC \"DOHC\") 2\\.0 L inline\\-four petrol engine as the base car but fitted with an ORC\\-TX07 [supercharger](/wiki/Supercharger \"Supercharger\"), increasing power output to {{convert\\|160\\|PS\\|kW hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 6100 rpm and torque to {{convert\\|22\\.5\\|kgm\\|Nm lbft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3300 rpm.", "" ]
### Equipment {{Multiple image \| align \= right \| direction \= vertical \| width \= 220 \| image1 \= Toyota Crown Super Deluxe Mild Hybrid (2\).jpg \| image2 \= Toyota Crown Daiwa Taxi (cropped).jpg \| caption2 \= Toyota Crown Sedan (facelift) \| image3 \= Crownsedaninterior.jpg \| caption3 \= Interior }} While the Comfort shares its underpinnings with the X80 Mark II, its body was thoroughly redesigned to increase interior space with an emphasis on rear passenger comfort.{{r\|Comfort Lineage}} To reduce unnecessary cost and weight while provisioning for the installation of taxi equipment, the more luxurious dashboard and interior fittings of the Mark II were replaced with a modified version of the base [S130 Crown](/wiki/Toyota_Crown_%28S130%29 "Toyota Crown (S130)")'s dashboard and less bulky all\-plastic fittings with very simple designs. Comfort\-based Crown Sedans received a facelift comprising chrome\-accented bumpers and body\-coloured side mouldings, redesigned taillights, and a new boot panel with additional light clusters and a chrome\-rimmed number plate garnish. Crown Sedans also received an updated interior with a more elegant instrument panel, various elements derived from those found in the preceding [tenth generation Crown Sedan](/wiki/Toyota_Crown_%28S150%29 "Toyota Crown (S150)"), and a steering wheel shared with consumer\-oriented models like the [XV30 Camry](/wiki/Toyota_Camry_%28XV30%29 "Toyota Camry (XV30)"). Taxi models came equipped with fender mirrors, while the private use and driver's education cars were equipped with door\-mounted mirrors. Early Comforts below the SG trim level had manual windows on all four doors; power front windows were optional, and standardised in the beginning of 1997\. In 2007, Toyota added power windows at all four doors as an option. The front bumper is designed to be able to split in two, and driving lamps can be quickly removed for ease of repair in case of an accident. *Welcab* ([paratransit](/wiki/Paratransit "Paratransit")) versions of the taxi models were offered, adding a rear passenger seat that rotates outwards to aid the entry and exit of passengers with limited mobility; these cars can be identified by the [International Symbol of Access](/wiki/International_Symbol_of_Access "International Symbol of Access") on the corresponding door.{{cite AV media \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=JVXDE0gbFSw\&t\=111s \|title\=japanese taxi toyota クラウン コンフォート ニコニコタクシー LPG 広島市 \|trans\-title\=japanese taxi toyota Crown Comfort Nico Nico Taxi LPG Hiroshima City \|via\=Youtube \|date\=2016\-12\-04 \|access\-date\=2022\-03\-18}} A "swing roof" option was also offered for Crown Comforts and Crown Sedans used in [Shinto weddings](/wiki/Shinto_wedding "Shinto wedding"), adding a hinged roof panel above the rear passenger door that opens upwards to allow for the clearance of a bride's wig and headdress during entry and exit. [thumb\|right\|A "swing roof"\-equipped Crown Comfort with the roof panel opened](/wiki/File:%E8%8A%B1%E5%AB%81%E3%81%95%E3%82%93%E7%94%A8%E3%81%AE%E3%82%BF%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B7%E3%83%BC_%285852403599%29.jpg "花嫁さん用のタクシー (5852403599).jpg") In 2002, all models received [ABS](/wiki/Anti-lock_braking_system "Anti-lock braking system") and a driver's airbag as standard. In 2004, an [LED](/wiki/Light-emitting_diode "Light-emitting diode") [third brake light](/wiki/Automotive_lighting%23Center_high_mount_stop_lamp_%28CHMSL%29 "Automotive lighting#Center high mount stop lamp (CHMSL)") replaced the original incandescent unit while [side turn signals](/wiki/Automotive_lighting%23Side_turn_signals "Automotive lighting#Side turn signals") (shared with the [XP30 bB](/wiki/Toyota_bB%23First_generation_%28XP30%3B_2000%29 "Toyota bB#First generation (XP30; 2000)")) were added to the front fenders. In August 2007, the Crown Comfort was facelifted for the Hong Kong market by adopting the Japanese market Crown Sedan's chrome\-accented bumpers, taillights, and redesigned boot panel. In late 2007, a minor update was made to the Comfort's emissions system to meet more stringent emission standards set by Toyota, while the use of LED lights for instrument panel illumination was increased. Larger headrests were gradually phased in beginning with *SG* and Crown Sedan models circa 2001, and ending with *Standard* and *Deluxe* taxi models in 2012\. All Comforts eventually gained a passenger airbag and [start\-stop system](/wiki/Start-stop_system "Start-stop system") as standard equipment; the latter being offered exclusively in the Japanese market. Comforts configured for driver's education use were only offered in the *Deluxe* trim level and are equipped with a secondary brake pedal on the passenger footwell for instructor use. A radio delete option was offered for the driver's education model. Most (if not all) models from 1995 to 1997 were equipped with a digital auxiliary speedometer on the centre console as standard. In 1996, an optional brake light indicator was added to the centre console. Cars built in 1997 had this light moved to the passenger side of the dash, with clutch and accelerator indicator lights added to the mix. All cars made after 1998 had the indicator lights moved to a redesigned centre console stack.
[ "### Equipment", "{{Multiple image \\| align \\= right \\| direction \\= vertical \\| width \\= 220\n\\| image1 \\= Toyota Crown Super Deluxe Mild Hybrid (2\\).jpg\n\\| image2 \\= Toyota Crown Daiwa Taxi (cropped).jpg\n\\| caption2 \\= Toyota Crown Sedan (facelift)\n\\| image3 \\= Crownsedaninterior.jpg\n\\| caption3 \\= Interior\n}}", "While the Comfort shares its underpinnings with the X80 Mark II, its body was thoroughly redesigned to increase interior space with an emphasis on rear passenger comfort.{{r\\|Comfort Lineage}} To reduce unnecessary cost and weight while provisioning for the installation of taxi equipment, the more luxurious dashboard and interior fittings of the Mark II were replaced with a modified version of the base [S130 Crown](/wiki/Toyota_Crown_%28S130%29 \"Toyota Crown (S130)\")'s dashboard and less bulky all\\-plastic fittings with very simple designs.", "Comfort\\-based Crown Sedans received a facelift comprising chrome\\-accented bumpers and body\\-coloured side mouldings, redesigned taillights, and a new boot panel with additional light clusters and a chrome\\-rimmed number plate garnish. Crown Sedans also received an updated interior with a more elegant instrument panel, various elements derived from those found in the preceding [tenth generation Crown Sedan](/wiki/Toyota_Crown_%28S150%29 \"Toyota Crown (S150)\"), and a steering wheel shared with consumer\\-oriented models like the [XV30 Camry](/wiki/Toyota_Camry_%28XV30%29 \"Toyota Camry (XV30)\").", "Taxi models came equipped with fender mirrors, while the private use and driver's education cars were equipped with door\\-mounted mirrors. Early Comforts below the SG trim level had manual windows on all four doors; power front windows were optional, and standardised in the beginning of 1997\\. In 2007, Toyota added power windows at all four doors as an option. The front bumper is designed to be able to split in two, and driving lamps can be quickly removed for ease of repair in case of an accident.", "*Welcab* ([paratransit](/wiki/Paratransit \"Paratransit\")) versions of the taxi models were offered, adding a rear passenger seat that rotates outwards to aid the entry and exit of passengers with limited mobility; these cars can be identified by the [International Symbol of Access](/wiki/International_Symbol_of_Access \"International Symbol of Access\") on the corresponding door.{{cite AV media \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=JVXDE0gbFSw\\&t\\=111s \\|title\\=japanese taxi toyota クラウン コンフォート ニコニコタクシー LPG 広島市 \\|trans\\-title\\=japanese taxi toyota Crown Comfort Nico Nico Taxi LPG Hiroshima City \\|via\\=Youtube \\|date\\=2016\\-12\\-04 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-18}} A \"swing roof\" option was also offered for Crown Comforts and Crown Sedans used in [Shinto weddings](/wiki/Shinto_wedding \"Shinto wedding\"), adding a hinged roof panel above the rear passenger door that opens upwards to allow for the clearance of a bride's wig and headdress during entry and exit.", "[thumb\\|right\\|A \"swing roof\"\\-equipped Crown Comfort with the roof panel opened](/wiki/File:%E8%8A%B1%E5%AB%81%E3%81%95%E3%82%93%E7%94%A8%E3%81%AE%E3%82%BF%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B7%E3%83%BC_%285852403599%29.jpg \"花嫁さん用のタクシー (5852403599).jpg\")", "In 2002, all models received [ABS](/wiki/Anti-lock_braking_system \"Anti-lock braking system\") and a driver's airbag as standard. In 2004, an [LED](/wiki/Light-emitting_diode \"Light-emitting diode\") [third brake light](/wiki/Automotive_lighting%23Center_high_mount_stop_lamp_%28CHMSL%29 \"Automotive lighting#Center high mount stop lamp (CHMSL)\") replaced the original incandescent unit while [side turn signals](/wiki/Automotive_lighting%23Side_turn_signals \"Automotive lighting#Side turn signals\") (shared with the [XP30 bB](/wiki/Toyota_bB%23First_generation_%28XP30%3B_2000%29 \"Toyota bB#First generation (XP30; 2000)\")) were added to the front fenders. In August 2007, the Crown Comfort was facelifted for the Hong Kong market by adopting the Japanese market Crown Sedan's chrome\\-accented bumpers, taillights, and redesigned boot panel.", "In late 2007, a minor update was made to the Comfort's emissions system to meet more stringent emission standards set by Toyota, while the use of LED lights for instrument panel illumination was increased. Larger headrests were gradually phased in beginning with *SG* and Crown Sedan models circa 2001, and ending with *Standard* and *Deluxe* taxi models in 2012\\. All Comforts eventually gained a passenger airbag and [start\\-stop system](/wiki/Start-stop_system \"Start-stop system\") as standard equipment; the latter being offered exclusively in the Japanese market.", "Comforts configured for driver's education use were only offered in the *Deluxe* trim level and are equipped with a secondary brake pedal on the passenger footwell for instructor use. A radio delete option was offered for the driver's education model. Most (if not all) models from 1995 to 1997 were equipped with a digital auxiliary speedometer on the centre console as standard. In 1996, an optional brake light indicator was added to the centre console. Cars built in 1997 had this light moved to the passenger side of the dash, with clutch and accelerator indicator lights added to the mix. All cars made after 1998 had the indicator lights moved to a redesigned centre console stack.", "" ]
History ------- The first versions of BeanShell (0\.96, 1\.0\) were released by Patrick Niemeyer in 1999, followed by a series of versions. BeanShell 1\.3\.0 was released in August 2003\. Version 2\.0b1 was released in September 2003, culminating with version 2\.0b4 in May 2005, which as of January 2015 is the newest release posted on the official webpage.{{cite web\|title\=BeanShell Downloads\|url\=http://beanshell.org/download.html\|website\=beanshell.org\|access\-date\=28 January 2015\|date\=2009\-01\-28}} BeanShell has been included in the Linux distribution [Debian](/wiki/Debian "Debian") since 1999\.{{cite web\|title\=Source Package: bsh (2\.0b4\-12\)\|url\=https://packages.debian.org/source/stable/bsh\|website\=Debian\|access\-date\=28 January 2015}} BeanShell was undergoing [standardization](/wiki/Standardization "Standardization") through the [Java Community Process](/wiki/Java_Community_Process "Java Community Process") (JCP) under JSR 274\.[The Java Community Process(SM) Program \- JSRs: Java Specification Requests \- detail JSR\# 274](http://www.jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=274). Jcp.org. Retrieved on 2013\-07\-21\. Following the JCP approval of the BeanShell JSR Review Ballot in June 2005, no visible activity was taking place around BeanShell.{{Cite web\|url\=https://jcp.org/en/jsr/results?id\=3208\|title\=The Java Community Process(SM) Program \- JSRs: Java Specification Requests \- results\|website\=jcp.org}} The JSR 274 status is "Dormant". Since Java 9, Java instead includes [JShell](/wiki/JShell "JShell"), a different [read–eval–print loop](/wiki/Read%E2%80%93eval%E2%80%93print_loop "Read–eval–print loop") (REPL) shell based on Java syntax, indicating that BeanShell will not be continued.{{Cite web\|title \= JEP 222: jshell: The Java Shell (Read\-Eval\-Print Loop)\|url \= http://openjdk.java.net/jeps/222\|website \= openjdk.java.net\|access\-date \= 2015\-09\-03}} A [fork](/wiki/Fork_%28software_development%29 "Fork (software development)") of BeanShell, *BeanShell2*, was created in May 2007 on the now\-defunct [Google Code](/wiki/Google_Developers%23Google_Code "Google Developers#Google Code") Web site.[beanshell2 \- fork of BeanShell \- Google Project Hosting](https://code.google.com/p/beanshell2/). Code.google.com (2011\-11\-21\). Retrieved on 2013\-07\-21\. The *beanshell2* project has made a number of fixes and enhancements to BeanShell and multiple releases. {{As of\|January 2020}}, the latest version of BeanShell2 is v2\.1\.9, released March 2018\.{{cite web \|last1\=Jodeleit \|first1\=Peter \|title\=README.md \|website\=\[\[GitHub]] \|url\=https://github.com/pejobo/beanshell2/blob/0ed03360b61316b755742257f163b5fb564d821a/dist/README.md \|access\-date\=23 January 2020}} This fork was merged back into the original tree in 2018,{{cite web\|url\=https://github.com/beanshell/beanshell/issues/46\|title\=Fork to investigate possible merge · Issue \#46 · beanshell/Beanshell \|website\=\[\[GitHub]] }} retaining all the independent changes from both, and the official project has been hosted at [GitHub](/wiki/GitHub "GitHub").<https://github.com/beanshell/beanshell> GitHub \- beanshell/beanshell: Beanshell, a scripting language for the Java Virtual Machine. Retrieved on 2018\-03\-06\. In December 2012, following a proposal to accept BeanShell as an Apache Incubator project,{{cite web\|author1\=Tripodi, S\|author2\=Bazley, S\|title\=BeanShell proposal\|url\=https://wiki.apache.org/incubator/BeanShellProposal\|website\=Incubator Wiki\|publisher\=Apache Software Foundation\|date\=2012}} BeanShell was licensed to [The Apache Software Foundation](/wiki/The_Apache_Software_Foundation "The Apache Software Foundation") and migrated to the Apache Extras,{{Cite web\|url\=https://github.com/beanshell/beanshell\|title\=beanshell/beanshell\|date\=January 27, 2021\|via\=GitHub}} changing the license to [Apache License 2\.0](/wiki/Apache_License "Apache License"). The project was not accepted but instead projected to become part of the [Apache Commons](/wiki/Apache_Commons "Apache Commons") at a future time. Due to changes in the developers' personal circumstances, the BeanShell community did not, however, complete the move to Apache,{{cite web\|last1\=Tripodi\|first1\=Simone\|title\=Beanshell under Apache?\|url\=https://www.mail\-archive.com/dev@taverna.incubator.apache.org/msg00224\.html\|website\=Apache Taverna developer mailing list\|publisher\=Apache Software Foundation\|access\-date\=28 January 2015\|date\=2015\-01\-08}} but remained at Apache Extras. The project has since released BeanShell 2\.0b5, which is used by [Apache OpenOffice](/wiki/Apache_OpenOffice "Apache OpenOffice") and [Apache Taverna](/wiki/Apache_Taverna "Apache Taverna"). A Windows automated installer, BeanShell Double\-Click,[BeanShell Double\-Click \| Free Development software downloads at](/wiki/SourceForge:Projects/beanshelldouble/ "Projects/beanshelldouble/"). Sourceforge.net. Retrieved on 2013\-07\-21\. was created in 2013\. It includes desktop integration features.
[ "History\n-------", "The first versions of BeanShell (0\\.96, 1\\.0\\) were released by Patrick Niemeyer in 1999, followed by a series of versions. BeanShell 1\\.3\\.0 was released in August 2003\\. Version 2\\.0b1 was released in September 2003, culminating with version 2\\.0b4 in May 2005, which as of January 2015 is the newest release posted on the official webpage.{{cite web\\|title\\=BeanShell Downloads\\|url\\=http://beanshell.org/download.html\\|website\\=beanshell.org\\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2015\\|date\\=2009\\-01\\-28}}", "BeanShell has been included in the Linux distribution [Debian](/wiki/Debian \"Debian\") since 1999\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Source Package: bsh (2\\.0b4\\-12\\)\\|url\\=https://packages.debian.org/source/stable/bsh\\|website\\=Debian\\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2015}}", "BeanShell was undergoing [standardization](/wiki/Standardization \"Standardization\") through the [Java Community Process](/wiki/Java_Community_Process \"Java Community Process\") (JCP) under JSR 274\\.[The Java Community Process(SM) Program \\- JSRs: Java Specification Requests \\- detail JSR\\# 274](http://www.jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=274). Jcp.org. Retrieved on 2013\\-07\\-21\\.", "Following the JCP approval of the BeanShell JSR Review Ballot in June 2005, no visible activity was taking place around BeanShell.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://jcp.org/en/jsr/results?id\\=3208\\|title\\=The Java Community Process(SM) Program \\- JSRs: Java Specification Requests \\- results\\|website\\=jcp.org}} The JSR 274 status is \"Dormant\".", "Since Java 9, Java instead includes [JShell](/wiki/JShell \"JShell\"), a different [read–eval–print loop](/wiki/Read%E2%80%93eval%E2%80%93print_loop \"Read–eval–print loop\") (REPL) shell based on Java syntax, indicating that BeanShell will not be continued.{{Cite web\\|title \\= JEP 222: jshell: The Java Shell (Read\\-Eval\\-Print Loop)\\|url \\= http://openjdk.java.net/jeps/222\\|website \\= openjdk.java.net\\|access\\-date \\= 2015\\-09\\-03}}", "A [fork](/wiki/Fork_%28software_development%29 \"Fork (software development)\") of BeanShell, *BeanShell2*, was created in May 2007 on the now\\-defunct [Google Code](/wiki/Google_Developers%23Google_Code \"Google Developers#Google Code\") Web site.[beanshell2 \\- fork of BeanShell \\- Google Project Hosting](https://code.google.com/p/beanshell2/). Code.google.com (2011\\-11\\-21\\). Retrieved on 2013\\-07\\-21\\. The *beanshell2* project has made a number of fixes and enhancements to BeanShell and multiple releases. {{As of\\|January 2020}}, the latest version of BeanShell2 is v2\\.1\\.9, released March 2018\\.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Jodeleit \\|first1\\=Peter \\|title\\=README.md \\|website\\=\\[\\[GitHub]] \\|url\\=https://github.com/pejobo/beanshell2/blob/0ed03360b61316b755742257f163b5fb564d821a/dist/README.md \\|access\\-date\\=23 January 2020}} This fork was merged back into the original tree in 2018,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://github.com/beanshell/beanshell/issues/46\\|title\\=Fork to investigate possible merge · Issue \\#46 · beanshell/Beanshell \\|website\\=\\[\\[GitHub]] }} retaining all the independent changes from both, and the official project has been hosted at [GitHub](/wiki/GitHub \"GitHub\").<https://github.com/beanshell/beanshell> GitHub \\- beanshell/beanshell: Beanshell, a scripting language for the Java Virtual Machine. Retrieved on 2018\\-03\\-06\\.", "In December 2012, following a proposal to accept BeanShell as an Apache Incubator project,{{cite web\\|author1\\=Tripodi, S\\|author2\\=Bazley, S\\|title\\=BeanShell proposal\\|url\\=https://wiki.apache.org/incubator/BeanShellProposal\\|website\\=Incubator Wiki\\|publisher\\=Apache Software Foundation\\|date\\=2012}} BeanShell was licensed to [The Apache Software Foundation](/wiki/The_Apache_Software_Foundation \"The Apache Software Foundation\") and migrated to the Apache Extras,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://github.com/beanshell/beanshell\\|title\\=beanshell/beanshell\\|date\\=January 27, 2021\\|via\\=GitHub}} changing the license to [Apache License 2\\.0](/wiki/Apache_License \"Apache License\"). The project was not accepted but instead projected to become part of the [Apache Commons](/wiki/Apache_Commons \"Apache Commons\") at a future time.", "Due to changes in the developers' personal circumstances, the BeanShell community did not, however, complete the move to Apache,{{cite web\\|last1\\=Tripodi\\|first1\\=Simone\\|title\\=Beanshell under Apache?\\|url\\=https://www.mail\\-archive.com/dev@taverna.incubator.apache.org/msg00224\\.html\\|website\\=Apache Taverna developer mailing list\\|publisher\\=Apache Software Foundation\\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2015\\|date\\=2015\\-01\\-08}} but remained at Apache Extras. The project has since released BeanShell 2\\.0b5, which is used by [Apache OpenOffice](/wiki/Apache_OpenOffice \"Apache OpenOffice\") and [Apache Taverna](/wiki/Apache_Taverna \"Apache Taverna\").", "A Windows automated installer, BeanShell Double\\-Click,[BeanShell Double\\-Click \\| Free Development software downloads at](/wiki/SourceForge:Projects/beanshelldouble/ \"Projects/beanshelldouble/\"). Sourceforge.net. Retrieved on 2013\\-07\\-21\\. was created in 2013\\. It includes desktop integration features.", "" ]
Career ------ Gary started his sprinting career at age 10, and after several years as a junior sprint champion, he won two Australian national sprint titles at 100 yards and 220 yards in 1961\. That same year Gary represented Australia at the World Games in Helsinki. In 1962, he was again the national champion in the 100 yards and placed 2nd in the 220 yards. He also represented Australia at the [Perth Commonwealth Games](/wiki/1962_British_Empire_and_Commonwealth_Games "1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games"), where he reached the final of the 100 yards placing 4th. He also competed in the 4 x 110 yards event at the games, where Australia placed 5th overall. In 1963, Gary competed in the national championships where he placed 3rd in the 100 yards and reclaimed his national title in the 220 yards by winning that event. The following year, he placed 2nd in the 100 yards and held onto his national title in the 220 yards. Gary represented Australia at the [1964 Tokyo Olympic Games](/wiki/1964_Summer_Olympics "1964 Summer Olympics"), where he competed in the 100 metres, 200 metres and the 4 x 100 metres events. In 1966, he competed in [Commonwealth Games in Kingston](/wiki/1966_British_Empire_and_Commonwealth_Games "1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games"), Jamaica, reaching the semi\-finals in the 110 yards, a coming 6th in the 220 yards final. He was also a member of the 4 x 110 yards Australian team which claimed the bronze medal (3rd). In the same year he was the national champion for the 200 metres and 2nd in the 100 metres championship. Gary competed in the Commonwealth team v USA and USSR in 1966 and 1967\. In 1967 he won the 100 metres national championship for the last time and was 3rd in the 200 metres. His best times were 10\.1s for the 100 metres and 20\.7s for the 200 metres. He was coached by [Neville Sillitoe](/wiki/Neville_Sillitoe "Neville Sillitoe") at the [East Melbourne Harriers](/wiki/East_Melbourne_Harriers "East Melbourne Harriers").{{Cite web\|last\=Holdsworth\|first\=Gary\|title\=Australian Athletics Results\|url\=http://athletics.possumbility.com/athletes/athlete381\.htm\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-12\|website\=athletics.possumbility.com}}{{Cite book\|title\=History of the Essendon Athletics Club\|year\=2016\|url\=http://athleticsessendon.org.au/wp\-content/uploads/2014/11/History\-to\-2016\.pdf\|pages\=Appendix 4}}
[ "Career\n------", "Gary started his sprinting career at age 10, and after several years as a junior sprint champion, he won two Australian national sprint titles at 100 yards and 220 yards in 1961\\. That same year Gary represented Australia at the World Games in Helsinki.", "In 1962, he was again the national champion in the 100 yards and placed 2nd in the 220 yards. He also represented Australia at the [Perth Commonwealth Games](/wiki/1962_British_Empire_and_Commonwealth_Games \"1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games\"), where he reached the final of the 100 yards placing 4th. He also competed in the 4 x 110 yards event at the games, where Australia placed 5th overall.", "In 1963, Gary competed in the national championships where he placed 3rd in the 100 yards and reclaimed his national title in the 220 yards by winning that event. The following year, he placed 2nd in the 100 yards and held onto his national title in the 220 yards.", "Gary represented Australia at the [1964 Tokyo Olympic Games](/wiki/1964_Summer_Olympics \"1964 Summer Olympics\"), where he competed in the 100 metres, 200 metres and the 4 x 100 metres events.", "In 1966, he competed in [Commonwealth Games in Kingston](/wiki/1966_British_Empire_and_Commonwealth_Games \"1966 British Empire and Commonwealth Games\"), Jamaica, reaching the semi\\-finals in the 110 yards, a coming 6th in the 220 yards final. He was also a member of the 4 x 110 yards Australian team which claimed the bronze medal (3rd). In the same year he was the national champion for the 200 metres and 2nd in the 100 metres championship.", "Gary competed in the Commonwealth team v USA and USSR in 1966 and 1967\\. In 1967 he won the 100 metres national championship for the last time and was 3rd in the 200 metres.", "His best times were 10\\.1s for the 100 metres and 20\\.7s for the 200 metres.", "He was coached by [Neville Sillitoe](/wiki/Neville_Sillitoe \"Neville Sillitoe\") at the [East Melbourne Harriers](/wiki/East_Melbourne_Harriers \"East Melbourne Harriers\").{{Cite web\\|last\\=Holdsworth\\|first\\=Gary\\|title\\=Australian Athletics Results\\|url\\=http://athletics.possumbility.com/athletes/athlete381\\.htm\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-12\\|website\\=athletics.possumbility.com}}{{Cite book\\|title\\=History of the Essendon Athletics Club\\|year\\=2016\\|url\\=http://athleticsessendon.org.au/wp\\-content/uploads/2014/11/History\\-to\\-2016\\.pdf\\|pages\\=Appendix 4}}", "" ]
Academic career --------------- Oates' PhD studies were initially supervised by [Dorothy Garrod](/wiki/Dorothy_Garrod "Dorothy Garrod") and later by [Max Mallowan](/wiki/Max_Mallowan "Max Mallowan"). In the course of her studies she visited the British School of Archaeology in Baghdad and travelled with Mallowan to Nimrud. During this time she became acquainted with novelist [Agatha Christie](/wiki/Agatha_Christie "Agatha Christie"), who based the character Sally Finch on her in the novel [Hickory Dickory Dock](/wiki/Hickory_Dickory_Dock_%28novel%29 "Hickory Dickory Dock (novel)"). She completed her PhD in 1954 and returned to the USA. Oates began her career as an assistant curator in the Department of Near Eastern Antiquities at the [Metropolitan Museum of Art](/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art "Metropolitan Museum of Art") in New York City, and continued to visit Nimrud with Max Mallowan each year. She married David Oates in 1956 and they worked together on archaeological excavations in [Nimrud](/wiki/Nimrud "Nimrud"), Ain Sinu, [Nippur](/wiki/Nippur "Nippur") and [Choga Mami](/wiki/Choga_Mami "Choga Mami").{{cite web \|last1\=Davenport \|first1\=Ben \|title\=Dr Joan Oates \|url\=https://www.arch.cam.ac.uk/directory/jlo29 \|website\=Department of Archaeology \|publisher\=University of Cambridge \|access\-date\=6 October 2021 \|language\=en \|date\=8 April 2014}}{{cite web \|title\=Dr Joan Oates FBA \|url\=https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/fellows/joan\-oates\-FBA/ \|website\=The British Academy \|access\-date\=6 October 2021 \|language\=en}} The Choga Mami excavation was directed by Joan Oates. After the birth of her children, Oates played a less active role in excavations, but continued to participate by documenting the finds, particularly potsherds. This continued involvement contributed to her securing a [Guggenheim Fellowship](/wiki/Guggenheim_Fellowship "Guggenheim Fellowship") from 1966 to 1967\. In 1968 they left Iraq due to the political instability and returned to Cambridge. In 1971 Joan Oates was elected a [fellow](/wiki/Fellow_%28Oxbridge%29 "Fellow (Oxbridge)") of [Girton College, Cambridge](/wiki/Girton_College%2C_Cambridge "Girton College, Cambridge") and Director of Studies in both Oriental Studies and Archaeology at that college, becoming a Senior Research Fellow in 1989\. She carried out excavations at [Tell Brak](/wiki/Tell_Brak "Tell Brak") in Syria 14 times between 1971 and 1993 and continuing to visit the site after her retirement.{{cite web \|title\=Dr Joan Oates FBA \|url\=https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/fellows/joan\-oates\-FBA/ \|website\=The British Academy \|access\-date\=6 October 2021 \|language\=en}} She was co\-director with her husband David of the excavations at Tell Brak from 1988 to 2004, and became its sole director after his death in 2004\. In 1988 she was a Visiting Scholar at the [Smithsonian](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution "Smithsonian Institution") in Washington DC, and in 1989 she became a [lecturer](/wiki/Lecturer "Lecturer") in the history and archaeology of the [Ancient Near East](/wiki/Ancient_Near_East "Ancient Near East") at the [University of Cambridge](/wiki/University_of_Cambridge "University of Cambridge"). Her many valuable contributions to archaeology include establishing that the origins of Tell Brak were 1000 years earlier than previously thought and identifying a previously unknown stage in the development of writing. In 1995 she retired and was made a Life Fellow of Girton. She was a Senior Fellow of the [McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research](/wiki/McDonald_Institute_for_Archaeological_Research "McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research") at Cambridge from 1995\.{{cite web \|title\=Oates, Joan Louise, (born 6 May 1928\), Fellow, Girton College, Cambridge, 1971–95, Life Fellow, since 1995; Senior Fellow, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, since 1995 \|url\=http://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/article/oupww/whoswho/U4000734 \|website\=\[\[Who's Who 2020]] \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|access\-date\=6 October 2021 \|language\=en \|date\=1 December 2019}}
[ "Academic career\n---------------", "Oates' PhD studies were initially supervised by [Dorothy Garrod](/wiki/Dorothy_Garrod \"Dorothy Garrod\") and later by [Max Mallowan](/wiki/Max_Mallowan \"Max Mallowan\"). In the course of her studies she visited the British School of Archaeology in Baghdad and travelled with Mallowan to Nimrud. During this time she became acquainted with novelist [Agatha Christie](/wiki/Agatha_Christie \"Agatha Christie\"), who based the character Sally Finch on her in the novel [Hickory Dickory Dock](/wiki/Hickory_Dickory_Dock_%28novel%29 \"Hickory Dickory Dock (novel)\"). She completed her PhD in 1954 and returned to the USA.", "Oates began her career as an assistant curator in the Department of Near Eastern Antiquities at the [Metropolitan Museum of Art](/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art \"Metropolitan Museum of Art\") in New York City, and continued to visit Nimrud with Max Mallowan each year.", "She married David Oates in 1956 and they worked together on archaeological excavations in [Nimrud](/wiki/Nimrud \"Nimrud\"), Ain Sinu, [Nippur](/wiki/Nippur \"Nippur\") and [Choga Mami](/wiki/Choga_Mami \"Choga Mami\").{{cite web \\|last1\\=Davenport \\|first1\\=Ben \\|title\\=Dr Joan Oates \\|url\\=https://www.arch.cam.ac.uk/directory/jlo29 \\|website\\=Department of Archaeology \\|publisher\\=University of Cambridge \\|access\\-date\\=6 October 2021 \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=8 April 2014}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Dr Joan Oates FBA \\|url\\=https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/fellows/joan\\-oates\\-FBA/ \\|website\\=The British Academy \\|access\\-date\\=6 October 2021 \\|language\\=en}} The Choga Mami excavation was directed by Joan Oates. After the birth of her children, Oates played a less active role in excavations, but continued to participate by documenting the finds, particularly potsherds. This continued involvement contributed to her securing a [Guggenheim Fellowship](/wiki/Guggenheim_Fellowship \"Guggenheim Fellowship\") from 1966 to 1967\\. In 1968 they left Iraq due to the political instability and returned to Cambridge.", "In 1971 Joan Oates was elected a [fellow](/wiki/Fellow_%28Oxbridge%29 \"Fellow (Oxbridge)\") of [Girton College, Cambridge](/wiki/Girton_College%2C_Cambridge \"Girton College, Cambridge\") and Director of Studies in both Oriental Studies and Archaeology at that college, becoming a Senior Research Fellow in 1989\\. She carried out excavations at [Tell Brak](/wiki/Tell_Brak \"Tell Brak\") in Syria 14 times between 1971 and 1993 and continuing to visit the site after her retirement.{{cite web \\|title\\=Dr Joan Oates FBA \\|url\\=https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/fellows/joan\\-oates\\-FBA/ \\|website\\=The British Academy \\|access\\-date\\=6 October 2021 \\|language\\=en}} She was co\\-director with her husband David of the excavations at Tell Brak from 1988 to 2004, and became its sole director after his death in 2004\\. In 1988 she was a Visiting Scholar at the [Smithsonian](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution \"Smithsonian Institution\") in Washington DC, and in 1989 she became a [lecturer](/wiki/Lecturer \"Lecturer\") in the history and archaeology of the [Ancient Near East](/wiki/Ancient_Near_East \"Ancient Near East\") at the [University of Cambridge](/wiki/University_of_Cambridge \"University of Cambridge\").", "Her many valuable contributions to archaeology include establishing that the origins of Tell Brak were 1000 years earlier than previously thought and identifying a previously unknown stage in the development of writing.", "In 1995 she retired and was made a Life Fellow of Girton. She was a Senior Fellow of the [McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research](/wiki/McDonald_Institute_for_Archaeological_Research \"McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research\") at Cambridge from 1995\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Oates, Joan Louise, (born 6 May 1928\\), Fellow, Girton College, Cambridge, 1971–95, Life Fellow, since 1995; Senior Fellow, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge, since 1995 \\|url\\=http://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/article/oupww/whoswho/U4000734 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Who's Who 2020]] \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|access\\-date\\=6 October 2021 \\|language\\=en \\|date\\=1 December 2019}}", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Youth (1833–1850\) [thumb\|upright\|Photograph from 1891 of the building in Hamburg where Brahms was born. It was destroyed by [bombing](/wiki/Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II "Bombing of Hamburg in World War II") in 1943\.](/wiki/File:Brahms_geburtshaus_in_Hamburg.jpg "Brahms geburtshaus in Hamburg.jpg") #### Upbringing Brahms's father, Johann Jakob Brahms, was from the town of [Heide](/wiki/Heide "Heide") in Holstein.{{sfn\|Geiringer and Geiringer\|1982\|loc\=4}}{{efn\|His family name was also sometimes spelled Brahmst or Brams, deriving from Bram, the German word for the shrub \[\[Genista\|broom]].{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|p\=7}}}} Against his family's will, Johann Jakob pursued a career in music, arriving in Hamburg at age 19\.{{sfn\|Geiringer and Geiringer\|1982\|loc\=4}} He found work playing [double bass](/wiki/Double_bass "Double bass") for jobs; he also played in a sextet in the Alster\-pavilion in Hamburg's [Jungfernstieg](/wiki/Jungfernstieg "Jungfernstieg").{{sfn\|Geiringer and Geiringer\|1982\|loc\=4–5}} In 1830, Johann Jakob was appointed as a [horn](/wiki/Natural_horn "Natural horn") player in the Hamburg militia.{{sfn\|Hofmann\|1999\|pp\=3–4}} He married Johanna Henrika Christiane Nissen the same year.{{sfn\|Geiringer and Geiringer\|1982\|loc\=3}} A middle\-class seamstress 17 years his senior, she enjoyed writing letters and reading despite an apparently limited education.{{sfn\|Geiringer and Geiringer\|1982\|loc\=6–9}} Johannes Brahms was born in 1833\. His sister Elisabeth (Elise) had been born in 1831 and a younger brother Fritz Friedrich was born in 1835\.{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|pp\=14–16}}{{efn\|Fritz also became a pianist; overshadowed by his brother, he emigrated to \[\[Caracas]] in 1867, and later returned to Hamburg as a teacher.{{sfn\|Musgrave\|2000\|p\=13}}}} The family then lived in poor apartments in the {{ill\|Gängeviertel (Hamburg)\|lt\=Gängeviertel\|de\|Gängeviertel (Hamburg)\|display\=1}} quarter of Hamburg and struggled economically.{{sfn\|Geiringer and Geiringer\|1982\|loc\=9–11, 14}} (Johann Jakob even considered emigrating to the United States when an [impresario](/wiki/Impresario "Impresario"), recognizing Johannes's talent, promised them fortune there.){{sfn\|Geiringer and Geiringer\|1982\|loc\=10, 17}} Eventually Johann Jakob became a musician in the [Philharmonisches Staatsorchester Hamburg](/wiki/Philharmonisches_Staatsorchester_Hamburg "Philharmonisches Staatsorchester Hamburg") playing [double bass](/wiki/Double_bass "Double bass"), horn, and [flute](/wiki/Flute "Flute").{{sfn\|Geiringer and Geiringer\|1982\|loc\=12}} For enjoyment, he played first [violin](/wiki/Violin "Violin") in [string quartets](/wiki/String_quartet "String quartet").{{sfn\|Geiringer and Geiringer\|1982\|loc\=12}} The family moved over the years to ever better accommodation in Hamburg.{{sfn\|Hofmann\|1999\|pp\=4–8}} #### Training Johann Jakob gave his son his first musical training; Johannes also learnt to play the violin and the basics of playing the cello. From 1840 he studied piano with Otto Friedrich Willibald Cossel. Cossel complained in 1842 that Brahms "could be such a good player, but he will not stop his never\-ending composing." At the age of 10, Brahms made his debut as a performer in a private concert including [Beethoven](/wiki/Beethoven "Beethoven")'s [quintet for piano and winds](/wiki/Quintet_for_Piano_and_Winds_%28Beethoven%29 "Quintet for Piano and Winds (Beethoven)") Op. 16 and a [piano quartet](/wiki/Piano_quartet "Piano quartet") by [Mozart](/wiki/Mozart "Mozart"). He also played as a solo work an [étude](/wiki/%C3%89tude "Étude") of [Henri Herz](/wiki/Henri_Herz "Henri Herz"). By 1845 he had written a [piano sonata](/wiki/Piano_sonata "Piano sonata") in G minor.{{sfn\|Hofmann\|1999\|pp\=9–11}} His parents disapproved of his early efforts as a composer, feeling that he had better career prospects as a performer.{{sfn\|Hofmann\|1999\|p\=12}} From 1845 to 1848 Brahms studied with Cossel's teacher, the pianist and composer [Eduard Marxsen](/wiki/Eduard_Marxsen "Eduard Marxsen"). Marxsen had been a personal acquaintance of Beethoven and [Schubert](/wiki/Schubert "Schubert"), admired the works of Mozart and [Haydn](/wiki/Haydn "Haydn"), and was a devotee of the music of [J. S. Bach](/wiki/J._S._Bach "J. S. Bach"). Marxsen conveyed to Brahms the tradition of these composers and ensured that Brahms's own compositions were grounded in that tradition.{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|p\=26}} #### Recitals In 1847 Brahms made his first public appearance as a solo pianist in Hamburg, playing a fantasy by [Sigismund Thalberg](/wiki/Sigismund_Thalberg "Sigismund Thalberg"). His first full piano recital, in 1848, included a [fugue](/wiki/Fugue "Fugue") by Bach as well as works by Marxsen and contemporary virtuosi such as [Jacob Rosenhain](/wiki/Jacob_Rosenhain "Jacob Rosenhain"). A second recital in April 1849 included Beethoven's [*Waldstein* sonata](/wiki/Piano_Sonata_No._21_%28Beethoven%29 "Piano Sonata No. 21 (Beethoven)") and a waltz fantasia of his own composition and garnered favourable newspaper reviews.{{sfn\|Hofmann\|1999\|pp\=17–18}} Persistent stories of the impoverished adolescent Brahms playing in bars and brothels have only anecdotal provenance,Including tales allegedly told by Brahms himself to Clara Schumann and others; see [Jan Swafford](/wiki/Jan_Swafford "Jan Swafford"), ["'Aimez\-Vous Brahms': An Exchange"](http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1999/03/18/aimez-vous-brahms-an-exchange/), *[The New York Review of Books](/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books "The New York Review of Books")* 18 March 1999, accessed 1 July 2018\. and many modern scholars dismiss them; the Brahms family was relatively prosperous, and Hamburg legislation very strictly forbade music in, or the admittance of minors to, brothels.{{sfn\|Swafford\|2001\|loc\=''passim''}}{{sfn\|Hofmann\|1999\|pp\=12–14}} #### Juvenilia Brahms's juvenilia comprised piano music, chamber music and works for male voice choir. Under the pseudonym 'G. W. Marks', some piano arrangements and fantasies were published by the Hamburg firm of Cranz in 1849\. The earliest of Brahms's works which he acknowledged (his *Scherzo* Op. 4 and the song *Heimkehr* Op. 7 no. 6\) date from 1851\. However, Brahms was later assiduous in eliminating all his juvenilia. Even as late as 1880, he wrote to his friend Elise Giesemann to send him his manuscripts of choral music so that they could be destroyed.{{sfn\|Hofmann\|1999\|pp\=16, 18–20}} ### Early adulthood (1850–1862\) [thumb\|upright\|Ede Reményi (l.) and Brahms in 1852](/wiki/File:E_Remenyi_and_J_Brahms.jpg "E Remenyi and J Brahms.jpg") [thumb\|upright\|Brahms in 1853](/wiki/File:Johannes_Brahms_1853.jpg "Johannes Brahms 1853.jpg") [thumb\|upright\|[Clara Schumann](/wiki/Clara_Schumann "Clara Schumann") in 1857, photograph by [Franz Hanfstaengl](/wiki/Franz_Hanfstaengl "Franz Hanfstaengl")](/wiki/File:Franz_Hanfstaengl_-_Clara_Schumann_%281857%29.jpg "Franz Hanfstaengl - Clara Schumann (1857).jpg") #### Collaboration and travel In 1850 Brahms met the Hungarian violinist [Ede Reményi](/wiki/Ede_Rem%C3%A9nyi "Ede Reményi") and accompanied him in a number of recitals over the next few years. This was his introduction to "gypsy\-style" music such as the *[csardas](/wiki/Csardas "Csardas")*, which was later to prove the foundation of his most lucrative and popular compositions, the two sets of *[Hungarian Dances](/wiki/Hungarian_Dances_%28Brahms%29 "Hungarian Dances (Brahms)")* (1869 and 1880\).{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|pp\=56, 62}}{{sfn\|Musgrave\|1999b\|loc\=45}} 1850 also marked Brahms's first contact (albeit a failed one) with [Robert Schumann](/wiki/Robert_Schumann "Robert Schumann"); during Schumann's visit to Hamburg that year, friends persuaded Brahms to send the former some of his compositions, but the package was returned unopened.{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|pp\=56–57}} In 1853 Brahms went on a concert tour with Reményi, visiting the violinist and composer [Joseph Joachim](/wiki/Joseph_Joachim "Joseph Joachim") at [Hanover](/wiki/Hanover "Hanover") in May. Brahms had earlier heard Joachim playing the solo part in [Beethoven's violin concerto](/wiki/Violin_Concerto_%28Beethoven%29 "Violin Concerto (Beethoven)") and been deeply impressed.{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|p\=49}} Brahms played some of his own solo piano pieces for Joachim, who remembered fifty years later: "Never in the course of my artist's life have I been more completely overwhelmed".{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|p\=64}} This was the beginning of a friendship which was lifelong, albeit temporarily derailed when Brahms took the side of Joachim's wife in their divorce proceedings of 1883\.{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|pp\=494–495}} Brahms admired Joachim as a composer, and in 1856 they were to embark on a mutual training exercise to improve their skills in (in Brahms's words) "double [counterpoint](/wiki/Counterpoint "Counterpoint"), [canons](/wiki/Canon_%28music%29 "Canon (music)"), [fugues](/wiki/Fugue "Fugue"), preludes or whatever".{{sfn\|Musgrave\|2000\|p\=67}} Bozarth notes that "products of Brahms's study of counterpoint and early music over the next few years included "dance pieces, preludes and fugues for organ, and neo\-[Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance "Renaissance") and neo\-[Baroque](/wiki/Baroque_music "Baroque music") choral works". After meeting Joachim, Brahms and Reményi visited [Weimar](/wiki/Weimar "Weimar"), where Brahms met [Franz Liszt](/wiki/Franz_Liszt "Franz Liszt"), [Peter Cornelius](/wiki/Peter_Cornelius "Peter Cornelius"), and [Joachim Raff](/wiki/Joachim_Raff "Joachim Raff"), and where Liszt performed Brahms's Op. 4 Scherzo [at sight](/wiki/Sight-reading "Sight-reading"). Reményi claimed that Brahms then slept during Liszt's performance of his own [Sonata in B minor](/wiki/Sonata_in_B_minor_%28Liszt%29 "Sonata in B minor (Liszt)"); this and other disagreements led Reményi and Brahms to part company.{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|pp\=67, 71}} #### The Schumanns and Leipzig Brahms visited [Düsseldorf](/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf "Düsseldorf") in October 1853, and, with a letter of introduction from Joachim,{{sfn\|Gál\|1963\|p\=7}} was welcomed by Schumann and his wife [Clara](/wiki/Clara_Schumann "Clara Schumann"). Schumann, greatly impressed and delighted by the 20\-year\-old's talent, published an article entitled "Neue Bahnen" ("New Paths") in the 28 October issue of the journal *[Neue Zeitschrift für Musik](/wiki/Neue_Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_Musik "Neue Zeitschrift für Musik")* nominating Brahms as one who was "fated to give expression to the times in the highest and most ideal manner".{{harvnb\|Schumann\|1988\|pp\=199–200}} This praise may have aggravated Brahms's self\-critical standards of perfection and dented his confidence. He wrote to Schumann in November 1853 that his praise "will arouse such extraordinary expectations by the public that I don't know how I can begin to fulfil them".{{sfn\|Avins\|1997\|p\=24}} While in Düsseldorf, Brahms participated with Schumann and Schumann's pupil [Albert Dietrich](/wiki/Albert_Dietrich "Albert Dietrich") in writing a movement each of a [violin sonata](/wiki/Violin_sonata "Violin sonata") for Joachim, the "[F\-A\-E Sonata](/wiki/F-A-E_Sonata "F-A-E Sonata")", the letters representing the initials of Joachim's personal motto *Frei aber einsam* ("Free but lonely").{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|pp\=81–82}} Schumann's accolade led to the first publication of Brahms's works under his own name. Brahms went to [Leipzig](/wiki/Leipzig "Leipzig") where [Breitkopf \& Härtel](/wiki/Breitkopf_%26_H%C3%A4rtel "Breitkopf & Härtel") published his Opp. 1–4 (the Piano Sonatas nos. [1](/wiki/Piano_Sonata_No._1_%28Brahms%29 "Piano Sonata No. 1 (Brahms)") and [2](/wiki/Piano_Sonata_No._2_%28Brahms%29 "Piano Sonata No. 2 (Brahms)"), the Six Songs Op. 3, and the Scherzo Op. 4\), whilst [Bartholf Senff](/wiki/Bartholf_Senff "Bartholf Senff") published the [Third Piano Sonata Op. 5](/wiki/Piano_Sonata_No._3_%28Brahms%29 "Piano Sonata No. 3 (Brahms)") and the Six Songs Op. 6\. In Leipzig, he gave recitals including his own first two piano sonatas, and met with [Ferdinand David](/wiki/Ferdinand_David_%28musician%29 "Ferdinand David (musician)"), [Ignaz Moscheles](/wiki/Ignaz_Moscheles "Ignaz Moscheles"), and [Hector Berlioz](/wiki/Hector_Berlioz "Hector Berlioz"), among others.{{harvnb\|Bozarth\|2001\|loc\=§2: "New Paths"}}{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|p\=89}} After Schumann's attempted suicide and subsequent confinement in a mental sanatorium near [Bonn](/wiki/Bonn "Bonn") in February 1854 (where he died of pneumonia in 1856\), Brahms based himself in Düsseldorf, where he supported the household and dealt with business matters on Clara's behalf. Clara was not allowed to visit Robert until two days before his death, but Brahms was able to visit him and acted as a go\-between. Brahms began to feel deeply for Clara, who to him represented an ideal of womanhood. Their intensely emotional [platonic relationship](/wiki/Platonic_love "Platonic love") lasted until Clara's death. In June 1854 Brahms dedicated to Clara his Op. 9, the *Variations on a Theme of Schumann*. Clara continued to support Brahms's career by programming his music in her recitals.{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|pp\=180, 182}} #### Early compositions, reception, and polemics After the publication of his Op. 10 [Ballades](/wiki/Ballades%2C_Op._10_%28Brahms%29 "Ballades, Op. 10 (Brahms)") for piano, Brahms published no further works until 1860\. His major project of this period was the [Piano Concerto in D minor](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._1_%28Brahms%29 "Piano Concerto No. 1 (Brahms)"), which he had begun as a work for two pianos in 1854 but soon realized needed a larger\-scale format. Based in Hamburg at this time, he gained, with Clara's support, a position as musician to the tiny court of [Detmold](/wiki/Detmold "Detmold"), the capital of the [Principality of Lippe](/wiki/Principality_of_Lippe "Principality of Lippe"), where he spent the winters of 1857 to 1860 and for which he wrote his two [Serenades](/wiki/Serenades_%28Brahms%29 "Serenades (Brahms)") (1858 and 1859, Opp. 11 and 16\). In Hamburg he established a women's choir for which he wrote music and conducted. To this period also belong his first two Piano Quartets ([Op. 25](/wiki/Piano_Quartet_No._1_%28Brahms%29 "Piano Quartet No. 1 (Brahms)") and [Op. 26](/wiki/Piano_Quartet_No._2_%28Brahms%29 "Piano Quartet No. 2 (Brahms)")) and the first movement of the [third Piano Quartet](/wiki/Piano_Quartet_No._3_%28Brahms%29 "Piano Quartet No. 3 (Brahms)"), which eventually appeared in 1875\. The end of the decade brought professional setbacks for Brahms. The premiere of the First Piano Concerto in Hamburg on 22 January 1859, with the composer as soloist, was poorly received. Brahms wrote to Joachim that the performance was "a brilliant and decisive – failure ... \[I]t forces one to concentrate one's thoughts and increases one's courage ... But the hissing was too much of a good thing ..."{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|pp\=189–190}} At a second performance, audience reaction was so hostile that Brahms had to be restrained from leaving the stage after the first movement.{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|p\=211}} As a consequence of these reactions Breitkopf and Härtel declined to take on his new compositions. Brahms consequently established a relationship with other publishers, including [Simrock](/wiki/N._Simrock "N. Simrock"), who eventually became his major publishing partner. Brahms further made an intervention in 1860 in the debate on the future of German music which seriously misfired. Together with Joachim and others, he prepared an attack on Liszt's followers, the so\-called "[New German School](/wiki/New_German_School "New German School")" (although Brahms himself was sympathetic to the music of [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner "Richard Wagner"), the School's leading light). In particular they objected to the rejection of traditional musical forms and to the "rank, miserable weeds growing from Liszt\-like fantasias". A draft was leaked to the press, and the *Neue Zeitschrift für Musik* published a parody which ridiculed Brahms and his associates as backward\-looking. Brahms never again ventured into public musical polemics.{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|pp\=206–211}} #### Failed aspirations Brahms's personal life was also troubled. In 1859 he became engaged to Agathe von Siebold. The engagement was soon broken off, but even after this Brahms wrote to her: "I love you! I must see you again, but I am incapable of bearing fetters. Please write me ... whether ... I may come again to clasp you in my arms, to kiss you, and tell you that I love you." They never saw one another again, and Brahms later confirmed to a friend that Agathe was his "last love".{{harvnb\|Musgrave\|2000\|pp\=52–53}} Brahms had hoped to be given the conductorship of the Hamburg Philharmonic, but in 1862 this post was given to [baritone](/wiki/Baritone "Baritone") [Julius Stockhausen](/wiki/Julius_Stockhausen "Julius Stockhausen"). Brahms continued to hope for the post. But he demurred when he was finally offered the directorship in 1893, as he had "got used to the idea of having to go along other paths".{{sfn\|Musgrave\|2000\|pp\=27, 31}} ### Maturity (1862–1876\) [thumb\|left\|upright\=0\.8\|Johannes Brahms, photographed {{Circa\|1872}}](/wiki/File:Brahms_c._1872.jpg "Brahms c. 1872.jpg") #### Move to Vienna In autumn 1862 Brahms made his first visit to Vienna, staying there over the winter. Although Brahms entertained the idea of taking up conducting posts elsewhere, he based himself increasingly in Vienna and soon made it his home. In 1863, he was appointed conductor of the [Wiener Singakademie](/wiki/Wiener_Singakademie "Wiener Singakademie"). He surprised his audiences by programming many works by the early German masters such as [Heinrich Schütz](/wiki/Heinrich_Sch%C3%BCtz "Heinrich Schütz") and J. S. Bach, and other early composers such as [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli "Giovanni Gabrieli"); more recent music was represented by works of Beethoven and [Felix Mendelssohn](/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn "Felix Mendelssohn"). Brahms also wrote works for the choir, including his Motet, Op. 29\. Finding however that the post encroached too much of the time he needed for composing, he left the choir in June 1864\.{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|pp\=277–279, 283}} From 1864 to 1876 he spent many of his summers in [Lichtental](/wiki/Lichtental "Lichtental"), where Clara Schumann and her family also spent some time. His house in Lichtental, where he worked on many of his major compositions including *[A German Requiem](/wiki/A_German_Requiem_%28Brahms%29 "A German Requiem (Brahms)")* and his middle\-period chamber works, is preserved as a museum.{{harvnb\|Hofmann\|Hofmann\|2010\|p\=40}}; ["Brahms House"](http://www.schumann-portal.de/brahms-house.html), on website of the *Schumann Portal*, accessed 22 December 2016\. #### Wagner and his circle In Vienna Brahms became an associate of two close members of Wagner's circle, his earlier friend Peter Cornelius and [Karl Tausig](/wiki/Karl_Tausig "Karl Tausig"), and of [Joseph Hellmesberger Sr.](/wiki/Joseph_Hellmesberger_Sr. "Joseph Hellmesberger Sr.") and [Julius Epstein](/wiki/Julius_Epstein_%28pianist%29 "Julius Epstein (pianist)"), respectively the Director and head of violin studies, and the head of piano studies, at the [Vienna Conservatoire](/wiki/Vienna_Conservatoire "Vienna Conservatoire"). Brahms's circle grew to include the notable critic (and opponent of the 'New German School') [Eduard Hanslick](/wiki/Eduard_Hanslick "Eduard Hanslick"), the conductor [Hermann Levi](/wiki/Hermann_Levi "Hermann Levi") and the surgeon [Theodor Billroth](/wiki/Theodor_Billroth "Theodor Billroth"), who were to become amongst his greatest advocates.{{sfn\|Musgrave\|1999b\|loc\=39–41}} In January 1863 Brahms met Richard Wagner for the first time, for whom he played his *[Handel Variations](/wiki/Variations_and_Fugue_on_a_Theme_by_Handel "Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel")* Op. 24, which he had completed the previous year. The meeting was cordial, although Wagner was in later years to make critical, and even insulting, comments on Brahms's music.{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|pp\=265–269}} Brahms however retained at this time and later a keen interest in Wagner's music, helping with preparations for Wagner's Vienna concerts in 1862/63,{{harvnb\|Bozarth\|2001\|loc\=§3 "First maturity"}} and being rewarded by Tausig with a manuscript of part of Wagner's *[Tannhäuser](/wiki/Tannh%C3%A4user_%28opera%29 "Tannhäuser (opera)")* (which Wagner demanded back in 1875\).{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|p\=401}} The *Handel Variations* also featured, together with the first Piano Quartet, in his first Viennese recitals, in which his performances were better received by the public and critics than his music.{{sfn\|Musgrave\|1999b\|loc\=39}} #### Requiem and personal beliefs In February 1865 Brahms's mother died, and he began to compose his large choral work *A German Requiem*, Op. 45, of which six movements were completed by 1866\. Premieres of the first three movements were given in Vienna, but the complete work was first given in [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen "Bremen") in 1868 to great acclaim. A seventh movement (the soprano solo "Ihr habt nun Traurigkeit") was added for the equally successful Leipzig premiere (February 1869\). The work went on to receive concert and critical acclaim throughout Germany and also in England, Switzerland and Russia, marking effectively Brahms's arrival on the world stage. Baptised into the Lutheran church as an infant and confirmed at age fifteen in [St. Michael's Church](/wiki/St._Michael%27s_Church%2C_Hamburg "St. Michael's Church, Hamburg"),{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=67FA4aJAy8kC\&q\=johannes\+brahms\+confirmed\+michaeliskirche\&pg\=PA290 \|title\=A Brahms Reader\|last\=Musgrave\|first\=Michael\|date\=September 2001\|publisher\=Yale University Press\|isbn\=978\-0\-300\-09199\-1}} Brahms has been described as an agnostic and a humanist.Swafford, 2012, p. 327{{incomplete short citation\|date\=August 2024}} The devout Catholic [Antonín Dvořák](/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k "Antonín Dvořák") wrote in a letter: "Such a man, such a fine soul – and he believes in nothing! He believes in nothing!"Swafford, 1997{{incomplete short citation\|date\=August 2024}} When asked by conductor [Karl Reinthaler](/wiki/Carl_Martin_Reinthaler "Carl Martin Reinthaler") to add additional explicitly religious text to his *[German Requiem](/wiki/A_German_Requiem_%28Brahms%29 "A German Requiem (Brahms)")*, Brahms is reported to have responded, "As far as the text is concerned, I confess that I would gladly omit even the word German and instead use Human; also with my best knowledge and will I would dispense with passages like [John 3:16](/wiki/John_3:16 "16"). On the other hand, I have chosen one thing or another because I am a musician, because I needed it, and because with my venerable authors I can't delete or dispute anything. But I had better stop before I say too much."{{sfn\|Musgrave\|1985\|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/isbn\_9780710097767/page/80 80]}} #### Mounting successes and failed romance Brahms also experienced at this period popular success with works such as his first set of *Hungarian Dances* (1869\), the [*Liebeslieder Waltzes*, Op. 52](/wiki/Liebeslieder_Waltzes%2C_Op._52 "Liebeslieder Waltzes, Op. 52"), (1868/69\), and his collections of [lieder](/wiki/Lied "Lied") (Opp. 43 and 46–49\). Following such successes he finally completed a number of works that he had wrestled with over many years such as the cantata [*Rinaldo*](/wiki/Rinaldo_%28cantata%29 "Rinaldo (cantata)") (1863–1868\), his [first two string quartets](/wiki/String_Quartets%2C_Op._51_%28Brahms%29 "String Quartets, Op. 51 (Brahms)") Op. 51 nos. 1 and 2 (1865–1873\), the third piano quartet (1855–1875\), and most notably his [first symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._1_%28Brahms%29 "Symphony No. 1 (Brahms)") which appeared in 1876, but which had been begun as early as 1855\.{{sfn\|Becker\|1980\|pp\=174–179}}{{harvnb\|Bozarth\|2001\|loc\=§4, "At the summit"}} During 1869, Brahms felt himself falling in love with the Schumann's daughter Julie (then aged 24 to his 36\). He did not declare himself. When later that year Julie's engagement to Count Marmorito was announced, he wrote and gave to Clara the manuscript of his *[Alto Rhapsody](/wiki/Alto_Rhapsody "Alto Rhapsody")* (Op. 53\). Clara wrote in her diary that "he called it *his* wedding song" and noted "the profound pain in the text and the music".{{sfn\|Petersen\|1983\|p\=1}} From 1872 to 1875, Brahms was director of the concerts of the Vienna [Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde](/wiki/Gesellschaft_der_Musikfreunde "Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde"). He ensured that the orchestra was staffed only by professionals, and conducted a repertoire which ran from Bach to the nineteenth century composers who were not of the New German School; these included Beethoven, [Franz Schubert](/wiki/Franz_Schubert "Franz Schubert"), Mendelssohn, Schumann, Joachim, [Ferdinand Hiller](/wiki/Ferdinand_Hiller "Ferdinand Hiller"), [Max Bruch](/wiki/Max_Bruch "Max Bruch") and himself (notably his large scale choral works, the *German Requiem*, the *Alto Rhapsody*, and the patriotic *[Triumphlied](/wiki/Triumphlied "Triumphlied")*, Op. 55, which celebrated Prussia's victory in the 1870/71 [Franco\-Prussian War](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War "Franco-Prussian War")). 1873 saw the premiere of his orchestral *[Variations on a Theme by Haydn](/wiki/Variations_on_a_Theme_by_Haydn "Variations on a Theme by Haydn")*, originally conceived for two pianos, which has become one of his most popular works.{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|p\=383}} ### Success (1876–1889\) [thumb\|upright\=0\.8\|[Eduard Hanslick](/wiki/Eduard_Hanslick "Eduard Hanslick") offering incense to Brahms; cartoon from the Viennese satirical magazine *[Figaro](/wiki/Figaro_%28Vienna%29 "Figaro (Vienna)")*, 1890](/wiki/File:Eduard_Hanslick_offering_incense_to_Brahms%3B_cartoon_rom_the_Viennese_journal_%27Figaro%27%2C_1890.jpg "Eduard Hanslick offering incense to Brahms; cartoon rom the Viennese journal 'Figaro', 1890.jpg") #### First symphonies and orchestral music Brahms's [First Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._1_%28Brahms%29 "Symphony No. 1 (Brahms)"), Op. 68, appeared in 1876, though it had been begun (and a version of the first movement had been announced by Brahms to Clara and to Albert Dietrich) in the early 1860s. During the decade it evolved very gradually; the finale may not have begun its conception until 1868\.{{sfn\|Musgrave\|1999b\|pp\=42–43}} Brahms was cautious and typically self\-deprecating about the symphony during its creation, writing to his friends that it was "long and difficult", "not exactly charming" and, significantly, "long and in [C Minor](/wiki/C_Minor "C Minor")", which, as [Richard Taruskin](/wiki/Richard_Taruskin "Richard Taruskin") points out, made it clear "that Brahms was taking on the model of models \[for a symphony]: [Beethoven's Fifth](/wiki/Symphony_No._5_%28Beethoven%29 "Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)")."{{sfn\|Taruskin\|2010\|p\=694}} Despite the warm reception the First Symphony received, Brahms remained dissatisfied and extensively revised the second movement before the work was published. There followed a succession of well\-received orchestral works: the [Second Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._2_%28Brahms%29 "Symphony No. 2 (Brahms)") Op. 73 (1877\), the [Violin Concerto](/wiki/Violin_Concerto_%28Brahms%29 "Violin Concerto (Brahms)") Op. 77 (1878; dedicated to Joachim, who was consulted closely during its composition), and the *[Academic Festival Overture](/wiki/Academic_Festival_Overture "Academic Festival Overture")* (written following the conferring of an honorary degree by the [University of Breslau](/wiki/University_of_Wroc%C5%82aw "University of Wrocław")) and *[Tragic Overture](/wiki/Tragic_Overture "Tragic Overture")* of 1880\. #### Fame, criticism, and Dvořák In May 1876, Cambridge University offered to grant honorary degrees of Doctor of Music to both Brahms and Joachim, provided that they composed new pieces as "theses" and were present in Cambridge to receive their degrees. Brahms was averse to traveling to England and requested to receive the degree 'in absentia', offering as his thesis the previously performed (November 1876\) symphony.{{sfn\|Pascall\|n.d.\|}} But of the two, only Joachim went to England and was granted a degree. Brahms "acknowledged the invitation" by giving the manuscript score and parts of his First Symphony to Joachim, who led the performance at Cambridge 8 March 1877 (English premiere).{{sfn\|Anon.\|1916\|pp\=205–206}} The commendation of Brahms by Breslau as "the leader in the art of serious music in Germany today" led to a bilious comment from Wagner in his essay "On Poetry and Composition": "I know of some famous composers who in their concert masquerades don the disguise of a street\-singer one day, the hallelujah periwig of [Handel](/wiki/Georg_Frideric_Handel "Georg Frideric Handel") the next, the dress of a Jewish [Czardas](/wiki/Czardas "Czardas")\-fiddler another time, and then again the guise of a highly respectable symphony dressed up as Number Ten" (referring to Brahms's First Symphony as a putative tenth symphony of Beethoven).{{sfn\|Taruskin\|2010\|p\=729}} Brahms was now recognised as a major figure in the world of music. He had been on the jury which awarded the Vienna State Prize to the (then little\-known) composer [Antonín Dvořák](/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k "Antonín Dvořák") three times, first in February 1875, and later in 1876 and 1877, and had successfully recommended Dvořák to his publisher, Simrock. The two men met for the first time in 1877, and Dvořák dedicated to Brahms his [String Quartet, Op. 34](/wiki/String_Quartet_No._9_%28Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k%29 "String Quartet No. 9 (Dvořák)") of that year.{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|pp\=444–446}} He also began to be the recipient of a variety of honours: [Ludwig II of Bavaria](/wiki/Ludwig_II_of_Bavaria "Ludwig II of Bavaria") awarded him the [Maximilian Order for Science and Art](/wiki/Bavarian_Maximilian_Order_for_Science_and_Art "Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art") in 1874, and the music\-loving [Duke George of Meiningen](/wiki/Georg_II%2C_Duke_of_Saxe-Meiningen "Georg II, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen") awarded him the Commander's Cross of the Order of the House of Meiningen in 1881\.{{sfnm\|Musgrave\|1999a\|1loc\=xv\|Musgrave\|2000\|2loc\=171\|Swafford\|1999\|3loc\=467}} At this time Brahms also chose to change his image. Having been always clean\-shaven, in 1878 he surprised his friends by growing a beard, writing in September to the conductor [Bernhard Scholz](/wiki/Bernhard_Scholz "Bernhard Scholz"): "I am coming with a large beard! Prepare your wife for a most awful sight."{{sfn\|Hofmann\|Hofmann\|2010\|p\=57}} The singer [George Henschel](/wiki/George_Henschel "George Henschel") recalled that after a concert "I saw a man unknown to me, rather stout, of middle height, with long hair and a full beard. In a very deep and hoarse voice he introduced himself as 'Musikdirektor Müller' ... an instant later, we all found ourselves laughing heartily at the perfect success of Brahms's disguise." The incident also displays Brahms's love of practical jokes.{{sfn\|Musgrave\|2000\|pp\=4, 6}} In 1882 Brahms completed his [Piano Concerto No. 2](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._2_%28Brahms%29 "Piano Concerto No. 2 (Brahms)"), Op. 83, dedicated to his teacher Marxsen. Brahms was invited by [Hans von Bülow](/wiki/Hans_von_B%C3%BClow "Hans von Bülow") to undertake a premiere of the work with the [Meiningen Court Orchestra](/wiki/Meiningen_Court_Orchestra "Meiningen Court Orchestra"). This was the beginning of his collaboration with Meiningen and with von Bülow, who was to rank Brahms as one of the '[Three Bs](/wiki/Three_Bs "Three Bs")'; in a letter to his wife he wrote: "You know what I think of Brahms: after Bach and Beethoven the greatest, the most sublime of all composers."{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|pp\=465–466}} #### Later symphonies and continuing recognition The following years saw the premieres of his [Third Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._3_%28Brahms%29 "Symphony No. 3 (Brahms)"), Op. 90 (1883\) and his [Fourth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._4_%28Brahms%29 "Symphony No. 4 (Brahms)"), Op. 98 (1885\). [Richard Strauss](/wiki/Richard_Strauss "Richard Strauss"), who had been appointed assistant to von Bülow at Meiningen, and had been uncertain about Brahms's music, found himself converted by the Third Symphony and was enthusiastic about the Fourth: "a giant work, great in concept and invention".{{sfn\|Musgrave\|2000\|p\=252}} Another, but more cautious, supporter from the younger generation was [Gustav Mahler](/wiki/Gustav_Mahler "Gustav Mahler"), who first met Brahms in 1884 and remained a close acquaintance. He considered Brahms a conservative master who was more turned toward the past than the future. He rated Brahms as technically superior to [Anton Bruckner](/wiki/Anton_Bruckner "Anton Bruckner"), but more earth\-bound than Wagner and Beethoven.{{sfn\|Musgrave\|2000\|pp\=253–254}} In 1889, [Theo Wangemann](/wiki/Adelbert_Theodor_Wangemann "Adelbert Theodor Wangemann"), a representative of the American inventor [Thomas Edison](/wiki/Thomas_Edison "Thomas Edison"), visited the composer in Vienna and invited him to make an experimental recording. Brahms played an abbreviated version of his first Hungarian Dance and of [Josef Strauss](/wiki/Josef_Strauss "Josef Strauss")'s *[Die Libelle](/wiki/Die_Libelle "Die Libelle")* on the piano. Although the spoken introduction to the short piece of music is quite clear, the piano playing is largely inaudible due to heavy [surface noise](/wiki/Surface_noise "Surface noise").{{YouTube\|BZXL3I7GPCY\|J. Brahms plays excerpt of Hungarian Dance No. 1 (2:10\)}} Analysts and scholars remain divided as to whether the voice that introduces the piece is that of Wangemann or of Brahms. A "denoised" version of the recording was produced at [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University "Stanford University"). ["Brahms at the Piano"](https://ccrma.stanford.edu/groups/edison/brahms/brahms.html) by [Jonathan Berger](/wiki/Jonathan_Berger "Jonathan Berger") ([CCRMA](/wiki/CCRMA "CCRMA"), Stanford University) In that same year, Brahms was named an [honorary citizen of Hamburg](/wiki/List_of_honorary_citizens_of_Hamburg "List of honorary citizens of Hamburg").["Stadt Hamburg Ehrenbürger" website: Dr. phil. h.c. Johannes Brahms (1833–1897\)](https://www.hamburg.de/ehrenbuerger/biographien/ehrenbuerger-vor-1900/4657054/johannes-brahms/) {{in lang\|de}} Retrieved 14 October 2019 ### Old age (1889–1897\) [thumb\|upright\=0\.8\|[Johann Strauss II](/wiki/Johann_Strauss_II "Johann Strauss II") (left) and Brahms, photographed in Vienna](/wiki/File:Strauss_und_Brahms.jpg "Strauss und Brahms.jpg") #### Friendship with J. Strauss Brahms and [Johann Strauss II](/wiki/Johann_Strauss_II "Johann Strauss II") were acquainted in the 1870s, but their close friendship belongs to the years 1889 and after. Brahms admired much of Strauss's music and encouraged the composer to sign with his publisher Simrock. In autographing a fan for Strauss's wife Adele, Brahms wrote the opening notes of *[The Blue Danube](/wiki/The_Blue_Danube "The Blue Danube")* waltz, adding the words "unfortunately not by Johannes Brahms".{{harvnb\|Lamb\|1975\|pp\=869–870}} He made the effort, three weeks before his death, to attend the premiere of Johann Strauss's operetta *[Die Göttin der Vernunft](/wiki/Die_G%C3%B6ttin_der_Vernunft "Die Göttin der Vernunft")* (The Goddess of Reason) in March 1897\. [thumb\|left\|upright\=0\.8\|Grave in the [Vienna Central Cemetery](/wiki/Vienna_Central_Cemetery "Vienna Central Cemetery"); monument designed by [Victor Horta](/wiki/Victor_Horta "Victor Horta") and sculpture by [Ilse von Twardowski](/wiki/Ilse_von_Twardowski "Ilse von Twardowski")](/wiki/File:Zentralfriedhof_Vienna_-_Brahms.JPG "Zentralfriedhof Vienna - Brahms.JPG") #### Late chamber music and songs After the successful Vienna premiere of his [Second String Quintet](/wiki/String_Quintet_No._2_%28Brahms%29 "String Quintet No. 2 (Brahms)"), Op. 111 in 1890, the 57\-year\-old Brahms came to think that he might retire from composition, telling a friend that he "had achieved enough; here I had before me a carefree old age and could enjoy it in peace."{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|pp\=568–569}} He also began to find solace in escorting the mezzo\-soprano [Alice Barbi](/wiki/Alice_Barbi "Alice Barbi") and may have proposed to her (she was only 28\).{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|p\=569}} His admiration for [Richard Mühlfeld](/wiki/Richard_M%C3%BChlfeld "Richard Mühlfeld"), clarinettist with the Meiningen orchestra, revived his interest in composing and led him to write the [Clarinet Trio](/wiki/Clarinet_Trio_%28Brahms%29 "Clarinet Trio (Brahms)"), Op. 114 (1891\); [Clarinet Quintet](/wiki/Clarinet_Quintet_%28Brahms%29 "Clarinet Quintet (Brahms)"), Op. 115 (1891\); and the two [Clarinet Sonatas](/wiki/Clarinet_Sonatas_%28Brahms%29 "Clarinet Sonatas (Brahms)"), Op. 120 (1894\). Brahms also wrote at this time his final cycles of piano pieces, Opp. 116–119 and the *[Vier ernste Gesänge](/wiki/Vier_ernste_Ges%C3%A4nge "Vier ernste Gesänge")* (Four Serious Songs), Op. 121 (1896\), which were prompted by the death of Clara Schumann and dedicated to the artist [Max Klinger](/wiki/Max_Klinger "Max Klinger"), who was his great admirer.{{cite web\|title\=Max Klinger / Johannes Brahms: Engraving, Music and Fantasy\|url\=https://www.musee\-orsay.fr/en/events/exhibitions/in\-the\-museums/exhibitions\-in\-the\-musee\-dorsay\-more/article/max\-klinger\-johannes\-brahms\-engraving\-music\-and\-fantasy\-4485\.html\|website\=\[\[Musée d'Orsay]]\|access\-date\=2 March 2021\|archive\-date\=17 April 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417023216/https://www.musee\-orsay.fr/en/events/exhibitions/in\-the\-museums/exhibitions\-in\-the\-musee\-dorsay\-more/article/max\-klinger\-johannes\-brahms\-engraving\-music\-and\-fantasy\-4485\.html\|url\-status\=dead}} The last of the [Eleven Chorale Preludes](/wiki/Eleven_Chorale_Preludes "Eleven Chorale Preludes") for organ, Op. 122 (1896\) is a setting of "O Welt ich muss dich lassen" ("O world I must leave thee") and the last notes that Brahms wrote.{{sfn\|Bond\|1971\|p\=898}} Many of these works were written in his house in [Bad Ischl](/wiki/Bad_Ischl "Bad Ischl"), where Brahms had first visited in 1882 and where he spent every summer from 1889 onwards.{{sfn\|Hofmann\|Hofmann\|2010\|p\=42}} #### Terminal illness In the summer of 1896 Brahms was diagnosed with [jaundice](/wiki/Jaundice "Jaundice") and [pancreatic cancer](/wiki/Pancreatic_cancer "Pancreatic cancer"), and later in the year his Viennese doctor diagnosed him with [liver cancer](/wiki/Liver_cancer "Liver cancer"), from which his father Jakob had died.{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999\|pp\=614–615}} His last public appearance was on 7 March 1897, when he saw [Hans Richter](/wiki/Hans_Richter_%28conductor%29 "Hans Richter (conductor)") conduct his [Symphony No. 4](/wiki/Symphony_No._4_%28Brahms%29 "Symphony No. 4 (Brahms)"); there was an ovation after each of the four movements.{{cite book\|last\=Clive\|first\=Peter\|title\=Brahms and His World: A Biographical Dictionary\|chapter\=Richter, Hans\|publisher\=Scarecrow Press\|year\=2006\|page\=361\|isbn\=978\-1\-4617\-2280\-9}} His condition gradually worsened and he died on 3 April 1897, in Vienna at the age of 63\. Brahms is buried in the [Vienna Central Cemetery](/wiki/Vienna_Central_Cemetery "Vienna Central Cemetery") in Vienna, under a monument designed by [Victor Horta](/wiki/Victor_Horta "Victor Horta") with sculpture by [Ilse von Twardowski](/wiki/Ilse_von_Twardowski "Ilse von Twardowski").[Zentralfriedhof group 32a](http://www.viennatouristguide.at/Friedhoefe/Zentralfriedhof/Index_32A_Thumbs/z_index_32A_kl.htm#lageplan), details
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Youth (1833–1850\\)", "[thumb\\|upright\\|Photograph from 1891 of the building in Hamburg where Brahms was born. It was destroyed by [bombing](/wiki/Bombing_of_Hamburg_in_World_War_II \"Bombing of Hamburg in World War II\") in 1943\\.](/wiki/File:Brahms_geburtshaus_in_Hamburg.jpg \"Brahms geburtshaus in Hamburg.jpg\")", "#### Upbringing", "Brahms's father, Johann Jakob Brahms, was from the town of [Heide](/wiki/Heide \"Heide\") in Holstein.{{sfn\\|Geiringer and Geiringer\\|1982\\|loc\\=4}}{{efn\\|His family name was also sometimes spelled Brahmst or Brams, deriving from Bram, the German word for the shrub \\[\\[Genista\\|broom]].{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|p\\=7}}}} Against his family's will, Johann Jakob pursued a career in music, arriving in Hamburg at age 19\\.{{sfn\\|Geiringer and Geiringer\\|1982\\|loc\\=4}} He found work playing [double bass](/wiki/Double_bass \"Double bass\") for jobs; he also played in a sextet in the Alster\\-pavilion in Hamburg's [Jungfernstieg](/wiki/Jungfernstieg \"Jungfernstieg\").{{sfn\\|Geiringer and Geiringer\\|1982\\|loc\\=4–5}} In 1830, Johann Jakob was appointed as a [horn](/wiki/Natural_horn \"Natural horn\") player in the Hamburg militia.{{sfn\\|Hofmann\\|1999\\|pp\\=3–4}} He married Johanna Henrika Christiane Nissen the same year.{{sfn\\|Geiringer and Geiringer\\|1982\\|loc\\=3}} A middle\\-class seamstress 17 years his senior, she enjoyed writing letters and reading despite an apparently limited education.{{sfn\\|Geiringer and Geiringer\\|1982\\|loc\\=6–9}}", "Johannes Brahms was born in 1833\\. His sister Elisabeth (Elise) had been born in 1831 and a younger brother Fritz Friedrich was born in 1835\\.{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|pp\\=14–16}}{{efn\\|Fritz also became a pianist; overshadowed by his brother, he emigrated to \\[\\[Caracas]] in 1867, and later returned to Hamburg as a teacher.{{sfn\\|Musgrave\\|2000\\|p\\=13}}}} The family then lived in poor apartments in the {{ill\\|Gängeviertel (Hamburg)\\|lt\\=Gängeviertel\\|de\\|Gängeviertel (Hamburg)\\|display\\=1}} quarter of Hamburg and struggled economically.{{sfn\\|Geiringer and Geiringer\\|1982\\|loc\\=9–11, 14}} (Johann Jakob even considered emigrating to the United States when an [impresario](/wiki/Impresario \"Impresario\"), recognizing Johannes's talent, promised them fortune there.){{sfn\\|Geiringer and Geiringer\\|1982\\|loc\\=10, 17}} Eventually Johann Jakob became a musician in the [Philharmonisches Staatsorchester Hamburg](/wiki/Philharmonisches_Staatsorchester_Hamburg \"Philharmonisches Staatsorchester Hamburg\") playing [double bass](/wiki/Double_bass \"Double bass\"), horn, and [flute](/wiki/Flute \"Flute\").{{sfn\\|Geiringer and Geiringer\\|1982\\|loc\\=12}} For enjoyment, he played first [violin](/wiki/Violin \"Violin\") in [string quartets](/wiki/String_quartet \"String quartet\").{{sfn\\|Geiringer and Geiringer\\|1982\\|loc\\=12}} The family moved over the years to ever better accommodation in Hamburg.{{sfn\\|Hofmann\\|1999\\|pp\\=4–8}}", "#### Training", "Johann Jakob gave his son his first musical training; Johannes also learnt to play the violin and the basics of playing the cello. From 1840 he studied piano with Otto Friedrich Willibald Cossel. Cossel complained in 1842 that Brahms \"could be such a good player, but he will not stop his never\\-ending composing.\"", "At the age of 10, Brahms made his debut as a performer in a private concert including [Beethoven](/wiki/Beethoven \"Beethoven\")'s [quintet for piano and winds](/wiki/Quintet_for_Piano_and_Winds_%28Beethoven%29 \"Quintet for Piano and Winds (Beethoven)\") Op. 16 and a [piano quartet](/wiki/Piano_quartet \"Piano quartet\") by [Mozart](/wiki/Mozart \"Mozart\"). He also played as a solo work an [étude](/wiki/%C3%89tude \"Étude\") of [Henri Herz](/wiki/Henri_Herz \"Henri Herz\"). By 1845 he had written a [piano sonata](/wiki/Piano_sonata \"Piano sonata\") in G minor.{{sfn\\|Hofmann\\|1999\\|pp\\=9–11}} His parents disapproved of his early efforts as a composer, feeling that he had better career prospects as a performer.{{sfn\\|Hofmann\\|1999\\|p\\=12}}", "From 1845 to 1848 Brahms studied with Cossel's teacher, the pianist and composer [Eduard Marxsen](/wiki/Eduard_Marxsen \"Eduard Marxsen\"). Marxsen had been a personal acquaintance of Beethoven and [Schubert](/wiki/Schubert \"Schubert\"), admired the works of Mozart and [Haydn](/wiki/Haydn \"Haydn\"), and was a devotee of the music of [J. S. Bach](/wiki/J._S._Bach \"J. S. Bach\"). Marxsen conveyed to Brahms the tradition of these composers and ensured that Brahms's own compositions were grounded in that tradition.{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|p\\=26}}", "#### Recitals", "In 1847 Brahms made his first public appearance as a solo pianist in Hamburg, playing a fantasy by [Sigismund Thalberg](/wiki/Sigismund_Thalberg \"Sigismund Thalberg\"). His first full piano recital, in 1848, included a [fugue](/wiki/Fugue \"Fugue\") by Bach as well as works by Marxsen and contemporary virtuosi such as [Jacob Rosenhain](/wiki/Jacob_Rosenhain \"Jacob Rosenhain\"). A second recital in April 1849 included Beethoven's [*Waldstein* sonata](/wiki/Piano_Sonata_No._21_%28Beethoven%29 \"Piano Sonata No. 21 (Beethoven)\") and a waltz fantasia of his own composition and garnered favourable newspaper reviews.{{sfn\\|Hofmann\\|1999\\|pp\\=17–18}}", "Persistent stories of the impoverished adolescent Brahms playing in bars and brothels have only anecdotal provenance,Including tales allegedly told by Brahms himself to Clara Schumann and others; see [Jan Swafford](/wiki/Jan_Swafford \"Jan Swafford\"), [\"'Aimez\\-Vous Brahms': An Exchange\"](http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1999/03/18/aimez-vous-brahms-an-exchange/), *[The New York Review of Books](/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books \"The New York Review of Books\")* 18 March 1999, accessed 1 July 2018\\. and many modern scholars dismiss them; the Brahms family was relatively prosperous, and Hamburg legislation very strictly forbade music in, or the admittance of minors to, brothels.{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|2001\\|loc\\=''passim''}}{{sfn\\|Hofmann\\|1999\\|pp\\=12–14}}", "#### Juvenilia", "Brahms's juvenilia comprised piano music, chamber music and works for male voice choir. Under the pseudonym 'G. W. Marks', some piano arrangements and fantasies were published by the Hamburg firm of Cranz in 1849\\. The earliest of Brahms's works which he acknowledged (his *Scherzo* Op. 4 and the song *Heimkehr* Op. 7 no. 6\\) date from 1851\\. However, Brahms was later assiduous in eliminating all his juvenilia. Even as late as 1880, he wrote to his friend Elise Giesemann to send him his manuscripts of choral music so that they could be destroyed.{{sfn\\|Hofmann\\|1999\\|pp\\=16, 18–20}}", "### Early adulthood (1850–1862\\)", "[thumb\\|upright\\|Ede Reményi (l.) and Brahms in 1852](/wiki/File:E_Remenyi_and_J_Brahms.jpg \"E Remenyi and J Brahms.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Brahms in 1853](/wiki/File:Johannes_Brahms_1853.jpg \"Johannes Brahms 1853.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|[Clara Schumann](/wiki/Clara_Schumann \"Clara Schumann\") in 1857, photograph by [Franz Hanfstaengl](/wiki/Franz_Hanfstaengl \"Franz Hanfstaengl\")](/wiki/File:Franz_Hanfstaengl_-_Clara_Schumann_%281857%29.jpg \"Franz Hanfstaengl - Clara Schumann (1857).jpg\")", "#### Collaboration and travel", "In 1850 Brahms met the Hungarian violinist [Ede Reményi](/wiki/Ede_Rem%C3%A9nyi \"Ede Reményi\") and accompanied him in a number of recitals over the next few years. This was his introduction to \"gypsy\\-style\" music such as the *[csardas](/wiki/Csardas \"Csardas\")*, which was later to prove the foundation of his most lucrative and popular compositions, the two sets of *[Hungarian Dances](/wiki/Hungarian_Dances_%28Brahms%29 \"Hungarian Dances (Brahms)\")* (1869 and 1880\\).{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|pp\\=56, 62}}{{sfn\\|Musgrave\\|1999b\\|loc\\=45}} 1850 also marked Brahms's first contact (albeit a failed one) with [Robert Schumann](/wiki/Robert_Schumann \"Robert Schumann\"); during Schumann's visit to Hamburg that year, friends persuaded Brahms to send the former some of his compositions, but the package was returned unopened.{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|pp\\=56–57}}", "In 1853 Brahms went on a concert tour with Reményi, visiting the violinist and composer [Joseph Joachim](/wiki/Joseph_Joachim \"Joseph Joachim\") at [Hanover](/wiki/Hanover \"Hanover\") in May. Brahms had earlier heard Joachim playing the solo part in [Beethoven's violin concerto](/wiki/Violin_Concerto_%28Beethoven%29 \"Violin Concerto (Beethoven)\") and been deeply impressed.{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|p\\=49}} Brahms played some of his own solo piano pieces for Joachim, who remembered fifty years later: \"Never in the course of my artist's life have I been more completely overwhelmed\".{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|p\\=64}} This was the beginning of a friendship which was lifelong, albeit temporarily derailed when Brahms took the side of Joachim's wife in their divorce proceedings of 1883\\.{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|pp\\=494–495}}", "Brahms admired Joachim as a composer, and in 1856 they were to embark on a mutual training exercise to improve their skills in (in Brahms's words) \"double [counterpoint](/wiki/Counterpoint \"Counterpoint\"), [canons](/wiki/Canon_%28music%29 \"Canon (music)\"), [fugues](/wiki/Fugue \"Fugue\"), preludes or whatever\".{{sfn\\|Musgrave\\|2000\\|p\\=67}} Bozarth notes that \"products of Brahms's study of counterpoint and early music over the next few years included \"dance pieces, preludes and fugues for organ, and neo\\-[Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance \"Renaissance\") and neo\\-[Baroque](/wiki/Baroque_music \"Baroque music\") choral works\".", "After meeting Joachim, Brahms and Reményi visited [Weimar](/wiki/Weimar \"Weimar\"), where Brahms met [Franz Liszt](/wiki/Franz_Liszt \"Franz Liszt\"), [Peter Cornelius](/wiki/Peter_Cornelius \"Peter Cornelius\"), and [Joachim Raff](/wiki/Joachim_Raff \"Joachim Raff\"), and where Liszt performed Brahms's Op. 4 Scherzo [at sight](/wiki/Sight-reading \"Sight-reading\"). Reményi claimed that Brahms then slept during Liszt's performance of his own [Sonata in B minor](/wiki/Sonata_in_B_minor_%28Liszt%29 \"Sonata in B minor (Liszt)\"); this and other disagreements led Reményi and Brahms to part company.{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|pp\\=67, 71}}", "#### The Schumanns and Leipzig", "Brahms visited [Düsseldorf](/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf \"Düsseldorf\") in October 1853, and, with a letter of introduction from Joachim,{{sfn\\|Gál\\|1963\\|p\\=7}} was welcomed by Schumann and his wife [Clara](/wiki/Clara_Schumann \"Clara Schumann\"). Schumann, greatly impressed and delighted by the 20\\-year\\-old's talent, published an article entitled \"Neue Bahnen\" (\"New Paths\") in the 28 October issue of the journal *[Neue Zeitschrift für Musik](/wiki/Neue_Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_Musik \"Neue Zeitschrift für Musik\")* nominating Brahms as one who was \"fated to give expression to the times in the highest and most ideal manner\".{{harvnb\\|Schumann\\|1988\\|pp\\=199–200}}", "This praise may have aggravated Brahms's self\\-critical standards of perfection and dented his confidence. He wrote to Schumann in November 1853 that his praise \"will arouse such extraordinary expectations by the public that I don't know how I can begin to fulfil them\".{{sfn\\|Avins\\|1997\\|p\\=24}} While in Düsseldorf, Brahms participated with Schumann and Schumann's pupil [Albert Dietrich](/wiki/Albert_Dietrich \"Albert Dietrich\") in writing a movement each of a [violin sonata](/wiki/Violin_sonata \"Violin sonata\") for Joachim, the \"[F\\-A\\-E Sonata](/wiki/F-A-E_Sonata \"F-A-E Sonata\")\", the letters representing the initials of Joachim's personal motto *Frei aber einsam* (\"Free but lonely\").{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|pp\\=81–82}}", "Schumann's accolade led to the first publication of Brahms's works under his own name. Brahms went to [Leipzig](/wiki/Leipzig \"Leipzig\") where [Breitkopf \\& Härtel](/wiki/Breitkopf_%26_H%C3%A4rtel \"Breitkopf & Härtel\") published his Opp. 1–4 (the Piano Sonatas nos. [1](/wiki/Piano_Sonata_No._1_%28Brahms%29 \"Piano Sonata No. 1 (Brahms)\") and [2](/wiki/Piano_Sonata_No._2_%28Brahms%29 \"Piano Sonata No. 2 (Brahms)\"), the Six Songs Op. 3, and the Scherzo Op. 4\\), whilst [Bartholf Senff](/wiki/Bartholf_Senff \"Bartholf Senff\") published the [Third Piano Sonata Op. 5](/wiki/Piano_Sonata_No._3_%28Brahms%29 \"Piano Sonata No. 3 (Brahms)\") and the Six Songs Op. 6\\. In Leipzig, he gave recitals including his own first two piano sonatas, and met with [Ferdinand David](/wiki/Ferdinand_David_%28musician%29 \"Ferdinand David (musician)\"), [Ignaz Moscheles](/wiki/Ignaz_Moscheles \"Ignaz Moscheles\"), and [Hector Berlioz](/wiki/Hector_Berlioz \"Hector Berlioz\"), among others.{{harvnb\\|Bozarth\\|2001\\|loc\\=§2: \"New Paths\"}}{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|p\\=89}}", "After Schumann's attempted suicide and subsequent confinement in a mental sanatorium near [Bonn](/wiki/Bonn \"Bonn\") in February 1854 (where he died of pneumonia in 1856\\), Brahms based himself in Düsseldorf, where he supported the household and dealt with business matters on Clara's behalf. Clara was not allowed to visit Robert until two days before his death, but Brahms was able to visit him and acted as a go\\-between.", "Brahms began to feel deeply for Clara, who to him represented an ideal of womanhood. Their intensely emotional [platonic relationship](/wiki/Platonic_love \"Platonic love\") lasted until Clara's death. In June 1854 Brahms dedicated to Clara his Op. 9, the *Variations on a Theme of Schumann*. Clara continued to support Brahms's career by programming his music in her recitals.{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|pp\\=180, 182}}", "#### Early compositions, reception, and polemics", "After the publication of his Op. 10 [Ballades](/wiki/Ballades%2C_Op._10_%28Brahms%29 \"Ballades, Op. 10 (Brahms)\") for piano, Brahms published no further works until 1860\\. His major project of this period was the [Piano Concerto in D minor](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._1_%28Brahms%29 \"Piano Concerto No. 1 (Brahms)\"), which he had begun as a work for two pianos in 1854 but soon realized needed a larger\\-scale format. Based in Hamburg at this time, he gained, with Clara's support, a position as musician to the tiny court of [Detmold](/wiki/Detmold \"Detmold\"), the capital of the [Principality of Lippe](/wiki/Principality_of_Lippe \"Principality of Lippe\"), where he spent the winters of 1857 to 1860 and for which he wrote his two [Serenades](/wiki/Serenades_%28Brahms%29 \"Serenades (Brahms)\") (1858 and 1859, Opp. 11 and 16\\). In Hamburg he established a women's choir for which he wrote music and conducted. To this period also belong his first two Piano Quartets ([Op. 25](/wiki/Piano_Quartet_No._1_%28Brahms%29 \"Piano Quartet No. 1 (Brahms)\") and [Op. 26](/wiki/Piano_Quartet_No._2_%28Brahms%29 \"Piano Quartet No. 2 (Brahms)\")) and the first movement of the [third Piano Quartet](/wiki/Piano_Quartet_No._3_%28Brahms%29 \"Piano Quartet No. 3 (Brahms)\"), which eventually appeared in 1875\\.", "The end of the decade brought professional setbacks for Brahms. The premiere of the First Piano Concerto in Hamburg on 22 January 1859, with the composer as soloist, was poorly received. Brahms wrote to Joachim that the performance was \"a brilliant and decisive – failure ... \\[I]t forces one to concentrate one's thoughts and increases one's courage ... But the hissing was too much of a good thing ...\"{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|pp\\=189–190}} At a second performance, audience reaction was so hostile that Brahms had to be restrained from leaving the stage after the first movement.{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|p\\=211}} As a consequence of these reactions Breitkopf and Härtel declined to take on his new compositions. Brahms consequently established a relationship with other publishers, including [Simrock](/wiki/N._Simrock \"N. Simrock\"), who eventually became his major publishing partner.", "Brahms further made an intervention in 1860 in the debate on the future of German music which seriously misfired. Together with Joachim and others, he prepared an attack on Liszt's followers, the so\\-called \"[New German School](/wiki/New_German_School \"New German School\")\" (although Brahms himself was sympathetic to the music of [Richard Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\"), the School's leading light). In particular they objected to the rejection of traditional musical forms and to the \"rank, miserable weeds growing from Liszt\\-like fantasias\". A draft was leaked to the press, and the *Neue Zeitschrift für Musik* published a parody which ridiculed Brahms and his associates as backward\\-looking. Brahms never again ventured into public musical polemics.{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|pp\\=206–211}}", "#### Failed aspirations", "Brahms's personal life was also troubled. In 1859 he became engaged to Agathe von Siebold. The engagement was soon broken off, but even after this Brahms wrote to her: \"I love you! I must see you again, but I am incapable of bearing fetters. Please write me ... whether ... I may come again to clasp you in my arms, to kiss you, and tell you that I love you.\" They never saw one another again, and Brahms later confirmed to a friend that Agathe was his \"last love\".{{harvnb\\|Musgrave\\|2000\\|pp\\=52–53}}", "Brahms had hoped to be given the conductorship of the Hamburg Philharmonic, but in 1862 this post was given to [baritone](/wiki/Baritone \"Baritone\") [Julius Stockhausen](/wiki/Julius_Stockhausen \"Julius Stockhausen\"). Brahms continued to hope for the post. But he demurred when he was finally offered the directorship in 1893, as he had \"got used to the idea of having to go along other paths\".{{sfn\\|Musgrave\\|2000\\|pp\\=27, 31}}", "### Maturity (1862–1876\\)", "[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=0\\.8\\|Johannes Brahms, photographed {{Circa\\|1872}}](/wiki/File:Brahms_c._1872.jpg \"Brahms c. 1872.jpg\")", "#### Move to Vienna", "In autumn 1862 Brahms made his first visit to Vienna, staying there over the winter. Although Brahms entertained the idea of taking up conducting posts elsewhere, he based himself increasingly in Vienna and soon made it his home. In 1863, he was appointed conductor of the [Wiener Singakademie](/wiki/Wiener_Singakademie \"Wiener Singakademie\"). He surprised his audiences by programming many works by the early German masters such as [Heinrich Schütz](/wiki/Heinrich_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Heinrich Schütz\") and J. S. Bach, and other early composers such as [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli \"Giovanni Gabrieli\"); more recent music was represented by works of Beethoven and [Felix Mendelssohn](/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn \"Felix Mendelssohn\"). Brahms also wrote works for the choir, including his Motet, Op. 29\\. Finding however that the post encroached too much of the time he needed for composing, he left the choir in June 1864\\.{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|pp\\=277–279, 283}}", "From 1864 to 1876 he spent many of his summers in [Lichtental](/wiki/Lichtental \"Lichtental\"), where Clara Schumann and her family also spent some time. His house in Lichtental, where he worked on many of his major compositions including *[A German Requiem](/wiki/A_German_Requiem_%28Brahms%29 \"A German Requiem (Brahms)\")* and his middle\\-period chamber works, is preserved as a museum.{{harvnb\\|Hofmann\\|Hofmann\\|2010\\|p\\=40}}; [\"Brahms House\"](http://www.schumann-portal.de/brahms-house.html), on website of the *Schumann Portal*, accessed 22 December 2016\\.", "#### Wagner and his circle", "In Vienna Brahms became an associate of two close members of Wagner's circle, his earlier friend Peter Cornelius and [Karl Tausig](/wiki/Karl_Tausig \"Karl Tausig\"), and of [Joseph Hellmesberger Sr.](/wiki/Joseph_Hellmesberger_Sr. \"Joseph Hellmesberger Sr.\") and [Julius Epstein](/wiki/Julius_Epstein_%28pianist%29 \"Julius Epstein (pianist)\"), respectively the Director and head of violin studies, and the head of piano studies, at the [Vienna Conservatoire](/wiki/Vienna_Conservatoire \"Vienna Conservatoire\"). Brahms's circle grew to include the notable critic (and opponent of the 'New German School') [Eduard Hanslick](/wiki/Eduard_Hanslick \"Eduard Hanslick\"), the conductor [Hermann Levi](/wiki/Hermann_Levi \"Hermann Levi\") and the surgeon [Theodor Billroth](/wiki/Theodor_Billroth \"Theodor Billroth\"), who were to become amongst his greatest advocates.{{sfn\\|Musgrave\\|1999b\\|loc\\=39–41}}", "In January 1863 Brahms met Richard Wagner for the first time, for whom he played his *[Handel Variations](/wiki/Variations_and_Fugue_on_a_Theme_by_Handel \"Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel\")* Op. 24, which he had completed the previous year. The meeting was cordial, although Wagner was in later years to make critical, and even insulting, comments on Brahms's music.{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|pp\\=265–269}} Brahms however retained at this time and later a keen interest in Wagner's music, helping with preparations for Wagner's Vienna concerts in 1862/63,{{harvnb\\|Bozarth\\|2001\\|loc\\=§3 \"First maturity\"}} and being rewarded by Tausig with a manuscript of part of Wagner's *[Tannhäuser](/wiki/Tannh%C3%A4user_%28opera%29 \"Tannhäuser (opera)\")* (which Wagner demanded back in 1875\\).{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|p\\=401}} The *Handel Variations* also featured, together with the first Piano Quartet, in his first Viennese recitals, in which his performances were better received by the public and critics than his music.{{sfn\\|Musgrave\\|1999b\\|loc\\=39}}", "#### Requiem and personal beliefs", "In February 1865 Brahms's mother died, and he began to compose his large choral work *A German Requiem*, Op. 45, of which six movements were completed by 1866\\. Premieres of the first three movements were given in Vienna, but the complete work was first given in [Bremen](/wiki/Bremen \"Bremen\") in 1868 to great acclaim. A seventh movement (the soprano solo \"Ihr habt nun Traurigkeit\") was added for the equally successful Leipzig premiere (February 1869\\). The work went on to receive concert and critical acclaim throughout Germany and also in England, Switzerland and Russia, marking effectively Brahms's arrival on the world stage.", "Baptised into the Lutheran church as an infant and confirmed at age fifteen in [St. Michael's Church](/wiki/St._Michael%27s_Church%2C_Hamburg \"St. Michael's Church, Hamburg\"),{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=67FA4aJAy8kC\\&q\\=johannes\\+brahms\\+confirmed\\+michaeliskirche\\&pg\\=PA290 \\|title\\=A Brahms Reader\\|last\\=Musgrave\\|first\\=Michael\\|date\\=September 2001\\|publisher\\=Yale University Press\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-300\\-09199\\-1}} Brahms has been described as an agnostic and a humanist.Swafford, 2012, p. 327{{incomplete short citation\\|date\\=August 2024}} The devout Catholic [Antonín Dvořák](/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k \"Antonín Dvořák\") wrote in a letter: \"Such a man, such a fine soul – and he believes in nothing! He believes in nothing!\"Swafford, 1997{{incomplete short citation\\|date\\=August 2024}} When asked by conductor [Karl Reinthaler](/wiki/Carl_Martin_Reinthaler \"Carl Martin Reinthaler\") to add additional explicitly religious text to his *[German Requiem](/wiki/A_German_Requiem_%28Brahms%29 \"A German Requiem (Brahms)\")*, Brahms is reported to have responded, \"As far as the text is concerned, I confess that I would gladly omit even the word German and instead use Human; also with my best knowledge and will I would dispense with passages like [John 3:16](/wiki/John_3:16 \"16\"). On the other hand, I have chosen one thing or another because I am a musician, because I needed it, and because with my venerable authors I can't delete or dispute anything. But I had better stop before I say too much.\"{{sfn\\|Musgrave\\|1985\\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/isbn\\_9780710097767/page/80 80]}}", "#### Mounting successes and failed romance", "Brahms also experienced at this period popular success with works such as his first set of *Hungarian Dances* (1869\\), the [*Liebeslieder Waltzes*, Op. 52](/wiki/Liebeslieder_Waltzes%2C_Op._52 \"Liebeslieder Waltzes, Op. 52\"), (1868/69\\), and his collections of [lieder](/wiki/Lied \"Lied\") (Opp. 43 and 46–49\\). Following such successes he finally completed a number of works that he had wrestled with over many years such as the cantata [*Rinaldo*](/wiki/Rinaldo_%28cantata%29 \"Rinaldo (cantata)\") (1863–1868\\), his [first two string quartets](/wiki/String_Quartets%2C_Op._51_%28Brahms%29 \"String Quartets, Op. 51 (Brahms)\") Op. 51 nos. 1 and 2 (1865–1873\\), the third piano quartet (1855–1875\\), and most notably his [first symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._1_%28Brahms%29 \"Symphony No. 1 (Brahms)\") which appeared in 1876, but which had been begun as early as 1855\\.{{sfn\\|Becker\\|1980\\|pp\\=174–179}}{{harvnb\\|Bozarth\\|2001\\|loc\\=§4, \"At the summit\"}}", "During 1869, Brahms felt himself falling in love with the Schumann's daughter Julie (then aged 24 to his 36\\). He did not declare himself. When later that year Julie's engagement to Count Marmorito was announced, he wrote and gave to Clara the manuscript of his *[Alto Rhapsody](/wiki/Alto_Rhapsody \"Alto Rhapsody\")* (Op. 53\\). Clara wrote in her diary that \"he called it *his* wedding song\" and noted \"the profound pain in the text and the music\".{{sfn\\|Petersen\\|1983\\|p\\=1}}", "From 1872 to 1875, Brahms was director of the concerts of the Vienna [Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde](/wiki/Gesellschaft_der_Musikfreunde \"Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde\"). He ensured that the orchestra was staffed only by professionals, and conducted a repertoire which ran from Bach to the nineteenth century composers who were not of the New German School; these included Beethoven, [Franz Schubert](/wiki/Franz_Schubert \"Franz Schubert\"), Mendelssohn, Schumann, Joachim, [Ferdinand Hiller](/wiki/Ferdinand_Hiller \"Ferdinand Hiller\"), [Max Bruch](/wiki/Max_Bruch \"Max Bruch\") and himself (notably his large scale choral works, the *German Requiem*, the *Alto Rhapsody*, and the patriotic *[Triumphlied](/wiki/Triumphlied \"Triumphlied\")*, Op. 55, which celebrated Prussia's victory in the 1870/71 [Franco\\-Prussian War](/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War \"Franco-Prussian War\")). 1873 saw the premiere of his orchestral *[Variations on a Theme by Haydn](/wiki/Variations_on_a_Theme_by_Haydn \"Variations on a Theme by Haydn\")*, originally conceived for two pianos, which has become one of his most popular works.{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|p\\=383}}", "### Success (1876–1889\\)", "[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.8\\|[Eduard Hanslick](/wiki/Eduard_Hanslick \"Eduard Hanslick\") offering incense to Brahms; cartoon from the Viennese satirical magazine *[Figaro](/wiki/Figaro_%28Vienna%29 \"Figaro (Vienna)\")*, 1890](/wiki/File:Eduard_Hanslick_offering_incense_to_Brahms%3B_cartoon_rom_the_Viennese_journal_%27Figaro%27%2C_1890.jpg \"Eduard Hanslick offering incense to Brahms; cartoon rom the Viennese journal 'Figaro', 1890.jpg\")", "#### First symphonies and orchestral music", "Brahms's [First Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._1_%28Brahms%29 \"Symphony No. 1 (Brahms)\"), Op. 68, appeared in 1876, though it had been begun (and a version of the first movement had been announced by Brahms to Clara and to Albert Dietrich) in the early 1860s. During the decade it evolved very gradually; the finale may not have begun its conception until 1868\\.{{sfn\\|Musgrave\\|1999b\\|pp\\=42–43}} Brahms was cautious and typically self\\-deprecating about the symphony during its creation, writing to his friends that it was \"long and difficult\", \"not exactly charming\" and, significantly, \"long and in [C Minor](/wiki/C_Minor \"C Minor\")\", which, as [Richard Taruskin](/wiki/Richard_Taruskin \"Richard Taruskin\") points out, made it clear \"that Brahms was taking on the model of models \\[for a symphony]: [Beethoven's Fifth](/wiki/Symphony_No._5_%28Beethoven%29 \"Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)\").\"{{sfn\\|Taruskin\\|2010\\|p\\=694}}", "Despite the warm reception the First Symphony received, Brahms remained dissatisfied and extensively revised the second movement before the work was published. There followed a succession of well\\-received orchestral works: the [Second Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._2_%28Brahms%29 \"Symphony No. 2 (Brahms)\") Op. 73 (1877\\), the [Violin Concerto](/wiki/Violin_Concerto_%28Brahms%29 \"Violin Concerto (Brahms)\") Op. 77 (1878; dedicated to Joachim, who was consulted closely during its composition), and the *[Academic Festival Overture](/wiki/Academic_Festival_Overture \"Academic Festival Overture\")* (written following the conferring of an honorary degree by the [University of Breslau](/wiki/University_of_Wroc%C5%82aw \"University of Wrocław\")) and *[Tragic Overture](/wiki/Tragic_Overture \"Tragic Overture\")* of 1880\\.", "#### Fame, criticism, and Dvořák", "In May 1876, Cambridge University offered to grant honorary degrees of Doctor of Music to both Brahms and Joachim, provided that they composed new pieces as \"theses\" and were present in Cambridge to receive their degrees. Brahms was averse to traveling to England and requested to receive the degree 'in absentia', offering as his thesis the previously performed (November 1876\\) symphony.{{sfn\\|Pascall\\|n.d.\\|}} But of the two, only Joachim went to England and was granted a degree. Brahms \"acknowledged the invitation\" by giving the manuscript score and parts of his First Symphony to Joachim, who led the performance at Cambridge 8 March 1877 (English premiere).{{sfn\\|Anon.\\|1916\\|pp\\=205–206}}", "The commendation of Brahms by Breslau as \"the leader in the art of serious music in Germany today\" led to a bilious comment from Wagner in his essay \"On Poetry and Composition\": \"I know of some famous composers who in their concert masquerades don the disguise of a street\\-singer one day, the hallelujah periwig of [Handel](/wiki/Georg_Frideric_Handel \"Georg Frideric Handel\") the next, the dress of a Jewish [Czardas](/wiki/Czardas \"Czardas\")\\-fiddler another time, and then again the guise of a highly respectable symphony dressed up as Number Ten\" (referring to Brahms's First Symphony as a putative tenth symphony of Beethoven).{{sfn\\|Taruskin\\|2010\\|p\\=729}}", "Brahms was now recognised as a major figure in the world of music. He had been on the jury which awarded the Vienna State Prize to the (then little\\-known) composer [Antonín Dvořák](/wiki/Anton%C3%ADn_Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k \"Antonín Dvořák\") three times, first in February 1875, and later in 1876 and 1877, and had successfully recommended Dvořák to his publisher, Simrock. The two men met for the first time in 1877, and Dvořák dedicated to Brahms his [String Quartet, Op. 34](/wiki/String_Quartet_No._9_%28Dvo%C5%99%C3%A1k%29 \"String Quartet No. 9 (Dvořák)\") of that year.{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|pp\\=444–446}} He also began to be the recipient of a variety of honours: [Ludwig II of Bavaria](/wiki/Ludwig_II_of_Bavaria \"Ludwig II of Bavaria\") awarded him the [Maximilian Order for Science and Art](/wiki/Bavarian_Maximilian_Order_for_Science_and_Art \"Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art\") in 1874, and the music\\-loving [Duke George of Meiningen](/wiki/Georg_II%2C_Duke_of_Saxe-Meiningen \"Georg II, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen\") awarded him the Commander's Cross of the Order of the House of Meiningen in 1881\\.{{sfnm\\|Musgrave\\|1999a\\|1loc\\=xv\\|Musgrave\\|2000\\|2loc\\=171\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|3loc\\=467}}", "At this time Brahms also chose to change his image. Having been always clean\\-shaven, in 1878 he surprised his friends by growing a beard, writing in September to the conductor [Bernhard Scholz](/wiki/Bernhard_Scholz \"Bernhard Scholz\"): \"I am coming with a large beard! Prepare your wife for a most awful sight.\"{{sfn\\|Hofmann\\|Hofmann\\|2010\\|p\\=57}} The singer [George Henschel](/wiki/George_Henschel \"George Henschel\") recalled that after a concert \"I saw a man unknown to me, rather stout, of middle height, with long hair and a full beard. In a very deep and hoarse voice he introduced himself as 'Musikdirektor Müller' ... an instant later, we all found ourselves laughing heartily at the perfect success of Brahms's disguise.\" The incident also displays Brahms's love of practical jokes.{{sfn\\|Musgrave\\|2000\\|pp\\=4, 6}}", "In 1882 Brahms completed his [Piano Concerto No. 2](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._2_%28Brahms%29 \"Piano Concerto No. 2 (Brahms)\"), Op. 83, dedicated to his teacher Marxsen. Brahms was invited by [Hans von Bülow](/wiki/Hans_von_B%C3%BClow \"Hans von Bülow\") to undertake a premiere of the work with the [Meiningen Court Orchestra](/wiki/Meiningen_Court_Orchestra \"Meiningen Court Orchestra\"). This was the beginning of his collaboration with Meiningen and with von Bülow, who was to rank Brahms as one of the '[Three Bs](/wiki/Three_Bs \"Three Bs\")'; in a letter to his wife he wrote: \"You know what I think of Brahms: after Bach and Beethoven the greatest, the most sublime of all composers.\"{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|pp\\=465–466}}", "#### Later symphonies and continuing recognition", "The following years saw the premieres of his [Third Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._3_%28Brahms%29 \"Symphony No. 3 (Brahms)\"), Op. 90 (1883\\) and his [Fourth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._4_%28Brahms%29 \"Symphony No. 4 (Brahms)\"), Op. 98 (1885\\). [Richard Strauss](/wiki/Richard_Strauss \"Richard Strauss\"), who had been appointed assistant to von Bülow at Meiningen, and had been uncertain about Brahms's music, found himself converted by the Third Symphony and was enthusiastic about the Fourth: \"a giant work, great in concept and invention\".{{sfn\\|Musgrave\\|2000\\|p\\=252}} Another, but more cautious, supporter from the younger generation was [Gustav Mahler](/wiki/Gustav_Mahler \"Gustav Mahler\"), who first met Brahms in 1884 and remained a close acquaintance. He considered Brahms a conservative master who was more turned toward the past than the future. He rated Brahms as technically superior to [Anton Bruckner](/wiki/Anton_Bruckner \"Anton Bruckner\"), but more earth\\-bound than Wagner and Beethoven.{{sfn\\|Musgrave\\|2000\\|pp\\=253–254}}", "In 1889, [Theo Wangemann](/wiki/Adelbert_Theodor_Wangemann \"Adelbert Theodor Wangemann\"), a representative of the American inventor [Thomas Edison](/wiki/Thomas_Edison \"Thomas Edison\"), visited the composer in Vienna and invited him to make an experimental recording. Brahms played an abbreviated version of his first Hungarian Dance and of [Josef Strauss](/wiki/Josef_Strauss \"Josef Strauss\")'s *[Die Libelle](/wiki/Die_Libelle \"Die Libelle\")* on the piano. Although the spoken introduction to the short piece of music is quite clear, the piano playing is largely inaudible due to heavy [surface noise](/wiki/Surface_noise \"Surface noise\").{{YouTube\\|BZXL3I7GPCY\\|J. Brahms plays excerpt of Hungarian Dance No. 1 (2:10\\)}} Analysts and scholars remain divided as to whether the voice that introduces the piece is that of Wangemann or of Brahms. A \"denoised\" version of the recording was produced at [Stanford University](/wiki/Stanford_University \"Stanford University\"). [\"Brahms at the Piano\"](https://ccrma.stanford.edu/groups/edison/brahms/brahms.html) by [Jonathan Berger](/wiki/Jonathan_Berger \"Jonathan Berger\") ([CCRMA](/wiki/CCRMA \"CCRMA\"), Stanford University)", "In that same year, Brahms was named an [honorary citizen of Hamburg](/wiki/List_of_honorary_citizens_of_Hamburg \"List of honorary citizens of Hamburg\").[\"Stadt Hamburg Ehrenbürger\" website: Dr. phil. h.c. Johannes Brahms (1833–1897\\)](https://www.hamburg.de/ehrenbuerger/biographien/ehrenbuerger-vor-1900/4657054/johannes-brahms/) {{in lang\\|de}} Retrieved 14 October 2019", "### Old age (1889–1897\\)", "[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.8\\|[Johann Strauss II](/wiki/Johann_Strauss_II \"Johann Strauss II\") (left) and Brahms, photographed in Vienna](/wiki/File:Strauss_und_Brahms.jpg \"Strauss und Brahms.jpg\")", "#### Friendship with J. Strauss", "Brahms and [Johann Strauss II](/wiki/Johann_Strauss_II \"Johann Strauss II\") were acquainted in the 1870s, but their close friendship belongs to the years 1889 and after. Brahms admired much of Strauss's music and encouraged the composer to sign with his publisher Simrock. In autographing a fan for Strauss's wife Adele, Brahms wrote the opening notes of *[The Blue Danube](/wiki/The_Blue_Danube \"The Blue Danube\")* waltz, adding the words \"unfortunately not by Johannes Brahms\".{{harvnb\\|Lamb\\|1975\\|pp\\=869–870}} He made the effort, three weeks before his death, to attend the premiere of Johann Strauss's operetta *[Die Göttin der Vernunft](/wiki/Die_G%C3%B6ttin_der_Vernunft \"Die Göttin der Vernunft\")* (The Goddess of Reason) in March 1897\\.", "[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=0\\.8\\|Grave in the [Vienna Central Cemetery](/wiki/Vienna_Central_Cemetery \"Vienna Central Cemetery\"); monument designed by [Victor Horta](/wiki/Victor_Horta \"Victor Horta\") and sculpture by [Ilse von Twardowski](/wiki/Ilse_von_Twardowski \"Ilse von Twardowski\")](/wiki/File:Zentralfriedhof_Vienna_-_Brahms.JPG \"Zentralfriedhof Vienna - Brahms.JPG\")", "#### Late chamber music and songs", "After the successful Vienna premiere of his [Second String Quintet](/wiki/String_Quintet_No._2_%28Brahms%29 \"String Quintet No. 2 (Brahms)\"), Op. 111 in 1890, the 57\\-year\\-old Brahms came to think that he might retire from composition, telling a friend that he \"had achieved enough; here I had before me a carefree old age and could enjoy it in peace.\"{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|pp\\=568–569}} He also began to find solace in escorting the mezzo\\-soprano [Alice Barbi](/wiki/Alice_Barbi \"Alice Barbi\") and may have proposed to her (she was only 28\\).{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|p\\=569}} His admiration for [Richard Mühlfeld](/wiki/Richard_M%C3%BChlfeld \"Richard Mühlfeld\"), clarinettist with the Meiningen orchestra, revived his interest in composing and led him to write the [Clarinet Trio](/wiki/Clarinet_Trio_%28Brahms%29 \"Clarinet Trio (Brahms)\"), Op. 114 (1891\\); [Clarinet Quintet](/wiki/Clarinet_Quintet_%28Brahms%29 \"Clarinet Quintet (Brahms)\"), Op. 115 (1891\\); and the two [Clarinet Sonatas](/wiki/Clarinet_Sonatas_%28Brahms%29 \"Clarinet Sonatas (Brahms)\"), Op. 120 (1894\\).", "Brahms also wrote at this time his final cycles of piano pieces, Opp. 116–119 and the *[Vier ernste Gesänge](/wiki/Vier_ernste_Ges%C3%A4nge \"Vier ernste Gesänge\")* (Four Serious Songs), Op. 121 (1896\\), which were prompted by the death of Clara Schumann and dedicated to the artist [Max Klinger](/wiki/Max_Klinger \"Max Klinger\"), who was his great admirer.{{cite web\\|title\\=Max Klinger / Johannes Brahms: Engraving, Music and Fantasy\\|url\\=https://www.musee\\-orsay.fr/en/events/exhibitions/in\\-the\\-museums/exhibitions\\-in\\-the\\-musee\\-dorsay\\-more/article/max\\-klinger\\-johannes\\-brahms\\-engraving\\-music\\-and\\-fantasy\\-4485\\.html\\|website\\=\\[\\[Musée d'Orsay]]\\|access\\-date\\=2 March 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=17 April 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417023216/https://www.musee\\-orsay.fr/en/events/exhibitions/in\\-the\\-museums/exhibitions\\-in\\-the\\-musee\\-dorsay\\-more/article/max\\-klinger\\-johannes\\-brahms\\-engraving\\-music\\-and\\-fantasy\\-4485\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=dead}} The last of the [Eleven Chorale Preludes](/wiki/Eleven_Chorale_Preludes \"Eleven Chorale Preludes\") for organ, Op. 122 (1896\\) is a setting of \"O Welt ich muss dich lassen\" (\"O world I must leave thee\") and the last notes that Brahms wrote.{{sfn\\|Bond\\|1971\\|p\\=898}} Many of these works were written in his house in [Bad Ischl](/wiki/Bad_Ischl \"Bad Ischl\"), where Brahms had first visited in 1882 and where he spent every summer from 1889 onwards.{{sfn\\|Hofmann\\|Hofmann\\|2010\\|p\\=42}}", "#### Terminal illness", "In the summer of 1896 Brahms was diagnosed with [jaundice](/wiki/Jaundice \"Jaundice\") and [pancreatic cancer](/wiki/Pancreatic_cancer \"Pancreatic cancer\"), and later in the year his Viennese doctor diagnosed him with [liver cancer](/wiki/Liver_cancer \"Liver cancer\"), from which his father Jakob had died.{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999\\|pp\\=614–615}} His last public appearance was on 7 March 1897, when he saw [Hans Richter](/wiki/Hans_Richter_%28conductor%29 \"Hans Richter (conductor)\") conduct his [Symphony No. 4](/wiki/Symphony_No._4_%28Brahms%29 \"Symphony No. 4 (Brahms)\"); there was an ovation after each of the four movements.{{cite book\\|last\\=Clive\\|first\\=Peter\\|title\\=Brahms and His World: A Biographical Dictionary\\|chapter\\=Richter, Hans\\|publisher\\=Scarecrow Press\\|year\\=2006\\|page\\=361\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4617\\-2280\\-9}} His condition gradually worsened and he died on 3 April 1897, in Vienna at the age of 63\\. Brahms is buried in the [Vienna Central Cemetery](/wiki/Vienna_Central_Cemetery \"Vienna Central Cemetery\") in Vienna, under a monument designed by [Victor Horta](/wiki/Victor_Horta \"Victor Horta\") with sculpture by [Ilse von Twardowski](/wiki/Ilse_von_Twardowski \"Ilse von Twardowski\").[Zentralfriedhof group 32a](http://www.viennatouristguide.at/Friedhoefe/Zentralfriedhof/Index_32A_Thumbs/z_index_32A_kl.htm#lageplan), details", "" ]
Music ----- {{Listen\|type\=music\|image\=none\|help\=no\|filename\=Brahms \- Schumann\-Heink \- Wiegenlied (Berceuse) (1915\).ogg\|title\=Wiegenlied (Op. 49\)\|description\=\[\[Ernestine Schumann\-Heink]] (1915\) \|filename2\=Brahms \- Hungarian Dance No. 1 (performed by the composer).oga \|title2\=Hungarian Dance No. 1 \|description2\=Played by Brahms; recorded on 2 December 1889}} {{See also\|List of compositions by Johannes Brahms}} {{More citations needed\|section\|date\=May 2017}} Brahms wrote a number of major works for orchestra, including four [symphonies](/wiki/Symphony "Symphony"), two [piano concertos](/wiki/Piano_concerto "Piano concerto") ([No. 1 in D minor](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._1_%28Brahms%29 "Piano Concerto No. 1 (Brahms)"); [No. 2 in B\-flat major](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._2_%28Brahms%29 "Piano Concerto No. 2 (Brahms)")), a [Violin Concerto](/wiki/Violin_Concerto_%28Brahms%29 "Violin Concerto (Brahms)"), a [Double Concerto](/wiki/Double_Concerto_%28Brahms%29 "Double Concerto (Brahms)") for violin and cello, and the *[Tragic Overture](/wiki/Tragic_Overture "Tragic Overture")*, along with the two [Serenades](/wiki/Serenades_%28Brahms%29 "Serenades (Brahms)"), and the *[Academic Festival Overture](/wiki/Academic_Festival_Overture "Academic Festival Overture")*. His large choral work *[A German Requiem](/wiki/A_German_Requiem_%28Brahms%29 "A German Requiem (Brahms)")* is not a setting of the liturgical *Missa pro defunctis* but a setting of texts which Brahms selected from the [Luther Bible](/wiki/Luther_Bible "Luther Bible"). The work was composed in three major periods of his life. An early version of the second movement was first composed in 1854, not long after Robert Schumann's attempted suicide, and this was later used in his first piano concerto. The majority of the Requiem was composed after his mother's death in 1865\. The fifth movement was added after the official premiere in 1868, and the work was published in 1869\. His works in [variation](/wiki/Variation_%28music%29 "Variation (music)") form include the *[Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel](/wiki/Variations_and_Fugue_on_a_Theme_by_Handel "Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel")* and the *[Paganini Variations](/wiki/Variations_on_a_Theme_of_Paganini "Variations on a Theme of Paganini")*, both for solo piano, and the *[Variations on a Theme by Haydn](/wiki/Variations_on_a_Theme_by_Haydn "Variations on a Theme by Haydn")* (now sometimes called the *Saint Anthony Variations*) in versions for two pianos and for orchestra. The final movement of the [Fourth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._4_%28Brahms%29 "Symphony No. 4 (Brahms)"), Op. 98, is a [passacaglia](/wiki/Passacaglia "Passacaglia"). He set a number of folksongs.{{Cite web\|last\=Arora\|first\=Anhad\|date\=20 October 2020\|title\=Schöner Augen schöne Strahlen\|url\=https://liederspieloxford.medium.com/johannes\-brahms\-schöner\-augen\-schöne\-strahlen\-31d2bcb26309\|access\-date\=8 November 2020\|website\=Liederspiel Oxford}} His [chamber](/wiki/Chamber_music "Chamber music") works include three string quartets, two string quintets, two string sextets, a clarinet quintet, a clarinet trio, a [horn trio](/wiki/Horn_Trio_%28Brahms%29 "Horn Trio (Brahms)"), a piano quintet, three piano quartets, and four piano trios (the [fourth](/wiki/Piano_Trio_in_A_major_%28Brahms%29 "Piano Trio in A major (Brahms)") being published posthumously). He composed several instrumental sonatas with piano, including three for violin, two for cello, and two for clarinet (which were subsequently arranged for viola by the composer). His solo piano works range from his early [piano sonatas](/wiki/Piano_sonata "Piano sonata") and [ballades](/wiki/Ballade_%28classical_music%29 "Ballade (classical music)") to his late sets of character pieces. Brahms was a significant [Lieder](/wiki/Lied "Lied") composer, who wrote over 200 of them. His [chorale preludes for organ](/wiki/Eleven_Chorale_Preludes "Eleven Chorale Preludes"), Op. 122, which he wrote shortly before his death, have become an important part of the organ repertoire. They were published posthumously in 1902\. The last of this set is a setting of the choral. "O Welt ich muss dich lassen" ("O world I now must leave thee") and were the last notes he wrote. Brahms was an extreme [perfectionist](/wiki/Perfectionism_%28psychology%29 "Perfectionism (psychology)"). He destroyed many early works – including a violin sonata he had performed with Reményi and violinist [Ferdinand David](/wiki/Ferdinand_David_%28musician%29 "Ferdinand David (musician)") – and once claimed to have destroyed 20 string quartets before he issued his official First in 1873\.{{cite web \|author1\=Bozarth, George S. \|title\="Paths Not Taken: The" Lost" Works of Johannes Brahms." \|url\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321299183 \|website\=researchgate.net \|publisher\=Music Review 1989 \|page\=186 \|quote\="According to the estimate of Alwin Cranz, a boyhood friend of Brahms, the composer destroyed more than twenty string quartets before publishing the Quartets in C minor and A minor"}} Over the course of several years, he changed an original project for a symphony in D minor into his [first piano concerto](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._1_%28Brahms%29 "Piano Concerto No. 1 (Brahms)"). In another instance of devotion to detail, he laboured over the official First Symphony for almost fifteen years, from about 1861 to 1876\. Even after its first few performances, Brahms destroyed the original slow movement and substituted another before the score was published. A factor that contributed to his perfectionism was Schumann's early enthusiasm, which Brahms was determined to live up to. Brahms often wrote music without an explicit scene or narrative; he never wrote an opera or a symphonic poem. However, he set 144 German folk songs in many [lieder](/wiki/Lied "Lied") for voice and piano. These works often reflect folk themes or depict scenes of rural life. ### Style and influences The music of Brahms contains traditional [genres](/wiki/Genre%23Music "Genre#Music") and [forms](/wiki/Musical_form "Musical form") (e.g., [sonata form](/wiki/Sonata_form "Sonata form")), and debts to the [Viennese Classical tradition](/wiki/First_Viennese_School "First Viennese School"). The music of many of his contemporaries, especially the [New German School](/wiki/New_German_School "New German School"), was more obviously innovative, [virtuosic](/wiki/Virtuoso "Virtuoso"), and emotional or evocative, often with dramatic or [programmatic](/wiki/Program_music "Program music") elements. In this context, many (e.g., Hanslick) saw Brahms as a conservative or reactionary champion of [absolute music](/wiki/Absolute_music "Absolute music"). In the shadow of Beethoven, both Brahms and his contemporaries increasingly exploited harmonies and emphasized [motifs](/wiki/Motif_%28music%29 "Motif (music)") as fundamental structural elements. Brahms's use of developing variation, [Carl Dahlhaus](/wiki/Carl_Dahlhaus "Carl Dahlhaus") argued, was an [expository](/wiki/Exposition_%28music%29 "Exposition (music)") procedure analogous to that of Liszt's and Wagner's [modulating sequences](/wiki/Modulating_sequence "Modulating sequence").{{sfn\|Dahlhaus\|1980\|loc\=46–51}} Brahms considered giving up composition when it seemed that other composers' innovations in extended tonality resulted in the rule of tonality being broken altogether.{{cn\|date\=July 2024}} Although [Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner "Richard Wagner") became fiercely critical of Brahms as the latter grew in stature and popularity, he was enthusiastically receptive of the early *Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel*; Brahms himself, according to many sources,{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999}} deeply admired Wagner's music, confining his ambivalence only to the dramaturgical precepts of Wagner's theory. #### Beethoven and the Viennese Classical tradition Brahms venerated Beethoven; in the composer's home, a marble bust of Beethoven looked down on the spot where he composed, and some passages in his works are reminiscent of Beethoven's style. Brahms's [First Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._1_%28Brahms%29 "Symphony No. 1 (Brahms)") bears strongly the influence of Beethoven's [Fifth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._5_%28Beethoven%29 "Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)"), as the two works are both in [C minor](/wiki/C%C2%A0minor "C minor") and end in the struggle towards a [C major](/wiki/C%C2%A0major "C major") triumph. The main theme of the finale of the First Symphony is also reminiscent of the main theme of the finale of Beethoven's [Ninth](/wiki/Symphony_No._9_%28Beethoven%29 "Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)"), and when this resemblance was pointed out to Brahms he replied that any dunceBrahms used the German word "Esel", of which one translation is "donkey" and another is "dunce": *Cassell's New German Dictionary*, Funk and Wagnalls, New York and London, 1915 could see that. In 1876, when the work was premiered in Vienna, it was immediately hailed as "Beethoven's Tenth". Indeed, the similarity of Brahms's music to that of late Beethoven had first been noted as early as November 1853 in a letter from [Albert Dietrich](/wiki/Albert_Dietrich "Albert Dietrich") to [Ernst Naumann](/wiki/Ernst_Naumann "Ernst Naumann").{{sfn\|Floros\|2010\|loc\=80}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=BF29\_4kLipcC\&q\=ernst\+naumann\+brahms\&pg\=PA6\|title\=Recollections of Johannes Brahms\|first1\=Albert Hermann\|last1\=Dietrich\|first2\=J. V.\|last2\=Widmann\|date\=2000\|publisher\=Minerva Group\|access\-date\=8 October 2017\|via\=Google Books\|isbn\=978\-0\-89875\-141\-3\|oclc\=50646747}} Brahms loved the classical composers Mozart and Haydn. He especially admired Mozart, so much so that in his final years he reportedly declared Mozart as the greatest composer. On 10 January 1896, Brahms conducted the Academic Festival Overture and both piano concertos in Berlin, and during the following celebration Brahms interrupted Joachim's toast with "Ganz recht; auf Mozart's Wohl" (Quite right; here's Mozart's health).{{cite book\|last\=Spaeth\|first\=Sigmund\|author\-link\=Sigmund Spaeth\|title\=Stories Behind the World's Great Music\|year\=2020\|publisher\=Pickle Partners Publishing\|page\=235}} Brahms also compared Mozart with Beethoven to the latter's disadvantage, in a letter to [Richard Heuberger](/wiki/Richard_Heuberger "Richard Heuberger") in 1896: "[Dissonance](/wiki/Consonance_and_dissonance "Consonance and dissonance"), true dissonance as Mozart used it, is not to be found in Beethoven. Look at *[Idomeneo](/wiki/Idomeneo "Idomeneo")*. Not only is it a marvel, but as Mozart was still quite young and brash when he wrote it, it was a completely new thing. You couldn't commission great music from Beethoven since he created only lesser works on commission—his more conventional pieces, his variations and the like."{{cite book\|editor1\-last\=Fisk\|editor1\-first\=Josiah\|editor2\-last\=Nichols\|editor2\-first\=Jeff\|title\=Composers On Music: Eight Centuries of Writings\|year\=1997\|publisher\=University Press of New England\|pages\=134–135\|url\=https://archive.org/details/composersonmusic0000unse/page/n5/mode/2up\|url\-access\=registration\|isbn\=978\-1555532796}} Brahms collected first editions and autographs of Mozart and Haydn's works and edited performing editions. #### Early Romantics The early Romantic composers had a major influence on Brahms, particularly Schumann, who encouraged Brahms as a young composer. During his stay in Vienna in 1862–63, Brahms became particularly interested in the music of [Franz Schubert](/wiki/Franz_Schubert "Franz Schubert").[Webster, James](/wiki/James_Webster_%28musicologist%29 "James Webster (musicologist)"), "Schubert's sonata form and Brahms's first maturity (II)", *[19th\-Century Music](/wiki/19th-Century_Music "19th-Century Music")* 3(1\) (1979\), pp. 52–71\. The latter's influence may be identified in works by Brahms dating from the period, such as the two piano quartets Op. 25 and Op. 26, and the [Piano Quintet](/wiki/Piano_Quintet_%28Brahms%29 "Piano Quintet (Brahms)"), which alludes to Schubert's [String Quintet](/wiki/String_Quintet_%28Schubert%29 "String Quintet (Schubert)") and [Grand Duo](/wiki/Sonata_in_C_major_for_piano_four-hands%2C_D_812_%28Schubert%29 "Sonata in C major for piano four-hands, D 812 (Schubert)") for piano four hands.[Tovey, Donald Francis](/wiki/Donald_Francis_Tovey "Donald Francis Tovey"), "Franz Schubert" (1927\), rpt. in *Essays and Lectures on Music* (London, 1949\), p. 123\. Cf. his similar remarks in "Tonality in Schubert" (1928\), rpt. ibid., p. 151\. The influence of [Chopin](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin "Frédéric Chopin") and [Mendelssohn](/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn "Felix Mendelssohn") on Brahms is less obvious, although occasionally one can find in his works what seems to be an allusion to one of theirs (e.g., Brahms's Scherzo, Op. 4 alludes to Chopin's Scherzo in B\-flat minor,[Rosen, Charles](/wiki/Charles_Rosen "Charles Rosen"), "Influence: plagiarism and inspiration", *[19th\-Century Music](/wiki/19th-Century_Music "19th-Century Music")* 4(2\) (1980\), pp. 87–100\. the scherzo movement in Brahms's Piano Sonata in F minor, Op. 5 alludes to the finale of Mendelssohn's Piano Trio in C minor).Spanner, H.V. "What is originality?", *[The Musical Times](/wiki/The_Musical_Times "The Musical Times")* 93(1313\) (1952\), pp. 310–311\. #### {{lang\|de\|Alte Musik}} Brahms looked to older music, with its [counterpoint](/wiki/Counterpoint "Counterpoint"), for inspiration. He studied the music of pre\-classical composers, including [Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina](/wiki/Giovanni_Pierluigi_da_Palestrina "Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina"), [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli "Giovanni Gabrieli"), [Johann Adolph Hasse](/wiki/Johann_Adolph_Hasse "Johann Adolph Hasse"), [Heinrich Schütz](/wiki/Heinrich_Sch%C3%BCtz "Heinrich Schütz"), [Domenico Scarlatti](/wiki/Domenico_Scarlatti "Domenico Scarlatti"), [George Frideric Handel](/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel "George Frideric Handel"), and [Johann Sebastian Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach "Johann Sebastian Bach"). His friends included leading musicologists. He co\-edited an edition of the works of [François Couperin](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Couperin "François Couperin") with [Friedrich Chrysander](/wiki/Friedrich_Chrysander "Friedrich Chrysander"). He also edited works by [C. P. E. Bach](/wiki/Carl_Philipp_Emanuel_Bach "Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach") and [W. F. Bach](/wiki/Wilhelm_Friedemann_Bach "Wilhelm Friedemann Bach"). [Peter Phillips](/wiki/Peter_Phillips_%28conductor%29 "Peter Phillips (conductor)") heard affinities between Brahms's rhythmically charged, contrapuntal textures and those of Renaissance masters such as [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli "Giovanni Gabrieli") and [William Byrd](/wiki/William_Byrd "William Byrd"). Referring to Byrd's *Though Amaryllis dance*, Philips remarked that "the cross\-rhythms in this piece so excited [E. H. Fellowes](/wiki/E._H._Fellowes "E. H. Fellowes") that he likened them to Brahms's compositional style."[Phillips, P.](/wiki/Peter_Phillips_%28conductor%29 "Peter Phillips (conductor)") (2007\) sleeve note to *English Madrigals*, 25th anniversary edition, CD recording, [Gimell Records](/wiki/Gimell_Records "Gimell Records"). Some of Brahms's music is modeled on [Baroque](/wiki/Baroque_music "Baroque music") sources, especially Bach (e.g., the fugal finale of [Cello Sonata No. 1](/wiki/Cello_Sonata_No._1_%28Brahms%29 "Cello Sonata No. 1 (Brahms)") on Bach's *[The Art of Fugue](/wiki/The_Art_of_Fugue "The Art of Fugue")*, the passacaglia theme of the [Fourth Symphony's](/wiki/Symphony_No._4_%28Brahms%29 "Symphony No. 4 (Brahms)") finale on Bach's Cantata No. 150\). #### Textures Brahms was a master of [counterpoint](/wiki/Counterpoint "Counterpoint"). "For Brahms, ... the most complicated forms of counterpoint were a natural means of expressing his emotions," writes [Geiringer](/wiki/Karl_Geiringer "Karl Geiringer"). "As Palestrina or Bach succeeded in giving spiritual significance to their technique, so Brahms could turn a [canon](/wiki/Canon_%28music%29 "Canon (music)") in motu contrario or a canon per augmentationem into a pure piece of lyrical poetry."{{sfn\|Geiringer and Geiringer\|1982\|loc\=159}} Writers on Brahms have commented on his use of counterpoint. For example, of Op. 9, *Variations on a Theme by Robert Schumann,* Geiringer writes that Brahms "displays all the resources of contrapuntal art".{{sfn\|Geiringer and Geiringer\|1982\|loc\=210}} In the A major piano quartet Opus 26, [Jan Swafford](/wiki/Jan_Swafford "Jan Swafford") notes that the third movement is "demonic\-canonic, echoing Haydn's famous minuet for string quartet called the 'Witch's Round{{' "}}.Swafford (2012\), p. 159\.{{incomplete short citation\|date\=May 2020}} Swafford further opines that "thematic development, counterpoint, and form were the dominant technical terms in which Brahms ... thought about music".Swafford (2012\), p. xviii{{incomplete short citation\|date\=May 2020}} Allied to his skill in counterpoint was his subtle handling of rhythm and meter. The *New Grove Dictionary of Music* speculates that his contact with Hungarian and gypsy folk music as a teenager led to "his lifelong fascination with the irregular rhythms, triplet figures and use of rubato" in his compositions."Brahms" article in Sadie, S. (ed.) (1995\), *The New Grove Dictionary of Music*. Oxford University Press.{{full citation needed\|date\=February 2021\|reason\=Author?}} The [Hungarian Dances](/wiki/Hungarian_Dances "Hungarian Dances") are among Brahms's most\-appreciated pieces.{{sfn\|Gál\|1963\|pp\=17, 204}} Michael Musgrave considered that only [Stravinsky](/wiki/Stravinsky "Stravinsky") approached the advancement of his rhythmic thinking.{{sfn\|Musgrave\|1985\|p\=\[https://archive.org/details/isbn\_9780710097767/page/269 269]}} His use of counterpoint and rhythm is present in *A German Requiem*, a work that was partially inspired by his mother's death in 1865 (at a time in which he composed a funeral march that was to become the basis of Part Two, "Denn alles Fleisch"), but which also incorporates material from a symphony which he started in 1854 but abandoned following Schumann's suicide attempt. He once wrote that the Requiem "belonged to Schumann". The first movement of this abandoned symphony was re\-worked as the first movement of the First Piano Concerto. ### Performance practice Brahms played principally on German and Viennese pianos. In his early years he used a piano made by the Hamburg company Baumgarten \& Heins.{{Cite book\|chapter\=Bernhard und Luise Scholz im Briefwechsel mit Max Kalbeck und Johannes Brahms \|date\=2020 \|doi\=10\.2307/j.ctv1cdxfs0\.14 \|last\=Münster\|first\=Robert\|editor\=Thomas Hauschke\|title\=Johannes Brahms: Beiträge zu seiner Biographie\|pages\=153–230\|language\=de\|location\=Vienna\|publisher\=Hollitzer Verlag\|isbn\=978\-3\-99012\-880\-0\|s2cid\=243190598 }} Later, in 1864, he wrote to [Clara Schumann](/wiki/Clara_Schumann "Clara Schumann") about his attraction to instruments by [Streicher](/wiki/Johann_Baptist_Streicher "Johann Baptist Streicher").{{Cite journal\|last\=Litzmann\|first\=Berthold\|date\=1 February 1903\|title\=Clara Schumann von Berthold Litzmann. Erster Band, Mädchenjahre\|journal\=\[\[The Musical Times]] \|volume\=44 \|issue\=720 \|pages\=113 \|doi\=10\.2307/903152 \|jstor\=903152 \|issn\=0027\-4666}} In 1873 he received a Streicher piano op. 6713 and kept it in his house until his death.{{Cite journal\|last\=Biba\|first\=Otto\|title\=Ausstellung 'Johannes Brahms in Wien' im Musik Verein\|date\=January 1983\|journal\=\[\[Österreichische Musikzeitschrift]]\|volume\=38\|issue\=4–5\|doi\=10\.7767/omz.1983\.38\.45\.254a\|s2cid\=163496436 }} He wrote to Clara: "There \[on my Streicher] I always know exactly what I write and why I write one way or another." Another instrument in Brahms's possession was a [Conrad Graf](/wiki/Conrad_Graf "Conrad Graf") piano – a wedding present of the Schumanns, that Clara Schumann later gave to Brahms and which he kept until 1873\.{{sfn\|Frisch\|Karnes\|2009\|p\=78}} In the 1880s for his public performances Brahms used a [Bösendorfer](/wiki/B%C3%B6sendorfer "Bösendorfer") several times. In his Bonn concerts he played on a [Steinweg Nachfolgern](/wiki/Grotrian-Steinweg "Grotrian-Steinweg") in 1880 and a [Blüthner](/wiki/Bl%C3%BCthner "Blüthner") in 1883\. Brahms also used a [Bechstein](/wiki/C._Bechstein "C. Bechstein") in several of his concerts: 1872 in [Würzburg](/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg "Würzburg"), 1872 in Cologne and 1881 in Amsterdam.{{Cite journal\|last\=Cai\|first\=Camilla\|date\=1989\|title\=Brahms's Pianos and the Performance of His Late Works\|journal\=Performance Practice Review\|volume\=2\|issue\=1\|pages\=59\|doi\=10\.5642/perfpr.198902\.01\.3\|issn\=1044\-1638\|doi\-access\=free}}
[ "Music\n-----", "{{Listen\\|type\\=music\\|image\\=none\\|help\\=no\\|filename\\=Brahms \\- Schumann\\-Heink \\- Wiegenlied (Berceuse) (1915\\).ogg\\|title\\=Wiegenlied (Op. 49\\)\\|description\\=\\[\\[Ernestine Schumann\\-Heink]] (1915\\)\n\\|filename2\\=Brahms \\- Hungarian Dance No. 1 (performed by the composer).oga\n\\|title2\\=Hungarian Dance No. 1\n\\|description2\\=Played by Brahms; recorded on 2 December 1889}}", "{{See also\\|List of compositions by Johannes Brahms}}\n{{More citations needed\\|section\\|date\\=May 2017}}", "Brahms wrote a number of major works for orchestra, including four [symphonies](/wiki/Symphony \"Symphony\"), two [piano concertos](/wiki/Piano_concerto \"Piano concerto\") ([No. 1 in D minor](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._1_%28Brahms%29 \"Piano Concerto No. 1 (Brahms)\"); [No. 2 in B\\-flat major](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._2_%28Brahms%29 \"Piano Concerto No. 2 (Brahms)\")), a [Violin Concerto](/wiki/Violin_Concerto_%28Brahms%29 \"Violin Concerto (Brahms)\"), a [Double Concerto](/wiki/Double_Concerto_%28Brahms%29 \"Double Concerto (Brahms)\") for violin and cello, and the *[Tragic Overture](/wiki/Tragic_Overture \"Tragic Overture\")*, along with the two [Serenades](/wiki/Serenades_%28Brahms%29 \"Serenades (Brahms)\"), and the *[Academic Festival Overture](/wiki/Academic_Festival_Overture \"Academic Festival Overture\")*.", "His large choral work *[A German Requiem](/wiki/A_German_Requiem_%28Brahms%29 \"A German Requiem (Brahms)\")* is not a setting of the liturgical *Missa pro defunctis* but a setting of texts which Brahms selected from the [Luther Bible](/wiki/Luther_Bible \"Luther Bible\"). The work was composed in three major periods of his life. An early version of the second movement was first composed in 1854, not long after Robert Schumann's attempted suicide, and this was later used in his first piano concerto. The majority of the Requiem was composed after his mother's death in 1865\\. The fifth movement was added after the official premiere in 1868, and the work was published in 1869\\.", "His works in [variation](/wiki/Variation_%28music%29 \"Variation (music)\") form include the *[Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel](/wiki/Variations_and_Fugue_on_a_Theme_by_Handel \"Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel\")* and the *[Paganini Variations](/wiki/Variations_on_a_Theme_of_Paganini \"Variations on a Theme of Paganini\")*, both for solo piano, and the *[Variations on a Theme by Haydn](/wiki/Variations_on_a_Theme_by_Haydn \"Variations on a Theme by Haydn\")* (now sometimes called the *Saint Anthony Variations*) in versions for two pianos and for orchestra. The final movement of the [Fourth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._4_%28Brahms%29 \"Symphony No. 4 (Brahms)\"), Op. 98, is a [passacaglia](/wiki/Passacaglia \"Passacaglia\"). He set a number of folksongs.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Arora\\|first\\=Anhad\\|date\\=20 October 2020\\|title\\=Schöner Augen schöne Strahlen\\|url\\=https://liederspieloxford.medium.com/johannes\\-brahms\\-schöner\\-augen\\-schöne\\-strahlen\\-31d2bcb26309\\|access\\-date\\=8 November 2020\\|website\\=Liederspiel Oxford}}", "His [chamber](/wiki/Chamber_music \"Chamber music\") works include three string quartets, two string quintets, two string sextets, a clarinet quintet, a clarinet trio, a [horn trio](/wiki/Horn_Trio_%28Brahms%29 \"Horn Trio (Brahms)\"), a piano quintet, three piano quartets, and four piano trios (the [fourth](/wiki/Piano_Trio_in_A_major_%28Brahms%29 \"Piano Trio in A major (Brahms)\") being published posthumously). He composed several instrumental sonatas with piano, including three for violin, two for cello, and two for clarinet (which were subsequently arranged for viola by the composer). His solo piano works range from his early [piano sonatas](/wiki/Piano_sonata \"Piano sonata\") and [ballades](/wiki/Ballade_%28classical_music%29 \"Ballade (classical music)\") to his late sets of character pieces. Brahms was a significant [Lieder](/wiki/Lied \"Lied\") composer, who wrote over 200 of them. His [chorale preludes for organ](/wiki/Eleven_Chorale_Preludes \"Eleven Chorale Preludes\"), Op. 122, which he wrote shortly before his death, have become an important part of the organ repertoire. They were published posthumously in 1902\\. The last of this set is a setting of the choral. \"O Welt ich muss dich lassen\" (\"O world I now must leave thee\") and were the last notes he wrote.", "Brahms was an extreme [perfectionist](/wiki/Perfectionism_%28psychology%29 \"Perfectionism (psychology)\"). He destroyed many early works – including a violin sonata he had performed with Reményi and violinist [Ferdinand David](/wiki/Ferdinand_David_%28musician%29 \"Ferdinand David (musician)\") – and once claimed to have destroyed 20 string quartets before he issued his official First in 1873\\.{{cite web \\|author1\\=Bozarth, George S. \\|title\\=\"Paths Not Taken: The\" Lost\" Works of Johannes Brahms.\" \\|url\\=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321299183 \\|website\\=researchgate.net \\|publisher\\=Music Review 1989 \\|page\\=186 \\|quote\\=\"According to the estimate of Alwin Cranz, a boyhood friend of Brahms, the composer destroyed more than twenty string quartets before publishing the Quartets in C minor and A minor\"}} Over the course of several years, he changed an original project for a symphony in D minor into his [first piano concerto](/wiki/Piano_Concerto_No._1_%28Brahms%29 \"Piano Concerto No. 1 (Brahms)\"). In another instance of devotion to detail, he laboured over the official First Symphony for almost fifteen years, from about 1861 to 1876\\. Even after its first few performances, Brahms destroyed the original slow movement and substituted another before the score was published.", "A factor that contributed to his perfectionism was Schumann's early enthusiasm, which Brahms was determined to live up to.", "Brahms often wrote music without an explicit scene or narrative; he never wrote an opera or a symphonic poem. However, he set 144 German folk songs in many [lieder](/wiki/Lied \"Lied\") for voice and piano. These works often reflect folk themes or depict scenes of rural life.", "### Style and influences", "The music of Brahms contains traditional [genres](/wiki/Genre%23Music \"Genre#Music\") and [forms](/wiki/Musical_form \"Musical form\") (e.g., [sonata form](/wiki/Sonata_form \"Sonata form\")), and debts to the [Viennese Classical tradition](/wiki/First_Viennese_School \"First Viennese School\"). The music of many of his contemporaries, especially the [New German School](/wiki/New_German_School \"New German School\"), was more obviously innovative, [virtuosic](/wiki/Virtuoso \"Virtuoso\"), and emotional or evocative, often with dramatic or [programmatic](/wiki/Program_music \"Program music\") elements. In this context, many (e.g., Hanslick) saw Brahms as a conservative or reactionary champion of [absolute music](/wiki/Absolute_music \"Absolute music\").", "In the shadow of Beethoven, both Brahms and his contemporaries increasingly exploited harmonies and emphasized [motifs](/wiki/Motif_%28music%29 \"Motif (music)\") as fundamental structural elements. Brahms's use of developing variation, [Carl Dahlhaus](/wiki/Carl_Dahlhaus \"Carl Dahlhaus\") argued, was an [expository](/wiki/Exposition_%28music%29 \"Exposition (music)\") procedure analogous to that of Liszt's and Wagner's [modulating sequences](/wiki/Modulating_sequence \"Modulating sequence\").{{sfn\\|Dahlhaus\\|1980\\|loc\\=46–51}}", "Brahms considered giving up composition when it seemed that other composers' innovations in extended tonality resulted in the rule of tonality being broken altogether.{{cn\\|date\\=July 2024}} Although [Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\") became fiercely critical of Brahms as the latter grew in stature and popularity, he was enthusiastically receptive of the early *Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel*; Brahms himself, according to many sources,{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999}} deeply admired Wagner's music, confining his ambivalence only to the dramaturgical precepts of Wagner's theory.", "#### Beethoven and the Viennese Classical tradition", "Brahms venerated Beethoven; in the composer's home, a marble bust of Beethoven looked down on the spot where he composed, and some passages in his works are reminiscent of Beethoven's style. Brahms's [First Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._1_%28Brahms%29 \"Symphony No. 1 (Brahms)\") bears strongly the influence of Beethoven's [Fifth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._5_%28Beethoven%29 \"Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)\"), as the two works are both in [C minor](/wiki/C%C2%A0minor \"C minor\") and end in the struggle towards a [C major](/wiki/C%C2%A0major \"C major\") triumph. The main theme of the finale of the First Symphony is also reminiscent of the main theme of the finale of Beethoven's [Ninth](/wiki/Symphony_No._9_%28Beethoven%29 \"Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)\"), and when this resemblance was pointed out to Brahms he replied that any dunceBrahms used the German word \"Esel\", of which one translation is \"donkey\" and another is \"dunce\": *Cassell's New German Dictionary*, Funk and Wagnalls, New York and London, 1915 could see that. In 1876, when the work was premiered in Vienna, it was immediately hailed as \"Beethoven's Tenth\". Indeed, the similarity of Brahms's music to that of late Beethoven had first been noted as early as November 1853 in a letter from [Albert Dietrich](/wiki/Albert_Dietrich \"Albert Dietrich\") to [Ernst Naumann](/wiki/Ernst_Naumann \"Ernst Naumann\").{{sfn\\|Floros\\|2010\\|loc\\=80}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=BF29\\_4kLipcC\\&q\\=ernst\\+naumann\\+brahms\\&pg\\=PA6\\|title\\=Recollections of Johannes Brahms\\|first1\\=Albert Hermann\\|last1\\=Dietrich\\|first2\\=J. V.\\|last2\\=Widmann\\|date\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Minerva Group\\|access\\-date\\=8 October 2017\\|via\\=Google Books\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-89875\\-141\\-3\\|oclc\\=50646747}}", "Brahms loved the classical composers Mozart and Haydn. He especially admired Mozart, so much so that in his final years he reportedly declared Mozart as the greatest composer. On 10 January 1896, Brahms conducted the Academic Festival Overture and both piano concertos in Berlin, and during the following celebration Brahms interrupted Joachim's toast with \"Ganz recht; auf Mozart's Wohl\" (Quite right; here's Mozart's health).{{cite book\\|last\\=Spaeth\\|first\\=Sigmund\\|author\\-link\\=Sigmund Spaeth\\|title\\=Stories Behind the World's Great Music\\|year\\=2020\\|publisher\\=Pickle Partners Publishing\\|page\\=235}} Brahms also compared Mozart with Beethoven to the latter's disadvantage, in a letter to [Richard Heuberger](/wiki/Richard_Heuberger \"Richard Heuberger\") in 1896: \"[Dissonance](/wiki/Consonance_and_dissonance \"Consonance and dissonance\"), true dissonance as Mozart used it, is not to be found in Beethoven. Look at *[Idomeneo](/wiki/Idomeneo \"Idomeneo\")*. Not only is it a marvel, but as Mozart was still quite young and brash when he wrote it, it was a completely new thing. You couldn't commission great music from Beethoven since he created only lesser works on commission—his more conventional pieces, his variations and the like.\"{{cite book\\|editor1\\-last\\=Fisk\\|editor1\\-first\\=Josiah\\|editor2\\-last\\=Nichols\\|editor2\\-first\\=Jeff\\|title\\=Composers On Music: Eight Centuries of Writings\\|year\\=1997\\|publisher\\=University Press of New England\\|pages\\=134–135\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/composersonmusic0000unse/page/n5/mode/2up\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|isbn\\=978\\-1555532796}} Brahms collected first editions and autographs of Mozart and Haydn's works and edited performing editions.", "#### Early Romantics", "The early Romantic composers had a major influence on Brahms, particularly Schumann, who encouraged Brahms as a young composer.", "During his stay in Vienna in 1862–63, Brahms became particularly interested in the music of [Franz Schubert](/wiki/Franz_Schubert \"Franz Schubert\").[Webster, James](/wiki/James_Webster_%28musicologist%29 \"James Webster (musicologist)\"), \"Schubert's sonata form and Brahms's first maturity (II)\", *[19th\\-Century Music](/wiki/19th-Century_Music \"19th-Century Music\")* 3(1\\) (1979\\), pp. 52–71\\. The latter's influence may be identified in works by Brahms dating from the period, such as the two piano quartets Op. 25 and Op. 26, and the [Piano Quintet](/wiki/Piano_Quintet_%28Brahms%29 \"Piano Quintet (Brahms)\"), which alludes to Schubert's [String Quintet](/wiki/String_Quintet_%28Schubert%29 \"String Quintet (Schubert)\") and [Grand Duo](/wiki/Sonata_in_C_major_for_piano_four-hands%2C_D_812_%28Schubert%29 \"Sonata in C major for piano four-hands, D 812 (Schubert)\") for piano four hands.[Tovey, Donald Francis](/wiki/Donald_Francis_Tovey \"Donald Francis Tovey\"), \"Franz Schubert\" (1927\\), rpt. in *Essays and Lectures on Music* (London, 1949\\), p. 123\\. Cf. his similar remarks in \"Tonality in Schubert\" (1928\\), rpt. ibid., p. 151\\.", "The influence of [Chopin](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin \"Frédéric Chopin\") and [Mendelssohn](/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn \"Felix Mendelssohn\") on Brahms is less obvious, although occasionally one can find in his works what seems to be an allusion to one of theirs (e.g., Brahms's Scherzo, Op. 4 alludes to Chopin's Scherzo in B\\-flat minor,[Rosen, Charles](/wiki/Charles_Rosen \"Charles Rosen\"), \"Influence: plagiarism and inspiration\", *[19th\\-Century Music](/wiki/19th-Century_Music \"19th-Century Music\")* 4(2\\) (1980\\), pp. 87–100\\. the scherzo movement in Brahms's Piano Sonata in F minor, Op. 5 alludes to the finale of Mendelssohn's Piano Trio in C minor).Spanner, H.V. \"What is originality?\", *[The Musical Times](/wiki/The_Musical_Times \"The Musical Times\")* 93(1313\\) (1952\\), pp. 310–311\\.", "#### {{lang\\|de\\|Alte Musik}}", "Brahms looked to older music, with its [counterpoint](/wiki/Counterpoint \"Counterpoint\"), for inspiration. He studied the music of pre\\-classical composers, including [Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina](/wiki/Giovanni_Pierluigi_da_Palestrina \"Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina\"), [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli \"Giovanni Gabrieli\"), [Johann Adolph Hasse](/wiki/Johann_Adolph_Hasse \"Johann Adolph Hasse\"), [Heinrich Schütz](/wiki/Heinrich_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Heinrich Schütz\"), [Domenico Scarlatti](/wiki/Domenico_Scarlatti \"Domenico Scarlatti\"), [George Frideric Handel](/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel \"George Frideric Handel\"), and [Johann Sebastian Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach \"Johann Sebastian Bach\").", "His friends included leading musicologists. He co\\-edited an edition of the works of [François Couperin](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Couperin \"François Couperin\") with [Friedrich Chrysander](/wiki/Friedrich_Chrysander \"Friedrich Chrysander\"). He also edited works by [C. P. E. Bach](/wiki/Carl_Philipp_Emanuel_Bach \"Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach\") and [W. F. Bach](/wiki/Wilhelm_Friedemann_Bach \"Wilhelm Friedemann Bach\").", "[Peter Phillips](/wiki/Peter_Phillips_%28conductor%29 \"Peter Phillips (conductor)\") heard affinities between Brahms's rhythmically charged, contrapuntal textures and those of Renaissance masters such as [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli \"Giovanni Gabrieli\") and [William Byrd](/wiki/William_Byrd \"William Byrd\"). Referring to Byrd's *Though Amaryllis dance*, Philips remarked that \"the cross\\-rhythms in this piece so excited [E. H. Fellowes](/wiki/E._H._Fellowes \"E. H. Fellowes\") that he likened them to Brahms's compositional style.\"[Phillips, P.](/wiki/Peter_Phillips_%28conductor%29 \"Peter Phillips (conductor)\") (2007\\) sleeve note to *English Madrigals*, 25th anniversary edition, CD recording, [Gimell Records](/wiki/Gimell_Records \"Gimell Records\").", "Some of Brahms's music is modeled on [Baroque](/wiki/Baroque_music \"Baroque music\") sources, especially Bach (e.g., the fugal finale of [Cello Sonata No. 1](/wiki/Cello_Sonata_No._1_%28Brahms%29 \"Cello Sonata No. 1 (Brahms)\") on Bach's *[The Art of Fugue](/wiki/The_Art_of_Fugue \"The Art of Fugue\")*, the passacaglia theme of the [Fourth Symphony's](/wiki/Symphony_No._4_%28Brahms%29 \"Symphony No. 4 (Brahms)\") finale on Bach's Cantata No. 150\\).", "#### Textures", "Brahms was a master of [counterpoint](/wiki/Counterpoint \"Counterpoint\"). \"For Brahms, ... the most complicated forms of counterpoint were a natural means of expressing his emotions,\" writes [Geiringer](/wiki/Karl_Geiringer \"Karl Geiringer\"). \"As Palestrina or Bach succeeded in giving spiritual significance to their technique, so Brahms could turn a [canon](/wiki/Canon_%28music%29 \"Canon (music)\") in motu contrario or a canon per augmentationem into a pure piece of lyrical poetry.\"{{sfn\\|Geiringer and Geiringer\\|1982\\|loc\\=159}} Writers on Brahms have commented on his use of counterpoint. For example, of Op. 9, *Variations on a Theme by Robert Schumann,* Geiringer writes that Brahms \"displays all the resources of contrapuntal art\".{{sfn\\|Geiringer and Geiringer\\|1982\\|loc\\=210}} In the A major piano quartet Opus 26, [Jan Swafford](/wiki/Jan_Swafford \"Jan Swafford\") notes that the third movement is \"demonic\\-canonic, echoing Haydn's famous minuet for string quartet called the 'Witch's Round{{' \"}}.Swafford (2012\\), p. 159\\.{{incomplete short citation\\|date\\=May 2020}} Swafford further opines that \"thematic development, counterpoint, and form were the dominant technical terms in which Brahms ... thought about music\".Swafford (2012\\), p. xviii{{incomplete short citation\\|date\\=May 2020}}", "Allied to his skill in counterpoint was his subtle handling of rhythm and meter. The *New Grove Dictionary of Music* speculates that his contact with Hungarian and gypsy folk music as a teenager led to \"his lifelong fascination with the irregular rhythms, triplet figures and use of rubato\" in his compositions.\"Brahms\" article in Sadie, S. (ed.) (1995\\), *The New Grove Dictionary of Music*. Oxford University Press.{{full citation needed\\|date\\=February 2021\\|reason\\=Author?}} The [Hungarian Dances](/wiki/Hungarian_Dances \"Hungarian Dances\") are among Brahms's most\\-appreciated pieces.{{sfn\\|Gál\\|1963\\|pp\\=17, 204}} Michael Musgrave considered that only [Stravinsky](/wiki/Stravinsky \"Stravinsky\") approached the advancement of his rhythmic thinking.{{sfn\\|Musgrave\\|1985\\|p\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/isbn\\_9780710097767/page/269 269]}}", "His use of counterpoint and rhythm is present in *A German Requiem*, a work that was partially inspired by his mother's death in 1865 (at a time in which he composed a funeral march that was to become the basis of Part Two, \"Denn alles Fleisch\"), but which also incorporates material from a symphony which he started in 1854 but abandoned following Schumann's suicide attempt. He once wrote that the Requiem \"belonged to Schumann\". The first movement of this abandoned symphony was re\\-worked as the first movement of the First Piano Concerto.", "### Performance practice", "Brahms played principally on German and Viennese pianos. In his early years he used a piano made by the Hamburg company Baumgarten \\& Heins.{{Cite book\\|chapter\\=Bernhard und Luise Scholz im Briefwechsel mit Max Kalbeck und Johannes Brahms \\|date\\=2020 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/j.ctv1cdxfs0\\.14 \\|last\\=Münster\\|first\\=Robert\\|editor\\=Thomas Hauschke\\|title\\=Johannes Brahms: Beiträge zu seiner Biographie\\|pages\\=153–230\\|language\\=de\\|location\\=Vienna\\|publisher\\=Hollitzer Verlag\\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-99012\\-880\\-0\\|s2cid\\=243190598 }} Later, in 1864, he wrote to [Clara Schumann](/wiki/Clara_Schumann \"Clara Schumann\") about his attraction to instruments by [Streicher](/wiki/Johann_Baptist_Streicher \"Johann Baptist Streicher\").{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Litzmann\\|first\\=Berthold\\|date\\=1 February 1903\\|title\\=Clara Schumann von Berthold Litzmann. Erster Band, Mädchenjahre\\|journal\\=\\[\\[The Musical Times]] \\|volume\\=44 \\|issue\\=720 \\|pages\\=113 \\|doi\\=10\\.2307/903152 \\|jstor\\=903152 \\|issn\\=0027\\-4666}} In 1873 he received a Streicher piano op. 6713 and kept it in his house until his death.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Biba\\|first\\=Otto\\|title\\=Ausstellung 'Johannes Brahms in Wien' im Musik Verein\\|date\\=January 1983\\|journal\\=\\[\\[Österreichische Musikzeitschrift]]\\|volume\\=38\\|issue\\=4–5\\|doi\\=10\\.7767/omz.1983\\.38\\.45\\.254a\\|s2cid\\=163496436 }} He wrote to Clara: \"There \\[on my Streicher] I always know exactly what I write and why I write one way or another.\" Another instrument in Brahms's possession was a [Conrad Graf](/wiki/Conrad_Graf \"Conrad Graf\") piano – a wedding present of the Schumanns, that Clara Schumann later gave to Brahms and which he kept until 1873\\.{{sfn\\|Frisch\\|Karnes\\|2009\\|p\\=78}}", "In the 1880s for his public performances Brahms used a [Bösendorfer](/wiki/B%C3%B6sendorfer \"Bösendorfer\") several times. In his Bonn concerts he played on a [Steinweg Nachfolgern](/wiki/Grotrian-Steinweg \"Grotrian-Steinweg\") in 1880 and a [Blüthner](/wiki/Bl%C3%BCthner \"Blüthner\") in 1883\\. Brahms also used a [Bechstein](/wiki/C._Bechstein \"C. Bechstein\") in several of his concerts: 1872 in [Würzburg](/wiki/W%C3%BCrzburg \"Würzburg\"), 1872 in Cologne and 1881 in Amsterdam.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Cai\\|first\\=Camilla\\|date\\=1989\\|title\\=Brahms's Pianos and the Performance of His Late Works\\|journal\\=Performance Practice Review\\|volume\\=2\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=59\\|doi\\=10\\.5642/perfpr.198902\\.01\\.3\\|issn\\=1044\\-1638\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}", "" ]
### Style and influences The music of Brahms contains traditional [genres](/wiki/Genre%23Music "Genre#Music") and [forms](/wiki/Musical_form "Musical form") (e.g., [sonata form](/wiki/Sonata_form "Sonata form")), and debts to the [Viennese Classical tradition](/wiki/First_Viennese_School "First Viennese School"). The music of many of his contemporaries, especially the [New German School](/wiki/New_German_School "New German School"), was more obviously innovative, [virtuosic](/wiki/Virtuoso "Virtuoso"), and emotional or evocative, often with dramatic or [programmatic](/wiki/Program_music "Program music") elements. In this context, many (e.g., Hanslick) saw Brahms as a conservative or reactionary champion of [absolute music](/wiki/Absolute_music "Absolute music"). In the shadow of Beethoven, both Brahms and his contemporaries increasingly exploited harmonies and emphasized [motifs](/wiki/Motif_%28music%29 "Motif (music)") as fundamental structural elements. Brahms's use of developing variation, [Carl Dahlhaus](/wiki/Carl_Dahlhaus "Carl Dahlhaus") argued, was an [expository](/wiki/Exposition_%28music%29 "Exposition (music)") procedure analogous to that of Liszt's and Wagner's [modulating sequences](/wiki/Modulating_sequence "Modulating sequence").{{sfn\|Dahlhaus\|1980\|loc\=46–51}} Brahms considered giving up composition when it seemed that other composers' innovations in extended tonality resulted in the rule of tonality being broken altogether.{{cn\|date\=July 2024}} Although [Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner "Richard Wagner") became fiercely critical of Brahms as the latter grew in stature and popularity, he was enthusiastically receptive of the early *Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel*; Brahms himself, according to many sources,{{sfn\|Swafford\|1999}} deeply admired Wagner's music, confining his ambivalence only to the dramaturgical precepts of Wagner's theory. #### Beethoven and the Viennese Classical tradition Brahms venerated Beethoven; in the composer's home, a marble bust of Beethoven looked down on the spot where he composed, and some passages in his works are reminiscent of Beethoven's style. Brahms's [First Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._1_%28Brahms%29 "Symphony No. 1 (Brahms)") bears strongly the influence of Beethoven's [Fifth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._5_%28Beethoven%29 "Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)"), as the two works are both in [C minor](/wiki/C%C2%A0minor "C minor") and end in the struggle towards a [C major](/wiki/C%C2%A0major "C major") triumph. The main theme of the finale of the First Symphony is also reminiscent of the main theme of the finale of Beethoven's [Ninth](/wiki/Symphony_No._9_%28Beethoven%29 "Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)"), and when this resemblance was pointed out to Brahms he replied that any dunceBrahms used the German word "Esel", of which one translation is "donkey" and another is "dunce": *Cassell's New German Dictionary*, Funk and Wagnalls, New York and London, 1915 could see that. In 1876, when the work was premiered in Vienna, it was immediately hailed as "Beethoven's Tenth". Indeed, the similarity of Brahms's music to that of late Beethoven had first been noted as early as November 1853 in a letter from [Albert Dietrich](/wiki/Albert_Dietrich "Albert Dietrich") to [Ernst Naumann](/wiki/Ernst_Naumann "Ernst Naumann").{{sfn\|Floros\|2010\|loc\=80}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=BF29\_4kLipcC\&q\=ernst\+naumann\+brahms\&pg\=PA6\|title\=Recollections of Johannes Brahms\|first1\=Albert Hermann\|last1\=Dietrich\|first2\=J. V.\|last2\=Widmann\|date\=2000\|publisher\=Minerva Group\|access\-date\=8 October 2017\|via\=Google Books\|isbn\=978\-0\-89875\-141\-3\|oclc\=50646747}} Brahms loved the classical composers Mozart and Haydn. He especially admired Mozart, so much so that in his final years he reportedly declared Mozart as the greatest composer. On 10 January 1896, Brahms conducted the Academic Festival Overture and both piano concertos in Berlin, and during the following celebration Brahms interrupted Joachim's toast with "Ganz recht; auf Mozart's Wohl" (Quite right; here's Mozart's health).{{cite book\|last\=Spaeth\|first\=Sigmund\|author\-link\=Sigmund Spaeth\|title\=Stories Behind the World's Great Music\|year\=2020\|publisher\=Pickle Partners Publishing\|page\=235}} Brahms also compared Mozart with Beethoven to the latter's disadvantage, in a letter to [Richard Heuberger](/wiki/Richard_Heuberger "Richard Heuberger") in 1896: "[Dissonance](/wiki/Consonance_and_dissonance "Consonance and dissonance"), true dissonance as Mozart used it, is not to be found in Beethoven. Look at *[Idomeneo](/wiki/Idomeneo "Idomeneo")*. Not only is it a marvel, but as Mozart was still quite young and brash when he wrote it, it was a completely new thing. You couldn't commission great music from Beethoven since he created only lesser works on commission—his more conventional pieces, his variations and the like."{{cite book\|editor1\-last\=Fisk\|editor1\-first\=Josiah\|editor2\-last\=Nichols\|editor2\-first\=Jeff\|title\=Composers On Music: Eight Centuries of Writings\|year\=1997\|publisher\=University Press of New England\|pages\=134–135\|url\=https://archive.org/details/composersonmusic0000unse/page/n5/mode/2up\|url\-access\=registration\|isbn\=978\-1555532796}} Brahms collected first editions and autographs of Mozart and Haydn's works and edited performing editions. #### Early Romantics The early Romantic composers had a major influence on Brahms, particularly Schumann, who encouraged Brahms as a young composer. During his stay in Vienna in 1862–63, Brahms became particularly interested in the music of [Franz Schubert](/wiki/Franz_Schubert "Franz Schubert").[Webster, James](/wiki/James_Webster_%28musicologist%29 "James Webster (musicologist)"), "Schubert's sonata form and Brahms's first maturity (II)", *[19th\-Century Music](/wiki/19th-Century_Music "19th-Century Music")* 3(1\) (1979\), pp. 52–71\. The latter's influence may be identified in works by Brahms dating from the period, such as the two piano quartets Op. 25 and Op. 26, and the [Piano Quintet](/wiki/Piano_Quintet_%28Brahms%29 "Piano Quintet (Brahms)"), which alludes to Schubert's [String Quintet](/wiki/String_Quintet_%28Schubert%29 "String Quintet (Schubert)") and [Grand Duo](/wiki/Sonata_in_C_major_for_piano_four-hands%2C_D_812_%28Schubert%29 "Sonata in C major for piano four-hands, D 812 (Schubert)") for piano four hands.[Tovey, Donald Francis](/wiki/Donald_Francis_Tovey "Donald Francis Tovey"), "Franz Schubert" (1927\), rpt. in *Essays and Lectures on Music* (London, 1949\), p. 123\. Cf. his similar remarks in "Tonality in Schubert" (1928\), rpt. ibid., p. 151\. The influence of [Chopin](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin "Frédéric Chopin") and [Mendelssohn](/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn "Felix Mendelssohn") on Brahms is less obvious, although occasionally one can find in his works what seems to be an allusion to one of theirs (e.g., Brahms's Scherzo, Op. 4 alludes to Chopin's Scherzo in B\-flat minor,[Rosen, Charles](/wiki/Charles_Rosen "Charles Rosen"), "Influence: plagiarism and inspiration", *[19th\-Century Music](/wiki/19th-Century_Music "19th-Century Music")* 4(2\) (1980\), pp. 87–100\. the scherzo movement in Brahms's Piano Sonata in F minor, Op. 5 alludes to the finale of Mendelssohn's Piano Trio in C minor).Spanner, H.V. "What is originality?", *[The Musical Times](/wiki/The_Musical_Times "The Musical Times")* 93(1313\) (1952\), pp. 310–311\. #### {{lang\|de\|Alte Musik}} Brahms looked to older music, with its [counterpoint](/wiki/Counterpoint "Counterpoint"), for inspiration. He studied the music of pre\-classical composers, including [Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina](/wiki/Giovanni_Pierluigi_da_Palestrina "Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina"), [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli "Giovanni Gabrieli"), [Johann Adolph Hasse](/wiki/Johann_Adolph_Hasse "Johann Adolph Hasse"), [Heinrich Schütz](/wiki/Heinrich_Sch%C3%BCtz "Heinrich Schütz"), [Domenico Scarlatti](/wiki/Domenico_Scarlatti "Domenico Scarlatti"), [George Frideric Handel](/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel "George Frideric Handel"), and [Johann Sebastian Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach "Johann Sebastian Bach"). His friends included leading musicologists. He co\-edited an edition of the works of [François Couperin](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Couperin "François Couperin") with [Friedrich Chrysander](/wiki/Friedrich_Chrysander "Friedrich Chrysander"). He also edited works by [C. P. E. Bach](/wiki/Carl_Philipp_Emanuel_Bach "Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach") and [W. F. Bach](/wiki/Wilhelm_Friedemann_Bach "Wilhelm Friedemann Bach"). [Peter Phillips](/wiki/Peter_Phillips_%28conductor%29 "Peter Phillips (conductor)") heard affinities between Brahms's rhythmically charged, contrapuntal textures and those of Renaissance masters such as [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli "Giovanni Gabrieli") and [William Byrd](/wiki/William_Byrd "William Byrd"). Referring to Byrd's *Though Amaryllis dance*, Philips remarked that "the cross\-rhythms in this piece so excited [E. H. Fellowes](/wiki/E._H._Fellowes "E. H. Fellowes") that he likened them to Brahms's compositional style."[Phillips, P.](/wiki/Peter_Phillips_%28conductor%29 "Peter Phillips (conductor)") (2007\) sleeve note to *English Madrigals*, 25th anniversary edition, CD recording, [Gimell Records](/wiki/Gimell_Records "Gimell Records"). Some of Brahms's music is modeled on [Baroque](/wiki/Baroque_music "Baroque music") sources, especially Bach (e.g., the fugal finale of [Cello Sonata No. 1](/wiki/Cello_Sonata_No._1_%28Brahms%29 "Cello Sonata No. 1 (Brahms)") on Bach's *[The Art of Fugue](/wiki/The_Art_of_Fugue "The Art of Fugue")*, the passacaglia theme of the [Fourth Symphony's](/wiki/Symphony_No._4_%28Brahms%29 "Symphony No. 4 (Brahms)") finale on Bach's Cantata No. 150\). #### Textures Brahms was a master of [counterpoint](/wiki/Counterpoint "Counterpoint"). "For Brahms, ... the most complicated forms of counterpoint were a natural means of expressing his emotions," writes [Geiringer](/wiki/Karl_Geiringer "Karl Geiringer"). "As Palestrina or Bach succeeded in giving spiritual significance to their technique, so Brahms could turn a [canon](/wiki/Canon_%28music%29 "Canon (music)") in motu contrario or a canon per augmentationem into a pure piece of lyrical poetry."{{sfn\|Geiringer and Geiringer\|1982\|loc\=159}} Writers on Brahms have commented on his use of counterpoint. For example, of Op. 9, *Variations on a Theme by Robert Schumann,* Geiringer writes that Brahms "displays all the resources of contrapuntal art".{{sfn\|Geiringer and Geiringer\|1982\|loc\=210}} In the A major piano quartet Opus 26, [Jan Swafford](/wiki/Jan_Swafford "Jan Swafford") notes that the third movement is "demonic\-canonic, echoing Haydn's famous minuet for string quartet called the 'Witch's Round{{' "}}.Swafford (2012\), p. 159\.{{incomplete short citation\|date\=May 2020}} Swafford further opines that "thematic development, counterpoint, and form were the dominant technical terms in which Brahms ... thought about music".Swafford (2012\), p. xviii{{incomplete short citation\|date\=May 2020}} Allied to his skill in counterpoint was his subtle handling of rhythm and meter. The *New Grove Dictionary of Music* speculates that his contact with Hungarian and gypsy folk music as a teenager led to "his lifelong fascination with the irregular rhythms, triplet figures and use of rubato" in his compositions."Brahms" article in Sadie, S. (ed.) (1995\), *The New Grove Dictionary of Music*. Oxford University Press.{{full citation needed\|date\=February 2021\|reason\=Author?}} The [Hungarian Dances](/wiki/Hungarian_Dances "Hungarian Dances") are among Brahms's most\-appreciated pieces.{{sfn\|Gál\|1963\|pp\=17, 204}} Michael Musgrave considered that only [Stravinsky](/wiki/Stravinsky "Stravinsky") approached the advancement of his rhythmic thinking.{{sfn\|Musgrave\|1985\|p\=\[https://archive.org/details/isbn\_9780710097767/page/269 269]}} His use of counterpoint and rhythm is present in *A German Requiem*, a work that was partially inspired by his mother's death in 1865 (at a time in which he composed a funeral march that was to become the basis of Part Two, "Denn alles Fleisch"), but which also incorporates material from a symphony which he started in 1854 but abandoned following Schumann's suicide attempt. He once wrote that the Requiem "belonged to Schumann". The first movement of this abandoned symphony was re\-worked as the first movement of the First Piano Concerto.
[ "### Style and influences", "The music of Brahms contains traditional [genres](/wiki/Genre%23Music \"Genre#Music\") and [forms](/wiki/Musical_form \"Musical form\") (e.g., [sonata form](/wiki/Sonata_form \"Sonata form\")), and debts to the [Viennese Classical tradition](/wiki/First_Viennese_School \"First Viennese School\"). The music of many of his contemporaries, especially the [New German School](/wiki/New_German_School \"New German School\"), was more obviously innovative, [virtuosic](/wiki/Virtuoso \"Virtuoso\"), and emotional or evocative, often with dramatic or [programmatic](/wiki/Program_music \"Program music\") elements. In this context, many (e.g., Hanslick) saw Brahms as a conservative or reactionary champion of [absolute music](/wiki/Absolute_music \"Absolute music\").", "In the shadow of Beethoven, both Brahms and his contemporaries increasingly exploited harmonies and emphasized [motifs](/wiki/Motif_%28music%29 \"Motif (music)\") as fundamental structural elements. Brahms's use of developing variation, [Carl Dahlhaus](/wiki/Carl_Dahlhaus \"Carl Dahlhaus\") argued, was an [expository](/wiki/Exposition_%28music%29 \"Exposition (music)\") procedure analogous to that of Liszt's and Wagner's [modulating sequences](/wiki/Modulating_sequence \"Modulating sequence\").{{sfn\\|Dahlhaus\\|1980\\|loc\\=46–51}}", "Brahms considered giving up composition when it seemed that other composers' innovations in extended tonality resulted in the rule of tonality being broken altogether.{{cn\\|date\\=July 2024}} Although [Wagner](/wiki/Richard_Wagner \"Richard Wagner\") became fiercely critical of Brahms as the latter grew in stature and popularity, he was enthusiastically receptive of the early *Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel*; Brahms himself, according to many sources,{{sfn\\|Swafford\\|1999}} deeply admired Wagner's music, confining his ambivalence only to the dramaturgical precepts of Wagner's theory.", "#### Beethoven and the Viennese Classical tradition", "Brahms venerated Beethoven; in the composer's home, a marble bust of Beethoven looked down on the spot where he composed, and some passages in his works are reminiscent of Beethoven's style. Brahms's [First Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._1_%28Brahms%29 \"Symphony No. 1 (Brahms)\") bears strongly the influence of Beethoven's [Fifth Symphony](/wiki/Symphony_No._5_%28Beethoven%29 \"Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)\"), as the two works are both in [C minor](/wiki/C%C2%A0minor \"C minor\") and end in the struggle towards a [C major](/wiki/C%C2%A0major \"C major\") triumph. The main theme of the finale of the First Symphony is also reminiscent of the main theme of the finale of Beethoven's [Ninth](/wiki/Symphony_No._9_%28Beethoven%29 \"Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)\"), and when this resemblance was pointed out to Brahms he replied that any dunceBrahms used the German word \"Esel\", of which one translation is \"donkey\" and another is \"dunce\": *Cassell's New German Dictionary*, Funk and Wagnalls, New York and London, 1915 could see that. In 1876, when the work was premiered in Vienna, it was immediately hailed as \"Beethoven's Tenth\". Indeed, the similarity of Brahms's music to that of late Beethoven had first been noted as early as November 1853 in a letter from [Albert Dietrich](/wiki/Albert_Dietrich \"Albert Dietrich\") to [Ernst Naumann](/wiki/Ernst_Naumann \"Ernst Naumann\").{{sfn\\|Floros\\|2010\\|loc\\=80}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=BF29\\_4kLipcC\\&q\\=ernst\\+naumann\\+brahms\\&pg\\=PA6\\|title\\=Recollections of Johannes Brahms\\|first1\\=Albert Hermann\\|last1\\=Dietrich\\|first2\\=J. V.\\|last2\\=Widmann\\|date\\=2000\\|publisher\\=Minerva Group\\|access\\-date\\=8 October 2017\\|via\\=Google Books\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-89875\\-141\\-3\\|oclc\\=50646747}}", "Brahms loved the classical composers Mozart and Haydn. He especially admired Mozart, so much so that in his final years he reportedly declared Mozart as the greatest composer. On 10 January 1896, Brahms conducted the Academic Festival Overture and both piano concertos in Berlin, and during the following celebration Brahms interrupted Joachim's toast with \"Ganz recht; auf Mozart's Wohl\" (Quite right; here's Mozart's health).{{cite book\\|last\\=Spaeth\\|first\\=Sigmund\\|author\\-link\\=Sigmund Spaeth\\|title\\=Stories Behind the World's Great Music\\|year\\=2020\\|publisher\\=Pickle Partners Publishing\\|page\\=235}} Brahms also compared Mozart with Beethoven to the latter's disadvantage, in a letter to [Richard Heuberger](/wiki/Richard_Heuberger \"Richard Heuberger\") in 1896: \"[Dissonance](/wiki/Consonance_and_dissonance \"Consonance and dissonance\"), true dissonance as Mozart used it, is not to be found in Beethoven. Look at *[Idomeneo](/wiki/Idomeneo \"Idomeneo\")*. Not only is it a marvel, but as Mozart was still quite young and brash when he wrote it, it was a completely new thing. You couldn't commission great music from Beethoven since he created only lesser works on commission—his more conventional pieces, his variations and the like.\"{{cite book\\|editor1\\-last\\=Fisk\\|editor1\\-first\\=Josiah\\|editor2\\-last\\=Nichols\\|editor2\\-first\\=Jeff\\|title\\=Composers On Music: Eight Centuries of Writings\\|year\\=1997\\|publisher\\=University Press of New England\\|pages\\=134–135\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/composersonmusic0000unse/page/n5/mode/2up\\|url\\-access\\=registration\\|isbn\\=978\\-1555532796}} Brahms collected first editions and autographs of Mozart and Haydn's works and edited performing editions.", "#### Early Romantics", "The early Romantic composers had a major influence on Brahms, particularly Schumann, who encouraged Brahms as a young composer.", "During his stay in Vienna in 1862–63, Brahms became particularly interested in the music of [Franz Schubert](/wiki/Franz_Schubert \"Franz Schubert\").[Webster, James](/wiki/James_Webster_%28musicologist%29 \"James Webster (musicologist)\"), \"Schubert's sonata form and Brahms's first maturity (II)\", *[19th\\-Century Music](/wiki/19th-Century_Music \"19th-Century Music\")* 3(1\\) (1979\\), pp. 52–71\\. The latter's influence may be identified in works by Brahms dating from the period, such as the two piano quartets Op. 25 and Op. 26, and the [Piano Quintet](/wiki/Piano_Quintet_%28Brahms%29 \"Piano Quintet (Brahms)\"), which alludes to Schubert's [String Quintet](/wiki/String_Quintet_%28Schubert%29 \"String Quintet (Schubert)\") and [Grand Duo](/wiki/Sonata_in_C_major_for_piano_four-hands%2C_D_812_%28Schubert%29 \"Sonata in C major for piano four-hands, D 812 (Schubert)\") for piano four hands.[Tovey, Donald Francis](/wiki/Donald_Francis_Tovey \"Donald Francis Tovey\"), \"Franz Schubert\" (1927\\), rpt. in *Essays and Lectures on Music* (London, 1949\\), p. 123\\. Cf. his similar remarks in \"Tonality in Schubert\" (1928\\), rpt. ibid., p. 151\\.", "The influence of [Chopin](/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Chopin \"Frédéric Chopin\") and [Mendelssohn](/wiki/Felix_Mendelssohn \"Felix Mendelssohn\") on Brahms is less obvious, although occasionally one can find in his works what seems to be an allusion to one of theirs (e.g., Brahms's Scherzo, Op. 4 alludes to Chopin's Scherzo in B\\-flat minor,[Rosen, Charles](/wiki/Charles_Rosen \"Charles Rosen\"), \"Influence: plagiarism and inspiration\", *[19th\\-Century Music](/wiki/19th-Century_Music \"19th-Century Music\")* 4(2\\) (1980\\), pp. 87–100\\. the scherzo movement in Brahms's Piano Sonata in F minor, Op. 5 alludes to the finale of Mendelssohn's Piano Trio in C minor).Spanner, H.V. \"What is originality?\", *[The Musical Times](/wiki/The_Musical_Times \"The Musical Times\")* 93(1313\\) (1952\\), pp. 310–311\\.", "#### {{lang\\|de\\|Alte Musik}}", "Brahms looked to older music, with its [counterpoint](/wiki/Counterpoint \"Counterpoint\"), for inspiration. He studied the music of pre\\-classical composers, including [Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina](/wiki/Giovanni_Pierluigi_da_Palestrina \"Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina\"), [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli \"Giovanni Gabrieli\"), [Johann Adolph Hasse](/wiki/Johann_Adolph_Hasse \"Johann Adolph Hasse\"), [Heinrich Schütz](/wiki/Heinrich_Sch%C3%BCtz \"Heinrich Schütz\"), [Domenico Scarlatti](/wiki/Domenico_Scarlatti \"Domenico Scarlatti\"), [George Frideric Handel](/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel \"George Frideric Handel\"), and [Johann Sebastian Bach](/wiki/Johann_Sebastian_Bach \"Johann Sebastian Bach\").", "His friends included leading musicologists. He co\\-edited an edition of the works of [François Couperin](/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Couperin \"François Couperin\") with [Friedrich Chrysander](/wiki/Friedrich_Chrysander \"Friedrich Chrysander\"). He also edited works by [C. P. E. Bach](/wiki/Carl_Philipp_Emanuel_Bach \"Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach\") and [W. F. Bach](/wiki/Wilhelm_Friedemann_Bach \"Wilhelm Friedemann Bach\").", "[Peter Phillips](/wiki/Peter_Phillips_%28conductor%29 \"Peter Phillips (conductor)\") heard affinities between Brahms's rhythmically charged, contrapuntal textures and those of Renaissance masters such as [Giovanni Gabrieli](/wiki/Giovanni_Gabrieli \"Giovanni Gabrieli\") and [William Byrd](/wiki/William_Byrd \"William Byrd\"). Referring to Byrd's *Though Amaryllis dance*, Philips remarked that \"the cross\\-rhythms in this piece so excited [E. H. Fellowes](/wiki/E._H._Fellowes \"E. H. Fellowes\") that he likened them to Brahms's compositional style.\"[Phillips, P.](/wiki/Peter_Phillips_%28conductor%29 \"Peter Phillips (conductor)\") (2007\\) sleeve note to *English Madrigals*, 25th anniversary edition, CD recording, [Gimell Records](/wiki/Gimell_Records \"Gimell Records\").", "Some of Brahms's music is modeled on [Baroque](/wiki/Baroque_music \"Baroque music\") sources, especially Bach (e.g., the fugal finale of [Cello Sonata No. 1](/wiki/Cello_Sonata_No._1_%28Brahms%29 \"Cello Sonata No. 1 (Brahms)\") on Bach's *[The Art of Fugue](/wiki/The_Art_of_Fugue \"The Art of Fugue\")*, the passacaglia theme of the [Fourth Symphony's](/wiki/Symphony_No._4_%28Brahms%29 \"Symphony No. 4 (Brahms)\") finale on Bach's Cantata No. 150\\).", "#### Textures", "Brahms was a master of [counterpoint](/wiki/Counterpoint \"Counterpoint\"). \"For Brahms, ... the most complicated forms of counterpoint were a natural means of expressing his emotions,\" writes [Geiringer](/wiki/Karl_Geiringer \"Karl Geiringer\"). \"As Palestrina or Bach succeeded in giving spiritual significance to their technique, so Brahms could turn a [canon](/wiki/Canon_%28music%29 \"Canon (music)\") in motu contrario or a canon per augmentationem into a pure piece of lyrical poetry.\"{{sfn\\|Geiringer and Geiringer\\|1982\\|loc\\=159}} Writers on Brahms have commented on his use of counterpoint. For example, of Op. 9, *Variations on a Theme by Robert Schumann,* Geiringer writes that Brahms \"displays all the resources of contrapuntal art\".{{sfn\\|Geiringer and Geiringer\\|1982\\|loc\\=210}} In the A major piano quartet Opus 26, [Jan Swafford](/wiki/Jan_Swafford \"Jan Swafford\") notes that the third movement is \"demonic\\-canonic, echoing Haydn's famous minuet for string quartet called the 'Witch's Round{{' \"}}.Swafford (2012\\), p. 159\\.{{incomplete short citation\\|date\\=May 2020}} Swafford further opines that \"thematic development, counterpoint, and form were the dominant technical terms in which Brahms ... thought about music\".Swafford (2012\\), p. xviii{{incomplete short citation\\|date\\=May 2020}}", "Allied to his skill in counterpoint was his subtle handling of rhythm and meter. The *New Grove Dictionary of Music* speculates that his contact with Hungarian and gypsy folk music as a teenager led to \"his lifelong fascination with the irregular rhythms, triplet figures and use of rubato\" in his compositions.\"Brahms\" article in Sadie, S. (ed.) (1995\\), *The New Grove Dictionary of Music*. Oxford University Press.{{full citation needed\\|date\\=February 2021\\|reason\\=Author?}} The [Hungarian Dances](/wiki/Hungarian_Dances \"Hungarian Dances\") are among Brahms's most\\-appreciated pieces.{{sfn\\|Gál\\|1963\\|pp\\=17, 204}} Michael Musgrave considered that only [Stravinsky](/wiki/Stravinsky \"Stravinsky\") approached the advancement of his rhythmic thinking.{{sfn\\|Musgrave\\|1985\\|p\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/isbn\\_9780710097767/page/269 269]}}", "His use of counterpoint and rhythm is present in *A German Requiem*, a work that was partially inspired by his mother's death in 1865 (at a time in which he composed a funeral march that was to become the basis of Part Two, \"Denn alles Fleisch\"), but which also incorporates material from a symphony which he started in 1854 but abandoned following Schumann's suicide attempt. He once wrote that the Requiem \"belonged to Schumann\". The first movement of this abandoned symphony was re\\-worked as the first movement of the First Piano Concerto.", "" ]
History ------- ### 1979\-1984 The first Polyphonic Size record, Algorhythmic EP, was released in December 1979, on Sandwich Records, a new independent record label founded by Michel Lambot. After a second EP (Pragmatic Songs), Roger\-Marc got in touch with Jean\-Jacques Burnel, who offered to produce the next single, Nagasaki Mon Amour. This first musical collaboration was followed by many others, including an outrageous and robotic cover of the [Rolling Stones](/wiki/Rolling_Stones "Rolling Stones")' classic, [Mother's Little Helper](/wiki/Mother%27s_Little_Helper "Mother's Little Helper"). After several line\-up changes, the band finally consisted of Roger\-Marc Vande Voorde (vocals, guitar, keyboards, electronics), [Kloot Per W](/wiki/Kloot_Per_W "Kloot Per W") (bass, vocals), Martine Bourlée (vocals, percussions) and France Lhermitte (vocals, percussions). Dominique Buxin wrote nearly all the lyrics, but never appeared live on stage or on any record sleeve. Although Polyphonic Size and JJ Burnel were very close to each other, the band always kept his own personality, less dark, more European, than the Stranglers. On 3 April 1981 Polyphonic Size gave their very first concert at the First Belgian Rhythm Box Contest, in Brussels. Polyphonic Size's debut album, Live For Each Moment / Vivre Pour Chaque Instant, was released in September 1982\. Still produced by JJ Burnel, it is widely considered as their best work, including two of their finest tracks ever : Winston \& Julia (based on Orwell's 1984\) and Je T'ai Toujours Aimée (recorded in 2 hours, with JJ Burnel on vocals and bass). In November 82 the band started their first European tour, including a stop at the famous Paris club "Les Bains Douches". The whole concert was broadcast on [France Inter](/wiki/France_Inter "France Inter") (popular French radio station). Polyphonic Size second album, Walking Everywhere, was released in January 1984 on [Virgin Records](/wiki/Virgin_Records "Virgin Records"). Produced in London by JJ, it is more centred on synthesizers sounds. It also includes the band new single, Walking Class Hero, as well as several guest musicians, like Daniel B ([Front 242](/wiki/Front_242 "Front 242")) and [Dave Greenfield](/wiki/Dave_Greenfield "Dave Greenfield") (The Stranglers). A new European tour followed, without France Lhermitte, who was now replaced by AnnVW. ### 1985\-1991 The second half of the 80's was not so easy for Polyphonic Size, dealing with problems and conflicts concerning their record contract. Many demos were recorded in those days, but the bulk of them still remain unreleased. The band line up changed many times, but always featured Roger\-Marc Vande Voorde and Martine Bourlée. In 1987, Polyphonic Size played in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow "Moscow"), [Irkutsk](/wiki/Irkutsk "Irkutsk") and [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing"), as part of a cultural exchange between Belgium, USSR and China, turning the [Trans\-Siberian](/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway "Trans-Siberian Railway") train into an artistic residence. On 24 June 1988 the group played at the famous [Marquee Club](/wiki/Marquee_Club "Marquee Club") in London. On 6 April 1989 they appeared at the [Printemps de Bourges](/wiki/Printemps_de_Bourges "Printemps de Bourges") Festival, opening for JJ Burnel, as part of his second solo album tour, [Un Jour Parfait](/wiki/Un_Jour_Parfait "Un Jour Parfait"), for which Dominique Buxin wrote some lyrics. The next single was released in 1986 : L'amour / Everybody Needs Your Sex, followed two years later by a new album, The Overnight Day. Produced by [Nigel Gray](/wiki/Nigel_Gray "Nigel Gray"), it has a more pop sound, and includes a cover of [Michel Polnareff](/wiki/Michel_Polnareff "Michel Polnareff"), Tout Tout Pour Ma Chérie. New studio sessions began in England in June 1989, with the help of [Daniel Darc](/wiki/Daniel_Darc "Daniel Darc") (from the French band [Taxi Girl](/wiki/Taxi_Girl "Taxi Girl")), who wrote several lyrics. These sessions appeared in 1991 on The Prime Story, first Polyphonic Size's compilation CD. But the 80's were over, the magic was gone, and in November 1991, the P Size Info Service announced the (temporary) death of the band. ### Polyphonic Size 2 In 2009, VOD Records released a 4 vinyl records boxset (plus a 10" bonus), featuring the complete Polyphonic Size 1979\-1982 recordings along with two hours of unreleased tracks, demos and outtakes. The group reformed in April 2010, with Roger\-Marc, France and Kloot Per W, plus Martine and Roger\-Marc's daughters : Mandy (keyboards) and Alice (guitar). Together, they gave two concerts in Brussels on April 30 and May 5, with JJ Burnel as special guest, singing Je T'ai Toujours Aimée on stage for the very first time. In September, they play at the Botanique, for the Nuits Du Soir Festival. Early 2011, Kloot Per W quits PS, and is replaced by Mika Nagazaki, [Ghinzu](/wiki/Ghinzu "Ghinzu") bass player. In July 2011, Polyphonic Size line\-up changes again, with Jill and Géraldine (from the Belgian band Les Vedettes) replacing France Lhermitte on vocals until the end of 2012\.
[ "History\n-------", "### 1979\\-1984", "The first Polyphonic Size record, Algorhythmic EP, was released in December 1979, on Sandwich Records, a new independent record label founded by Michel Lambot. After a second EP (Pragmatic Songs), Roger\\-Marc got in touch with Jean\\-Jacques Burnel, who offered to produce the next single, Nagasaki Mon Amour. This first musical collaboration was followed by many others, including an outrageous and robotic cover of the [Rolling Stones](/wiki/Rolling_Stones \"Rolling Stones\")' classic, [Mother's Little Helper](/wiki/Mother%27s_Little_Helper \"Mother's Little Helper\"). \nAfter several line\\-up changes, the band finally consisted of Roger\\-Marc Vande Voorde (vocals, guitar, keyboards, electronics), [Kloot Per W](/wiki/Kloot_Per_W \"Kloot Per W\") (bass, vocals), Martine Bourlée (vocals, percussions) and France Lhermitte (vocals, percussions). Dominique Buxin wrote nearly all the lyrics, but never appeared live on stage or on any record sleeve. \nAlthough Polyphonic Size and JJ Burnel were very close to each other, the band always kept his own personality, less dark, more European, than the Stranglers. \nOn 3 April 1981 Polyphonic Size gave their very first concert at the First Belgian Rhythm Box Contest, in Brussels.", "Polyphonic Size's debut album, Live For Each Moment / Vivre Pour Chaque Instant, was released in September 1982\\. Still produced by JJ Burnel, it is widely considered as their best work, including two of their finest tracks ever : Winston \\& Julia (based on Orwell's 1984\\) and Je T'ai Toujours Aimée (recorded in 2 hours, with JJ Burnel on vocals and bass).", "In November 82 the band started their first European tour, including a stop at the famous Paris club \"Les Bains Douches\". The whole concert was broadcast on [France Inter](/wiki/France_Inter \"France Inter\") (popular French radio station).", "Polyphonic Size second album, Walking Everywhere, was released in January 1984 on [Virgin Records](/wiki/Virgin_Records \"Virgin Records\"). Produced in London by JJ, it is more centred on synthesizers sounds. It also includes the band new single, Walking Class Hero, as well as several guest musicians, like Daniel B ([Front 242](/wiki/Front_242 \"Front 242\")) and [Dave Greenfield](/wiki/Dave_Greenfield \"Dave Greenfield\") (The Stranglers). A new European tour followed, without France Lhermitte, who was now replaced by AnnVW.", "### 1985\\-1991", "The second half of the 80's was not so easy for Polyphonic Size, dealing with problems and conflicts concerning their record contract. Many demos were recorded in those days, but the bulk of them still remain unreleased. The band line up changed many times, but always featured Roger\\-Marc Vande Voorde and Martine Bourlée. In 1987, Polyphonic Size played in [Moscow](/wiki/Moscow \"Moscow\"), [Irkutsk](/wiki/Irkutsk \"Irkutsk\") and [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\"), as part of a cultural exchange between Belgium, USSR and China, turning the [Trans\\-Siberian](/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway \"Trans-Siberian Railway\") train into an artistic residence. On 24 June 1988 the group played at the famous [Marquee Club](/wiki/Marquee_Club \"Marquee Club\") in London. On 6 April 1989 they appeared at the [Printemps de Bourges](/wiki/Printemps_de_Bourges \"Printemps de Bourges\") Festival, opening for JJ Burnel, as part of his second solo album tour, [Un Jour Parfait](/wiki/Un_Jour_Parfait \"Un Jour Parfait\"), for which Dominique Buxin wrote some lyrics.", "The next single was released in 1986 : L'amour / Everybody Needs Your Sex, followed two years later by a new album, The Overnight Day. Produced by [Nigel Gray](/wiki/Nigel_Gray \"Nigel Gray\"), it has a more pop sound, and includes a cover of [Michel Polnareff](/wiki/Michel_Polnareff \"Michel Polnareff\"), Tout Tout Pour Ma Chérie. New studio sessions began in England in June 1989, with the help of [Daniel Darc](/wiki/Daniel_Darc \"Daniel Darc\") (from the French band [Taxi Girl](/wiki/Taxi_Girl \"Taxi Girl\")), who wrote several lyrics. These sessions appeared in 1991 on The Prime Story, first Polyphonic Size's compilation CD. But the 80's were over, the magic was gone, and in November 1991, the P Size Info Service announced the (temporary) death of the band.", "### Polyphonic Size 2", "In 2009, VOD Records released a 4 vinyl records boxset (plus a 10\" bonus), featuring the complete Polyphonic Size 1979\\-1982 recordings along with two hours of unreleased tracks, demos and outtakes. The group reformed in April 2010, with Roger\\-Marc, France and Kloot Per W, plus Martine and Roger\\-Marc's daughters : Mandy (keyboards) and Alice (guitar). Together, they gave two concerts in Brussels on April 30 and May 5, with JJ Burnel as special guest, singing Je T'ai Toujours Aimée on stage for the very first time. In September, they play at the Botanique, for the Nuits Du Soir Festival. Early 2011, Kloot Per W quits PS, and is replaced by Mika Nagazaki, [Ghinzu](/wiki/Ghinzu \"Ghinzu\") bass player. In July 2011, Polyphonic Size line\\-up changes again, with Jill and Géraldine (from the Belgian band Les Vedettes) replacing France Lhermitte on vocals until the end of 2012\\.", "" ]
Hauntings --------- While it operated as the United Verde Hospital and later became the Jerome Grand Hotel, many alleged hauntings have occurred. According to ghostlyfavorites.com., "Due to the high level of activity in the hotel, it is a quite popular destination for amateur ghost hunters". Guests that have stayed at the hotel reported to hear coughing, labored breathing, and even voices coming from empty rooms. Guests also reported smells coming from rooms, such as flowers, dust, cigar smoke, and whiskey. Others report light anomalies and the television sets turning themselves on with no explanation. Many guests and hotel staff have heard and seen what appears to be a 4 or 5 year old child running down the hallway on the 3rd floor, sometimes crying or laughing. This child also likes to appear at the foot of the bed in various rooms, just staring at the bed's occupant. Frequently, the sounds of giggling and running occur on the top floor, as though children are at play. The sounds of a newborn baby's cry is common on the 3rd and 4th floors, as well as the faint smell of baby powder and zinc oxide. The baby's crying has alerted enough guests that they've phoned the front desk out of concern; the location being a vacant room. Staff as well as guests frequently report bedside table lamps and televisions being unplugged, shampoo bottles rolling across the floor or flying across the room. The sound of doors opening/closing while the room is otherwise vacant are common. Guests have found electronics such as cell phones and camcorders dead center beneath the bed. Front Desk staff, particularly the graveyard shift, have reported hearing coughing and sneezing from the hotel's laundry room, seeing shadows in the same area of whom they believe to be Claude Harvey, the hospital's maintenance man who was found dead on April 3, 1935, pinned beneath the Otis elevator, presumably murdered. They see and hear Claude roaming the stairwells and the boiler room as though still at work. Many guests have reported seeing the apparitions of two ladies, one in a white gown, and another one in a nurse's outfit, as well as someone who appears to be a doctor or nurse in a long lab coat carrying a clipboard, roaming the halls. A Spirit Cat is a frequent visitor to the hotel. Its origin unknown, the cat has been heard meowing, hissing and scratching at doors and walls. Both staff and guests have heard and felt the cat brushing against their legs and snuggling against them while on the bed. Most notable and commonplace is the imprint on the bedding of what is believed to be the cat curled up, that bedding moments earlier, smooth and straight. A photo, provided by a guest staying in Rm 20 in 2008, shows the cat very clearly sitting on a table, looking toward the photographer. Photos provided by staff and guests, as well as personal accounts are available for viewing on www.hauntedmania.com. During its hospital days, many deaths occurred from illness or injury, but also some rather suspicious in origin, like that of maintenance man Claude Harvey. Claude was found pinned by the back of the neck by the elevator, quite dead. A thorough inspection of the elevator was done, as well as a coroner's inquest that determined the elevator could not have caused Claude's death. No autopsy was allowed to be performed, nor x\-ray taken, as the United Verde Copper Company, who owned the building, did not want suspicion pointing in their direction as accident nor intent. Claude's is the only death in the hospital whose cause has yet to be determined. Speculation is, Mr. Harvey was murdered and his body placed in the elevator room, with his head hanging over the elevator shaft, to look like an accident. Only one other known death since the hospital closed down in 1950, that of Manoah Hoffpauir, a local man hired by Phelps Dodge Mining Company to be a presence in the vacant building, hoping to offset the years of vandalism. Manoah was found hanging from a steam pipe in the Engineer's Office, where he resided while serving as the caretaker. His death in 1982 was ruled a suicide. During its days as the United Verde Hospital, an estimated 9000 deaths occurred, however no known records are present, so that number has yet to be validated. When purchased in 1994 by Larry Altherr, the hospital records were gone, so any information regarding staff and patients is via word\-of\-mouth, with little or no verification. The hospital was a general surgical hospital, meeting the needs of all who entered; unlike the name of the resident restaurant, a separate business from the hotel named Asylum, the building was never a mental health facility nor exclusive for tuberculosis patients. Due to the extreme privacy the hotel wishes to provide its guests, private tours have been discontinued and no one other than registered guests and staff are permitted on the guest floors. The lobby (former emergency room) is open to the public 24/7 and the Asylum Restaurant (admitting and dispensary) is open to the public 11am\-9pm Wednesday\-Monday, currently closed Tuesdays. A complete history, photos and online booking is available via the hotel's website: www.jeromegrandhotel.net. The hotel is open 365 days a year.
[ "Hauntings\n---------", "While it operated as the United Verde Hospital and later became the Jerome Grand Hotel, many alleged hauntings have occurred. According to ghostlyfavorites.com., \"Due to the high level of activity in the hotel, it is a quite popular destination for amateur ghost hunters\". Guests that have stayed at the hotel reported to hear coughing, labored breathing, and even voices coming from empty rooms. Guests also reported smells coming from rooms, such as flowers, dust, cigar smoke, and whiskey. Others report light anomalies and the television sets turning themselves on with no explanation.", "Many guests and hotel staff have heard and seen what appears to be a 4 or 5 year old child running down the hallway on the 3rd floor, sometimes crying or laughing. This child also likes to appear at the foot of the bed in various rooms, just staring at the bed's occupant. Frequently, the sounds of giggling and running occur on the top floor, as though children are at play. The sounds of a newborn baby's cry is common on the 3rd and 4th floors, as well as the faint smell of baby powder and zinc oxide. The baby's crying has alerted enough guests that they've phoned the front desk out of concern; the location being a vacant room.", "Staff as well as guests frequently report bedside table lamps and televisions being unplugged, shampoo bottles rolling across the floor or flying across the room. The sound of doors opening/closing while the room is otherwise vacant are common. Guests have found electronics such as cell phones and camcorders dead center beneath the bed. Front Desk staff, particularly the graveyard shift, have reported hearing coughing and sneezing from the hotel's laundry room, seeing shadows in the same area of whom they believe to be Claude Harvey, the hospital's maintenance man who was found dead on April 3, 1935, pinned beneath the Otis elevator, presumably murdered. They see and hear Claude roaming the stairwells and the boiler room as though still at work. Many guests have reported seeing the apparitions of two ladies, one in a white gown, and another one in a nurse's outfit, as well as someone who appears to be a doctor or nurse in a long lab coat carrying a clipboard, roaming the halls. A Spirit Cat is a frequent visitor to the hotel. Its origin unknown, the cat has been heard meowing, hissing and scratching at doors and walls. Both staff and guests have heard and felt the cat brushing against their legs and snuggling against them while on the bed. Most notable and commonplace is the imprint on the bedding of what is believed to be the cat curled up, that bedding moments earlier, smooth and straight. A photo, provided by a guest staying in Rm 20 in 2008, shows the cat very clearly sitting on a table, looking toward the photographer. Photos provided by staff and guests, as well as personal accounts are available for viewing on www.hauntedmania.com.", "During its hospital days, many deaths occurred from illness or injury, but also some rather suspicious in origin, like that of maintenance man Claude Harvey. Claude was found pinned by the back of the neck by the elevator, quite dead. A thorough inspection of the elevator was done, as well as a coroner's inquest that determined the elevator could not have caused Claude's death. No autopsy was allowed to be performed, nor x\\-ray taken, as the United Verde Copper Company, who owned the building, did not want suspicion pointing in their direction as accident nor intent. Claude's is the only death in the hospital whose cause has yet to be determined. Speculation is, Mr. Harvey was murdered and his body placed in the elevator room, with his head hanging over the elevator shaft, to look like an accident.", "Only one other known death since the hospital closed down in 1950, that of Manoah Hoffpauir, a local man hired by Phelps Dodge Mining Company to be a presence in the vacant building, hoping to offset the years of vandalism. Manoah was found hanging from a steam pipe in the Engineer's Office, where he resided while serving as the caretaker. His death in 1982 was ruled a suicide. During its days as the United Verde Hospital, an estimated 9000 deaths occurred, however no known records are present, so that number has yet to be validated. When purchased in 1994 by Larry Altherr, the hospital records were gone, so any information regarding staff and patients is via word\\-of\\-mouth, with little or no verification. The hospital was a general surgical hospital, meeting the needs of all who entered; unlike the name of the resident restaurant, a separate business from the hotel named Asylum, the building was never a mental health facility nor exclusive for tuberculosis patients.", "Due to the extreme privacy the hotel wishes to provide its guests, private tours have been discontinued and no one other than registered guests and staff are permitted on the guest floors. The lobby (former emergency room) is open to the public 24/7 and the Asylum Restaurant (admitting and dispensary) is open to the public 11am\\-9pm Wednesday\\-Monday, currently closed Tuesdays. A complete history, photos and online booking is available via the hotel's website: www.jeromegrandhotel.net. The hotel is open 365 days a year.", "" ]
Geography --------- *Allemagne\-en\-Provence* is located about 50 km northeast of [Aix\-en\-Provence](/wiki/Aix-en-Provence "Aix-en-Provence") and 25 km west of [Castellane](/wiki/Castellane "Castellane"). Access to the commune is by road D952 east from [Saint\-Martin\-de\-Bromes](/wiki/Saint-Martin-de-Bromes "Saint-Martin-de-Bromes") to the town then continuing northeast to [Riez](/wiki/Riez "Riez"). There is also road D111 starting from the town and going east to [Montagnac\-Montpezat](/wiki/Montagnac-Montpezat "Montagnac-Montpezat"). Road D15 also follows a convoluted route south from [Valensole](/wiki/Valensole "Valensole") to the town. There is a network of small country roads covering the commune. About 30% of the land is farmland with the rest mountain slopes and forests.[Google Maps](https://www.google.com/maps/place/Allemagne-en-Provence,+France/@43.7920895,6.0257075,13159m/data=!3m2!1e3!4b1!4m2!3m1!1s0x12cbc2d6295553a1:0x40819a5fd97b760?hl=en) ### Hydrography The commune is located at the confluence of the Montagnac torrent and the Colostre river, 36\.3 km long,{{sandre\|X27\-0400\|Le Colostre}} which flows southwest into the [Verdon](/wiki/Verdon_%28river%29 "Verdon (river)") river. There is a large network of streams feeding into the Colostre throughout the commune. In the 19th century, the village was frequently inundated by floods caused by storms with floods sweeping down the mountain and swamping the village streets. ### Natural and technological hazards All of the 200 communes of the department are in a seismic risk area. The area to which the commune belongs is zone 1b (low risk) according to the deterministic classification of 1991 based on historical earthquakes; and Zone 3 (moderate risk) according to the classification probability EC8 of 2011\. The commune also faces exposure to three other natural hazards: * Forest fire * Flooding (in the valley of the [Verdon](/wiki/Verdon_%28river%29 "Verdon (river)")) * Landslide: the commune is almost entirely covered by a medium to high risk The commune is at risk of technological origin due to the transport of dangerous goods by road. The county road D952 can be used for the road transport of dangerous goods. The prevention plan for foreseeable natural risks (PPR) for the commune was approved in 1998 for the risks of flood and earthquake. The town was subjected to a natural disaster in 1987 when there was a [mudslide](/wiki/Mudslide "Mudslide"). ### Localities and hamlets In addition to the village, the town has two hamlets: * Saint\-Antoine * Puberclaire ### Neighbouring communes {{Geographic location \|width\=auto \|Centre \= Allemagne\-en\-Provence \|North \= \[\[Valensole]] \|Northeast \= \[\[Puimoisson]] \|East \= \[\[Riez]] \|Southeast \= \[\[Bauduen]] \|South \= \[\[Quinson]] \|Southwest \= \[\[Saint\-Martin\-de\-Bromes]] \|West \= \[\[Manosque]] \|Northwest \= }} ### Toponymy The area appears for the first time in texts from 429 in the Chronology of [Lérins](/wiki/L%C3%A9rins_Abbey "Lérins Abbey"). The etymology of the place has attracted many assumptions, especially to keep away from the [Alemanni](/wiki/Alemanni "Alemanni"), now rejected by scholars for half a century. The old form *Alamania*, noted in 1182, leaves little doubt and indicates a formation on an ethnic name by the Alemanni (with the suffix *\-ia*) and perpetuates the memory of a colony or a military post of these people present before the great invasions. Among the former conjectures dating from the Franco\-German rivalry in the late 19th and the beginning of the 20th century was the denial of a connection between the name of the village and Germany. There is a possibility of a Gallic goddess of fertility *Alemona* venerated by the Roman garrison installed on the site of the present castle, or *Armagnia* (a bad spelling dating from the 13th century) which comes from *area magna* meaning "great plain of gravel". The commune is called *Alemanha Provença* in [Provençal](/wiki/Proven%C3%A7al_dialect "Provençal dialect") according to the classical standard and *Alemagno de Prouvènço* according to standard [Mistralian](/wiki/Mistralian "Mistralian"). The locality *La Moutte* close to the D952 and east of the village refers to a [Motte\-and\-bailey castle](/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle "Motte-and-bailey castle") which has now disappeared. *Notre\-Dame* to the west of the village on the D15 is also from a small hill which had a chapel.Daniel Mouton, *The fortifications of medieval Provence: an example of a basin of average duration*, *Fortified towns, villages, hamlets. The dispersed habitat in Provence*, Deeds of 2nd Days of Regional History of Mouans\-Sartoux, 15 and 16 March 1985, Mouans\-Sartoux, Centre régional de documentation occitane, 1986, p. 115\-116 {{in lang\|fr}}
[ "Geography\n---------", "*Allemagne\\-en\\-Provence* is located about 50 km northeast of [Aix\\-en\\-Provence](/wiki/Aix-en-Provence \"Aix-en-Provence\") and 25 km west of [Castellane](/wiki/Castellane \"Castellane\"). Access to the commune is by road D952 east from [Saint\\-Martin\\-de\\-Bromes](/wiki/Saint-Martin-de-Bromes \"Saint-Martin-de-Bromes\") to the town then continuing northeast to [Riez](/wiki/Riez \"Riez\"). There is also road D111 starting from the town and going east to [Montagnac\\-Montpezat](/wiki/Montagnac-Montpezat \"Montagnac-Montpezat\"). Road D15 also follows a convoluted route south from [Valensole](/wiki/Valensole \"Valensole\") to the town. There is a network of small country roads covering the commune. About 30% of the land is farmland with the rest mountain slopes and forests.[Google Maps](https://www.google.com/maps/place/Allemagne-en-Provence,+France/@43.7920895,6.0257075,13159m/data=!3m2!1e3!4b1!4m2!3m1!1s0x12cbc2d6295553a1:0x40819a5fd97b760?hl=en)", "### Hydrography", "The commune is located at the confluence of the Montagnac torrent and the Colostre river, 36\\.3 km long,{{sandre\\|X27\\-0400\\|Le Colostre}} which flows southwest into the [Verdon](/wiki/Verdon_%28river%29 \"Verdon (river)\") river. There is a large network of streams feeding into the Colostre throughout the commune.", "In the 19th century, the village was frequently inundated by floods caused by storms with floods sweeping down the mountain and swamping the village streets.", "### Natural and technological hazards", "All of the 200 communes of the department are in a seismic risk area. The area to which the commune belongs is zone 1b (low risk) according to the deterministic classification of 1991 based on historical earthquakes; and Zone 3 (moderate risk) according to the classification probability EC8 of 2011\\. The commune also faces exposure to three other natural hazards:\n* Forest fire\n* Flooding (in the valley of the [Verdon](/wiki/Verdon_%28river%29 \"Verdon (river)\"))\n* Landslide: the commune is almost entirely covered by a medium to high risk", "The commune is at risk of technological origin due to the transport of dangerous goods by road. The county road D952 can be used for the road transport of dangerous goods.", "The prevention plan for foreseeable natural risks (PPR) for the commune was approved in 1998 for the risks of flood and earthquake.", "The town was subjected to a natural disaster in 1987 when there was a [mudslide](/wiki/Mudslide \"Mudslide\").", "### Localities and hamlets", "In addition to the village, the town has two hamlets:\n* Saint\\-Antoine\n* Puberclaire", "### Neighbouring communes", "{{Geographic location\n\\|width\\=auto\n\\|Centre \\= Allemagne\\-en\\-Provence \n\\|North \\= \\[\\[Valensole]]\n\\|Northeast \\= \\[\\[Puimoisson]]\n\\|East \\= \\[\\[Riez]]\n\\|Southeast \\= \\[\\[Bauduen]]\n\\|South \\= \\[\\[Quinson]]\n\\|Southwest \\= \\[\\[Saint\\-Martin\\-de\\-Bromes]]\n\\|West \\= \\[\\[Manosque]]\n\\|Northwest \\= \n}}", "", "### Toponymy", "The area appears for the first time in texts from 429 in the Chronology of [Lérins](/wiki/L%C3%A9rins_Abbey \"Lérins Abbey\"). The etymology of the place has attracted many assumptions, especially to keep away from the [Alemanni](/wiki/Alemanni \"Alemanni\"), now rejected by scholars for half a century. The old form *Alamania*, noted in 1182, leaves little doubt and indicates a formation on an ethnic name by the Alemanni (with the suffix *\\-ia*) and perpetuates the memory of a colony or a military post of these people present before the great invasions.", "Among the former conjectures dating from the Franco\\-German rivalry in the late 19th and the beginning of the 20th century was the denial of a connection between the name of the village and Germany. There is a possibility of a Gallic goddess of fertility *Alemona* venerated by the Roman garrison installed on the site of the present castle, or *Armagnia* (a bad spelling dating from the 13th century) which comes from *area magna* meaning \"great plain of gravel\".", "The commune is called *Alemanha Provença* in [Provençal](/wiki/Proven%C3%A7al_dialect \"Provençal dialect\") according to the classical standard and *Alemagno de Prouvènço* according to standard [Mistralian](/wiki/Mistralian \"Mistralian\").", "The locality *La Moutte* close to the D952 and east of the village refers to a [Motte\\-and\\-bailey castle](/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle \"Motte-and-bailey castle\") which has now disappeared. *Notre\\-Dame* to the west of the village on the D15 is also from a small hill which had a chapel.Daniel Mouton, *The fortifications of medieval Provence: an example of a basin of average duration*, *Fortified towns, villages, hamlets. The dispersed habitat in Provence*, Deeds of 2nd Days of Regional History of Mouans\\-Sartoux, 15 and 16 March 1985, Mouans\\-Sartoux, Centre régional de documentation occitane, 1986, p. 115\\-116 {{in lang\\|fr}}", "" ]
History ------- ### Allemagne and its lords Around the year 1000 there were two castles in the commune: at Castellet and La Moutte. The two other castles (Notre\-Dame, Saint\-Marc) came later. The [Motte\-and\-bailey castle](/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle "Motte-and-bailey castle") of Moutte was fortified for the first time in the second half of the 9th century: built on a platform of 450 to 500 Sq. M, two residential buildings were constructed: one using the ancient technique of *[murus gallicus](/wiki/Murus_gallicus "Murus gallicus")*. This building of 30 Sq. M is surrounded by a gallery on two sides, the other building is about 50 Sq. M. The two were deliberately burned shortly before the year 1000, to backfill the mound again to raise it by about 2 metres. The second construction consisted of a single building of 54 Sq. M, which caught fire in 1010 during an attack. It is possible that the construction of Castellet castle corresponds to the destruction of the first castle. The lordship of *Allemagne* belonged to the Castellane family from the 13th to the 15th centuries, then it was the Oraison. #### The Castellanes The lordship of *Allemagne* became the property of the Castellanes in 1218 on the occasion of the marriage of *Agnes Sarda* (or Spata) with Boniface IV de Castellane. The same year Agnes Spata granted [franchises](/wiki/Suffrage "Suffrage") to the villagers. The lordship of Allemagne was a barony around 1280\. On 15 January 1331, Boniface de Castellane, son of Boniface, Lord of Allemagne and Constance, married the daughter of Albert Blacacii, Lord of Beaudinard.Baron du Roure, Blacas, p. 7 {{in lang\|fr}} A small castle was built on a hill south of the village of *Castelletum de Alamania*. In the 14th century it fell into the hands of bandits \- the Chamisard \- who made it their base of operations for robbing the neighborhood. To put an end to it, the inhabitants of [Riez](/wiki/Riez "Riez") united and drove the Chamisard to the gatehouse which they quickly demolished thereafter. An Agreement to desist was signed on 17 June 1417 by Boniface de Castellane, Lord of Allemagne which said that the Lord would abandon his pursuits against the community of Riez for the demolition of Castellet. In the 15th century, the former community of Castellet, separated from Allemagne before the crises of the 14th centuries (the [Black Death](/wiki/Black_Death "Black Death"), the [Hundred Years War](/wiki/Hundred_Years_War "Hundred Years War")) was joined to that of Allemagne, because it had become too depopulated. It was in 1440 that, through a testament of Boniface IX de Castellane, the barony of Allemagne was separated from land belonging to Castellane and assigned to the eldest son of the testator, Antoine. The latter's son, Boniface X, succeeded him in 1472 and married Marguerite de Forbin. His son, François de Castellane\-Allemagne, Baron of Allemagne, Baron of Allemagne, enlarged the castle at Allemagne and died on 28 January 1523\. Their son Melchior de Castellane\-Allemagne, Baron of Allemagne, never married and bequeathed his property to Nicolas Mas, his nephew, on condition that he bear his name and arms. A leader of the Protestant party, he was killed in 1560 during the [Wars of Religion](/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion "French Wars of Religion") during a fight on his land. He enlarged and embellished the castle of Allemagne. #### The Battle of 1586 In August 1586 [Leaguer](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28French%29 "Catholic League (French)") Captain Hubert de Vins besieged the castle in Allemagne where the baroness was alone with her garrison commanded by the Lord of Espinouse. She resisted for 16 days and gave her husband Nicolas Mas\-Castellane time to come up with the Protestant army. He arrived in early September with the support of [Lesdiguières](/wiki/Lesdigui%C3%A8res "Lesdiguières") surrounded by men from the lords of Oraison, Jerante Senas, Vintimilles Tourves, Forbin\-Janson, and others \- all enemies of De Vins. On arriving around Allemagne, Lesdiguières seized the heights and all the pathways in the area but just missed the encirclement of the ligueuses troops. De Vins then abandoned the defences that had held out for 16 days, and prepared for battle on the hill of San Marco. The battle began on 5 September 1586\. The Baron of Allemagne committed to action at the head of his volunteers. The Leaguers managed to open a passage to Riez where they were home, pursued by the [Huguenots](/wiki/Huguenots "Huguenots"). One of the last arquebus shots struck the Baron of Allemagne in the head and killed him on the bridge of his castle (5 September 1586). His widow, Jeanne de Grasse, presided at his funeral and executed eleven Catholic prisoners over his grave. It was nevertheless an important Protestant victory: the Leaguers lost 900 to 1200 men (killed, wounded and prisoners) and 18 flags of the 22 they had. The majority of prisoners had their throats cut at the news of the death of Baron of Allemagne. Twelve others were executed the next day on his grave. #### The Oraisons *Alexandre du Mas de Castellane\-Allemagne*, Baron of Allemagne (1583\-1612\), son of Nicolas, married Martha d'Oraison in 1610\. In 1612 Alexandre du Mas had a quarrel with Annibal de Forbin, Lord of La Roque and a duel ensued. The two duelists were put back to back, with their arms tied and fired to be both fatally struck. Their property was seized by the Queen Regent, who gave that of Alexandre to his brother Jean Louis who then gave them to his niece Gabrielle du Mas which ruined the confiscation. After a childless marriage to Antoine de Villeneuve, Marquis des Arcs, she willed it in favour of his cousin André d'Oraison. Marthe d'Oraison was the founder of a convent of [Capuchins](/wiki/Order_of_Friars_Minor_Capuchin "Order of Friars Minor Capuchin") at [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille "Marseille"). She took the habit without taking the vows on the death of her husband. She then devoted herself to the poor at the *Hotel Dieu de Paris* where she died in 1637 and was buried in the [Cloister](/wiki/Cloister "Cloister") of the Capuchins Saint\-Honoré. André d'Oraison (a German cousin of Gabrielle du Mas), Marquis d'Oraison, Baron of Allemagne on the death of Gabrielle du Mas de Castellane\-Allemagne, married Gabrielle Gianni La Roche. They had three children, one of which, Madeleine married Jacques Louis Ancezune in 1699\. #### The Varages On 24 November 1718, Madeleine sold the Barony of Allemagne for 216,000 [livres](/wiki/French_livre "French livre") to Jean\-Baptiste Varages, the king's secretary at the Court of Auditors Marseille since 16 February 1712\. During the Revolution, Joseph Francis Varages, Baron of Allemagne, officer in the Angoumois regiment, adjutant to the General of Villeneuve, was wounded in Toulon defending the city on the royalist side in 1793 (see [Siege of Toulon](/wiki/Siege_of_Toulon "Siege of Toulon")). He then emigrated and his property was declared [national property](/wiki/Biens_nationaux "Biens nationaux"). He did not return to France, ruined, until the Restoration. With his son Alexandre de Varages, Baron of Allemagne (1815\-1891\), who died at [Aix\-en\-Provence](/wiki/Aix-en-Provence "Aix-en-Provence") a branch of Varages\-Allemagne. He made a will in favour of Paul d'Allemagne, grandson of Major\-General [Claude d'Allemagne](/wiki/Claude_Dallemagne "Claude Dallemagne"), already [Baron of the Empire](/wiki/Nobility_of_the_First_French_Empire "Nobility of the First French Empire"), who, therefore, took up Arms of Varages\-Allemagne (Azure, two lions combatant of gold bearing a star of the same) ### French Revolution The *patriotic society* of the commune was created during the summer of 1792\. In 1793, the castle was designated to be destroyed but escaped demolition. ### 19th century In the second half of the 18th century the [Faience](/wiki/Faience "Faience") industry (tin\-glazed pottery) was thriving in Allemagne and this continued into the 1820s. The style imitated that of [Moustiers\-Sainte\-Marie](/wiki/Moustiers-Sainte-Marie "Moustiers-Sainte-Marie"). ### 20th century In 1930 a cooperative built a [distillery](/wiki/Distillery "Distillery") for manufacturing perfume. Until the middle of the 20th century vines were cultivated in Allemagne and covered several dozen hectares. The wine was produced for home consumption and was sold in regional markets. This culture is now abandoned. ### Heraldry {{Blazon\-arms \|img1\=Blason Allemagne en Provence.svg \|legend1\=Arms of Allemagne\-en\-Provence \|text\= '''Blazon:''' ''Gules, a Castle of Or between 4 towers masoned turreted and pointed the same.'' }}
[ "History\n-------", "### Allemagne and its lords", "Around the year 1000 there were two castles in the commune: at Castellet and La Moutte. The two other castles (Notre\\-Dame, Saint\\-Marc) came later.", "The [Motte\\-and\\-bailey castle](/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle \"Motte-and-bailey castle\") of Moutte was fortified for the first time in the second half of the 9th century: built on a platform of 450 to 500 Sq. M, two residential buildings were constructed: one using the ancient technique of *[murus gallicus](/wiki/Murus_gallicus \"Murus gallicus\")*. This building of 30 Sq. M is surrounded by a gallery on two sides, the other building is about 50 Sq. M. The two were deliberately burned shortly before the year 1000, to backfill the mound again to raise it by about 2 metres. The second construction consisted of a single building of 54 Sq. M, which caught fire in 1010 during an attack. It is possible that the construction of Castellet castle corresponds to the destruction of the first castle.", "The lordship of *Allemagne* belonged to the Castellane family from the 13th to the 15th centuries, then it was the Oraison.", "#### The Castellanes", "The lordship of *Allemagne* became the property of the Castellanes in 1218 on the occasion of the marriage of *Agnes Sarda* (or Spata) with Boniface IV de Castellane. The same year Agnes Spata granted [franchises](/wiki/Suffrage \"Suffrage\") to the villagers. The lordship of Allemagne was a barony around 1280\\.", "On 15 January 1331, Boniface de Castellane, son of Boniface, Lord of Allemagne and Constance, married the daughter of Albert Blacacii, Lord of Beaudinard.Baron du Roure, Blacas, p. 7 {{in lang\\|fr}}", "A small castle was built on a hill south of the village of *Castelletum de Alamania*. In the 14th century it fell into the hands of bandits \\- the Chamisard \\- who made it their base of operations for robbing the neighborhood. To put an end to it, the inhabitants of [Riez](/wiki/Riez \"Riez\") united and drove the Chamisard to the gatehouse which they quickly demolished thereafter. An Agreement to desist was signed on 17 June 1417 by Boniface de Castellane, Lord of Allemagne which said that the Lord would abandon his pursuits against the community of Riez for the demolition of Castellet.", "In the 15th century, the former community of Castellet, separated from Allemagne before the crises of the 14th centuries (the [Black Death](/wiki/Black_Death \"Black Death\"), the [Hundred Years War](/wiki/Hundred_Years_War \"Hundred Years War\")) was joined to that of Allemagne, because it had become too depopulated.", "It was in 1440 that, through a testament of Boniface IX de Castellane, the barony of Allemagne was separated from land belonging to Castellane and assigned to the eldest son of the testator, Antoine. The latter's son, Boniface X, succeeded him in 1472 and married Marguerite de Forbin.", "His son, François de Castellane\\-Allemagne, Baron of Allemagne, Baron of Allemagne, enlarged the castle at Allemagne and died on 28 January 1523\\.", "Their son Melchior de Castellane\\-Allemagne, Baron of Allemagne, never married and bequeathed his property to Nicolas Mas, his nephew, on condition that he bear his name and arms. A leader of the Protestant party, he was killed in 1560 during the [Wars of Religion](/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion \"French Wars of Religion\") during a fight on his land. He enlarged and embellished the castle of Allemagne.", "#### The Battle of 1586", "In August 1586 [Leaguer](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28French%29 \"Catholic League (French)\") Captain Hubert de Vins besieged the castle in Allemagne where the baroness was alone with her garrison commanded by the Lord of Espinouse. She resisted for 16 days and gave her husband Nicolas Mas\\-Castellane time to come up with the Protestant army.", "He arrived in early September with the support of [Lesdiguières](/wiki/Lesdigui%C3%A8res \"Lesdiguières\") surrounded by men from the lords of Oraison, Jerante Senas, Vintimilles Tourves, Forbin\\-Janson, and others \\- all enemies of De Vins. On arriving around Allemagne, Lesdiguières seized the heights and all the pathways in the area but just missed the encirclement of the ligueuses troops. De Vins then abandoned the defences that had held out for 16 days, and prepared for battle on the hill of San Marco. The battle began on 5 September 1586\\. The Baron of Allemagne committed to action at the head of his volunteers. The Leaguers managed to open a passage to Riez where they were home, pursued by the [Huguenots](/wiki/Huguenots \"Huguenots\"). One of the last arquebus shots struck the Baron of Allemagne in the head and killed him on the bridge of his castle (5 September 1586). His widow, Jeanne de Grasse, presided at his funeral and executed eleven Catholic prisoners over his grave. It was nevertheless an important Protestant victory: the Leaguers lost 900 to 1200 men (killed, wounded and prisoners) and 18 flags of the 22 they had. The majority of prisoners had their throats cut at the news of the death of Baron of Allemagne. Twelve others were executed the next day on his grave.", "#### The Oraisons", "*Alexandre du Mas de Castellane\\-Allemagne*, Baron of Allemagne (1583\\-1612\\), son of Nicolas, married Martha d'Oraison in 1610\\. In 1612 Alexandre du Mas had a quarrel with Annibal de Forbin, Lord of La Roque and a duel ensued. The two duelists were put back to back, with their arms tied and fired to be both fatally struck. Their property was seized by the Queen Regent, who gave that of Alexandre to his brother Jean Louis who then gave them to his niece Gabrielle du Mas which ruined the confiscation. After a childless marriage to Antoine de Villeneuve, Marquis des Arcs, she willed it in favour of his cousin André d'Oraison.", "Marthe d'Oraison was the founder of a convent of [Capuchins](/wiki/Order_of_Friars_Minor_Capuchin \"Order of Friars Minor Capuchin\") at [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille \"Marseille\"). She took the habit without taking the vows on the death of her husband. She then devoted herself to the poor at the *Hotel Dieu de Paris* where she died in 1637 and was buried in the [Cloister](/wiki/Cloister \"Cloister\") of the Capuchins Saint\\-Honoré.", "André d'Oraison (a German cousin of Gabrielle du Mas), Marquis d'Oraison, Baron of Allemagne on the death of Gabrielle du Mas de Castellane\\-Allemagne, married Gabrielle Gianni La Roche. They had three children, one of which, Madeleine married Jacques Louis Ancezune in 1699\\.", "#### The Varages", "On 24 November 1718, Madeleine sold the Barony of Allemagne for 216,000 [livres](/wiki/French_livre \"French livre\") to Jean\\-Baptiste Varages, the king's secretary at the Court of Auditors Marseille since 16 February 1712\\.", "During the Revolution, Joseph Francis Varages, Baron of Allemagne, officer in the Angoumois regiment, adjutant to the General of Villeneuve, was wounded in Toulon defending the city on the royalist side in 1793 (see [Siege of Toulon](/wiki/Siege_of_Toulon \"Siege of Toulon\")). He then emigrated and his property was declared [national property](/wiki/Biens_nationaux \"Biens nationaux\"). He did not return to France, ruined, until the Restoration.", "With his son Alexandre de Varages, Baron of Allemagne (1815\\-1891\\), who died at [Aix\\-en\\-Provence](/wiki/Aix-en-Provence \"Aix-en-Provence\") a branch of Varages\\-Allemagne. He made a will in favour of Paul d'Allemagne, grandson of Major\\-General [Claude d'Allemagne](/wiki/Claude_Dallemagne \"Claude Dallemagne\"), already [Baron of the Empire](/wiki/Nobility_of_the_First_French_Empire \"Nobility of the First French Empire\"), who, therefore, took up Arms of Varages\\-Allemagne (Azure, two lions combatant of gold bearing a star of the same)", "### French Revolution", "The *patriotic society* of the commune was created during the summer of 1792\\. In 1793, the castle was designated to be destroyed but escaped demolition.", "### 19th century", "In the second half of the 18th century the [Faience](/wiki/Faience \"Faience\") industry (tin\\-glazed pottery) was thriving in Allemagne and this continued into the 1820s. The style imitated that of [Moustiers\\-Sainte\\-Marie](/wiki/Moustiers-Sainte-Marie \"Moustiers-Sainte-Marie\").", "### 20th century", "In 1930 a cooperative built a [distillery](/wiki/Distillery \"Distillery\") for manufacturing perfume.", "Until the middle of the 20th century vines were cultivated in Allemagne and covered several dozen hectares. The wine was produced for home consumption and was sold in regional markets. This culture is now abandoned.", "### Heraldry", "{{Blazon\\-arms\n\\|img1\\=Blason Allemagne en Provence.svg\n\\|legend1\\=Arms of Allemagne\\-en\\-Provence\n\\|text\\=", "'''Blazon:'''", "''Gules, a Castle of Or between 4 towers masoned turreted and pointed the same.''\n}}", "" ]
### Allemagne and its lords Around the year 1000 there were two castles in the commune: at Castellet and La Moutte. The two other castles (Notre\-Dame, Saint\-Marc) came later. The [Motte\-and\-bailey castle](/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle "Motte-and-bailey castle") of Moutte was fortified for the first time in the second half of the 9th century: built on a platform of 450 to 500 Sq. M, two residential buildings were constructed: one using the ancient technique of *[murus gallicus](/wiki/Murus_gallicus "Murus gallicus")*. This building of 30 Sq. M is surrounded by a gallery on two sides, the other building is about 50 Sq. M. The two were deliberately burned shortly before the year 1000, to backfill the mound again to raise it by about 2 metres. The second construction consisted of a single building of 54 Sq. M, which caught fire in 1010 during an attack. It is possible that the construction of Castellet castle corresponds to the destruction of the first castle. The lordship of *Allemagne* belonged to the Castellane family from the 13th to the 15th centuries, then it was the Oraison. #### The Castellanes The lordship of *Allemagne* became the property of the Castellanes in 1218 on the occasion of the marriage of *Agnes Sarda* (or Spata) with Boniface IV de Castellane. The same year Agnes Spata granted [franchises](/wiki/Suffrage "Suffrage") to the villagers. The lordship of Allemagne was a barony around 1280\. On 15 January 1331, Boniface de Castellane, son of Boniface, Lord of Allemagne and Constance, married the daughter of Albert Blacacii, Lord of Beaudinard.Baron du Roure, Blacas, p. 7 {{in lang\|fr}} A small castle was built on a hill south of the village of *Castelletum de Alamania*. In the 14th century it fell into the hands of bandits \- the Chamisard \- who made it their base of operations for robbing the neighborhood. To put an end to it, the inhabitants of [Riez](/wiki/Riez "Riez") united and drove the Chamisard to the gatehouse which they quickly demolished thereafter. An Agreement to desist was signed on 17 June 1417 by Boniface de Castellane, Lord of Allemagne which said that the Lord would abandon his pursuits against the community of Riez for the demolition of Castellet. In the 15th century, the former community of Castellet, separated from Allemagne before the crises of the 14th centuries (the [Black Death](/wiki/Black_Death "Black Death"), the [Hundred Years War](/wiki/Hundred_Years_War "Hundred Years War")) was joined to that of Allemagne, because it had become too depopulated. It was in 1440 that, through a testament of Boniface IX de Castellane, the barony of Allemagne was separated from land belonging to Castellane and assigned to the eldest son of the testator, Antoine. The latter's son, Boniface X, succeeded him in 1472 and married Marguerite de Forbin. His son, François de Castellane\-Allemagne, Baron of Allemagne, Baron of Allemagne, enlarged the castle at Allemagne and died on 28 January 1523\. Their son Melchior de Castellane\-Allemagne, Baron of Allemagne, never married and bequeathed his property to Nicolas Mas, his nephew, on condition that he bear his name and arms. A leader of the Protestant party, he was killed in 1560 during the [Wars of Religion](/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion "French Wars of Religion") during a fight on his land. He enlarged and embellished the castle of Allemagne. #### The Battle of 1586 In August 1586 [Leaguer](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28French%29 "Catholic League (French)") Captain Hubert de Vins besieged the castle in Allemagne where the baroness was alone with her garrison commanded by the Lord of Espinouse. She resisted for 16 days and gave her husband Nicolas Mas\-Castellane time to come up with the Protestant army. He arrived in early September with the support of [Lesdiguières](/wiki/Lesdigui%C3%A8res "Lesdiguières") surrounded by men from the lords of Oraison, Jerante Senas, Vintimilles Tourves, Forbin\-Janson, and others \- all enemies of De Vins. On arriving around Allemagne, Lesdiguières seized the heights and all the pathways in the area but just missed the encirclement of the ligueuses troops. De Vins then abandoned the defences that had held out for 16 days, and prepared for battle on the hill of San Marco. The battle began on 5 September 1586\. The Baron of Allemagne committed to action at the head of his volunteers. The Leaguers managed to open a passage to Riez where they were home, pursued by the [Huguenots](/wiki/Huguenots "Huguenots"). One of the last arquebus shots struck the Baron of Allemagne in the head and killed him on the bridge of his castle (5 September 1586). His widow, Jeanne de Grasse, presided at his funeral and executed eleven Catholic prisoners over his grave. It was nevertheless an important Protestant victory: the Leaguers lost 900 to 1200 men (killed, wounded and prisoners) and 18 flags of the 22 they had. The majority of prisoners had their throats cut at the news of the death of Baron of Allemagne. Twelve others were executed the next day on his grave. #### The Oraisons *Alexandre du Mas de Castellane\-Allemagne*, Baron of Allemagne (1583\-1612\), son of Nicolas, married Martha d'Oraison in 1610\. In 1612 Alexandre du Mas had a quarrel with Annibal de Forbin, Lord of La Roque and a duel ensued. The two duelists were put back to back, with their arms tied and fired to be both fatally struck. Their property was seized by the Queen Regent, who gave that of Alexandre to his brother Jean Louis who then gave them to his niece Gabrielle du Mas which ruined the confiscation. After a childless marriage to Antoine de Villeneuve, Marquis des Arcs, she willed it in favour of his cousin André d'Oraison. Marthe d'Oraison was the founder of a convent of [Capuchins](/wiki/Order_of_Friars_Minor_Capuchin "Order of Friars Minor Capuchin") at [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille "Marseille"). She took the habit without taking the vows on the death of her husband. She then devoted herself to the poor at the *Hotel Dieu de Paris* where she died in 1637 and was buried in the [Cloister](/wiki/Cloister "Cloister") of the Capuchins Saint\-Honoré. André d'Oraison (a German cousin of Gabrielle du Mas), Marquis d'Oraison, Baron of Allemagne on the death of Gabrielle du Mas de Castellane\-Allemagne, married Gabrielle Gianni La Roche. They had three children, one of which, Madeleine married Jacques Louis Ancezune in 1699\. #### The Varages On 24 November 1718, Madeleine sold the Barony of Allemagne for 216,000 [livres](/wiki/French_livre "French livre") to Jean\-Baptiste Varages, the king's secretary at the Court of Auditors Marseille since 16 February 1712\. During the Revolution, Joseph Francis Varages, Baron of Allemagne, officer in the Angoumois regiment, adjutant to the General of Villeneuve, was wounded in Toulon defending the city on the royalist side in 1793 (see [Siege of Toulon](/wiki/Siege_of_Toulon "Siege of Toulon")). He then emigrated and his property was declared [national property](/wiki/Biens_nationaux "Biens nationaux"). He did not return to France, ruined, until the Restoration. With his son Alexandre de Varages, Baron of Allemagne (1815\-1891\), who died at [Aix\-en\-Provence](/wiki/Aix-en-Provence "Aix-en-Provence") a branch of Varages\-Allemagne. He made a will in favour of Paul d'Allemagne, grandson of Major\-General [Claude d'Allemagne](/wiki/Claude_Dallemagne "Claude Dallemagne"), already [Baron of the Empire](/wiki/Nobility_of_the_First_French_Empire "Nobility of the First French Empire"), who, therefore, took up Arms of Varages\-Allemagne (Azure, two lions combatant of gold bearing a star of the same)
[ "### Allemagne and its lords", "Around the year 1000 there were two castles in the commune: at Castellet and La Moutte. The two other castles (Notre\\-Dame, Saint\\-Marc) came later.", "The [Motte\\-and\\-bailey castle](/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle \"Motte-and-bailey castle\") of Moutte was fortified for the first time in the second half of the 9th century: built on a platform of 450 to 500 Sq. M, two residential buildings were constructed: one using the ancient technique of *[murus gallicus](/wiki/Murus_gallicus \"Murus gallicus\")*. This building of 30 Sq. M is surrounded by a gallery on two sides, the other building is about 50 Sq. M. The two were deliberately burned shortly before the year 1000, to backfill the mound again to raise it by about 2 metres. The second construction consisted of a single building of 54 Sq. M, which caught fire in 1010 during an attack. It is possible that the construction of Castellet castle corresponds to the destruction of the first castle.", "The lordship of *Allemagne* belonged to the Castellane family from the 13th to the 15th centuries, then it was the Oraison.", "#### The Castellanes", "The lordship of *Allemagne* became the property of the Castellanes in 1218 on the occasion of the marriage of *Agnes Sarda* (or Spata) with Boniface IV de Castellane. The same year Agnes Spata granted [franchises](/wiki/Suffrage \"Suffrage\") to the villagers. The lordship of Allemagne was a barony around 1280\\.", "On 15 January 1331, Boniface de Castellane, son of Boniface, Lord of Allemagne and Constance, married the daughter of Albert Blacacii, Lord of Beaudinard.Baron du Roure, Blacas, p. 7 {{in lang\\|fr}}", "A small castle was built on a hill south of the village of *Castelletum de Alamania*. In the 14th century it fell into the hands of bandits \\- the Chamisard \\- who made it their base of operations for robbing the neighborhood. To put an end to it, the inhabitants of [Riez](/wiki/Riez \"Riez\") united and drove the Chamisard to the gatehouse which they quickly demolished thereafter. An Agreement to desist was signed on 17 June 1417 by Boniface de Castellane, Lord of Allemagne which said that the Lord would abandon his pursuits against the community of Riez for the demolition of Castellet.", "In the 15th century, the former community of Castellet, separated from Allemagne before the crises of the 14th centuries (the [Black Death](/wiki/Black_Death \"Black Death\"), the [Hundred Years War](/wiki/Hundred_Years_War \"Hundred Years War\")) was joined to that of Allemagne, because it had become too depopulated.", "It was in 1440 that, through a testament of Boniface IX de Castellane, the barony of Allemagne was separated from land belonging to Castellane and assigned to the eldest son of the testator, Antoine. The latter's son, Boniface X, succeeded him in 1472 and married Marguerite de Forbin.", "His son, François de Castellane\\-Allemagne, Baron of Allemagne, Baron of Allemagne, enlarged the castle at Allemagne and died on 28 January 1523\\.", "Their son Melchior de Castellane\\-Allemagne, Baron of Allemagne, never married and bequeathed his property to Nicolas Mas, his nephew, on condition that he bear his name and arms. A leader of the Protestant party, he was killed in 1560 during the [Wars of Religion](/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion \"French Wars of Religion\") during a fight on his land. He enlarged and embellished the castle of Allemagne.", "#### The Battle of 1586", "In August 1586 [Leaguer](/wiki/Catholic_League_%28French%29 \"Catholic League (French)\") Captain Hubert de Vins besieged the castle in Allemagne where the baroness was alone with her garrison commanded by the Lord of Espinouse. She resisted for 16 days and gave her husband Nicolas Mas\\-Castellane time to come up with the Protestant army.", "He arrived in early September with the support of [Lesdiguières](/wiki/Lesdigui%C3%A8res \"Lesdiguières\") surrounded by men from the lords of Oraison, Jerante Senas, Vintimilles Tourves, Forbin\\-Janson, and others \\- all enemies of De Vins. On arriving around Allemagne, Lesdiguières seized the heights and all the pathways in the area but just missed the encirclement of the ligueuses troops. De Vins then abandoned the defences that had held out for 16 days, and prepared for battle on the hill of San Marco. The battle began on 5 September 1586\\. The Baron of Allemagne committed to action at the head of his volunteers. The Leaguers managed to open a passage to Riez where they were home, pursued by the [Huguenots](/wiki/Huguenots \"Huguenots\"). One of the last arquebus shots struck the Baron of Allemagne in the head and killed him on the bridge of his castle (5 September 1586). His widow, Jeanne de Grasse, presided at his funeral and executed eleven Catholic prisoners over his grave. It was nevertheless an important Protestant victory: the Leaguers lost 900 to 1200 men (killed, wounded and prisoners) and 18 flags of the 22 they had. The majority of prisoners had their throats cut at the news of the death of Baron of Allemagne. Twelve others were executed the next day on his grave.", "#### The Oraisons", "*Alexandre du Mas de Castellane\\-Allemagne*, Baron of Allemagne (1583\\-1612\\), son of Nicolas, married Martha d'Oraison in 1610\\. In 1612 Alexandre du Mas had a quarrel with Annibal de Forbin, Lord of La Roque and a duel ensued. The two duelists were put back to back, with their arms tied and fired to be both fatally struck. Their property was seized by the Queen Regent, who gave that of Alexandre to his brother Jean Louis who then gave them to his niece Gabrielle du Mas which ruined the confiscation. After a childless marriage to Antoine de Villeneuve, Marquis des Arcs, she willed it in favour of his cousin André d'Oraison.", "Marthe d'Oraison was the founder of a convent of [Capuchins](/wiki/Order_of_Friars_Minor_Capuchin \"Order of Friars Minor Capuchin\") at [Marseille](/wiki/Marseille \"Marseille\"). She took the habit without taking the vows on the death of her husband. She then devoted herself to the poor at the *Hotel Dieu de Paris* where she died in 1637 and was buried in the [Cloister](/wiki/Cloister \"Cloister\") of the Capuchins Saint\\-Honoré.", "André d'Oraison (a German cousin of Gabrielle du Mas), Marquis d'Oraison, Baron of Allemagne on the death of Gabrielle du Mas de Castellane\\-Allemagne, married Gabrielle Gianni La Roche. They had three children, one of which, Madeleine married Jacques Louis Ancezune in 1699\\.", "#### The Varages", "On 24 November 1718, Madeleine sold the Barony of Allemagne for 216,000 [livres](/wiki/French_livre \"French livre\") to Jean\\-Baptiste Varages, the king's secretary at the Court of Auditors Marseille since 16 February 1712\\.", "During the Revolution, Joseph Francis Varages, Baron of Allemagne, officer in the Angoumois regiment, adjutant to the General of Villeneuve, was wounded in Toulon defending the city on the royalist side in 1793 (see [Siege of Toulon](/wiki/Siege_of_Toulon \"Siege of Toulon\")). He then emigrated and his property was declared [national property](/wiki/Biens_nationaux \"Biens nationaux\"). He did not return to France, ruined, until the Restoration.", "With his son Alexandre de Varages, Baron of Allemagne (1815\\-1891\\), who died at [Aix\\-en\\-Provence](/wiki/Aix-en-Provence \"Aix-en-Provence\") a branch of Varages\\-Allemagne. He made a will in favour of Paul d'Allemagne, grandson of Major\\-General [Claude d'Allemagne](/wiki/Claude_Dallemagne \"Claude Dallemagne\"), already [Baron of the Empire](/wiki/Nobility_of_the_First_French_Empire \"Nobility of the First French Empire\"), who, therefore, took up Arms of Varages\\-Allemagne (Azure, two lions combatant of gold bearing a star of the same)", "" ]
#### The Castellanes The lordship of *Allemagne* became the property of the Castellanes in 1218 on the occasion of the marriage of *Agnes Sarda* (or Spata) with Boniface IV de Castellane. The same year Agnes Spata granted [franchises](/wiki/Suffrage "Suffrage") to the villagers. The lordship of Allemagne was a barony around 1280\. On 15 January 1331, Boniface de Castellane, son of Boniface, Lord of Allemagne and Constance, married the daughter of Albert Blacacii, Lord of Beaudinard.Baron du Roure, Blacas, p. 7 {{in lang\|fr}} A small castle was built on a hill south of the village of *Castelletum de Alamania*. In the 14th century it fell into the hands of bandits \- the Chamisard \- who made it their base of operations for robbing the neighborhood. To put an end to it, the inhabitants of [Riez](/wiki/Riez "Riez") united and drove the Chamisard to the gatehouse which they quickly demolished thereafter. An Agreement to desist was signed on 17 June 1417 by Boniface de Castellane, Lord of Allemagne which said that the Lord would abandon his pursuits against the community of Riez for the demolition of Castellet. In the 15th century, the former community of Castellet, separated from Allemagne before the crises of the 14th centuries (the [Black Death](/wiki/Black_Death "Black Death"), the [Hundred Years War](/wiki/Hundred_Years_War "Hundred Years War")) was joined to that of Allemagne, because it had become too depopulated. It was in 1440 that, through a testament of Boniface IX de Castellane, the barony of Allemagne was separated from land belonging to Castellane and assigned to the eldest son of the testator, Antoine. The latter's son, Boniface X, succeeded him in 1472 and married Marguerite de Forbin. His son, François de Castellane\-Allemagne, Baron of Allemagne, Baron of Allemagne, enlarged the castle at Allemagne and died on 28 January 1523\. Their son Melchior de Castellane\-Allemagne, Baron of Allemagne, never married and bequeathed his property to Nicolas Mas, his nephew, on condition that he bear his name and arms. A leader of the Protestant party, he was killed in 1560 during the [Wars of Religion](/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion "French Wars of Religion") during a fight on his land. He enlarged and embellished the castle of Allemagne.
[ "#### The Castellanes", "The lordship of *Allemagne* became the property of the Castellanes in 1218 on the occasion of the marriage of *Agnes Sarda* (or Spata) with Boniface IV de Castellane. The same year Agnes Spata granted [franchises](/wiki/Suffrage \"Suffrage\") to the villagers. The lordship of Allemagne was a barony around 1280\\.", "On 15 January 1331, Boniface de Castellane, son of Boniface, Lord of Allemagne and Constance, married the daughter of Albert Blacacii, Lord of Beaudinard.Baron du Roure, Blacas, p. 7 {{in lang\\|fr}}", "A small castle was built on a hill south of the village of *Castelletum de Alamania*. In the 14th century it fell into the hands of bandits \\- the Chamisard \\- who made it their base of operations for robbing the neighborhood. To put an end to it, the inhabitants of [Riez](/wiki/Riez \"Riez\") united and drove the Chamisard to the gatehouse which they quickly demolished thereafter. An Agreement to desist was signed on 17 June 1417 by Boniface de Castellane, Lord of Allemagne which said that the Lord would abandon his pursuits against the community of Riez for the demolition of Castellet.", "In the 15th century, the former community of Castellet, separated from Allemagne before the crises of the 14th centuries (the [Black Death](/wiki/Black_Death \"Black Death\"), the [Hundred Years War](/wiki/Hundred_Years_War \"Hundred Years War\")) was joined to that of Allemagne, because it had become too depopulated.", "It was in 1440 that, through a testament of Boniface IX de Castellane, the barony of Allemagne was separated from land belonging to Castellane and assigned to the eldest son of the testator, Antoine. The latter's son, Boniface X, succeeded him in 1472 and married Marguerite de Forbin.", "His son, François de Castellane\\-Allemagne, Baron of Allemagne, Baron of Allemagne, enlarged the castle at Allemagne and died on 28 January 1523\\.", "Their son Melchior de Castellane\\-Allemagne, Baron of Allemagne, never married and bequeathed his property to Nicolas Mas, his nephew, on condition that he bear his name and arms. A leader of the Protestant party, he was killed in 1560 during the [Wars of Religion](/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion \"French Wars of Religion\") during a fight on his land. He enlarged and embellished the castle of Allemagne.", "" ]
Economy ------- In 2017, the active population was 329 people, including 33 unemployed. The workers are mostly employed (80%) and mostly work outside the commune (64%). Administration, education and health provide the largest share of jobs (31%), followed by industry with 25%, construction with 22% and trade and services with 16% in late 2015\. Agriculture employed 2 people. At 31 December 2015, the establishments active in the commune were mainly shops and services (26 of 57 establishments), primary sector (13\), construction (8\) and the industrial sector (7\). ### Agriculture The number of agricultural establishments, according to a survey by the Department of Agriculture, remained stable in the 2000s at 16, most of the produce coming from 7 to 10 farms and the number of [Sheep husbandry](/wiki/Sheep_husbandry "Sheep husbandry") farms increasing to 4\. Other farms practice mixed farming and hydroponics. At the same time, farms specializing in [Market gardening](/wiki/Market_garden "Market garden") disappeared. From 1988 to 2000, the agricultural area used (SAU) rose sharply, from 743 to 1342 hectares. In the 2000s, the SAU declined to 1176 hectares but remained at a much higher level than in 1988\. Field crops occupy more than half the space (650 hectares \- stable over ten years), the rest being mainly devoted to livestock farming (476 ha in 2010\). The cultivation of the [olive](/wiki/Olive "Olive") has been practiced in the commune for centuries to a limited extent. The soil of the commune is at the altitudinal limit for the olive tree, which can hardly be grown beyond 650 metres. The local olives therefore only occupy a few tens of hectares of [Agroforestry](/wiki/Agroforestry "Agroforestry"). After a period of decline, there are less than 1000 trees. ### Industry In late 2015 the secondary sector (industry and construction) had 15 different establishments, employing a total of 15 people. ### Service activities [thumb\|Shop selling local products in Allemagne\-en\-Provence](/wiki/File:Maison_des_produits_du_terroir_%C3%A0_Allemagne-en-Provence.jpg "Maison des produits du terroir à Allemagne-en-Provence.jpg") In late 2015, there were 26 establishments in the tertiary sector (trades and services), with 5 employees plus three administrative and public service institutions employing 10 people. According to the Department of Tourism Observatory, tourism is an important function for the commune with between 1 and 5 tourists visiting per resident per year despite a limited capacity for accommodation. Several accommodation facilities for tourism purposes exist in the commune: * 1 hotel (three\-star with 9 rooms * some furnished rooms and guest rooms There is no camping or collective accommodation, according to the Atlas of accommodation. Second homes by contrast provide a large capacity of accommodation with 162 dwellings (32\.5% of dwellings in the town). The shop selling local products offers a variety of local products. It was founded by thirty farmers, craftsmen and artists of the lower valley of the Verdon. They display their products: [olive oil](/wiki/Olive_oil "Olive oil"), [jams](/wiki/Jam "Jam"), [honey](/wiki/Honey "Honey"), [biscuits](/wiki/Biscuit "Biscuit"), [pâtés](/wiki/P%C3%A2t%C3%A9 "Pâté"), [wines](/wiki/Wine "Wine"), [goat cheese](/wiki/Goat_cheese "Goat cheese"), [jewelry](/wiki/Jewelry "Jewelry"), [knives](/wiki/Knives "Knives"), [clothing](/wiki/Clothing "Clothing"), [leather](/wiki/Leather "Leather") goods, [stoneware](/wiki/Stoneware "Stoneware"), [faïence](/wiki/Fa%C3%AFence "Faïence"), glazed pastries, [Figurines](/wiki/Figurine "Figurine"), [lavender oil](/wiki/Lavender_oil "Lavender oil"), etc.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.saveurs\-senteurs.alpes\-haute\-provence.fr/les\-maisons\-de\-produits/allemagne\-en\-provence\-verdon/ \|title\=Shop for local products at Allemagne\-en\-Provence \|access\-date\=2013\-05\-24 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507133213/http://www.saveurs\-senteurs.alpes\-haute\-provence.fr/les\-maisons\-de\-produits/allemagne\-en\-provence\-verdon/ \|archive\-date\=2013\-05\-07 \|url\-status\=dead }}
[ "Economy\n-------", "In 2017, the active population was 329 people, including 33 unemployed. The workers are mostly employed (80%) and mostly work outside the commune (64%). Administration, education and health provide the largest share of jobs (31%), followed by industry with 25%, construction with 22% and trade and services with 16% in late 2015\\. Agriculture employed 2 people.", "At 31 December 2015, the establishments active in the commune were mainly shops and services (26 of 57 establishments), primary sector (13\\), construction (8\\) and the industrial sector (7\\).", "### Agriculture", "The number of agricultural establishments, according to a survey by the Department of Agriculture, remained stable in the 2000s at 16, most of the produce coming from 7 to 10 farms and the number of [Sheep husbandry](/wiki/Sheep_husbandry \"Sheep husbandry\") farms increasing to 4\\. Other farms practice mixed farming and hydroponics. At the same time, farms specializing in [Market gardening](/wiki/Market_garden \"Market garden\") disappeared. From 1988 to 2000, the agricultural area used (SAU) rose sharply, from 743 to 1342 hectares. In the 2000s, the SAU declined to 1176 hectares but remained at a much higher level than in 1988\\. Field crops occupy more than half the space (650 hectares \\- stable over ten years), the rest being mainly devoted to livestock farming (476 ha in 2010\\).", "The cultivation of the [olive](/wiki/Olive \"Olive\") has been practiced in the commune for centuries to a limited extent. The soil of the commune is at the altitudinal limit for the olive tree, which can hardly be grown beyond 650 metres. The local olives therefore only occupy a few tens of hectares of [Agroforestry](/wiki/Agroforestry \"Agroforestry\"). After a period of decline, there are less than 1000 trees.", "### Industry", "In late 2015 the secondary sector (industry and construction) had 15 different establishments, employing a total of 15 people.", "### Service activities", "[thumb\\|Shop selling local products in Allemagne\\-en\\-Provence](/wiki/File:Maison_des_produits_du_terroir_%C3%A0_Allemagne-en-Provence.jpg \"Maison des produits du terroir à Allemagne-en-Provence.jpg\")", "In late 2015, there were 26 establishments in the tertiary sector (trades and services), with 5 employees plus three administrative and public service institutions employing 10 people.", "According to the Department of Tourism Observatory, tourism is an important function for the commune with between 1 and 5 tourists visiting per resident per year despite a limited capacity for accommodation. Several accommodation facilities for tourism purposes exist in the commune:\n* 1 hotel (three\\-star with 9 rooms\n* some furnished rooms and guest rooms", "There is no camping or collective accommodation, according to the Atlas of accommodation.", "Second homes by contrast provide a large capacity of accommodation with 162 dwellings (32\\.5% of dwellings in the town).", "The shop selling local products offers a variety of local products. It was founded by thirty farmers, craftsmen and artists of the lower valley of the Verdon. They display their products: [olive oil](/wiki/Olive_oil \"Olive oil\"), [jams](/wiki/Jam \"Jam\"), [honey](/wiki/Honey \"Honey\"), [biscuits](/wiki/Biscuit \"Biscuit\"), [pâtés](/wiki/P%C3%A2t%C3%A9 \"Pâté\"), [wines](/wiki/Wine \"Wine\"), [goat cheese](/wiki/Goat_cheese \"Goat cheese\"), [jewelry](/wiki/Jewelry \"Jewelry\"), [knives](/wiki/Knives \"Knives\"), [clothing](/wiki/Clothing \"Clothing\"), [leather](/wiki/Leather \"Leather\") goods, [stoneware](/wiki/Stoneware \"Stoneware\"), [faïence](/wiki/Fa%C3%AFence \"Faïence\"), glazed pastries, [Figurines](/wiki/Figurine \"Figurine\"), [lavender oil](/wiki/Lavender_oil \"Lavender oil\"), etc.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.saveurs\\-senteurs.alpes\\-haute\\-provence.fr/les\\-maisons\\-de\\-produits/allemagne\\-en\\-provence\\-verdon/ \\|title\\=Shop for local products at Allemagne\\-en\\-Provence \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-05\\-24 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507133213/http://www.saveurs\\-senteurs.alpes\\-haute\\-provence.fr/les\\-maisons\\-de\\-produits/allemagne\\-en\\-provence\\-verdon/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-05\\-07 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "" ]
Culture and heritage -------------------- ### Civil architecture In the village, at the corner of a square is a house from the late 16th\-early 17th century with a [pilastered](/wiki/Pilaster "Pilaster") door with [imposts](/wiki/Impost_%28architecture%29 "Impost (architecture)") in the [Tuscan](/wiki/Tuscany "Tuscany") style facing the street. Two houses have stairs with a handrail made with "gypserie" which is a type of [plasterwork](/wiki/Plasterwork "Plasterwork") seen only in Provence. There are three [Motte\-and\-bailey castles](/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle "Motte-and-bailey castle") in the commune: * The Moutto motte * The Notre\-Dame motte * The Saint\-Marc motte. The former lavender distillery (1930\) is registered as a historical monument.{{Mérimée\|IA04000054\|Coopérative agricole et parfumerie (coopérative de distillation de plantes à parfum, distillerie de lavande) dite Coopérative de distillation de lavande}} {{in lang\|fr}} The chateau (14th century) is a registered historical monument.Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée\|PA00080348\|PA00080348 Chateau}} {{in lang\|fr}} It consists of: * a medieval part in the east (a keep from the end of the 14th century) * a Renaissance part from the 16th century with many modifications * a park (classified site) The castle was a refuge for the Castellane family in the 13th century when [Count Charles I de Provence](/wiki/Charles_II_of_Naples "Charles II of Naples") confiscated the fiefs of Boniface V. Boniface X built the Renaissance dwelling (the north\-south wing) and it was completed by his son in 1545 (the east\-west wing). Jeanne de Grasse added the fireplace in the main room, decorated with "gypserie" plasterwork, at the end of the 16th century for Serge Panarotto and early next century for the Countess of Chaffaut. It is decorated with statues [Ronde\-bosse](/wiki/Ronde-bosse "Ronde-bosse") framing a [Pediment](/wiki/Pediment "Pediment"), the whole surmounted by a finely crafted [Frieze](/wiki/Frieze "Frieze"). The source of inspiration was from [Antiquity](/wiki/Ancient_history "Ancient history"). The [medieval](/wiki/Medieval "Medieval") part lasted to the end of the 15th century, the top was heavily restored in the late 19th century. It is decorated with many "gypseries" including a monumental fireplace flanked by two mythological characters in the great room (16th century). In a niche above the balcony of the castle tower is a small statue of a pregnant goddess. The castle was used as a [summer camp](/wiki/Summer_camp "Summer camp") by the Confectioners Union of [Apt](/wiki/Apt%2C_Vaucluse "Apt, Vaucluse") in the middle of the 20th century. The built\-up parts are classified as [historical monuments](/wiki/Monument_historique "Monument historique"). The park consists of a half hectare around the castle adorned with plantations of [plane trees](/wiki/Platanus "Platanus"), [lime trees](/wiki/Tilia "Tilia"), [chestnut](/wiki/Chestnut "Chestnut") trees, and [cypress](/wiki/Cypress "Cypress") trees has been a World Heritage Site since 1942\. File:Allamgne Château 1\.JPG\|Château at Allemagne\-en\-Provence File:Château d'Allemagne\-en\-Provence 1\.JPG File:Allemagne \- Château 2\.JPG File:AllemagneEnProvence\-200805\-079\.jpg File:AllemagneEnProvence\-200805\-082\.jpg ### Religious architecture The church of [Saint Mark](/wiki/Saint_Mark "Saint Mark") already existed in the 13th century, but the current building is not earlier than 1550, according to the Historical Atlas of Provence. The north [nave](/wiki/Nave "Nave") is [Romanesque](/wiki/Romanesque_architecture "Romanesque architecture"), rebuilt in the 17th century, has been linked by large arches to the south nave more recently. The façade is from the 19th century. The [chevet](/wiki/Chevet "Chevet") is flat. Its [bell tower](/wiki/Bell_tower "Bell tower"), the [Roman](/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture "Ancient Roman architecture")\-style [choir](/wiki/Choir_%28architecture%29 "Choir (architecture)") are from the 13th century. There are two paintings from the 17th century: * a [rosary](/wiki/Rosary "Rosary") with the fifteen mysteries of the Virgin (painful, glorious, happy) * the Annunciation in the same style from the 17th century: perhaps coming from the workshop of a great master. The [tabernacle](/wiki/Church_tabernacle "Church tabernacle") at the back is, in part, from the 15th century. There are many items in the church which are registered as historical objects.[Search results Palissy Database](https://www.pop.culture.gouv.fr/advanced-search/list/palissy?qb=%5B%7B%22field%22%3A%5B%22EDIF.keyword%22%5D%2C%22operator%22%3A%22%2A%22%2C%22value%22%3A%22Eglise%22%2C%22combinator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22index%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22field%22%3A%5B%22INSEE.keyword%22%5D%2C%22operator%22%3A%22%3D%3D%22%2C%22value%22%3A%2204004%22%2C%22combinator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22index%22%3A1%7D%5D) The chapel of St. Mark is built on the overhang of Vaugiscle, which overlooks the village for more than 110 metres. There were at least four successive stages of construction and every 25 April there is a pilgrimage to Saint\-Mark. Other chapels existed but disappeared: the chapel of Notre\-Dame\-de\-la\-Colle and the chapel of Saint\-Pierre from the 18th\-19th centuries, the chapel of Saint\-Eloi on the road to [Saint\-Martin\-de\-Brômes](/wiki/Saint-Martin-de-Br%C3%B4mes "Saint-Martin-de-Brômes") (where the horses were blessed on 24 June each year), and the church of Castellet was reported in the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages").
[ "Culture and heritage\n--------------------", "### Civil architecture", "In the village, at the corner of a square is a house from the late 16th\\-early 17th century with a [pilastered](/wiki/Pilaster \"Pilaster\") door with [imposts](/wiki/Impost_%28architecture%29 \"Impost (architecture)\") in the [Tuscan](/wiki/Tuscany \"Tuscany\") style facing the street.", "Two houses have stairs with a handrail made with \"gypserie\" which is a type of [plasterwork](/wiki/Plasterwork \"Plasterwork\") seen only in Provence.", "There are three [Motte\\-and\\-bailey castles](/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle \"Motte-and-bailey castle\") in the commune:\n* The Moutto motte\n* The Notre\\-Dame motte\n* The Saint\\-Marc motte.", "The former lavender distillery (1930\\) is registered as a historical monument.{{Mérimée\\|IA04000054\\|Coopérative agricole et parfumerie (coopérative de distillation de plantes à parfum, distillerie de lavande) dite Coopérative de distillation de lavande}} {{in lang\\|fr}}", "The chateau (14th century) is a registered historical monument.Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée\\|PA00080348\\|PA00080348 Chateau}} {{in lang\\|fr}} It consists of:\n* a medieval part in the east (a keep from the end of the 14th century)\n* a Renaissance part from the 16th century with many modifications\n* a park (classified site)", "The castle was a refuge for the Castellane family in the 13th century when [Count Charles I de Provence](/wiki/Charles_II_of_Naples \"Charles II of Naples\") confiscated the fiefs of Boniface V. Boniface X built the Renaissance dwelling (the north\\-south wing) and it was completed by his son in 1545 (the east\\-west wing). Jeanne de Grasse added the fireplace in the main room, decorated with \"gypserie\" plasterwork, at the end of the 16th century for Serge Panarotto and early next century for the Countess of Chaffaut. It is decorated with statues [Ronde\\-bosse](/wiki/Ronde-bosse \"Ronde-bosse\") framing a [Pediment](/wiki/Pediment \"Pediment\"), the whole surmounted by a finely crafted [Frieze](/wiki/Frieze \"Frieze\"). The source of inspiration was from [Antiquity](/wiki/Ancient_history \"Ancient history\"). The [medieval](/wiki/Medieval \"Medieval\") part lasted to the end of the 15th century, the top was heavily restored in the late 19th century.", "It is decorated with many \"gypseries\" including a monumental fireplace flanked by two mythological characters in the great room (16th century). In a niche above the balcony of the castle tower is a small statue of a pregnant goddess.", "The castle was used as a [summer camp](/wiki/Summer_camp \"Summer camp\") by the Confectioners Union of [Apt](/wiki/Apt%2C_Vaucluse \"Apt, Vaucluse\") in the middle of the 20th century. The built\\-up parts are classified as [historical monuments](/wiki/Monument_historique \"Monument historique\"). The park consists of a half hectare around the castle adorned with plantations of [plane trees](/wiki/Platanus \"Platanus\"), [lime trees](/wiki/Tilia \"Tilia\"), [chestnut](/wiki/Chestnut \"Chestnut\") trees, and [cypress](/wiki/Cypress \"Cypress\") trees has been a World Heritage Site since 1942\\.", "", "File:Allamgne Château 1\\.JPG\\|Château at Allemagne\\-en\\-Provence\nFile:Château d'Allemagne\\-en\\-Provence 1\\.JPG\nFile:Allemagne \\- Château 2\\.JPG\nFile:AllemagneEnProvence\\-200805\\-079\\.jpg\nFile:AllemagneEnProvence\\-200805\\-082\\.jpg", "", "### Religious architecture", "The church of [Saint Mark](/wiki/Saint_Mark \"Saint Mark\") already existed in the 13th century, but the current building is not earlier than 1550, according to the Historical Atlas of Provence. The north [nave](/wiki/Nave \"Nave\") is [Romanesque](/wiki/Romanesque_architecture \"Romanesque architecture\"), rebuilt in the 17th century, has been linked by large arches to the south nave more recently. The façade is from the 19th century. The [chevet](/wiki/Chevet \"Chevet\") is flat. Its [bell tower](/wiki/Bell_tower \"Bell tower\"), the [Roman](/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture \"Ancient Roman architecture\")\\-style [choir](/wiki/Choir_%28architecture%29 \"Choir (architecture)\") are from the 13th century.", "There are two paintings from the 17th century:\n* a [rosary](/wiki/Rosary \"Rosary\") with the fifteen mysteries of the Virgin (painful, glorious, happy)\n* the Annunciation in the same style from the 17th century: perhaps coming from the workshop of a great master.", "The [tabernacle](/wiki/Church_tabernacle \"Church tabernacle\") at the back is, in part, from the 15th century.", "There are many items in the church which are registered as historical objects.[Search results Palissy Database](https://www.pop.culture.gouv.fr/advanced-search/list/palissy?qb=%5B%7B%22field%22%3A%5B%22EDIF.keyword%22%5D%2C%22operator%22%3A%22%2A%22%2C%22value%22%3A%22Eglise%22%2C%22combinator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22index%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22field%22%3A%5B%22INSEE.keyword%22%5D%2C%22operator%22%3A%22%3D%3D%22%2C%22value%22%3A%2204004%22%2C%22combinator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22index%22%3A1%7D%5D)", "The chapel of St. Mark is built on the overhang of Vaugiscle, which overlooks the village for more than 110 metres. There were at least four successive stages of construction and every 25 April there is a pilgrimage to Saint\\-Mark.", "Other chapels existed but disappeared: the chapel of Notre\\-Dame\\-de\\-la\\-Colle and the chapel of Saint\\-Pierre from the 18th\\-19th centuries, the chapel of Saint\\-Eloi on the road to [Saint\\-Martin\\-de\\-Brômes](/wiki/Saint-Martin-de-Br%C3%B4mes \"Saint-Martin-de-Brômes\") (where the horses were blessed on 24 June each year), and the church of Castellet was reported in the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages \"Middle Ages\").", "" ]
### Civil architecture In the village, at the corner of a square is a house from the late 16th\-early 17th century with a [pilastered](/wiki/Pilaster "Pilaster") door with [imposts](/wiki/Impost_%28architecture%29 "Impost (architecture)") in the [Tuscan](/wiki/Tuscany "Tuscany") style facing the street. Two houses have stairs with a handrail made with "gypserie" which is a type of [plasterwork](/wiki/Plasterwork "Plasterwork") seen only in Provence. There are three [Motte\-and\-bailey castles](/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle "Motte-and-bailey castle") in the commune: * The Moutto motte * The Notre\-Dame motte * The Saint\-Marc motte. The former lavender distillery (1930\) is registered as a historical monument.{{Mérimée\|IA04000054\|Coopérative agricole et parfumerie (coopérative de distillation de plantes à parfum, distillerie de lavande) dite Coopérative de distillation de lavande}} {{in lang\|fr}} The chateau (14th century) is a registered historical monument.Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée\|PA00080348\|PA00080348 Chateau}} {{in lang\|fr}} It consists of: * a medieval part in the east (a keep from the end of the 14th century) * a Renaissance part from the 16th century with many modifications * a park (classified site) The castle was a refuge for the Castellane family in the 13th century when [Count Charles I de Provence](/wiki/Charles_II_of_Naples "Charles II of Naples") confiscated the fiefs of Boniface V. Boniface X built the Renaissance dwelling (the north\-south wing) and it was completed by his son in 1545 (the east\-west wing). Jeanne de Grasse added the fireplace in the main room, decorated with "gypserie" plasterwork, at the end of the 16th century for Serge Panarotto and early next century for the Countess of Chaffaut. It is decorated with statues [Ronde\-bosse](/wiki/Ronde-bosse "Ronde-bosse") framing a [Pediment](/wiki/Pediment "Pediment"), the whole surmounted by a finely crafted [Frieze](/wiki/Frieze "Frieze"). The source of inspiration was from [Antiquity](/wiki/Ancient_history "Ancient history"). The [medieval](/wiki/Medieval "Medieval") part lasted to the end of the 15th century, the top was heavily restored in the late 19th century. It is decorated with many "gypseries" including a monumental fireplace flanked by two mythological characters in the great room (16th century). In a niche above the balcony of the castle tower is a small statue of a pregnant goddess. The castle was used as a [summer camp](/wiki/Summer_camp "Summer camp") by the Confectioners Union of [Apt](/wiki/Apt%2C_Vaucluse "Apt, Vaucluse") in the middle of the 20th century. The built\-up parts are classified as [historical monuments](/wiki/Monument_historique "Monument historique"). The park consists of a half hectare around the castle adorned with plantations of [plane trees](/wiki/Platanus "Platanus"), [lime trees](/wiki/Tilia "Tilia"), [chestnut](/wiki/Chestnut "Chestnut") trees, and [cypress](/wiki/Cypress "Cypress") trees has been a World Heritage Site since 1942\. File:Allamgne Château 1\.JPG\|Château at Allemagne\-en\-Provence File:Château d'Allemagne\-en\-Provence 1\.JPG File:Allemagne \- Château 2\.JPG File:AllemagneEnProvence\-200805\-079\.jpg File:AllemagneEnProvence\-200805\-082\.jpg
[ "### Civil architecture", "In the village, at the corner of a square is a house from the late 16th\\-early 17th century with a [pilastered](/wiki/Pilaster \"Pilaster\") door with [imposts](/wiki/Impost_%28architecture%29 \"Impost (architecture)\") in the [Tuscan](/wiki/Tuscany \"Tuscany\") style facing the street.", "Two houses have stairs with a handrail made with \"gypserie\" which is a type of [plasterwork](/wiki/Plasterwork \"Plasterwork\") seen only in Provence.", "There are three [Motte\\-and\\-bailey castles](/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_castle \"Motte-and-bailey castle\") in the commune:\n* The Moutto motte\n* The Notre\\-Dame motte\n* The Saint\\-Marc motte.", "The former lavender distillery (1930\\) is registered as a historical monument.{{Mérimée\\|IA04000054\\|Coopérative agricole et parfumerie (coopérative de distillation de plantes à parfum, distillerie de lavande) dite Coopérative de distillation de lavande}} {{in lang\\|fr}}", "The chateau (14th century) is a registered historical monument.Ministry of Culture, Mérimée {{Mérimée\\|PA00080348\\|PA00080348 Chateau}} {{in lang\\|fr}} It consists of:\n* a medieval part in the east (a keep from the end of the 14th century)\n* a Renaissance part from the 16th century with many modifications\n* a park (classified site)", "The castle was a refuge for the Castellane family in the 13th century when [Count Charles I de Provence](/wiki/Charles_II_of_Naples \"Charles II of Naples\") confiscated the fiefs of Boniface V. Boniface X built the Renaissance dwelling (the north\\-south wing) and it was completed by his son in 1545 (the east\\-west wing). Jeanne de Grasse added the fireplace in the main room, decorated with \"gypserie\" plasterwork, at the end of the 16th century for Serge Panarotto and early next century for the Countess of Chaffaut. It is decorated with statues [Ronde\\-bosse](/wiki/Ronde-bosse \"Ronde-bosse\") framing a [Pediment](/wiki/Pediment \"Pediment\"), the whole surmounted by a finely crafted [Frieze](/wiki/Frieze \"Frieze\"). The source of inspiration was from [Antiquity](/wiki/Ancient_history \"Ancient history\"). The [medieval](/wiki/Medieval \"Medieval\") part lasted to the end of the 15th century, the top was heavily restored in the late 19th century.", "It is decorated with many \"gypseries\" including a monumental fireplace flanked by two mythological characters in the great room (16th century). In a niche above the balcony of the castle tower is a small statue of a pregnant goddess.", "The castle was used as a [summer camp](/wiki/Summer_camp \"Summer camp\") by the Confectioners Union of [Apt](/wiki/Apt%2C_Vaucluse \"Apt, Vaucluse\") in the middle of the 20th century. The built\\-up parts are classified as [historical monuments](/wiki/Monument_historique \"Monument historique\"). The park consists of a half hectare around the castle adorned with plantations of [plane trees](/wiki/Platanus \"Platanus\"), [lime trees](/wiki/Tilia \"Tilia\"), [chestnut](/wiki/Chestnut \"Chestnut\") trees, and [cypress](/wiki/Cypress \"Cypress\") trees has been a World Heritage Site since 1942\\.", "", "File:Allamgne Château 1\\.JPG\\|Château at Allemagne\\-en\\-Provence\nFile:Château d'Allemagne\\-en\\-Provence 1\\.JPG\nFile:Allemagne \\- Château 2\\.JPG\nFile:AllemagneEnProvence\\-200805\\-079\\.jpg\nFile:AllemagneEnProvence\\-200805\\-082\\.jpg", "", "" ]
### Religious architecture The church of [Saint Mark](/wiki/Saint_Mark "Saint Mark") already existed in the 13th century, but the current building is not earlier than 1550, according to the Historical Atlas of Provence. The north [nave](/wiki/Nave "Nave") is [Romanesque](/wiki/Romanesque_architecture "Romanesque architecture"), rebuilt in the 17th century, has been linked by large arches to the south nave more recently. The façade is from the 19th century. The [chevet](/wiki/Chevet "Chevet") is flat. Its [bell tower](/wiki/Bell_tower "Bell tower"), the [Roman](/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture "Ancient Roman architecture")\-style [choir](/wiki/Choir_%28architecture%29 "Choir (architecture)") are from the 13th century. There are two paintings from the 17th century: * a [rosary](/wiki/Rosary "Rosary") with the fifteen mysteries of the Virgin (painful, glorious, happy) * the Annunciation in the same style from the 17th century: perhaps coming from the workshop of a great master. The [tabernacle](/wiki/Church_tabernacle "Church tabernacle") at the back is, in part, from the 15th century. There are many items in the church which are registered as historical objects.[Search results Palissy Database](https://www.pop.culture.gouv.fr/advanced-search/list/palissy?qb=%5B%7B%22field%22%3A%5B%22EDIF.keyword%22%5D%2C%22operator%22%3A%22%2A%22%2C%22value%22%3A%22Eglise%22%2C%22combinator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22index%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22field%22%3A%5B%22INSEE.keyword%22%5D%2C%22operator%22%3A%22%3D%3D%22%2C%22value%22%3A%2204004%22%2C%22combinator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22index%22%3A1%7D%5D) The chapel of St. Mark is built on the overhang of Vaugiscle, which overlooks the village for more than 110 metres. There were at least four successive stages of construction and every 25 April there is a pilgrimage to Saint\-Mark. Other chapels existed but disappeared: the chapel of Notre\-Dame\-de\-la\-Colle and the chapel of Saint\-Pierre from the 18th\-19th centuries, the chapel of Saint\-Eloi on the road to [Saint\-Martin\-de\-Brômes](/wiki/Saint-Martin-de-Br%C3%B4mes "Saint-Martin-de-Brômes") (where the horses were blessed on 24 June each year), and the church of Castellet was reported in the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages "Middle Ages").
[ "### Religious architecture", "The church of [Saint Mark](/wiki/Saint_Mark \"Saint Mark\") already existed in the 13th century, but the current building is not earlier than 1550, according to the Historical Atlas of Provence. The north [nave](/wiki/Nave \"Nave\") is [Romanesque](/wiki/Romanesque_architecture \"Romanesque architecture\"), rebuilt in the 17th century, has been linked by large arches to the south nave more recently. The façade is from the 19th century. The [chevet](/wiki/Chevet \"Chevet\") is flat. Its [bell tower](/wiki/Bell_tower \"Bell tower\"), the [Roman](/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture \"Ancient Roman architecture\")\\-style [choir](/wiki/Choir_%28architecture%29 \"Choir (architecture)\") are from the 13th century.", "There are two paintings from the 17th century:\n* a [rosary](/wiki/Rosary \"Rosary\") with the fifteen mysteries of the Virgin (painful, glorious, happy)\n* the Annunciation in the same style from the 17th century: perhaps coming from the workshop of a great master.", "The [tabernacle](/wiki/Church_tabernacle \"Church tabernacle\") at the back is, in part, from the 15th century.", "There are many items in the church which are registered as historical objects.[Search results Palissy Database](https://www.pop.culture.gouv.fr/advanced-search/list/palissy?qb=%5B%7B%22field%22%3A%5B%22EDIF.keyword%22%5D%2C%22operator%22%3A%22%2A%22%2C%22value%22%3A%22Eglise%22%2C%22combinator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22index%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22field%22%3A%5B%22INSEE.keyword%22%5D%2C%22operator%22%3A%22%3D%3D%22%2C%22value%22%3A%2204004%22%2C%22combinator%22%3A%22AND%22%2C%22index%22%3A1%7D%5D)", "The chapel of St. Mark is built on the overhang of Vaugiscle, which overlooks the village for more than 110 metres. There were at least four successive stages of construction and every 25 April there is a pilgrimage to Saint\\-Mark.", "Other chapels existed but disappeared: the chapel of Notre\\-Dame\\-de\\-la\\-Colle and the chapel of Saint\\-Pierre from the 18th\\-19th centuries, the chapel of Saint\\-Eloi on the road to [Saint\\-Martin\\-de\\-Brômes](/wiki/Saint-Martin-de-Br%C3%B4mes \"Saint-Martin-de-Brômes\") (where the horses were blessed on 24 June each year), and the church of Castellet was reported in the [Middle Ages](/wiki/Middle_Ages \"Middle Ages\").", "" ]
Historical overview ------------------- {{Update\|part\=section\|date\=May 2023}} ### Until the 1970s [thumb\|[Golda Meir](/wiki/Golda_Meir "Golda Meir"), at a meeting in the [White House](/wiki/White_House "White House"), 1973](/wiki/Image:Golda_Meir2.jpg "Golda Meir2.jpg") During the [Yishuv](/wiki/Yishuv "Yishuv") period, women encountered many obstacles when attempting to gain entrance into the National Council, which was the effective government at the time. The presence of women in the National Council was contested by many in the ultra\-Orthodox camp, who did not believe that women should have the ability to vote, let alone serve in positions of authority. Although one woman, [Rahel Yanait Ben\-Zvi](/wiki/Rachel_Yanait_Ben-Zvi "Rachel Yanait Ben-Zvi"), was eventually allowed to participate in the first National Council of 1920\. However, she was not allowed to be an equal representative, and was only given the status of a deputy. Despite her lesser status and the continuous resistance of the ultra\-Orthodox, Rahel Yanait Ben\-Zvi played an important role on the council.{{Cite web\|url\=https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/politics\-in\-yishuv\-and\-israel\|title\=Politics in the Yishuv and Israel\|last\=Herzog\|first\=Hanna\|website\=jwa.org\|publisher\=Jewish Women's Archive\|access\-date\=2019\-04\-28}} In much of the Yishuv period, the number of female representatives on the National Council remained small, and no women were chosen to be a part of any executive committee until [Henrietta Szold](/wiki/Henrietta_Szold "Henrietta Szold") in 1931\. The next time a woman served on one of these executive committees did not occur until Rachel Cohen\-Hagen was elected in 1947\. From the first Israeli government until the 12th, [Golda Meir](/wiki/Golda_Meir "Golda Meir") was the only woman in the Israeli government (though not the parliament). Golda Meir, who started out as a secretary of the Women's Labour Council of [Histadrut](/wiki/Histadrut "Histadrut"), and later became the head of the [Jewish Agency for Israel](/wiki/Jewish_Agency_for_Israel "Jewish Agency for Israel")'s political department, and then an ambassador to the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union"), came back to Israel in 1949 after she was elected to the [Knesset](/wiki/Knesset "Knesset"), and served as the Israeli Minister of Labor. She held this job for 7 years under a number of Prime Ministers until 1956, when she became Foreign Minister, a job she held for 10 years until 1966\. After 3 years in which she wasn't a member of the Israeli government, she was chosen as the head the [Alignment party](/wiki/Alignment_%28political_party%29 "Alignment (political party)") and as Prime Minister, and being elected again in the [1969 elections](/wiki/1969_Israeli_legislative_election "1969 Israeli legislative election"), when the party got the highest number of seats in the Knesset. Despite being a woman, she wasn't known as a [feminist](/wiki/Feminism "Feminism"), and she didn't appoint any other women to positions in the government. During Golda Meir's time, the number of woman members of Knesset was around 10–14 on average (out of 120\), mostly from [Mapai](/wiki/Mapai "Mapai") and its successor parties. In the elections during which Golda Meir was to become prime minister, only 8 women got into the Knesset. The fact that Golda Meir was able to obtain high positions within the Israeli government is cited as an example of how women in Israel have opportunities to rise in politics.{{Cite journal\|last\=Herzog\|first\=Hanna\|date\=1996\|title\=Why so Few? The Political Culture of Gender in Israel\|journal\=International Review of Women and Leadership\|volume\=2\|issue\=1\|pages\=1–18}} However, Herzog argues that the fact that Meir has been the only female prime minister, and one of only a few women to rise to a high political position in the government indicates that her time in office did not represent a broader trend in increasing equality. ### The 1970s After the [1973 elections](/wiki/1973_Israeli_legislative_election "1973 Israeli legislative election"), Golda Meir resigned from her position as prime minister as the result of protests after the [Yom Kippur War](/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War "Yom Kippur War"), and [Yitzhak Rabin](/wiki/Yitzhak_Rabin "Yitzhak Rabin") was chosen to succeed her. In 1974, he appointed [Shulamit Aloni](/wiki/Shulamit_Aloni "Shulamit Aloni") as a [minister without portfolio](/wiki/Minister_without_portfolio "Minister without portfolio"). She held this position for 5 months, until she resigned in protest over the appointment of [Yitzhak Rafael](/wiki/Yitzhak_Rafael "Yitzhak Rafael") as the [Religious Services Minister](/wiki/Religious_Services_Minister_of_Israel "Religious Services Minister of Israel"), despite the fact that he was suspected of having accepted bribes. Following Aloni's resignation in 1977 the government contained no female members for the rest of the decade. This situation ended in 1983 when [Sarah Doron](/wiki/Sarah_Doron "Sarah Doron") joined the government. Doron served as a minister without portfolio. ### After the 1970s #### Israel's [twelfth Knesset](/wiki/1988_Israeli_legislative_election "1988 Israeli legislative election") The Knesset formed in the 1988 election was notable for the decided decline in the number of women elected as representatives.{{Cite book\|title\=Gendering Politics\|last\=Herzog\|first\=Hanna\|publisher\=University of Michigan Press\|year\=1999\|isbn\=9780472109456\|location\=Ann Arbor, MI}} There were seven women out of the one hundred and twenty Knesset members in this era.{{Cite journal\|last\=Peretz\|first\=Don\|last2\=Smooha\|first2\=Sammy\|date\=Summer 1989\|title\=Israel's Twelfth Knesset Election: An all\-Loser Game\|journal\=The Middle East Journal\|volume\=43\|issue\=3\|pages\=388–405\|via\=ProQuest: Worldwide Political Science Abstracts}} Due to the strong influence of religious parties in this Knesset, when female parliamentarians did advocate for issues involving women's rights they were often ignored. Additionally, the drive to capture the religious votes caused Labor and Likud to take a step back from positions supporting women's rights. Furthermore, the newly formed government contained no women at all. Although no women occupied a position in the government itself, [Shoshana Arbeli\-Almozlino](/wiki/Shoshana_Arbeli-Almozlino "Shoshana Arbeli-Almozlino") of the Labor party was selected to be the chairperson of the Economics Committee. While this was partially taken as proof of women's advancement, it only occurred after much protest around the fact that no women were included in the government. For this reason, her selection is often seen as a strategic move to soften the lack of women's inclusion in the government. #### 1990s to present From the founding of the Knesset until 1992, the number of female representatives in the Israeli Knesset decreased, with the low point following the 1988 election of the [twentieth Knesset](/wiki/Twentieth_Knesset "Twentieth Knesset"). The 1992 election saw not only an increase in the number of female representatives elected to the Knesset, but also a shift away from female parliamentarians who tended to put party support above advocating for specific issues.  Additionally, many of the women elected in the 1992 election were self\-avowed [feminists](/wiki/Feminism "Feminism"). In 1992, the Committee for the Advancement of the Status of Women was inaugurated. This committee, which sought to create policy regarding the role and treatment of women in society, has generally had a higher percentage of female members and leaders compared to other committees. Many of the women on the committee held feminist views, although power was shared with those who had more conservative views. The committee members with more conservative views were generally members of religious parties. Although the committee has had to face ideological disagreement among some of its members, it has had numerous achievements in promoting laws against discrimination, and protecting the rights of women and other minority groups. Further, a report by the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations") noted the importance of the committee in forming networks between women in government, NGOs, and women who work in education, research and other professions.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/Review/responses/ISRAEL\-English.pdf\|title\=THE QUESTIONNAIRE TO GOVERNMENTS ON IMPLEMENTATION OF THE BEIJING PLATFORM FOR ACTION (1995\) AND THE OUTCOME OF THE 23RD SPECIAL SESSION OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY\|website\=UN General Assembly\|access\-date\=May 2, 2019}} The 2000s have seen a shift in the representation of women in the Knesset.{{Cite journal\|last\=Itzkovitch\-Malka\|first\=Reut\|last2\=Friedberg\|first2\=Chen\|date\=2018\|title\=Gendering security: The substantive representation of women in the Israeli parliament\|journal\=European Journal of Women's Studies\|language\=en\|volume\=25\|issue\=4\|pages\=419–439\|doi\=10\.1177/1350506816684898\|issn\=1350\-5068}} Although the trend after 1999 has been one of increasing representation for women in the Knesset, this representation has largely come from parties on the left side of the political spectrum. After 2003, this representation expanded to other political parties. At the same time, women still have not been able to run for Knesset membership in some religious and Arab parties.{{Cite journal\|last\=Naomi Chazan\|date\=2018\|title\=Israel at 70: A Gender Perspective\|journal\=Israel Studies\|volume\=23\|issue\=3\|pages\=141\|doi\=10\.2979/israelstudies.23\.3\.18\|issn\=1084\-9513}} Due to the rejection of female candidates by [ultra\-Orthodox](/wiki/Ultra_orthodox "Ultra orthodox") parties, In 2015 the first Israeli political party dedicated to ultra\-Orthodox women was unveiled, called "B’Zhutan: Haredi Women Making Change."  Led by Ruth Colian, the party hopes to bridge the gap in representation of issues relating to women in the Haredi community, while still maintaining an ultra\-Orthodox, religious perspective.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.haaretz.com/news/israel\-election\-2015/.premium\-1\.637916\|title\=Israel's first ever ultra\-Orthodox women's party makes bold debut\|date\=20 January 2015\|work\=Haaretz.com}} ##### The [thirty\-fourth government](/wiki/Thirty-fourth_government_of_Israel "Thirty-fourth government of Israel") [thumb\|363x363px\|Israel's Thirty\-fourth government](/wiki/File:Thirty-fourth_government_of_Israel.jpg "Thirty-fourth government of Israel.jpg") Ayelet Shaked, [Miri Regev](/wiki/Miri_Regev "Miri Regev"), and [Gila Gamliel](/wiki/Gila_Gamliel "Gila Gamliel") were appointed as cabinet ministers when the [thirty\-fourth government](/wiki/Thirty-fourth_government_of_Israel "Thirty-fourth government of Israel") formed in 2015\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://en.idi.org.il/articles/14034\|title\=Women in Politics: 2017\|date\=March 8, 2017\|website\=en.idi.org.il\|access\-date\=2019\-04\-18}} Ayelet Shaked of [The Jewish Home](/wiki/The_Jewish_Home "The Jewish Home") was appointed Minister of Justice, while Gila Gamliel and Miri Regev of the Likud were appointed Minister for Social Equality and Minister of Culture and Sport respectively, and Tzipi Hotovely was appointed Minister in the [Ministry of Foreign Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_%28Israel%29 "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Israel)").{{Cite web\|url\=https://knesset.gov.il/govt/eng/govtbynumber\_eng.asp\|title\=Twentieth Knesset: Government 34\|website\=knesset.gov.il\|access\-date\=2019\-04\-18}} in 2016, [Sofa Landver](/wiki/Sofa_Landver "Sofa Landver") was appointed Minister of Immigration Absorption.Most recently, in 2019 [Yifat Shasha\-Biton](/wiki/Yifat_Shasha-Biton "Yifat Shasha-Biton") became Minister of Construction and Housing. Ayelet Shaked, as a member of the Jewish Home party, has advocated a far right ideology in her role as Minister of Justice. As the Minister of Justice, Shaked also leads the committee charged with filling court vacancies.  This has been a frequent task for Shaked, due to high turnover as judges retire. Shaked, who has expressed the belief that the courts of Israel carry out a left wing ideology, has been firm in pushing candidates whose views are more conservative. Additionally, she has attempted to pass measures that limit the power of the supreme court. Shaked has been successful at building support, which caused speculation that she could replace Netanyahu as Prime Minister after the April 2019 election.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2018/10/netanyahu\-challenger\-ayelet\-shaked/572320/\|title\=The Woman Who Could Be Israel's Next Leader\|last\=Levi\|first\=Yonit\|date\=2018\-10\-09\|website\=The Atlantic\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2019\-04\-18}} This speculation turned out to be unfounded, as Netanyahu remained Prime Minister following the election.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.haaretz.com/israel\-news/elections/.premium\-netanyahu\-may\-have\-won\-but\-israel\-s\-political\-landscape\-has\-fundamentally\-changed\-1\.7119671\|title\=Analysis// Netanyahu May Have Won, but Israel's Political Landscape Has Fundamentally Changed\|last\=Pfeffer\|first\=Anshel\|date\=2019\-04\-15\|work\=Haaretz\|access\-date\=2019\-04\-18\|language\=en}} ##### The [thirty\-fifth government](/wiki/Thirty-fifth_government_of_Israel "Thirty-fifth government of Israel") Following [several inconclusive elections](/wiki/2018%E2%80%932022_Israeli_political_crisis "2018–2022 Israeli political crisis"), Netanyahu had the responsibility of forming a new government. The government formed in 2020 and included eight female ministers, including Regev, Sasha\-Biton and Gamliel.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-12\-23 \|title\=N12 \- ממשלת הגברים: מדוע בממשלת נתניהו החדשה לא יהיו כמעט שרות \|url\=https://www.mako.co.il/news\-n12\_magazine/2022\_q4/Article\-9a9dc2228663581026\.htm \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-26 \|website\=N12}}{{cite web \|title\=Thirty\-Fifth Government \|url\=https://main.knesset.gov.il/en/mk/government/Pages/governments.aspx?govid\=35 \|access\-date\=2 April 2021 \|publisher\=Knesset}}
[ "Historical overview\n-------------------", "{{Update\\|part\\=section\\|date\\=May 2023}}", "### Until the 1970s", "[thumb\\|[Golda Meir](/wiki/Golda_Meir \"Golda Meir\"), at a meeting in the [White House](/wiki/White_House \"White House\"), 1973](/wiki/Image:Golda_Meir2.jpg \"Golda Meir2.jpg\")\nDuring the [Yishuv](/wiki/Yishuv \"Yishuv\") period, women encountered many obstacles when attempting to gain entrance into the National Council, which was the effective government at the time. The presence of women in the National Council was contested by many in the ultra\\-Orthodox camp, who did not believe that women should have the ability to vote, let alone serve in positions of authority. Although one woman, [Rahel Yanait Ben\\-Zvi](/wiki/Rachel_Yanait_Ben-Zvi \"Rachel Yanait Ben-Zvi\"), was eventually allowed to participate in the first National Council of 1920\\. However, she was not allowed to be an equal representative, and was only given the status of a deputy. Despite her lesser status and the continuous resistance of the ultra\\-Orthodox, Rahel Yanait Ben\\-Zvi played an important role on the council.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/politics\\-in\\-yishuv\\-and\\-israel\\|title\\=Politics in the Yishuv and Israel\\|last\\=Herzog\\|first\\=Hanna\\|website\\=jwa.org\\|publisher\\=Jewish Women's Archive\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-04\\-28}}", "In much of the Yishuv period, the number of female representatives on the National Council remained small, and no women were chosen to be a part of any executive committee until [Henrietta Szold](/wiki/Henrietta_Szold \"Henrietta Szold\") in 1931\\. The next time a woman served on one of these executive committees did not occur until Rachel Cohen\\-Hagen was elected in 1947\\.", "From the first Israeli government until the 12th, [Golda Meir](/wiki/Golda_Meir \"Golda Meir\") was the only woman in the Israeli government (though not the parliament). Golda Meir, who started out as a secretary of the Women's Labour Council of [Histadrut](/wiki/Histadrut \"Histadrut\"), and later became the head of the [Jewish Agency for Israel](/wiki/Jewish_Agency_for_Israel \"Jewish Agency for Israel\")'s political department, and then an ambassador to the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"), came back to Israel in 1949 after she was elected to the [Knesset](/wiki/Knesset \"Knesset\"), and served as the Israeli Minister of Labor. She held this job for 7 years under a number of Prime Ministers until 1956, when she became Foreign Minister, a job she held for 10 years until 1966\\.", "After 3 years in which she wasn't a member of the Israeli government, she was chosen as the head the [Alignment party](/wiki/Alignment_%28political_party%29 \"Alignment (political party)\") and as Prime Minister, and being elected again in the [1969 elections](/wiki/1969_Israeli_legislative_election \"1969 Israeli legislative election\"), when the party got the highest number of seats in the Knesset. Despite being a woman, she wasn't known as a [feminist](/wiki/Feminism \"Feminism\"), and she didn't appoint any other women to positions in the government.", "During Golda Meir's time, the number of woman members of Knesset was around 10–14 on average (out of 120\\), mostly from [Mapai](/wiki/Mapai \"Mapai\") and its successor parties. In the elections during which Golda Meir was to become prime minister, only 8 women got into the Knesset.", "The fact that Golda Meir was able to obtain high positions within the Israeli government is cited as an example of how women in Israel have opportunities to rise in politics.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Herzog\\|first\\=Hanna\\|date\\=1996\\|title\\=Why so Few? The Political Culture of Gender in Israel\\|journal\\=International Review of Women and Leadership\\|volume\\=2\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=1–18}} However, Herzog argues that the fact that Meir has been the only female prime minister, and one of only a few women to rise to a high political position in the government indicates that her time in office did not represent a broader trend in increasing equality.", "### The 1970s", "After the [1973 elections](/wiki/1973_Israeli_legislative_election \"1973 Israeli legislative election\"), Golda Meir resigned from her position as prime minister as the result of protests after the [Yom Kippur War](/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War \"Yom Kippur War\"), and [Yitzhak Rabin](/wiki/Yitzhak_Rabin \"Yitzhak Rabin\") was chosen to succeed her. In 1974, he appointed [Shulamit Aloni](/wiki/Shulamit_Aloni \"Shulamit Aloni\") as a [minister without portfolio](/wiki/Minister_without_portfolio \"Minister without portfolio\"). She held this position for 5 months, until she resigned in protest over the appointment of [Yitzhak Rafael](/wiki/Yitzhak_Rafael \"Yitzhak Rafael\") as the [Religious Services Minister](/wiki/Religious_Services_Minister_of_Israel \"Religious Services Minister of Israel\"), despite the fact that he was suspected of having accepted bribes. Following Aloni's resignation in 1977 the government contained no female members for the rest of the decade. This situation ended in 1983 when [Sarah Doron](/wiki/Sarah_Doron \"Sarah Doron\") joined the government. Doron served as a minister without portfolio.", "### After the 1970s", "#### Israel's [twelfth Knesset](/wiki/1988_Israeli_legislative_election \"1988 Israeli legislative election\")", "The Knesset formed in the 1988 election was notable for the decided decline in the number of women elected as representatives.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Gendering Politics\\|last\\=Herzog\\|first\\=Hanna\\|publisher\\=University of Michigan Press\\|year\\=1999\\|isbn\\=9780472109456\\|location\\=Ann Arbor, MI}} There were seven women out of the one hundred and twenty Knesset members in this era.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Peretz\\|first\\=Don\\|last2\\=Smooha\\|first2\\=Sammy\\|date\\=Summer 1989\\|title\\=Israel's Twelfth Knesset Election: An all\\-Loser Game\\|journal\\=The Middle East Journal\\|volume\\=43\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=388–405\\|via\\=ProQuest: Worldwide Political Science Abstracts}} Due to the strong influence of religious parties in this Knesset, when female parliamentarians did advocate for issues involving women's rights they were often ignored. Additionally, the drive to capture the religious votes caused Labor and Likud to take a step back from positions supporting women's rights. Furthermore, the newly formed government contained no women at all. Although no women occupied a position in the government itself, [Shoshana Arbeli\\-Almozlino](/wiki/Shoshana_Arbeli-Almozlino \"Shoshana Arbeli-Almozlino\") of the Labor party was selected to be the chairperson of the Economics Committee. While this was partially taken as proof of women's advancement, it only occurred after much protest around the fact that no women were included in the government. For this reason, her selection is often seen as a strategic move to soften the lack of women's inclusion in the government.", "#### 1990s to present", "From the founding of the Knesset until 1992, the number of female representatives in the Israeli Knesset decreased, with the low point following the 1988 election of the [twentieth Knesset](/wiki/Twentieth_Knesset \"Twentieth Knesset\"). The 1992 election saw not only an increase in the number of female representatives elected to the Knesset, but also a shift away from female parliamentarians who tended to put party support above advocating for specific issues.  Additionally, many of the women elected in the 1992 election were self\\-avowed [feminists](/wiki/Feminism \"Feminism\").", "In 1992, the Committee for the Advancement of the Status of Women was inaugurated. This committee, which sought to create policy regarding the role and treatment of women in society, has generally had a higher percentage of female members and leaders compared to other committees. Many of the women on the committee held feminist views, although power was shared with those who had more conservative views. The committee members with more conservative views were generally members of religious parties. Although the committee has had to face ideological disagreement among some of its members, it has had numerous achievements in promoting laws against discrimination, and protecting the rights of women and other minority groups. Further, a report by the [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\") noted the importance of the committee in forming networks between women in government, NGOs, and women who work in education, research and other professions.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/Review/responses/ISRAEL\\-English.pdf\\|title\\=THE QUESTIONNAIRE TO GOVERNMENTS ON IMPLEMENTATION OF THE BEIJING PLATFORM FOR ACTION (1995\\) AND THE OUTCOME OF THE 23RD SPECIAL SESSION OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY\\|website\\=UN General Assembly\\|access\\-date\\=May 2, 2019}}", "The 2000s have seen a shift in the representation of women in the Knesset.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Itzkovitch\\-Malka\\|first\\=Reut\\|last2\\=Friedberg\\|first2\\=Chen\\|date\\=2018\\|title\\=Gendering security: The substantive representation of women in the Israeli parliament\\|journal\\=European Journal of Women's Studies\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=25\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=419–439\\|doi\\=10\\.1177/1350506816684898\\|issn\\=1350\\-5068}} Although the trend after 1999 has been one of increasing representation for women in the Knesset, this representation has largely come from parties on the left side of the political spectrum. After 2003, this representation expanded to other political parties. At the same time, women still have not been able to run for Knesset membership in some religious and Arab parties.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Naomi Chazan\\|date\\=2018\\|title\\=Israel at 70: A Gender Perspective\\|journal\\=Israel Studies\\|volume\\=23\\|issue\\=3\\|pages\\=141\\|doi\\=10\\.2979/israelstudies.23\\.3\\.18\\|issn\\=1084\\-9513}}", "Due to the rejection of female candidates by [ultra\\-Orthodox](/wiki/Ultra_orthodox \"Ultra orthodox\") parties, In 2015 the first Israeli political party dedicated to ultra\\-Orthodox women was unveiled, called \"B’Zhutan: Haredi Women Making Change.\"  Led by Ruth Colian, the party hopes to bridge the gap in representation of issues relating to women in the Haredi community, while still maintaining an ultra\\-Orthodox, religious perspective.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.haaretz.com/news/israel\\-election\\-2015/.premium\\-1\\.637916\\|title\\=Israel's first ever ultra\\-Orthodox women's party makes bold debut\\|date\\=20 January 2015\\|work\\=Haaretz.com}}", "##### The [thirty\\-fourth government](/wiki/Thirty-fourth_government_of_Israel \"Thirty-fourth government of Israel\")", "[thumb\\|363x363px\\|Israel's Thirty\\-fourth government](/wiki/File:Thirty-fourth_government_of_Israel.jpg \"Thirty-fourth government of Israel.jpg\")\nAyelet Shaked, [Miri Regev](/wiki/Miri_Regev \"Miri Regev\"), and [Gila Gamliel](/wiki/Gila_Gamliel \"Gila Gamliel\") were appointed as cabinet ministers when the [thirty\\-fourth government](/wiki/Thirty-fourth_government_of_Israel \"Thirty-fourth government of Israel\") formed in 2015\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://en.idi.org.il/articles/14034\\|title\\=Women in Politics: 2017\\|date\\=March 8, 2017\\|website\\=en.idi.org.il\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-04\\-18}} Ayelet Shaked of [The Jewish Home](/wiki/The_Jewish_Home \"The Jewish Home\") was appointed Minister of Justice, while Gila Gamliel and Miri Regev of the Likud were appointed Minister for Social Equality and Minister of Culture and Sport respectively, and Tzipi Hotovely was appointed Minister in the [Ministry of Foreign Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_%28Israel%29 \"Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Israel)\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://knesset.gov.il/govt/eng/govtbynumber\\_eng.asp\\|title\\=Twentieth Knesset: Government 34\\|website\\=knesset.gov.il\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-04\\-18}} in 2016, [Sofa Landver](/wiki/Sofa_Landver \"Sofa Landver\") was appointed Minister of Immigration Absorption.Most recently, in 2019 [Yifat Shasha\\-Biton](/wiki/Yifat_Shasha-Biton \"Yifat Shasha-Biton\") became Minister of Construction and Housing.", "Ayelet Shaked, as a member of the Jewish Home party, has advocated a far right ideology in her role as Minister of Justice. As the Minister of Justice, Shaked also leads the committee charged with filling court vacancies.  This has been a frequent task for Shaked, due to high turnover as judges retire. Shaked, who has expressed the belief that the courts of Israel carry out a left wing ideology, has been firm in pushing candidates whose views are more conservative. Additionally, she has attempted to pass measures that limit the power of the supreme court. Shaked has been successful at building support, which caused speculation that she could replace Netanyahu as Prime Minister after the April 2019 election.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2018/10/netanyahu\\-challenger\\-ayelet\\-shaked/572320/\\|title\\=The Woman Who Could Be Israel's Next Leader\\|last\\=Levi\\|first\\=Yonit\\|date\\=2018\\-10\\-09\\|website\\=The Atlantic\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-04\\-18}} This speculation turned out to be unfounded, as Netanyahu remained Prime Minister following the election.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.haaretz.com/israel\\-news/elections/.premium\\-netanyahu\\-may\\-have\\-won\\-but\\-israel\\-s\\-political\\-landscape\\-has\\-fundamentally\\-changed\\-1\\.7119671\\|title\\=Analysis// Netanyahu May Have Won, but Israel's Political Landscape Has Fundamentally Changed\\|last\\=Pfeffer\\|first\\=Anshel\\|date\\=2019\\-04\\-15\\|work\\=Haaretz\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-04\\-18\\|language\\=en}}", "##### The [thirty\\-fifth government](/wiki/Thirty-fifth_government_of_Israel \"Thirty-fifth government of Israel\")", "Following [several inconclusive elections](/wiki/2018%E2%80%932022_Israeli_political_crisis \"2018–2022 Israeli political crisis\"), Netanyahu had the responsibility of forming a new government. The government formed in 2020 and included eight female ministers, including Regev, Sasha\\-Biton and Gamliel.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-12\\-23 \\|title\\=N12 \\- ממשלת הגברים: מדוע בממשלת נתניהו החדשה לא יהיו כמעט שרות \\|url\\=https://www.mako.co.il/news\\-n12\\_magazine/2022\\_q4/Article\\-9a9dc2228663581026\\.htm \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-26 \\|website\\=N12}}{{cite web \\|title\\=Thirty\\-Fifth Government \\|url\\=https://main.knesset.gov.il/en/mk/government/Pages/governments.aspx?govid\\=35 \\|access\\-date\\=2 April 2021 \\|publisher\\=Knesset}}", "" ]
### Until the 1970s [thumb\|[Golda Meir](/wiki/Golda_Meir "Golda Meir"), at a meeting in the [White House](/wiki/White_House "White House"), 1973](/wiki/Image:Golda_Meir2.jpg "Golda Meir2.jpg") During the [Yishuv](/wiki/Yishuv "Yishuv") period, women encountered many obstacles when attempting to gain entrance into the National Council, which was the effective government at the time. The presence of women in the National Council was contested by many in the ultra\-Orthodox camp, who did not believe that women should have the ability to vote, let alone serve in positions of authority. Although one woman, [Rahel Yanait Ben\-Zvi](/wiki/Rachel_Yanait_Ben-Zvi "Rachel Yanait Ben-Zvi"), was eventually allowed to participate in the first National Council of 1920\. However, she was not allowed to be an equal representative, and was only given the status of a deputy. Despite her lesser status and the continuous resistance of the ultra\-Orthodox, Rahel Yanait Ben\-Zvi played an important role on the council.{{Cite web\|url\=https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/politics\-in\-yishuv\-and\-israel\|title\=Politics in the Yishuv and Israel\|last\=Herzog\|first\=Hanna\|website\=jwa.org\|publisher\=Jewish Women's Archive\|access\-date\=2019\-04\-28}} In much of the Yishuv period, the number of female representatives on the National Council remained small, and no women were chosen to be a part of any executive committee until [Henrietta Szold](/wiki/Henrietta_Szold "Henrietta Szold") in 1931\. The next time a woman served on one of these executive committees did not occur until Rachel Cohen\-Hagen was elected in 1947\. From the first Israeli government until the 12th, [Golda Meir](/wiki/Golda_Meir "Golda Meir") was the only woman in the Israeli government (though not the parliament). Golda Meir, who started out as a secretary of the Women's Labour Council of [Histadrut](/wiki/Histadrut "Histadrut"), and later became the head of the [Jewish Agency for Israel](/wiki/Jewish_Agency_for_Israel "Jewish Agency for Israel")'s political department, and then an ambassador to the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union"), came back to Israel in 1949 after she was elected to the [Knesset](/wiki/Knesset "Knesset"), and served as the Israeli Minister of Labor. She held this job for 7 years under a number of Prime Ministers until 1956, when she became Foreign Minister, a job she held for 10 years until 1966\. After 3 years in which she wasn't a member of the Israeli government, she was chosen as the head the [Alignment party](/wiki/Alignment_%28political_party%29 "Alignment (political party)") and as Prime Minister, and being elected again in the [1969 elections](/wiki/1969_Israeli_legislative_election "1969 Israeli legislative election"), when the party got the highest number of seats in the Knesset. Despite being a woman, she wasn't known as a [feminist](/wiki/Feminism "Feminism"), and she didn't appoint any other women to positions in the government. During Golda Meir's time, the number of woman members of Knesset was around 10–14 on average (out of 120\), mostly from [Mapai](/wiki/Mapai "Mapai") and its successor parties. In the elections during which Golda Meir was to become prime minister, only 8 women got into the Knesset. The fact that Golda Meir was able to obtain high positions within the Israeli government is cited as an example of how women in Israel have opportunities to rise in politics.{{Cite journal\|last\=Herzog\|first\=Hanna\|date\=1996\|title\=Why so Few? The Political Culture of Gender in Israel\|journal\=International Review of Women and Leadership\|volume\=2\|issue\=1\|pages\=1–18}} However, Herzog argues that the fact that Meir has been the only female prime minister, and one of only a few women to rise to a high political position in the government indicates that her time in office did not represent a broader trend in increasing equality.
[ "### Until the 1970s", "[thumb\\|[Golda Meir](/wiki/Golda_Meir \"Golda Meir\"), at a meeting in the [White House](/wiki/White_House \"White House\"), 1973](/wiki/Image:Golda_Meir2.jpg \"Golda Meir2.jpg\")\nDuring the [Yishuv](/wiki/Yishuv \"Yishuv\") period, women encountered many obstacles when attempting to gain entrance into the National Council, which was the effective government at the time. The presence of women in the National Council was contested by many in the ultra\\-Orthodox camp, who did not believe that women should have the ability to vote, let alone serve in positions of authority. Although one woman, [Rahel Yanait Ben\\-Zvi](/wiki/Rachel_Yanait_Ben-Zvi \"Rachel Yanait Ben-Zvi\"), was eventually allowed to participate in the first National Council of 1920\\. However, she was not allowed to be an equal representative, and was only given the status of a deputy. Despite her lesser status and the continuous resistance of the ultra\\-Orthodox, Rahel Yanait Ben\\-Zvi played an important role on the council.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/politics\\-in\\-yishuv\\-and\\-israel\\|title\\=Politics in the Yishuv and Israel\\|last\\=Herzog\\|first\\=Hanna\\|website\\=jwa.org\\|publisher\\=Jewish Women's Archive\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-04\\-28}}", "In much of the Yishuv period, the number of female representatives on the National Council remained small, and no women were chosen to be a part of any executive committee until [Henrietta Szold](/wiki/Henrietta_Szold \"Henrietta Szold\") in 1931\\. The next time a woman served on one of these executive committees did not occur until Rachel Cohen\\-Hagen was elected in 1947\\.", "From the first Israeli government until the 12th, [Golda Meir](/wiki/Golda_Meir \"Golda Meir\") was the only woman in the Israeli government (though not the parliament). Golda Meir, who started out as a secretary of the Women's Labour Council of [Histadrut](/wiki/Histadrut \"Histadrut\"), and later became the head of the [Jewish Agency for Israel](/wiki/Jewish_Agency_for_Israel \"Jewish Agency for Israel\")'s political department, and then an ambassador to the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\"), came back to Israel in 1949 after she was elected to the [Knesset](/wiki/Knesset \"Knesset\"), and served as the Israeli Minister of Labor. She held this job for 7 years under a number of Prime Ministers until 1956, when she became Foreign Minister, a job she held for 10 years until 1966\\.", "After 3 years in which she wasn't a member of the Israeli government, she was chosen as the head the [Alignment party](/wiki/Alignment_%28political_party%29 \"Alignment (political party)\") and as Prime Minister, and being elected again in the [1969 elections](/wiki/1969_Israeli_legislative_election \"1969 Israeli legislative election\"), when the party got the highest number of seats in the Knesset. Despite being a woman, she wasn't known as a [feminist](/wiki/Feminism \"Feminism\"), and she didn't appoint any other women to positions in the government.", "During Golda Meir's time, the number of woman members of Knesset was around 10–14 on average (out of 120\\), mostly from [Mapai](/wiki/Mapai \"Mapai\") and its successor parties. In the elections during which Golda Meir was to become prime minister, only 8 women got into the Knesset.", "The fact that Golda Meir was able to obtain high positions within the Israeli government is cited as an example of how women in Israel have opportunities to rise in politics.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Herzog\\|first\\=Hanna\\|date\\=1996\\|title\\=Why so Few? The Political Culture of Gender in Israel\\|journal\\=International Review of Women and Leadership\\|volume\\=2\\|issue\\=1\\|pages\\=1–18}} However, Herzog argues that the fact that Meir has been the only female prime minister, and one of only a few women to rise to a high political position in the government indicates that her time in office did not represent a broader trend in increasing equality.", "" ]
Life and career --------------- A left\-handed batsman and left\-arm medium\-pace swing bowler, Nourse was the mainstay of the South African [Test](/wiki/Test_cricket "Test cricket") team for more than 20 years and had a [first\-class cricket](/wiki/First-class_cricket "First-class cricket") career of almost 40 years. He played 45 consecutive Tests from 1902 to 1924 and while his batting was dogged rather than dynamic, career figures that show only one Test century and a batting average under 30 do scant justice to his value to his team. Nourse went to South Africa as a drummer with the [West Riding Regiment](/wiki/West_Riding_Regiment "West Riding Regiment") in 1895 and stayed there, making his first\-class cricket debut for Natal two years later. In his first Test, against [Australia](/wiki/Australian_cricket_team "Australian cricket team") at [Johannesburg](/wiki/Johannesburg "Johannesburg") in October 1902, he scored 72, and his first Test wicket followed in the next match. Perhaps his greatest Test match was the first game of the [England](/wiki/English_cricket_team "English cricket team") tour in 1905–06, when South Africa gained its first\-ever victory against England. Batting at No 8 and arriving with the score at 105 for six wickets, Nourse hit an unbeaten 93 and, with a last\-wicket partnership of 48 with [Percy Sherwell](/wiki/Percy_Sherwell "Percy Sherwell"), took South Africa to an unlikely target of 284\. Nourse toured England three times, in 1907, 1912 and 1924, and went to Australia in 1910–11\. At the age of 46, he scored 1928 runs on the 1924 tour. His one Test century came in 1921–22 against Australia at Johannesburg, when he scored 111; he topped the South African batting averages in that series. In other innings, he passed 50 no fewer than 15 times. In an era when South African cricket was dominated by [leg break](/wiki/Leg_break "Leg break") and [googly](/wiki/Googly "Googly") bowlers, Nourse sometimes opened the bowling for the Test team and he took 41 Test wickets. He also took 43 catches. Nourse was the highest\-ever scorer in South African domestic cricket, appearing for Natal from 1897 to 1925, for Transvaal for two seasons after that, and then for Western Province through to the age of 58 in the 1935–36 season, when he scored 55 against the Australians in his last first\-class match. His highest first\-class innings was 304 [not out](/wiki/Not_out "Not out") for Natal against Transvaal in 1920\. Nourse's obituary in *[Wisden](/wiki/Wisden_Cricketers%27_Almanack "Wisden Cricketers' Almanack")*{{ref\|w49}} says that he was known for so long as "Dave" that he adopted David as his middle name in preference to William. It also gives a long list of his careers outside cricket: "a soldier, a railway guard, billiard marker, saloon keeper, commercial traveller, manager of an athletic outfitters and finally coach to [Cape Town University](/wiki/University_of_Cape_Town "University of Cape Town")". His son, [Dudley Nourse](/wiki/Dudley_Nourse "Dudley Nourse"), was also a Test cricketer who played 34 times for South Africa.
[ "Life and career\n---------------", "A left\\-handed batsman and left\\-arm medium\\-pace swing bowler, Nourse was the mainstay of the South African [Test](/wiki/Test_cricket \"Test cricket\") team for more than 20 years and had a [first\\-class cricket](/wiki/First-class_cricket \"First-class cricket\") career of almost 40 years. He played 45 consecutive Tests from 1902 to 1924 and while his batting was dogged rather than dynamic, career figures that show only one Test century and a batting average under 30 do scant justice to his value to his team.", "Nourse went to South Africa as a drummer with the [West Riding Regiment](/wiki/West_Riding_Regiment \"West Riding Regiment\") in 1895 and stayed there, making his first\\-class cricket debut for Natal two years later. In his first Test, against [Australia](/wiki/Australian_cricket_team \"Australian cricket team\") at [Johannesburg](/wiki/Johannesburg \"Johannesburg\") in October 1902, he scored 72, and his first Test wicket followed in the next match. Perhaps his greatest Test match was the first game of the [England](/wiki/English_cricket_team \"English cricket team\") tour in 1905–06, when South Africa gained its first\\-ever victory against England. Batting at No 8 and arriving with the score at 105 for six wickets, Nourse hit an unbeaten 93 and, with a last\\-wicket partnership of 48 with [Percy Sherwell](/wiki/Percy_Sherwell \"Percy Sherwell\"), took South Africa to an unlikely target of 284\\.", "Nourse toured England three times, in 1907, 1912 and 1924, and went to Australia in 1910–11\\. At the age of 46, he scored 1928 runs on the 1924 tour. His one Test century came in 1921–22 against Australia at Johannesburg, when he scored 111; he topped the South African batting averages in that series. In other innings, he passed 50 no fewer than 15 times. In an era when South African cricket was dominated by [leg break](/wiki/Leg_break \"Leg break\") and [googly](/wiki/Googly \"Googly\") bowlers, Nourse sometimes opened the bowling for the Test team and he took 41 Test wickets. He also took 43 catches.", "Nourse was the highest\\-ever scorer in South African domestic cricket, appearing for Natal from 1897 to 1925, for Transvaal for two seasons after that, and then for Western Province through to the age of 58 in the 1935–36 season, when he scored 55 against the Australians in his last first\\-class match. His highest first\\-class innings was 304 [not out](/wiki/Not_out \"Not out\") for Natal against Transvaal in 1920\\.", "Nourse's obituary in *[Wisden](/wiki/Wisden_Cricketers%27_Almanack \"Wisden Cricketers' Almanack\")*{{ref\\|w49}} says that he was known for so long as \"Dave\" that he adopted David as his middle name in preference to William. It also gives a long list of his careers outside cricket: \"a soldier, a railway guard, billiard marker, saloon keeper, commercial traveller, manager of an athletic outfitters and finally coach to [Cape Town University](/wiki/University_of_Cape_Town \"University of Cape Town\")\".", "His son, [Dudley Nourse](/wiki/Dudley_Nourse \"Dudley Nourse\"), was also a Test cricketer who played 34 times for South Africa.", "" ]
History ------- At the Hague Peace Conferences in 1899 and 1907 government delegations debated about disarmament and the creation of an international court with binding powers. The court was considered necessary because it was understood that nation\-states could not disarm into a vacuum. After World War I revulsion at the futility and tremendous cost of the war was widespread. A commonly held belief was that the cause of the war had been the escalating buildup of armaments in the previous half century among the [great powers](/wiki/Great_power "Great power") (see [Anglo\-German naval arms race](/wiki/Anglo-German_naval_arms_race "Anglo-German naval arms race")). Although the [Treaty of Versailles](/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles "Treaty of Versailles") effectively disarmed Germany, a clause was inserted that called on all the great powers to likewise progressively disarm over a period of time. The newly formed [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations "League of Nations") made this an explicit goal in the [covenant of the league](/wiki/Covenant_of_the_League_of_Nations "Covenant of the League of Nations"), which committed its signatories to reduce armaments 'to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by common action of international obligations'. Trevor N. Dupuy, and Gay M. Hammerman, eds. *A Documentary History of Arms Control and Disarmament* (1973\). [thumb\|Battleships being dismantled for scrap in [Philadelphia Navy Yard](/wiki/Philadelphia_Navy_Yard "Philadelphia Navy Yard"), after the [Washington Naval Treaty](/wiki/Washington_Naval_Treaty "Washington Naval Treaty") imposed limits on capital ships](/wiki/Image:Scrapping_Battleships_1923.jpg "Scrapping Battleships 1923.jpg") [thumb\|[Martin Kobler](/wiki/Martin_Kobler "Martin Kobler") addresses attendees at a disarmament ceremony in [Goma](/wiki/Goma "Goma"), [Democratic Republic of Congo](/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo "Democratic Republic of Congo")](/wiki/File:Martin_Kobler_addresses_a_ceremony.jpg "Martin Kobler addresses a ceremony.jpg") One of the earliest successful achievements in disarmament was obtained with the [Washington Naval Treaty](/wiki/Washington_Naval_Treaty "Washington Naval Treaty"). Signed by the governments of Great Britain, the United States, Japan, France, and Italy, it prevented the continued construction of [capital ships](/wiki/Capital_ship "Capital ship") and limited ships of other classification to under 10,000 tons displacement. The size of the three country's navies (the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy"), [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy "United States Navy") and [Imperial Japanese Navy](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy "Imperial Japanese Navy")) was set at the ratio 5\-5\-3\.{{Citation\|last\=Marriott\|first\=Leo\|title\=Treaty Cruisers: The First International Warship Building Competition\|publisher\=Pen \& Sword\|place\=Barnsley\|year\=2005\|isbn\=1\-84415\-188\-3}} In 1921, the Temporary Mixed Commission on Armaments was set up by the League of Nations to explore possibilities for disarmament. It was made up not of government representatives but of famous individuals who rarely agreed. Proposals ranged from abolishing [chemical warfare](/wiki/Chemical_warfare "Chemical warfare") and [strategic bombing](/wiki/Strategic_bombing "Strategic bombing") to the limitation of more conventional weapons, such as tanks. A draft treaty was assembled in 1923 that made aggressive war illegal and bound the member states to defend victims of aggression by force. Since the onus of responsibility would, in practice, be on the great powers of the League, it was opposed by the [First MacDonald ministry](/wiki/First_MacDonald_ministry "First MacDonald ministry") of the British government, whose opposition to the treaty, made official on 5 July 1924, "effectively buried the proposal for good."Andrew Webster, "'Absolutely Irresponsible Amateurs': The Temporary Mixed Commission on Armaments, 1921–1924\." *Australian Journal of Politics \& History* 54\.3 (2008\): 373–388\. Another commission in 1926, set up to explore the possibilities for the reduction of army size, met similar difficulties. However acting outside the League. French Foreign Minister [Aristide Briand](/wiki/Aristide_Briand "Aristide Briand") and US Secretary of State [Frank Kellogg](/wiki/Frank_Kellogg "Frank Kellogg") drafted a treaty known as the [Kellogg–Briand Pact](/wiki/Kellogg%E2%80%93Briand_Pact "Kellogg–Briand Pact"), which denounced war of aggression. There were 65 signatories to the pact, but it set out no guidelines for action in the event of a war. It was in 1946 used to convict and execute Nazi leaders of war crimes.Julie M. Bunck, and Michael R. Fowler, "The Kellogg–Briand Pact: A Reappraisal." *Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law* 27 (2018\): 229–276\. {{citation\|url\=http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/imt/kbpact.htm\|title\=Kellogg–Briand Pact 1928\|publisher\=Yale UP\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120509201753/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/imt/kbpact.htm\|archive\-date\=2012\-05\-09}} A final attempt was made at the [Geneva Disarmament Conference](/wiki/Geneva_Disarmament_Conference "Geneva Disarmament Conference") from 1932 to 1937, chaired by former British Foreign Secretary [Arthur Henderson](/wiki/Arthur_Henderson "Arthur Henderson"). Germany demanded the revision of the Versailles Treaty and the granting of military parity with the other powers, while France was determined to keep Germany [demilitarised](/wiki/Demilitarisation "Demilitarisation") for its own security. Meanwhile, the British and Americans were not willing to offer France security commitments in exchange for conciliation with Germany. The talks broke down in 1933, when [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") withdrew Germany from the conference.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.johndclare.net/league\_of\_nations4\_disarmament.htm\|title\= The League And Disarmament: A Story Of Failure}} ### Nuclear disarmament {{Main\|Nuclear disarmament}} [thumb\| [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") and [USSR](/wiki/USSR "USSR")/[Russian](/wiki/Russia "Russia") [nuclear weapons](/wiki/Nuclear_weapons "Nuclear weapons") stockpiles, 1945–2006\. These numbers include warheads not actively deployed, including those on reserve status or scheduled for dismantlement. Stockpile totals do not necessarily reflect nuclear capabilities since they ignore size, range, type, and delivery mode.](/wiki/File:US_and_USSR_nuclear_stockpiles.svg "US and USSR nuclear stockpiles.svg") [thumb\|Workers cut launch tubes for nuclear missiles as part of the [Cooperative Threat Reduction program](/wiki/Nunn%E2%80%93Lugar_Cooperative_Threat_Reduction "Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction").](/wiki/File:Dismantling_of_missile_launch_tubes_under_Cooperative_Threat_Reduction_program..jpg "Dismantling of missile launch tubes under Cooperative Threat Reduction program..jpg") Nuclear disarmament refers to both the act of reducing or eliminating [nuclear weapons](/wiki/Nuclear_weapons "Nuclear weapons") and to the end state of a nuclear\-free world, in which nuclear weapons are completely eliminated. In the United Kingdom, the [Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament](/wiki/Campaign_for_Nuclear_Disarmament "Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament") (CND) held an inaugural public meeting at [Central Hall, Westminster](/wiki/Central_Hall%2C_Westminster "Central Hall, Westminster"), on 17 February 1958, attended by five thousand people. After the meeting a few hundred left to demonstrate at [Downing Street](/wiki/Downing_Street "Downing Street").John Minnion and Philip Bolsover (eds), *The CND Story*, [Allison and Busby](/wiki/Allison_and_Busby "Allison and Busby"), 1983, {{ISBN\|0\-85031\-487\-9}}.{{cite web \|url\=https://spartacus\-educational.com/PREcnd.htm \|title\=Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) \|publisher\=Spartacus\-Educational.com \|access\-date\=2019\-02\-27 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514024607/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/PREcnd.htm \|archive\-date\=2011\-05\-14 }} CND's declared policies were the unconditional renunciation of the use, production of or dependence upon nuclear weapons by Britain and the bringing about of a general disarmament convention. The first [Aldermaston March](/wiki/Aldermaston_Marches "Aldermaston Marches") was organised by the CND and took place at [Easter](/wiki/Easter "Easter") 1958, when several thousand people marched for four days from [Trafalgar Square](/wiki/Trafalgar_Square "Trafalgar Square"), London, to the [Atomic Weapons Research Establishment](/wiki/Atomic_Weapons_Establishment "Atomic Weapons Establishment") close to [Aldermaston](/wiki/Aldermaston "Aldermaston") in [Berkshire](/wiki/Berkshire "Berkshire"), England, to demonstrate their opposition to nuclear weapons.[A brief history of CND](http://www.cnduk.org/pages/binfo/hist.html){{cite news \| work \= \[\[Guardian Unlimited]] \| title \= Early defections in march to Aldermaston \| date \= 1958\-04\-05 \| url \= http://century.guardian.co.uk/1950\-1959/Story/0,,105488,00\.html }} The Aldermaston marches continued into the late 1960s when tens of thousands of people took part in the four\-day marches. In 1961, US President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy "John F. Kennedy") gave a speech before the UN General Assembly where he announced the US "intention to challenge the Soviet Union, not to an arms race, but to a peace race – to advance together step by step, stage by stage, until general and complete disarmament has been achieved." He went on to call for a global general and complete disarmament, offering a rough outline for how this could be accomplished: {{cquote\| > The program to be presented to this assembly – for general and complete disarmament under effective international control – moves to bridge the gap between those who insist on a gradual approach and those who talk only of the final and total achievement. It would create machinery to keep the peace as it destroys the machinery of war. It would proceed through balanced and safeguarded stages designed to give no state a military advantage over another. It would place the final responsibility for verification and control where it belongs, not with the big powers alone, not with one's adversary or one's self, but in an international organization within the framework of the United Nations. It would assure that indispensable condition of disarmament – true inspection – and apply it in stages proportionate to the stage of disarmament. It would cover delivery systems as well as weapons. It would ultimately halt their production as well as their testing, their transfer as well as their possession. It would achieve under the eyes of an international disarmament organization, a steady reduction in force, both nuclear and conventional, until it has abolished all armies and all weapons except those needed for internal order and a new United Nations Peace Force. And it starts that process now, today, even as the talks begin. In short, general and complete disarmament must no longer be a slogan, used to resist the first steps. It is no longer to be a goal without means of achieving it, without means of verifying its progress, without means of keeping the peace. It is now a realistic plan, and a test – a test of those only willing to talk and a test of those willing to act.{{cite web\|url\=https://2009\-2017\.state.gov/p/io/potusunga/207241\.htm\|title\=Address by President John F. Kennedy to the UN General Assembly\|publisher\=U.S. Department of State}} }} Major [nuclear disarmament groups](/wiki/List_of_anti-nuclear_groups "List of anti-nuclear groups") include [Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament](/wiki/Campaign_for_Nuclear_Disarmament "Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament"), [Greenpeace](/wiki/Greenpeace "Greenpeace") and [International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War](/wiki/International_Physicians_for_the_Prevention_of_Nuclear_War "International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War"). There have been many large anti\-nuclear [demonstrations](/wiki/Demonstration_%28people%29 "Demonstration (people)") and [protests](/wiki/Protest "Protest"). On June 12, 1982, one million people demonstrated in New York City's [Central Park](/wiki/Central_Park "Central Park") against [nuclear weapons](/wiki/Nuclear_weapons "Nuclear weapons") and for an end to the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War") [arms race](/wiki/Arms_race "Arms race"). It was the largest anti\-nuclear [protest](/wiki/Demonstration_%28people%29 "Demonstration (people)") and the largest political demonstration in American history.Jonathan Schell. [The Spirit of June 12](https://www.thenation.com/article/spirit-june-12/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326232105/https://www.thenation.com/article/spirit\-june\-12/ \|date\=2017\-03\-26 }} *The Nation*, July 2, 2007\.[1982 \- a million people march in New York City](http://www.icanw.org/1982) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616175116/http://www.icanw.org/1982 \|date\=June 16, 2010 }} Following decades of campaigning the New Zealand government banned nuclear\-armed and powered ships from entering the country's territorial waters in 1984 with the ban later extended to cover land and airspace.{{Cite web \|last\=Temocin \|first\=Pinar \|date\=2022\-01\-21 \|title\=From Protest to Politics: The Effectiveness of Civil Society in shaping the Nuclear\-free Policy in Aotearoa New Zealand \|url\=https://commonslibrary.org/from\-protest\-to\-politics\-the\-effectiveness\-of\-civil\-society\-in\-shaping\-the\-nuclear\-free\-policy\-in\-aotearoa\-new\-zealand/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-03 \|website\=The Commons Social Change Library \|language\=en\-AU}} ### Police disarmament [thumb\|upright\=1\.1\|[Black Lives Matter](/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter "Black Lives Matter") banner reading *"End gun violence, disarm the police"* during the [George Floyd protests](/wiki/George_Floyd_protests "George Floyd protests") in [Columbus, Ohio](/wiki/Columbus%2C_Ohio "Columbus, Ohio")](/wiki/File:BLMProtest_With_Banner_Reading_End_Gun_Violence_Disarm_The_Police.png "BLMProtest With Banner Reading End Gun Violence Disarm The Police.png") The [police](/wiki/Police "Police") disarmament movement is a [political movement](/wiki/Political_movement "Political movement") that advocates disarming [police officers](/wiki/Police_officer "Police officer") and [law enforcement officers](/wiki/Law_enforcement_officer "Law enforcement officer") who regularly carry weaponry, such as [those in the United States](/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_the_United_States "Law enforcement in the United States"). Proposed police disarmament methods range from simply emphasizing [de\-escalation](/wiki/De-escalation "De-escalation") and [less\-lethal alternatives](/wiki/Non-lethal_weapon "Non-lethal weapon") over [lethal force](/wiki/Deadly_force "Deadly force"); to limiting police access to firearms to [specific units](/wiki/Police_tactical_unit "Police tactical unit") (such as [police tactical units](/wiki/Police_tactical_unit "Police tactical unit") or [authorised firearms officers](/wiki/Authorised_firearms_officer "Authorised firearms officer")) or to when authorized or necessary; to [defunding](/wiki/Defund_the_police "Defund the police") or [replacing police](/wiki/Police_abolition_movement "Police abolition movement") with other systems of [public safety](/wiki/Public_security "Public security"). The concept dates back to the 1900s and has historically been championed by [anarchists](/wiki/Anarchism "Anarchism") and [libertarians](/wiki/Libertarianism "Libertarianism") alike. Proponents of police disarmament cite [police brutality](/wiki/Police_brutality "Police brutality") and [militarization](/wiki/Militarization_of_police "Militarization of police"), safety and trust concerns, and the potential in other public safety apparatuses instead of armed police, as factors that make police disarmament ideal or necessary. Critics of police disarmament argue the concept is unrealistic, citing the need for police officers to defend themselves, the inability of unarmed public safety agents to effectively handle [violent crime](/wiki/Violent_crime "Violent crime") and [terrorism](/wiki/Terrorism "Terrorism"), and the necessity of [law enforcement](/wiki/Law_enforcement "Law enforcement") to maintain society.
[ "History\n-------", "At the Hague Peace Conferences in 1899 and 1907 government delegations debated about disarmament and the creation of an international court with binding powers. The court was considered necessary because it was understood that nation\\-states could not disarm into a vacuum. After World War I revulsion at the futility and tremendous cost of the war was widespread. A commonly held belief was that the cause of the war had been the escalating buildup of armaments in the previous half century among the [great powers](/wiki/Great_power \"Great power\") (see [Anglo\\-German naval arms race](/wiki/Anglo-German_naval_arms_race \"Anglo-German naval arms race\")). Although the [Treaty of Versailles](/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles \"Treaty of Versailles\") effectively disarmed Germany, a clause was inserted that called on all the great powers to likewise progressively disarm over a period of time. The newly formed [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations \"League of Nations\") made this an explicit goal in the [covenant of the league](/wiki/Covenant_of_the_League_of_Nations \"Covenant of the League of Nations\"), which committed its signatories to reduce armaments 'to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by common action of international obligations'. Trevor N. Dupuy, and Gay M. Hammerman, eds. *A Documentary History of Arms Control and Disarmament* (1973\\).", "[thumb\\|Battleships being dismantled for scrap in [Philadelphia Navy Yard](/wiki/Philadelphia_Navy_Yard \"Philadelphia Navy Yard\"), after the [Washington Naval Treaty](/wiki/Washington_Naval_Treaty \"Washington Naval Treaty\") imposed limits on capital ships](/wiki/Image:Scrapping_Battleships_1923.jpg \"Scrapping Battleships 1923.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|[Martin Kobler](/wiki/Martin_Kobler \"Martin Kobler\") addresses attendees at a disarmament ceremony in [Goma](/wiki/Goma \"Goma\"), [Democratic Republic of Congo](/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo \"Democratic Republic of Congo\")](/wiki/File:Martin_Kobler_addresses_a_ceremony.jpg \"Martin Kobler addresses a ceremony.jpg\")", "One of the earliest successful achievements in disarmament was obtained with the [Washington Naval Treaty](/wiki/Washington_Naval_Treaty \"Washington Naval Treaty\"). Signed by the governments of Great Britain, the United States, Japan, France, and Italy, it prevented the continued construction of [capital ships](/wiki/Capital_ship \"Capital ship\") and limited ships of other classification to under 10,000 tons displacement. The size of the three country's navies (the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\"), [United States Navy](/wiki/United_States_Navy \"United States Navy\") and [Imperial Japanese Navy](/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy \"Imperial Japanese Navy\")) was set at the ratio 5\\-5\\-3\\.{{Citation\\|last\\=Marriott\\|first\\=Leo\\|title\\=Treaty Cruisers: The First International Warship Building Competition\\|publisher\\=Pen \\& Sword\\|place\\=Barnsley\\|year\\=2005\\|isbn\\=1\\-84415\\-188\\-3}}", "In 1921, the Temporary Mixed Commission on Armaments was set up by the League of Nations to explore possibilities for disarmament. It was made up not of government representatives but of famous individuals who rarely agreed. Proposals ranged from abolishing [chemical warfare](/wiki/Chemical_warfare \"Chemical warfare\") and [strategic bombing](/wiki/Strategic_bombing \"Strategic bombing\") to the limitation of more conventional weapons, such as tanks. A draft treaty was assembled in 1923 that made aggressive war illegal and bound the member states to defend victims of aggression by force. Since the onus of responsibility would, in practice, be on the great powers of the League, it was opposed by the [First MacDonald ministry](/wiki/First_MacDonald_ministry \"First MacDonald ministry\") of the British government, whose opposition to the treaty, made official on 5 July 1924, \"effectively buried the proposal for good.\"Andrew Webster, \"'Absolutely Irresponsible Amateurs': The Temporary Mixed Commission on Armaments, 1921–1924\\.\" *Australian Journal of Politics \\& History* 54\\.3 (2008\\): 373–388\\.", "Another commission in 1926, set up to explore the possibilities for the reduction of army size, met similar difficulties. However acting outside the League. French Foreign Minister [Aristide Briand](/wiki/Aristide_Briand \"Aristide Briand\") and US Secretary of State [Frank Kellogg](/wiki/Frank_Kellogg \"Frank Kellogg\") drafted a treaty known as the [Kellogg–Briand Pact](/wiki/Kellogg%E2%80%93Briand_Pact \"Kellogg–Briand Pact\"), which denounced war of aggression. There were 65 signatories to the pact, but it set out no guidelines for action in the event of a war. It was in 1946 used to convict and execute Nazi leaders of war crimes.Julie M. Bunck, and Michael R. Fowler, \"The Kellogg–Briand Pact: A Reappraisal.\" *Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law* 27 (2018\\): 229–276\\. {{citation\\|url\\=http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/imt/kbpact.htm\\|title\\=Kellogg–Briand Pact 1928\\|publisher\\=Yale UP\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120509201753/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/imt/kbpact.htm\\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-05\\-09}}", "A final attempt was made at the [Geneva Disarmament Conference](/wiki/Geneva_Disarmament_Conference \"Geneva Disarmament Conference\") from 1932 to 1937, chaired by former British Foreign Secretary [Arthur Henderson](/wiki/Arthur_Henderson \"Arthur Henderson\"). Germany demanded the revision of the Versailles Treaty and the granting of military parity with the other powers, while France was determined to keep Germany [demilitarised](/wiki/Demilitarisation \"Demilitarisation\") for its own security. Meanwhile, the British and Americans were not willing to offer France security commitments in exchange for conciliation with Germany. The talks broke down in 1933, when [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\") withdrew Germany from the conference.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.johndclare.net/league\\_of\\_nations4\\_disarmament.htm\\|title\\= The League And Disarmament: A Story Of Failure}}", "### Nuclear disarmament", "{{Main\\|Nuclear disarmament}} \n[thumb\\| [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") and [USSR](/wiki/USSR \"USSR\")/[Russian](/wiki/Russia \"Russia\") [nuclear weapons](/wiki/Nuclear_weapons \"Nuclear weapons\") stockpiles, 1945–2006\\. These numbers include warheads not actively deployed, including those on reserve status or scheduled for dismantlement. Stockpile totals do not necessarily reflect nuclear capabilities since they ignore size, range, type, and delivery mode.](/wiki/File:US_and_USSR_nuclear_stockpiles.svg \"US and USSR nuclear stockpiles.svg\")\n[thumb\\|Workers cut launch tubes for nuclear missiles as part of the [Cooperative Threat Reduction program](/wiki/Nunn%E2%80%93Lugar_Cooperative_Threat_Reduction \"Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction\").](/wiki/File:Dismantling_of_missile_launch_tubes_under_Cooperative_Threat_Reduction_program..jpg \"Dismantling of missile launch tubes under Cooperative Threat Reduction program..jpg\")", "Nuclear disarmament refers to both the act of reducing or eliminating [nuclear weapons](/wiki/Nuclear_weapons \"Nuclear weapons\") and to the end state of a nuclear\\-free world, in which nuclear weapons are completely eliminated.", "In the United Kingdom, the [Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament](/wiki/Campaign_for_Nuclear_Disarmament \"Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament\") (CND) held an inaugural public meeting at [Central Hall, Westminster](/wiki/Central_Hall%2C_Westminster \"Central Hall, Westminster\"), on 17 February 1958, attended by five thousand people. After the meeting a few hundred left to demonstrate at [Downing Street](/wiki/Downing_Street \"Downing Street\").John Minnion and Philip Bolsover (eds), *The CND Story*, [Allison and Busby](/wiki/Allison_and_Busby \"Allison and Busby\"), 1983, {{ISBN\\|0\\-85031\\-487\\-9}}.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://spartacus\\-educational.com/PREcnd.htm \\|title\\=Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) \\|publisher\\=Spartacus\\-Educational.com \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-02\\-27 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514024607/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/PREcnd.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-05\\-14 }}", "CND's declared policies were the unconditional renunciation of the use, production of or dependence upon nuclear weapons by Britain and the bringing about of a general disarmament convention. The first [Aldermaston March](/wiki/Aldermaston_Marches \"Aldermaston Marches\") was organised by the CND and took place at [Easter](/wiki/Easter \"Easter\") 1958, when several thousand people marched for four days from [Trafalgar Square](/wiki/Trafalgar_Square \"Trafalgar Square\"), London, to the [Atomic Weapons Research Establishment](/wiki/Atomic_Weapons_Establishment \"Atomic Weapons Establishment\") close to [Aldermaston](/wiki/Aldermaston \"Aldermaston\") in [Berkshire](/wiki/Berkshire \"Berkshire\"), England, to demonstrate their opposition to nuclear weapons.[A brief history of CND](http://www.cnduk.org/pages/binfo/hist.html){{cite news \\| work \\= \\[\\[Guardian Unlimited]] \\| title \\= Early defections in march to Aldermaston \\| date \\= 1958\\-04\\-05 \\| url \\= http://century.guardian.co.uk/1950\\-1959/Story/0,,105488,00\\.html }} The Aldermaston marches continued into the late 1960s when tens of thousands of people took part in the four\\-day marches.", "In 1961, US President [John F. Kennedy](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy \"John F. Kennedy\") gave a speech before the UN General Assembly where he announced the US \"intention to challenge the Soviet Union, not to an arms race, but to a peace race – to advance together step by step, stage by stage, until general and complete disarmament has been achieved.\" He went on to call for a global general and complete disarmament, offering a rough outline for how this could be accomplished:", "{{cquote\\|\n> The program to be presented to this assembly – for general and complete disarmament under effective international control – moves to bridge the gap between those who insist on a gradual approach and those who talk only of the final and total achievement. It would create machinery to keep the peace as it destroys the machinery of war. It would proceed through balanced and safeguarded stages designed to give no state a military advantage over another. It would place the final responsibility for verification and control where it belongs, not with the big powers alone, not with one's adversary or one's self, but in an international organization within the framework of the United Nations. It would assure that indispensable condition of disarmament – true inspection – and apply it in stages proportionate to the stage of disarmament. It would cover delivery systems as well as weapons. It would ultimately halt their production as well as their testing, their transfer as well as their possession. It would achieve under the eyes of an international disarmament organization, a steady reduction in force, both nuclear and conventional, until it has abolished all armies and all weapons except those needed for internal order and a new United Nations Peace Force. And it starts that process now, today, even as the talks begin. In short, general and complete disarmament must no longer be a slogan, used to resist the first steps. It is no longer to be a goal without means of achieving it, without means of verifying its progress, without means of keeping the peace. It is now a realistic plan, and a test – a test of those only willing to talk and a test of those willing to act.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://2009\\-2017\\.state.gov/p/io/potusunga/207241\\.htm\\|title\\=Address by President John F. Kennedy to the UN General Assembly\\|publisher\\=U.S. Department of State}}", "}}", "Major [nuclear disarmament groups](/wiki/List_of_anti-nuclear_groups \"List of anti-nuclear groups\") include [Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament](/wiki/Campaign_for_Nuclear_Disarmament \"Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament\"), [Greenpeace](/wiki/Greenpeace \"Greenpeace\") and [International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War](/wiki/International_Physicians_for_the_Prevention_of_Nuclear_War \"International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War\"). There have been many large anti\\-nuclear [demonstrations](/wiki/Demonstration_%28people%29 \"Demonstration (people)\") and [protests](/wiki/Protest \"Protest\"). On June 12, 1982, one million people demonstrated in New York City's [Central Park](/wiki/Central_Park \"Central Park\") against [nuclear weapons](/wiki/Nuclear_weapons \"Nuclear weapons\") and for an end to the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\") [arms race](/wiki/Arms_race \"Arms race\"). It was the largest anti\\-nuclear [protest](/wiki/Demonstration_%28people%29 \"Demonstration (people)\") and the largest political demonstration in American history.Jonathan Schell. [The Spirit of June 12](https://www.thenation.com/article/spirit-june-12/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170326232105/https://www.thenation.com/article/spirit\\-june\\-12/ \\|date\\=2017\\-03\\-26 }} *The Nation*, July 2, 2007\\.[1982 \\- a million people march in New York City](http://www.icanw.org/1982) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616175116/http://www.icanw.org/1982 \\|date\\=June 16, 2010 }} Following decades of campaigning the New Zealand government banned nuclear\\-armed and powered ships from entering the country's territorial waters in 1984 with the ban later extended to cover land and airspace.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Temocin \\|first\\=Pinar \\|date\\=2022\\-01\\-21 \\|title\\=From Protest to Politics: The Effectiveness of Civil Society in shaping the Nuclear\\-free Policy in Aotearoa New Zealand \\|url\\=https://commonslibrary.org/from\\-protest\\-to\\-politics\\-the\\-effectiveness\\-of\\-civil\\-society\\-in\\-shaping\\-the\\-nuclear\\-free\\-policy\\-in\\-aotearoa\\-new\\-zealand/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-03 \\|website\\=The Commons Social Change Library \\|language\\=en\\-AU}}", "### Police disarmament", "[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.1\\|[Black Lives Matter](/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter \"Black Lives Matter\") banner reading *\"End gun violence, disarm the police\"* during the [George Floyd protests](/wiki/George_Floyd_protests \"George Floyd protests\") in [Columbus, Ohio](/wiki/Columbus%2C_Ohio \"Columbus, Ohio\")](/wiki/File:BLMProtest_With_Banner_Reading_End_Gun_Violence_Disarm_The_Police.png \"BLMProtest With Banner Reading End Gun Violence Disarm The Police.png\")\nThe [police](/wiki/Police \"Police\") disarmament movement is a [political movement](/wiki/Political_movement \"Political movement\") that advocates disarming [police officers](/wiki/Police_officer \"Police officer\") and [law enforcement officers](/wiki/Law_enforcement_officer \"Law enforcement officer\") who regularly carry weaponry, such as [those in the United States](/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_the_United_States \"Law enforcement in the United States\"). Proposed police disarmament methods range from simply emphasizing [de\\-escalation](/wiki/De-escalation \"De-escalation\") and [less\\-lethal alternatives](/wiki/Non-lethal_weapon \"Non-lethal weapon\") over [lethal force](/wiki/Deadly_force \"Deadly force\"); to limiting police access to firearms to [specific units](/wiki/Police_tactical_unit \"Police tactical unit\") (such as [police tactical units](/wiki/Police_tactical_unit \"Police tactical unit\") or [authorised firearms officers](/wiki/Authorised_firearms_officer \"Authorised firearms officer\")) or to when authorized or necessary; to [defunding](/wiki/Defund_the_police \"Defund the police\") or [replacing police](/wiki/Police_abolition_movement \"Police abolition movement\") with other systems of [public safety](/wiki/Public_security \"Public security\"). The concept dates back to the 1900s and has historically been championed by [anarchists](/wiki/Anarchism \"Anarchism\") and [libertarians](/wiki/Libertarianism \"Libertarianism\") alike.", "Proponents of police disarmament cite [police brutality](/wiki/Police_brutality \"Police brutality\") and [militarization](/wiki/Militarization_of_police \"Militarization of police\"), safety and trust concerns, and the potential in other public safety apparatuses instead of armed police, as factors that make police disarmament ideal or necessary. Critics of police disarmament argue the concept is unrealistic, citing the need for police officers to defend themselves, the inability of unarmed public safety agents to effectively handle [violent crime](/wiki/Violent_crime \"Violent crime\") and [terrorism](/wiki/Terrorism \"Terrorism\"), and the necessity of [law enforcement](/wiki/Law_enforcement \"Law enforcement\") to maintain society.", "" ]
History ------- In 1966, while reading to children at a school in Washington, D.C., [Margaret McNamara](/wiki/Margaret_McNamara "Margaret McNamara"), wife of the [United States Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense "United States Secretary of Defense") [Robert S. McNamara](/wiki/Robert_McNamara "Robert McNamara"), was surprised to learn that many of the students did not have any books of their own. With the help of Lynda Johnson Robb{{Cite web\|title\=Lynda Johnson Robb\|url\=https://iop.harvard.edu/fellows/lynda\-johnson\-robb\|website\=The Institute of Politics at Harvard University\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-23\|archive\-date\=2020\-08\-06\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806173456/https://iop.harvard.edu/fellows/lynda\-johnson\-robb\|url\-status\=live}} and [Arthur White](/wiki/Arthur_H._White "Arthur H. White"),{{Cite web\|title\=Arthur H. White, 90; set up innovative public polling firm \- The Boston Globe\|url\=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/obituaries/2014/09/04/arthur\-white\-who\-gauged\-public\-opinion\-dies/V1ItGl6OEJEwRVnx2OZxTL/story.html\|last1\=Times\|first1\=William\|last2\=Yardley\|date\=September 5, 2014\|website\=BostonGlobe.com\|language\=en\-US\|access\-date\=2020\-05\-23\|archive\-date\=2022\-07\-25\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725125952/https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/obituaries/2014/09/04/arthur\-white\-who\-gauged\-public\-opinion\-dies/V1ItGl6OEJEwRVnx2OZxTL/story.html\|url\-status\=live}} Margaret McNamara's 1966 experience led to the formation of Reading Is Fundamental (RIF), a nonprofit children's literacy organization dedicated to making reading a fun and beneficial part of everyday life. [Kathryn Wentzel Lumley](/wiki/Kathryn_Wentzel_Lumley "Kathryn Wentzel Lumley") was one of the organization's co\-founders."[Technology college board elects charter officers](https://www.newspapers.com/image/483335491)." Sunbury, Pennsylvania: *The Daily Item*, August 6, 1989, p. 5A (subscription required).Wyant, William K. Jr. "[Progress Made in Textbooks for Slum Children Is Studied](https://www.newspapers.com/image/142246946)." St. Louis, Missouri: *St. Louis Dispatch*, September 4, 1966, p. 8A (subscription required). After early organizational meetings with other educators in D.C., McNamara secured a $150,000 grant from the [Ford Foundation](/wiki/Ford_Foundation "Ford Foundation") to support pilot activities in the District of Columbia throughout 1967, including the launch of a bookmobile to increase reach outside of classrooms.{{Cite news\|last\=Bender\|first\=Marylin\|date\=1972\-05\-07\|title\=Books for Fun and Their Very Own (Published 1972\)\|language\=en\-US\|work\=The New York Times\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/05/07/archives/books\-for\-fun\-and\-their\-very\-own\-books\-for\-fun.html\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-07\|issn\=0362\-4331\|archive\-date\=2022\-05\-11\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511182434/https://www.nytimes.com/1972/05/07/archives/books\-for\-fun\-and\-their\-very\-own\-books\-for\-fun.html\|url\-status\=live}} Following the success RIF had in Washington, the Ford Foundation increased RIF's grant to $285,000 in August 1968, enabling RIF to launch ten model programs across the country. At the time of McNamara's death in 1981, RIF had provided "more than 3 million poor children with 37 million books."[Deaths](https://web.archive.org/web/20101015145937/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,954682,00.html), a February 16, 1981, article from [*Time*](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 "Time (magazine)") magazine. Beginning in the 1970s, RIF began to receive annual federal appropriations which enabled the organization to expand its reach and impact for children in communities nationwide, focusing on at\-risk children including those from low\-income communities, living in foster care, experiencing homelessness, those with incarcerated parents, and other circumstances demonstrating high need. Authorized in federal legislation, RIF contracted with the U.S. Department of Education to administer the National Inexpensive Book Distribution Program{{Cite web \|last\=US Department of Education \|date\=2014\-05\-05 \|title\=Reading is Fundamental\-Inexpensive Book Distribution Program \|url\=https://www2\.ed.gov/programs/rif/index.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-date\=2014\-05\-01 \|access\-date\=2014\-05\-05 \|website\=US Department of Education \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501150307/http://www2\.ed.gov/programs/rif/index.html }} for more than 30 years. In 2001, [Carol Rasco](/wiki/Carol_Rasco "Carol Rasco"), the former senior adviser to President Bill Clinton and later [United States Secretary of Education](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Education "United States Secretary of Education") [Richard Riley](/wiki/Richard_Riley "Richard Riley"), became the president and CEO of RIF, succeeding former [Bryant University](/wiki/Bryant_University "Bryant University") president [William E. Trueheart](/wiki/William_E._Trueheart "William E. Trueheart") who served in that role from 1997 to 2001\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/author/carol\-rasco\|title\=Carol Rasco {{!}} HuffPost\|website\=www.huffingtonpost.com\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-28\|archive\-date\=2022\-07\-25\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725125959/https://www.huffpost.com/author/carol\-rasco\|url\-status\=live}} Ruth Graves led the organization from 1975 to 1997\.{{Cite news \|title\=Ruth P. Graves, executive of children’s literacy group \|language\=en\-US \|work\=Washington Post \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/ruth\-p\-graves\-executive\-of\-childrens\-literacy\-group/2013/09/30/3f68be1c\-2a0a\-11e3\-8ade\-a1f23cda135e\_story.html \|access\-date\=2022\-08\-20 \|issn\=0190\-8286}}{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.childrensbooksandreviews.com/children\-reading\-and\-literacy\-interview\-with\-carol\-rasco\-reading\-is\-fundamental/\|title\=Interview: Carol Rasco, Reading is Fundamental\|last\=Mead\|first\=Aaron\|date\=2010\-10\-30\|work\=Children's Books and Reviews\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-28\|language\=en\-US\|archive\-date\=2018\-07\-28\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180728101110/http://www.childrensbooksandreviews.com/children\-reading\-and\-literacy\-interview\-with\-carol\-rasco\-reading\-is\-fundamental/\|url\-status\=live}} In 2011, Congress eliminated congressionally\-directed spending and thus federal funding for RIF.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/03/04/reading\-is\-fundamental\_n\_831545\.html\|title\=Reading Is Fundamental Funding Eliminated\|date\=2011\-03\-04\|work\=Huffington Post\|access\-date\=2018\-12\-07\|language\=en\-US\|archive\-date\=2022\-07\-25\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725125954/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/reading\-is\-fundamental\_n\_831545\|url\-status\=live}}The source explains > More than a dozen education programs—including high\-profile efforts focused on literacy, teaching, and learning—face the prospect of a permanent federal funding loss after they were chopped from a stopgap spending measure signed into law by President Barack Obama last week. The temporary spending law, intended to keep the government running until March 18 \[...], finances most federal programs at fiscal year 2010 levels. But education programs such as Even Start, Striving Readers, and the privately organized Teach For America, ended up taking dramatic hits after Republican leaders insisted on cuts even in the temporary spending bill. The measure slashes nearly $750 million from the U.S Department of Education’s most recent overall discretionary budget of $46\.6 billion, excluding Pell Grant funding. Literacy programs bore the brunt. The funding for Striving Readers, which was financed at $250 million, was eliminated. The Even Start family\-literacy effort lost its $67 million appropriation. ``` RIF then began transforming its model to secure funding to continue its programmatic work via corporate partners, foundations, and individual donors. ``` {{Cite news\|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/on\-parenting/post/reading\-is\-fundamental\-unless\-its\-too\-expensive/2011/11/02/gIQAAZtsiM\_blog.html\|title\=Reading is Fundamental (unless it's too expensive)\|last\=D'Arcy\|first\=Janice\|date\=2011\-11\-03\|newspaper\=Washington Post\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-28\|archive\-date\=2022\-07\-25\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725130001/https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/on\-parenting/post/reading\-is\-fundamental\-unless\-its\-too\-expensive/2011/11/02/gIQAAZtsiM\_blog.html\|url\-status\=live}} In 2015, RIF released the results of Read for Success, a two\-year research study funded by a grant from the Department of Education. Read for Success is centered around motivating children to read by providing access to high\-quality classroom book collections, books for students to choose and own, enriching STEAM\-themed classroom activities, professional development for teachers and parent engagement. RIF continues to offer the Read for Success program.{{Cite web \|date\=2022\-05\-20 \|title\=Read for Success Overview and Program Details \|url\=https://www.rif.org/literacy\-network/our\-solutions/read\-success \|access\-date\=2022\-05\-20 \|website\=rif.org \|archive\-date\=2022\-06\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630185214/https://www.rif.org/literacy\-network/our\-solutions/read\-success \|url\-status\=live }} In 2016, RIF celebrated its 50th anniversary{{Citation\|last\=Reading Is Fundamental\|title\=Carol Rasco, President and CEO of RIF\|date\=2015\-11\-18\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=Wo5Z56BUd10 \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/Wo5Z56BUd10 \|archive\-date\=2021\-12\-21 \|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=2018\-07\-28}}{{cbignore}} with a national virtual birthday party hosted from Amidon Elementary School in Washington, D.C., where RIF's first program operated. Rasco departed RIF this same year, succeeded by Alicia Levi as the new and current President and CEO.{{Cite web \|title\=Charity Navigator \- Rating for Reading Is Fundamental \|url\=http://www.charitynavigator.org/index.cfm?bay\=search.summary\&orgid\=4390 \|access\-date\=2018\-11\-26 \|website\=Charity Navigator \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2018\-11\-27 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127022435/https://www.charitynavigator.org/index.cfm?bay\=search.summary\&orgid\=4390 \|url\-status\=live }} Since Levi joined RIF, the organization was gifted Skybrary, an eBook service from Reading Rainbow and [LeVar Burton](/wiki/LeVar_Burton "LeVar Burton") in 2019, held RIF's first National Reading Coalition to focus on the impact of children's literacy on workplace readiness, launched its Race, Equity and Inclusion initiative and continues to focus on ensuring all children have choice and access to books and resources. As of 2022, RIF has served 100 million children and distributed over 450 million books.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.rif.org/impact\|title\=Impact\|website\=RIF.org\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-12\-07\|archive\-date\=2018\-12\-07\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181207102921/https://www.rif.org/impact\|url\-status\=live}}
[ "History\n-------", "In 1966, while reading to children at a school in Washington, D.C., [Margaret McNamara](/wiki/Margaret_McNamara \"Margaret McNamara\"), wife of the [United States Secretary of Defense](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense \"United States Secretary of Defense\") [Robert S. McNamara](/wiki/Robert_McNamara \"Robert McNamara\"), was surprised to learn that many of the students did not have any books of their own. With the help of Lynda Johnson Robb{{Cite web\\|title\\=Lynda Johnson Robb\\|url\\=https://iop.harvard.edu/fellows/lynda\\-johnson\\-robb\\|website\\=The Institute of Politics at Harvard University\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-23\\|archive\\-date\\=2020\\-08\\-06\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806173456/https://iop.harvard.edu/fellows/lynda\\-johnson\\-robb\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and [Arthur White](/wiki/Arthur_H._White \"Arthur H. White\"),{{Cite web\\|title\\=Arthur H. White, 90; set up innovative public polling firm \\- The Boston Globe\\|url\\=https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/obituaries/2014/09/04/arthur\\-white\\-who\\-gauged\\-public\\-opinion\\-dies/V1ItGl6OEJEwRVnx2OZxTL/story.html\\|last1\\=Times\\|first1\\=William\\|last2\\=Yardley\\|date\\=September 5, 2014\\|website\\=BostonGlobe.com\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-05\\-23\\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-25\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725125952/https://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/obituaries/2014/09/04/arthur\\-white\\-who\\-gauged\\-public\\-opinion\\-dies/V1ItGl6OEJEwRVnx2OZxTL/story.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Margaret McNamara's 1966 experience led to the formation of Reading Is Fundamental (RIF), a nonprofit children's literacy organization dedicated to making reading a fun and beneficial part of everyday life. [Kathryn Wentzel Lumley](/wiki/Kathryn_Wentzel_Lumley \"Kathryn Wentzel Lumley\") was one of the organization's co\\-founders.\"[Technology college board elects charter officers](https://www.newspapers.com/image/483335491).\" Sunbury, Pennsylvania: *The Daily Item*, August 6, 1989, p. 5A (subscription required).Wyant, William K. Jr. \"[Progress Made in Textbooks for Slum Children Is Studied](https://www.newspapers.com/image/142246946).\" St. Louis, Missouri: *St. Louis Dispatch*, September 4, 1966, p. 8A (subscription required).", "After early organizational meetings with other educators in D.C., McNamara secured a $150,000 grant from the [Ford Foundation](/wiki/Ford_Foundation \"Ford Foundation\") to support pilot activities in the District of Columbia throughout 1967, including the launch of a bookmobile to increase reach outside of classrooms.{{Cite news\\|last\\=Bender\\|first\\=Marylin\\|date\\=1972\\-05\\-07\\|title\\=Books for Fun and Their Very Own (Published 1972\\)\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|work\\=The New York Times\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/1972/05/07/archives/books\\-for\\-fun\\-and\\-their\\-very\\-own\\-books\\-for\\-fun.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-07\\|issn\\=0362\\-4331\\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-11\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511182434/https://www.nytimes.com/1972/05/07/archives/books\\-for\\-fun\\-and\\-their\\-very\\-own\\-books\\-for\\-fun.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Following the success RIF had in Washington, the Ford Foundation increased RIF's grant to $285,000 in August 1968, enabling RIF to launch ten model programs across the country. At the time of McNamara's death in 1981, RIF had provided \"more than 3 million poor children with 37 million books.\"[Deaths](https://web.archive.org/web/20101015145937/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,954682,00.html), a February 16, 1981, article from [*Time*](/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29 \"Time (magazine)\") magazine.", "Beginning in the 1970s, RIF began to receive annual federal appropriations which enabled the organization to expand its reach and impact for children in communities nationwide, focusing on at\\-risk children including those from low\\-income communities, living in foster care, experiencing homelessness, those with incarcerated parents, and other circumstances demonstrating high need. Authorized in federal legislation, RIF contracted with the U.S. Department of Education to administer the National Inexpensive Book Distribution Program{{Cite web \\|last\\=US Department of Education \\|date\\=2014\\-05\\-05 \\|title\\=Reading is Fundamental\\-Inexpensive Book Distribution Program \\|url\\=https://www2\\.ed.gov/programs/rif/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-date\\=2014\\-05\\-01 \\|access\\-date\\=2014\\-05\\-05 \\|website\\=US Department of Education \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501150307/http://www2\\.ed.gov/programs/rif/index.html }} for more than 30 years.", "In 2001, [Carol Rasco](/wiki/Carol_Rasco \"Carol Rasco\"), the former senior adviser to President Bill Clinton and later [United States Secretary of Education](/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Education \"United States Secretary of Education\") [Richard Riley](/wiki/Richard_Riley \"Richard Riley\"), became the president and CEO of RIF, succeeding former [Bryant University](/wiki/Bryant_University \"Bryant University\") president [William E. Trueheart](/wiki/William_E._Trueheart \"William E. Trueheart\") who served in that role from 1997 to 2001\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/author/carol\\-rasco\\|title\\=Carol Rasco {{!}} HuffPost\\|website\\=www.huffingtonpost.com\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-28\\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-25\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725125959/https://www.huffpost.com/author/carol\\-rasco\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Ruth Graves led the organization from 1975 to 1997\\.{{Cite news \\|title\\=Ruth P. Graves, executive of children’s literacy group \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|work\\=Washington Post \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/ruth\\-p\\-graves\\-executive\\-of\\-childrens\\-literacy\\-group/2013/09/30/3f68be1c\\-2a0a\\-11e3\\-8ade\\-a1f23cda135e\\_story.html \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-20 \\|issn\\=0190\\-8286}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.childrensbooksandreviews.com/children\\-reading\\-and\\-literacy\\-interview\\-with\\-carol\\-rasco\\-reading\\-is\\-fundamental/\\|title\\=Interview: Carol Rasco, Reading is Fundamental\\|last\\=Mead\\|first\\=Aaron\\|date\\=2010\\-10\\-30\\|work\\=Children's Books and Reviews\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-28\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-28\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180728101110/http://www.childrensbooksandreviews.com/children\\-reading\\-and\\-literacy\\-interview\\-with\\-carol\\-rasco\\-reading\\-is\\-fundamental/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In 2011, Congress eliminated congressionally\\-directed spending and thus federal funding for RIF.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/03/04/reading\\-is\\-fundamental\\_n\\_831545\\.html\\|title\\=Reading Is Fundamental Funding Eliminated\\|date\\=2011\\-03\\-04\\|work\\=Huffington Post\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-07\\|language\\=en\\-US\\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-25\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725125954/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/reading\\-is\\-fundamental\\_n\\_831545\\|url\\-status\\=live}}The source explains\n> More than a dozen education programs—including high\\-profile efforts focused on literacy, teaching, and learning—face the prospect of a permanent federal funding loss after they were chopped from a stopgap spending measure signed into law by President Barack Obama last week.", "", "The temporary spending law, intended to keep the government running until March 18 \\[...], finances most federal programs at fiscal year 2010 levels.\nBut education programs such as Even Start, Striving Readers, and the privately organized Teach For America, ended up taking dramatic hits after Republican leaders insisted on cuts even in the temporary spending bill. The measure slashes nearly $750 million from the U.S Department of Education’s most recent overall discretionary budget of $46\\.6 billion, excluding Pell Grant funding.\nLiteracy programs bore the brunt. The funding for Striving Readers, which was financed at $250 million, was eliminated. The Even Start family\\-literacy effort lost its $67 million appropriation.\n```\nRIF then began transforming its model to secure funding to continue its programmatic work via corporate partners, foundations, and individual donors.\n```", "{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/on\\-parenting/post/reading\\-is\\-fundamental\\-unless\\-its\\-too\\-expensive/2011/11/02/gIQAAZtsiM\\_blog.html\\|title\\=Reading is Fundamental (unless it's too expensive)\\|last\\=D'Arcy\\|first\\=Janice\\|date\\=2011\\-11\\-03\\|newspaper\\=Washington Post\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-28\\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-25\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220725130001/https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/on\\-parenting/post/reading\\-is\\-fundamental\\-unless\\-its\\-too\\-expensive/2011/11/02/gIQAAZtsiM\\_blog.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In 2015, RIF released the results of Read for Success, a two\\-year research study funded by a grant from the Department of Education. Read for Success is centered around motivating children to read by providing access to high\\-quality classroom book collections, books for students to choose and own, enriching STEAM\\-themed classroom activities, professional development for teachers and parent engagement. RIF continues to offer the Read for Success program.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2022\\-05\\-20 \\|title\\=Read for Success Overview and Program Details \\|url\\=https://www.rif.org/literacy\\-network/our\\-solutions/read\\-success \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-05\\-20 \\|website\\=rif.org \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630185214/https://www.rif.org/literacy\\-network/our\\-solutions/read\\-success \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "In 2016, RIF celebrated its 50th anniversary{{Citation\\|last\\=Reading Is Fundamental\\|title\\=Carol Rasco, President and CEO of RIF\\|date\\=2015\\-11\\-18\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=Wo5Z56BUd10 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/Wo5Z56BUd10 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-12\\-21 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-07\\-28}}{{cbignore}} with a national virtual birthday party hosted from Amidon Elementary School in Washington, D.C., where RIF's first program operated. Rasco departed RIF this same year, succeeded by Alicia Levi as the new and current President and CEO.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Charity Navigator \\- Rating for Reading Is Fundamental \\|url\\=http://www.charitynavigator.org/index.cfm?bay\\=search.summary\\&orgid\\=4390 \\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-26 \\|website\\=Charity Navigator \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-11\\-27 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127022435/https://www.charitynavigator.org/index.cfm?bay\\=search.summary\\&orgid\\=4390 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "Since Levi joined RIF, the organization was gifted Skybrary, an eBook service from Reading Rainbow and [LeVar Burton](/wiki/LeVar_Burton \"LeVar Burton\") in 2019, held RIF's first National Reading Coalition to focus on the impact of children's literacy on workplace readiness, launched its Race, Equity and Inclusion initiative and continues to focus on ensuring all children have choice and access to books and resources.", "As of 2022, RIF has served 100 million children and distributed over 450 million books.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rif.org/impact\\|title\\=Impact\\|website\\=RIF.org\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-07\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-12\\-07\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181207102921/https://www.rif.org/impact\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "" ]
Biography --------- Golubtsova was born in Nizhny Novgorod in the family of a teacher in the Cadet Corps, State Councilor Alexei Golubtsov (1852–1924\), and Olga Nevzorova, who was a member of an old noble family. Nevzorova's older sisters were the famous "Nevzorov sisters" (Zinaida, Sophia, and Augustine) — [Vladimir Lenin](/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin "Vladimir Lenin")'s comrades\-in\-arms in Marxist Discussion Circles in the 1890s. Zinaida married [Gleb Кrzhizhanovky](/wiki/Gleb_Krzhizhanovsky "Gleb Krzhizhanovsky") in 1899, who in the 1920s headed the [GOELRO Commission](/wiki/GOELRO "GOELRO"). The Golubtsov family raised five children: Lyudmila, Valeriya, Roman, [Vyacheslav](/wiki/Vyacheslav_Golubtsov "Vyacheslav Golubtsov") (who later became a Professor of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute, corresponding member of the [Аcademy of Sciences of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_Soviet_Union "Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union")), and Elena. In 1917, Golubtsova graduated from a gym in Nizhny Novgorod, and then did library courses.{{cite web\|url\=http://img\-fotki.yandex.ru/get/4202/jane6666\.16/0\_41331\_b14be67e\_orig\|title\=Photographic image\|website\=Img\-fotki.yandex.ru\|access\-date\=2022\-03\-01}}{{cite web\|url\=http://img\-fotki.yandex.ru/get/4306/jane6666\.17/0\_41332\_d342c13\_orig\|title\=Photographic image\|website\=Img\-fotki.yandex.ru\|access\-date\=2022\-03\-01}} Since 1920, during the [Russian Civil War](/wiki/Russian_Civil_War "Russian Civil War"), she worked as a librarian on the [Turkestan Front](/wiki/Turkestan_Front "Turkestan Front"), and in the [agit\-train](/wiki/Agit-train "Agit-train") of the cavalry brigade, she met the Commissar, Georgy Malenkov. In 1920, she married him (though without official registration until her death, and the preservation of her maiden name) and joined the [Communist Party of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union "Communist Party of the Soviet Union"). After moving to Moscow in 1921, Golubtsova got a job at the Organizing Department of the Central Committee at got a separate room in the [Loskutnaya Hotel](/wiki/Loskutnaya "Loskutnaya") on [Тverskaya Street](/wiki/Tverskaya_Street "Tverskaya Street")— the center of the Moscow Communist bohemia. Malenkov then entered the [Bauman Moscow State Technical University](/wiki/Bauman_Moscow_State_Technical_University "Bauman Moscow State Technical University") (the couple decided to graduate one\-by\-one). From 1928 to 1930, she worked as a standardizer at the Moscow Metallurgical Plant. In 1930, at the direction of the party organization, Golubtsova entered the Moscow Power Engineering Institute, where, as a student, she took the post of Secretary of the Institute Organization of the [CPSU](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union "Communist Party of the Soviet Union"). After graduating in 1934, she worked as an engineer at the Dynamo machine\-building company until 1936\. In 1936, she enrolled the graduate school of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute, but she dropped out in 1938 due the birth of her two sons. During the [Great Patriotic War](/wiki/Eastern_Front_%28World_War_II%29 "Eastern Front (World War II)"), from 1941 to 1942, Golubtsova was evacuated with her family to [Samara](/wiki/Samara "Samara"), where she worked as an instructor in the Samara Regional Committee of the CPSU, responsible for the aviation and electrical industries. For her work on commissioning the evacuated factories at a rapid pace, [general quarters](/wiki/General_quarters "General quarters"), and start\-up of enterprises, and fulfilment of the plan at all costs, Golubtsova was awarded the [Order of the Red Banner of Labour](/wiki/Order_of_the_Red_Banner_of_Labour "Order of the Red Banner of Labour"). In 1942, she returned to Moscow. On 3 June 1943, Golubtsova, an assistant at the Department of Cable Engineering, was appointed director of the Moscow Order of Lenin of the V.M. Molotov Power Engineering Institute. She was the director of the university until 4 January 1952\.{{Sfn\|Romanov\|2010}} ### As the director of the MPEI [right\|thumb\|240x240px\|Moscow Power Engineering Institute (MPEI)](/wiki/File:Lefortovo_mei.jpg "Lefortovo mei.jpg") Beginning to lead the MPEI, Golubtsova knew the institute well, since she herself graduated from it, studied at its graduate school, and, during her studies, was repeatedly elected to the party bureau of the institute. She knew the teaching staff, the party, Komsomol, trade union activists, the traditions, and the material base of the institute. Consequently, she held considerable renown within the inner circles of the country's foremost party and state officials, as well as the leadership of the electric and thermal power industry, among which were MPEI graduates Alexei Pavlenko, Dmitry Zhimerin, and [Аnatoly Petrakovsky](/wiki/Anatoly_Petrakovsky "Anatoly Petrakovsky"). In the position of the director of the institute, Golubtsova did a lot to expand the institute and increase its scientific potential. Those who knew her at work noted her ability to see the future and the ability to organize people to solve tasks.{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2022}} According to [Boris Chertok](/wiki/Boris_Chertok "Boris Chertok")'s memoirs about Golubtsova during the Great Patriotic War: > She assumed full responsibility, removed the confused director from the leadership, and organized, as far as possible, a normal evacuation and then the continuation of the educational activities of the institute in a new place. After the war, Golubtsova, as director, showed exceptional activity in the construction of new educational buildings, a pilot plant, the expansion of the laboratory and research base, the construction of a palace of culture, a hostel and residential buildings for professors and teachers. Largely thanks to her energy, combined with her proximity to the highest authorities of the country, a whole town of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute grew up in the area of Krasnokazarmennaya Street. She generously endowed her with organizational talent. The inherent sensitivity found in individuals helped her to unite the efforts of all scientists of the institute with a minimum of contradictions. In any case, the solid MPEI professorship supported the director in all her activities. > The work of Golubtsova as director was highly appreciated by her colleagues.{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2022}} Professor R.G. Romanov stated: Valeria Alekseyevna's place is among the most prominent MPEI figures. In my opinion, after the creator of the MPEI, Karl Krug, Valeria Alekseyevna Golubtsova is in second place in terms of importance, in terms of the weight of all her daily work.{{Cite book \|year\=2010 \|title\=MPEI: History, People, Years: A Collection of Memoirs \|volume\=1 \|pages\=316}} > Professor A.N. Starostin stated: I saw in her not only a beautiful intelligent woman, a scientist, and a leader, but also a loving mother, for whom the success and happiness of children is the most important thing in life.{{Cite book \|year\=2010 \|title\=MPEI: History, People, Years: A Collection of Memoirs \|volume\=3 \|pages\=166}} > Academician Alexander Sheindlin stated: This woman, to be fair, really did a lot to turn the MPEI into a first\-class institution of higher education.{{Cite book \|last\=Sheindlin \|first\=Alexander \|title\=Memoirs of an Old Academician \|language\=ru}} > The director of the MPEI at the time of Golubtsova's application for the post, Ilya Teltelbaum, stated: Director of the MPEI V. A. Golubtsova acted exceptionally bravely and decently. After reviewing the documents and the main works of Ilya Markovich and talking with him, in the midst of the "doctors' case" and the fight against "cosmopolitanism", she ordered the head of the MPEI personnel department to take this employee under her personal responsibility.{{Cite book \|year\=2010 \|title\=MPEI: History, People, Years: A Collection of Memoirs \|volume\=3 \|pages\=298}}Golubtsova found an opportunity and took care of the life of students. From the memoirs of students of this time: > Valeria Alekseevna tried to do everything possible to help poor students, and literally dressed the graduate Kalina from head to toe, sending her to the disposal of the Altaienergo department after defending her diploma. > Professor A. L. Zinovev stated: Valeria Alekseevna constantly found opportunities to provide specific targeted assistance to those in particular need of it. And always "at first there was a word", a kind word…{{Cite book \|title\=MPEI: History, People, Years: A Collection of Memoirs \|volume\=1 \|pages\=433}}At the same time, in the memoirs of Raisa Kuznetsova, the wife of the Director of the IIET Ivan Kunetsov, Golubtsova's pronounced [antisemitism](/wiki/Antisemitism "Antisemitism") is clearly noted, in her opinion. In 1944, the [Council of People's Commissars of the USSR](/wiki/Council_of_People%27s_Commissars_of_the_Soviet_Union "Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union") issued a resolution on the development of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute, an all\-Union training base for power engineers. Valeria Alekseevna took up the implementation of the government's decision with her characteristic energy and perseverance. In a short time, she obtained the necessary funds and materials for the construction of the main building of the MPEI — House Number 17\. The construction battalion, with the active participation of students and employees, built buildings "B", "C", "G", "D" of house number 17, row buildings on the territory of a student hostel, all red brick houses on Energeticheskaya Street. Under the conditions of hostilities, such construction was practically impossible, since each builder was counted, but Valeria Alekseevna succeeded. It was she who was able to resolve the issue of transferring two buildings to MPEI: a large 8\-story building No. 13, built in 1928–1930 according to the project of a team of domestic authors, and house No. 14, where until 1944 the headquarters of the partisan movement in the Great Patriotic War was located. Later, house number 14 was completed. In the spring of 1945, Golubtsova, who had the rank of major, visited Vienna, which had just been taken, in order to obtain a test bench and measuring equipment for MPEI, which were located at the Allgemeine Electrische Gesellschaft (AEG) electrical enterprise that was to be dismantled.{{Cite web \|title\=Журнал ЗВЕЗДА \|url\=https://zvezdaspb.ru/index.php?page\=8\&nput\=1752 \|access\-date\=2022\-02\-28 \|website\=zvezdaspb.ru}} Golubtsova personally supervised the MPEI research department, the capital construction department, the campus, and the educational department. She took away from the people's commissars, or in her words, "grabbed captured equipment in Germany" what was needed to equip the MPEI. With the participation and assistance of Valeria Alekseyevna, the MPEI built the only education and experimental combined heat and power plant in the USSR — the MPEI CHPP with a capacity of 12 megawatts, commissioned in 1951\.{{Sfn\|Romanov\|2010}} She achieved the allocation of territory for the construction of rest houses near Moscow and in Crimea, in [Аlupka](/wiki/Alupka "Alupka"), and when the rest house in Alupka was confiscated from the MPEI and converted into a [tuberculosis sanatorium](/wiki/Tuberculosis_sanatorium "Tuberculosis sanatorium") of the [All\-Union Central Council of Trade Unions](/wiki/All-Union_Central_Council_of_Trade_Unions "All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions"), she insisted on compensation, and the MPEI was allocated a site for the construction of a sports camp in Crimea, in the [Аlush ta](/wiki/Alushta "Alushta") region, which later became a cult place for MPEI students. Golubtsova actively helped employees in difficult moments of their lives: for many, she "knocked out" work cards and vouchers to a sanatorium. She did not expel [Boris Chertok](/wiki/Boris_Chertok "Boris Chertok") (in the future, a prominent figure in the Soviet rocket and space industry) from the MPEI for debt, and [Vladimir Kotelnikov](/wiki/Vladimir_Kotelnikov "Vladimir Kotelnikov") (later a radio physicist) covered up from the Minister of State Security [Viktor Kotelnikov](/wiki/Viktor_Abakumov "Viktor Abakumov"). Among the personal nominees of Golubtsova are MPEI graduates [Vladimir Kotelnikov](/wiki/Vladimir_Kotelnikov "Vladimir Kotelnikov"), [Boris Chertok](/wiki/Boris_Chertok "Boris Chertok"), [Vladimir Kirillin](/wiki/Vladimir_Kirillin "Vladimir Kirillin"), Alexander Sheindlin, [Аlexei Vogomolov](/wiki/Alexei_Bogomolov "Alexei Bogomolov"), and dozens of professors. ### Later years and death In 1952, after a serious illness, she was forced to leave the post of director and took up scientific work. From 1953 onwards, she was deputy director of the Institute of the History of Natural Science and Technology. In 1956 she defended her doctoral dissertation on the history of the development of cable technology in the USSR,{{Cite web \|title\=Голубцова Валентина Васильевна ( 5/133 ) \|url\=http://nlr.ru/e\-case3/sc2\.php/web\_gak/lc/22828/5\#pict \|access\-date\=2022\-02\-28 \|website\=Nlr.ru}} at the same time she was awarded the academic title of professor in the Department of General Electrical Engineering. V. A. Golubtsova put forward the idea of publishing and became the editor\-in\-chief of the capital two\-volume History of Power Engineering in the USSR (1957\). After her husband, [Georgy Malenkov](/wiki/Georgy_Malenkov "Georgy Malenkov"), was removed from all party and state posts in 1957, she followed him into exile in [Oskemen](/wiki/Oskemen "Oskemen"), and later in [Ekibastuz](/wiki/Ekibastuz "Ekibastuz").{{Cite web \|title\=Valeria Alekseevna Golubtsova – the most powerful rector in the history of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute \|url\=http://vseist.tgizd.ru/ru/arhiv/12255 \|access\-date\=2022\-02\-28 \|website\=vseist.tgizd.ru}} After the death of her mother\-in\-law in 1968, they moved to the village of [Udelnaya](/wiki/Udelnaya%2C_Moscow_Oblast "Udelnaya, Moscow Oblast") in the [Moscow region](/wiki/Moscow_region "Moscow region"). In 1971, she was made a [political pensioner](/wiki/Political_pensioner "Political pensioner"). From 1973 onwards, she lived with her husband in Moscow, on 2 Sinichkina Street, in a two\-room apartment. In 1980, by the order of [Yuri Andropov](/wiki/Yuri_Andropov "Yuri Andropov"), they were given a two\-room apartment on the [Frunzenskaya Embankment](/wiki/Frunzenskaya_Embankment "Frunzenskaya Embankment"), where the couple spent the last years of their lives.{{Cite book \|last1\=Зяньковіч \|first1\=Мікалай \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=sXJEF6HHyH0C \|title\=Самые секретные родственники \|last2\=Зенькович \|first2\=Николай \|year\=2005 \|publisher\=ОЛМА Медиа Групп \|isbn\=978\-5\-94850\-408\-7 \|language\=ru}} Golubtsova died on 1 October 1987\. She was buried with her husband at the [Kuntsevo Cemetery](/wiki/Kuntsevo_Cemetery "Kuntsevo Cemetery") in Moscow.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Golubtsova was born in Nizhny Novgorod in the family of a teacher in the Cadet Corps, State Councilor Alexei Golubtsov (1852–1924\\), and Olga Nevzorova, who was a member of an old noble family. Nevzorova's older sisters were the famous \"Nevzorov sisters\" (Zinaida, Sophia, and Augustine) — [Vladimir Lenin](/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin \"Vladimir Lenin\")'s comrades\\-in\\-arms in Marxist Discussion Circles in the 1890s. Zinaida married [Gleb Кrzhizhanovky](/wiki/Gleb_Krzhizhanovsky \"Gleb Krzhizhanovsky\") in 1899, who in the 1920s headed the [GOELRO Commission](/wiki/GOELRO \"GOELRO\").", "The Golubtsov family raised five children: Lyudmila, Valeriya, Roman, [Vyacheslav](/wiki/Vyacheslav_Golubtsov \"Vyacheslav Golubtsov\") (who later became a Professor of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute, corresponding member of the [Аcademy of Sciences of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union\")), and Elena.", "In 1917, Golubtsova graduated from a gym in Nizhny Novgorod, and then did library courses.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://img\\-fotki.yandex.ru/get/4202/jane6666\\.16/0\\_41331\\_b14be67e\\_orig\\|title\\=Photographic image\\|website\\=Img\\-fotki.yandex.ru\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-01}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://img\\-fotki.yandex.ru/get/4306/jane6666\\.17/0\\_41332\\_d342c13\\_orig\\|title\\=Photographic image\\|website\\=Img\\-fotki.yandex.ru\\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-03\\-01}} Since 1920, during the [Russian Civil War](/wiki/Russian_Civil_War \"Russian Civil War\"), she worked as a librarian on the [Turkestan Front](/wiki/Turkestan_Front \"Turkestan Front\"), and in the [agit\\-train](/wiki/Agit-train \"Agit-train\") of the cavalry brigade, she met the Commissar, Georgy Malenkov. In 1920, she married him (though without official registration until her death, and the preservation of her maiden name) and joined the [Communist Party of the Soviet Union](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Communist Party of the Soviet Union\").", "After moving to Moscow in 1921, Golubtsova got a job at the Organizing Department of the Central Committee at got a separate room in the [Loskutnaya Hotel](/wiki/Loskutnaya \"Loskutnaya\") on [Тverskaya Street](/wiki/Tverskaya_Street \"Tverskaya Street\")— the center of the Moscow Communist bohemia. Malenkov then entered the [Bauman Moscow State Technical University](/wiki/Bauman_Moscow_State_Technical_University \"Bauman Moscow State Technical University\") (the couple decided to graduate one\\-by\\-one). From 1928 to 1930, she worked as a standardizer at the Moscow Metallurgical Plant.", "In 1930, at the direction of the party organization, Golubtsova entered the Moscow Power Engineering Institute, where, as a student, she took the post of Secretary of the Institute Organization of the [CPSU](/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Communist Party of the Soviet Union\"). After graduating in 1934, she worked as an engineer at the Dynamo machine\\-building company until 1936\\.", "In 1936, she enrolled the graduate school of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute, but she dropped out in 1938 due the birth of her two sons.", "During the [Great Patriotic War](/wiki/Eastern_Front_%28World_War_II%29 \"Eastern Front (World War II)\"), from 1941 to 1942, Golubtsova was evacuated with her family to [Samara](/wiki/Samara \"Samara\"), where she worked as an instructor in the Samara Regional Committee of the CPSU, responsible for the aviation and electrical industries. For her work on commissioning the evacuated factories at a rapid pace, [general quarters](/wiki/General_quarters \"General quarters\"), and start\\-up of enterprises, and fulfilment of the plan at all costs, Golubtsova was awarded the [Order of the Red Banner of Labour](/wiki/Order_of_the_Red_Banner_of_Labour \"Order of the Red Banner of Labour\").", "In 1942, she returned to Moscow. On 3 June 1943, Golubtsova, an assistant at the Department of Cable Engineering, was appointed director of the Moscow Order of Lenin of the V.M. Molotov Power Engineering Institute. She was the director of the university until 4 January 1952\\.{{Sfn\\|Romanov\\|2010}}", "### As the director of the MPEI", "[right\\|thumb\\|240x240px\\|Moscow Power Engineering Institute (MPEI)](/wiki/File:Lefortovo_mei.jpg \"Lefortovo mei.jpg\")\nBeginning to lead the MPEI, Golubtsova knew the institute well, since she herself graduated from it, studied at its graduate school, and, during her studies, was repeatedly elected to the party bureau of the institute. She knew the teaching staff, the party, Komsomol, trade union activists, the traditions, and the material base of the institute. Consequently, she held considerable renown within the inner circles of the country's foremost party and state officials, as well as the leadership of the electric and thermal power industry, among which were MPEI graduates Alexei Pavlenko, Dmitry Zhimerin, and [Аnatoly Petrakovsky](/wiki/Anatoly_Petrakovsky \"Anatoly Petrakovsky\"). In the position of the director of the institute, Golubtsova did a lot to expand the institute and increase its scientific potential. Those who knew her at work noted her ability to see the future and the ability to organize people to solve tasks.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2022}}", "According to [Boris Chertok](/wiki/Boris_Chertok \"Boris Chertok\")'s memoirs about Golubtsova during the Great Patriotic War:\n> She assumed full responsibility, removed the confused director from the leadership, and organized, as far as possible, a normal evacuation and then the continuation of the educational activities of the institute in a new place. After the war, Golubtsova, as director, showed exceptional activity in the construction of new educational buildings, a pilot plant, the expansion of the laboratory and research base, the construction of a palace of culture, a hostel and residential buildings for professors and teachers. Largely thanks to her energy, combined with her proximity to the highest authorities of the country, a whole town of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute grew up in the area of Krasnokazarmennaya Street. She generously endowed her with organizational talent. The inherent sensitivity found in individuals helped her to unite the efforts of all scientists of the institute with a minimum of contradictions. In any case, the solid MPEI professorship supported the director in all her activities.", "> The work of Golubtsova as director was highly appreciated by her colleagues.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2022}} Professor R.G. Romanov stated:", "", "Valeria Alekseyevna's place is among the most prominent MPEI figures.\nIn my opinion, after the creator of the MPEI, Karl Krug, Valeria Alekseyevna Golubtsova is in second place in terms of importance, in terms of the weight of all her daily work.{{Cite book \\|year\\=2010 \\|title\\=MPEI: History, People, Years: A Collection of Memoirs \\|volume\\=1 \\|pages\\=316}}\n> Professor A.N. Starostin stated:", "I saw in her not only a beautiful intelligent woman, a scientist, and a leader, but also a loving mother, for whom the success and happiness of children is the most important thing in life.{{Cite book \\|year\\=2010 \\|title\\=MPEI: History, People, Years: A Collection of Memoirs \\|volume\\=3 \\|pages\\=166}}\n> Academician Alexander Sheindlin stated:", "This woman, to be fair, really did a lot to turn the MPEI into a first\\-class institution of higher education.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Sheindlin \\|first\\=Alexander \\|title\\=Memoirs of an Old Academician \\|language\\=ru}}", "> The director of the MPEI at the time of Golubtsova's application for the post, Ilya Teltelbaum, stated:", "Director of the MPEI V. A. Golubtsova acted exceptionally bravely and decently. After reviewing the documents and the main works of Ilya Markovich and talking with him, in the midst of the \"doctors' case\" and the fight against \"cosmopolitanism\", she ordered the head of the MPEI personnel department to take this employee under her personal responsibility.{{Cite book \\|year\\=2010 \\|title\\=MPEI: History, People, Years: A Collection of Memoirs \\|volume\\=3 \\|pages\\=298}}Golubtsova found an opportunity and took care of the life of students. From the memoirs of students of this time:\n> Valeria Alekseevna tried to do everything possible to help poor students, and literally dressed the graduate Kalina from head to toe, sending her to the disposal of the Altaienergo department after defending her diploma.", "> Professor A. L. Zinovev stated:", "", "Valeria Alekseevna constantly found opportunities to provide specific targeted assistance to those in particular need of it. And always \"at first there was a word\", a kind word…{{Cite book \\|title\\=MPEI: History, People, Years: A Collection of Memoirs \\|volume\\=1 \\|pages\\=433}}At the same time, in the memoirs of Raisa Kuznetsova, the wife of the Director of the IIET Ivan Kunetsov, Golubtsova's pronounced [antisemitism](/wiki/Antisemitism \"Antisemitism\") is clearly noted, in her opinion.", "In 1944, the [Council of People's Commissars of the USSR](/wiki/Council_of_People%27s_Commissars_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union\") issued a resolution on the development of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute, an all\\-Union training base for power engineers. Valeria Alekseevna took up the implementation of the government's decision with her characteristic energy and perseverance. In a short time, she obtained the necessary funds and materials for the construction of the main building of the MPEI — House Number 17\\. The construction battalion, with the active participation of students and employees, built buildings \"B\", \"C\", \"G\", \"D\" of house number 17, row buildings on the territory of a student hostel, all red brick houses on Energeticheskaya Street. Under the conditions of hostilities, such construction was practically impossible, since each builder was counted, but Valeria Alekseevna succeeded. It was she who was able to resolve the issue of transferring two buildings to MPEI: a large 8\\-story building No. 13, built in 1928–1930 according to the project of a team of domestic authors, and house No. 14, where until 1944 the headquarters of the partisan movement in the Great Patriotic War was located. Later, house number 14 was completed.", "In the spring of 1945, Golubtsova, who had the rank of major, visited Vienna, which had just been taken, in order to obtain a test bench and measuring equipment for MPEI, which were located at the Allgemeine Electrische Gesellschaft (AEG) electrical enterprise that was to be dismantled.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Журнал ЗВЕЗДА \\|url\\=https://zvezdaspb.ru/index.php?page\\=8\\&nput\\=1752 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-28 \\|website\\=zvezdaspb.ru}}", "Golubtsova personally supervised the MPEI research department, the capital construction department, the campus, and the educational department. She took away from the people's commissars, or in her words, \"grabbed captured equipment in Germany\" what was needed to equip the MPEI.", "With the participation and assistance of Valeria Alekseyevna, the MPEI built the only education and experimental combined heat and power plant in the USSR — the MPEI CHPP with a capacity of 12 megawatts, commissioned in 1951\\.{{Sfn\\|Romanov\\|2010}} She achieved the allocation of territory for the construction of rest houses near Moscow and in Crimea, in [Аlupka](/wiki/Alupka \"Alupka\"), and when the rest house in Alupka was confiscated from the MPEI and converted into a [tuberculosis sanatorium](/wiki/Tuberculosis_sanatorium \"Tuberculosis sanatorium\") of the [All\\-Union Central Council of Trade Unions](/wiki/All-Union_Central_Council_of_Trade_Unions \"All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions\"), she insisted on compensation, and the MPEI was allocated a site for the construction of a sports camp in Crimea, in the [Аlush ta](/wiki/Alushta \"Alushta\") region, which later became a cult place for MPEI students.", "Golubtsova actively helped employees in difficult moments of their lives: for many, she \"knocked out\" work cards and vouchers to a sanatorium. She did not expel [Boris Chertok](/wiki/Boris_Chertok \"Boris Chertok\") (in the future, a prominent figure in the Soviet rocket and space industry) from the MPEI for debt, and [Vladimir Kotelnikov](/wiki/Vladimir_Kotelnikov \"Vladimir Kotelnikov\") (later a radio physicist) covered up from the Minister of State Security [Viktor Kotelnikov](/wiki/Viktor_Abakumov \"Viktor Abakumov\"). Among the personal nominees of Golubtsova are MPEI graduates [Vladimir Kotelnikov](/wiki/Vladimir_Kotelnikov \"Vladimir Kotelnikov\"), [Boris Chertok](/wiki/Boris_Chertok \"Boris Chertok\"), [Vladimir Kirillin](/wiki/Vladimir_Kirillin \"Vladimir Kirillin\"), Alexander Sheindlin, [Аlexei Vogomolov](/wiki/Alexei_Bogomolov \"Alexei Bogomolov\"), and dozens of professors.", "### Later years and death", "In 1952, after a serious illness, she was forced to leave the post of director and took up scientific work. From 1953 onwards, she was deputy director of the Institute of the History of Natural Science and Technology. In 1956 she defended her doctoral dissertation on the history of the development of cable technology in the USSR,{{Cite web \\|title\\=Голубцова Валентина Васильевна ( 5/133 ) \\|url\\=http://nlr.ru/e\\-case3/sc2\\.php/web\\_gak/lc/22828/5\\#pict \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-28 \\|website\\=Nlr.ru}} at the same time she was awarded the academic title of professor in the Department of General Electrical Engineering.", "V. A. Golubtsova put forward the idea of publishing and became the editor\\-in\\-chief of the capital two\\-volume History of Power Engineering in the USSR (1957\\).", "After her husband, [Georgy Malenkov](/wiki/Georgy_Malenkov \"Georgy Malenkov\"), was removed from all party and state posts in 1957, she followed him into exile in [Oskemen](/wiki/Oskemen \"Oskemen\"), and later in [Ekibastuz](/wiki/Ekibastuz \"Ekibastuz\").{{Cite web \\|title\\=Valeria Alekseevna Golubtsova – the most powerful rector in the history of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute \\|url\\=http://vseist.tgizd.ru/ru/arhiv/12255 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-28 \\|website\\=vseist.tgizd.ru}} After the death of her mother\\-in\\-law in 1968, they moved to the village of [Udelnaya](/wiki/Udelnaya%2C_Moscow_Oblast \"Udelnaya, Moscow Oblast\") in the [Moscow region](/wiki/Moscow_region \"Moscow region\"). In 1971, she was made a [political pensioner](/wiki/Political_pensioner \"Political pensioner\").", "From 1973 onwards, she lived with her husband in Moscow, on 2 Sinichkina Street, in a two\\-room apartment. In 1980, by the order of [Yuri Andropov](/wiki/Yuri_Andropov \"Yuri Andropov\"), they were given a two\\-room apartment on the [Frunzenskaya Embankment](/wiki/Frunzenskaya_Embankment \"Frunzenskaya Embankment\"), where the couple spent the last years of their lives.{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Зяньковіч \\|first1\\=Мікалай \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=sXJEF6HHyH0C \\|title\\=Самые секретные родственники \\|last2\\=Зенькович \\|first2\\=Николай \\|year\\=2005 \\|publisher\\=ОЛМА Медиа Групп \\|isbn\\=978\\-5\\-94850\\-408\\-7 \\|language\\=ru}}", "Golubtsova died on 1 October 1987\\. She was buried with her husband at the [Kuntsevo Cemetery](/wiki/Kuntsevo_Cemetery \"Kuntsevo Cemetery\") in Moscow.", "" ]
### As the director of the MPEI [right\|thumb\|240x240px\|Moscow Power Engineering Institute (MPEI)](/wiki/File:Lefortovo_mei.jpg "Lefortovo mei.jpg") Beginning to lead the MPEI, Golubtsova knew the institute well, since she herself graduated from it, studied at its graduate school, and, during her studies, was repeatedly elected to the party bureau of the institute. She knew the teaching staff, the party, Komsomol, trade union activists, the traditions, and the material base of the institute. Consequently, she held considerable renown within the inner circles of the country's foremost party and state officials, as well as the leadership of the electric and thermal power industry, among which were MPEI graduates Alexei Pavlenko, Dmitry Zhimerin, and [Аnatoly Petrakovsky](/wiki/Anatoly_Petrakovsky "Anatoly Petrakovsky"). In the position of the director of the institute, Golubtsova did a lot to expand the institute and increase its scientific potential. Those who knew her at work noted her ability to see the future and the ability to organize people to solve tasks.{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2022}} According to [Boris Chertok](/wiki/Boris_Chertok "Boris Chertok")'s memoirs about Golubtsova during the Great Patriotic War: > She assumed full responsibility, removed the confused director from the leadership, and organized, as far as possible, a normal evacuation and then the continuation of the educational activities of the institute in a new place. After the war, Golubtsova, as director, showed exceptional activity in the construction of new educational buildings, a pilot plant, the expansion of the laboratory and research base, the construction of a palace of culture, a hostel and residential buildings for professors and teachers. Largely thanks to her energy, combined with her proximity to the highest authorities of the country, a whole town of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute grew up in the area of Krasnokazarmennaya Street. She generously endowed her with organizational talent. The inherent sensitivity found in individuals helped her to unite the efforts of all scientists of the institute with a minimum of contradictions. In any case, the solid MPEI professorship supported the director in all her activities. > The work of Golubtsova as director was highly appreciated by her colleagues.{{Citation needed\|date\=February 2022}} Professor R.G. Romanov stated: Valeria Alekseyevna's place is among the most prominent MPEI figures. In my opinion, after the creator of the MPEI, Karl Krug, Valeria Alekseyevna Golubtsova is in second place in terms of importance, in terms of the weight of all her daily work.{{Cite book \|year\=2010 \|title\=MPEI: History, People, Years: A Collection of Memoirs \|volume\=1 \|pages\=316}} > Professor A.N. Starostin stated: I saw in her not only a beautiful intelligent woman, a scientist, and a leader, but also a loving mother, for whom the success and happiness of children is the most important thing in life.{{Cite book \|year\=2010 \|title\=MPEI: History, People, Years: A Collection of Memoirs \|volume\=3 \|pages\=166}} > Academician Alexander Sheindlin stated: This woman, to be fair, really did a lot to turn the MPEI into a first\-class institution of higher education.{{Cite book \|last\=Sheindlin \|first\=Alexander \|title\=Memoirs of an Old Academician \|language\=ru}} > The director of the MPEI at the time of Golubtsova's application for the post, Ilya Teltelbaum, stated: Director of the MPEI V. A. Golubtsova acted exceptionally bravely and decently. After reviewing the documents and the main works of Ilya Markovich and talking with him, in the midst of the "doctors' case" and the fight against "cosmopolitanism", she ordered the head of the MPEI personnel department to take this employee under her personal responsibility.{{Cite book \|year\=2010 \|title\=MPEI: History, People, Years: A Collection of Memoirs \|volume\=3 \|pages\=298}}Golubtsova found an opportunity and took care of the life of students. From the memoirs of students of this time: > Valeria Alekseevna tried to do everything possible to help poor students, and literally dressed the graduate Kalina from head to toe, sending her to the disposal of the Altaienergo department after defending her diploma. > Professor A. L. Zinovev stated: Valeria Alekseevna constantly found opportunities to provide specific targeted assistance to those in particular need of it. And always "at first there was a word", a kind word…{{Cite book \|title\=MPEI: History, People, Years: A Collection of Memoirs \|volume\=1 \|pages\=433}}At the same time, in the memoirs of Raisa Kuznetsova, the wife of the Director of the IIET Ivan Kunetsov, Golubtsova's pronounced [antisemitism](/wiki/Antisemitism "Antisemitism") is clearly noted, in her opinion. In 1944, the [Council of People's Commissars of the USSR](/wiki/Council_of_People%27s_Commissars_of_the_Soviet_Union "Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union") issued a resolution on the development of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute, an all\-Union training base for power engineers. Valeria Alekseevna took up the implementation of the government's decision with her characteristic energy and perseverance. In a short time, she obtained the necessary funds and materials for the construction of the main building of the MPEI — House Number 17\. The construction battalion, with the active participation of students and employees, built buildings "B", "C", "G", "D" of house number 17, row buildings on the territory of a student hostel, all red brick houses on Energeticheskaya Street. Under the conditions of hostilities, such construction was practically impossible, since each builder was counted, but Valeria Alekseevna succeeded. It was she who was able to resolve the issue of transferring two buildings to MPEI: a large 8\-story building No. 13, built in 1928–1930 according to the project of a team of domestic authors, and house No. 14, where until 1944 the headquarters of the partisan movement in the Great Patriotic War was located. Later, house number 14 was completed. In the spring of 1945, Golubtsova, who had the rank of major, visited Vienna, which had just been taken, in order to obtain a test bench and measuring equipment for MPEI, which were located at the Allgemeine Electrische Gesellschaft (AEG) electrical enterprise that was to be dismantled.{{Cite web \|title\=Журнал ЗВЕЗДА \|url\=https://zvezdaspb.ru/index.php?page\=8\&nput\=1752 \|access\-date\=2022\-02\-28 \|website\=zvezdaspb.ru}} Golubtsova personally supervised the MPEI research department, the capital construction department, the campus, and the educational department. She took away from the people's commissars, or in her words, "grabbed captured equipment in Germany" what was needed to equip the MPEI. With the participation and assistance of Valeria Alekseyevna, the MPEI built the only education and experimental combined heat and power plant in the USSR — the MPEI CHPP with a capacity of 12 megawatts, commissioned in 1951\.{{Sfn\|Romanov\|2010}} She achieved the allocation of territory for the construction of rest houses near Moscow and in Crimea, in [Аlupka](/wiki/Alupka "Alupka"), and when the rest house in Alupka was confiscated from the MPEI and converted into a [tuberculosis sanatorium](/wiki/Tuberculosis_sanatorium "Tuberculosis sanatorium") of the [All\-Union Central Council of Trade Unions](/wiki/All-Union_Central_Council_of_Trade_Unions "All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions"), she insisted on compensation, and the MPEI was allocated a site for the construction of a sports camp in Crimea, in the [Аlush ta](/wiki/Alushta "Alushta") region, which later became a cult place for MPEI students. Golubtsova actively helped employees in difficult moments of their lives: for many, she "knocked out" work cards and vouchers to a sanatorium. She did not expel [Boris Chertok](/wiki/Boris_Chertok "Boris Chertok") (in the future, a prominent figure in the Soviet rocket and space industry) from the MPEI for debt, and [Vladimir Kotelnikov](/wiki/Vladimir_Kotelnikov "Vladimir Kotelnikov") (later a radio physicist) covered up from the Minister of State Security [Viktor Kotelnikov](/wiki/Viktor_Abakumov "Viktor Abakumov"). Among the personal nominees of Golubtsova are MPEI graduates [Vladimir Kotelnikov](/wiki/Vladimir_Kotelnikov "Vladimir Kotelnikov"), [Boris Chertok](/wiki/Boris_Chertok "Boris Chertok"), [Vladimir Kirillin](/wiki/Vladimir_Kirillin "Vladimir Kirillin"), Alexander Sheindlin, [Аlexei Vogomolov](/wiki/Alexei_Bogomolov "Alexei Bogomolov"), and dozens of professors.
[ "### As the director of the MPEI", "[right\\|thumb\\|240x240px\\|Moscow Power Engineering Institute (MPEI)](/wiki/File:Lefortovo_mei.jpg \"Lefortovo mei.jpg\")\nBeginning to lead the MPEI, Golubtsova knew the institute well, since she herself graduated from it, studied at its graduate school, and, during her studies, was repeatedly elected to the party bureau of the institute. She knew the teaching staff, the party, Komsomol, trade union activists, the traditions, and the material base of the institute. Consequently, she held considerable renown within the inner circles of the country's foremost party and state officials, as well as the leadership of the electric and thermal power industry, among which were MPEI graduates Alexei Pavlenko, Dmitry Zhimerin, and [Аnatoly Petrakovsky](/wiki/Anatoly_Petrakovsky \"Anatoly Petrakovsky\"). In the position of the director of the institute, Golubtsova did a lot to expand the institute and increase its scientific potential. Those who knew her at work noted her ability to see the future and the ability to organize people to solve tasks.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2022}}", "According to [Boris Chertok](/wiki/Boris_Chertok \"Boris Chertok\")'s memoirs about Golubtsova during the Great Patriotic War:\n> She assumed full responsibility, removed the confused director from the leadership, and organized, as far as possible, a normal evacuation and then the continuation of the educational activities of the institute in a new place. After the war, Golubtsova, as director, showed exceptional activity in the construction of new educational buildings, a pilot plant, the expansion of the laboratory and research base, the construction of a palace of culture, a hostel and residential buildings for professors and teachers. Largely thanks to her energy, combined with her proximity to the highest authorities of the country, a whole town of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute grew up in the area of Krasnokazarmennaya Street. She generously endowed her with organizational talent. The inherent sensitivity found in individuals helped her to unite the efforts of all scientists of the institute with a minimum of contradictions. In any case, the solid MPEI professorship supported the director in all her activities.", "> The work of Golubtsova as director was highly appreciated by her colleagues.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2022}} Professor R.G. Romanov stated:", "", "Valeria Alekseyevna's place is among the most prominent MPEI figures.\nIn my opinion, after the creator of the MPEI, Karl Krug, Valeria Alekseyevna Golubtsova is in second place in terms of importance, in terms of the weight of all her daily work.{{Cite book \\|year\\=2010 \\|title\\=MPEI: History, People, Years: A Collection of Memoirs \\|volume\\=1 \\|pages\\=316}}\n> Professor A.N. Starostin stated:", "I saw in her not only a beautiful intelligent woman, a scientist, and a leader, but also a loving mother, for whom the success and happiness of children is the most important thing in life.{{Cite book \\|year\\=2010 \\|title\\=MPEI: History, People, Years: A Collection of Memoirs \\|volume\\=3 \\|pages\\=166}}\n> Academician Alexander Sheindlin stated:", "This woman, to be fair, really did a lot to turn the MPEI into a first\\-class institution of higher education.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Sheindlin \\|first\\=Alexander \\|title\\=Memoirs of an Old Academician \\|language\\=ru}}", "> The director of the MPEI at the time of Golubtsova's application for the post, Ilya Teltelbaum, stated:", "Director of the MPEI V. A. Golubtsova acted exceptionally bravely and decently. After reviewing the documents and the main works of Ilya Markovich and talking with him, in the midst of the \"doctors' case\" and the fight against \"cosmopolitanism\", she ordered the head of the MPEI personnel department to take this employee under her personal responsibility.{{Cite book \\|year\\=2010 \\|title\\=MPEI: History, People, Years: A Collection of Memoirs \\|volume\\=3 \\|pages\\=298}}Golubtsova found an opportunity and took care of the life of students. From the memoirs of students of this time:\n> Valeria Alekseevna tried to do everything possible to help poor students, and literally dressed the graduate Kalina from head to toe, sending her to the disposal of the Altaienergo department after defending her diploma.", "> Professor A. L. Zinovev stated:", "", "Valeria Alekseevna constantly found opportunities to provide specific targeted assistance to those in particular need of it. And always \"at first there was a word\", a kind word…{{Cite book \\|title\\=MPEI: History, People, Years: A Collection of Memoirs \\|volume\\=1 \\|pages\\=433}}At the same time, in the memoirs of Raisa Kuznetsova, the wife of the Director of the IIET Ivan Kunetsov, Golubtsova's pronounced [antisemitism](/wiki/Antisemitism \"Antisemitism\") is clearly noted, in her opinion.", "In 1944, the [Council of People's Commissars of the USSR](/wiki/Council_of_People%27s_Commissars_of_the_Soviet_Union \"Council of People's Commissars of the Soviet Union\") issued a resolution on the development of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute, an all\\-Union training base for power engineers. Valeria Alekseevna took up the implementation of the government's decision with her characteristic energy and perseverance. In a short time, she obtained the necessary funds and materials for the construction of the main building of the MPEI — House Number 17\\. The construction battalion, with the active participation of students and employees, built buildings \"B\", \"C\", \"G\", \"D\" of house number 17, row buildings on the territory of a student hostel, all red brick houses on Energeticheskaya Street. Under the conditions of hostilities, such construction was practically impossible, since each builder was counted, but Valeria Alekseevna succeeded. It was she who was able to resolve the issue of transferring two buildings to MPEI: a large 8\\-story building No. 13, built in 1928–1930 according to the project of a team of domestic authors, and house No. 14, where until 1944 the headquarters of the partisan movement in the Great Patriotic War was located. Later, house number 14 was completed.", "In the spring of 1945, Golubtsova, who had the rank of major, visited Vienna, which had just been taken, in order to obtain a test bench and measuring equipment for MPEI, which were located at the Allgemeine Electrische Gesellschaft (AEG) electrical enterprise that was to be dismantled.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Журнал ЗВЕЗДА \\|url\\=https://zvezdaspb.ru/index.php?page\\=8\\&nput\\=1752 \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-02\\-28 \\|website\\=zvezdaspb.ru}}", "Golubtsova personally supervised the MPEI research department, the capital construction department, the campus, and the educational department. She took away from the people's commissars, or in her words, \"grabbed captured equipment in Germany\" what was needed to equip the MPEI.", "With the participation and assistance of Valeria Alekseyevna, the MPEI built the only education and experimental combined heat and power plant in the USSR — the MPEI CHPP with a capacity of 12 megawatts, commissioned in 1951\\.{{Sfn\\|Romanov\\|2010}} She achieved the allocation of territory for the construction of rest houses near Moscow and in Crimea, in [Аlupka](/wiki/Alupka \"Alupka\"), and when the rest house in Alupka was confiscated from the MPEI and converted into a [tuberculosis sanatorium](/wiki/Tuberculosis_sanatorium \"Tuberculosis sanatorium\") of the [All\\-Union Central Council of Trade Unions](/wiki/All-Union_Central_Council_of_Trade_Unions \"All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions\"), she insisted on compensation, and the MPEI was allocated a site for the construction of a sports camp in Crimea, in the [Аlush ta](/wiki/Alushta \"Alushta\") region, which later became a cult place for MPEI students.", "Golubtsova actively helped employees in difficult moments of their lives: for many, she \"knocked out\" work cards and vouchers to a sanatorium. She did not expel [Boris Chertok](/wiki/Boris_Chertok \"Boris Chertok\") (in the future, a prominent figure in the Soviet rocket and space industry) from the MPEI for debt, and [Vladimir Kotelnikov](/wiki/Vladimir_Kotelnikov \"Vladimir Kotelnikov\") (later a radio physicist) covered up from the Minister of State Security [Viktor Kotelnikov](/wiki/Viktor_Abakumov \"Viktor Abakumov\"). Among the personal nominees of Golubtsova are MPEI graduates [Vladimir Kotelnikov](/wiki/Vladimir_Kotelnikov \"Vladimir Kotelnikov\"), [Boris Chertok](/wiki/Boris_Chertok \"Boris Chertok\"), [Vladimir Kirillin](/wiki/Vladimir_Kirillin \"Vladimir Kirillin\"), Alexander Sheindlin, [Аlexei Vogomolov](/wiki/Alexei_Bogomolov \"Alexei Bogomolov\"), and dozens of professors.", "" ]
Character biography ------------------- The A\-Team is a group of ex\-[United States Army Special Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Special_Forces "United States Army Special Forces") soldiers who, near the end of the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War"), were arrested for a crime they did not commit and managed to escape from the [Military Police](/wiki/Military_Police_Corps_%28United_States%29 "Military Police Corps (United States)"). As fugitives, the A\-Team works as [soldiers of fortune](/wiki/Mercenary "Mercenary"), using their military training to fight oppression or injustice. Hannibal, along with [B. A. Baracus](/wiki/B._A._Baracus "B. A. Baracus"), [Templeton "Faceman" Peck](/wiki/Templeton_Peck "Templeton Peck"), and [H. M. "Howlin' Mad" Murdock](/wiki/H.M._Murdock "H.M. Murdock") make up the A\-Team. In the pilot episode ("[Mexican Slayride: Part 1](/wiki/Mexican_Slayride "Mexican Slayride")"), Hannibal is described by a reporter colleague of Amy Allen as follows: *"The leader \[of the A\-Team] is a Colonel named John Smith. But everybody calls him Hannibal. The guy has a very unorthodox style."* Smith takes his name from the famous [military commander and strategist](/wiki/Hannibal "Hannibal"), as alluded to by B. A. Baracus in the same episode; various items of tie\-in literature for the series commented that just as [the original Hannibal had led the elephants over the Alps](/wiki/Hannibal%27s_crossing_of_the_Alps "Hannibal's crossing of the Alps"), this Hannibal had led his men over the wall of Fort Bragg after they were wrongly arrested. He is distinguished by his unflappable demeanor, even when in peril, his constant [cigar](/wiki/Cigar "Cigar")\-smoking, his black [leather gloves](/wiki/Leather_gloves "Leather gloves"), and his many disguises. He is a master tactician (although his plans rarely turn out as they are supposed to; when asked if she thought this was going to work, Amy Allen summed it up by saying, "Hannibal's plans never work right. They just work.") and seems to have a plan for getting the team out of any situation they get into. His favorite [catchphrase](/wiki/Catchphrase "Catchphrase") is, "*I love it when a plan comes together*"; he is often heard to remark "*Nice*" after part of his plan has succeeded \- sometimes with destructive or explosive results. He fought in both the [Korean](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War") and [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War") Wars, serving in the [5th Special Forces Group](/wiki/5th_Special_Forces_Group_%28United_States%29 "5th Special Forces Group (United States)") in Vietnam, and is a [Medal of Honor](/wiki/Medal_of_Honor "Medal of Honor") recipient. His rank is inconsistent: throughout the first four seasons, he is referred to as possessing the rank of [lieutenant colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel "Lieutenant colonel"), though in keeping with US Army practice, he is most often referred to simply as "Colonel". In the fourth\-season episode "Members Only" and fifth\-season episodes "Trial by Fire" and "Firing Line", however, he is wearing the eagle insignia of a full [colonel](/wiki/Colonel "Colonel"). (His medals in these episodes are also different from those on display the last time he wore his Class A uniform in the first\-season finale, "A Nice Place to Visit".) Thriving on adventure and the adrenaline rush of life\-threatening situations (or being "on the jazz", as the rest of the team refers to it), he seems to genuinely enjoy every challenge they encounter. He is renowned by both allies and enemies for being cool\-headed and extremely clever. There is rarely a situation where he is not able to smile in the face of adversity. He will usually light up a cigar when he needs to do some thinking—often when coming up with a plan, or in the heat of a dangerous or exciting moment. He is also often seen putting on his gloves when he senses the action is about to pick up (such as a fist fight breaking out). When captured by their enemies, he will deliver flippant or sarcastic remarks. He regularly dispenses [aphorisms](/wiki/Aphorism "Aphorism"), especially to their foes, upon defeating them. He also has some medical skills which he picked up when in Vietnam. He styles himself a "master of [disguise](/wiki/Disguise "Disguise")", though his skill lies not so much in how convincing his disguise is, but in his ability to assume any role and convince others that his role is genuine. Most episodes begin with the prospective clients coming to meet the A\-Team, only to be introduced to one of Hannibal's comic aliases. Hannibal uses his various disguises to screen all the A\-Team's potential clients to assure they are not fronts for the military—sometimes playing more than one at a time. Clients often make reference to a "Mr. Lee", the owner of a Chinese laundromat who tells them where to meet the team. Hannibal is also an aspiring actor, playing monsters in low\-budget horror movies (being a fugitive, he can only choose roles in which his face cannot be seen). His many roles include "Gatorella", "Killgator"This role is referred to in the season 4 episode "Uncle Buckle\-Up", when Murdock reviews Hannibal's resumé. and his most famous, "The Aquamaniac".Hannibal as the Aquamaniac is first shown in the pilot, "[Mexican Slayride: Part 1](/wiki/Mexican_Slayride "Mexican Slayride")", and is shown again in the third season episode "Breakout!". Naturally, Hannibal secures his roles playing his own agent; somehow always 'eluding' the Producer of his true identity. ### Romantic relationships * Dr. Maggie Sullivan (season 1 episode 6 ["Black Day at Bad Rock"](/wiki/List_of_The_A-Team_episodes%23Season_1:1983 "1983")) – In an uncharacteristic moment in the series, it is Hannibal who is capable of seducing the episode's leading female role, rather than Face. The character of Maggie Sullivan, portrayed by [Tricia O'Neil](/wiki/Tricia_O%27Neil "Tricia O'Neil"), returns in season 2, episode 21 ["Deadly Maneuvers"](/wiki/List_of_The_A-Team_episodes%23Season_2:1983%E2%80%931984 "1983–1984"), where Hannibal and the doctor still seem to care for one another. * Anne Sanders (season 3 episode 4 ["Fire!"](/wiki/List_of_The_A-Team_episodes%23Season_3:1984%E2%80%931985 "1984–1985")) \- The A\-Team is hired by a female firefighter played by [Stepfanie Kramer](/wiki/Stepfanie_Kramer "Stepfanie Kramer") who is capable of challenging Hannibal. The sexual tension between the two rises throughout the episode. Hannibal seemingly gives in to a short fling with the woman, and they share a kiss at the end of the episode. She is not seen in any subsequent episodes. ### Recurring aliases * "Mr. Lee" – The owner of a Chinese laundromat, who often makes use of clichéd Chinese proverbs and is of unpredictable mood. Mr. Lee only appears on\-screen in the pilot episode "Mexican Slayride: Part 1" (although a shot of Hannibal in character as Mr. Lee is used as part of the first season opening credits sequence). However, the alias of Mr. Lee is often referred to throughout the series by clients and by the team itself, though these examples tended to fade out after the first two seasons. Typically "Mr. Lee" is the first one to screen potential clients and then refers them to a second location to meet a second liaison on behalf of the team.
[ "Character biography\n-------------------", "The A\\-Team is a group of ex\\-[United States Army Special Forces](/wiki/United_States_Army_Special_Forces \"United States Army Special Forces\") soldiers who, near the end of the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\"), were arrested for a crime they did not commit and managed to escape from the [Military Police](/wiki/Military_Police_Corps_%28United_States%29 \"Military Police Corps (United States)\"). As fugitives, the A\\-Team works as [soldiers of fortune](/wiki/Mercenary \"Mercenary\"), using their military training to fight oppression or injustice. Hannibal, along with [B. A. Baracus](/wiki/B._A._Baracus \"B. A. Baracus\"), [Templeton \"Faceman\" Peck](/wiki/Templeton_Peck \"Templeton Peck\"), and [H. M. \"Howlin' Mad\" Murdock](/wiki/H.M._Murdock \"H.M. Murdock\") make up the A\\-Team.", "In the pilot episode (\"[Mexican Slayride: Part 1](/wiki/Mexican_Slayride \"Mexican Slayride\")\"), Hannibal is described by a reporter colleague of Amy Allen as follows: *\"The leader \\[of the A\\-Team] is a Colonel named John Smith. But everybody calls him Hannibal. The guy has a very unorthodox style.\"* Smith takes his name from the famous [military commander and strategist](/wiki/Hannibal \"Hannibal\"), as alluded to by B. A. Baracus in the same episode; various items of tie\\-in literature for the series commented that just as [the original Hannibal had led the elephants over the Alps](/wiki/Hannibal%27s_crossing_of_the_Alps \"Hannibal's crossing of the Alps\"), this Hannibal had led his men over the wall of Fort Bragg after they were wrongly arrested. He is distinguished by his unflappable demeanor, even when in peril, his constant [cigar](/wiki/Cigar \"Cigar\")\\-smoking, his black [leather gloves](/wiki/Leather_gloves \"Leather gloves\"), and his many disguises. He is a master tactician (although his plans rarely turn out as they are supposed to; when asked if she thought this was going to work, Amy Allen summed it up by saying, \"Hannibal's plans never work right. They just work.\") and seems to have a plan for getting the team out of any situation they get into. His favorite [catchphrase](/wiki/Catchphrase \"Catchphrase\") is, \"*I love it when a plan comes together*\"; he is often heard to remark \"*Nice*\" after part of his plan has succeeded \\- sometimes with destructive or explosive results.", "He fought in both the [Korean](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\") and [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\") Wars, serving in the [5th Special Forces Group](/wiki/5th_Special_Forces_Group_%28United_States%29 \"5th Special Forces Group (United States)\") in Vietnam, and is a [Medal of Honor](/wiki/Medal_of_Honor \"Medal of Honor\") recipient. His rank is inconsistent: throughout the first four seasons, he is referred to as possessing the rank of [lieutenant colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel \"Lieutenant colonel\"), though in keeping with US Army practice, he is most often referred to simply as \"Colonel\". In the fourth\\-season episode \"Members Only\" and fifth\\-season episodes \"Trial by Fire\" and \"Firing Line\", however, he is wearing the eagle insignia of a full [colonel](/wiki/Colonel \"Colonel\"). (His medals in these episodes are also different from those on display the last time he wore his Class A uniform in the first\\-season finale, \"A Nice Place to Visit\".) Thriving on adventure and the adrenaline rush of life\\-threatening situations (or being \"on the jazz\", as the rest of the team refers to it), he seems to genuinely enjoy every challenge they encounter. He is renowned by both allies and enemies for being cool\\-headed and extremely clever. There is rarely a situation where he is not able to smile in the face of adversity. He will usually light up a cigar when he needs to do some thinking—often when coming up with a plan, or in the heat of a dangerous or exciting moment. He is also often seen putting on his gloves when he senses the action is about to pick up (such as a fist fight breaking out). When captured by their enemies, he will deliver flippant or sarcastic remarks. He regularly dispenses [aphorisms](/wiki/Aphorism \"Aphorism\"), especially to their foes, upon defeating them. He also has some medical skills which he picked up when in Vietnam.", "He styles himself a \"master of [disguise](/wiki/Disguise \"Disguise\")\", though his skill lies not so much in how convincing his disguise is, but in his ability to assume any role and convince others that his role is genuine. Most episodes begin with the prospective clients coming to meet the A\\-Team, only to be introduced to one of Hannibal's comic aliases. Hannibal uses his various disguises to screen all the A\\-Team's potential clients to assure they are not fronts for the military—sometimes playing more than one at a time. Clients often make reference to a \"Mr. Lee\", the owner of a Chinese laundromat who tells them where to meet the team.", "Hannibal is also an aspiring actor, playing monsters in low\\-budget horror movies (being a fugitive, he can only choose roles in which his face cannot be seen). His many roles include \"Gatorella\", \"Killgator\"This role is referred to in the season 4 episode \"Uncle Buckle\\-Up\", when Murdock reviews Hannibal's resumé. and his most famous, \"The Aquamaniac\".Hannibal as the Aquamaniac is first shown in the pilot, \"[Mexican Slayride: Part 1](/wiki/Mexican_Slayride \"Mexican Slayride\")\", and is shown again in the third season episode \"Breakout!\". Naturally, Hannibal secures his roles playing his own agent; somehow always 'eluding' the Producer of his true identity.", "### Romantic relationships", "* Dr. Maggie Sullivan (season 1 episode 6 [\"Black Day at Bad Rock\"](/wiki/List_of_The_A-Team_episodes%23Season_1:1983 \"1983\")) – In an uncharacteristic moment in the series, it is Hannibal who is capable of seducing the episode's leading female role, rather than Face. The character of Maggie Sullivan, portrayed by [Tricia O'Neil](/wiki/Tricia_O%27Neil \"Tricia O'Neil\"), returns in season 2, episode 21 [\"Deadly Maneuvers\"](/wiki/List_of_The_A-Team_episodes%23Season_2:1983%E2%80%931984 \"1983–1984\"), where Hannibal and the doctor still seem to care for one another.\n* Anne Sanders (season 3 episode 4 [\"Fire!\"](/wiki/List_of_The_A-Team_episodes%23Season_3:1984%E2%80%931985 \"1984–1985\")) \\- The A\\-Team is hired by a female firefighter played by [Stepfanie Kramer](/wiki/Stepfanie_Kramer \"Stepfanie Kramer\") who is capable of challenging Hannibal. The sexual tension between the two rises throughout the episode. Hannibal seemingly gives in to a short fling with the woman, and they share a kiss at the end of the episode. She is not seen in any subsequent episodes.", "### Recurring aliases", "* \"Mr. Lee\" – The owner of a Chinese laundromat, who often makes use of clichéd Chinese proverbs and is of unpredictable mood. Mr. Lee only appears on\\-screen in the pilot episode \"Mexican Slayride: Part 1\" (although a shot of Hannibal in character as Mr. Lee is used as part of the first season opening credits sequence). However, the alias of Mr. Lee is often referred to throughout the series by clients and by the team itself, though these examples tended to fade out after the first two seasons. Typically \"Mr. Lee\" is the first one to screen potential clients and then refers them to a second location to meet a second liaison on behalf of the team." ]
Biography --------- ### Early life and career Warfield was born in [West Helena, Arkansas](/wiki/West_Helena%2C_Arkansas "West Helena, Arkansas"), the oldest of five sons of a Baptist minister. He grew up in [Rochester, New York](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York "Rochester, New York"), where his father was the pastor of Mt. Vernon Church. In 1938, as a senior at Washington High School in Rochester, he won the Music Educators National Song Competition in St. Louis and expressed an interest in pursuing a career on the concert stage.Rochester Democrat and Chronicle, April 1, 1938 p. 47 Inducted into the [U.S. Army](/wiki/United_States_Army "United States Army") in November 1942 during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), Warfield, a senior at the [Eastman School of Music](/wiki/Eastman_School_of_Music "Eastman School of Music"), presented his graduation recital before an overflow audience at Kilbourn Hall, [Eastman Theater](/wiki/Eastman_Theater "Eastman Theater") on November 18\. He attended his graduation ceremony the following May in military uniform.Rochester Democrat and Chronicle articles November 18, 1942 p. 9, November 19, 1942 p. 13, May 3, 1943 After earning his bachelor's degree in 1942 and serving in the military, he returned to the Eastman School to complete a master's degree in 1946\.{{cite web \|title\=William Warfield Honored at the Eastman School of Music: Sculpture and Commemorative Plaque Created \|url\=https://www.esm.rochester.edu/news/2021/08/william\-warfield\-honored\-at\-the\-eastman\-school\-of\-music\-sculpture\-and\-commemorative\-plaque\-created/ \|website\=esm.rochester.edu \|date\=August 31, 2021 \|publisher\=University of Rochester \|access\-date\=15 April 2022}} According to a recent exhibit about WWII, Warfield was one of less than one hundred African American members of the [Ritchie Boys](/wiki/Ritchie_Boys "Ritchie Boys"), thousands of soldiers who were trained at [Fort Ritchie](/wiki/Fort_Ritchie "Fort Ritchie"), Maryland. It was an intelligence center where hundreds of Jewish recruits who fled [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") for the United States were trained to interrogate their one\-time countrymen. According to the exhibit at the Zekelman Holocaust Memorial Center in Farmington Hills, Michigan, Warfield was brought to the camp because of his strong German skills which he perfected while studying music. Because of segregation, his skills were never put to use. According to Warfield, upon induction into the Army he was initially assigned to the ordnance department to be a truck driver, but after he objected, citing his language skills, he was assigned to Ft. Ritchie, where he was in charge of stage shows and spoke fluently with German, Italian and French soldiers in their native languages.Interview by Ruth Watanabe and John Braund of the University of Rochester, December 23, 1992, online at livinghistory.lib.rochester.edu/node/44 He was discharged from the Army, where he had served in military intelligence, in 1946\. Later that year he was cast in the road show tour of [Call Me Mister](/wiki/Call_Me_Mister "Call Me Mister"). According to Warfield, that road show cast included [William Marshall](/wiki/William_Marshall_%28actor%29 "William Marshall (actor)"), [Carl Reiner](/wiki/Carl_Reiner "Carl Reiner"), [Buddy Hackett](/wiki/Buddy_Hackett "Buddy Hackett") and [Bob Fosse](/wiki/Bob_Fosse "Bob Fosse"). Over the next three years he also appeared in "Set My People Free" and the opera [Regina](/wiki/Regina_%28Blitzstein%29 "Regina (Blitzstein)"), while also studying with {{Interlanguage link\|Yves Tinayre\|fr}} and Otto Herz of the veteran's training program of the [American Theatre Wing](/wiki/American_Theatre_Wing "American Theatre Wing").Rochester Democrat and Chronicle articles November 18, 1942 p. 9, November 19, 1942 p. 13, May 3, 1943 page 13, April 27, 1946 page 10, October 21, 1946 March 8, 1950 p. 13 He gave his recital debut in New York's [Town Hall](/wiki/The_Town_Hall_%28New_York_City%29 "The Town Hall (New York City)") on March 19, 1950\. He was quickly invited by the [Australian Broadcasting Corporation](/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation "Australian Broadcasting Corporation") to tour Australia and give 35 concerts. In 1952, Warfield performed in *[Porgy and Bess](/wiki/Porgy_and_Bess "Porgy and Bess")* during a tour of Europe sponsored by the [U.S. State Department](/wiki/U.S._State_Department "U.S. State Department") (he made six separate tours for the US Department of State, more than any other American solo artist). In this production, he played opposite the opera star [Leontyne Price](/wiki/Leontyne_Price "Leontyne Price"), whom he soon married, but the demands of two separate careers left them little time together. They divorced in 1972, but were featured together in a 1963 studio recording of excerpts from *Porgy and Bess*. In 1969 he participated in an oratorio in Riverside Park with youth from the New York All\-City High School Chorus as a public service. His dear friend and colleague Marian Anderson invited the youth to her home in Connecticut afterwards. Warfield accompanied the youth; it was the same weekend as the Woodstock Festival that some of the youth’s friends went to instead. In 1975 he accepted an appointment as Professor of Music at the [University of Illinois at Urbana\-Champaign](/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana-Champaign "University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign"). He later became Chairman of the Voice Department. In 1994, he moved to Northwestern University's School of Music, where he stayed until his death. {{ external media \|float\= center \|width\= 260px \|audio1\= You may hear William Warfield with \[\[Aaron Copland]] conducting the \[\[Columbia Symphony Orchestra]] in Copland's "\[\[Old American Songs]]" in 1963 \[https://archive.org/details/lp\_clarinet\-concerto\-old\-american\-songs\_aaron\-copland\-benny\-goodman\-william\-warfie\_0/disc1/01\.01\.\+Clarinet\+Concerto.mp3 '''Here on Archive.org''']}} He sang the premiere performances of the version for soloist and orchestra of Set I of [Aaron Copland](/wiki/Aaron_Copland "Aaron Copland")'s *[Old American Songs](/wiki/Old_American_Songs "Old American Songs")* in 1955, and of the version for soloist and piano of Set II of the collection in 1958\. (He also recorded both sets of the songs.) His vocal talents were also featured on two recordings of [Handel](/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel "George Frideric Handel")'s "[Messiah](/wiki/Messiah_%28Handel%29 "Messiah (Handel)")" – a classic, but heavily cut, performance by the [Philadelphia Orchestra](/wiki/Philadelphia_Orchestra "Philadelphia Orchestra") under the direction of [Eugene Ormandy](/wiki/Eugene_Ormandy "Eugene Ormandy") (released in 1959\), and a lesser\-known, drastically restructured recording made in 1956, also heavily cut, with [Leonard Bernstein](/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein "Leonard Bernstein") and the [New York Philharmonic](/wiki/New_York_Philharmonic "New York Philharmonic"). Bernstein combined the Christmas and Resurrection sections and ended with the arias and choruses depicting the death of Jesus. The Ormandy recording featured the [Mormon Tabernacle Choir](/wiki/Mormon_Tabernacle_Choir "Mormon Tabernacle Choir"), and Bernstein's the [Westminster Choir](/wiki/Westminster_Choir "Westminster Choir"). Warfield was also accomplished in acting and poetry recitation. He played the character "The Lord" in a celebrated *[Hallmark Hall of Fame](/wiki/Hallmark_Hall_of_Fame "Hallmark Hall of Fame")* television production of "[The Green Pastures](/wiki/The_Green_Pastures_%28Hallmark_Hall_of_Fame%29 "The Green Pastures (Hallmark Hall of Fame)")", a role he played twice on live TV (both versions survive as kinescopes).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.esm.rochester.edu/alumni/files/WilliamWarfield.htm\|title\=William Warfield BM 42\|publisher\=rochester.edu\|access\-date\=February 27, 2015}} He appeared in two Hollywood films, including a star\-making performance as Joe in [Metro\-Goldwyn\-Mayer](/wiki/Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer")'s 1951 [Technicolor remake](/wiki/Show_Boat_%281951_film%29 "Show Boat (1951 film)") of *Show Boat*. His other film was called *Old Explorers* (1990\), starring [James Whitmore](/wiki/James_Whitmore "James Whitmore") and [José Ferrer](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ferrer "José Ferrer"). In a nod to *Show Boat*, Warfield played a [cameo role](/wiki/Cameo_role "Cameo role") as a tugboat captain. Footage of Warfield in *Show Boat* has been included in several TV shows and/or films, notably *[That's Entertainment!](/wiki/That%27s_Entertainment%21 "That's Entertainment!")*. Warfield played his *Show Boat* role in two other productions of the musical – the 1966 [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center "Lincoln Center") production, and a 1972 production in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna"). He sang "[Ol' Man River](/wiki/Ol%27_Man_River "Ol' Man River")" in three different record albums of the show – the 1951 motion picture soundtrack album on [MGM Records](/wiki/MGM_Records "MGM Records"), a 1962 studio album featuring [Barbara Cook](/wiki/Barbara_Cook "Barbara Cook") and [John Raitt](/wiki/John_Raitt "John Raitt") on [Columbia Masterworks](/wiki/Columbia_Masterworks "Columbia Masterworks"), and the [RCA Victor](/wiki/RCA_Victor "RCA Victor") album made from the [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center "Lincoln Center") production. He made an appearance on *[The Colgate Comedy Hour](/wiki/The_Colgate_Comedy_Hour "The Colgate Comedy Hour")* and on a program called *TV Recital Hall* in 1951, the same year that he made his screen debut in *Show Boat*. He later appeared on *[The Ed Sullivan Show](/wiki/The_Ed_Sullivan_Show "The Ed Sullivan Show")* in 1955\. In 1961, he appeared as a recital soloist on an episode of the [Young People's Concerts](/wiki/Young_People%27s_Concerts "Young People's Concerts"), conducted by [Leonard Bernstein](/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein "Leonard Bernstein"). In March 1984 he was the winner of a [Grammy Award](/wiki/Grammy_Award "Grammy Award") in the "Spoken Word" category for his outstanding narration of [Aaron Copland](/wiki/Aaron_Copland "Aaron Copland")'s *[Lincoln Portrait](/wiki/Lincoln_Portrait "Lincoln Portrait")*, accompanied by the Eastman Philharmonia [http://www.esm.rochester.edu/tag/eastman\-philharmonia/](http://www.esm.rochester.edu/tag/eastman-philharmonia/). And in the 1990s, he narrated a special [jazz](/wiki/Jazz "Jazz") arrangement of music from *Show Boat*, on the [PRI](/wiki/Public_Radio_International "Public Radio International") program [Riverwalk Jazz](/wiki/Riverwalk_Jazz "Riverwalk Jazz"). In 1999, Warfield joined baritones [Robert Sims](/wiki/Robert_Sims_%28baritone%29 "Robert Sims (baritone)") and Benjamin Matthews in a trio by the name of "Three Generations". Managed by Arthur White, this ensemble toured the United States giving full concerts of African\-American spirituals and folk songs until Warfield's death in 2002\. ### Decline and death Beginning in 1962, Warfield began to have trouble with his voice, a situation he described in his autobiography. By 1966 his voice had deepened from bass\-baritone to a full\-fledged [bass](/wiki/Bass_%28vocal_range%29 "Bass (vocal range)"), and he could not sing the climactic high note on *Ol' Man River* as easily as he had in the 1951 film version. To compensate he had to sing even more expressively than he had before. {{citation needed\|date\=March 2016}} By 1976, Warfield, although still making various stage and television appearances, was not singing as much as he had in the past. He served as narrator in various orchestral works, such as [Aaron Copland](/wiki/Aaron_Copland "Aaron Copland")'s *[Lincoln Portrait](/wiki/Lincoln_Portrait "Lincoln Portrait")*, and occasionally performed *[sprechstimme](/wiki/Sprechgesang "Sprechgesang")* roles in works by [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg "Arnold Schoenberg"). In the summer of 1976, he reprised his role as Porgy in a Lake George Opera Festival production of *Porgy and Bess*. Despite his issues, he did sing on occasion during his final years, despite the fact that by then his singing voice was practically gone. In those years, when he sang "[Ol' Man River](/wiki/Ol%27_Man_River "Ol' Man River")", he would not perform it with the original lyrics, but with the altered ones that [Paul Robeson](/wiki/Paul_Robeson "Paul Robeson") used in his recitals beginning in 1938\. Sarah Lennox (2011\). "Reading Transnationally: the GDR and American Black Writers" in Elaine Kelly, Amy Wlodarski (eds.), Art Outside the Lines: New Perspectives on GDR Art Culture. Editions Rodopi. ISBN 978\-90\-420\-3341\-2\. p.124 He died in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago") in August 2002, following treatment at Northwestern Memorial Hospital, succumbing to injuries he sustained in his neck from a fall a month prior.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/08/27/obituaries/27WARF.html\|title\=William Warfield, 82, Baritone Known for 'Porgy,' Is Dead\|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]\|date\=August 27, 2002\|access\-date\=February 27, 2015}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.allmusic.com/artist/william\-warfield\-mn0000686511\|title\=Artist Biography by Joseph Stevenson\|publisher\=allmusic.com\|access\-date\=February 27, 2015}}
[ "Biography\n---------", "### Early life and career", "Warfield was born in [West Helena, Arkansas](/wiki/West_Helena%2C_Arkansas \"West Helena, Arkansas\"), the oldest of five sons of a Baptist minister. He grew up in [Rochester, New York](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York \"Rochester, New York\"), where his father was the pastor of Mt. Vernon Church. In 1938, as a senior at Washington High School in Rochester, he won the Music Educators National Song Competition in St. Louis and expressed an interest in pursuing a career on the concert stage.Rochester Democrat and Chronicle, April 1, 1938 p. 47 Inducted into the [U.S. Army](/wiki/United_States_Army \"United States Army\") in November 1942 during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), Warfield, a senior at the [Eastman School of Music](/wiki/Eastman_School_of_Music \"Eastman School of Music\"), presented his graduation recital before an overflow audience at Kilbourn Hall, [Eastman Theater](/wiki/Eastman_Theater \"Eastman Theater\") on November 18\\. He attended his graduation ceremony the following May in military uniform.Rochester Democrat and Chronicle articles November 18, 1942 p. 9, November 19, 1942 p. 13, May 3, 1943 After earning his bachelor's degree in 1942 and serving in the military, he returned to the Eastman School to complete a master's degree in 1946\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=William Warfield Honored at the Eastman School of Music: Sculpture and Commemorative Plaque Created \\|url\\=https://www.esm.rochester.edu/news/2021/08/william\\-warfield\\-honored\\-at\\-the\\-eastman\\-school\\-of\\-music\\-sculpture\\-and\\-commemorative\\-plaque\\-created/ \\|website\\=esm.rochester.edu \\|date\\=August 31, 2021 \\|publisher\\=University of Rochester \\|access\\-date\\=15 April 2022}}", "According to a recent exhibit about WWII, Warfield was one of less than one hundred African American members of the [Ritchie Boys](/wiki/Ritchie_Boys \"Ritchie Boys\"), thousands of soldiers who were trained at [Fort Ritchie](/wiki/Fort_Ritchie \"Fort Ritchie\"), Maryland. It was an intelligence center where hundreds of Jewish recruits who fled [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") for the United States were trained to interrogate their one\\-time countrymen. According to the exhibit at the Zekelman Holocaust Memorial Center in Farmington Hills, Michigan, Warfield was brought to the camp because of his strong German skills which he perfected while studying music. Because of segregation, his skills were never put to use.", "According to Warfield, upon induction into the Army he was initially assigned to the ordnance department to be a truck driver, but after he objected, citing his language skills, he was assigned to Ft. Ritchie, where he was in charge of stage shows and spoke fluently with German, Italian and French soldiers in their native languages.Interview by Ruth Watanabe and John Braund of the University of Rochester, December 23, 1992, online at livinghistory.lib.rochester.edu/node/44", "He was discharged from the Army, where he had served in military intelligence, in 1946\\. Later that year he was cast in the road show tour of [Call Me Mister](/wiki/Call_Me_Mister \"Call Me Mister\"). According to Warfield, that road show cast included [William Marshall](/wiki/William_Marshall_%28actor%29 \"William Marshall (actor)\"), [Carl Reiner](/wiki/Carl_Reiner \"Carl Reiner\"), [Buddy Hackett](/wiki/Buddy_Hackett \"Buddy Hackett\") and [Bob Fosse](/wiki/Bob_Fosse \"Bob Fosse\"). Over the next three years he also appeared in \"Set My People Free\" and the opera [Regina](/wiki/Regina_%28Blitzstein%29 \"Regina (Blitzstein)\"), while also studying with {{Interlanguage link\\|Yves Tinayre\\|fr}} and Otto Herz of the veteran's training program of the [American Theatre Wing](/wiki/American_Theatre_Wing \"American Theatre Wing\").Rochester Democrat and Chronicle articles November 18, 1942 p. 9, November 19, 1942 p. 13, May 3, 1943 page 13, April 27, 1946 page 10, October 21, 1946 March 8, 1950 p. 13", "He gave his recital debut in New York's [Town Hall](/wiki/The_Town_Hall_%28New_York_City%29 \"The Town Hall (New York City)\") on March 19, 1950\\. He was quickly invited by the [Australian Broadcasting Corporation](/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation \"Australian Broadcasting Corporation\") to tour Australia and give 35 concerts. In 1952, Warfield performed in *[Porgy and Bess](/wiki/Porgy_and_Bess \"Porgy and Bess\")* during a tour of Europe sponsored by the [U.S. State Department](/wiki/U.S._State_Department \"U.S. State Department\") (he made six separate tours for the US Department of State, more than any other American solo artist). In this production, he played opposite the opera star [Leontyne Price](/wiki/Leontyne_Price \"Leontyne Price\"), whom he soon married, but the demands of two separate careers left them little time together. They divorced in 1972, but were featured together in a 1963 studio recording of excerpts from *Porgy and Bess*.", "In 1969 he participated in an oratorio in Riverside Park with youth from the New York All\\-City High School Chorus as a public service. His dear friend and colleague Marian Anderson invited the youth to her home in Connecticut afterwards. Warfield accompanied the youth; it was the same weekend as the Woodstock Festival that some of the youth’s friends went to instead.", "In 1975 he accepted an appointment as Professor of Music at the [University of Illinois at Urbana\\-Champaign](/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana-Champaign \"University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign\"). He later became Chairman of the Voice Department. In 1994, he moved to Northwestern University's School of Music, where he stayed until his death.", "{{ external media \\|float\\= center \\|width\\= 260px \\|audio1\\= You may hear William Warfield with \\[\\[Aaron Copland]] conducting the \\[\\[Columbia Symphony Orchestra]] in Copland's \"\\[\\[Old American Songs]]\" \n in 1963 \\[https://archive.org/details/lp\\_clarinet\\-concerto\\-old\\-american\\-songs\\_aaron\\-copland\\-benny\\-goodman\\-william\\-warfie\\_0/disc1/01\\.01\\.\\+Clarinet\\+Concerto.mp3 '''Here on Archive.org''']}}", "He sang the premiere performances of the version for soloist and orchestra of Set I of [Aaron Copland](/wiki/Aaron_Copland \"Aaron Copland\")'s *[Old American Songs](/wiki/Old_American_Songs \"Old American Songs\")* in 1955, and of the version for soloist and piano of Set II of the collection in 1958\\. (He also recorded both sets of the songs.) His vocal talents were also featured on two recordings of [Handel](/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel \"George Frideric Handel\")'s \"[Messiah](/wiki/Messiah_%28Handel%29 \"Messiah (Handel)\")\" – a classic, but heavily cut, performance by the [Philadelphia Orchestra](/wiki/Philadelphia_Orchestra \"Philadelphia Orchestra\") under the direction of [Eugene Ormandy](/wiki/Eugene_Ormandy \"Eugene Ormandy\") (released in 1959\\), and a lesser\\-known, drastically restructured recording made in 1956, also heavily cut, with [Leonard Bernstein](/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein \"Leonard Bernstein\") and the [New York Philharmonic](/wiki/New_York_Philharmonic \"New York Philharmonic\"). Bernstein combined the Christmas and Resurrection sections and ended with the arias and choruses depicting the death of Jesus. The Ormandy recording featured the [Mormon Tabernacle Choir](/wiki/Mormon_Tabernacle_Choir \"Mormon Tabernacle Choir\"), and Bernstein's the [Westminster Choir](/wiki/Westminster_Choir \"Westminster Choir\").", "Warfield was also accomplished in acting and poetry recitation. He played the character \"The Lord\" in a celebrated *[Hallmark Hall of Fame](/wiki/Hallmark_Hall_of_Fame \"Hallmark Hall of Fame\")* television production of \"[The Green Pastures](/wiki/The_Green_Pastures_%28Hallmark_Hall_of_Fame%29 \"The Green Pastures (Hallmark Hall of Fame)\")\", a role he played twice on live TV (both versions survive as kinescopes).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.esm.rochester.edu/alumni/files/WilliamWarfield.htm\\|title\\=William Warfield BM 42\\|publisher\\=rochester.edu\\|access\\-date\\=February 27, 2015}} He appeared in two Hollywood films, including a star\\-making performance as Joe in [Metro\\-Goldwyn\\-Mayer](/wiki/Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer \"Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer\")'s 1951 [Technicolor remake](/wiki/Show_Boat_%281951_film%29 \"Show Boat (1951 film)\") of *Show Boat*. His other film was called *Old Explorers* (1990\\), starring [James Whitmore](/wiki/James_Whitmore \"James Whitmore\") and [José Ferrer](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ferrer \"José Ferrer\"). In a nod to *Show Boat*, Warfield played a [cameo role](/wiki/Cameo_role \"Cameo role\") as a tugboat captain. Footage of Warfield in *Show Boat* has been included in several TV shows and/or films, notably *[That's Entertainment!](/wiki/That%27s_Entertainment%21 \"That's Entertainment!\")*. Warfield played his *Show Boat* role in two other productions of the musical – the 1966 [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center \"Lincoln Center\") production, and a 1972 production in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\"). He sang \"[Ol' Man River](/wiki/Ol%27_Man_River \"Ol' Man River\")\" in three different record albums of the show – the 1951 motion picture soundtrack album on [MGM Records](/wiki/MGM_Records \"MGM Records\"), a 1962 studio album featuring [Barbara Cook](/wiki/Barbara_Cook \"Barbara Cook\") and [John Raitt](/wiki/John_Raitt \"John Raitt\") on [Columbia Masterworks](/wiki/Columbia_Masterworks \"Columbia Masterworks\"), and the [RCA Victor](/wiki/RCA_Victor \"RCA Victor\") album made from the [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center \"Lincoln Center\") production.", "He made an appearance on *[The Colgate Comedy Hour](/wiki/The_Colgate_Comedy_Hour \"The Colgate Comedy Hour\")* and on a program called *TV Recital Hall* in 1951, the same year that he made his screen debut in *Show Boat*. He later appeared on *[The Ed Sullivan Show](/wiki/The_Ed_Sullivan_Show \"The Ed Sullivan Show\")* in 1955\\. In 1961, he appeared as a recital soloist on an episode of the [Young People's Concerts](/wiki/Young_People%27s_Concerts \"Young People's Concerts\"), conducted by [Leonard Bernstein](/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein \"Leonard Bernstein\"). In March 1984 he was the winner of a [Grammy Award](/wiki/Grammy_Award \"Grammy Award\") in the \"Spoken Word\" category for his outstanding narration of [Aaron Copland](/wiki/Aaron_Copland \"Aaron Copland\")'s *[Lincoln Portrait](/wiki/Lincoln_Portrait \"Lincoln Portrait\")*, accompanied by the Eastman Philharmonia [http://www.esm.rochester.edu/tag/eastman\\-philharmonia/](http://www.esm.rochester.edu/tag/eastman-philharmonia/). And in the 1990s, he narrated a special [jazz](/wiki/Jazz \"Jazz\") arrangement of music from *Show Boat*, on the [PRI](/wiki/Public_Radio_International \"Public Radio International\") program [Riverwalk Jazz](/wiki/Riverwalk_Jazz \"Riverwalk Jazz\"). In 1999, Warfield joined baritones [Robert Sims](/wiki/Robert_Sims_%28baritone%29 \"Robert Sims (baritone)\") and Benjamin Matthews in a trio by the name of \"Three Generations\". Managed by Arthur White, this ensemble toured the United States giving full concerts of African\\-American spirituals and folk songs until Warfield's death in 2002\\.", "### Decline and death", "Beginning in 1962, Warfield began to have trouble with his voice, a situation he described in his autobiography. By 1966 his voice had deepened from bass\\-baritone to a full\\-fledged [bass](/wiki/Bass_%28vocal_range%29 \"Bass (vocal range)\"), and he could not sing the climactic high note on *Ol' Man River* as easily as he had in the 1951 film version. To compensate he had to sing even more expressively than he had before. {{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2016}}", "By 1976, Warfield, although still making various stage and television appearances, was not singing as much as he had in the past. He served as narrator in various orchestral works, such as [Aaron Copland](/wiki/Aaron_Copland \"Aaron Copland\")'s *[Lincoln Portrait](/wiki/Lincoln_Portrait \"Lincoln Portrait\")*, and occasionally performed *[sprechstimme](/wiki/Sprechgesang \"Sprechgesang\")* roles in works by [Arnold Schoenberg](/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg \"Arnold Schoenberg\"). In the summer of 1976, he reprised his role as Porgy in a Lake George Opera Festival production of *Porgy and Bess*. Despite his issues, he did sing on occasion during his final years, despite the fact that by then his singing voice was practically gone. In those years, when he sang \"[Ol' Man River](/wiki/Ol%27_Man_River \"Ol' Man River\")\", he would not perform it with the original lyrics, but with the altered ones that [Paul Robeson](/wiki/Paul_Robeson \"Paul Robeson\") used in his recitals beginning in 1938\\. Sarah Lennox (2011\\). \"Reading Transnationally: the GDR and American Black Writers\" in Elaine Kelly, Amy Wlodarski (eds.), Art Outside the Lines: New Perspectives on GDR Art Culture. Editions Rodopi. ISBN 978\\-90\\-420\\-3341\\-2\\. p.124", "He died in [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\") in August 2002, following treatment at Northwestern Memorial Hospital, succumbing to injuries he sustained in his neck from a fall a month prior.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/08/27/obituaries/27WARF.html\\|title\\=William Warfield, 82, Baritone Known for 'Porgy,' Is Dead\\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]\\|date\\=August 27, 2002\\|access\\-date\\=February 27, 2015}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.allmusic.com/artist/william\\-warfield\\-mn0000686511\\|title\\=Artist Biography by Joseph Stevenson\\|publisher\\=allmusic.com\\|access\\-date\\=February 27, 2015}}", "" ]
### Early life and career Warfield was born in [West Helena, Arkansas](/wiki/West_Helena%2C_Arkansas "West Helena, Arkansas"), the oldest of five sons of a Baptist minister. He grew up in [Rochester, New York](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York "Rochester, New York"), where his father was the pastor of Mt. Vernon Church. In 1938, as a senior at Washington High School in Rochester, he won the Music Educators National Song Competition in St. Louis and expressed an interest in pursuing a career on the concert stage.Rochester Democrat and Chronicle, April 1, 1938 p. 47 Inducted into the [U.S. Army](/wiki/United_States_Army "United States Army") in November 1942 during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"), Warfield, a senior at the [Eastman School of Music](/wiki/Eastman_School_of_Music "Eastman School of Music"), presented his graduation recital before an overflow audience at Kilbourn Hall, [Eastman Theater](/wiki/Eastman_Theater "Eastman Theater") on November 18\. He attended his graduation ceremony the following May in military uniform.Rochester Democrat and Chronicle articles November 18, 1942 p. 9, November 19, 1942 p. 13, May 3, 1943 After earning his bachelor's degree in 1942 and serving in the military, he returned to the Eastman School to complete a master's degree in 1946\.{{cite web \|title\=William Warfield Honored at the Eastman School of Music: Sculpture and Commemorative Plaque Created \|url\=https://www.esm.rochester.edu/news/2021/08/william\-warfield\-honored\-at\-the\-eastman\-school\-of\-music\-sculpture\-and\-commemorative\-plaque\-created/ \|website\=esm.rochester.edu \|date\=August 31, 2021 \|publisher\=University of Rochester \|access\-date\=15 April 2022}} According to a recent exhibit about WWII, Warfield was one of less than one hundred African American members of the [Ritchie Boys](/wiki/Ritchie_Boys "Ritchie Boys"), thousands of soldiers who were trained at [Fort Ritchie](/wiki/Fort_Ritchie "Fort Ritchie"), Maryland. It was an intelligence center where hundreds of Jewish recruits who fled [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") for the United States were trained to interrogate their one\-time countrymen. According to the exhibit at the Zekelman Holocaust Memorial Center in Farmington Hills, Michigan, Warfield was brought to the camp because of his strong German skills which he perfected while studying music. Because of segregation, his skills were never put to use. According to Warfield, upon induction into the Army he was initially assigned to the ordnance department to be a truck driver, but after he objected, citing his language skills, he was assigned to Ft. Ritchie, where he was in charge of stage shows and spoke fluently with German, Italian and French soldiers in their native languages.Interview by Ruth Watanabe and John Braund of the University of Rochester, December 23, 1992, online at livinghistory.lib.rochester.edu/node/44 He was discharged from the Army, where he had served in military intelligence, in 1946\. Later that year he was cast in the road show tour of [Call Me Mister](/wiki/Call_Me_Mister "Call Me Mister"). According to Warfield, that road show cast included [William Marshall](/wiki/William_Marshall_%28actor%29 "William Marshall (actor)"), [Carl Reiner](/wiki/Carl_Reiner "Carl Reiner"), [Buddy Hackett](/wiki/Buddy_Hackett "Buddy Hackett") and [Bob Fosse](/wiki/Bob_Fosse "Bob Fosse"). Over the next three years he also appeared in "Set My People Free" and the opera [Regina](/wiki/Regina_%28Blitzstein%29 "Regina (Blitzstein)"), while also studying with {{Interlanguage link\|Yves Tinayre\|fr}} and Otto Herz of the veteran's training program of the [American Theatre Wing](/wiki/American_Theatre_Wing "American Theatre Wing").Rochester Democrat and Chronicle articles November 18, 1942 p. 9, November 19, 1942 p. 13, May 3, 1943 page 13, April 27, 1946 page 10, October 21, 1946 March 8, 1950 p. 13 He gave his recital debut in New York's [Town Hall](/wiki/The_Town_Hall_%28New_York_City%29 "The Town Hall (New York City)") on March 19, 1950\. He was quickly invited by the [Australian Broadcasting Corporation](/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation "Australian Broadcasting Corporation") to tour Australia and give 35 concerts. In 1952, Warfield performed in *[Porgy and Bess](/wiki/Porgy_and_Bess "Porgy and Bess")* during a tour of Europe sponsored by the [U.S. State Department](/wiki/U.S._State_Department "U.S. State Department") (he made six separate tours for the US Department of State, more than any other American solo artist). In this production, he played opposite the opera star [Leontyne Price](/wiki/Leontyne_Price "Leontyne Price"), whom he soon married, but the demands of two separate careers left them little time together. They divorced in 1972, but were featured together in a 1963 studio recording of excerpts from *Porgy and Bess*. In 1969 he participated in an oratorio in Riverside Park with youth from the New York All\-City High School Chorus as a public service. His dear friend and colleague Marian Anderson invited the youth to her home in Connecticut afterwards. Warfield accompanied the youth; it was the same weekend as the Woodstock Festival that some of the youth’s friends went to instead. In 1975 he accepted an appointment as Professor of Music at the [University of Illinois at Urbana\-Champaign](/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana-Champaign "University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign"). He later became Chairman of the Voice Department. In 1994, he moved to Northwestern University's School of Music, where he stayed until his death. {{ external media \|float\= center \|width\= 260px \|audio1\= You may hear William Warfield with \[\[Aaron Copland]] conducting the \[\[Columbia Symphony Orchestra]] in Copland's "\[\[Old American Songs]]" in 1963 \[https://archive.org/details/lp\_clarinet\-concerto\-old\-american\-songs\_aaron\-copland\-benny\-goodman\-william\-warfie\_0/disc1/01\.01\.\+Clarinet\+Concerto.mp3 '''Here on Archive.org''']}} He sang the premiere performances of the version for soloist and orchestra of Set I of [Aaron Copland](/wiki/Aaron_Copland "Aaron Copland")'s *[Old American Songs](/wiki/Old_American_Songs "Old American Songs")* in 1955, and of the version for soloist and piano of Set II of the collection in 1958\. (He also recorded both sets of the songs.) His vocal talents were also featured on two recordings of [Handel](/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel "George Frideric Handel")'s "[Messiah](/wiki/Messiah_%28Handel%29 "Messiah (Handel)")" – a classic, but heavily cut, performance by the [Philadelphia Orchestra](/wiki/Philadelphia_Orchestra "Philadelphia Orchestra") under the direction of [Eugene Ormandy](/wiki/Eugene_Ormandy "Eugene Ormandy") (released in 1959\), and a lesser\-known, drastically restructured recording made in 1956, also heavily cut, with [Leonard Bernstein](/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein "Leonard Bernstein") and the [New York Philharmonic](/wiki/New_York_Philharmonic "New York Philharmonic"). Bernstein combined the Christmas and Resurrection sections and ended with the arias and choruses depicting the death of Jesus. The Ormandy recording featured the [Mormon Tabernacle Choir](/wiki/Mormon_Tabernacle_Choir "Mormon Tabernacle Choir"), and Bernstein's the [Westminster Choir](/wiki/Westminster_Choir "Westminster Choir"). Warfield was also accomplished in acting and poetry recitation. He played the character "The Lord" in a celebrated *[Hallmark Hall of Fame](/wiki/Hallmark_Hall_of_Fame "Hallmark Hall of Fame")* television production of "[The Green Pastures](/wiki/The_Green_Pastures_%28Hallmark_Hall_of_Fame%29 "The Green Pastures (Hallmark Hall of Fame)")", a role he played twice on live TV (both versions survive as kinescopes).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.esm.rochester.edu/alumni/files/WilliamWarfield.htm\|title\=William Warfield BM 42\|publisher\=rochester.edu\|access\-date\=February 27, 2015}} He appeared in two Hollywood films, including a star\-making performance as Joe in [Metro\-Goldwyn\-Mayer](/wiki/Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer")'s 1951 [Technicolor remake](/wiki/Show_Boat_%281951_film%29 "Show Boat (1951 film)") of *Show Boat*. His other film was called *Old Explorers* (1990\), starring [James Whitmore](/wiki/James_Whitmore "James Whitmore") and [José Ferrer](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ferrer "José Ferrer"). In a nod to *Show Boat*, Warfield played a [cameo role](/wiki/Cameo_role "Cameo role") as a tugboat captain. Footage of Warfield in *Show Boat* has been included in several TV shows and/or films, notably *[That's Entertainment!](/wiki/That%27s_Entertainment%21 "That's Entertainment!")*. Warfield played his *Show Boat* role in two other productions of the musical – the 1966 [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center "Lincoln Center") production, and a 1972 production in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna"). He sang "[Ol' Man River](/wiki/Ol%27_Man_River "Ol' Man River")" in three different record albums of the show – the 1951 motion picture soundtrack album on [MGM Records](/wiki/MGM_Records "MGM Records"), a 1962 studio album featuring [Barbara Cook](/wiki/Barbara_Cook "Barbara Cook") and [John Raitt](/wiki/John_Raitt "John Raitt") on [Columbia Masterworks](/wiki/Columbia_Masterworks "Columbia Masterworks"), and the [RCA Victor](/wiki/RCA_Victor "RCA Victor") album made from the [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center "Lincoln Center") production. He made an appearance on *[The Colgate Comedy Hour](/wiki/The_Colgate_Comedy_Hour "The Colgate Comedy Hour")* and on a program called *TV Recital Hall* in 1951, the same year that he made his screen debut in *Show Boat*. He later appeared on *[The Ed Sullivan Show](/wiki/The_Ed_Sullivan_Show "The Ed Sullivan Show")* in 1955\. In 1961, he appeared as a recital soloist on an episode of the [Young People's Concerts](/wiki/Young_People%27s_Concerts "Young People's Concerts"), conducted by [Leonard Bernstein](/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein "Leonard Bernstein"). In March 1984 he was the winner of a [Grammy Award](/wiki/Grammy_Award "Grammy Award") in the "Spoken Word" category for his outstanding narration of [Aaron Copland](/wiki/Aaron_Copland "Aaron Copland")'s *[Lincoln Portrait](/wiki/Lincoln_Portrait "Lincoln Portrait")*, accompanied by the Eastman Philharmonia [http://www.esm.rochester.edu/tag/eastman\-philharmonia/](http://www.esm.rochester.edu/tag/eastman-philharmonia/). And in the 1990s, he narrated a special [jazz](/wiki/Jazz "Jazz") arrangement of music from *Show Boat*, on the [PRI](/wiki/Public_Radio_International "Public Radio International") program [Riverwalk Jazz](/wiki/Riverwalk_Jazz "Riverwalk Jazz"). In 1999, Warfield joined baritones [Robert Sims](/wiki/Robert_Sims_%28baritone%29 "Robert Sims (baritone)") and Benjamin Matthews in a trio by the name of "Three Generations". Managed by Arthur White, this ensemble toured the United States giving full concerts of African\-American spirituals and folk songs until Warfield's death in 2002\.
[ "### Early life and career", "Warfield was born in [West Helena, Arkansas](/wiki/West_Helena%2C_Arkansas \"West Helena, Arkansas\"), the oldest of five sons of a Baptist minister. He grew up in [Rochester, New York](/wiki/Rochester%2C_New_York \"Rochester, New York\"), where his father was the pastor of Mt. Vernon Church. In 1938, as a senior at Washington High School in Rochester, he won the Music Educators National Song Competition in St. Louis and expressed an interest in pursuing a career on the concert stage.Rochester Democrat and Chronicle, April 1, 1938 p. 47 Inducted into the [U.S. Army](/wiki/United_States_Army \"United States Army\") in November 1942 during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"), Warfield, a senior at the [Eastman School of Music](/wiki/Eastman_School_of_Music \"Eastman School of Music\"), presented his graduation recital before an overflow audience at Kilbourn Hall, [Eastman Theater](/wiki/Eastman_Theater \"Eastman Theater\") on November 18\\. He attended his graduation ceremony the following May in military uniform.Rochester Democrat and Chronicle articles November 18, 1942 p. 9, November 19, 1942 p. 13, May 3, 1943 After earning his bachelor's degree in 1942 and serving in the military, he returned to the Eastman School to complete a master's degree in 1946\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=William Warfield Honored at the Eastman School of Music: Sculpture and Commemorative Plaque Created \\|url\\=https://www.esm.rochester.edu/news/2021/08/william\\-warfield\\-honored\\-at\\-the\\-eastman\\-school\\-of\\-music\\-sculpture\\-and\\-commemorative\\-plaque\\-created/ \\|website\\=esm.rochester.edu \\|date\\=August 31, 2021 \\|publisher\\=University of Rochester \\|access\\-date\\=15 April 2022}}", "According to a recent exhibit about WWII, Warfield was one of less than one hundred African American members of the [Ritchie Boys](/wiki/Ritchie_Boys \"Ritchie Boys\"), thousands of soldiers who were trained at [Fort Ritchie](/wiki/Fort_Ritchie \"Fort Ritchie\"), Maryland. It was an intelligence center where hundreds of Jewish recruits who fled [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") for the United States were trained to interrogate their one\\-time countrymen. According to the exhibit at the Zekelman Holocaust Memorial Center in Farmington Hills, Michigan, Warfield was brought to the camp because of his strong German skills which he perfected while studying music. Because of segregation, his skills were never put to use.", "According to Warfield, upon induction into the Army he was initially assigned to the ordnance department to be a truck driver, but after he objected, citing his language skills, he was assigned to Ft. Ritchie, where he was in charge of stage shows and spoke fluently with German, Italian and French soldiers in their native languages.Interview by Ruth Watanabe and John Braund of the University of Rochester, December 23, 1992, online at livinghistory.lib.rochester.edu/node/44", "He was discharged from the Army, where he had served in military intelligence, in 1946\\. Later that year he was cast in the road show tour of [Call Me Mister](/wiki/Call_Me_Mister \"Call Me Mister\"). According to Warfield, that road show cast included [William Marshall](/wiki/William_Marshall_%28actor%29 \"William Marshall (actor)\"), [Carl Reiner](/wiki/Carl_Reiner \"Carl Reiner\"), [Buddy Hackett](/wiki/Buddy_Hackett \"Buddy Hackett\") and [Bob Fosse](/wiki/Bob_Fosse \"Bob Fosse\"). Over the next three years he also appeared in \"Set My People Free\" and the opera [Regina](/wiki/Regina_%28Blitzstein%29 \"Regina (Blitzstein)\"), while also studying with {{Interlanguage link\\|Yves Tinayre\\|fr}} and Otto Herz of the veteran's training program of the [American Theatre Wing](/wiki/American_Theatre_Wing \"American Theatre Wing\").Rochester Democrat and Chronicle articles November 18, 1942 p. 9, November 19, 1942 p. 13, May 3, 1943 page 13, April 27, 1946 page 10, October 21, 1946 March 8, 1950 p. 13", "He gave his recital debut in New York's [Town Hall](/wiki/The_Town_Hall_%28New_York_City%29 \"The Town Hall (New York City)\") on March 19, 1950\\. He was quickly invited by the [Australian Broadcasting Corporation](/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation \"Australian Broadcasting Corporation\") to tour Australia and give 35 concerts. In 1952, Warfield performed in *[Porgy and Bess](/wiki/Porgy_and_Bess \"Porgy and Bess\")* during a tour of Europe sponsored by the [U.S. State Department](/wiki/U.S._State_Department \"U.S. State Department\") (he made six separate tours for the US Department of State, more than any other American solo artist). In this production, he played opposite the opera star [Leontyne Price](/wiki/Leontyne_Price \"Leontyne Price\"), whom he soon married, but the demands of two separate careers left them little time together. They divorced in 1972, but were featured together in a 1963 studio recording of excerpts from *Porgy and Bess*.", "In 1969 he participated in an oratorio in Riverside Park with youth from the New York All\\-City High School Chorus as a public service. His dear friend and colleague Marian Anderson invited the youth to her home in Connecticut afterwards. Warfield accompanied the youth; it was the same weekend as the Woodstock Festival that some of the youth’s friends went to instead.", "In 1975 he accepted an appointment as Professor of Music at the [University of Illinois at Urbana\\-Champaign](/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana-Champaign \"University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign\"). He later became Chairman of the Voice Department. In 1994, he moved to Northwestern University's School of Music, where he stayed until his death.", "{{ external media \\|float\\= center \\|width\\= 260px \\|audio1\\= You may hear William Warfield with \\[\\[Aaron Copland]] conducting the \\[\\[Columbia Symphony Orchestra]] in Copland's \"\\[\\[Old American Songs]]\" \n in 1963 \\[https://archive.org/details/lp\\_clarinet\\-concerto\\-old\\-american\\-songs\\_aaron\\-copland\\-benny\\-goodman\\-william\\-warfie\\_0/disc1/01\\.01\\.\\+Clarinet\\+Concerto.mp3 '''Here on Archive.org''']}}", "He sang the premiere performances of the version for soloist and orchestra of Set I of [Aaron Copland](/wiki/Aaron_Copland \"Aaron Copland\")'s *[Old American Songs](/wiki/Old_American_Songs \"Old American Songs\")* in 1955, and of the version for soloist and piano of Set II of the collection in 1958\\. (He also recorded both sets of the songs.) His vocal talents were also featured on two recordings of [Handel](/wiki/George_Frideric_Handel \"George Frideric Handel\")'s \"[Messiah](/wiki/Messiah_%28Handel%29 \"Messiah (Handel)\")\" – a classic, but heavily cut, performance by the [Philadelphia Orchestra](/wiki/Philadelphia_Orchestra \"Philadelphia Orchestra\") under the direction of [Eugene Ormandy](/wiki/Eugene_Ormandy \"Eugene Ormandy\") (released in 1959\\), and a lesser\\-known, drastically restructured recording made in 1956, also heavily cut, with [Leonard Bernstein](/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein \"Leonard Bernstein\") and the [New York Philharmonic](/wiki/New_York_Philharmonic \"New York Philharmonic\"). Bernstein combined the Christmas and Resurrection sections and ended with the arias and choruses depicting the death of Jesus. The Ormandy recording featured the [Mormon Tabernacle Choir](/wiki/Mormon_Tabernacle_Choir \"Mormon Tabernacle Choir\"), and Bernstein's the [Westminster Choir](/wiki/Westminster_Choir \"Westminster Choir\").", "Warfield was also accomplished in acting and poetry recitation. He played the character \"The Lord\" in a celebrated *[Hallmark Hall of Fame](/wiki/Hallmark_Hall_of_Fame \"Hallmark Hall of Fame\")* television production of \"[The Green Pastures](/wiki/The_Green_Pastures_%28Hallmark_Hall_of_Fame%29 \"The Green Pastures (Hallmark Hall of Fame)\")\", a role he played twice on live TV (both versions survive as kinescopes).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.esm.rochester.edu/alumni/files/WilliamWarfield.htm\\|title\\=William Warfield BM 42\\|publisher\\=rochester.edu\\|access\\-date\\=February 27, 2015}} He appeared in two Hollywood films, including a star\\-making performance as Joe in [Metro\\-Goldwyn\\-Mayer](/wiki/Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer \"Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer\")'s 1951 [Technicolor remake](/wiki/Show_Boat_%281951_film%29 \"Show Boat (1951 film)\") of *Show Boat*. His other film was called *Old Explorers* (1990\\), starring [James Whitmore](/wiki/James_Whitmore \"James Whitmore\") and [José Ferrer](/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ferrer \"José Ferrer\"). In a nod to *Show Boat*, Warfield played a [cameo role](/wiki/Cameo_role \"Cameo role\") as a tugboat captain. Footage of Warfield in *Show Boat* has been included in several TV shows and/or films, notably *[That's Entertainment!](/wiki/That%27s_Entertainment%21 \"That's Entertainment!\")*. Warfield played his *Show Boat* role in two other productions of the musical – the 1966 [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center \"Lincoln Center\") production, and a 1972 production in [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\"). He sang \"[Ol' Man River](/wiki/Ol%27_Man_River \"Ol' Man River\")\" in three different record albums of the show – the 1951 motion picture soundtrack album on [MGM Records](/wiki/MGM_Records \"MGM Records\"), a 1962 studio album featuring [Barbara Cook](/wiki/Barbara_Cook \"Barbara Cook\") and [John Raitt](/wiki/John_Raitt \"John Raitt\") on [Columbia Masterworks](/wiki/Columbia_Masterworks \"Columbia Masterworks\"), and the [RCA Victor](/wiki/RCA_Victor \"RCA Victor\") album made from the [Lincoln Center](/wiki/Lincoln_Center \"Lincoln Center\") production.", "He made an appearance on *[The Colgate Comedy Hour](/wiki/The_Colgate_Comedy_Hour \"The Colgate Comedy Hour\")* and on a program called *TV Recital Hall* in 1951, the same year that he made his screen debut in *Show Boat*. He later appeared on *[The Ed Sullivan Show](/wiki/The_Ed_Sullivan_Show \"The Ed Sullivan Show\")* in 1955\\. In 1961, he appeared as a recital soloist on an episode of the [Young People's Concerts](/wiki/Young_People%27s_Concerts \"Young People's Concerts\"), conducted by [Leonard Bernstein](/wiki/Leonard_Bernstein \"Leonard Bernstein\"). In March 1984 he was the winner of a [Grammy Award](/wiki/Grammy_Award \"Grammy Award\") in the \"Spoken Word\" category for his outstanding narration of [Aaron Copland](/wiki/Aaron_Copland \"Aaron Copland\")'s *[Lincoln Portrait](/wiki/Lincoln_Portrait \"Lincoln Portrait\")*, accompanied by the Eastman Philharmonia [http://www.esm.rochester.edu/tag/eastman\\-philharmonia/](http://www.esm.rochester.edu/tag/eastman-philharmonia/). And in the 1990s, he narrated a special [jazz](/wiki/Jazz \"Jazz\") arrangement of music from *Show Boat*, on the [PRI](/wiki/Public_Radio_International \"Public Radio International\") program [Riverwalk Jazz](/wiki/Riverwalk_Jazz \"Riverwalk Jazz\"). In 1999, Warfield joined baritones [Robert Sims](/wiki/Robert_Sims_%28baritone%29 \"Robert Sims (baritone)\") and Benjamin Matthews in a trio by the name of \"Three Generations\". Managed by Arthur White, this ensemble toured the United States giving full concerts of African\\-American spirituals and folk songs until Warfield's death in 2002\\.", "" ]
History ------- Prior to 1966, the Delhi franchise was a member of the Shamrock Junior D Hockey League. In 1966, they jumped to the Southern Counties Junior D Hockey League. In 1972, the team changed their name from the Rockets to the Flames. The 1980–81 season saw the Flames raise to the heights of provincial recognition. They finished second overall in the Southern league standings with 21 wins, seven losses, and six ties, a fair distance behind the first place [St. George Dukes](/wiki/St._George_Dukes "St. George Dukes"). Once in the playoffs, the Flames took the Southern league by storm and won their first ever league championship. The victory launched the Flames into the provincial final in competition for the OHA Cup. Their opponents were the [Belmont Bombers](/wiki/Belmont_Bombers "Belmont Bombers"), the champions of the Western Junior D Hockey League. The Bombers made quick work of the Flames, sweeping the series 4\-games\-to\-none. In the 1986 playoffs, the Flames once again took the Southern league crown. The victory brought them into line for another crack at the OHA Cup. Once in the provincial final, they found them against the Western league champions [Seaforth Centenaires](/wiki/Seaforth_Centenaires "Seaforth Centenaires"). The Centenaires were battle\-hardened from their play in the North Division of the 12\-team Western league and kept the Flames at bay for a 4\-games\-to\-1 series victory. In 1988, Delhi's Southern league folded and merged with the Western league to create a province\-wide 18\-team super\-league. In 1991, the Western league was dropped in favour of the OHA Junior Development League. From their point of entry into the Western league in 1988, the Delhi Flames found themselves in vast trouble. In 1991, the team changed their names to the Delhi Leafs to honour the towns former Intermediate league representative. The Leafs suffered horrible losing season from 1991 all the way until they opted to change their team name to the Delhi Travellers in 1998\. After one season under the Travellers moniker, and one of their worst seasons in franchise history, the team took a leave of absence from the OHAJDL. In 2000–01, the Travellers were back and finished in thirteenth place overall in the OHAJDL. This marked their best finish since entering the league in 1988\. A year later they had a winning record. In fact, as of 2007, every season from 2000\-on the Travellers at least matched their previous seasons performance if not bettered it. After the 2005–06 season, the Travellers found themselves in second place overall in the OHAJDL with 29 wins. In the opening round of the playoffs, the Travellers challenged and defeated the [Burford Bulldogs](/wiki/Burford_Bulldogs "Burford Bulldogs") 4\-games\-to\-2\. In the conference semi\-final, the Travellers then met the [Hagersville Hawks](/wiki/Hagersville_Hawks "Hagersville Hawks") and beat them 4\-games\-to\-3\. Then Delhi challenged the [Tavistock Braves](/wiki/Tavistock_Braves "Tavistock Braves") and swept them 4\-games\-to\-none to win their first ever birth into the league final since joining the league eighteen years before. They met the underdog [Lucan Irish](/wiki/Lucan_Irish "Lucan Irish"), a seventh seed berth from the other conference who defied all odds to make it this far. The Irish were not to be denied of the [Cinderella](/wiki/Cinderella_%28sports%29 "Cinderella (sports)") story, as they defeated the Travellers 4\-games\-to\-2 to win the OHA Cup. After 2006, the OHAJDL was disbanded and replaced by the [Southern Ontario Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Southern_Ontario_Junior_Hockey_League "Southern Ontario Junior Hockey League"). In its first season, the Travellers finished in second place despite winning 32 games—three more than the previous season. In the first round of the playoffs, the Travellers challenged the [Port Dover Sailors](/wiki/Port_Dover_Sailors "Port Dover Sailors"). The Travellers had no problem with the Sailors and swept them 4\-games\-to\-none. The next round had Delhi faced off against the [St. George Dukes](/wiki/St._George_Dukes "St. George Dukes"). The longtime rivals went to six games with Delhi win the series 4\-games\-to\-2\. The next round had the Travellers trying for their second straight conference title against the [Tavistock Braves](/wiki/Tavistock_Braves "Tavistock Braves"). The series went the distance and the Travellers came out on top in Game 7 winning the series 4\-games\-to\-3\. In their second straight final, the Travellers met a tough foe in the [Mitchell Hawks](/wiki/Mitchell_Hawks "Mitchell Hawks"). The Hawks and Travellers fought, but the Hawks won Game 6 and took the series 4\-games\-to\-2 to take away Delhi's second straight chance at the OHA Cup. In the Summer of 2013, after much uncertainty, the Travellers ended up in the new [Midwestern Junior C Hockey League](/wiki/Midwestern_Junior_C_Hockey_League "Midwestern Junior C Hockey League"). In 2014–15, the team finished an [Imperfect Season](/wiki/Imperfect_Season "Imperfect Season"), losing all 40 games played. For the 2016–17 season the eight Junior "C" hockey leagues in Southern Ontario amalgamated into one league, the [Provincial Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Provincial_Junior_Hockey_League "Provincial Junior Hockey League"). The Midwestern League were placed in the Central Conference and re\-branded the Pat Doherty division. The playoffs for the 2019–20 season were cancelled due to the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ontario "COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario"), leading to the team not being able to play a single game.
[ "History\n-------", "Prior to 1966, the Delhi franchise was a member of the Shamrock Junior D Hockey League. In 1966, they jumped to the Southern Counties Junior D Hockey League. In 1972, the team changed their name from the Rockets to the Flames.", "The 1980–81 season saw the Flames raise to the heights of provincial recognition. They finished second overall in the Southern league standings with 21 wins, seven losses, and six ties, a fair distance behind the first place [St. George Dukes](/wiki/St._George_Dukes \"St. George Dukes\"). Once in the playoffs, the Flames took the Southern league by storm and won their first ever league championship. The victory launched the Flames into the provincial final in competition for the OHA Cup. Their opponents were the [Belmont Bombers](/wiki/Belmont_Bombers \"Belmont Bombers\"), the champions of the Western Junior D Hockey League. The Bombers made quick work of the Flames, sweeping the series 4\\-games\\-to\\-none.", "In the 1986 playoffs, the Flames once again took the Southern league crown. The victory brought them into line for another crack at the OHA Cup. Once in the provincial final, they found them against the Western league champions [Seaforth Centenaires](/wiki/Seaforth_Centenaires \"Seaforth Centenaires\"). The Centenaires were battle\\-hardened from their play in the North Division of the 12\\-team Western league and kept the Flames at bay for a 4\\-games\\-to\\-1 series victory.", "In 1988, Delhi's Southern league folded and merged with the Western league to create a province\\-wide 18\\-team super\\-league. In 1991, the Western league was dropped in favour of the OHA Junior Development League.", "From their point of entry into the Western league in 1988, the Delhi Flames found themselves in vast trouble. In 1991, the team changed their names to the Delhi Leafs to honour the towns former Intermediate league representative. The Leafs suffered horrible losing season from 1991 all the way until they opted to change their team name to the Delhi Travellers in 1998\\. After one season under the Travellers moniker, and one of their worst seasons in franchise history, the team took a leave of absence from the OHAJDL.", "In 2000–01, the Travellers were back and finished in thirteenth place overall in the OHAJDL. This marked their best finish since entering the league in 1988\\. A year later they had a winning record. In fact, as of 2007, every season from 2000\\-on the Travellers at least matched their previous seasons performance if not bettered it.", "After the 2005–06 season, the Travellers found themselves in second place overall in the OHAJDL with 29 wins. In the opening round of the playoffs, the Travellers challenged and defeated the [Burford Bulldogs](/wiki/Burford_Bulldogs \"Burford Bulldogs\") 4\\-games\\-to\\-2\\. In the conference semi\\-final, the Travellers then met the [Hagersville Hawks](/wiki/Hagersville_Hawks \"Hagersville Hawks\") and beat them 4\\-games\\-to\\-3\\. Then Delhi challenged the [Tavistock Braves](/wiki/Tavistock_Braves \"Tavistock Braves\") and swept them 4\\-games\\-to\\-none to win their first ever birth into the league final since joining the league eighteen years before. They met the underdog [Lucan Irish](/wiki/Lucan_Irish \"Lucan Irish\"), a seventh seed berth from the other conference who defied all odds to make it this far. The Irish were not to be denied of the [Cinderella](/wiki/Cinderella_%28sports%29 \"Cinderella (sports)\") story, as they defeated the Travellers 4\\-games\\-to\\-2 to win the OHA Cup.", "After 2006, the OHAJDL was disbanded and replaced by the [Southern Ontario Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Southern_Ontario_Junior_Hockey_League \"Southern Ontario Junior Hockey League\"). In its first season, the Travellers finished in second place despite winning 32 games—three more than the previous season. In the first round of the playoffs, the Travellers challenged the [Port Dover Sailors](/wiki/Port_Dover_Sailors \"Port Dover Sailors\"). The Travellers had no problem with the Sailors and swept them 4\\-games\\-to\\-none. The next round had Delhi faced off against the [St. George Dukes](/wiki/St._George_Dukes \"St. George Dukes\"). The longtime rivals went to six games with Delhi win the series 4\\-games\\-to\\-2\\. The next round had the Travellers trying for their second straight conference title against the [Tavistock Braves](/wiki/Tavistock_Braves \"Tavistock Braves\"). The series went the distance and the Travellers came out on top in Game 7 winning the series 4\\-games\\-to\\-3\\. In their second straight final, the Travellers met a tough foe in the [Mitchell Hawks](/wiki/Mitchell_Hawks \"Mitchell Hawks\"). The Hawks and Travellers fought, but the Hawks won Game 6 and took the series 4\\-games\\-to\\-2 to take away Delhi's second straight chance at the OHA Cup.", "In the Summer of 2013, after much uncertainty, the Travellers ended up in the new [Midwestern Junior C Hockey League](/wiki/Midwestern_Junior_C_Hockey_League \"Midwestern Junior C Hockey League\"). In 2014–15, the team finished an [Imperfect Season](/wiki/Imperfect_Season \"Imperfect Season\"), losing all 40 games played.", "For the 2016–17 season the eight Junior \"C\" hockey leagues in Southern Ontario amalgamated into one league, the [Provincial Junior Hockey League](/wiki/Provincial_Junior_Hockey_League \"Provincial Junior Hockey League\"). The Midwestern League were placed in the Central Conference and re\\-branded the Pat Doherty division.", "The playoffs for the 2019–20 season were cancelled due to the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Ontario \"COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario\"), leading to the team not being able to play a single game.", "" ]
Club career ----------- ### Europe Although excelling as a [skier](/wiki/Skier "Skier") in his youth, Baudet chose to concentrate on football, beginning his career with [Toulouse FC](/wiki/Toulouse_FC "Toulouse FC") in France, where he spent two years, clocking up 21 league appearances. In 2001 Baudet moved to [Oldham Athletic](/wiki/Oldham_Athletic_A.F.C. "Oldham Athletic A.F.C.") in the [third tier](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division "Football League Second Division") in England on a free transfer. Spending two years at Oldham, he made 44 league appearances, scoring his first goal on 20 April 2002 against [Queens Park Rangers](/wiki/Queens_Park_Rangers_F.C. "Queens Park Rangers F.C."). After a free transfer in summer 2003 to [Rotherham United](/wiki/Rotherham_United_F.C. "Rotherham United F.C.") in the [second tier](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division "Football League First Division"), Baudet played 11 times in the league before a free transfer to [Notts County](/wiki/Notts_County_F.C. "Notts County F.C.") in [Football League Two](/wiki/Football_League_Two "Football League Two"), where he spent two seasons as a regular starter and became club captain. In July 2006, Baudet moved on yet another free transfer – to [Crewe Alexandra](/wiki/Crewe_Alexandra_F.C. "Crewe Alexandra F.C.") – where he improved his game a great deal under the guidance of [Steve Holland](/wiki/Steve_Holland_%28footballer%29 "Steve Holland (footballer)") and [Dario Gradi](/wiki/Dario_Gradi "Dario Gradi"), becoming the club captain after the retirement of [Neil Cox](/wiki/Neil_Cox_%28footballer%29 "Neil Cox (footballer)"). He scored his first goal away at [Carlisle United](/wiki/Carlisle_United_F.C. "Carlisle United F.C."), and became quickly became a fans favourite and a vital part of the whole team including defence and attack. He was known as "the beast" by Crewe fans for his strong bustling presence and his contributions to the attack with spectacular long range free\-kicks. After being voted the Fans' Player of the Year for the [2007–08](/wiki/2007-08_in_English_football "2007-08 in English football") season, Baudet commented, with typical understatement, that he was "relatively pleased" with the way he played over the year and that "like all footballers you do have good and bad days, but I think I have been fairly consistent in what has proved to be a disappointing season for the club", referring to Crewe's relegation battle to stay in League One.{{cite news \|title\=Great Honour For Baudet \|url\=http://www.crewealex.premiumtv.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10414\~1307577,00\.html \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120630230658/http://www.crewealex.premiumtv.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10414\~1307577,00\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=30 June 2012 \|publisher\=\[\[Crewe Alexandra F.C.]] \|date\=7 May 2008 \|accessdate\=8 May 2008 }} ### North America On 17 April 2009, Baudet reported that he would transfer at the end of the 2008–09 season to the [Colorado Rapids](/wiki/Colorado_Rapids "Colorado Rapids") of [Major League Soccer](/wiki/Major_League_Soccer "Major League Soccer"). On 25 July 2009 Baudet made his competitive home debut for Colorado Rapids, breaking his arm in the first half after landing awkwardly on it. Baudet received a yellow card for the reckless challenge which resulted in the broken arm. Colorado eventually won the game 4–0 over [New York Red Bulls](/wiki/New_York_Red_Bulls "New York Red Bulls"). Upon his return from injury on 30 August 2009, Baudet came on as a substitute and opened his account with the Rapids, scoring the only goal in a 1–0 win over [Houston Dynamo](/wiki/Houston_Dynamo "Houston Dynamo"). After winning the [MLS Cup](/wiki/MLS_Cup "MLS Cup") with Colorado, Baudet was traded to [Seattle Sounders FC](/wiki/Seattle_Sounders_FC "Seattle Sounders FC"), along with teammate [Danny Earls](/wiki/Danny_Earls "Danny Earls"), on 22 November 2010\.{{cite news\| url\=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/soundersfcblog/2013497325\_sounders\_fc\_trade\_vagenas\_to\_c.html \| work\=The Seattle Times \| first\=Joshua \| last\=Mayers \| title\=Sounders FC trade Vagenas to Colorado for two defenders \| date\=22 November 2010}} ### Celtic trial On 7 February 2011, Baudet featured in a [Celtic](/wiki/Celtic_F.C. "Celtic F.C.") XI who faced the [League of Ireland](/wiki/League_of_Ireland "League of Ireland") team [Shamrock Rovers](/wiki/Shamrock_Rovers_F.C. "Shamrock Rovers F.C.") at the [Tallaght Stadium](/wiki/Tallaght_Stadium "Tallaght Stadium") in Dublin. He played the full 90 minutes as Celtic ran out 2–0 winners, with goals from [Daryl Murphy](/wiki/Daryl_Murphy "Daryl Murphy") and [Graham Carey](/wiki/Graham_Carey "Graham Carey"). ### GF38 Baudet played his first match with [Grenoble Foot 38](/wiki/Grenoble_Foot_38 "Grenoble Foot 38") of the [Championnat de France amateur](/wiki/Championnat_de_France_amateur "Championnat de France amateur") or CFA, the fourth level of French football, on 21 July 2012\. Baudet expressed excitement for the opportunity to play for his hometown team.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.gf38\.fr/effectif\-et\-staff\-eq\-1\-cfa\-2012\-2013/ \|date\=4 August 2012 \|language\=French \|url\-status\=dead \|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120820020547/http://www.gf38\.fr/effectif\-et\-staff\-eq\-1\-cfa\-2012\-2013/ \|archivedate\=20 August 2012 }}
[ "Club career\n-----------", "### Europe", "Although excelling as a [skier](/wiki/Skier \"Skier\") in his youth, Baudet chose to concentrate on football, beginning his career with [Toulouse FC](/wiki/Toulouse_FC \"Toulouse FC\") in France, where he spent two years, clocking up 21 league appearances.", "In 2001 Baudet moved to [Oldham Athletic](/wiki/Oldham_Athletic_A.F.C. \"Oldham Athletic A.F.C.\") in the [third tier](/wiki/Football_League_Second_Division \"Football League Second Division\") in England on a free transfer. Spending two years at Oldham, he made 44 league appearances, scoring his first goal on 20 April 2002 against [Queens Park Rangers](/wiki/Queens_Park_Rangers_F.C. \"Queens Park Rangers F.C.\").", "After a free transfer in summer 2003 to [Rotherham United](/wiki/Rotherham_United_F.C. \"Rotherham United F.C.\") in the [second tier](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division \"Football League First Division\"), Baudet played 11 times in the league before a free transfer to [Notts County](/wiki/Notts_County_F.C. \"Notts County F.C.\") in [Football League Two](/wiki/Football_League_Two \"Football League Two\"), where he spent two seasons as a regular starter and became club captain.", "In July 2006, Baudet moved on yet another free transfer – to [Crewe Alexandra](/wiki/Crewe_Alexandra_F.C. \"Crewe Alexandra F.C.\") – where he improved his game a great deal under the guidance of [Steve Holland](/wiki/Steve_Holland_%28footballer%29 \"Steve Holland (footballer)\") and [Dario Gradi](/wiki/Dario_Gradi \"Dario Gradi\"), becoming the club captain after the retirement of [Neil Cox](/wiki/Neil_Cox_%28footballer%29 \"Neil Cox (footballer)\"). He scored his first goal away at [Carlisle United](/wiki/Carlisle_United_F.C. \"Carlisle United F.C.\"), and became quickly became a fans favourite and a vital part of the whole team including defence and attack. He was known as \"the beast\" by Crewe fans for his strong bustling presence and his contributions to the attack with spectacular long range free\\-kicks.", "After being voted the Fans' Player of the Year for the [2007–08](/wiki/2007-08_in_English_football \"2007-08 in English football\") season, Baudet commented, with typical understatement, that he was \"relatively pleased\" with the way he played over the year and that \"like all footballers you do have good and bad days, but I think I have been fairly consistent in what has proved to be a disappointing season for the club\", referring to Crewe's relegation battle to stay in League One.{{cite news \\|title\\=Great Honour For Baudet \\|url\\=http://www.crewealex.premiumtv.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10414\\~1307577,00\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120630230658/http://www.crewealex.premiumtv.co.uk/page/NewsDetail/0,,10414\\~1307577,00\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=30 June 2012 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Crewe Alexandra F.C.]] \\|date\\=7 May 2008 \\|accessdate\\=8 May 2008 }}", "### North America", "On 17 April 2009, Baudet reported that he would transfer at the end of the 2008–09 season to the [Colorado Rapids](/wiki/Colorado_Rapids \"Colorado Rapids\") of [Major League Soccer](/wiki/Major_League_Soccer \"Major League Soccer\"). On 25 July 2009 Baudet made his competitive home debut for Colorado Rapids, breaking his arm in the first half after landing awkwardly on it. Baudet received a yellow card for the reckless challenge which resulted in the broken arm. Colorado eventually won the game 4–0 over [New York Red Bulls](/wiki/New_York_Red_Bulls \"New York Red Bulls\"). Upon his return from injury on 30 August 2009, Baudet came on as a substitute and opened his account with the Rapids, scoring the only goal in a 1–0 win over [Houston Dynamo](/wiki/Houston_Dynamo \"Houston Dynamo\").", "After winning the [MLS Cup](/wiki/MLS_Cup \"MLS Cup\") with Colorado, Baudet was traded to [Seattle Sounders FC](/wiki/Seattle_Sounders_FC \"Seattle Sounders FC\"), along with teammate [Danny Earls](/wiki/Danny_Earls \"Danny Earls\"), on 22 November 2010\\.{{cite news\\| url\\=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/soundersfcblog/2013497325\\_sounders\\_fc\\_trade\\_vagenas\\_to\\_c.html \\| work\\=The Seattle Times \\| first\\=Joshua \\| last\\=Mayers \\| title\\=Sounders FC trade Vagenas to Colorado for two defenders \\| date\\=22 November 2010}}", "### Celtic trial", "On 7 February 2011, Baudet featured in a [Celtic](/wiki/Celtic_F.C. \"Celtic F.C.\") XI who faced the [League of Ireland](/wiki/League_of_Ireland \"League of Ireland\") team [Shamrock Rovers](/wiki/Shamrock_Rovers_F.C. \"Shamrock Rovers F.C.\") at the [Tallaght Stadium](/wiki/Tallaght_Stadium \"Tallaght Stadium\") in Dublin. He played the full 90 minutes as Celtic ran out 2–0 winners, with goals from [Daryl Murphy](/wiki/Daryl_Murphy \"Daryl Murphy\") and [Graham Carey](/wiki/Graham_Carey \"Graham Carey\").", "### GF38", "Baudet played his first match with [Grenoble Foot 38](/wiki/Grenoble_Foot_38 \"Grenoble Foot 38\") of the [Championnat de France amateur](/wiki/Championnat_de_France_amateur \"Championnat de France amateur\") or CFA, the fourth level of French football, on 21 July 2012\\. Baudet expressed excitement for the opportunity to play for his hometown team.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.gf38\\.fr/effectif\\-et\\-staff\\-eq\\-1\\-cfa\\-2012\\-2013/ \\|date\\=4 August 2012 \\|language\\=French \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120820020547/http://www.gf38\\.fr/effectif\\-et\\-staff\\-eq\\-1\\-cfa\\-2012\\-2013/ \\|archivedate\\=20 August 2012 }}", "" ]
Education --------- Del Norte County is home to a [satellite campus](/wiki/Satellite_campus "Satellite campus") of [College of the Redwoods](/wiki/College_of_the_Redwoods "College of the Redwoods"), a two\-year college based in Humboldt County. Del Norte County has one of just five combined county office of education\-unified school district learning educational agencies (LEA) in the state of California, with one elected Board of Trustees that serves both agencies, and one superintendent overseeing both the County Office of Education, and the Unified School District. The [Del Norte County Unified School District](/wiki/Del_Norte_County_Unified_School_District "Del Norte County Unified School District"), which covers the entire county,{{cite web\|url\=https://www2\.census.gov/geo/maps/DC2020/PL20/st06\_ca/schooldistrict\_maps/c06015\_del\_norte/DC20SD\_C06015\.pdf\|title\=2020 census \- school district reference map: Del Norte County, CA\|publisher\=\[\[U.S. Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=July 25, 2022}} \- [Text list](https://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/DC2020/PL20/st06_ca/schooldistrict_maps/c06015_del_norte/DC20SD_C06015_SD2MS.txt) provides public education from pre\-Kindergarten through the twelfth grade. The only [high school](/wiki/High_school_%28North_America%29 "High school (North America)") in Del Norte County is [Del Norte High School](/wiki/Del_Norte_High_School_%28Crescent_City%2C_California%29 "Del Norte High School (Crescent City, California)"), whose school mascot is the [Warrior](/wiki/Warrior "Warrior"). There are also five K\-5 elementary schools (Bess Maxwell, Joe Hamilton, Margaret Keating, Mary Peacock, Pine Grove), three K\-8 elementary schools (Mountain, Redwood, Smith River), and one middle school (Crescent Elk). The County Office of Education provides special education services to the county, as well as alternative learning options that includes Community Day and juvenile detention. Alternative educational facilities are Del Norte Community Day, Elk Creek detention center, and Sunset Continuation High School. Del Norte County has several private [parochial schools](/wiki/Parochial_schools "Parochial schools") and [charter schools](/wiki/Charter_schools "Charter schools").
[ "Education\n---------", "Del Norte County is home to a [satellite campus](/wiki/Satellite_campus \"Satellite campus\") of [College of the Redwoods](/wiki/College_of_the_Redwoods \"College of the Redwoods\"), a two\\-year college based in Humboldt County.", "Del Norte County has one of just five combined county office of education\\-unified school district learning educational agencies (LEA) in the state of California, with one elected Board of Trustees that serves both agencies, and one superintendent overseeing both the County Office of Education, and the Unified School District.", "The [Del Norte County Unified School District](/wiki/Del_Norte_County_Unified_School_District \"Del Norte County Unified School District\"), which covers the entire county,{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www2\\.census.gov/geo/maps/DC2020/PL20/st06\\_ca/schooldistrict\\_maps/c06015\\_del\\_norte/DC20SD\\_C06015\\.pdf\\|title\\=2020 census \\- school district reference map: Del Norte County, CA\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[U.S. Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=July 25, 2022}} \\- [Text list](https://www2.census.gov/geo/maps/DC2020/PL20/st06_ca/schooldistrict_maps/c06015_del_norte/DC20SD_C06015_SD2MS.txt) provides public education from pre\\-Kindergarten through the twelfth grade. The only [high school](/wiki/High_school_%28North_America%29 \"High school (North America)\") in Del Norte County is [Del Norte High School](/wiki/Del_Norte_High_School_%28Crescent_City%2C_California%29 \"Del Norte High School (Crescent City, California)\"), whose school mascot is the [Warrior](/wiki/Warrior \"Warrior\"). There are also five K\\-5 elementary schools (Bess Maxwell, Joe Hamilton, Margaret Keating, Mary Peacock, Pine Grove), three K\\-8 elementary schools (Mountain, Redwood, Smith River), and one middle school (Crescent Elk).", "The County Office of Education provides special education services to the county, as well as alternative learning options that includes Community Day and juvenile detention. Alternative educational facilities are Del Norte Community Day, Elk Creek detention center, and Sunset Continuation High School.", "Del Norte County has several private [parochial schools](/wiki/Parochial_schools \"Parochial schools\") and [charter schools](/wiki/Charter_schools \"Charter schools\").", "" ]
Plot ---- In the mid\-eighties, Danny Scoular marries Beth. Several years later, the couple have two children and Danny is a striking miner, who is sentenced to six months in prison for assaulting a police officer during a protest. Upon his release, the mine in his Scottish village has closed and he is banned from mining regardless, having to rely on Beth to bring in a wage in order to support the family. Whilst visiting the local pub, Danny meets his old friend Frankie. Frankie has deliberately visited the pub with Mr Mason, who is implied to be involved in organised crime, in an attempt to show off Danny's ability to fight. Mason orders his foot soldier Billy to purposely start a fight with Danny to test his fighting skills. Danny wins the fight. He returns home to Beth, having been paid a large sum of money by Mason to engage in a bare\-knuckle fight in several weeks' time. Beth is uneasy about this and fears for Danny's safety. Danny begins training with Frankie. Whilst out training, Danny sees that Beth has taken their children on a bus out of the village to stay in Glasgow with her parents. In an attempt to get Beth back, Danny goes for a job interview to prove he can hold down a steady job but after exchanging insults with the manager Danny returns to training for the fight. As he is to leave the village for Glasgow, most of the village residents gather the streets to see him off and wish him luck. Arriving in Glasgow, Danny brings his dog along and stays in a hotel with Frankie, beginning training the next day. Danny states that he will fight with honour and not lower himself by training to fight dirty. His trainer tells him his opponent will fight dirty and that Danny will inevitably have to fight dirty too in order to survive. Danny instructs Frankie to take his dog back to Beth and say hello to his children for him, but whilst doing so Frankie sees Beth going out with another man, Gordon. Unable to leave the dog with Beth, Frankie throws the dog in the river and lies to Danny about the incident. That night the dog finds his way back to Danny. Furious at Frankie, Danny leaves the hotel. Whilst visiting a club, Danny sees Beth with Gordon. Distraught and angry, he leaves the club, pursued by an equally angry Frankie. Whilst arguing, Danny tells Frankie the fight is off. That night, Beth and Gordon have sex. The next morning, Mason and Frankie wait for Danny to turn up to the gym, unsure whether he will. When Danny does appear, he challenges everyone in the gym to a fight, and after a partner is found, Danny is punched to the floor. In an attempt to motivate him, Danny is taken to Mason's childhood neighbourhood and introduced to the children playing in the rubble who have become drug addicts. Mason reveals that Danny's opponent in the bare\-knuckle fight will be fighting on behalf of Cam Colvin, a drug trafficker, and that if Danny wins the fight it will put Colvin out of business. Danny is taken to the fight, which takes place in an abandoned ship\-yard. Danny's opponent is a man called Cutty Dawson, who is blind in one eye. The rules are made clear \- the last man standing wins. The pair engage in a long and brutal slog, with Dawson engaging in dirty tactics. Unable to keep up with Dawson, Danny is forced to listen to his trainer and fight dirty, targeting Dawson's eyes before smashing his head numerous times on the concrete floor and kicking him in the face. Danny is declared the winner. Whilst at Mason's home recuperating, he is offered cocaine by Mason's daughter. Dawson's brother arrives and attempts to enter the house but is prevented. Dawson's brother reveals that Danny has now completely blinded Dawson in the fight and tells Danny where to find him. Danny confronts Mason for his money. Mason opens a safe to reveal a huge quantity of money inside. After Danny asks what Dawson will get money\-wise, Mason begins to taunt Danny and throw money at him which leads Danny to lose his temper and knock Mason out. Danny decides to take all of the money in the safe. Danny forces Frankie to drive him to the hospital where Dawson is staying. Frankie tells him that unless he gives the money back immediately both of them will be murdered. At Dawson's hospital bedside, Danny asks what the purpose of the fight was. Dawson reveals that Mason and Colvin were in drug trafficking together and both had a grievance against a drug dealer living in Spain, but, due to the importance of this particular dealer, neither wanted to be the one responsible for his death due to potential reprimands. As such, it was decided that a bare\-knuckle fight would take place, with the loser having to complete the assassination and be responsible for any potential criminal underworld reprimands or punishments. Danny makes his way back to his village to discover Beth and his children have returned but Beth will not allow Danny or his 'blood\-money' in the house. Danny, with nowhere else to go, visits his former coal mine. He spots Frankie nearby, who has been slashed across his face as punishment, and who has led Mason and his foot soldiers to the location. Danny hands the money back to Mason, who reveals that he has already visited Danny's wife and children. Danny races back to his house to find it now empty. On the street, Danny weeps on his knees as Mason drives up. As Mason approaches Danny, Beth, her children and most of the village crowd the street, standing in solidarity with Danny. As Mason makes threats to Danny, Beth repeats them for all of the village to hear. Knowing that any subsequent retaliations against Danny could implicate him, Mason and his foot\-soldiers leave. The village crowd around the Scoular family as they embrace and are reunited.
[ "Plot\n----", "In the mid\\-eighties, Danny Scoular marries Beth. Several years later, the couple have two children and Danny is a striking miner, who is sentenced to six months in prison for assaulting a police officer during a protest. Upon his release, the mine in his Scottish village has closed and he is banned from mining regardless, having to rely on Beth to bring in a wage in order to support the family.", "Whilst visiting the local pub, Danny meets his old friend Frankie. Frankie has deliberately visited the pub with Mr Mason, who is implied to be involved in organised crime, in an attempt to show off Danny's ability to fight. Mason orders his foot soldier Billy to purposely start a fight with Danny to test his fighting skills. Danny wins the fight. He returns home to Beth, having been paid a large sum of money by Mason to engage in a bare\\-knuckle fight in several weeks' time. Beth is uneasy about this and fears for Danny's safety.", "Danny begins training with Frankie. Whilst out training, Danny sees that Beth has taken their children on a bus out of the village to stay in Glasgow with her parents. In an attempt to get Beth back, Danny goes for a job interview to prove he can hold down a steady job but after exchanging insults with the manager Danny returns to training for the fight. As he is to leave the village for Glasgow, most of the village residents gather the streets to see him off and wish him luck.", "Arriving in Glasgow, Danny brings his dog along and stays in a hotel with Frankie, beginning training the next day. Danny states that he will fight with honour and not lower himself by training to fight dirty. His trainer tells him his opponent will fight dirty and that Danny will inevitably have to fight dirty too in order to survive. Danny instructs Frankie to take his dog back to Beth and say hello to his children for him, but whilst doing so Frankie sees Beth going out with another man, Gordon. Unable to leave the dog with Beth, Frankie throws the dog in the river and lies to Danny about the incident. That night the dog finds his way back to Danny. Furious at Frankie, Danny leaves the hotel.", "Whilst visiting a club, Danny sees Beth with Gordon. Distraught and angry, he leaves the club, pursued by an equally angry Frankie. Whilst arguing, Danny tells Frankie the fight is off. That night, Beth and Gordon have sex.", "The next morning, Mason and Frankie wait for Danny to turn up to the gym, unsure whether he will. When Danny does appear, he challenges everyone in the gym to a fight, and after a partner is found, Danny is punched to the floor. In an attempt to motivate him, Danny is taken to Mason's childhood neighbourhood and introduced to the children playing in the rubble who have become drug addicts. Mason reveals that Danny's opponent in the bare\\-knuckle fight will be fighting on behalf of Cam Colvin, a drug trafficker, and that if Danny wins the fight it will put Colvin out of business.", "Danny is taken to the fight, which takes place in an abandoned ship\\-yard. Danny's opponent is a man called Cutty Dawson, who is blind in one eye. The rules are made clear \\- the last man standing wins. The pair engage in a long and brutal slog, with Dawson engaging in dirty tactics. Unable to keep up with Dawson, Danny is forced to listen to his trainer and fight dirty, targeting Dawson's eyes before smashing his head numerous times on the concrete floor and kicking him in the face. Danny is declared the winner.", "Whilst at Mason's home recuperating, he is offered cocaine by Mason's daughter. Dawson's brother arrives and attempts to enter the house but is prevented. Dawson's brother reveals that Danny has now completely blinded Dawson in the fight and tells Danny where to find him. Danny confronts Mason for his money. Mason opens a safe to reveal a huge quantity of money inside. After Danny asks what Dawson will get money\\-wise, Mason begins to taunt Danny and throw money at him which leads Danny to lose his temper and knock Mason out. Danny decides to take all of the money in the safe.", "Danny forces Frankie to drive him to the hospital where Dawson is staying. Frankie tells him that unless he gives the money back immediately both of them will be murdered. At Dawson's hospital bedside, Danny asks what the purpose of the fight was. Dawson reveals that Mason and Colvin were in drug trafficking together and both had a grievance against a drug dealer living in Spain, but, due to the importance of this particular dealer, neither wanted to be the one responsible for his death due to potential reprimands. As such, it was decided that a bare\\-knuckle fight would take place, with the loser having to complete the assassination and be responsible for any potential criminal underworld reprimands or punishments.", "Danny makes his way back to his village to discover Beth and his children have returned but Beth will not allow Danny or his 'blood\\-money' in the house. Danny, with nowhere else to go, visits his former coal mine. He spots Frankie nearby, who has been slashed across his face as punishment, and who has led Mason and his foot soldiers to the location. Danny hands the money back to Mason, who reveals that he has already visited Danny's wife and children.", "Danny races back to his house to find it now empty. On the street, Danny weeps on his knees as Mason drives up. As Mason approaches Danny, Beth, her children and most of the village crowd the street, standing in solidarity with Danny. As Mason makes threats to Danny, Beth repeats them for all of the village to hear. Knowing that any subsequent retaliations against Danny could implicate him, Mason and his foot\\-soldiers leave. The village crowd around the Scoular family as they embrace and are reunited.", "" ]
Mating ------ [thumb\|*E. borealis* mating](/wiki/File:Empis.borealis3.-.lindsey.jpg "Empis.borealis3.-.lindsey.jpg") *E. borealis* exhibits sex\-role reversal, with females aggregating in swarms to compete for male choice, and males offering nuptial gifts to potential female mates. ### Swarming Female flies usually swarm together in groups of about five to ten flies, with some containing up to 40 flies. Swarming occurs near bushes or trees, from about 8:00am to 7:30pm. Female swarming depends highly on the weather. If conditions were windy or cloudy, researchers observed females resting until the weather improved. After one or two females began swarming again, the rest of the females would follow suit. Researchers have observed a continuous equilibrium between the number of females resting and swarming at each swarm site. At any given time, the number of females at a swarm site consists of both those swarming and those resting. The total number of females at a swarm site then includes both the swarming and resting female flies. Swarms generally range from 0\.5 to 1\.5 m in diameter, with the swarms being 0\.5 to 6 m above the ground. #### Swarm sites [thumb\|Coniferous trees\|alt\=\|275x275px](/wiki/File:Coniferous_trees_on_mountain.jpg "Coniferous trees on mountain.jpg") The position of *E. borealis* swarm sites varies throughout the day. As the day progresses, females seek sunnier sites as their current sites turn to shade. The largest swarms have been found during high daytime near [coniferous trees](/wiki/Coniferous_trees "Coniferous trees") in a mixed forest habitat.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Svensson\|first1\=Bo G.\|last2\=Petersson\|first2\=Erik\|date\=2000\-11\-01\|title\=Swarm Site Fidelity in the Sex Role\-Reversed Dance Fly Empis borealis\|journal\=Journal of Insect Behavior\|language\=en\|volume\=13\|issue\=6\|pages\=785–796\|doi\=10\.1023/A:1007826715423\|s2cid\=8866485 \|issn\=1572\-8889}} ##### Swarm site fidelity This species of fly in particular has shown evidence of [fidelity](/wiki/Fidelity "Fidelity") towards swarm sites; female flies continue to use the same sites that females have used in the past for mating. One study found that the number of females using various swarm sites across a period of four years was consistent. Although the number of females among different swarm sites varied, it did remain relatively similar across multiple mating seasons. Some sites are known to have been used for up to 18 years. #### Female flight behavior Female flying patterns vary depending on the presence or absence of male flies. When males are absent, female *E. borealis* exhibit slow, cruising flight or hovering with sudden up\-down movements. However, in the presence of male flies, female flight behavior becomes erratic and has much more rapid movement. If a male with prey enters the swarm, the number of females in the swarm increases. Females that were previously resting at the swarm site landmarks would take off and join the swarm. If males approach a swarm site with all the females resting, females usually take off and begin to swarm. However, if the female flies do not begin to fly, male flies make a few quick circles around the landmark where the females are resting. This action by the male generally incites swarming in the female flies. [thumb\|*E. borealis* mating](/wiki/File:Empis_borealis_01.JPG "Empis borealis 01.JPG") ### Nuptial gifts Adult male *E. borealis* are known to present females with gifts before mating. Researchers have determined that there is a positive correlation between gift size and duration of copulation. When the nuptial gift that males brought was larger, the female would spend more time eating the gift, which prolonged the time of copulation. There were some instances in which prey size was large but copulation time was short. In these cases, the female fly’s spermatheca may have already been filled with sperm, rendering the male unable to transmit any of his own sperm, or prey volume may have been decreased from male consumption or use in a previous mating.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Svensson\|first1\=Bo G.\|last2\=Petersson\|first2\=Erik\|last3\=Frisk\|first3\=Michael\|date\=1990\-05\-01\|title\=Nuptial gift size prolongs copulation duration in the dance fly Empis borealis\|journal\=Ecological Entomology\|language\=en\|volume\=15\|issue\=2\|pages\=225–229\|doi\=10\.1111/j.1365\-2311\.1990\.tb00803\.x\|s2cid\=85065461 \|issn\=1365\-2311}} ### Male choice Female flies compete for male choice, and researchers have observed that male *E. borealis* do discriminate among potential female mates at swarm sites. In one study, female flies with larger wings participated disproportionately in copulations at each swarm site, but male size and the size of nuptial gifts did not show a correlation with the size of the mating female. Moreover, male flies spent more time in large swarms and were more likely to leave smaller swarms without mating than larger swarms.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Svensson\|first1\=Bo G.\|last2\=Petersson\|first2\=Erik\|date\=1988\|title\=Non\-random Mating in the Dance Fly Empis borealis: The Importance of Male Choice\|journal\=Ethology\|language\=en\|volume\=79\|issue\=4\|pages\=307–316\|doi\=10\.1111/j.1439\-0310\.1988\.tb00719\.x\|issn\=1439\-0310}}
[ "Mating\n------", "[thumb\\|*E. borealis* mating](/wiki/File:Empis.borealis3.-.lindsey.jpg \"Empis.borealis3.-.lindsey.jpg\")\n*E. borealis* exhibits sex\\-role reversal, with females aggregating in swarms to compete for male choice, and males offering nuptial gifts to potential female mates.", "### Swarming", "Female flies usually swarm together in groups of about five to ten flies, with some containing up to 40 flies. Swarming occurs near bushes or trees, from about 8:00am to 7:30pm. Female swarming depends highly on the weather. If conditions were windy or cloudy, researchers observed females resting until the weather improved. After one or two females began swarming again, the rest of the females would follow suit.", "Researchers have observed a continuous equilibrium between the number of females resting and swarming at each swarm site. At any given time, the number of females at a swarm site consists of both those swarming and those resting. The total number of females at a swarm site then includes both the swarming and resting female flies.", "Swarms generally range from 0\\.5 to 1\\.5 m in diameter, with the swarms being 0\\.5 to 6 m above the ground.", "#### Swarm sites", "[thumb\\|Coniferous trees\\|alt\\=\\|275x275px](/wiki/File:Coniferous_trees_on_mountain.jpg \"Coniferous trees on mountain.jpg\")\nThe position of *E. borealis* swarm sites varies throughout the day. As the day progresses, females seek sunnier sites as their current sites turn to shade. The largest swarms have been found during high daytime near [coniferous trees](/wiki/Coniferous_trees \"Coniferous trees\") in a mixed forest habitat.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Svensson\\|first1\\=Bo G.\\|last2\\=Petersson\\|first2\\=Erik\\|date\\=2000\\-11\\-01\\|title\\=Swarm Site Fidelity in the Sex Role\\-Reversed Dance Fly Empis borealis\\|journal\\=Journal of Insect Behavior\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=13\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=785–796\\|doi\\=10\\.1023/A:1007826715423\\|s2cid\\=8866485 \\|issn\\=1572\\-8889}}", "##### Swarm site fidelity", "This species of fly in particular has shown evidence of [fidelity](/wiki/Fidelity \"Fidelity\") towards swarm sites; female flies continue to use the same sites that females have used in the past for mating. One study found that the number of females using various swarm sites across a period of four years was consistent. Although the number of females among different swarm sites varied, it did remain relatively similar across multiple mating seasons. Some sites are known to have been used for up to 18 years.", "#### Female flight behavior", "Female flying patterns vary depending on the presence or absence of male flies. When males are absent, female *E. borealis* exhibit slow, cruising flight or hovering with sudden up\\-down movements. However, in the presence of male flies, female flight behavior becomes erratic and has much more rapid movement. If a male with prey enters the swarm, the number of females in the swarm increases. Females that were previously resting at the swarm site landmarks would take off and join the swarm.", "If males approach a swarm site with all the females resting, females usually take off and begin to swarm. However, if the female flies do not begin to fly, male flies make a few quick circles around the landmark where the females are resting. This action by the male generally incites swarming in the female flies.\n[thumb\\|*E. borealis* mating](/wiki/File:Empis_borealis_01.JPG \"Empis borealis 01.JPG\")", "### Nuptial gifts", "Adult male *E. borealis* are known to present females with gifts before mating. Researchers have determined that there is a positive correlation between gift size and duration of copulation. When the nuptial gift that males brought was larger, the female would spend more time eating the gift, which prolonged the time of copulation. There were some instances in which prey size was large but copulation time was short. In these cases, the female fly’s spermatheca may have already been filled with sperm, rendering the male unable to transmit any of his own sperm, or prey volume may have been decreased from male consumption or use in a previous mating.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Svensson\\|first1\\=Bo G.\\|last2\\=Petersson\\|first2\\=Erik\\|last3\\=Frisk\\|first3\\=Michael\\|date\\=1990\\-05\\-01\\|title\\=Nuptial gift size prolongs copulation duration in the dance fly Empis borealis\\|journal\\=Ecological Entomology\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=15\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=225–229\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1365\\-2311\\.1990\\.tb00803\\.x\\|s2cid\\=85065461 \\|issn\\=1365\\-2311}}", "### Male choice", "Female flies compete for male choice, and researchers have observed that male *E. borealis* do discriminate among potential female mates at swarm sites. In one study, female flies with larger wings participated disproportionately in copulations at each swarm site, but male size and the size of nuptial gifts did not show a correlation with the size of the mating female. Moreover, male flies spent more time in large swarms and were more likely to leave smaller swarms without mating than larger swarms.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Svensson\\|first1\\=Bo G.\\|last2\\=Petersson\\|first2\\=Erik\\|date\\=1988\\|title\\=Non\\-random Mating in the Dance Fly Empis borealis: The Importance of Male Choice\\|journal\\=Ethology\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=79\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=307–316\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1439\\-0310\\.1988\\.tb00719\\.x\\|issn\\=1439\\-0310}}", "" ]
### Swarming Female flies usually swarm together in groups of about five to ten flies, with some containing up to 40 flies. Swarming occurs near bushes or trees, from about 8:00am to 7:30pm. Female swarming depends highly on the weather. If conditions were windy or cloudy, researchers observed females resting until the weather improved. After one or two females began swarming again, the rest of the females would follow suit. Researchers have observed a continuous equilibrium between the number of females resting and swarming at each swarm site. At any given time, the number of females at a swarm site consists of both those swarming and those resting. The total number of females at a swarm site then includes both the swarming and resting female flies. Swarms generally range from 0\.5 to 1\.5 m in diameter, with the swarms being 0\.5 to 6 m above the ground. #### Swarm sites [thumb\|Coniferous trees\|alt\=\|275x275px](/wiki/File:Coniferous_trees_on_mountain.jpg "Coniferous trees on mountain.jpg") The position of *E. borealis* swarm sites varies throughout the day. As the day progresses, females seek sunnier sites as their current sites turn to shade. The largest swarms have been found during high daytime near [coniferous trees](/wiki/Coniferous_trees "Coniferous trees") in a mixed forest habitat.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Svensson\|first1\=Bo G.\|last2\=Petersson\|first2\=Erik\|date\=2000\-11\-01\|title\=Swarm Site Fidelity in the Sex Role\-Reversed Dance Fly Empis borealis\|journal\=Journal of Insect Behavior\|language\=en\|volume\=13\|issue\=6\|pages\=785–796\|doi\=10\.1023/A:1007826715423\|s2cid\=8866485 \|issn\=1572\-8889}} ##### Swarm site fidelity This species of fly in particular has shown evidence of [fidelity](/wiki/Fidelity "Fidelity") towards swarm sites; female flies continue to use the same sites that females have used in the past for mating. One study found that the number of females using various swarm sites across a period of four years was consistent. Although the number of females among different swarm sites varied, it did remain relatively similar across multiple mating seasons. Some sites are known to have been used for up to 18 years. #### Female flight behavior Female flying patterns vary depending on the presence or absence of male flies. When males are absent, female *E. borealis* exhibit slow, cruising flight or hovering with sudden up\-down movements. However, in the presence of male flies, female flight behavior becomes erratic and has much more rapid movement. If a male with prey enters the swarm, the number of females in the swarm increases. Females that were previously resting at the swarm site landmarks would take off and join the swarm. If males approach a swarm site with all the females resting, females usually take off and begin to swarm. However, if the female flies do not begin to fly, male flies make a few quick circles around the landmark where the females are resting. This action by the male generally incites swarming in the female flies. [thumb\|*E. borealis* mating](/wiki/File:Empis_borealis_01.JPG "Empis borealis 01.JPG")
[ "### Swarming", "Female flies usually swarm together in groups of about five to ten flies, with some containing up to 40 flies. Swarming occurs near bushes or trees, from about 8:00am to 7:30pm. Female swarming depends highly on the weather. If conditions were windy or cloudy, researchers observed females resting until the weather improved. After one or two females began swarming again, the rest of the females would follow suit.", "Researchers have observed a continuous equilibrium between the number of females resting and swarming at each swarm site. At any given time, the number of females at a swarm site consists of both those swarming and those resting. The total number of females at a swarm site then includes both the swarming and resting female flies.", "Swarms generally range from 0\\.5 to 1\\.5 m in diameter, with the swarms being 0\\.5 to 6 m above the ground.", "#### Swarm sites", "[thumb\\|Coniferous trees\\|alt\\=\\|275x275px](/wiki/File:Coniferous_trees_on_mountain.jpg \"Coniferous trees on mountain.jpg\")\nThe position of *E. borealis* swarm sites varies throughout the day. As the day progresses, females seek sunnier sites as their current sites turn to shade. The largest swarms have been found during high daytime near [coniferous trees](/wiki/Coniferous_trees \"Coniferous trees\") in a mixed forest habitat.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Svensson\\|first1\\=Bo G.\\|last2\\=Petersson\\|first2\\=Erik\\|date\\=2000\\-11\\-01\\|title\\=Swarm Site Fidelity in the Sex Role\\-Reversed Dance Fly Empis borealis\\|journal\\=Journal of Insect Behavior\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=13\\|issue\\=6\\|pages\\=785–796\\|doi\\=10\\.1023/A:1007826715423\\|s2cid\\=8866485 \\|issn\\=1572\\-8889}}", "##### Swarm site fidelity", "This species of fly in particular has shown evidence of [fidelity](/wiki/Fidelity \"Fidelity\") towards swarm sites; female flies continue to use the same sites that females have used in the past for mating. One study found that the number of females using various swarm sites across a period of four years was consistent. Although the number of females among different swarm sites varied, it did remain relatively similar across multiple mating seasons. Some sites are known to have been used for up to 18 years.", "#### Female flight behavior", "Female flying patterns vary depending on the presence or absence of male flies. When males are absent, female *E. borealis* exhibit slow, cruising flight or hovering with sudden up\\-down movements. However, in the presence of male flies, female flight behavior becomes erratic and has much more rapid movement. If a male with prey enters the swarm, the number of females in the swarm increases. Females that were previously resting at the swarm site landmarks would take off and join the swarm.", "If males approach a swarm site with all the females resting, females usually take off and begin to swarm. However, if the female flies do not begin to fly, male flies make a few quick circles around the landmark where the females are resting. This action by the male generally incites swarming in the female flies.\n[thumb\\|*E. borealis* mating](/wiki/File:Empis_borealis_01.JPG \"Empis borealis 01.JPG\")", "" ]
Laws ---- ### The General Health Law of 1986 The General Health Law of 1986 (*Ley 14/1986 General de Sanidad*) was formulated on two bases. First, it carries out a mandate of the Spanish Constitution, whose articles 43 and 49 establish the right of all citizens to protection of their health. The law recognizes a right to health services for all citizens and for foreigners resident in Spain. Second, Title VIII of the Constitution confers upon the autonomous communities broad purview in matters of health and health care. The autonomous communities have first\-order importance in this area, and the law permits devolution of these functions from the central government to the autonomous communities, in order to provide a health care system sufficient for the needs of their respective jurisdictions. Article 149\.1\.16 or the Constitution, a further basis for the present law, establishes substantive principles and criteria that allow general and common characteristics to be consistent throughout the new system, providing a common basis for health services throughout Spanish territory. The administrative device set up by the law is the National Health System. The presumption underlying the adopted model is that in each autonomous community, authorities are adequately equipped with necessary territorial perspective, so that the benefits of autonomy do not conflict with the needs of management efficiency. {{Blockquote\|The National Health System is thus conceived as the set of health services of the Autonomous Communities properly coordinated.''El Sistema Nacional de Salud se concibe así como el conjunto de los servicios de salud de las Comunidades Autónomas convenientemente coordinados.'' \- Preamble to the General Health Law of 1986\.}} Thus, the various health services fall under the responsibility of the respective autonomous communities, but also under basic direction and coordination by the central state. The respective health services of the autonomous communities would gradually realize a transfer of health resources from the central government to the autonomous communities. ### La ley 15/97 “Nuevas Formas de Gestión” The law of 1997 allowed private health care companies to enter the market. It has been argued to be the beginning of deregulation.{{Cite web \|last\=Francisco José Villar Rojas \|date\=2020 \|title\=La Ley 15/97,}} ### Law of Cohesion and Quality, 2003 The General Health Law was complemented in 2003 by the Law of Cohesion and Quality of the National Health System (*Ley 16/2003 de cohesión y calidad del Sistema Nacional de Salud*), which maintained the basic lines of the General Health Law, but modified and broadened the articulation of that law to reflect existent social and political reality. By 2003, all of the autonomous communities had gradually assumed purview in matters of health and had established stable models to finance the assumed purview. Meanwhile, in the 17 years since the original law, Spanish society had undergone many cultural, technological and socioeconomic changes that affected people's ways of life and affected the country's patterns of disease and illness. These posed new challenges to the National Health System. Therefore, the 2003 law establishes coordination and cooperation of public health authorities as a means to ensure citizens the right to health protection, with the common goal of ensuring equity, quality and social participation National Health System. The law defines a core set of functions common to all of the autonomous health services. Without interfering with the diversity of forms of organization, management and services inherent in a decentralized system, it attempts to establish certain basic, common safeguards throughout the country. This law attempts to establish collaboration of public health authorities with respect to benefits provided, pharmacy, health professionals, research, health information systems, and the overall quality of the health system. Toward these ends, the law created or empowered several specialized organs and agencies, all of which are open to the participation of the autonomous communities. Among these are the Agency of Evaluation of Technologies (*Agencia de Evaluación de Tecnologías*, [Spanish Agency of Medicines and Medical Devices](/wiki/Spanish_Agency_of_Medicines_and_Medical_Devices "Spanish Agency of Medicines and Medical Devices") (*Agencia Española de Medicamentos y Productos Sanitarios*), the Human Resources Committee (*Comisión de Recursos Humanos*), the Committee to Assess Health Research (*Comisión Asesora de Investigación en Salud*), the Charles III Institute of Health (*Instituto de Salud Carlos III*), the Institute of Health Information (*Instituto de Información Sanitaria*), the Quality Agency of the National Health System (*Agencia de Calidad del Sistema Nacional de Salud*) and the Observatory of the National Health System (*Observatorio del Sistema Nacional de Salud*). The basic organ of cohesion is the Interterritorial Council of the Spanish National Health Service (*Consejo Interterritorial del Servicio Nacional de Salud de España*), which has great flexibility in decision making, as well as mechanisms to build consensus and to bring together the parties taking such decisions. A system of inspection, the *Alta Inspección*, assures that accords are followed.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.boe.es/aeboe/consultas/bases\_datos/doc.php?coleccion\=iberlex\&id\=2003/10715 \|title\= LEY 16/2003, de 28 de mayo, de cohesión y calidad del Sistema Nacional de Salud. \|publisher\= Jefatura del Estado (\[\[Boletín Oficial del Estado\|BOE]] número 128 de 29/5/2003\) \|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-08 }} ### Royal Decree\-Law of 2012 The Royal Decree\-Law 16/2012Available online at [http://boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id\=BOE\-A\-2012\-5403](http://boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-2012-5403) was introduced on April 20, 2012\. It puts into law severe cuts in the Spanish National Health System, including the following: * Refusal to give assistance to unregistered foreigners (in effect from September 1, 2012\). This hasn't been applied by all the [comunidades autónomas](/wiki/Comunidad_aut%C3%B3noma "Comunidad autónoma"). * Increase of the percentage of medicines paid by the user:[http://boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id\=BOE\-A\-2012\-5403](http://boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-2012-5403). Article 2, section Trece. Checked on March 18, 2013\. + Senior citizens didn't pay for medicines before the reform, but now they pay 10% (limited to €8/month if their income is ≤€18,000 a year, €18/month if their income is \>€18,000 and ≤€100,000 a year, or €60/month if their income is \>€100,000 a year). + Workers now pay 40% if their income is ≤€18,000 a year, 50% if their income is \>€18,000 and ≤€100,000 a year, or 60% if their income is \>€100,000 a year.
[ "Laws\n----", "### The General Health Law of 1986", "The General Health Law of 1986 (*Ley 14/1986 General de Sanidad*) was formulated on two bases. First, it carries out a mandate of the Spanish Constitution, whose articles 43 and 49 establish the right of all citizens to protection of their health. The law recognizes a right to health services for all citizens and for foreigners resident in Spain.", "Second, Title VIII of the Constitution confers upon the autonomous communities broad purview in matters of health and health care. The autonomous communities have first\\-order importance in this area, and the law permits devolution of these functions from the central government to the autonomous communities, in order to provide a health care system sufficient for the needs of their respective jurisdictions. Article 149\\.1\\.16 or the Constitution, a further basis for the present law, establishes substantive principles and criteria that allow general and common characteristics to be consistent throughout the new system, providing a common basis for health services throughout Spanish territory.", "The administrative device set up by the law is the National Health System. The presumption underlying the adopted model is that in each autonomous community, authorities are adequately equipped with necessary territorial perspective, so that the benefits of autonomy do not conflict with the needs of management efficiency.", "{{Blockquote\\|The National Health System is thus conceived as the set of health services of the Autonomous Communities properly coordinated.''El Sistema Nacional de Salud se concibe así como el conjunto de los servicios de salud de las Comunidades Autónomas convenientemente coordinados.'' \\- Preamble to the General Health Law of 1986\\.}}", "Thus, the various health services fall under the responsibility of the respective autonomous communities, but also under basic direction and coordination by the central state. The respective health services of the autonomous communities would gradually realize a transfer of health resources from the central government to the autonomous communities.\n### La ley 15/97 “Nuevas Formas de Gestión”", "The law of 1997 allowed private health care companies to enter the market. It has been argued to be the beginning of deregulation.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Francisco José Villar Rojas \\|date\\=2020 \\|title\\=La Ley 15/97,}}", "### Law of Cohesion and Quality, 2003", "The General Health Law was complemented in 2003 by the Law of Cohesion and Quality of the National Health System (*Ley 16/2003 de cohesión y calidad del Sistema Nacional de Salud*), which maintained the basic lines of the General Health Law, but modified and broadened the articulation of that law to reflect existent social and political reality. By 2003, all of the autonomous communities had gradually assumed purview in matters of health and had established stable models to finance the assumed purview. Meanwhile, in the 17 years since the original law, Spanish society had undergone many cultural, technological and socioeconomic changes that affected people's ways of life and affected the country's patterns of disease and illness. These posed new challenges to the National Health System.", "Therefore, the 2003 law establishes coordination and cooperation of public health authorities as a means to ensure citizens the right to health protection, with the common goal of ensuring equity, quality and social participation National Health System. The law defines a core set of functions common to all of the autonomous health services. Without interfering with the diversity of forms of organization, management and services inherent in a decentralized system, it attempts to establish certain basic, common safeguards throughout the country. This law attempts to establish collaboration of public health authorities with respect to benefits provided, pharmacy, health professionals, research, health information systems, and the overall quality of the health system.", "Toward these ends, the law created or empowered several specialized organs and agencies, all of which are open to the participation of the autonomous communities. Among these are the Agency of Evaluation of Technologies (*Agencia de Evaluación de Tecnologías*, [Spanish Agency of Medicines and Medical Devices](/wiki/Spanish_Agency_of_Medicines_and_Medical_Devices \"Spanish Agency of Medicines and Medical Devices\") (*Agencia Española de Medicamentos y Productos Sanitarios*), the Human Resources Committee (*Comisión de Recursos Humanos*), the Committee to Assess Health Research (*Comisión Asesora de Investigación en Salud*), the Charles III Institute of Health (*Instituto de Salud Carlos III*), the Institute of Health Information (*Instituto de Información Sanitaria*), the Quality Agency of the National Health System (*Agencia de Calidad del Sistema Nacional de Salud*) and the Observatory of the National Health System (*Observatorio del Sistema Nacional de Salud*).", "The basic organ of cohesion is the Interterritorial Council of the Spanish National Health Service (*Consejo Interterritorial del Servicio Nacional de Salud de España*), which has great flexibility in decision making, as well as mechanisms to build consensus and to bring together the parties taking such decisions. A system of inspection, the *Alta Inspección*, assures that accords are followed.{{cite web\n\\|url\\= http://www.boe.es/aeboe/consultas/bases\\_datos/doc.php?coleccion\\=iberlex\\&id\\=2003/10715\n\\|title\\= LEY 16/2003, de 28 de mayo, de cohesión y calidad del Sistema Nacional de Salud.\n\\|publisher\\= Jefatura del Estado (\\[\\[Boletín Oficial del Estado\\|BOE]] número 128 de 29/5/2003\\)\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-08\n}}", "### Royal Decree\\-Law of 2012", "The Royal Decree\\-Law 16/2012Available online at [http://boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id\\=BOE\\-A\\-2012\\-5403](http://boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-2012-5403) was introduced on April 20, 2012\\. It puts into law severe cuts in the Spanish National Health System, including the following:\n* Refusal to give assistance to unregistered foreigners (in effect from September 1, 2012\\). This hasn't been applied by all the [comunidades autónomas](/wiki/Comunidad_aut%C3%B3noma \"Comunidad autónoma\").\n* Increase of the percentage of medicines paid by the user:[http://boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id\\=BOE\\-A\\-2012\\-5403](http://boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-2012-5403). Article 2, section Trece. Checked on March 18, 2013\\.\n\t+ Senior citizens didn't pay for medicines before the reform, but now they pay 10% (limited to €8/month if their income is ≤€18,000 a year, €18/month if their income is \\>€18,000 and ≤€100,000 a year, or €60/month if their income is \\>€100,000 a year).\n\t+ Workers now pay 40% if their income is ≤€18,000 a year, 50% if their income is \\>€18,000 and ≤€100,000 a year, or 60% if their income is \\>€100,000 a year.", "" ]
Governing agencies ------------------ ### Ministry of Health and Social Policy [thumb\|upright\|Seat of the [Ministry of Health and Social Policy](/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Social_Policy_%28Spain%29 "Ministry of Health and Social Policy (Spain)")](/wiki/File:Fachada_del_Ministerio_de_Sanidad_y_Consumo.jpg "Fachada del Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo.jpg") The [Ministry of Health and Social Policy](/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_%28Spain%29 "Ministry of Health (Spain)") develops the policies of the [Government of Spain](/wiki/Government_of_Spain "Government of Spain") in matters of health, in planning and delivery of services, as well as exercising the purview of the General Administration of the State to assure citizens the right to protection of their health. The ministry has its headquarters on the [Paseo del Prado](/wiki/Paseo_del_Prado "Paseo del Prado") in [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid "Madrid"), across the street from the [Museo del Prado](/wiki/Museo_del_Prado "Museo del Prado"). The Royal Decree 1041/2009 of 29 June lays out the basic organic structure of the Spanish Ministry of Health and Social Policy. From the date of that decree, the new ministry assumed the functions of, and superseded the former Ministry of Health and Consumption (*Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo*) and Secretary of State for Social Policy, Family, and Attention to Dependency and Disability (*Secretaría de Estado de Política Social, Familia y Atención a la Dependencia y a la Discapacidad*). The objective of this reorganization is to reinforce the role of the single ministry as the instrument of cohesion for the National Health System (SNS), adding to the portfolio of the Secretary General of Health purview in matters of the quality of the SNS by adding to it the Agency of Quality of the National Health System (*Agencia de Calidad del Sistema Nacional de Salud*) and the General Directorate of Advanced Therapies and Transplants (*Dirección General de Terapias Avanzadas y Trasplantes*).{{cite web \|url\= http://www.msps.es/organizacion/ministerio/organizacion/home.htm \|title\= Organización del Ministerio de Sanidad y Política Social (España) \|publisher\= msps.es \|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-09 }} ### Interterritorial Council [thumb\|[Vaccination](/wiki/Vaccination "Vaccination") calendar, promoted by the CISNS in 2024\.](/wiki/File:Calendario_com%C3%BAn_de_vacunaciones_e_inmunizaciones_a_lo_largo_de_toda_la_vida._Espa%C3%B1a_2024.png "Calendario común de vacunaciones e inmunizaciones a lo largo de toda la vida. España 2024.png") The General Health Law of 1986 created the Interterritorial Council of the Spanish National Health Service (*Consejo Interterritorial del Servicio Nacional de Salud*, CISNS) as the organ of general coordination in matters related to health between the central State and the autonomous communities who were given authority in health matters under that law. It is jointly composed, and coordinates the basic lines of health policy in matters affecting contracts; acquisition of health and pharmaceutical products, as well as other related goods and services; as well as basic health personnel policies. The 2003 Law of Cohesion and Quality of the SNS introduced significant changes in the composition, functioning, and purview of the CISNS. Under this law, the CISNS functions variously as a plenary body, by delegated committees, through technical commissions, and through work groups. It meets as a plenary body at the initiative of its president or at the initiative of one\-third of its members; plenary meetings occur at least four times a year. To some extent, this is a formality: resolutions from CISNS commissions are typically adopted by consensus. Cooperation agreements to conduct joint health actions are formalized in CISNS agreements. Under the Law of Cohesion, CISNS functions mainly through the adoption of and compliance with joint accords, through the political use of the plenary sessions, with each member making an uncompromising defense of the interests of its region. Presentations, committees, and working groups have been very important, some more than others. Important committees include:{{cite web \|url\=http://www.opinionras.com/index.php?q\=node/194 \|title\= Qué es, como funciona el Consejo Interterritorial del Sistema Nacional de Salud (CISNS) \|author\= Colectivo El Bosque \|date\= 2008\-10\-15 \|publisher\=e\-ras. Revista on.line de información sanitaria \|access\-date\=2010\-01\-11 }} * Public Health Committee (*Comisión de Salud Pública*) * Permanent pharmacy committee (*Comisión permanente de farmacia*) * Scientific\-technical committee of the National Health System (*Comisión científico\-técnica del sistema Nacional de Salud*) * Committee to monitor the health cohesion fund (*Comisión de seguimiento del fondo de cohesión sanitaria*) * Permanent committee on insurance, funding, and benefits (*Comisión permanente de aseguramiento, financiación y prestaciones*) * Committee against gender violence (*Comisión contra la violencia de género*) * Transplant committee (*Comisión de trasplantes*) Articles 69, 70 and 71 of the Law of Cohesion regulate the principal functions of the Interterritorial Council of the SNS. The principal aspects of the Interterritorial Council are: The Interterritorial Council is constituted by the Minister of Health and Consumer Affairs \[now of Health and Social Policy], who holds its presidency, and by the Councilors with purview over matters of health of the autonomous communities. The vicepresidency of the body will be fulfilled by one of the Councilors with purview over matters of health of the autonomous communities, elected by all of the Councilors who make up the body.*El Consejo Interterritorial está constituido por el Ministro de Sanidad y Consumo, que ostentará su presidencia, y por los Consejeros competentes en materia de sanidad de las comunidades autónomas. La vicepresidencia de este órgano la desempeñará uno de los Consejeros competentes en materia de sanidad de las comunidades autónomas, elegido por todos los Consejeros que lo integran.* (from Article 70 of the Ley de cohesión y calidad de SNS.) The CISNS will come to know, debate among other things, and, as appropriate, make recommendations on the following matters: * a) The development of the portfolio of services corresponding to the Catalog of Services of the National Health System, as well as its actualization. * b) The establishment of health services complementary to the basic services of the National Health System on the part of the autonomous communities. * c) Minimal guarantees of safety and quality for the authorization of the opening and placing into function of the health centers, services and establishments. * d) The general and common criteria for the development of collaboration between pharmacy offices. * e) The basic criteria and conditions of the convocations of professionals to assure their mobility throughout the State. * f) Declaration of the necessity to realize coordinated actions in matters of public health to which this law refers. * g) General criteria for the public financing of medicines, medical products and their variables. * h) Establishment of criteria and mechanisms in order to guarantee at all times the financial sufficiency of the system. [thumb\|Map of the [autonomous communities of Spain](/wiki/Autonomous_communities_of_Spain "Autonomous communities of Spain").](/wiki/File:Comunidades_aut%C3%B3nomas_de_Espa%C3%B1a.svg "Comunidades autónomas de España.svg") The prior functions shall be exercised without prejudice to the legislative purview of the [Cortes Generales](/wiki/Cortes_Generales "Cortes Generales") and, as appropriate, the norms of the General Administration of the State; likewise the normal developmental, executive and organizational purview of the autonomous communities. *El CISNS conocerá, debatirá entre otros aspectos, y, en su caso, emitirá recomendaciones sobre las siguientes materias:* *a) El desarrollo de la cartera de servicios correspondiente al Catálogo de Prestaciones del Sistema Nacional de Salud, así como su actualización.* *b) El establecimiento de prestaciones sanitarias complementarias a las prestaciones básicas del Sistema Nacional de Salud por parte de las comunidades autónomas.* *c) Las garantías mínimas de seguridad y calidad para la autorización de la apertura y puesta en funcionamiento de los centros, servicios y establecimientos sanitarios.* *d) Los criterios generales y comunes para el desarrollo de la colaboración de las oficinas de farmacia.* *e) Los criterios básicos y condiciones de las convocatorias de profesionales que aseguren su movilidad en todo el territorio del Estado.* *f) La declaración de la necesidad de realizar las actuaciones coordinadas en materia de salud pública a las que se refiere esta ley.* *g) Los criterios generales sobre financiación pública de medicamentos y productos sanitarios y sus variables.* *h) El establecimiento de criterios y mecanismos en orden a garantizar en todo momento la suficiencia financiera del sistema.* *Las anteriores funciones se ejercerán sin menoscabo de las competencias legislativas de las Cortes Generales y, en su caso, normativas de la Administración General del Estado, así como de las competencias de desarrollo normativo, ejecutivas y organizativas de las comunidades autónomas.* {{cite web \|url\=http://www.boe.es/aeboe/consultas/bases\_datos/doc.php?coleccion\=iberlex\&id\=2003/10715 \|title\= Capítulo X. Ley de cohesión y calidad de SNS. Del Consejo Interterritorial \|publisher\= \[\[Boletín Oficial del Estado\|BOE]] \|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-12 }} ### Purview of the autonomous communities * + - * + - * + Article 41 of the General Health Law establishes that: * The autonomous communities exercise the purview assumed in their [statutes \[of autonomy]](/wiki/Statute_of_Autonomy "Statute of Autonomy") and those that the state transfers to them or, as appropriate, delegates to them. * The public policies and actions foreseen in this Act which are not expressly reserved for the state will be deemed to have been delegated to the autonomous communities. *Las comunidades autónomas ejercerán las competencias asumidas en sus estatutos y las que el estado les transfiera o, en su caso, les delegue.* *Las decisiones y actuaciones publicas previstas en esta ley que no se hayan reservado expresamente al estado se entenderán atribuidas a las comunidades autónomas.* + [thumb\|Sign for the headquarters of a Health Office (*Delegación de Salud*) in [Andalusia](/wiki/Andalusia "Andalusia").](/wiki/File:Delegacionprovincialdesalud.JPG "Delegacionprovincialdesalud.JPG") The State finances, through general taxes, all health benefits and a percentage of pharmaceutical benefits. This tax is shared among the several autonomous communities according to various sharing criteria now that the communities are responsible for health in their respective territories. Each year the CISNS, after deliberation, establishes the portfolio of services covered by the National Health System, which is published by a Royal Decree of the Ministry of Health. Each autonomous community then establishes its respective portfolio of services, which includes at least the service portfolio of the National Health System. ### Purview of local governments [thumb\|[Air pollution](/wiki/Air_pollution "Air pollution"); this photo is from [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai "Shanghai"), [China](/wiki/China "China").](/wiki/File:Sha1993_smog_wkpd.jpg "Sha1993 smog wkpd.jpg") Article 42 of the General Health Law sets out that *[ayuntamientos](/wiki/Ayuntamiento "Ayuntamiento")*—[municipal governments](/wiki/Municipal_government "Municipal government")—have the following responsibilities with respect to health, without prejudice to the purview of other public administrative bodies: * a) Health control of the environment: [air pollution](/wiki/Air_pollution "Air pollution"), [water supply](/wiki/Water_supply "Water supply") \[and [water quality](/wiki/Water_quality "Water quality")], [wastewater treatment](/wiki/Sewage_treatment "Sewage treatment"), [urban and industrial residue](/wiki/Waste "Waste"). * b) Health control of industries, activities and services, transport, [noise](/wiki/Noise "Noise") and [vibrations](/wiki/Vibration "Vibration"). * c) Health control of buildings and places of human residence or gathering, especially of food centers, hairdressers, saunas and centers of personal hygiene, hotels and residential centers, schools, tourist campsites and areas of physical activity for sports and recreation. * d) Health control of [perishable food](/wiki/Perishable_food "Perishable food") distribution and supply, beverages and other products directly or indirectly related to human use or consumption, such as means of transport. * e) Health control of cemeteries and mortuary health policy. *a) Control sanitario del medio ambiente: Contaminación atmosférica, abastecimiento de aguas, saneamiento de aguas residuales, residuos urbanos e industriales.* b) *Control sanitario de industrias, actividades y servicios, transportes, [ruidos](/wiki/Ruido "Ruido") y vibraciones.* c) *Control sanitario de edificios y lugares de vivienda y convivencia humana, especialmente de los centros de alimentación, peluquerías, saunas y centros de higiene personal, hoteles y centros residenciales, escuelas, campamentos turísticos y áreas de actividad físico deportivas y de recreo.* d) *Control sanitario de la distribución y suministro de alimentos perecederos, bebidas y demás productos, directa o indirectamente relacionados con el uso o consumo humanos, así como los medios de su transporte.* e) *Control sanitario de los cementerios y policía sanitaria mortuoria.*
[ "Governing agencies\n------------------", "### Ministry of Health and Social Policy", "[thumb\\|upright\\|Seat of the [Ministry of Health and Social Policy](/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Social_Policy_%28Spain%29 \"Ministry of Health and Social Policy (Spain)\")](/wiki/File:Fachada_del_Ministerio_de_Sanidad_y_Consumo.jpg \"Fachada del Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo.jpg\")", "The [Ministry of Health and Social Policy](/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_%28Spain%29 \"Ministry of Health (Spain)\") develops the policies of the [Government of Spain](/wiki/Government_of_Spain \"Government of Spain\") in matters of health, in planning and delivery of services, as well as exercising the purview of the General Administration of the State to assure citizens the right to protection of their health. The ministry has its headquarters on the [Paseo del Prado](/wiki/Paseo_del_Prado \"Paseo del Prado\") in [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid \"Madrid\"), across the street from the [Museo del Prado](/wiki/Museo_del_Prado \"Museo del Prado\").", "The Royal Decree 1041/2009 of 29 June lays out the basic organic structure of the Spanish Ministry of Health and Social Policy. From the date of that decree, the new ministry assumed the functions of, and superseded the former Ministry of Health and Consumption (*Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo*) and Secretary of State for Social Policy, Family, and Attention to Dependency and Disability (*Secretaría de Estado de Política Social, Familia y Atención a la Dependencia y a la Discapacidad*).", "The objective of this reorganization is to reinforce the role of the single ministry as the instrument of cohesion for the National Health System (SNS), adding to the portfolio of the Secretary General of Health purview in matters of the quality of the SNS by adding to it the Agency of Quality of the National Health System (*Agencia de Calidad del Sistema Nacional de Salud*) and the General Directorate of Advanced Therapies and Transplants (*Dirección General de Terapias Avanzadas y Trasplantes*).{{cite web\n\\|url\\= http://www.msps.es/organizacion/ministerio/organizacion/home.htm\n\\|title\\= Organización del Ministerio de Sanidad y Política Social (España)\n\\|publisher\\= msps.es\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-09\n}}", "### Interterritorial Council", "[thumb\\|[Vaccination](/wiki/Vaccination \"Vaccination\") calendar, promoted by the CISNS in 2024\\.](/wiki/File:Calendario_com%C3%BAn_de_vacunaciones_e_inmunizaciones_a_lo_largo_de_toda_la_vida._Espa%C3%B1a_2024.png \"Calendario común de vacunaciones e inmunizaciones a lo largo de toda la vida. España 2024.png\")\nThe General Health Law of 1986 created the Interterritorial Council of the Spanish National Health Service (*Consejo Interterritorial del Servicio Nacional de Salud*, CISNS) as the organ of general coordination in matters related to health between the central State and the autonomous communities who were given authority in health matters under that law. It is jointly composed, and coordinates the basic lines of health policy in matters affecting contracts; acquisition of health and pharmaceutical products, as well as other related goods and services; as well as basic health personnel policies.", "The 2003 Law of Cohesion and Quality of the SNS introduced significant changes in the composition, functioning, and purview of the CISNS. Under this law, the CISNS functions variously as a plenary body, by delegated committees, through technical commissions, and through work groups. It meets as a plenary body at the initiative of its president or at the initiative of one\\-third of its members; plenary meetings occur at least four times a year. To some extent, this is a formality: resolutions from CISNS commissions are typically adopted by consensus. Cooperation agreements to conduct joint health actions are formalized in CISNS agreements.", "Under the Law of Cohesion, CISNS functions mainly through the adoption of and compliance with joint accords, through the political use of the plenary sessions, with each member making an uncompromising defense of the interests of its region.", "Presentations, committees, and working groups have been very important, some more than others. Important committees include:{{cite web\n\\|url\\=http://www.opinionras.com/index.php?q\\=node/194\n\\|title\\= Qué es, como funciona el Consejo Interterritorial del Sistema Nacional de Salud (CISNS)\n\\|author\\= Colectivo El Bosque\n\\|date\\= 2008\\-10\\-15\n\\|publisher\\=e\\-ras. Revista on.line de información sanitaria\n\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-11\n}}\n* Public Health Committee (*Comisión de Salud Pública*)\n* Permanent pharmacy committee (*Comisión permanente de farmacia*)\n* Scientific\\-technical committee of the National Health System (*Comisión científico\\-técnica del sistema Nacional de Salud*)\n* Committee to monitor the health cohesion fund (*Comisión de seguimiento del fondo de cohesión sanitaria*)\n* Permanent committee on insurance, funding, and benefits (*Comisión permanente de aseguramiento, financiación y prestaciones*)\n* Committee against gender violence (*Comisión contra la violencia de género*)\n* Transplant committee (*Comisión de trasplantes*)", "Articles 69, 70 and 71 of the Law of Cohesion regulate the principal functions of the Interterritorial Council of the SNS. The principal aspects of the Interterritorial Council are:", "The Interterritorial Council is constituted by the Minister of Health and Consumer Affairs \\[now of Health and Social Policy], who holds its presidency, and by the Councilors with purview over matters of health of the autonomous communities. The vicepresidency of the body will be fulfilled by one of the Councilors with purview over matters of health of the autonomous communities, elected by all of the Councilors who make up the body.*El Consejo Interterritorial está constituido por el Ministro de Sanidad y Consumo, que ostentará su presidencia, y por los Consejeros competentes en materia de sanidad de las comunidades autónomas. La vicepresidencia de este órgano la desempeñará uno de los Consejeros competentes en materia de sanidad de las comunidades autónomas, elegido por todos los Consejeros que lo integran.* (from Article 70 of the Ley de cohesión y calidad de SNS.)", "The CISNS will come to know, debate among other things, and, as appropriate, make recommendations on the following matters:", "* a) The development of the portfolio of services corresponding to the Catalog of Services of the National Health System, as well as its actualization.\n* b) The establishment of health services complementary to the basic services of the National Health System on the part of the autonomous communities.\n* c) Minimal guarantees of safety and quality for the authorization of the opening and placing into function of the health centers, services and establishments.\n* d) The general and common criteria for the development of collaboration between pharmacy offices.\n* e) The basic criteria and conditions of the convocations of professionals to assure their mobility throughout the State.\n* f) Declaration of the necessity to realize coordinated actions in matters of public health to which this law refers.\n* g) General criteria for the public financing of medicines, medical products and their variables.\n* h) Establishment of criteria and mechanisms in order to guarantee at all times the financial sufficiency of the system.", "[thumb\\|Map of the [autonomous communities of Spain](/wiki/Autonomous_communities_of_Spain \"Autonomous communities of Spain\").](/wiki/File:Comunidades_aut%C3%B3nomas_de_Espa%C3%B1a.svg \"Comunidades autónomas de España.svg\")\nThe prior functions shall be exercised without prejudice to the legislative purview of the [Cortes Generales](/wiki/Cortes_Generales \"Cortes Generales\") and, as appropriate, the norms of the General Administration of the State; likewise the normal developmental, executive and organizational purview of the autonomous communities.\n*El CISNS conocerá, debatirá entre otros aspectos, y, en su caso, emitirá recomendaciones sobre las siguientes materias:*", "*a) El desarrollo de la cartera de servicios correspondiente al Catálogo de Prestaciones del Sistema Nacional de Salud, así como su actualización.* \n*b) El establecimiento de prestaciones sanitarias complementarias a las prestaciones básicas del Sistema Nacional de Salud por parte de las comunidades autónomas.* \n*c) Las garantías mínimas de seguridad y calidad para la autorización de la apertura y puesta en funcionamiento de los centros, servicios y establecimientos sanitarios.* \n*d) Los criterios generales y comunes para el desarrollo de la colaboración de las oficinas de farmacia.*\n*e) Los criterios básicos y condiciones de las convocatorias de profesionales que aseguren su movilidad en todo el territorio del Estado.* \n*f) La declaración de la necesidad de realizar las actuaciones coordinadas en materia de salud pública a las que se refiere esta ley.* \n*g) Los criterios generales sobre financiación pública de medicamentos y productos sanitarios y sus variables.*\n*h) El establecimiento de criterios y mecanismos en orden a garantizar en todo momento la suficiencia financiera del sistema.*\n*Las anteriores funciones se ejercerán sin menoscabo de las competencias legislativas de las Cortes Generales y, en su caso, normativas de la Administración General del Estado, así como de las competencias de desarrollo normativo, ejecutivas y organizativas de las comunidades autónomas.* {{cite web\n\\|url\\=http://www.boe.es/aeboe/consultas/bases\\_datos/doc.php?coleccion\\=iberlex\\&id\\=2003/10715\n\\|title\\= Capítulo X. Ley de cohesión y calidad de SNS. Del Consejo Interterritorial\n\\|publisher\\= \\[\\[Boletín Oficial del Estado\\|BOE]]\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-12\n}}\n### Purview of the autonomous communities", "* + - * + - * + Article 41 of the General Health Law establishes that:\n* The autonomous communities exercise the purview assumed in their [statutes \\[of autonomy]](/wiki/Statute_of_Autonomy \"Statute of Autonomy\") and those that the state transfers to them or, as appropriate, delegates to them.\n* The public policies and actions foreseen in this Act which are not expressly reserved for the state will be deemed to have been delegated to the autonomous communities.\n*Las comunidades autónomas ejercerán las competencias asumidas en sus estatutos y las que el estado les transfiera o, en su caso, les delegue.*\n*Las decisiones y actuaciones publicas previstas en esta ley que no se hayan reservado expresamente al estado se entenderán atribuidas a las comunidades autónomas.*\n\t+ [thumb\\|Sign for the headquarters of a Health Office (*Delegación de Salud*) in [Andalusia](/wiki/Andalusia \"Andalusia\").](/wiki/File:Delegacionprovincialdesalud.JPG \"Delegacionprovincialdesalud.JPG\") \n\tThe State finances, through general taxes, all health benefits and a percentage of pharmaceutical benefits. This tax is shared among the several autonomous communities according to various sharing criteria now that the communities are responsible for health in their respective territories.", "Each year the CISNS, after deliberation, establishes the portfolio of services covered by the National Health System, which is published by a Royal Decree of the Ministry of Health. Each autonomous community then establishes its respective portfolio of services, which includes at least the service portfolio of the National Health System.", "### Purview of local governments", "[thumb\\|[Air pollution](/wiki/Air_pollution \"Air pollution\"); this photo is from [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai \"Shanghai\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\").](/wiki/File:Sha1993_smog_wkpd.jpg \"Sha1993 smog wkpd.jpg\")\nArticle 42 of the General Health Law sets out that *[ayuntamientos](/wiki/Ayuntamiento \"Ayuntamiento\")*—[municipal governments](/wiki/Municipal_government \"Municipal government\")—have the following responsibilities with respect to health, without prejudice to the purview of other public administrative bodies:", "* a) Health control of the environment: [air pollution](/wiki/Air_pollution \"Air pollution\"), [water supply](/wiki/Water_supply \"Water supply\") \\[and [water quality](/wiki/Water_quality \"Water quality\")], [wastewater treatment](/wiki/Sewage_treatment \"Sewage treatment\"), [urban and industrial residue](/wiki/Waste \"Waste\").\n* b) Health control of industries, activities and services, transport, [noise](/wiki/Noise \"Noise\") and [vibrations](/wiki/Vibration \"Vibration\").\n* c) Health control of buildings and places of human residence or gathering, especially of food centers, hairdressers, saunas and centers of personal hygiene, hotels and residential centers, schools, tourist campsites and areas of physical activity for sports and recreation.\n* d) Health control of [perishable food](/wiki/Perishable_food \"Perishable food\") distribution and supply, beverages and other products directly or indirectly related to human use or consumption, such as means of transport.\n* e) Health control of cemeteries and mortuary health policy.\n*a) Control sanitario del medio ambiente: Contaminación atmosférica, abastecimiento de aguas, saneamiento de aguas residuales, residuos urbanos e industriales.*\n b) *Control sanitario de industrias, actividades y servicios, transportes, [ruidos](/wiki/Ruido \"Ruido\") y vibraciones.*\n c) *Control sanitario de edificios y lugares de vivienda y convivencia humana, especialmente de los centros de alimentación, peluquerías, saunas y centros de higiene personal, hoteles y centros residenciales, escuelas, campamentos turísticos y áreas de actividad físico deportivas y de recreo.*\n d) *Control sanitario de la distribución y suministro de alimentos perecederos, bebidas y demás productos, directa o indirectamente relacionados con el uso o consumo humanos, así como los medios de su transporte.*\n e) *Control sanitario de los cementerios y policía sanitaria mortuoria.*" ]
Health establishments --------------------- ### Healthcare centers Royal Decree 1277/2003, of 10 October, establishes the general bases for authorization of health centers, services and establishments. It defines "healthcare center" (*centro sanitario*) as the organized combination of technical means and installations in which trained professionals, identified by their official certification or professional qualification, undertake basic health care activities with the purpose of improving people's health. These may be integrated into one or more health services, which constitute its healthcare portfolio.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.madrid.org/cs/Satellite?c\=PTSA\_Multimedia\_FA\&cid\=1142333254398\&pagename\=PortalSalud%2FPTSA\_Multimedia\_FA%2FPTSA\_documentoWebeditpro \|title\= Real Decreto 1277/2003, de 10 de octubre, por el que se establecen las bases generales sobre autorización de centros, servicios y establecimientos sanitarios. \|publisher\= \[\[Boletín Oficial del Estado\|BOE]] nº254 23 de octubre de 2003 \|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-14 }} ### *Consultorios* Certain healthcare centers (*centros sanitarios*) are referred to as *consultorios*, a term roughly equivalent to [British English](/wiki/British_English "British English") "surgery" or [American English](/wiki/American_English "American English") "doctor's office." These are offices that, while not full\-fledged health centers (*centros de salud*), nonetheless provide care beyond primary care. Some terms used are *consultorios rurales*, *consultorios locales*, and *consultorios periféricos* (respectively, rural, local and "peripheral"; that last means a center located in a community other than the main settlement of a [municipality](/wiki/Municipality "Municipality")), but other terms may exist, analogous to those that refer to various types of health centers.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.msc.es/ciudadanos/prestaciones/centrosServiciosSNS/hospitales/introduccionCentro.htm\#inicio \|title\= Centros de Sanitarios del SNS \|publisher\= msc.es \|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-12 }} According to the 2008 National Catalog of Hospitals (*Catálogo Nacional de Hospitales 2008*), Spain in 2007 had a total of 10,178 *consultorios* that allowed health professionals to provide more local services than the health centers in their respective zones, with the purpose of bringing basic services closer to people who reside in nuclei dispersed through rural areas that tend to have an older than average population.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.msps.es/organizacion/sns/docs/recursoActividad08\.pdf \|title\= Recursos y actividades del SNS \|publisher\= msps.es \|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-12 }} ### Health centers [thumb\|Health center in [Ansoáin](/wiki/Anso%C3%A1in "Ansoáin") ([Navarre](/wiki/Navarre "Navarre"))](/wiki/File:Centro_salud_Anso%C3%A1in3.jpg "Centro salud Ansoáin3.jpg") A health center (*centro de salud*, distinct from the smaller "healthcare center" *centro sanitario*) in Spain's SNS is main physical and functional structure devoted to coordinated global, integral, permanent and continuing primary care, based in a team of health care professionals and other professionals who work there as a team.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.madrid.org/cs/Satellite?c\=PTSA\_Multimedia\_FA\&cid\=1142333254398\&pagename\=PortalSalud%2FPTSA\_Multimedia\_FA%2FPTSA\_documentoWebeditpro \|title\= Real Decreto 1277/2003, de 10 de octubre. ANEXO II Definiciones de centros, unidades asistenciales y establecimientos sanitarios. Centro de salud. \|publisher\= \[\[Boletín Oficial del Estado\|BOE]] nº254 23 de octubre de 2003 \|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-14 }} Health centers basically practice the [general medicine](/wiki/General_medicine "General medicine") or [family medicine](/wiki/Family_medicine "Family medicine"), providing a unity of care in which a specialist in community and family medicine is responsible to provide preventive care, health promotion, diagnosis and basic treatment on an outpatient basis. According to the 2008 National Catalog of Hospitals (*Catálogo Nacional de Hospitales*), in 2007 Spain had 2,913 health centers.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.msps.es/organizacion/sns/docs/recursoActividad08\.pdf \|title\= Actividades y recursos del SNS \|publisher\= msps.es \|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-12 }} ### Specialized centers Specialized centers are healthcare centers where different health care professionals provide services to particular group identified by common pathologies, age, or other common characteristics. Among these are: Dental clinics Focused on care of the teeth and mouth. Centers for assisted human reproduction Biomedical teams focused on [assisted reproductive technology](/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology "Assisted reproductive technology"). Centers for voluntary interruption of pregnancy Provide [abortion](/wiki/Abortion "Abortion") services in legally permitted cases. [thumb \|[Hemodialysis](/wiki/Hemodialysis "Hemodialysis") machine.](/wiki/File:Hemodialysismachine.jpg "Hemodialysismachine.jpg") Centers for major outpatient surgery Provide surgery and subsidiary services including [general](/wiki/General_anesthesia "General anesthesia"), [local](/wiki/Local_anesthesia "Local anesthesia") and [regional](/wiki/Regional_anesthesia "Regional anesthesia") [anesthesia](/wiki/Anesthesia "Anesthesia") and [sedation](/wiki/Sedation "Sedation"). For surgeries that require only brief post\-operative care and therefore do not require overnight hospitalization. [Dialysis](/wiki/Kidney_dialysis "Kidney dialysis") centers For patients with failed [kidneys](/wiki/Kidney "Kidney"). Diagnostic centers Dedicated to diagnostic, analytic and imaging services. Mobile health care centers Carry human and technical means for the purpose of health care activities. [Transfusion](/wiki/Blood_transfusion "Blood transfusion") centers Carry out all activities related to the extraction and verification of [human blood](/wiki/Human_blood "Human blood") and its components, and of treatment, storage, and distribution. [Tissue banks](/wiki/Tissue_bank "Tissue bank") Conserve and guarantee the quality of tissues after they are obtained and until they are used as [allografts](/wiki/Allograft "Allograft") or [autografts](/wiki/Autograft "Autograft"). Medical inspection centers (*Centros de reconocimiento médico*), where examinations and other tests of ability are carried out for applicants or holders of medical and other health care permits or licenses. Mental health centers Diagnose and treat mental illness on an outpatient basis. ### Specialized health care establishments Specialized health care establishments are private centers that provide a suite of health care products, ranging from medicines to sophisticated [prostheses](/wiki/Prosthesis "Prosthesis"). These establishments are grouped by specialty and, on that account, must have accredited or certified technical personnel. Among these establishments are: [Pharmacies](/wiki/Pharmacy "Pharmacy") Private establishments operated in the public interest, subject to health care planning established by the autonomous communities, which provide the public with basic services recognized in Article 1 of Law 16/1997, of 25 April, that regulates pharmacy services (*Ley 16/1997, de 25 de abril, de regulación de los servicios de las oficinas de farmacia*). *Botiquines* (singular: *Botiquín*) are authorized to hold, conserve and dispense medicines and health care products in places where there would be special difficulties of accessibility of a pharmacy. Optometric offices (Ópticas) Evaluate visual capacity using [optometric](/wiki/Optometry "Optometry") techniques; crafting, sale, verification and control of adequate means for the prevention, detection, protection, and improvement of [visual acuity](/wiki/Visual_acuity "Visual acuity"). [Orthopedia](/wiki/Orthopedic "Orthopedic") centers Dispense orthopedic health care products such as [prostheses](/wiki/Prosthesis "Prosthesis") and [orthotics](/wiki/Orthotics "Orthotics"), technical devices to alleviate loss of autonomy, functionality, or physical capacity. Audioprosthesis centers Dispense health care products, intended for the correction of auditory deficiencies, such as [hearing aids](/wiki/Hearing_aid "Hearing aid"), with adaptation individualized to each patient. ### Hospitals [thumb\|Hospital General Torrecárdenas, [Almería](/wiki/Almer%C3%ADa "Almería").](/wiki/File:Hospital_Torrec%C3%A1rdenas_2.JPG "Hospital Torrecárdenas 2.JPG") [thumb\|ASISA private clinic in [Seville](/wiki/Seville "Seville").](/wiki/File:Clinicaprivadaensevilla.JPG "Clinicaprivadaensevilla.JPG") [thumb\|Children's hospital in Seville.](/wiki/File:Hospitalinfantilensevilla.JPG "Hospitalinfantilensevilla.JPG") A [hospital](/wiki/Hospital "Hospital") is a health care establishment that provides [inpatient care](/wiki/Inpatient_care "Inpatient care") and specialized (and other) care, providing such services as are needed in its geographical area. A hospital can be a single structure or a hospital complex, even including branch buildings off of its main campus; it can also integrate any number of specialized centers.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.definicionabc.com/salud/hospital.php \|title\= Definición de hospital \|publisher\= definicionabc.com \|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-07 }} A similar concept to a hospital is a *clinic*. In Spain, a clinic (*clínica*) is a health center, typically a private one, where patients can receive health coverage in a broad range of specialties. Some of these clinics include very up\-to\-date [operating theaters](/wiki/Operating_theater "Operating theater") capable of providing [minimally invasive surgery](/wiki/Minimally_invasive_surgery "Minimally invasive surgery"), and "hospitalization zones" where patients can recuperate on an inpatient basis. In large Spanish cities, there are numerous clinics. These are the facilities that are normally used by health care professionals whose medical societies cover it: ASISA, Adeslas, etc.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.clinicastarte.com/ \|title\= Un nuevo concepto de clínica \|publisher\= clinicastarte.com \|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-15 }} The General Health Law of 1986 establishes that the level of specialized care provided in hospitals and their dependent specialty centers will focus care on complex health problems. Hospital centers will develop, besides their functions strictly related to health care, functions of health promotion, prevention of illnesses and investigation and teaching, in accord with the programs of each area of health, with the object of complementing their activities with those developed by the primary care network.{{cite web \|url\=http://noticias.juridicas.com/base\_datos/Admin/l14\-1986\.t3\.html \|title\= Funciones de los hospitales \|publisher\= noticias.juridicas.com \|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-07 }} As elsewhere in the world, the size of hospitals in Spain is often gauged by the number of "installed beds" (*camas instaladas*). This is the number of hospital beds with fixed locations; at any given time, some beds may be out of commission. #### General and specialized hospitals General hospitals treat a broad range of pathologies and typically provide services including surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, and pediatrics. Other hospitals are more specialized. The following list includes most of the common types of specialized hospitals in Spain, but is not intended to be exhaustive. {{col\-begin\|width\=""}} {{col\-2}} * Surgical hospitals * Medical\-surgical hospitals * Maternity hospitals * Children's hospitals * Maternity and Children's hospitals (*materno\-infantil*) * Psychiatric hospitals * Hospitals for illnesses of the [thorax](/wiki/Human_thorax "Human thorax") {{col\-2}} * [Oncological](/wiki/Oncology "Oncology") hospitals * [Ophthalmic](/wiki/Ophthalmology "Ophthalmology") hospitals * [Traumatological](/wiki/Physical_trauma "Physical trauma") and rehabilitation hospitals * Psycho\-physical rehabilitation hospitals * [Geriatric](/wiki/Geriatrics "Geriatrics") and longterm care hospitals * [Leprological](/wiki/Leprosy "Leprosy") and [dermatological](/wiki/Dermatology "Dermatology") hospitals {{col\-end}} #### Health care contracts Spanish government\-run healthcare administrations sign health care contracts (*conciertos sanitarios*) with privately run entities that provide health care services. They are regulated by the provisions of the General Health Law and the current rules of government contracting. There are some special cases where the relation between the hospital and the managing entity is regulated by a special arrangement called a *Convenio de Vinculación* or *Convenio Singular* ("Linkage Convention" or "Singluar Convention").{{cite web \|url\= http://noticias.juridicas.com/base\_datos/CCAA/lr\-l2\-2002\.t8\.html \|title\= Ley 2/2002, de 17 de abril, de Salud. Colaboración con la iniciativa privada. \|publisher\= noticias.juridicas.com \|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-07 }} In [Catalonia](/wiki/Catalonia "Catalonia") there are also centers integrated into the Network of Hospitals for Public Use (Red de Hospitales de Utilización Pública, XHUP) as outlined in the supplement to Decree 124/2008 of the Department of Health of the Autonomous Government of Catalonia (*Anexo del Decreto 124/2008 del Departamento de Salud de la Generalitat de Catalunya*). #### Patrimonial dependency The patrimonial dependency (*dependencia patrimonial*) of a hospital (or other health care facility) is the individual or other juridical entity that owns, at least, the building occupied by the facility. Hospitals that are under the dependency of Spanish Social Security belong primarily to the General Treasury of Social Security, although there is a special group within Social Security for the Mutuals of Accidents and Occupational Diseases (*Mutuas de Accidentes de Trabajo y Enfermedades Profesionales*, MATEP). There are also a few cases where patrimony is shared by two or more public entities on a consortium basis. The 2009 National Catalog of Hospitals contains information about the patrimonial dependency of hospitals, summarized as follows; hospital complexes are each counted here as a single hospital:{{cite web \|url\= http://www.msps.es/organizacion/sns/docs/recursoActividad08\.pdf \|title\= Recursos y actividades del SNS. Hospitales. \|publisher\= msps.es Ministerio de Sanidad \|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-12 }} | Patrimonial Dependency | Number of centers | Number of beds | | --- | --- | --- | | Civil, public (SNS) |301 103,655 | [Ministry of Defence](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_%28Spain%29 "Ministry of Defence (Spain)") |8 1,458 | MATEP |22 1,741 | Private, charitable |120 19,980 | Private, non\-charitable |349 33,458 | TOTAL |804 160,292 40 percent of stays in private hospitals are arranged and paid for by the public system. The 2008 National Catalog of Hospitals gives the following breakdown of types of hospitals.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.msps.es/organizacion/sns/docs/recursoActividad08\.pdf \|title\= Recursos y actividades del SNS. Hospitales \|publisher\= msps.es Ministerio de Sanidad \|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-12 }} | Type of care | Number of hospitals | Number of beds | Beds per 100,000 population | Percent in thepublic system | | Acute illness |591 131,510 290\.5 72\.1% | Psychiatric |90 16,028 35\.5 37\.5% | Geriatric |119 12,945 28\.7 34\.2% ### High technology resources Health care centers, principally hospitals and specialty centers, have high technology capabilities used primarily to perform better patient diagnoses. The following breakdown of such facilities is based on the 2008 National Catalog of Hospitals. | \+ **High technology equipment** {{cite web \|url\= http://www.msps.es/organizacion/sns/docs/recursoActividad08\.pdf \|title\=Recursos sanitarios de alta tecnología \|publisher\= msps.es \|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-17 }} | Type of equipment | Total | Rate per million inhabitants | | [X\-ray computed tomography](/wiki/X-ray_computed_tomography "X-ray computed tomography") (CTC) | 654 | 14\.4 | | [Magnetic resonance imaging](/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging "Magnetic resonance imaging") (MRI) | 417 | 9\.2 | | [Gamma camera](/wiki/Gamma_camera "Gamma camera") (GAM) | 232 | 5\.1 | | [Hemodynamics](/wiki/Hemodynamics "Hemodynamics") (HEM) facility | 220 | 4\.9 | | [Single photon emission computed tomography](/wiki/Single_photon_emission_computed_tomography "Single photon emission computed tomography") (SPECT) | 46 | 1\.0 | | [Digital subtraction angiography](/wiki/Digital_subtraction_angiography "Digital subtraction angiography") (DSA) | 194 | 4\.3 | | [Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy](/wiki/Extracorporeal_shock_wave_lithotripsy "Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy") (ESWL) | 91 | 2\.0 | | [Radiation therapy](/wiki/Radiation_therapy "Radiation therapy") with [cobalt](/wiki/Cobalt "Cobalt") | 40 | 0\.9 | | Medical [linear particle accelerator](/wiki/Linear_particle_accelerator "Linear particle accelerator") (linac) | 160 | 3\.5 | | [Positron emission tomography](/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography "Positron emission tomography") (PET) | 32 | 0\.7 | | [Mammography](/wiki/Mammography "Mammography") | 481 | 10\.6 | | Bone [Densitometry](/wiki/Densitometry "Densitometry") | 165 | 3\.6 | | [Hemodialysis](/wiki/Hemodialysis "Hemodialysis") equipment | 3,225 | 71\.2 |
[ "Health establishments\n---------------------", "### Healthcare centers", "Royal Decree 1277/2003, of 10 October, establishes the general bases for authorization of health centers, services and establishments. It defines \"healthcare center\" (*centro sanitario*) as the organized combination of technical means and installations in which trained professionals, identified by their official certification or professional qualification, undertake basic health care activities with the purpose of improving people's health. These may be integrated into one or more health services, which constitute its healthcare portfolio.{{cite web\n\\|url\\=http://www.madrid.org/cs/Satellite?c\\=PTSA\\_Multimedia\\_FA\\&cid\\=1142333254398\\&pagename\\=PortalSalud%2FPTSA\\_Multimedia\\_FA%2FPTSA\\_documentoWebeditpro\n\\|title\\= Real Decreto 1277/2003, de 10 de octubre, por el que se establecen las bases generales sobre autorización de centros, servicios y establecimientos sanitarios.\n\\|publisher\\= \\[\\[Boletín Oficial del Estado\\|BOE]] nº254 23 de octubre de 2003\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-14\n}}", "### *Consultorios*", "Certain healthcare centers (*centros sanitarios*) are referred to as *consultorios*, a term roughly equivalent to [British English](/wiki/British_English \"British English\") \"surgery\" or [American English](/wiki/American_English \"American English\") \"doctor's office.\" These are offices that, while not full\\-fledged health centers (*centros de salud*), nonetheless provide care beyond primary care. Some terms used are *consultorios rurales*, *consultorios locales*, and *consultorios periféricos* (respectively, rural, local and \"peripheral\"; that last means a center located in a community other than the main settlement of a [municipality](/wiki/Municipality \"Municipality\")), but other terms may exist, analogous to those that refer to various types of health centers.{{cite web\n\\|url\\= http://www.msc.es/ciudadanos/prestaciones/centrosServiciosSNS/hospitales/introduccionCentro.htm\\#inicio\n\\|title\\= Centros de Sanitarios del SNS \n\\|publisher\\= msc.es\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-12\n}}", "According to the 2008 National Catalog of Hospitals (*Catálogo Nacional de Hospitales 2008*), Spain in 2007 had a total of 10,178 *consultorios* that allowed health professionals to provide more local services than the health centers in their respective zones, with the purpose of bringing basic services closer to people who reside in nuclei dispersed through rural areas that tend to have an older than average population.{{cite web\n\\|url\\= http://www.msps.es/organizacion/sns/docs/recursoActividad08\\.pdf\n\\|title\\= Recursos y actividades del SNS\n\\|publisher\\= msps.es\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-12\n}}", "### Health centers", "[thumb\\|Health center in [Ansoáin](/wiki/Anso%C3%A1in \"Ansoáin\") ([Navarre](/wiki/Navarre \"Navarre\"))](/wiki/File:Centro_salud_Anso%C3%A1in3.jpg \"Centro salud Ansoáin3.jpg\")", "A health center (*centro de salud*, distinct from the smaller \"healthcare center\" *centro sanitario*) in Spain's SNS is main physical and functional structure devoted to coordinated global, integral, permanent and continuing primary care, based in a team of health care professionals and other professionals who work there as a team.{{cite web\n\\|url\\=http://www.madrid.org/cs/Satellite?c\\=PTSA\\_Multimedia\\_FA\\&cid\\=1142333254398\\&pagename\\=PortalSalud%2FPTSA\\_Multimedia\\_FA%2FPTSA\\_documentoWebeditpro\n\\|title\\= Real Decreto 1277/2003, de 10 de octubre. ANEXO II Definiciones de centros, unidades asistenciales y establecimientos sanitarios. Centro de salud.\n\\|publisher\\= \\[\\[Boletín Oficial del Estado\\|BOE]] nº254 23 de octubre de 2003\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-14\n}}", "Health centers basically practice the [general medicine](/wiki/General_medicine \"General medicine\") or [family medicine](/wiki/Family_medicine \"Family medicine\"), providing a unity of care in which a specialist in community and family medicine is responsible to provide preventive care, health promotion, diagnosis and basic treatment on an outpatient basis. According to the 2008 National Catalog of Hospitals (*Catálogo Nacional de Hospitales*), in 2007 Spain had 2,913 health centers.{{cite web\n\\|url\\= http://www.msps.es/organizacion/sns/docs/recursoActividad08\\.pdf\n\\|title\\= Actividades y recursos del SNS\n\\|publisher\\= msps.es\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-12\n}}", "### Specialized centers", "Specialized centers are healthcare centers where different health care professionals provide services to particular group identified by common pathologies, age, or other common characteristics. Among these are:", "Dental clinics\n Focused on care of the teeth and mouth.\n Centers for assisted human reproduction\n Biomedical teams focused on [assisted reproductive technology](/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology \"Assisted reproductive technology\").\n Centers for voluntary interruption of pregnancy Provide [abortion](/wiki/Abortion \"Abortion\") services in legally permitted cases.\n [thumb \\|[Hemodialysis](/wiki/Hemodialysis \"Hemodialysis\") machine.](/wiki/File:Hemodialysismachine.jpg \"Hemodialysismachine.jpg\")\n Centers for major outpatient surgery\n Provide surgery and subsidiary services including [general](/wiki/General_anesthesia \"General anesthesia\"), [local](/wiki/Local_anesthesia \"Local anesthesia\") and [regional](/wiki/Regional_anesthesia \"Regional anesthesia\") [anesthesia](/wiki/Anesthesia \"Anesthesia\") and [sedation](/wiki/Sedation \"Sedation\"). For surgeries that require only brief post\\-operative care and therefore do not require overnight hospitalization.\n [Dialysis](/wiki/Kidney_dialysis \"Kidney dialysis\") centers\n For patients with failed [kidneys](/wiki/Kidney \"Kidney\").\n Diagnostic centers\n Dedicated to diagnostic, analytic and imaging services.\n Mobile health care centers Carry human and technical means for the purpose of health care activities.\n [Transfusion](/wiki/Blood_transfusion \"Blood transfusion\") centers\n Carry out all activities related to the extraction and verification of [human blood](/wiki/Human_blood \"Human blood\") and its components, and of treatment, storage, and distribution.\n [Tissue banks](/wiki/Tissue_bank \"Tissue bank\")\n Conserve and guarantee the quality of tissues after they are obtained and until they are used as [allografts](/wiki/Allograft \"Allograft\") or [autografts](/wiki/Autograft \"Autograft\").\n Medical inspection centers\n (*Centros de reconocimiento médico*), where examinations and other tests of ability are carried out for applicants or holders of medical and other health care permits or licenses.\n Mental health centers\n Diagnose and treat mental illness on an outpatient basis.\n### Specialized health care establishments", "Specialized health care establishments are private centers that provide a suite of health care products, ranging from medicines to sophisticated [prostheses](/wiki/Prosthesis \"Prosthesis\"). These establishments are grouped by specialty and, on that account, must have accredited or certified technical personnel. Among these establishments are:", "[Pharmacies](/wiki/Pharmacy \"Pharmacy\")\n Private establishments operated in the public interest, subject to health care planning established by the autonomous communities, which provide the public with basic services recognized in Article 1 of Law 16/1997, of 25 April, that regulates pharmacy services (*Ley 16/1997, de 25 de abril, de regulación de los servicios de las oficinas de farmacia*).\n *Botiquines* (singular: *Botiquín*) are authorized to hold, conserve and dispense medicines and health care products in places where there would be special difficulties of accessibility of a pharmacy.\n Optometric offices (Ópticas)\n Evaluate visual capacity using [optometric](/wiki/Optometry \"Optometry\") techniques; crafting, sale, verification and control of adequate means for the prevention, detection, protection, and improvement of [visual acuity](/wiki/Visual_acuity \"Visual acuity\").\n [Orthopedia](/wiki/Orthopedic \"Orthopedic\") centers\n Dispense orthopedic health care products such as [prostheses](/wiki/Prosthesis \"Prosthesis\") and [orthotics](/wiki/Orthotics \"Orthotics\"), technical devices to alleviate loss of autonomy, functionality, or physical capacity.\n Audioprosthesis centers\n Dispense health care products, intended for the correction of auditory deficiencies, such as [hearing aids](/wiki/Hearing_aid \"Hearing aid\"), with adaptation individualized to each patient.\n### Hospitals", "[thumb\\|Hospital General Torrecárdenas, [Almería](/wiki/Almer%C3%ADa \"Almería\").](/wiki/File:Hospital_Torrec%C3%A1rdenas_2.JPG \"Hospital Torrecárdenas 2.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|ASISA private clinic in [Seville](/wiki/Seville \"Seville\").](/wiki/File:Clinicaprivadaensevilla.JPG \"Clinicaprivadaensevilla.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|Children's hospital in Seville.](/wiki/File:Hospitalinfantilensevilla.JPG \"Hospitalinfantilensevilla.JPG\")", "A [hospital](/wiki/Hospital \"Hospital\") is a health care establishment that provides [inpatient care](/wiki/Inpatient_care \"Inpatient care\") and specialized (and other) care, providing such services as are needed in its geographical area. A hospital can be a single structure or a hospital complex, even including branch buildings off of its main campus; it can also integrate any number of specialized centers.{{cite web\n\\|url\\= http://www.definicionabc.com/salud/hospital.php\n\\|title\\= Definición de hospital\n\\|publisher\\= definicionabc.com\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-07\n}}", "A similar concept to a hospital is a *clinic*. In Spain, a clinic (*clínica*) is a health center, typically a private one, where patients can receive health coverage in a broad range of specialties. Some of these clinics include very up\\-to\\-date [operating theaters](/wiki/Operating_theater \"Operating theater\") capable of providing [minimally invasive surgery](/wiki/Minimally_invasive_surgery \"Minimally invasive surgery\"), and \"hospitalization zones\" where patients can recuperate on an inpatient basis. In large Spanish cities, there are numerous clinics. These are the facilities that are normally used by health care professionals whose medical societies cover it: ASISA, Adeslas, etc.{{cite web\n\\|url\\= http://www.clinicastarte.com/\n\\|title\\= Un nuevo concepto de clínica\n\\|publisher\\= clinicastarte.com\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-15\n}}", "The General Health Law of 1986 establishes that the level of specialized care provided in hospitals and their dependent specialty centers will focus care on complex health problems. Hospital centers will develop, besides their functions strictly related to health care, functions of health promotion, prevention of illnesses and investigation and teaching, in accord with the programs of each area of health, with the object of complementing their activities with those developed by the primary care network.{{cite web\n\\|url\\=http://noticias.juridicas.com/base\\_datos/Admin/l14\\-1986\\.t3\\.html\n\\|title\\= Funciones de los hospitales\n\\|publisher\\= noticias.juridicas.com\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-07\n}}", "As elsewhere in the world, the size of hospitals in Spain is often gauged by the number of \"installed beds\" (*camas instaladas*). This is the number of hospital beds with fixed locations; at any given time, some beds may be out of commission.", "#### General and specialized hospitals", "General hospitals treat a broad range of pathologies and typically provide services including surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, and pediatrics. Other hospitals are more specialized. The following list includes most of the common types of specialized hospitals in Spain, but is not intended to be exhaustive.", "{{col\\-begin\\|width\\=\"\"}}\n{{col\\-2}}\n* Surgical hospitals\n* Medical\\-surgical hospitals\n* Maternity hospitals\n* Children's hospitals\n* Maternity and Children's hospitals (*materno\\-infantil*)\n* Psychiatric hospitals\n* Hospitals for illnesses of the [thorax](/wiki/Human_thorax \"Human thorax\")\n{{col\\-2}}\n* [Oncological](/wiki/Oncology \"Oncology\") hospitals\n* [Ophthalmic](/wiki/Ophthalmology \"Ophthalmology\") hospitals\n* [Traumatological](/wiki/Physical_trauma \"Physical trauma\") and rehabilitation hospitals\n* Psycho\\-physical rehabilitation hospitals\n* [Geriatric](/wiki/Geriatrics \"Geriatrics\") and longterm care hospitals\n* [Leprological](/wiki/Leprosy \"Leprosy\") and [dermatological](/wiki/Dermatology \"Dermatology\") hospitals\n{{col\\-end}}", "#### Health care contracts", "Spanish government\\-run healthcare administrations sign health care contracts (*conciertos sanitarios*) with privately run entities that provide health care services. They are regulated by the provisions of the General Health Law and the current rules of government contracting. There are some special cases where the relation between the hospital and the managing entity is regulated by a special arrangement called a *Convenio de Vinculación* or *Convenio Singular* (\"Linkage Convention\" or \"Singluar Convention\").{{cite web\n\\|url\\= http://noticias.juridicas.com/base\\_datos/CCAA/lr\\-l2\\-2002\\.t8\\.html\n\\|title\\= Ley 2/2002, de 17 de abril, de Salud. Colaboración con la iniciativa privada.\n\\|publisher\\= noticias.juridicas.com\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-07\n}} In [Catalonia](/wiki/Catalonia \"Catalonia\") there are also centers integrated into the Network of Hospitals for Public Use (Red de Hospitales de Utilización Pública, XHUP) as outlined in the supplement to Decree 124/2008 of the Department of Health of the Autonomous Government of Catalonia (*Anexo del Decreto 124/2008 del Departamento de Salud de la Generalitat de Catalunya*).", "#### Patrimonial dependency", "The patrimonial dependency (*dependencia patrimonial*) of a hospital (or other health care facility) is the individual or other juridical entity that owns, at least, the building occupied by the facility. Hospitals that are under the dependency of Spanish Social Security belong primarily to the General Treasury of Social Security, although there is a special group within Social Security for the Mutuals of Accidents and Occupational Diseases (*Mutuas de Accidentes de Trabajo y Enfermedades Profesionales*, MATEP). There are also a few cases where patrimony is shared by two or more public entities on a consortium basis.", "The 2009 National Catalog of Hospitals contains information about the patrimonial dependency of hospitals, summarized as follows; hospital complexes are each counted here as a single hospital:{{cite web\n\\|url\\= http://www.msps.es/organizacion/sns/docs/recursoActividad08\\.pdf\n\\|title\\= Recursos y actividades del SNS. Hospitales.\n\\|publisher\\= msps.es Ministerio de Sanidad\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-12\n}}", "", "| Patrimonial Dependency | Number of centers | Number of beds |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Civil, public (SNS) |301", "103,655", "| [Ministry of Defence](/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_%28Spain%29 \"Ministry of Defence (Spain)\") |8", "1,458", "| MATEP |22", "1,741", "| Private, charitable |120", "19,980", "| Private, non\\-charitable |349", "33,458", "| TOTAL |804", "160,292", "", "40 percent of stays in private hospitals are arranged and paid for by the public system.", "The 2008 National Catalog of Hospitals gives the following breakdown of types of hospitals.{{cite web\n\\|url\\= http://www.msps.es/organizacion/sns/docs/recursoActividad08\\.pdf\n\\|title\\= Recursos y actividades del SNS. Hospitales\n\\|publisher\\= msps.es Ministerio de Sanidad\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-12\n}}", "", "| Type of care | Number of hospitals | Number of beds | Beds per 100,000 population | Percent in thepublic system |", "| Acute illness |591", "131,510", "290\\.5", "72\\.1%", "| Psychiatric |90", "16,028", "35\\.5", "37\\.5%", "| Geriatric |119", "12,945", "28\\.7", "34\\.2%", "### High technology resources", "Health care centers, principally hospitals and specialty centers, have high technology capabilities used primarily to perform better patient diagnoses. The following breakdown of such facilities is based on the 2008 National Catalog of Hospitals.", "", "| \\+ **High technology equipment** {{cite web \\|url\\= http://www.msps.es/organizacion/sns/docs/recursoActividad08\\.pdf \\|title\\=Recursos sanitarios de alta tecnología \\|publisher\\= msps.es \\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-17 }} | Type of equipment | Total | Rate per million inhabitants |\n| [X\\-ray computed tomography](/wiki/X-ray_computed_tomography \"X-ray computed tomography\") (CTC) | 654 | 14\\.4 |\n| [Magnetic resonance imaging](/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging \"Magnetic resonance imaging\") (MRI) | 417 | 9\\.2 |\n| [Gamma camera](/wiki/Gamma_camera \"Gamma camera\") (GAM) | 232 | 5\\.1 |\n| [Hemodynamics](/wiki/Hemodynamics \"Hemodynamics\") (HEM) facility | 220 | 4\\.9 |\n| [Single photon emission computed tomography](/wiki/Single_photon_emission_computed_tomography \"Single photon emission computed tomography\") (SPECT) | 46 | 1\\.0 |\n| [Digital subtraction angiography](/wiki/Digital_subtraction_angiography \"Digital subtraction angiography\") (DSA) | 194 | 4\\.3 |\n| [Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy](/wiki/Extracorporeal_shock_wave_lithotripsy \"Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy\") (ESWL) | 91 | 2\\.0 |\n| [Radiation therapy](/wiki/Radiation_therapy \"Radiation therapy\") with [cobalt](/wiki/Cobalt \"Cobalt\") | 40 | 0\\.9 |\n| Medical [linear particle accelerator](/wiki/Linear_particle_accelerator \"Linear particle accelerator\") (linac) | 160 | 3\\.5 |\n| [Positron emission tomography](/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography \"Positron emission tomography\") (PET) | 32 | 0\\.7 |\n| [Mammography](/wiki/Mammography \"Mammography\") | 481 | 10\\.6 |\n| Bone [Densitometry](/wiki/Densitometry \"Densitometry\") | 165 | 3\\.6 |\n| [Hemodialysis](/wiki/Hemodialysis \"Hemodialysis\") equipment | 3,225 | 71\\.2 |" ]
Services -------- Article 7 of the Law of Cohesion establishes the catalog of services of the National Health System, with the object of guaranteeing the basic and common conditions for an adequate level of integrated, continuous health care. Health care services include prevention, diagnosis, therapy and rehabilitation, as well as promotion and maintenance of citizens' health. Article 11 of the law establishes the basic lines of public health services: * 1\. The public health service is the ensemble of initiatives organized by public administrations to preserve, protect and promote the health of the population. It is a combination of sciences, capabilities and attitudes directed to the maintenance and improvement of the health of all persons through collective and social acts. * 2\. The services in this ambit include the following activities: [Epidemiological](/wiki/Epidemiology "Epidemiology") information and vigilance. Protection of health. Promotion of health. Vigilance and control of possible health risks derived from the importation, exportation and transit of merchandise and of international travel. Promotion and protection of environmental safety. Promotion and protection of health on the job. * 3\. Public health services are to be exercised with an integral character, from public health structures to administrations and the infrastructure of primary care of the National Health System. 1\. La prestación de salud pública es el conjunto de iniciativas organizadas por las Administraciones públicas para preservar, proteger y promover la salud de la población. Es una combinación de ciencias, habilidades y actitudes dirigidas al mantenimiento y mejora de la salud de todas las personas a través de acciones colectivas o sociales. 2\. Las prestaciones en este ámbito comprenderán las siguientes actuaciones: Información y vigilancia epidemiológica. Protección de la salud. Promoción de la salud. Vigilancia y control de los posibles riesgos para la salud derivados de la importación, exportación o tránsito de mercancías y del tráfico internacional de viajeros. Promoción y protección de la sanidad ambiental. Promoción y protección de la salud laboral. 3\. Las prestaciones de salud pública se ejercerán con un carácter de integralidad, a partir de las estructuras de salud pública de las Administraciones y de la infraestructura de atención primaria del Sistema Nacional de Salud. ### Primary care services * + - Primary care services constitute the majority of the services of the SNS; this is true of health promotion and education, prevention of illness, hands\-on health care, health maintenance, recuperation, rehabilitation, and social work. The following catalog demonstrates preventive activities, health promotion and education, family care and community care as performed in primary care centers.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.msps.es/organizacion/sns/docs/prestaciones08\.pdf \|title\= Prestaciones sanitarias del Sistema Nacional de Sald. Atención primaria \|publisher\=msps.es \|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-16 }} * Inculcate healthy life habits in [adolescents](/wiki/Adolescent "Adolescent") with respect to the use of [tobacco](/wiki/Tobacco "Tobacco"), [alcohol](/wiki/Alcohol_%28drug%29 "Alcohol (drug)") and [recreational drugs](/wiki/Recreational_drug "Recreational drug") as well as harmful [eating disorders](/wiki/Eating_disorder "Eating disorder") and healthy conduct with respect to [sexuality](/wiki/Human_sexuality "Human sexuality"). * Orientation of women during [pregnancy](/wiki/Pregnancy "Pregnancy") and [birth](/wiki/Birth "Birth"), early diagnosis of gynecological cancers and [breast cancer](/wiki/Breast_cancer "Breast cancer"), detection and care of problems related to [menopause](/wiki/Menopause "Menopause"). [Family planning](/wiki/Family_planning "Family planning"). * [Pediatrics](/wiki/Pediatrics "Pediatrics"), including infant and child health care, nutrition, general counsel on child development, health education and childhood accidents. [Vaccinations](/wiki/Vaccination "Vaccination"). * Care for adults in risk groups or with chronic conditions. Counsel on healthy life styles and detection of health problems. * [Geriatrics](/wiki/Geriatrics "Geriatrics"): promotion of health and prevention of illness. Homecare for the housebound. * Detection of [violence against women](/wiki/Violence_against_women "Violence against women") and [domestic abuse](/wiki/Domestic_abuse "Domestic abuse"), as well as [child abuse](/wiki/Child_abuse "Child abuse"), [elder abuse](/wiki/Elder_abuse "Elder abuse"), and abuse of disabled people. * Dentistry: Care, diagnosis and therapy, health promotion and education, and illness prevention related to the teeth and mouth. * Care of terminal patient: integral, individual and continual care either in the home or at a health center. * [Mental health](/wiki/Mental_health "Mental health") care: prevention and promotion to maintain mental health, in coordination with specialists. ### Specialized care [thumb\|[Laparoscopy](/wiki/Laparoscopy "Laparoscopy") is a specialized diagnostic tool. Here, a colangiography image done during a laparoscopic [cholecystectomy](/wiki/Cholecystectomy "Cholecystectomy").](/wiki/File:Laprascopy-Roentgen.jpg "Laprascopy-Roentgen.jpg") At times, patients will require specialized health care services. These may be provided in external consultations, day hospitals, or on an inpatient basis. Examples of specialized services are [intensive and critical care](/wiki/Intensive-care_medicine "Intensive-care medicine"), [anesthesia](/wiki/Anesthesia "Anesthesia"), [defibrillation](/wiki/Defibrillation "Defibrillation"), but also some forms of [hemotherapy](/wiki/Hemotherapy "Hemotherapy"), rehabilitation, and even nutrition, diet, post\-partum treatment, and family planning, especially [assisted reproductive technology](/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology "Assisted reproductive technology"). Specialized treatment can also be involved in detection, prescription and implementation of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures, especially those related to [prenatal diagnosis](/wiki/Prenatal_diagnosis "Prenatal diagnosis") in risk groups, diagnosis by imaging, interventionist [radiology](/wiki/Radiology "Radiology"), [hemodynamics](/wiki/Hemodynamics "Hemodynamics"), [nuclear medicine](/wiki/Nuclear_medicine "Nuclear medicine"), [neurophysiology](/wiki/Neurophysiology "Neurophysiology"), [endoscopy](/wiki/Endoscopy "Endoscopy"), lab tests, [biopsies](/wiki/Biopsy "Biopsy"), [radiotherapy](/wiki/Radiotherapy "Radiotherapy"), [radiosurgery](/wiki/Radiosurgery "Radiosurgery"), [renal](/wiki/Kidney "Kidney") [lithotripsy](/wiki/Lithotripsy "Lithotripsy"), [dialysis](/wiki/Kidney_dialysis "Kidney dialysis"), techniques of [respiratory therapy](/wiki/Respiratory_therapy "Respiratory therapy"), [organ transplants](/wiki/Organ_transplant "Organ transplant") and other tissue and cell transplants.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.msps.es/organizacion/sns/docs/prestaciones08\.pdf \|title\= Prestaciones de la Atención Esppecializada \|publisher\= msps.es }} ### Urgent care [thumb\|Emergency room of the Virgen del Rocío hospital, [Seville](/wiki/Seville "Seville").](/wiki/File:Dependencias_hospitalariasdeurgencias.JPG "Dependencias hospitalariasdeurgencias.JPG") [Emergency medicine](/wiki/Emergency_medicine "Emergency medicine") is health care provided in cases where emergency care is needed. Emergency medicine is practiced both in healthcare facilities and at the site of [work accidents](/wiki/Work_accident "Work accident"), [traffic accidents](/wiki/Traffic_accident "Traffic accident"), etc. or in the home of a patient whose condition prevents them from getting to a healthcare facility. Emergency medicine is a 24\-hour\-a\-day service provided, in particular, by physicians and other medical professionals in hospital [emergency rooms](/wiki/Emergency_room "Emergency room"), but also in [ambulances](/wiki/Ambulance "Ambulance"), medical evacuation [helicopters](/wiki/Helicopter "Helicopter"), etc. *en route* to such facilities.{{cite web \|url\= http://www.tuotromedico.com/temas/urgencia\_medica.htm \|title\= Urgencia médica \|publisher\= tuotromedico.com }} ### Pharmaceutical services Medications in Spain are regulated under Law 29/2006 of 26 July, of guarantees and rational use of medications and health care products (*Ley 29/2006, de 26 de julio, de garantías y uso racional de los medicamentos y productos sanitarios*).{{cite web \|url\= http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2006/07/27/pdfs/A28122\-28165\.pdf \|title\= Ley 29/2006, de 26 de julio, de garantías y uso racional de los medicamentos y productos sanitarios \|publisher\=\[\[Boletín Oficial del Estado\|BOE]] \|work\=boe.es \|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-18 }} One of the SNS's priorities with respect to pharmaceuticals is to teach patients to make rational use of medications and to avoid, insofar as possible, unsupervised [self\-medication](/wiki/Self-medication "Self-medication"). Pharmaceutical services include medications and health products are provided to patients according to their clinical needs, in precise doses and over an adequate period at the least cost possible. Medications are dispensed by pharmacies, each of which is headed by a licensed pharmacist. All medications to be prescribed to patients must either be authorized and registered by the [Spanish Agency of Medicines and Medical Devices](/wiki/Spanish_Agency_of_Medicines_and_Medical_Devices "Spanish Agency of Medicines and Medical Devices") (*Agencia Española de Medicamentos y Productos Sanitarios*), or must be formulations prepared by licensed pharmacists. Exceptions to this requirement are cosmetics, dietetic products, dental products and other sanitary products, as well as drugs classified as advertising, [homeopathic](/wiki/Homeopathy "Homeopathy") medicines, and articles and accessories advertised to the general public and where the purchaser pays the full price (that is, no money comes from SNS\-related sources). [thumb\|upright\|Runner [Oscar Pistorius](/wiki/Oscar_Pistorius "Oscar Pistorius"), with his orthopedic leg.](/wiki/File:Oscar_Pistorius-2.jpg "Oscar Pistorius-2.jpg") Spanish patients make a [copayment](/wiki/Copayment "Copayment") when they acquire pharmaceuticals. The distribution of the cost is as follows:{{cite web \|url\=http://www.seg\-social.es/Internet\_1/Trabajadores/PrestacionesPension10935/Asistenciasanitaria/RegimenGeneral/Contenido/index.htm\#30489 \|title\= Prestaciones famaceúticas del Sistema Nacional de Salud \|publisher\= seg\-social.es \|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-18 }} * Medications dispensed as part of hospitalization are free to the patient. * Other prescriptions are financed as follows + Most [pensioners](/wiki/Pensioner "Pensioner") and their beneficiaries receive their medicines for free. Pensioners who were public functionaries and are protected by MUFACE (Mutualidad General de Funcionarios Civiles del Estado) pay 30 percent of prescription cost. + Non\-pensioners pay 40 percent of the price of prescription drugs. Active functionaries protected by MUFACE pay 30 percent. + Communities affected by [toxic oil syndrome](/wiki/Toxic_oil_syndrome "Toxic oil syndrome") and patients with [AIDS](/wiki/AIDS "AIDS") receive their prescriptions for free. + Individuals with toxic treatments pay 10 percent, up to a maximum of 2\.64 [euros](/wiki/Euro "Euro") per prescription. ### Orthoprosthetic and complementary services Orthoprosthetic services can be permanent surgically implanted [prostheses](/wiki/Prosthesis "Prosthesis"), external prostheses, special [orthoses](/wiki/Orthosis "Orthosis") and prostheses including [hearing aids](/wiki/Hearing_aid "Hearing aid") and [earmolds](/wiki/Earmold "Earmold") for children up to age 16 with bilateral [hearing impairments](/wiki/Hearing_impairment "Hearing impairment").{{cite web \|url\= http://www.seg\-social.es/Internet\_1/Trabajadores/PrestacionesPension10935/Asistenciasanitaria/RegimenGeneral/Contenido/index.htm\#30491 \|title\= Prestaciones complementarias \|publisher\=seg\-social.es \|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-18 }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www10\.gencat.cat/catsalut/esp/servcat\_prestacions.htm \|title\=Prestaciones complementarias \|publisher\=Servei Català de la Salut \|access\-date\=2010\-08\-13}} "Complementary services" include complex [dietary therapies](/wiki/Dietary_therapy "Dietary therapy"), vehicles for invalids, and home [oxygen therapy](/wiki/Oxygen_therapy "Oxygen therapy"). ### Health care transport [thumb\|DYA [ambulances](/wiki/Ambulance "Ambulance") in the [Basque Country](/wiki/Basque_Country_%28autonomous_region%29 "Basque Country (autonomous region)").](/wiki/File:Ambulancias_DYA_Las_Arenas.jpg "Ambulancias DYA Las Arenas.jpg") The health care transport infrastructure transports people who are ill, accident victims, or otherwise in need of medical attention. It includes [ambulances](/wiki/Ambulance "Ambulance"), as well as [air ambulances](/wiki/Air_ambulance "Air ambulance"): helicopters and airplanes whose interiors are specially modified for the purpose. For most purposes, of course, ground transport is preferred, but sometimes distances or the difficulty of reaching particular locations make air transport more practical.
[ "Services\n--------", "Article 7 of the Law of Cohesion establishes the catalog of services of the National Health System, with the object of guaranteeing the basic and common conditions for an adequate level of integrated, continuous health care. Health care services include prevention, diagnosis, therapy and rehabilitation, as well as promotion and maintenance of citizens' health.", "Article 11 of the law establishes the basic lines of public health services:", "* 1\\. The public health service is the ensemble of initiatives organized by public administrations to preserve, protect and promote the health of the population. It is a combination of sciences, capabilities and attitudes directed to the maintenance and improvement of the health of all persons through collective and social acts.\n* 2\\. The services in this ambit include the following activities: [Epidemiological](/wiki/Epidemiology \"Epidemiology\") information and vigilance. Protection of health. Promotion of health. Vigilance and control of possible health risks derived from the importation, exportation and transit of merchandise and of international travel. Promotion and protection of environmental safety. Promotion and protection of health on the job.\n* 3\\. Public health services are to be exercised with an integral character, from public health structures to administrations and the infrastructure of primary care of the National Health System.\n 1\\. La prestación de salud pública es el conjunto de iniciativas organizadas por las Administraciones públicas para preservar, proteger y promover la salud de la población. Es una combinación de ciencias, habilidades y actitudes dirigidas al mantenimiento y mejora de la salud de todas las personas a través de acciones colectivas o sociales.\n 2\\. Las prestaciones en este ámbito comprenderán las siguientes actuaciones: Información y vigilancia epidemiológica. Protección de la salud. Promoción de la salud. Vigilancia y control de los posibles riesgos para la salud derivados de la importación, exportación o tránsito de mercancías y del tráfico internacional de viajeros. Promoción y protección de la sanidad ambiental. Promoción y protección de la salud laboral.\n 3\\. Las prestaciones de salud pública se ejercerán con un carácter de integralidad, a partir de las estructuras de salud pública de las Administraciones y de la infraestructura de atención primaria del Sistema Nacional de Salud.", "### Primary care services", "* + - Primary care services constitute the majority of the services of the SNS; this is true of health promotion and education, prevention of illness, hands\\-on health care, health maintenance, recuperation, rehabilitation, and social work.", "The following catalog demonstrates preventive activities, health promotion and education, family care and community care as performed in primary care centers.{{cite web\n\\|url\\=http://www.msps.es/organizacion/sns/docs/prestaciones08\\.pdf\n\\|title\\= Prestaciones sanitarias del Sistema Nacional de Sald. Atención primaria\n\\|publisher\\=msps.es\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-16\n}}\n* Inculcate healthy life habits in [adolescents](/wiki/Adolescent \"Adolescent\") with respect to the use of [tobacco](/wiki/Tobacco \"Tobacco\"), [alcohol](/wiki/Alcohol_%28drug%29 \"Alcohol (drug)\") and [recreational drugs](/wiki/Recreational_drug \"Recreational drug\") as well as harmful [eating disorders](/wiki/Eating_disorder \"Eating disorder\") and healthy conduct with respect to [sexuality](/wiki/Human_sexuality \"Human sexuality\").\n* Orientation of women during [pregnancy](/wiki/Pregnancy \"Pregnancy\") and [birth](/wiki/Birth \"Birth\"), early diagnosis of gynecological cancers and [breast cancer](/wiki/Breast_cancer \"Breast cancer\"), detection and care of problems related to [menopause](/wiki/Menopause \"Menopause\"). [Family planning](/wiki/Family_planning \"Family planning\").\n* [Pediatrics](/wiki/Pediatrics \"Pediatrics\"), including infant and child health care, nutrition, general counsel on child development, health education and childhood accidents. [Vaccinations](/wiki/Vaccination \"Vaccination\").\n* Care for adults in risk groups or with chronic conditions. Counsel on healthy life styles and detection of health problems.\n* [Geriatrics](/wiki/Geriatrics \"Geriatrics\"): promotion of health and prevention of illness. Homecare for the housebound.\n* Detection of [violence against women](/wiki/Violence_against_women \"Violence against women\") and [domestic abuse](/wiki/Domestic_abuse \"Domestic abuse\"), as well as [child abuse](/wiki/Child_abuse \"Child abuse\"), [elder abuse](/wiki/Elder_abuse \"Elder abuse\"), and abuse of disabled people.\n* Dentistry: Care, diagnosis and therapy, health promotion and education, and illness prevention related to the teeth and mouth.\n* Care of terminal patient: integral, individual and continual care either in the home or at a health center.\n* [Mental health](/wiki/Mental_health \"Mental health\") care: prevention and promotion to maintain mental health, in coordination with specialists.", "### Specialized care", "[thumb\\|[Laparoscopy](/wiki/Laparoscopy \"Laparoscopy\") is a specialized diagnostic tool. Here, a colangiography image done during a laparoscopic [cholecystectomy](/wiki/Cholecystectomy \"Cholecystectomy\").](/wiki/File:Laprascopy-Roentgen.jpg \"Laprascopy-Roentgen.jpg\")", "At times, patients will require specialized health care services. These may be provided in external consultations, day hospitals, or on an inpatient basis.", "Examples of specialized services are [intensive and critical care](/wiki/Intensive-care_medicine \"Intensive-care medicine\"), [anesthesia](/wiki/Anesthesia \"Anesthesia\"), [defibrillation](/wiki/Defibrillation \"Defibrillation\"), but also some forms of [hemotherapy](/wiki/Hemotherapy \"Hemotherapy\"), rehabilitation, and even nutrition, diet, post\\-partum treatment, and family planning, especially [assisted reproductive technology](/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology \"Assisted reproductive technology\"). Specialized treatment can also be involved in detection, prescription and implementation of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures, especially those related to [prenatal diagnosis](/wiki/Prenatal_diagnosis \"Prenatal diagnosis\") in risk groups, diagnosis by imaging, interventionist [radiology](/wiki/Radiology \"Radiology\"), [hemodynamics](/wiki/Hemodynamics \"Hemodynamics\"), [nuclear medicine](/wiki/Nuclear_medicine \"Nuclear medicine\"), [neurophysiology](/wiki/Neurophysiology \"Neurophysiology\"), [endoscopy](/wiki/Endoscopy \"Endoscopy\"), lab tests, [biopsies](/wiki/Biopsy \"Biopsy\"), [radiotherapy](/wiki/Radiotherapy \"Radiotherapy\"), [radiosurgery](/wiki/Radiosurgery \"Radiosurgery\"), [renal](/wiki/Kidney \"Kidney\") [lithotripsy](/wiki/Lithotripsy \"Lithotripsy\"), [dialysis](/wiki/Kidney_dialysis \"Kidney dialysis\"), techniques of [respiratory therapy](/wiki/Respiratory_therapy \"Respiratory therapy\"), [organ transplants](/wiki/Organ_transplant \"Organ transplant\") and other tissue and cell transplants.{{cite web\n\\|url\\= http://www.msps.es/organizacion/sns/docs/prestaciones08\\.pdf\n\\|title\\= Prestaciones de la Atención Esppecializada\n\\|publisher\\= msps.es\n}}", "### Urgent care", "[thumb\\|Emergency room of the Virgen del Rocío hospital, [Seville](/wiki/Seville \"Seville\").](/wiki/File:Dependencias_hospitalariasdeurgencias.JPG \"Dependencias hospitalariasdeurgencias.JPG\")", "[Emergency medicine](/wiki/Emergency_medicine \"Emergency medicine\") is health care provided in cases where emergency care is needed. Emergency medicine is practiced both in healthcare facilities and at the site of [work accidents](/wiki/Work_accident \"Work accident\"), [traffic accidents](/wiki/Traffic_accident \"Traffic accident\"), etc. or in the home of a patient whose condition prevents them from getting to a healthcare facility. Emergency medicine is a 24\\-hour\\-a\\-day service provided, in particular, by physicians and other medical professionals in hospital [emergency rooms](/wiki/Emergency_room \"Emergency room\"), but also in [ambulances](/wiki/Ambulance \"Ambulance\"), medical evacuation [helicopters](/wiki/Helicopter \"Helicopter\"), etc. *en route* to such facilities.{{cite web\n\\|url\\= http://www.tuotromedico.com/temas/urgencia\\_medica.htm\n\\|title\\= Urgencia médica\n\\|publisher\\= tuotromedico.com\n}}", "### Pharmaceutical services", "Medications in Spain are regulated under Law 29/2006 of 26 July, of guarantees and rational use of medications and health care products (*Ley 29/2006, de 26 de julio, de garantías y uso racional de los medicamentos y productos sanitarios*).{{cite web\n\\|url\\= http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2006/07/27/pdfs/A28122\\-28165\\.pdf\n\\|title\\= Ley 29/2006, de 26 de julio, de garantías y uso racional de los medicamentos y productos sanitarios\n\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Boletín Oficial del Estado\\|BOE]]\n\\|work\\=boe.es\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-18\n}} One of the SNS's priorities with respect to pharmaceuticals is to teach patients to make rational use of medications and to avoid, insofar as possible, unsupervised [self\\-medication](/wiki/Self-medication \"Self-medication\").", "Pharmaceutical services include medications and health products are provided to patients according to their clinical needs, in precise doses and over an adequate period at the least cost possible. Medications are dispensed by pharmacies, each of which is headed by a licensed pharmacist.", "All medications to be prescribed to patients must either be authorized and registered by the [Spanish Agency of Medicines and Medical Devices](/wiki/Spanish_Agency_of_Medicines_and_Medical_Devices \"Spanish Agency of Medicines and Medical Devices\") (*Agencia Española de Medicamentos y Productos Sanitarios*), or must be formulations prepared by licensed pharmacists. Exceptions to this requirement are cosmetics, dietetic products, dental products and other sanitary products, as well as drugs classified as advertising, [homeopathic](/wiki/Homeopathy \"Homeopathy\") medicines, and articles and accessories advertised to the general public and where the purchaser pays the full price (that is, no money comes from SNS\\-related sources).", "[thumb\\|upright\\|Runner [Oscar Pistorius](/wiki/Oscar_Pistorius \"Oscar Pistorius\"), with his orthopedic leg.](/wiki/File:Oscar_Pistorius-2.jpg \"Oscar Pistorius-2.jpg\")\nSpanish patients make a [copayment](/wiki/Copayment \"Copayment\") when they acquire pharmaceuticals. The distribution of the cost is as follows:{{cite web\n\\|url\\=http://www.seg\\-social.es/Internet\\_1/Trabajadores/PrestacionesPension10935/Asistenciasanitaria/RegimenGeneral/Contenido/index.htm\\#30489\n\\|title\\= Prestaciones famaceúticas del Sistema Nacional de Salud\n\\|publisher\\= seg\\-social.es\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-18\n}}", "* Medications dispensed as part of hospitalization are free to the patient.\n* Other prescriptions are financed as follows\n\t+ Most [pensioners](/wiki/Pensioner \"Pensioner\") and their beneficiaries receive their medicines for free. Pensioners who were public functionaries and are protected by MUFACE (Mutualidad General de Funcionarios Civiles del Estado) pay 30 percent of prescription cost.\n\t+ Non\\-pensioners pay 40 percent of the price of prescription drugs. Active functionaries protected by MUFACE pay 30 percent.\n\t+ Communities affected by [toxic oil syndrome](/wiki/Toxic_oil_syndrome \"Toxic oil syndrome\") and patients with [AIDS](/wiki/AIDS \"AIDS\") receive their prescriptions for free.\n\t+ Individuals with toxic treatments pay 10 percent, up to a maximum of 2\\.64 [euros](/wiki/Euro \"Euro\") per prescription.", "### Orthoprosthetic and complementary services", "Orthoprosthetic services can be permanent surgically implanted [prostheses](/wiki/Prosthesis \"Prosthesis\"), external prostheses, special [orthoses](/wiki/Orthosis \"Orthosis\") and prostheses including [hearing aids](/wiki/Hearing_aid \"Hearing aid\") and [earmolds](/wiki/Earmold \"Earmold\") for children up to age 16 with bilateral [hearing impairments](/wiki/Hearing_impairment \"Hearing impairment\").{{cite web\n\\|url\\= http://www.seg\\-social.es/Internet\\_1/Trabajadores/PrestacionesPension10935/Asistenciasanitaria/RegimenGeneral/Contenido/index.htm\\#30491\n\\|title\\= Prestaciones complementarias\n\\|publisher\\=seg\\-social.es\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-18\n}}{{cite web\n\\|url\\=http://www10\\.gencat.cat/catsalut/esp/servcat\\_prestacions.htm\n\\|title\\=Prestaciones complementarias\n\\|publisher\\=Servei Català de la Salut\n\\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-08\\-13}}", "\"Complementary services\" include complex [dietary therapies](/wiki/Dietary_therapy \"Dietary therapy\"), vehicles for invalids, and home [oxygen therapy](/wiki/Oxygen_therapy \"Oxygen therapy\").", "### Health care transport", "[thumb\\|DYA [ambulances](/wiki/Ambulance \"Ambulance\") in the [Basque Country](/wiki/Basque_Country_%28autonomous_region%29 \"Basque Country (autonomous region)\").](/wiki/File:Ambulancias_DYA_Las_Arenas.jpg \"Ambulancias DYA Las Arenas.jpg\")", "The health care transport infrastructure transports people who are ill, accident victims, or otherwise in need of medical attention. It includes [ambulances](/wiki/Ambulance \"Ambulance\"), as well as [air ambulances](/wiki/Air_ambulance \"Air ambulance\"): helicopters and airplanes whose interiors are specially modified for the purpose. For most purposes, of course, ground transport is preferred, but sometimes distances or the difficulty of reaching particular locations make air transport more practical.", "" ]
Plot ---- Michael Lander is a pilot who flies the [Goodyear Blimp](/wiki/Goodyear_Blimp "Goodyear Blimp") over [National Football League](/wiki/National_Football_League "National Football League") games to film them for network television. Secretly deranged by years of torture as a [POW](/wiki/Prisoner_of_war "Prisoner of war") in the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War "Vietnam War"), he had a bitter [court martial](/wiki/Court_martial "Court martial") on his return and a failed marriage. He longs to kill himself and to take with him as many as possible of the cheerful, carefree civilians he sees from his blimp each weekend. Lander is desperately in love with Dahlia Iyad, an operative from the [Palestinian terrorist](/wiki/Palestinian_terrorist "Palestinian terrorist") group [Black September](/wiki/Black_September_Organization "Black September Organization"), who controls and manipulates him. They conspire together to launch a suicide attack using a bomb composed of [plastique](/wiki/Plastic_explosive "Plastic explosive") and a quarter\-million steel [flechettes](/wiki/Flechette "Flechette"). They plan to mount the bomb on the underside of the [gondola](/wiki/Airship_gondola "Airship gondola") of the Goodyear blimp which traditionally flies over the [Super Bowl](/wiki/Super_Bowl "Super Bowl") football game, and detonate it over the [Miami Orange Bowl](/wiki/Miami_Orange_Bowl "Miami Orange Bowl") during [Super Bowl X](/wiki/Super_Bowl_X "Super Bowl X"), in order to call attention to the plight of the Palestinians and to punish the United States for supporting Israel. During a raid on a Black September safehouse in Beirut, the Israeli counter\-terrorist [Mossad](/wiki/Mossad "Mossad") agent David Kabakov surprises Iyad while she is showering. His mission was to kill everyone in the unit; however, seeing her unarmed and naked, he spares her life and turns his attention to clearing the rest of the safehouse, and she escapes. When the raid is complete, Kabakov finds a recorded message which Iyad had planned to publish after the terrorist attack. The recording explains the motive for the terrorism, but does not include any specific information about the attack plan itself. Collaborating with [FBI](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation "Federal Bureau of Investigation") agent Sam Corley, Kabakov and his partner Robert Moshevsky try to learn the details of the plan. Meanwhile, Black September bribes [freighter](/wiki/Cargo_ship "Cargo ship") captain Tekiaki Ogawa to transport the plastic explosives, disguised as statuettes. Ogawa puts the explosives aboard Iyad and Lander's motorboat, but the two terrorists are discovered by the [Coast Guard](/wiki/Coast_Guard "Coast Guard") and forced to flee. Ogawa is interrogated by Kabakov and Moshevsky, only for a bomb Lander had secretly planted to explode, killing Ogawa and hospitalizing Kabakov. Iyad disguises herself as a nun to infiltrate the hospital and assassinate Kabakov, only for Moshevsky to discover her before she kills him and escapes. Kabakov uses a contact in the Egyptian government named Riaf to discover her identity, and Corley tracks Iyad and her superior Mohammed Fasil to a hotel in Miami. They attempt to capture them, but Iyad escapes, while Fasil is killed. After searching Iyad's room, Kabakov realizes that they are targeting the Super Bowl. Corley and Kabakov form a security detail to search the crowd for any sign of suspicious activity. During the Super Bowl game, Kabakov figures out that Iyad and Lander have mounted the bomb on the Goodyear blimp. He and Corley commandeer a helicopter and set out in pursuit of the blimp, accompanied by a police helicopter. Loaded with the bomb, the blimp approaches the stadium. Lander pilots the blimp while Iyad exchanges deadly gunfire with policemen in the pursuing helicopters. From his place in one helicopter, Kabakov sees Iyad's face, and recognizes her as the Black September agent whose life he had previously spared. This time he does not hesitate; he shoots and kills her. Lander is mortally wounded, but he lasts long enough to succeed in flying the blimp straight into the Super Bowl, causing mass chaos and destruction in the stadium. Just before dying, with the electronic detonator destroyed, Lander lights the backup fuse of the weapon. With the weapon just minutes away from detonation, Kabakov lowers himself from the helicopter to the blimp, and hooks it up with a cable to the helicopter, which hauls it out of the panicked stadium and over the ocean. Kabakov unhooks the cable from the blimp, and clings to the cable as the helicopter moves away to a safe distance. A few seconds later, the bomb detonates, firing the [flechettes](/wiki/Flechettes "Flechettes") harmlessly into the water.
[ "Plot\n----", "Michael Lander is a pilot who flies the [Goodyear Blimp](/wiki/Goodyear_Blimp \"Goodyear Blimp\") over [National Football League](/wiki/National_Football_League \"National Football League\") games to film them for network television. Secretly deranged by years of torture as a [POW](/wiki/Prisoner_of_war \"Prisoner of war\") in the [Vietnam War](/wiki/Vietnam_War \"Vietnam War\"), he had a bitter [court martial](/wiki/Court_martial \"Court martial\") on his return and a failed marriage. He longs to kill himself and to take with him as many as possible of the cheerful, carefree civilians he sees from his blimp each weekend.", "Lander is desperately in love with Dahlia Iyad, an operative from the [Palestinian terrorist](/wiki/Palestinian_terrorist \"Palestinian terrorist\") group [Black September](/wiki/Black_September_Organization \"Black September Organization\"), who controls and manipulates him. They conspire together to launch a suicide attack using a bomb composed of [plastique](/wiki/Plastic_explosive \"Plastic explosive\") and a quarter\\-million steel [flechettes](/wiki/Flechette \"Flechette\"). They plan to mount the bomb on the underside of the [gondola](/wiki/Airship_gondola \"Airship gondola\") of the Goodyear blimp which traditionally flies over the [Super Bowl](/wiki/Super_Bowl \"Super Bowl\") football game, and detonate it over the [Miami Orange Bowl](/wiki/Miami_Orange_Bowl \"Miami Orange Bowl\") during [Super Bowl X](/wiki/Super_Bowl_X \"Super Bowl X\"), in order to call attention to the plight of the Palestinians and to punish the United States for supporting Israel.", "During a raid on a Black September safehouse in Beirut, the Israeli counter\\-terrorist [Mossad](/wiki/Mossad \"Mossad\") agent David Kabakov surprises Iyad while she is showering. His mission was to kill everyone in the unit; however, seeing her unarmed and naked, he spares her life and turns his attention to clearing the rest of the safehouse, and she escapes. When the raid is complete, Kabakov finds a recorded message which Iyad had planned to publish after the terrorist attack. The recording explains the motive for the terrorism, but does not include any specific information about the attack plan itself.", "Collaborating with [FBI](/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation \"Federal Bureau of Investigation\") agent Sam Corley, Kabakov and his partner Robert Moshevsky try to learn the details of the plan. Meanwhile, Black September bribes [freighter](/wiki/Cargo_ship \"Cargo ship\") captain Tekiaki Ogawa to transport the plastic explosives, disguised as statuettes. Ogawa puts the explosives aboard Iyad and Lander's motorboat, but the two terrorists are discovered by the [Coast Guard](/wiki/Coast_Guard \"Coast Guard\") and forced to flee.", "Ogawa is interrogated by Kabakov and Moshevsky, only for a bomb Lander had secretly planted to explode, killing Ogawa and hospitalizing Kabakov. Iyad disguises herself as a nun to infiltrate the hospital and assassinate Kabakov, only for Moshevsky to discover her before she kills him and escapes.", "Kabakov uses a contact in the Egyptian government named Riaf to discover her identity, and Corley tracks Iyad and her superior Mohammed Fasil to a hotel in Miami. They attempt to capture them, but Iyad escapes, while Fasil is killed.", "After searching Iyad's room, Kabakov realizes that they are targeting the Super Bowl. Corley and Kabakov form a security detail to search the crowd for any sign of suspicious activity. During the Super Bowl game, Kabakov figures out that Iyad and Lander have mounted the bomb on the Goodyear blimp. He and Corley commandeer a helicopter and set out in pursuit of the blimp, accompanied by a police helicopter.", "Loaded with the bomb, the blimp approaches the stadium. Lander pilots the blimp while Iyad exchanges deadly gunfire with policemen in the pursuing helicopters. From his place in one helicopter, Kabakov sees Iyad's face, and recognizes her as the Black September agent whose life he had previously spared. This time he does not hesitate; he shoots and kills her. Lander is mortally wounded, but he lasts long enough to succeed in flying the blimp straight into the Super Bowl, causing mass chaos and destruction in the stadium. Just before dying, with the electronic detonator destroyed, Lander lights the backup fuse of the weapon.", "With the weapon just minutes away from detonation, Kabakov lowers himself from the helicopter to the blimp, and hooks it up with a cable to the helicopter, which hauls it out of the panicked stadium and over the ocean. Kabakov unhooks the cable from the blimp, and clings to the cable as the helicopter moves away to a safe distance. A few seconds later, the bomb detonates, firing the [flechettes](/wiki/Flechettes \"Flechettes\") harmlessly into the water.", "" ]
Career ------ Sam Petrucci's career as an artist began in the 1960s.{{cite web \|title\=Sam Petrucci Illustrator, Designer, Painter 1926\-2013 \|url\=https://www.sampetrucci.com/ \|website\=Sam Petrucci \|publisher\=The Petrucci Family \|accessdate\=5 May 2020}} His early work was for the [Hassenfeld Brothers Toy Company](/wiki/Hassenfeld_Brothers "Hassenfeld Brothers") (Hasbro) where he illustrated board games for [Superman](/wiki/Superman "Superman"), *[The Mighty Hercules](/wiki/The_Mighty_Hercules "The Mighty Hercules")*, and *[The Banana Splits](/wiki/The_Banana_Splits "The Banana Splits")*. He also illustrated the packaging for [Mr. Potato Head](/wiki/Mr._Potato_Head "Mr. Potato Head"). A 1978 [Lassie](/wiki/Lassie "Lassie") [lunchbox](/wiki/Lunchbox "Lunchbox") he designed for [Thermos](/wiki/Thermos_LLC "Thermos LLC") is displayed at the [National Museum of American History](/wiki/National_Museum_of_American_History "National Museum of American History") of the [Smithsonian Institution](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution "Smithsonian Institution").{{cite web \|title\=The Magic of Lassie Lunch Box \|url\=https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah\_1054212 \|website\=National Museum of American History \|publisher\=Smithsonian Institution \|accessdate\=5 May 2020}} He did design work on the team yearbooks for the [Red Sox](/wiki/Red_Sox "Red Sox") and [Boston Bruins](/wiki/Boston_Bruins "Boston Bruins") in the 1960s and 1970s. Sam Petrucci founded two design studios: Thresher \& Petrucci followed by Sam Petrucci \& Associates. He later worked for Gunn Associates in Boston where he designed packaging and company logos for at least 25 years.{{cite web \|last1\=Sivertson \|first1\=Amory \|last2\=Lindberg \|first2\=James \|title\=Geedis: An Internet Mystery For The Ages... Gets Solved! \|url\=https://www.wbur.org/endlessthread/2019/08/23/what\-is\-geedis \|website\=Endless Thread \|publisher\=WBUR \|accessdate\=5 May 2020}} In 1981, Petrucci did the artwork for *[Advanced Dungeons \& Dragons](/wiki/Advanced_Dungeons_%26_Dragons "Advanced Dungeons & Dragons")* [rub\-down transfers](/wiki/Action_Transfers "Action Transfers") produced by FNR International Corp.{{cite web \|title\=Transfer:Advanced Dungeons \& Dragon Instant Rub\-Down Transfer: More Monsters \|url\=https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/transfer\-advanced\-dungeons\-dragon\-instant\-rub\-down\-transfer\-more\-monsters\-fnr\-international\-corporation/rgFrei0n1Lrbqw?hl\=en \|website\=The Strong National Museum of Play \|publisher\=Google Art \& Culture}} He retired in 1994\. ### *G.I. Joe* Sam Petrucci designed the original logo and box art for Hasbro's *[G.I. Joe](/wiki/G.I._Joe "G.I. Joe")* [action figure](/wiki/Action_figure "Action figure") toy line in 1964\. According to his Gunn Associates colleague John Filosi, Petrucci turned down Hasbro stock and accepted a flat payment for his art. Petrucci was a regular guest at *G.I. Joe* conventions. He attended GIJoeCon in 2009{{cite web \|title\=Special Guest\|url\=http://www.gijoecon.com/KC2009/con09guest4\.cfm \|website\=gijoecon.com \|accessdate\=6 May 2020}} and 2011\.{{cite web \|title\=Special Guest: Sam Petrucci \|url\=http://www.gijoecon.com/FL2011/con11guest7\.cfm \|website\=gijoecon.com \|accessdate\=5 May 2020}} In 2002, he appeared in *G.I. Joe Documentary: The Story Of America's Movable Fighting Man* and created the original cover art for the documentary.{{cite web \|title\=Original Artwork Created Expressly for the GI Joe Documentary \|url\=http://www.gijoedocumentary.com/artwork.html \|website\=GI Joe Documentary \|accessdate\=5 May 2020}} ### Design and logos Sam Petrucci designed packaging and logos for numerous companies, including [Charleston Chew](/wiki/Charleston_Chew "Charleston Chew"), [Ocean Spray](/wiki/Ocean_Spray_%28cooperative%29 "Ocean Spray (cooperative)"), [Veryfine](/wiki/Veryfine "Veryfine"), [Gillette](/wiki/Gillette "Gillette"), [Newport](/wiki/Newport_%28cigarette%29 "Newport (cigarette)"), [Titleist](/wiki/Titleist "Titleist"), [Marshmallow Fluff](/wiki/Marshmallow_Fluff "Marshmallow Fluff"), [Converse](/wiki/Converse_%28shoe_company%29 "Converse (shoe company)"), [Polaroid](/wiki/Polaroid_Corporation "Polaroid Corporation"), [TJ Maxx](/wiki/TJ_Maxx "TJ Maxx"), [Prince Spaghetti](/wiki/New_World_Pasta "New World Pasta"), [Salada tea](/wiki/Salada_tea "Salada tea"), [Bose](/wiki/Bose_Corporation "Bose Corporation"), [BASF](/wiki/BASF "BASF"), the [World Wildlife Fund](/wiki/World_Wildlife_Fund "World Wildlife Fund"), [Friendly's](/wiki/Friendly%27s "Friendly's"), [Poland Spring](/wiki/Poland_Spring "Poland Spring"), [Smokey Bear](/wiki/Smokey_Bear "Smokey Bear"), [Sunkist](/wiki/Sunkist_%28soft_drink%29 "Sunkist (soft drink)"), [Dunkin' Donuts](/wiki/Dunkin%27_Donuts "Dunkin' Donuts"), [Gorton's Fishsticks](/wiki/Gorton%27s_of_Gloucester "Gorton's of Gloucester"), the [Massachusetts Lottery](/wiki/Massachusetts_Lottery "Massachusetts Lottery"), Venus Crackers, [Jose Cuervo](/wiki/Jose_Cuervo "Jose Cuervo"), [Boston College](/wiki/Boston_College "Boston College"), [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University "Harvard University"), [Liberty Mutual](/wiki/Liberty_Mutual "Liberty Mutual"), and [Hewlett\-Packard](/wiki/Hewlett-Packard "Hewlett-Packard") ### *The Land of Ta* [thumb\|right\|*The Land of Ta* sticker sheet including Geedis](/wiki/File:The_Land_of_Ta_sticker_sheet_Dennison_1981_%2880-218%29.jpg "The Land of Ta sticker sheet Dennison 1981 (80-218).jpg") Petrucci did regular artwork for stickers produced by the [Dennison Manufacturing Company](/wiki/Dennison_Manufacturing_Company "Dennison Manufacturing Company"). This included sticker sheets for spaceships, cartoon baby animals, holiday stickers. One of these was *The Land of Ta*, a short\-lived series of [fantasy](/wiki/Fantasy "Fantasy") stickers produced by Dennison in 1981 to 1982\. The first two sticker sheets titled *The Land of Ta* (1981\) were illustrated and painted by Sam Petrucci, who was not credited. Sheet \#80\-218 featured original characters named Zoltan, Harry, Iggy, Tokar, Geedis, and Erik. Sheet \#80\-219 featured six more original characters: Hermann, Eris, Uno, Shimra, Radon, and Stefan. An unknown artist illustrated the third sticker sheet (\#80\-224\) titled *Women of Ta* (1982\); it featured female characters named Cecily, Astrid, Sybil, Amneris, Ursula, and Rimelda. In 1990, Dennison merged with Avery International Corporation and became [Avery Dennison](/wiki/Avery_Dennison "Avery Dennison"). In 2014, the Framingham History Center in [Framingham, Massachusetts](/wiki/Framingham%2C_Massachusetts "Framingham, Massachusetts") opened an exhibition about Dennison after receiving the archives from Avery Dennison{{cite web \|last1\=Petroni \|first1\=Susan \|title\=Framingham History Center To Unveil Dennison Manufacturing Company Exhibit \|url\=https://framinghamhistory.org/framingham\-history\-center\-unveil\-dennison\-manufacturing\-company\-exhibit/ \|website\=Framingham History Center \|date\=21 November 2014 \|accessdate\=5 May 2020}} This included *The Land of Ta* sticker sheets. #### Geedis Geedis is a bear\-like creature with a pig nose, horns, and yellow eyes included on the first *Land of Ta* sticker sheet. Geedis became an [Internet meme](/wiki/Internet_meme "Internet meme") in 2017 when comedian Nate Fernald discovered an [enamel pin](/wiki/Enamel_pin "Enamel pin") of the character on [eBay](/wiki/EBay "EBay") and tweeted on June 21: {{tweet \|name\=Nate Fernald \|username\=natefernald \|date\=June 21, 2017 \|text\=What the fuck is Geedis? I found this old pin. Google has no answers. Please help. I'm losing my mind. \|reference\={{cite tweet \|user\=natefernald \|author\=Nate Fernald \|number\=877562013664239617 \|date\=June 21, 2017 \|title\=What the Fuck is Geedis? I found this old pin. Google has no answers. Please help. I'm losing my mind.}} \|block\=yes }} On August 1, a scan of *The Land of Ta* sticker sheet that included Geedis was rediscovered on a [Flickr](/wiki/Flickr "Flickr") page. Speculation about the pins and stickers being merchandise for a wider [media franchise](/wiki/Media_franchise "Media franchise") grew but no further information about *The Land of Ta* or the identity of the artist was available on the [Internet](/wiki/Internet "Internet").{{cite web \|last1\=Grundhauser \|first1\=Eric \|title\=Join the Search for Geedis \|url\=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/geedis\-ta\-stickers\-pin\-dennison \|website\=Atlas Obscura \|date\=3 August 2017 \|publisher\=Atlas Obscura \|accessdate\=5 May 2020}} Fernald bought upwards of 80 Geedis pins from the eBay seller and posted a video of his pin collection to his Facebook page on December 1, 2017\.{{cite web \|last1\=Fernald \|first1\=Nate \|title\=I AM KING \|url\=https://www.facebook.com/natefernald/videos/10102337922337177/ \|website\=facebook.com/natefernald \|publisher\=Facebook \|accessdate\=6 May 2020}} On [Reddit](/wiki/Reddit "Reddit"), the subreddit r/Geedis was created on September 4, 2017, and became dedicated to solving the origins of Geedis. A June 3, 2019 post on r/UnresolvedMysteries{{cite web \|title\=Geedis and the Land of Ta: The Fantasy Franchise that Apparently Didn't Exist \|url\=https://www.reddit.com/r/UnresolvedMysteries/comments/bwe8o7/geedis\_and\_the\_land\_of\_ta\_the\_fantasy\_franchise/ \|website\=Reddit \|accessdate\=6 May 2020}} and a subsequent June 8 comment on an r/AskReddit thread{{cite web \|title\=What is the strangest subreddit you have encountered? \|url\=https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/byctl2/what\_is\_the\_strangest\_subreddit\_you\_have/eqg7ffc/ \|website\=Reddit \|accessdate\=6 May 2020}} caused the r/Geedis subreddit to increase from 250 subscribers to over 15,000 subscribers.{{Cite web\|url\=https://subredditstats.com/r/geedis\|title \= Subreddit Stats \- statistics for every subreddit}} The Reddit\-focused [WBUR\-FM](/wiki/WBUR-FM "WBUR-FM") [podcast](/wiki/Podcast "Podcast") *Endless Thread* discovered the Geedis mystery from the growing r/Geedis subreddit. In their August 23 episode "Geedis: An Internet Mystery For The Ages... Gets Solved!", co\-hosts Amory Sivertson and Ben Brock Johnson interviewed Nate Fernald, r/Geedis Redditors, Framingham History Center staff, and former Dennison staff. The duo contacted former Dennison Art Director Tom Manguso and his son Bill recognized the *Land of Ta* stickers as the work of Sam Petrucci. Petrucci was a coworker of Bill Manguso at Gunn Associates and a peer of Tom Manguso at school. Tom Manguso was the one who brought in Petrucci to work for Dennison. Sivertson and Johnson discovered the 2013 obituary for Sam Petrucci and successfully contacted all five of his children. They met with Linda Petrucci in [New Hampshire](/wiki/New_Hampshire "New Hampshire") at the family lake house that was designed by her father. There they saw much of his original artwork, including the pencil sketches titled *The Fantasy Land* and the final mounted artwork for *The Land of Ta*, which included his signature. In the interview, former Dennison General Manager Lou D'Amaro recalled a coworker regularly used the term "geetus"{{cite book \|last1\=Victor \|first1\=Terry \|last2\=Dalzell \|first2\=Tom \|title\=The New Partridge Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English \|date\=June 26, 2015 \|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis \|isbn\=9781317372523 \|pages\=973 \|edition\=Second \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=bbcBCgAAQBAJ \|accessdate\=6 May 2020}} as slang for money, giving a possible origin to the name "Geedis". Former staff members on a Dennison Alumni Facebook page claimed Dennison never produced enamel pins. The creator of the Geedis pins remains unknown.
[ "Career\n------", "Sam Petrucci's career as an artist began in the 1960s.{{cite web \\|title\\=Sam Petrucci Illustrator, Designer, Painter 1926\\-2013 \\|url\\=https://www.sampetrucci.com/ \\|website\\=Sam Petrucci \\|publisher\\=The Petrucci Family \\|accessdate\\=5 May 2020}} His early work was for the [Hassenfeld Brothers Toy Company](/wiki/Hassenfeld_Brothers \"Hassenfeld Brothers\") (Hasbro) where he illustrated board games for [Superman](/wiki/Superman \"Superman\"), *[The Mighty Hercules](/wiki/The_Mighty_Hercules \"The Mighty Hercules\")*, and *[The Banana Splits](/wiki/The_Banana_Splits \"The Banana Splits\")*. He also illustrated the packaging for [Mr. Potato Head](/wiki/Mr._Potato_Head \"Mr. Potato Head\"). A 1978 [Lassie](/wiki/Lassie \"Lassie\") [lunchbox](/wiki/Lunchbox \"Lunchbox\") he designed for [Thermos](/wiki/Thermos_LLC \"Thermos LLC\") is displayed at the [National Museum of American History](/wiki/National_Museum_of_American_History \"National Museum of American History\") of the [Smithsonian Institution](/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution \"Smithsonian Institution\").{{cite web \\|title\\=The Magic of Lassie Lunch Box \\|url\\=https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah\\_1054212 \\|website\\=National Museum of American History \\|publisher\\=Smithsonian Institution \\|accessdate\\=5 May 2020}} He did design work on the team yearbooks for the [Red Sox](/wiki/Red_Sox \"Red Sox\") and [Boston Bruins](/wiki/Boston_Bruins \"Boston Bruins\") in the 1960s and 1970s. Sam Petrucci founded two design studios: Thresher \\& Petrucci followed by Sam Petrucci \\& Associates. He later worked for Gunn Associates in Boston where he designed packaging and company logos for at least 25 years.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Sivertson \\|first1\\=Amory \\|last2\\=Lindberg \\|first2\\=James \\|title\\=Geedis: An Internet Mystery For The Ages... Gets Solved! \\|url\\=https://www.wbur.org/endlessthread/2019/08/23/what\\-is\\-geedis \\|website\\=Endless Thread \\|publisher\\=WBUR \\|accessdate\\=5 May 2020}} In 1981, Petrucci did the artwork for *[Advanced Dungeons \\& Dragons](/wiki/Advanced_Dungeons_%26_Dragons \"Advanced Dungeons & Dragons\")* [rub\\-down transfers](/wiki/Action_Transfers \"Action Transfers\") produced by FNR International Corp.{{cite web \\|title\\=Transfer:Advanced Dungeons \\& Dragon Instant Rub\\-Down Transfer: More Monsters \\|url\\=https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/transfer\\-advanced\\-dungeons\\-dragon\\-instant\\-rub\\-down\\-transfer\\-more\\-monsters\\-fnr\\-international\\-corporation/rgFrei0n1Lrbqw?hl\\=en \\|website\\=The Strong National Museum of Play \\|publisher\\=Google Art \\& Culture}} He retired in 1994\\.", "### *G.I. Joe*", "Sam Petrucci designed the original logo and box art for Hasbro's *[G.I. Joe](/wiki/G.I._Joe \"G.I. Joe\")* [action figure](/wiki/Action_figure \"Action figure\") toy line in 1964\\. According to his Gunn Associates colleague John Filosi, Petrucci turned down Hasbro stock and accepted a flat payment for his art.", "Petrucci was a regular guest at *G.I. Joe* conventions. He attended GIJoeCon in 2009{{cite web \\|title\\=Special Guest\\|url\\=http://www.gijoecon.com/KC2009/con09guest4\\.cfm \\|website\\=gijoecon.com \\|accessdate\\=6 May 2020}} and 2011\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Special Guest: Sam Petrucci \\|url\\=http://www.gijoecon.com/FL2011/con11guest7\\.cfm \\|website\\=gijoecon.com \\|accessdate\\=5 May 2020}} In 2002, he appeared in *G.I. Joe Documentary: The Story Of America's Movable Fighting Man* and created the original cover art for the documentary.{{cite web \\|title\\=Original Artwork Created Expressly for the GI Joe Documentary \\|url\\=http://www.gijoedocumentary.com/artwork.html \\|website\\=GI Joe Documentary \\|accessdate\\=5 May 2020}}", "### Design and logos", "Sam Petrucci designed packaging and logos for numerous companies, including [Charleston Chew](/wiki/Charleston_Chew \"Charleston Chew\"), [Ocean Spray](/wiki/Ocean_Spray_%28cooperative%29 \"Ocean Spray (cooperative)\"), [Veryfine](/wiki/Veryfine \"Veryfine\"), [Gillette](/wiki/Gillette \"Gillette\"), [Newport](/wiki/Newport_%28cigarette%29 \"Newport (cigarette)\"), [Titleist](/wiki/Titleist \"Titleist\"), [Marshmallow Fluff](/wiki/Marshmallow_Fluff \"Marshmallow Fluff\"), [Converse](/wiki/Converse_%28shoe_company%29 \"Converse (shoe company)\"), [Polaroid](/wiki/Polaroid_Corporation \"Polaroid Corporation\"), [TJ Maxx](/wiki/TJ_Maxx \"TJ Maxx\"), [Prince Spaghetti](/wiki/New_World_Pasta \"New World Pasta\"), [Salada tea](/wiki/Salada_tea \"Salada tea\"), [Bose](/wiki/Bose_Corporation \"Bose Corporation\"), [BASF](/wiki/BASF \"BASF\"), the [World Wildlife Fund](/wiki/World_Wildlife_Fund \"World Wildlife Fund\"), [Friendly's](/wiki/Friendly%27s \"Friendly's\"), [Poland Spring](/wiki/Poland_Spring \"Poland Spring\"), [Smokey Bear](/wiki/Smokey_Bear \"Smokey Bear\"), [Sunkist](/wiki/Sunkist_%28soft_drink%29 \"Sunkist (soft drink)\"), [Dunkin' Donuts](/wiki/Dunkin%27_Donuts \"Dunkin' Donuts\"), [Gorton's Fishsticks](/wiki/Gorton%27s_of_Gloucester \"Gorton's of Gloucester\"), the [Massachusetts Lottery](/wiki/Massachusetts_Lottery \"Massachusetts Lottery\"), Venus Crackers, [Jose Cuervo](/wiki/Jose_Cuervo \"Jose Cuervo\"), [Boston College](/wiki/Boston_College \"Boston College\"), [Harvard](/wiki/Harvard_University \"Harvard University\"), [Liberty Mutual](/wiki/Liberty_Mutual \"Liberty Mutual\"), and [Hewlett\\-Packard](/wiki/Hewlett-Packard \"Hewlett-Packard\")", "### *The Land of Ta*", "[thumb\\|right\\|*The Land of Ta* sticker sheet including Geedis](/wiki/File:The_Land_of_Ta_sticker_sheet_Dennison_1981_%2880-218%29.jpg \"The Land of Ta sticker sheet Dennison 1981 (80-218).jpg\")\nPetrucci did regular artwork for stickers produced by the [Dennison Manufacturing Company](/wiki/Dennison_Manufacturing_Company \"Dennison Manufacturing Company\"). This included sticker sheets for spaceships, cartoon baby animals, holiday stickers.", "One of these was *The Land of Ta*, a short\\-lived series of [fantasy](/wiki/Fantasy \"Fantasy\") stickers produced by Dennison in 1981 to 1982\\. The first two sticker sheets titled *The Land of Ta* (1981\\) were illustrated and painted by Sam Petrucci, who was not credited. Sheet \\#80\\-218 featured original characters named Zoltan, Harry, Iggy, Tokar, Geedis, and Erik. Sheet \\#80\\-219 featured six more original characters: Hermann, Eris, Uno, Shimra, Radon, and Stefan. An unknown artist illustrated the third sticker sheet (\\#80\\-224\\) titled *Women of Ta* (1982\\); it featured female characters named Cecily, Astrid, Sybil, Amneris, Ursula, and Rimelda.", "In 1990, Dennison merged with Avery International Corporation and became [Avery Dennison](/wiki/Avery_Dennison \"Avery Dennison\"). In 2014, the Framingham History Center in [Framingham, Massachusetts](/wiki/Framingham%2C_Massachusetts \"Framingham, Massachusetts\") opened an exhibition about Dennison after receiving the archives from Avery Dennison{{cite web \\|last1\\=Petroni \\|first1\\=Susan \\|title\\=Framingham History Center To Unveil Dennison Manufacturing Company Exhibit \\|url\\=https://framinghamhistory.org/framingham\\-history\\-center\\-unveil\\-dennison\\-manufacturing\\-company\\-exhibit/ \\|website\\=Framingham History Center \\|date\\=21 November 2014 \\|accessdate\\=5 May 2020}} This included *The Land of Ta* sticker sheets.", "#### Geedis", "Geedis is a bear\\-like creature with a pig nose, horns, and yellow eyes included on the first *Land of Ta* sticker sheet.", "Geedis became an [Internet meme](/wiki/Internet_meme \"Internet meme\") in 2017 when comedian Nate Fernald discovered an [enamel pin](/wiki/Enamel_pin \"Enamel pin\") of the character on [eBay](/wiki/EBay \"EBay\") and tweeted on June 21:\n{{tweet\n\\|name\\=Nate Fernald\n\\|username\\=natefernald\n\\|date\\=June 21, 2017\n\\|text\\=What the fuck is Geedis? I found this old pin. Google has no answers. Please help. I'm losing my mind.\n\\|reference\\={{cite tweet \\|user\\=natefernald \\|author\\=Nate Fernald \\|number\\=877562013664239617 \\|date\\=June 21, 2017 \\|title\\=What the Fuck is Geedis? I found this old pin. Google has no answers. Please help. I'm losing my mind.}}\n\\|block\\=yes\n}}\nOn August 1, a scan of *The Land of Ta* sticker sheet that included Geedis was rediscovered on a [Flickr](/wiki/Flickr \"Flickr\") page. Speculation about the pins and stickers being merchandise for a wider [media franchise](/wiki/Media_franchise \"Media franchise\") grew but no further information about *The Land of Ta* or the identity of the artist was available on the [Internet](/wiki/Internet \"Internet\").{{cite web \\|last1\\=Grundhauser \\|first1\\=Eric \\|title\\=Join the Search for Geedis \\|url\\=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/geedis\\-ta\\-stickers\\-pin\\-dennison \\|website\\=Atlas Obscura \\|date\\=3 August 2017 \\|publisher\\=Atlas Obscura \\|accessdate\\=5 May 2020}} Fernald bought upwards of 80 Geedis pins from the eBay seller and posted a video of his pin collection to his Facebook page on December 1, 2017\\.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Fernald \\|first1\\=Nate \\|title\\=I AM KING \\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/natefernald/videos/10102337922337177/ \\|website\\=facebook.com/natefernald \\|publisher\\=Facebook \\|accessdate\\=6 May 2020}}", "On [Reddit](/wiki/Reddit \"Reddit\"), the subreddit r/Geedis was created on September 4, 2017, and became dedicated to solving the origins of Geedis. A June 3, 2019 post on r/UnresolvedMysteries{{cite web \\|title\\=Geedis and the Land of Ta: The Fantasy Franchise that Apparently Didn't Exist \\|url\\=https://www.reddit.com/r/UnresolvedMysteries/comments/bwe8o7/geedis\\_and\\_the\\_land\\_of\\_ta\\_the\\_fantasy\\_franchise/ \\|website\\=Reddit \\|accessdate\\=6 May 2020}} and a subsequent June 8 comment on an r/AskReddit thread{{cite web \\|title\\=What is the strangest subreddit you have encountered? \\|url\\=https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/byctl2/what\\_is\\_the\\_strangest\\_subreddit\\_you\\_have/eqg7ffc/ \\|website\\=Reddit \\|accessdate\\=6 May 2020}} caused the r/Geedis subreddit to increase from 250 subscribers to over 15,000 subscribers.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://subredditstats.com/r/geedis\\|title \\= Subreddit Stats \\- statistics for every subreddit}}", "The Reddit\\-focused [WBUR\\-FM](/wiki/WBUR-FM \"WBUR-FM\") [podcast](/wiki/Podcast \"Podcast\") *Endless Thread* discovered the Geedis mystery from the growing r/Geedis subreddit. In their August 23 episode \"Geedis: An Internet Mystery For The Ages... Gets Solved!\", co\\-hosts Amory Sivertson and Ben Brock Johnson interviewed Nate Fernald, r/Geedis Redditors, Framingham History Center staff, and former Dennison staff. The duo contacted former Dennison Art Director Tom Manguso and his son Bill recognized the *Land of Ta* stickers as the work of Sam Petrucci. Petrucci was a coworker of Bill Manguso at Gunn Associates and a peer of Tom Manguso at school. Tom Manguso was the one who brought in Petrucci to work for Dennison.", "Sivertson and Johnson discovered the 2013 obituary for Sam Petrucci and successfully contacted all five of his children. They met with Linda Petrucci in [New Hampshire](/wiki/New_Hampshire \"New Hampshire\") at the family lake house that was designed by her father. There they saw much of his original artwork, including the pencil sketches titled *The Fantasy Land* and the final mounted artwork for *The Land of Ta*, which included his signature.", "In the interview, former Dennison General Manager Lou D'Amaro recalled a coworker regularly used the term \"geetus\"{{cite book \\|last1\\=Victor \\|first1\\=Terry \\|last2\\=Dalzell \\|first2\\=Tom \\|title\\=The New Partridge Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English \\|date\\=June 26, 2015 \\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis \\|isbn\\=9781317372523 \\|pages\\=973 \\|edition\\=Second \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=bbcBCgAAQBAJ \\|accessdate\\=6 May 2020}} as slang for money, giving a possible origin to the name \"Geedis\". Former staff members on a Dennison Alumni Facebook page claimed Dennison never produced enamel pins. The creator of the Geedis pins remains unknown.", "" ]
### *The Land of Ta* [thumb\|right\|*The Land of Ta* sticker sheet including Geedis](/wiki/File:The_Land_of_Ta_sticker_sheet_Dennison_1981_%2880-218%29.jpg "The Land of Ta sticker sheet Dennison 1981 (80-218).jpg") Petrucci did regular artwork for stickers produced by the [Dennison Manufacturing Company](/wiki/Dennison_Manufacturing_Company "Dennison Manufacturing Company"). This included sticker sheets for spaceships, cartoon baby animals, holiday stickers. One of these was *The Land of Ta*, a short\-lived series of [fantasy](/wiki/Fantasy "Fantasy") stickers produced by Dennison in 1981 to 1982\. The first two sticker sheets titled *The Land of Ta* (1981\) were illustrated and painted by Sam Petrucci, who was not credited. Sheet \#80\-218 featured original characters named Zoltan, Harry, Iggy, Tokar, Geedis, and Erik. Sheet \#80\-219 featured six more original characters: Hermann, Eris, Uno, Shimra, Radon, and Stefan. An unknown artist illustrated the third sticker sheet (\#80\-224\) titled *Women of Ta* (1982\); it featured female characters named Cecily, Astrid, Sybil, Amneris, Ursula, and Rimelda. In 1990, Dennison merged with Avery International Corporation and became [Avery Dennison](/wiki/Avery_Dennison "Avery Dennison"). In 2014, the Framingham History Center in [Framingham, Massachusetts](/wiki/Framingham%2C_Massachusetts "Framingham, Massachusetts") opened an exhibition about Dennison after receiving the archives from Avery Dennison{{cite web \|last1\=Petroni \|first1\=Susan \|title\=Framingham History Center To Unveil Dennison Manufacturing Company Exhibit \|url\=https://framinghamhistory.org/framingham\-history\-center\-unveil\-dennison\-manufacturing\-company\-exhibit/ \|website\=Framingham History Center \|date\=21 November 2014 \|accessdate\=5 May 2020}} This included *The Land of Ta* sticker sheets. #### Geedis Geedis is a bear\-like creature with a pig nose, horns, and yellow eyes included on the first *Land of Ta* sticker sheet. Geedis became an [Internet meme](/wiki/Internet_meme "Internet meme") in 2017 when comedian Nate Fernald discovered an [enamel pin](/wiki/Enamel_pin "Enamel pin") of the character on [eBay](/wiki/EBay "EBay") and tweeted on June 21: {{tweet \|name\=Nate Fernald \|username\=natefernald \|date\=June 21, 2017 \|text\=What the fuck is Geedis? I found this old pin. Google has no answers. Please help. I'm losing my mind. \|reference\={{cite tweet \|user\=natefernald \|author\=Nate Fernald \|number\=877562013664239617 \|date\=June 21, 2017 \|title\=What the Fuck is Geedis? I found this old pin. Google has no answers. Please help. I'm losing my mind.}} \|block\=yes }} On August 1, a scan of *The Land of Ta* sticker sheet that included Geedis was rediscovered on a [Flickr](/wiki/Flickr "Flickr") page. Speculation about the pins and stickers being merchandise for a wider [media franchise](/wiki/Media_franchise "Media franchise") grew but no further information about *The Land of Ta* or the identity of the artist was available on the [Internet](/wiki/Internet "Internet").{{cite web \|last1\=Grundhauser \|first1\=Eric \|title\=Join the Search for Geedis \|url\=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/geedis\-ta\-stickers\-pin\-dennison \|website\=Atlas Obscura \|date\=3 August 2017 \|publisher\=Atlas Obscura \|accessdate\=5 May 2020}} Fernald bought upwards of 80 Geedis pins from the eBay seller and posted a video of his pin collection to his Facebook page on December 1, 2017\.{{cite web \|last1\=Fernald \|first1\=Nate \|title\=I AM KING \|url\=https://www.facebook.com/natefernald/videos/10102337922337177/ \|website\=facebook.com/natefernald \|publisher\=Facebook \|accessdate\=6 May 2020}} On [Reddit](/wiki/Reddit "Reddit"), the subreddit r/Geedis was created on September 4, 2017, and became dedicated to solving the origins of Geedis. A June 3, 2019 post on r/UnresolvedMysteries{{cite web \|title\=Geedis and the Land of Ta: The Fantasy Franchise that Apparently Didn't Exist \|url\=https://www.reddit.com/r/UnresolvedMysteries/comments/bwe8o7/geedis\_and\_the\_land\_of\_ta\_the\_fantasy\_franchise/ \|website\=Reddit \|accessdate\=6 May 2020}} and a subsequent June 8 comment on an r/AskReddit thread{{cite web \|title\=What is the strangest subreddit you have encountered? \|url\=https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/byctl2/what\_is\_the\_strangest\_subreddit\_you\_have/eqg7ffc/ \|website\=Reddit \|accessdate\=6 May 2020}} caused the r/Geedis subreddit to increase from 250 subscribers to over 15,000 subscribers.{{Cite web\|url\=https://subredditstats.com/r/geedis\|title \= Subreddit Stats \- statistics for every subreddit}} The Reddit\-focused [WBUR\-FM](/wiki/WBUR-FM "WBUR-FM") [podcast](/wiki/Podcast "Podcast") *Endless Thread* discovered the Geedis mystery from the growing r/Geedis subreddit. In their August 23 episode "Geedis: An Internet Mystery For The Ages... Gets Solved!", co\-hosts Amory Sivertson and Ben Brock Johnson interviewed Nate Fernald, r/Geedis Redditors, Framingham History Center staff, and former Dennison staff. The duo contacted former Dennison Art Director Tom Manguso and his son Bill recognized the *Land of Ta* stickers as the work of Sam Petrucci. Petrucci was a coworker of Bill Manguso at Gunn Associates and a peer of Tom Manguso at school. Tom Manguso was the one who brought in Petrucci to work for Dennison. Sivertson and Johnson discovered the 2013 obituary for Sam Petrucci and successfully contacted all five of his children. They met with Linda Petrucci in [New Hampshire](/wiki/New_Hampshire "New Hampshire") at the family lake house that was designed by her father. There they saw much of his original artwork, including the pencil sketches titled *The Fantasy Land* and the final mounted artwork for *The Land of Ta*, which included his signature. In the interview, former Dennison General Manager Lou D'Amaro recalled a coworker regularly used the term "geetus"{{cite book \|last1\=Victor \|first1\=Terry \|last2\=Dalzell \|first2\=Tom \|title\=The New Partridge Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English \|date\=June 26, 2015 \|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis \|isbn\=9781317372523 \|pages\=973 \|edition\=Second \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=bbcBCgAAQBAJ \|accessdate\=6 May 2020}} as slang for money, giving a possible origin to the name "Geedis". Former staff members on a Dennison Alumni Facebook page claimed Dennison never produced enamel pins. The creator of the Geedis pins remains unknown.
[ "### *The Land of Ta*", "[thumb\\|right\\|*The Land of Ta* sticker sheet including Geedis](/wiki/File:The_Land_of_Ta_sticker_sheet_Dennison_1981_%2880-218%29.jpg \"The Land of Ta sticker sheet Dennison 1981 (80-218).jpg\")\nPetrucci did regular artwork for stickers produced by the [Dennison Manufacturing Company](/wiki/Dennison_Manufacturing_Company \"Dennison Manufacturing Company\"). This included sticker sheets for spaceships, cartoon baby animals, holiday stickers.", "One of these was *The Land of Ta*, a short\\-lived series of [fantasy](/wiki/Fantasy \"Fantasy\") stickers produced by Dennison in 1981 to 1982\\. The first two sticker sheets titled *The Land of Ta* (1981\\) were illustrated and painted by Sam Petrucci, who was not credited. Sheet \\#80\\-218 featured original characters named Zoltan, Harry, Iggy, Tokar, Geedis, and Erik. Sheet \\#80\\-219 featured six more original characters: Hermann, Eris, Uno, Shimra, Radon, and Stefan. An unknown artist illustrated the third sticker sheet (\\#80\\-224\\) titled *Women of Ta* (1982\\); it featured female characters named Cecily, Astrid, Sybil, Amneris, Ursula, and Rimelda.", "In 1990, Dennison merged with Avery International Corporation and became [Avery Dennison](/wiki/Avery_Dennison \"Avery Dennison\"). In 2014, the Framingham History Center in [Framingham, Massachusetts](/wiki/Framingham%2C_Massachusetts \"Framingham, Massachusetts\") opened an exhibition about Dennison after receiving the archives from Avery Dennison{{cite web \\|last1\\=Petroni \\|first1\\=Susan \\|title\\=Framingham History Center To Unveil Dennison Manufacturing Company Exhibit \\|url\\=https://framinghamhistory.org/framingham\\-history\\-center\\-unveil\\-dennison\\-manufacturing\\-company\\-exhibit/ \\|website\\=Framingham History Center \\|date\\=21 November 2014 \\|accessdate\\=5 May 2020}} This included *The Land of Ta* sticker sheets.", "#### Geedis", "Geedis is a bear\\-like creature with a pig nose, horns, and yellow eyes included on the first *Land of Ta* sticker sheet.", "Geedis became an [Internet meme](/wiki/Internet_meme \"Internet meme\") in 2017 when comedian Nate Fernald discovered an [enamel pin](/wiki/Enamel_pin \"Enamel pin\") of the character on [eBay](/wiki/EBay \"EBay\") and tweeted on June 21:\n{{tweet\n\\|name\\=Nate Fernald\n\\|username\\=natefernald\n\\|date\\=June 21, 2017\n\\|text\\=What the fuck is Geedis? I found this old pin. Google has no answers. Please help. I'm losing my mind.\n\\|reference\\={{cite tweet \\|user\\=natefernald \\|author\\=Nate Fernald \\|number\\=877562013664239617 \\|date\\=June 21, 2017 \\|title\\=What the Fuck is Geedis? I found this old pin. Google has no answers. Please help. I'm losing my mind.}}\n\\|block\\=yes\n}}\nOn August 1, a scan of *The Land of Ta* sticker sheet that included Geedis was rediscovered on a [Flickr](/wiki/Flickr \"Flickr\") page. Speculation about the pins and stickers being merchandise for a wider [media franchise](/wiki/Media_franchise \"Media franchise\") grew but no further information about *The Land of Ta* or the identity of the artist was available on the [Internet](/wiki/Internet \"Internet\").{{cite web \\|last1\\=Grundhauser \\|first1\\=Eric \\|title\\=Join the Search for Geedis \\|url\\=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/geedis\\-ta\\-stickers\\-pin\\-dennison \\|website\\=Atlas Obscura \\|date\\=3 August 2017 \\|publisher\\=Atlas Obscura \\|accessdate\\=5 May 2020}} Fernald bought upwards of 80 Geedis pins from the eBay seller and posted a video of his pin collection to his Facebook page on December 1, 2017\\.{{cite web \\|last1\\=Fernald \\|first1\\=Nate \\|title\\=I AM KING \\|url\\=https://www.facebook.com/natefernald/videos/10102337922337177/ \\|website\\=facebook.com/natefernald \\|publisher\\=Facebook \\|accessdate\\=6 May 2020}}", "On [Reddit](/wiki/Reddit \"Reddit\"), the subreddit r/Geedis was created on September 4, 2017, and became dedicated to solving the origins of Geedis. A June 3, 2019 post on r/UnresolvedMysteries{{cite web \\|title\\=Geedis and the Land of Ta: The Fantasy Franchise that Apparently Didn't Exist \\|url\\=https://www.reddit.com/r/UnresolvedMysteries/comments/bwe8o7/geedis\\_and\\_the\\_land\\_of\\_ta\\_the\\_fantasy\\_franchise/ \\|website\\=Reddit \\|accessdate\\=6 May 2020}} and a subsequent June 8 comment on an r/AskReddit thread{{cite web \\|title\\=What is the strangest subreddit you have encountered? \\|url\\=https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/byctl2/what\\_is\\_the\\_strangest\\_subreddit\\_you\\_have/eqg7ffc/ \\|website\\=Reddit \\|accessdate\\=6 May 2020}} caused the r/Geedis subreddit to increase from 250 subscribers to over 15,000 subscribers.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://subredditstats.com/r/geedis\\|title \\= Subreddit Stats \\- statistics for every subreddit}}", "The Reddit\\-focused [WBUR\\-FM](/wiki/WBUR-FM \"WBUR-FM\") [podcast](/wiki/Podcast \"Podcast\") *Endless Thread* discovered the Geedis mystery from the growing r/Geedis subreddit. In their August 23 episode \"Geedis: An Internet Mystery For The Ages... Gets Solved!\", co\\-hosts Amory Sivertson and Ben Brock Johnson interviewed Nate Fernald, r/Geedis Redditors, Framingham History Center staff, and former Dennison staff. The duo contacted former Dennison Art Director Tom Manguso and his son Bill recognized the *Land of Ta* stickers as the work of Sam Petrucci. Petrucci was a coworker of Bill Manguso at Gunn Associates and a peer of Tom Manguso at school. Tom Manguso was the one who brought in Petrucci to work for Dennison.", "Sivertson and Johnson discovered the 2013 obituary for Sam Petrucci and successfully contacted all five of his children. They met with Linda Petrucci in [New Hampshire](/wiki/New_Hampshire \"New Hampshire\") at the family lake house that was designed by her father. There they saw much of his original artwork, including the pencil sketches titled *The Fantasy Land* and the final mounted artwork for *The Land of Ta*, which included his signature.", "In the interview, former Dennison General Manager Lou D'Amaro recalled a coworker regularly used the term \"geetus\"{{cite book \\|last1\\=Victor \\|first1\\=Terry \\|last2\\=Dalzell \\|first2\\=Tom \\|title\\=The New Partridge Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English \\|date\\=June 26, 2015 \\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis \\|isbn\\=9781317372523 \\|pages\\=973 \\|edition\\=Second \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=bbcBCgAAQBAJ \\|accessdate\\=6 May 2020}} as slang for money, giving a possible origin to the name \"Geedis\". Former staff members on a Dennison Alumni Facebook page claimed Dennison never produced enamel pins. The creator of the Geedis pins remains unknown.", "" ]
Coaching career --------------- Following Lancaster's premature retirement from playing he moved into coaching first with Mumbles RFC and then taking the Head Coach role for Swansea University.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.swansea.ac.uk/sport/elitesport/rugbyunion/\|title\=Rugby Union\|publisher\=}} Lancaster presided over the team for 7 years, in his first year winning promotion and taking the team into the British Universities and Colleges Premiership. He had a successful tenure as coach maintaining their Premiership status and securing a proud 5 wins v 3 defeats in the Annual [Welsh Varsity](/wiki/Welsh_Varsity "Welsh Varsity"). | Year | Location | Winner/Holder | Swansea | Cardiff | Attendance | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2007 | Cardiff Arms Park | Swansea | 18 | 0 | 5,200{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.swan.ac.uk/au/Events/Varsity2008/\|archiveurl\=https://www.webarchive.org.uk/wayback/archive/20081230015051/http://www.swan.ac.uk/au/Events/Varsity2008/\|archivedate\=2008\-12\-30\|title\= Swansea University \- Varsity 2008 }} | | 2008 | Cardiff Arms Park | Cardiff | 9 | 19 | 8,100{{cite web\|url\=http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/sport/performance/rugby/Varsity/rugby\-varsity.html\|title\=Performance sport\|work\=Study\|url\-status\=dead\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010154553/http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/sport/performance/rugby/Varsity/rugby\-varsity.html\|archivedate\=2012\-10\-10}} | | 2009 | Cardiff Arms Park | Cardiff | 6 | 9 | 10,800 | | 2010 | [Liberty Stadium](/wiki/Liberty_Stadium "Liberty Stadium") | Swansea | 16 | 12 | 11,400 | | 2011 | [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium "Millennium Stadium") | Swansea | 28 | 18 | 14,789 | | 2012 | Millennium Stadium | Cardiff | 13 | 33 | 15,622 | | 2013 | Millennium Stadium | Swansea | 21 | 13 | 14,103 | | 2014 | Millennium Stadium | Swansea | 19 | 15 | 15,835 | During this time, Lancaster's started working with then [Ospreys](/wiki/Ospreys_%28rugby_union%29 "Ospreys (rugby union)") coaches [Sean Holley](/wiki/Sean_Holley "Sean Holley"){{cite web\|url\=http://www.swanseasound.co.uk/news/local/holley\-tackles\-varsity\-challenge/\|title\=Holley Tackles Varsity Challenge\|work\=Swansea Sound}} and [Scott Johnson](/wiki/Scott_Johnson_%28rugby_coach%29 "Scott Johnson (rugby coach)") and was appointed Head Coach of the Ospreys Under 20's team and placed with [Steve Tandy](/wiki/Steve_Tandy "Steve Tandy") as coaches of the [Bridgend Ravens](/wiki/Bridgend_Ravens "Bridgend Ravens"). At his time as Director of Rugby, Johnson was quoted as saying that these were two of the most promising young coaches in Welsh Rugby and flagged their names as potential future Ospreys coaches.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.thisissouthwales.co.uk/Ospreys\-Scott\-Johnson\-calls\-internal\-promotion/story\-14972282\-detail/story.html\|title\=Ospreys: Scott Johnson calls for an internal promotion\|work\=South Wales Evening Post}} Lancaster moved from the Ravens to [Swansea](/wiki/Swansea_RFC "Swansea RFC"), firstly in the position of Performance Manager in the 2013\-14 season and then following [Swansea](/wiki/Swansea_RFC "Swansea RFC") relegation out of the top flight of Welsh Rugby{{cite web\|url\=http://www.southwales\-eveningpost.co.uk/Swansea\-relegated\-Prinicipality\-Premiership/story\-21018059\-detail/story.html\|title\=Swansea RFC are relegated from the Premiership, despite beating Neath\|work\=South Wales Evening Post}} Lancaster was appointed Director of Rugby {{cite web\|url\=http://www.southwales\-eveningpost.co.uk/High\-hopes\-new\-coaching\-trio\-St\-Helen\-s/story\-21146509\-detail/story.html\|title\=High hopes for new coaching trio at St Helen's\|work\=South Wales Evening Post}} for the start of the 2014\-15 season. He is joined on the coaching team by Team Manager Paul Whapham, Backs coach Rhodri Jones, Forwards coach Christian Loader and Skills Coach Ben Lewis.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.swansearfc.co.uk/Teams/Management\|title\=Management\|publisher\=}} In 2014 the All Whites were relegated from the Welsh Premier league on the final day of the season when despite beating Neath at St Helens, a bonus point for Aberavon sent Swansea into the SWALEC Championship. This provoked a complete revamp of the club with Stephen Hughes taking the position of Chairman, Keith Colclough as Managing Director and Richard Lancaster leading a coaching team of former players including Rhodri Jones, Chris Loader and Ben Lewis. In their first season Swansea missed out on promotion back to the Premiership, finishing in second place overall, but were consequently promoted in the 15/16 season along with Merthyr, RGC 1404 and Bargoed. Swansea struggled to adapt to the Premiership in their first two seasons back at the top flight although despite a crippling injury list, the 17/18 season showed much promise with the side recording five wins, a draw and 10 losing bonus points for losing the game within 7 points. The 2018/19 season is a hugely important season for the club with potentially five clubs being relegated from the Welsh Premiership in order for the league to contain 12 teams in the 19/20 season. The coaching team of Richard Lancaster, [Hugh Gustafson](/wiki/Hugh_Gustafson "Hugh Gustafson"), [Ben Lewis](/wiki/Ben_Lewis_%28rugby_union%29 "Ben Lewis (rugby union)"), Nick Roberts and Liam Carpener\-Jones are currently preparing a squad consisting of many of the 17/18 squad along with new additions which are being announced on the club website regularly. ### Professional life Lancaster currently works for [Swansea University](/wiki/Swansea_University "Swansea University") as Head of Sport and Corporate Engagement.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.ospreysrugby.com/news/swansea\-university\-commits\-ospreys\|title\=Swansea University commits to Ospreys \| Ospreys\|website\=www.ospreysrugby.com}} Lancaster helped develop the concept of the [Welsh Varsity](/wiki/Welsh_Varsity "Welsh Varsity").
[ "Coaching career\n---------------", "Following Lancaster's premature retirement from playing he moved into coaching first with Mumbles RFC and then taking the Head Coach role for Swansea University.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.swansea.ac.uk/sport/elitesport/rugbyunion/\\|title\\=Rugby Union\\|publisher\\=}} Lancaster presided over the team for 7 years, in his first year winning promotion and taking the team into the British Universities and Colleges Premiership. He had a successful tenure as coach maintaining their Premiership status and securing a proud 5 wins v 3 defeats in the Annual [Welsh Varsity](/wiki/Welsh_Varsity \"Welsh Varsity\").", "", "| Year | Location | Winner/Holder | Swansea | Cardiff | Attendance |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 2007 | Cardiff Arms Park | Swansea | 18 | 0 | 5,200{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.swan.ac.uk/au/Events/Varsity2008/\\|archiveurl\\=https://www.webarchive.org.uk/wayback/archive/20081230015051/http://www.swan.ac.uk/au/Events/Varsity2008/\\|archivedate\\=2008\\-12\\-30\\|title\\= Swansea University \\- Varsity 2008 }} |\n| 2008 | Cardiff Arms Park | Cardiff | 9 | 19 | 8,100{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/sport/performance/rugby/Varsity/rugby\\-varsity.html\\|title\\=Performance sport\\|work\\=Study\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010154553/http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/sport/performance/rugby/Varsity/rugby\\-varsity.html\\|archivedate\\=2012\\-10\\-10}} |\n| 2009 | Cardiff Arms Park | Cardiff | 6 | 9 | 10,800 |\n| 2010 | [Liberty Stadium](/wiki/Liberty_Stadium \"Liberty Stadium\") | Swansea | 16 | 12 | 11,400 |\n| 2011 | [Millennium Stadium](/wiki/Millennium_Stadium \"Millennium Stadium\") | Swansea | 28 | 18 | 14,789 |\n| 2012 | Millennium Stadium | Cardiff | 13 | 33 | 15,622 |\n| 2013 | Millennium Stadium | Swansea | 21 | 13 | 14,103 |\n| 2014 | Millennium Stadium | Swansea | 19 | 15 | 15,835 |", "During this time, Lancaster's started working with then [Ospreys](/wiki/Ospreys_%28rugby_union%29 \"Ospreys (rugby union)\") coaches [Sean Holley](/wiki/Sean_Holley \"Sean Holley\"){{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.swanseasound.co.uk/news/local/holley\\-tackles\\-varsity\\-challenge/\\|title\\=Holley Tackles Varsity Challenge\\|work\\=Swansea Sound}} and [Scott Johnson](/wiki/Scott_Johnson_%28rugby_coach%29 \"Scott Johnson (rugby coach)\") and was appointed Head Coach of the Ospreys Under 20's team and placed with [Steve Tandy](/wiki/Steve_Tandy \"Steve Tandy\") as coaches of the [Bridgend Ravens](/wiki/Bridgend_Ravens \"Bridgend Ravens\"). At his time as Director of Rugby, Johnson was quoted as saying that these were two of the most promising young coaches in Welsh Rugby and flagged their names as potential future Ospreys coaches.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.thisissouthwales.co.uk/Ospreys\\-Scott\\-Johnson\\-calls\\-internal\\-promotion/story\\-14972282\\-detail/story.html\\|title\\=Ospreys: Scott Johnson calls for an internal promotion\\|work\\=South Wales Evening Post}}", "Lancaster moved from the Ravens to [Swansea](/wiki/Swansea_RFC \"Swansea RFC\"), firstly in the position of Performance Manager in the 2013\\-14 season and then following [Swansea](/wiki/Swansea_RFC \"Swansea RFC\") relegation out of the top flight of Welsh Rugby{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.southwales\\-eveningpost.co.uk/Swansea\\-relegated\\-Prinicipality\\-Premiership/story\\-21018059\\-detail/story.html\\|title\\=Swansea RFC are relegated from the Premiership, despite beating Neath\\|work\\=South Wales Evening Post}} Lancaster was appointed Director of Rugby {{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.southwales\\-eveningpost.co.uk/High\\-hopes\\-new\\-coaching\\-trio\\-St\\-Helen\\-s/story\\-21146509\\-detail/story.html\\|title\\=High hopes for new coaching trio at St Helen's\\|work\\=South Wales Evening Post}} for the start of the 2014\\-15 season. He is joined on the coaching team by Team Manager Paul Whapham, Backs coach Rhodri Jones, Forwards coach Christian Loader and Skills Coach Ben Lewis.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.swansearfc.co.uk/Teams/Management\\|title\\=Management\\|publisher\\=}}", "In 2014 the All Whites were relegated from the Welsh Premier league on the final day of the season when despite beating Neath at St Helens, a bonus point for Aberavon sent Swansea into the SWALEC Championship. This provoked a complete revamp of the club with Stephen Hughes taking the position of Chairman, Keith Colclough as Managing Director and Richard Lancaster leading a coaching team of former players including Rhodri Jones, Chris Loader and Ben Lewis. In their first season Swansea missed out on promotion back to the Premiership, finishing in second place overall, but were consequently promoted in the 15/16 season along with Merthyr, RGC 1404 and Bargoed.", "Swansea struggled to adapt to the Premiership in their first two seasons back at the top flight although despite a crippling injury list, the 17/18 season showed much promise with the side recording five wins, a draw and 10 losing bonus points for losing the game within 7 points.", "The 2018/19 season is a hugely important season for the club with potentially five clubs being relegated from the Welsh Premiership in order for the league to contain 12 teams in the 19/20 season. The coaching team of Richard Lancaster, [Hugh Gustafson](/wiki/Hugh_Gustafson \"Hugh Gustafson\"), [Ben Lewis](/wiki/Ben_Lewis_%28rugby_union%29 \"Ben Lewis (rugby union)\"), Nick Roberts and Liam Carpener\\-Jones are currently preparing a squad consisting of many of the 17/18 squad along with new additions which are being announced on the club website regularly.", "### Professional life", "Lancaster currently works for [Swansea University](/wiki/Swansea_University \"Swansea University\") as Head of Sport and Corporate Engagement.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.ospreysrugby.com/news/swansea\\-university\\-commits\\-ospreys\\|title\\=Swansea University commits to Ospreys \\| Ospreys\\|website\\=www.ospreysrugby.com}} Lancaster helped develop the concept of the [Welsh Varsity](/wiki/Welsh_Varsity \"Welsh Varsity\").", "" ]
History ------- {{Refimprove\-section\|date\=December 2022}} The college was founded in 1915 as **St. Paul's Girls' College** (聖保羅女書院) by the [Hong Kong Anglican Church](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Sheng_Kung_Hui "Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui").{{Cite web\|url\=http://spcc.edu.hk/school\-history\|title\=School History \- The School \- About \- St. Paul's Co\-educational College\|website\=spcc.edu.hk\|language\=en\|access\-date\=2018\-03\-19}} The school's motto is *Faith, Hope and Love*, derived from [1 Corinthians 13](/wiki/1_Corinthians_13 "1 Corinthians 13") of the [Bible](/wiki/Bible "Bible"). In 1918, the College was the first school in [Hong Kong](/wiki/British_Hong_Kong "British Hong Kong") to require students to wear school uniforms. In 1927, the College was moved to 33 [MacDonnell Road](/wiki/MacDonnell_Road "MacDonnell Road"), and has remained as the location of the school since then. In 1932, the College adopted the school badge that is still used now. Amid the outbreak of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War") and [Japanese occupation of Hong Kong](/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong "Japanese occupation of Hong Kong") in 1942, the College suspended all operations. In 1945, the College resumed operation while St. Paul's Boys' College moved in. Since then, the College began to accept both boys and girls, and became the first co\-educational school in Hong Kong. As the College transformed from a girls school to a co\-educational school, a whole\-day primary school was established, and Mr Maak Ying Kei was appointed as the Headteacher of the primary school. When St. Paul's Boys' College moved back to their campus in [Bonham Road](/wiki/Bonham_Road "Bonham Road") in 1950, the school continued to accept both boys and girls, remaining co\-educational. Before the primary school changed into an AM and PM school in 1957, it moved to 1 Calder Path. The position of Headteacher in the PM primary school was taken up by Ms Fok Lan Hing. In 1959, the new west wing of the College was completed as part of the secondary school. In October 1969, the school established their first aid service for boys, the [St Paul's Ambulance Cadet Division](/wiki/St_Paul%27s_Ambulance_Cadet_Division "St Paul's Ambulance Cadet Division") under [Hong Kong St John Ambulance](/wiki/Hong_Kong_St_John_Ambulance "Hong Kong St John Ambulance"). <http://www.stpaulsambulance.com/> A Nursing division for girls was later set up.
[ "History\n-------", "{{Refimprove\\-section\\|date\\=December 2022}}\nThe college was founded in 1915 as **St. Paul's Girls' College** (聖保羅女書院) by the [Hong Kong Anglican Church](/wiki/Hong_Kong_Sheng_Kung_Hui \"Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui\").{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://spcc.edu.hk/school\\-history\\|title\\=School History \\- The School \\- About \\- St. Paul's Co\\-educational College\\|website\\=spcc.edu.hk\\|language\\=en\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-03\\-19}} The school's motto is *Faith, Hope and Love*, derived from [1 Corinthians 13](/wiki/1_Corinthians_13 \"1 Corinthians 13\") of the [Bible](/wiki/Bible \"Bible\").", "In 1918, the College was the first school in [Hong Kong](/wiki/British_Hong_Kong \"British Hong Kong\") to require students to wear school uniforms.", "In 1927, the College was moved to 33 [MacDonnell Road](/wiki/MacDonnell_Road \"MacDonnell Road\"), and has remained as the location of the school since then.", "In 1932, the College adopted the school badge that is still used now.", "Amid the outbreak of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\") and [Japanese occupation of Hong Kong](/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong \"Japanese occupation of Hong Kong\") in 1942, the College suspended all operations. In 1945, the College resumed operation while St. Paul's Boys' College moved in. Since then, the College began to accept both boys and girls, and became the first co\\-educational school in Hong Kong. As the College transformed from a girls school to a co\\-educational school, a whole\\-day primary school was established, and Mr Maak Ying Kei was appointed as the Headteacher of the primary school.", "When St. Paul's Boys' College moved back to their campus in [Bonham Road](/wiki/Bonham_Road \"Bonham Road\") in 1950, the school continued to accept both boys and girls, remaining co\\-educational. Before the primary school changed into an AM and PM school in 1957, it moved to 1 Calder Path. The position of Headteacher in the PM primary school was taken up by Ms Fok Lan Hing. In 1959, the new west wing of the College was completed as part of the secondary school.", "In October 1969, the school established their first aid service for boys, the [St Paul's Ambulance Cadet Division](/wiki/St_Paul%27s_Ambulance_Cadet_Division \"St Paul's Ambulance Cadet Division\") under [Hong Kong St John Ambulance](/wiki/Hong_Kong_St_John_Ambulance \"Hong Kong St John Ambulance\"). <http://www.stpaulsambulance.com/> A Nursing division for girls was later set up.", "" ]
Life ---- Hartley was born in 1866 or 1867 in [Antananarivo](/wiki/Antananarivo "Antananarivo") in Madagascar to Reverend Richard Griffiths Hartley and his wife Catherine (née Gasquoine), both from [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester "Manchester"). Her parents had served as missionaries in Mauritius before they went to Madagascar. Her father left them with a poor financial position when he died in 1870 after the family had returned to Hampshire. Hartley inherited her father's passion for teaching, and she first worked as a teacher in [Southport](/wiki/Southport "Southport"), where she was brought up. She rose to be the headteacher at [Babington House](https://babingtonhouse.com/history/), [Eltham](/wiki/Eltham "Eltham"), Kent in 1894\. She left this post to write sometime around 1903\. She published *Life: the Modeller* which was a novel set against her knowledge of art, although its history attracted only minor interest. A second novel, *The Weaver's Shuttle,* appeared in 1905\. Hartley became the second wife of the journalist and writer [Walter M. Gallichan](/wiki/Walter_M._Gallichan "Walter M. Gallichan") on 9 May 1901\. He had written under the name *Geoffrey Mortimer*. After their marriage her husband wrote under his own name and Hartley assigned her work to "C. Gasquoine Hartley (Mrs Walter Gallichan)", both writing about their leisurely lifestyle. They had a house in [Youlgreave](/wiki/Youlgreave "Youlgreave") in Derbyshire where they put together *The Story of Seville* which was published as part of [The Medieval Towns](/wiki/The_Medieval_Towns "The Medieval Towns") series of guides. The illustrations for the book were made by Hartley's sister, Elizabeth. In 1904 she published *Pictures in the Tate Gallery*. In the same year her husband published *Fishing and Travel in Spain*; this was matched by Hartley's book *A Record of Spanish Painting* which revealed her expertise in Spanish art. She created some controversy concerning her lack of attribution in a case pursued by [Edward S. Dodgeson](/wiki/Edward_S._Dodgeson "Edward S. Dodgeson"). Her husband joined in the correspondence in 1907 which itemised points of fact and attribution that Dodgson felt that Hartley had overlooked and this dispute was published by *[The Academy](/wiki/The_Academy_%28periodical%29 "The Academy (periodical)")* magazine. During this time she was writing articles about contemporary artists such as the British painter [John Collier](/wiki/John_Collier_%28painter%29 "John Collier (painter)") for *[The New Age](/wiki/The_New_Age "The New Age")*. Hartley continued to write books with Albert Calvert on the Spanish [Prado Museum](/wiki/Prado_Museum "Prado Museum") and the Spanish painters [Velázquez](/wiki/Vel%C3%A1zquez "Velázquez") and [El Greco](/wiki/El_Greco "El Greco"). Their books were favourably reviewed at home, in Spain and the United States. In 1910 she took an interest in [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Spain%29 "Galicia (Spain)") which began with a trip organised by the [British International Association of Journalists](/wiki/British_International_Association_of_Journalists "British International Association of Journalists"). Her advocacy for the region saw her publish *Spain Revisited: a Summer Holiday in Galicia* in 1911 (which was translated into [Galician](/wiki/Galician_language "Galician language") in 1999\). Her 1912 publication *The Story of Santiago de Compostela* was much more controversial. Nine years after it was published she and its publisher were successfully sued for [plagiarism](/wiki/Plagiarism "Plagiarism") by [Annette Meakin](/wiki/Annette_Meakin "Annette Meakin"). Meakin showed that Hartley's book was too similar to her book *Galicia, the Switzerland of Spain*. As part of the settlement Hartley's book was removed from libraries.{{cite ODNB\|author\=Hooper, Kirsty \|title\= Hartley, Catherine Gasquoine (1866/7–1928\)\|date\= September 2011\|doi\= 10\.1093/ref:odnb/55594\|isbn\= 978\-0\-19\-861411\-1\| url\=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/55594\|access\-date\= 5 January 2016}} In 1913, she published her final book on Spain, *The Cathedrals of Southern Spain*. Hartley's husband had published *Modern Woman and How to Manage Her* in 1909 and he continued to publish controversial titles about women, polygamy and sex education. Before they divorced in 1915, Hartley adopted a son, Leslie, who had been born in 1904\. Single again, she investigated new areas in her writing where she investigated social issues including motherhood and sex. In 1916 she wrote *Children of the Empire* with her new husband, the Zionist journalist [Arthur Daniel Lewis](/wiki/Arthur_Daniel_Lewis "Arthur Daniel Lewis"). Her latter works were *The Position of Women in [primitive society](/wiki/Urgesellschaft "Urgesellschaft")*, *Motherhood and the Relationships of the Sexes*, *Woman's Wild Oats: Essays on the Re\-fixing of Moral Standards*, *Divorce (Today and Tomorrow)*, *Mind of the Naughty Child* and latterly *Women, Children, Love and Marriage* in 1924\.[Catherine Gasquoine Hartley](http://www.modjourn.org/render.php?view=mjp_object&id=mjp.2005.01.020) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226182217/http://www.modjourn.org/render.php?view\=mjp\_object\&id\=mjp.2005\.01\.020 \|date\=2017\-12\-26 }}, Mark Gaipa, Modernist Journals Project, Retrieved 5 January 2016 She was hit by a van on 7 June 1928 and died two days later. Hartley was buried in the [Willesden Jewish Cemetery](/wiki/Willesden_Jewish_Cemetery "Willesden Jewish Cemetery") next to her second husband.
[ "Life\n----", "Hartley was born in 1866 or 1867 in [Antananarivo](/wiki/Antananarivo \"Antananarivo\") in Madagascar to Reverend Richard Griffiths Hartley and his wife Catherine (née Gasquoine), both from [Manchester](/wiki/Manchester \"Manchester\"). Her parents had served as missionaries in Mauritius before they went to Madagascar. Her father left them with a poor financial position when he died in 1870 after the family had returned to Hampshire. Hartley inherited her father's passion for teaching, and she first worked as a teacher in [Southport](/wiki/Southport \"Southport\"), where she was brought up. She rose to be the headteacher at [Babington House](https://babingtonhouse.com/history/), [Eltham](/wiki/Eltham \"Eltham\"), Kent in 1894\\. She left this post to write sometime around 1903\\. She published *Life: the Modeller* which was a novel set against her knowledge of art, although its history attracted only minor interest. A second novel, *The Weaver's Shuttle,* appeared in 1905\\.", "Hartley became the second wife of the journalist and writer [Walter M. Gallichan](/wiki/Walter_M._Gallichan \"Walter M. Gallichan\") on 9 May 1901\\. He had written under the name *Geoffrey Mortimer*. After their marriage her husband wrote under his own name and Hartley assigned her work to \"C. Gasquoine Hartley (Mrs Walter Gallichan)\", both writing about their leisurely lifestyle. They had a house in [Youlgreave](/wiki/Youlgreave \"Youlgreave\") in Derbyshire where they put together *The Story of Seville* which was published as part of [The Medieval Towns](/wiki/The_Medieval_Towns \"The Medieval Towns\") series of guides. The illustrations for the book were made by Hartley's sister, Elizabeth.", "In 1904 she published *Pictures in the Tate Gallery*. In the same year her husband published *Fishing and Travel in Spain*; this was matched by Hartley's book *A Record of Spanish Painting* which revealed her expertise in Spanish art. She created some controversy concerning her lack of attribution in a case pursued by [Edward S. Dodgeson](/wiki/Edward_S._Dodgeson \"Edward S. Dodgeson\"). Her husband joined in the correspondence in 1907 which itemised points of fact and attribution that Dodgson felt that Hartley had overlooked and this dispute was published by *[The Academy](/wiki/The_Academy_%28periodical%29 \"The Academy (periodical)\")* magazine. During this time she was writing articles about contemporary artists such as the British painter [John Collier](/wiki/John_Collier_%28painter%29 \"John Collier (painter)\") for *[The New Age](/wiki/The_New_Age \"The New Age\")*.", "Hartley continued to write books with Albert Calvert on the Spanish [Prado Museum](/wiki/Prado_Museum \"Prado Museum\") and the Spanish painters [Velázquez](/wiki/Vel%C3%A1zquez \"Velázquez\") and [El Greco](/wiki/El_Greco \"El Greco\"). Their books were favourably reviewed at home, in Spain and the United States. In 1910 she took an interest in [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Spain%29 \"Galicia (Spain)\") which began with a trip organised by the [British International Association of Journalists](/wiki/British_International_Association_of_Journalists \"British International Association of Journalists\"). Her advocacy for the region saw her publish *Spain Revisited: a Summer Holiday in Galicia* in 1911 (which was translated into [Galician](/wiki/Galician_language \"Galician language\") in 1999\\). Her 1912 publication *The Story of Santiago de Compostela* was much more controversial. Nine years after it was published she and its publisher were successfully sued for [plagiarism](/wiki/Plagiarism \"Plagiarism\") by [Annette Meakin](/wiki/Annette_Meakin \"Annette Meakin\"). Meakin showed that Hartley's book was too similar to her book *Galicia, the Switzerland of Spain*. As part of the settlement Hartley's book was removed from libraries.{{cite ODNB\\|author\\=Hooper, Kirsty \\|title\\= Hartley, Catherine Gasquoine (1866/7–1928\\)\\|date\\= September 2011\\|doi\\= 10\\.1093/ref:odnb/55594\\|isbn\\= 978\\-0\\-19\\-861411\\-1\\| url\\=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/55594\\|access\\-date\\= 5 January 2016}} In 1913, she published her final book on Spain, *The Cathedrals of Southern Spain*.", "Hartley's husband had published *Modern Woman and How to Manage Her* in 1909 and he continued to publish controversial titles about women, polygamy and sex education. Before they divorced in 1915, Hartley adopted a son, Leslie, who had been born in 1904\\. Single again, she investigated new areas in her writing where she investigated social issues including motherhood and sex. In 1916 she wrote *Children of the Empire* with her new husband, the Zionist journalist [Arthur Daniel Lewis](/wiki/Arthur_Daniel_Lewis \"Arthur Daniel Lewis\"). Her latter works were *The Position of Women in [primitive society](/wiki/Urgesellschaft \"Urgesellschaft\")*, *Motherhood and the Relationships of the Sexes*, *Woman's Wild Oats: Essays on the Re\\-fixing of Moral Standards*, *Divorce (Today and Tomorrow)*, *Mind of the Naughty Child* and latterly *Women, Children, Love and Marriage* in 1924\\.[Catherine Gasquoine Hartley](http://www.modjourn.org/render.php?view=mjp_object&id=mjp.2005.01.020) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226182217/http://www.modjourn.org/render.php?view\\=mjp\\_object\\&id\\=mjp.2005\\.01\\.020 \\|date\\=2017\\-12\\-26 }}, Mark Gaipa, Modernist Journals Project, Retrieved 5 January 2016", "She was hit by a van on 7 June 1928 and died two days later. Hartley was buried in the [Willesden Jewish Cemetery](/wiki/Willesden_Jewish_Cemetery \"Willesden Jewish Cemetery\") next to her second husband.", "" ]
History ------- The Hamburg Blue Devils were formed in 1992 and began playing non\-league football in September 1992\. It continued to take part in tournaments in 1993, defeating a number of European top clubs, including the German champions, the [Munich Cowboys](/wiki/Munich_Cowboys "Munich Cowboys").[History der Hamburg Blue Devils](http://www.hamburgbluedevils.eu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=117&Itemid=97) {{in lang\|de}} Hamburg Blue Devils website \- Club history, accessed: 9 January 2011 In 1994, the Blue Devils took part in the [Football League of Europe](/wiki/Football_League_of_Europe "Football League of Europe"), where they lost the final to the [Stockholm Nordic Vikings](/wiki/Stockholm_Nordic_Vikings "Stockholm Nordic Vikings"), played in front of 18,000 in Hamburg. Unusually, the club was admitted to the *American Football Bundesliga*, the later [German Football League](/wiki/German_Football_League "German Football League"), without having worked its way up through the league system in 1995 and reached the [German Bowl](/wiki/German_Bowl "German Bowl") in its first attempt. There however, the [Düsseldorf Panthers](/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf_Panther "Düsseldorf Panther") proved too strong and Hamburg lost 10–17\. [thumb\|eVendi\-Arena](/wiki/File:Helm.JPG "Helm.JPG") The club's second season in the league brought triumphs and sadness. The team won both the [German Bowl](/wiki/German_Bowl "German Bowl") and the [Eurobowl](/wiki/Eurobowl "Eurobowl"), however, the team's head coach since 1992, George White, died two days before the play\-off semi finals. In 1997, the Blue Devils were able to defend their [European Football League](/wiki/European_Football_League "European Football League") title by winning the [Eurobowl](/wiki/Eurobowl "Eurobowl"), but lost in the semi\-finals of the national championships. Finally, in 1998, the club won the Eurobowl for a third consecutive time, as the first club ever, but once more lost the German Bowl, to future bitter rival Braunschweig Lions. The 1999 season was all about the Blue Devils versus the Lions, the two teams meeting both in the Eurobowl and the German Bowl. On both occasions, the Lions kept the upper hand, but the 30,000 that turned out to see the German Bowl at Hamburgs [Volksparkstadion](/wiki/Volksparkstadion "Volksparkstadion") were a new record for the game in Germany. The following season 2000 was a disaster for the club. With new coach and quarter back, the club played its first losing season in its short history and missed the play\-offs. It did reach the Eurobowl playoffs once more but this time lost to the [Bergamo Lions](/wiki/Bergamo_Lions "Bergamo Lions"). With a new coach and playing at the [Millerntor\-Stadion](/wiki/Millerntor-Stadion "Millerntor-Stadion"), the club began a new era of success in 2001\. Three German Bowl victories were to follow, all against the Braunschweig Lions. However, not all went well for the club. Midway through the 2002 season, the coach left but the Blue Devils remained successful. In 2003, the club experienced financial trouble, having to declare insolvency. Despite this, the German Bowl was won in extra time in a narrow 37–36 victory. The club somewhat declined from 2004 onwards, only reaching the quarter\-finals that year. In 2005, a last appearance in the [German Bowl](/wiki/German_Bowl "German Bowl") was made, but this time the Lions came out as the winners. Additionally, the clubs marketing agency had to declare insolvency, too, but the Blue Devils survived theirs and moved into their own stadium, the eVendi Arena. From 2005 to 2007, the club also faced some local competition in the form of [NFL Europe](/wiki/NFL_Europe "NFL Europe") team [Hamburg Sea Devils](/wiki/Hamburg_Sea_Devils_%28NFL_Europe%29 "Hamburg Sea Devils (NFL Europe)"). From 2006 onwards, the performances of the Blue Devils dropped off. In 2006, the play\-off semi finals could still be reached, in 2007 it was only the quarter\-finals and, in 2008, a fifth place meant the club did not play a post season at all. What followed was the withdrawal to the tier\-three *[Regionalliga Nord](/wiki/American_football_Regionalliga "American football Regionalliga")*, where the club played the 2009 and 2010 season without ever suffering a league defeat. However, in the promotion round, things were not as easy and the Blue Devils missed out on promotion in 2009 but were successful in 2010\. In 2011, the club has risen to the second tier of German football, the GFL 2, a league it never played in before. On 5 January 2011, the club announced that it would start a cooperation with the [Hamburger SV](/wiki/Hamburger_SV "Hamburger SV") with the aim of becoming a department of the club and, eventually, from 1 January 2012, all teams of the Blue Devils would become part of the multi\-sports club HSV. The idea was floated as early as 1992 and the club will, in future, be known as the HSV Hamburg Blue Devils.[Blue Devils kooperieren mit dem HSV](http://www.football-aktuell.de/cgi-bin/news.pl?artikel=129432673850231111&rubrik=5011) {{in lang\|de}} football\-aktuell.de, published: 6 January 2011, accessed: 9 January 2011 In 2012, the club came seventh in the northern division of the GFL and failed to qualify for the play\-off. In January 2014 the club announced that it would withdraw its team from the GFL because of a loss of players and would restart in 2015\.[Hamburg Blue Devils ziehen sich zuruck](http://www.gfl.info/text.php?Inhalt=newsmeldung&ID=8409) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226153225/http://www.gfl.info/text.php?Inhalt\=newsmeldung\&ID\=8409 \|date\=2014\-02\-26 }} {{in lang\|de}} GFL website, published: 18 January 2014, accessed: 14 May 2014 After not fielding a senior team in 2014 the club returned to league football for 2015, entering the tier five Verbandsliga Nord, where they finished third.
[ "History\n-------", "The Hamburg Blue Devils were formed in 1992 and began playing non\\-league football in September 1992\\. It continued to take part in tournaments in 1993, defeating a number of European top clubs, including the German champions, the [Munich Cowboys](/wiki/Munich_Cowboys \"Munich Cowboys\").[History der Hamburg Blue Devils](http://www.hamburgbluedevils.eu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=117&Itemid=97) {{in lang\\|de}} Hamburg Blue Devils website \\- Club history, accessed: 9 January 2011", "In 1994, the Blue Devils took part in the [Football League of Europe](/wiki/Football_League_of_Europe \"Football League of Europe\"), where they lost the final to the [Stockholm Nordic Vikings](/wiki/Stockholm_Nordic_Vikings \"Stockholm Nordic Vikings\"), played in front of 18,000 in Hamburg.", "Unusually, the club was admitted to the *American Football Bundesliga*, the later [German Football League](/wiki/German_Football_League \"German Football League\"), without having worked its way up through the league system in 1995 and reached the [German Bowl](/wiki/German_Bowl \"German Bowl\") in its first attempt. There however, the [Düsseldorf Panthers](/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf_Panther \"Düsseldorf Panther\") proved too strong and Hamburg lost 10–17\\.", "[thumb\\|eVendi\\-Arena](/wiki/File:Helm.JPG \"Helm.JPG\")\nThe club's second season in the league brought triumphs and sadness. The team won both the [German Bowl](/wiki/German_Bowl \"German Bowl\") and the [Eurobowl](/wiki/Eurobowl \"Eurobowl\"), however, the team's head coach since 1992, George White, died two days before the play\\-off semi finals. In 1997, the Blue Devils were able to defend their [European Football League](/wiki/European_Football_League \"European Football League\") title by winning the [Eurobowl](/wiki/Eurobowl \"Eurobowl\"), but lost in the semi\\-finals of the national championships. Finally, in 1998, the club won the Eurobowl for a third consecutive time, as the first club ever, but once more lost the German Bowl, to future bitter rival Braunschweig Lions.", "The 1999 season was all about the Blue Devils versus the Lions, the two teams meeting both in the Eurobowl and the German Bowl. On both occasions, the Lions kept the upper hand, but the 30,000 that turned out to see the German Bowl at Hamburgs [Volksparkstadion](/wiki/Volksparkstadion \"Volksparkstadion\") were a new record for the game in Germany.", "The following season 2000 was a disaster for the club. With new coach and quarter back, the club played its first losing season in its short history and missed the play\\-offs. It did reach the Eurobowl playoffs once more but this time lost to the [Bergamo Lions](/wiki/Bergamo_Lions \"Bergamo Lions\").", "With a new coach and playing at the [Millerntor\\-Stadion](/wiki/Millerntor-Stadion \"Millerntor-Stadion\"), the club began a new era of success in 2001\\. Three German Bowl victories were to follow, all against the Braunschweig Lions. However, not all went well for the club. Midway through the 2002 season, the coach left but the Blue Devils remained successful. In 2003, the club experienced financial trouble, having to declare insolvency. Despite this, the German Bowl was won in extra time in a narrow 37–36 victory.", "The club somewhat declined from 2004 onwards, only reaching the quarter\\-finals that year. In 2005, a last appearance in the [German Bowl](/wiki/German_Bowl \"German Bowl\") was made, but this time the Lions came out as the winners. Additionally, the clubs marketing agency had to declare insolvency, too, but the Blue Devils survived theirs and moved into their own stadium, the eVendi Arena. From 2005 to 2007, the club also faced some local competition in the form of [NFL Europe](/wiki/NFL_Europe \"NFL Europe\") team [Hamburg Sea Devils](/wiki/Hamburg_Sea_Devils_%28NFL_Europe%29 \"Hamburg Sea Devils (NFL Europe)\").", "From 2006 onwards, the performances of the Blue Devils dropped off. In 2006, the play\\-off semi finals could still be reached, in 2007 it was only the quarter\\-finals and, in 2008, a fifth place meant the club did not play a post season at all. What followed was the withdrawal to the tier\\-three *[Regionalliga Nord](/wiki/American_football_Regionalliga \"American football Regionalliga\")*, where the club played the 2009 and 2010 season without ever suffering a league defeat. However, in the promotion round, things were not as easy and the Blue Devils missed out on promotion in 2009 but were successful in 2010\\. In 2011, the club has risen to the second tier of German football, the GFL 2, a league it never played in before.", "On 5 January 2011, the club announced that it would start a cooperation with the [Hamburger SV](/wiki/Hamburger_SV \"Hamburger SV\") with the aim of becoming a department of the club and, eventually, from 1 January 2012, all teams of the Blue Devils would become part of the multi\\-sports club HSV. The idea was floated as early as 1992 and the club will, in future, be known as the HSV Hamburg Blue Devils.[Blue Devils kooperieren mit dem HSV](http://www.football-aktuell.de/cgi-bin/news.pl?artikel=129432673850231111&rubrik=5011) {{in lang\\|de}} football\\-aktuell.de, published: 6 January 2011, accessed: 9 January 2011 In 2012, the club came seventh in the northern division of the GFL and failed to qualify for the play\\-off.", "In January 2014 the club announced that it would withdraw its team from the GFL because of a loss of players and would restart in 2015\\.[Hamburg Blue Devils ziehen sich zuruck](http://www.gfl.info/text.php?Inhalt=newsmeldung&ID=8409) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140226153225/http://www.gfl.info/text.php?Inhalt\\=newsmeldung\\&ID\\=8409 \\|date\\=2014\\-02\\-26 }} {{in lang\\|de}} GFL website, published: 18 January 2014, accessed: 14 May 2014 After not fielding a senior team in 2014 the club returned to league football for 2015, entering the tier five Verbandsliga Nord, where they finished third.", "" ]
Plot ---- {{Long plot\|date\=October 2022}} Sidth who is an upcoming actor, is best friends with Richie, who is constantly on the lookout for business opportunities. Sidth tries his luck at film sets and casting's and is frustrated at the negative feedback. Sidth's meeting with an indie film director fuels his hopes for his career. Richie, who meets an old friend of his, gets an idea to make some easy money. He invests in a ponzi scheme without Sidth knowing about it in detail. Sidth attends a casting for a big film producer, who in turns wants Sidth to give him sexual service in exchange for the role. Dr Roy is a medical practitioner, who is also addicted to the real estate business. The addiction leads to debts and deadlines for payments begin interfering in his work. He has to pay Franko, a money\-lending thug, 5,000 by the weekend. He contacts Deejay to make some money out of a rushed deal. He also invests in a fast cash scheme as second option, the same where Richie had invested. Q, the Indie film director who needs money for his production, goes to meet Franko under Deejays recommendation. Sidth tags along as the lead actor of the film. While meeting Franko, Sidth sees Shaji, a money collector and learns that he always has a stack of cash in his sling bag. Arjun and Tina have been dating for a while. Arjun, who is busy with his "business", is still a mystery to Tina. Tina is a divorcee who thinks that she has her life totally in control. Arjun surprises her by proposing to her and without her knowing, she falls in too deep for Arjun. Tony is an Indian living abroad. He had been involved in a business with someone in India while he was abroad. His partner in India cheats him, and Tony now wants to teach him a lesson. Tony contacts Luttu and Plan B, two bounty hunters who use threats before harm to their victims. Luttu and Plan B are film enthusiasts who live and behave like film stars. Luttu and Plan B tracks Tony's Indian business partner and discovers that he is also known as Arjun, Tina's fiancée. They discover that Arjun had transferred all the money to U.S.A. Luttu takes Arjun's phone to track down all who Arjun has dealings with. Luttu gives the bad news to Richie and Dr Roy, meanwhile Plan B finds a receipt of a diamond ring in Arjun's room. They decide to fetch it as their pay for the job. They beat Arjun badly and put him in the boot of at the car and head towards the cafe that he was supposed to meet Tina. Luttu now tells Tina the true side of Arjun, and she is in a state of disbelief. She asks for proof and Luttu asks her to check the boot of his car. Tina sees Arjun and realizes that Luttu was right. She is angry at first, but as the car drives away, she realises that she had let her fences down Arjun had gone in too deep into her heart. She is heartbroken. Richie, who had taken money from his parents to make the quick buck, is now panicking about the loss of it all. He tells Sidth about it. As they panic, Sidth sees Franko's collector Shaji walking past them. Sidth mentions that Shaji must have at least 60,000 in his bag, and hopes Shaji forgets his bag somewhere so Richie can get the money. Richie follows Shaji to a lane where he snatches the bag and runs. Richie runs straight to Sidth, and finds that there is not much money in the bag, as Dr Roy who had to pay Franko, has delayed his payments again. Shaji tracks Richie and sees him standing beside Sidth who he recognizes from Franko's place during the meeting with indie director. Franko, who is angry that Sidth and his friend tried to overpower Shaji, calls Deejay and tells him that he is going to teach them a lesson. Franko decides to shake all the late payers, including Dr Roy. Deejay calls Sidth to find out what went wrong. Sidth explains, and Deejay tells them to leave the city if they want to stay alive. Sidth and Richie decide to take the next train to Mumbai. Dr Roy gets fired from his job, as the hospital has had enough of his distractions at work. Dr Roy who has lost his job, and has no successful real estate deals, now faces Franko's thugs who take his car away. While waiting for the train, Richie comes with one last crazy idea to sell their motorbike before they leave to Mumbai. Sidth calls him a fool, but gets a better idea. He borrows the bike and rides to the hotel where a film producer offered to cast him earlier. He lashes all his anger out on the producer by beating him up and steals all his money. He reaches the train station just in time as the train they have bought tickets to was leaving the station. They both run and hop on the speeding train. They leave to Mumbai, smiling.
[ "Plot\n----", "{{Long plot\\|date\\=October 2022}}\nSidth who is an upcoming actor, is best friends with Richie, who is constantly on the lookout for business opportunities. Sidth tries his luck at film sets and casting's and is frustrated at the negative feedback. Sidth's meeting with an indie film director fuels his hopes for his career. Richie, who meets an old friend of his, gets an idea to make some easy money. He invests in a ponzi scheme without Sidth knowing about it in detail. Sidth attends a casting for a big film producer, who in turns wants Sidth to give him sexual service in exchange for the role.", "Dr Roy is a medical practitioner, who is also addicted to the real estate business. The addiction leads to debts and deadlines for payments begin interfering in his work. He has to pay Franko, a money\\-lending thug, 5,000 by the weekend. He contacts Deejay to make some money out of a rushed deal. He also invests in a fast cash scheme as second option, the same where Richie had invested.", "Q, the Indie film director who needs money for his production, goes to meet Franko under Deejays recommendation. Sidth tags along as the lead actor of the film. While meeting Franko, Sidth sees Shaji, a money collector and learns that he always has a stack of cash in his sling bag.", "Arjun and Tina have been dating for a while. Arjun, who is busy with his \"business\", is still a mystery to Tina. Tina is a divorcee who thinks that she has her life totally in control. Arjun surprises her by proposing to her and without her knowing, she falls in too deep for Arjun.", "Tony is an Indian living abroad. He had been involved in a business with someone in India while he was abroad. His partner in India cheats him, and Tony now wants to teach him a lesson. Tony contacts Luttu and Plan B, two bounty hunters who use threats before harm to their victims. Luttu and Plan B are film enthusiasts who live and behave like film stars.", "Luttu and Plan B tracks Tony's Indian business partner and discovers that he is also known as Arjun, Tina's fiancée. They discover that Arjun had transferred all the money to U.S.A. Luttu takes Arjun's phone to track down all who Arjun has dealings with. Luttu gives the bad news to Richie and Dr Roy, meanwhile Plan B finds a receipt of a diamond ring in Arjun's room. They decide to fetch it as their pay for the job. They beat Arjun badly and put him in the boot of at the car and head towards the cafe that he was supposed to meet Tina. Luttu now tells Tina the true side of Arjun, and she is in a state of disbelief. She asks for proof and Luttu asks her to check the boot of his car. Tina sees Arjun and realizes that Luttu was right. She is angry at first, but as the car drives away, she realises that she had let her fences down Arjun had gone in too deep into her heart. She is heartbroken.", "Richie, who had taken money from his parents to make the quick buck, is now panicking about the loss of it all. He tells Sidth about it. As they panic, Sidth sees Franko's collector Shaji walking past them. Sidth mentions that Shaji must have at least 60,000 in his bag, and hopes Shaji forgets his bag somewhere so Richie can get the money. Richie follows Shaji to a lane where he snatches the bag and runs. Richie runs straight to Sidth, and finds that there is not much money in the bag, as Dr Roy who had to pay Franko, has delayed his payments again. Shaji tracks Richie and sees him standing beside Sidth who he recognizes from Franko's place during the meeting with indie director.", "Franko, who is angry that Sidth and his friend tried to overpower Shaji, calls Deejay and tells him that he is going to teach them a lesson. Franko decides to shake all the late payers, including Dr Roy.", "Deejay calls Sidth to find out what went wrong. Sidth explains, and Deejay tells them to leave the city if they want to stay alive. Sidth and Richie decide to take the next train to Mumbai.", "Dr Roy gets fired from his job, as the hospital has had enough of his distractions at work. Dr Roy who has lost his job, and has no successful real estate deals, now faces Franko's thugs who take his car away.", "While waiting for the train, Richie comes with one last crazy idea to sell their motorbike before they leave to Mumbai. Sidth calls him a fool, but gets a better idea. He borrows the bike and rides to the hotel where a film producer offered to cast him earlier. He lashes all his anger out on the producer by beating him up and steals all his money. He reaches the train station just in time as the train they have bought tickets to was leaving the station. They both run and hop on the speeding train. They leave to Mumbai, smiling.", "" ]
History ------- Macintosh, Smith, Worrall and Davey all met at [Madras College](/wiki/Madras_College "Madras College") and began playing together in 1993 at the age of 14\. After having performed under various names, they settled on "Dogs Die in Hot Cars" in 1997\. In 1999 they moved to Glasgow where they met Ruth Quigley to complete the line up. The band listed their influences among others as [Nirvana](/wiki/Nirvana_%28band%29 "Nirvana (band)"), [Red Hot Chili Peppers](/wiki/Red_Hot_Chili_Peppers "Red Hot Chili Peppers"), [The Beatles](/wiki/The_Beatles "The Beatles") and [Talking Heads](/wiki/Talking_Heads "Talking Heads"). Later that year, the band signed a one\-off single deal with EMI subsidiary label, Radiate Records. The single included the songs "I Love You 'Cause I Have To", "Celebrity Sanctum" and "Somewhat Off The Way". In the autumn of 2003, the band signed to [V2 Records](/wiki/V2_Records "V2 Records") and Chrysalis Publishing. In July 2004 they released their debut album *Please Describe Yourself* (Produced by Langer \& Winstanley), which included the tracks "I Love You 'Cause I Have To", "Godhopping" and "Lounger". "Godhopping" peaked at No. 24 on the [UK Singles Chart](/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart "UK Singles Chart") and remains the band's biggest hit. "I Love You 'Cause I Have To" peaked at No. 32 on the [UK Singles Chart](/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart "UK Singles Chart"). A song of the band's, entitled "Nobody Teaches Life Anything" (found on the release in 2004 of *[Man Bites Man EP](/wiki/Man_Bites_Man_EP "Man Bites Man EP")*) was used for four years in television advertising campaign in the United Kingdom by [Boots](/wiki/Boots_Group "Boots Group"). In 2006, following the departure of their guitarist Gary Smith, the band entered the studio to record their second album. However, during a break in the recording schedule, the remaining members decided to abandon the album. In 2008, the band released seventeen demos that they had written for the second album, for people to remix and rewrite how they liked, with the intention being that of the best mixes for each song, they would compile a final record and share any potential royalties from it 50 to 50 with those who contributed. Following this, however, on their website it states that "the band felt there weren't enough mixes to warrant a release as just conclusion to the project and to the band".
[ "History\n-------", "Macintosh, Smith, Worrall and Davey all met at [Madras College](/wiki/Madras_College \"Madras College\") and began playing together in 1993 at the age of 14\\. After having performed under various names, they settled on \"Dogs Die in Hot Cars\" in 1997\\. In 1999 they moved to Glasgow where they met Ruth Quigley to complete the line up. The band listed their influences among others as [Nirvana](/wiki/Nirvana_%28band%29 \"Nirvana (band)\"), [Red Hot Chili Peppers](/wiki/Red_Hot_Chili_Peppers \"Red Hot Chili Peppers\"), [The Beatles](/wiki/The_Beatles \"The Beatles\") and [Talking Heads](/wiki/Talking_Heads \"Talking Heads\").", "Later that year, the band signed a one\\-off single deal with EMI subsidiary label, Radiate Records. The single included the songs \"I Love You 'Cause I Have To\", \"Celebrity Sanctum\" and \"Somewhat Off The Way\". In the autumn of 2003, the band signed to [V2 Records](/wiki/V2_Records \"V2 Records\") and Chrysalis Publishing.", "In July 2004 they released their debut album *Please Describe Yourself* (Produced by Langer \\& Winstanley), which included the tracks \"I Love You 'Cause I Have To\", \"Godhopping\" and \"Lounger\". \"Godhopping\" peaked at No. 24 on the [UK Singles Chart](/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart \"UK Singles Chart\") and remains the band's biggest hit. \"I Love You 'Cause I Have To\" peaked at No. 32 on the [UK Singles Chart](/wiki/UK_Singles_Chart \"UK Singles Chart\").", "A song of the band's, entitled \"Nobody Teaches Life Anything\" (found on the release in 2004 of *[Man Bites Man EP](/wiki/Man_Bites_Man_EP \"Man Bites Man EP\")*) was used for four years in television advertising campaign in the United Kingdom by [Boots](/wiki/Boots_Group \"Boots Group\").", "In 2006, following the departure of their guitarist Gary Smith, the band entered the studio to record their second album. However, during a break in the recording schedule, the remaining members decided to abandon the album.", "In 2008, the band released seventeen demos that they had written for the second album, for people to remix and rewrite how they liked, with the intention being that of the best mixes for each song, they would compile a final record and share any potential royalties from it 50 to 50 with those who contributed. Following this, however, on their website it states that \"the band felt there weren't enough mixes to warrant a release as just conclusion to the project and to the band\".", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|align\=left\|1850\= 336 \|1860\= 375 \|1870\= 345 \|1880\= 442 \|1890\= 751 \|1900\= 735 \|1910\= 813 \|1920\= 800 \|1930\= 857 \|1940\= 864 \|1950\= 958 \|1960\= 1066 \|1970\= 1157 \|1980\= 1208 \|1990\= 1153 \|2000\= 1032 \|2010\= 1032 \|2020\= 1262 \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|access\-date\=June 4, 2015}} }} ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=January 6, 2013}} of 2010, there were 1,032 people, 458 households, and 299 families living in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|2789\.2\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 503 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|1359\.5\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 98\.8% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.6% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.2% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 0\.4% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 1\.5% of the population. There were 458 households, of which 29\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 12\.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 6\.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 34\.7% were non\-families. 29\.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.25 and the average family size was 2\.73\. The median age in the village was 40\.2 years. 22\.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 7\.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27\.7% were from 25 to 44; 25\.5% were from 45 to 64; and 17\.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48\.4% male and 51\.6% female. ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 1,032 people, 452 households, and 287 families living in the village. The population density was {{convert\|2,795\.8\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 485 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|1,313\.9\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the village was 98\.84% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.39% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.19% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.10% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), and 0\.48% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 0\.58% of the population. There were 452 households, out of which 25\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 10\.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36\.3% were non\-families. 33\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.19 and the average family size was 2\.72\. In the village, the population was spread out, with 19\.8% under the age of 18, 6\.7% from 18 to 24, 27\.7% from 25 to 44, 25\.3% from 45 to 64, and 20\.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 84\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83\.6 males. The median income for a household in the village was $33,636, and the median income for a family was $45,729\. Males had a median income of $35,804 versus $25,481 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the village was $19,343\. About 5\.6% of families and 10\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 7\.2% of those under age 18 and 13\.4% of those age 65 or over.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|align\\=left\\|1850\\= 336\n\\|1860\\= 375\n\\|1870\\= 345\n\\|1880\\= 442\n\\|1890\\= 751\n\\|1900\\= 735\n\\|1910\\= 813\n\\|1920\\= 800\n\\|1930\\= 857\n\\|1940\\= 864\n\\|1950\\= 958\n\\|1960\\= 1066\n\\|1970\\= 1157\n\\|1980\\= 1208\n\\|1990\\= 1153\n\\|2000\\= 1032\n\\|2010\\= 1032\n\\|2020\\= 1262\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2015}}\n}}", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 6, 2013}} of 2010, there were 1,032 people, 458 households, and 299 families living in the village. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|2789\\.2\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 503 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|1359\\.5\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the village was 98\\.8% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.6% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.2% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 0\\.4% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1\\.5% of the population.", "There were 458 households, of which 29\\.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46\\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 12\\.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 6\\.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 34\\.7% were non\\-families. 29\\.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16\\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.25 and the average family size was 2\\.73\\.", "The median age in the village was 40\\.2 years. 22\\.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 7\\.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27\\.7% were from 25 to 44; 25\\.5% were from 45 to 64; and 17\\.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48\\.4% male and 51\\.6% female.", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 1,032 people, 452 households, and 287 families living in the village. The population density was {{convert\\|2,795\\.8\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 485 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|1,313\\.9\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the village was 98\\.84% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.39% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.19% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.10% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), and 0\\.48% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 0\\.58% of the population.", "There were 452 households, out of which 25\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49\\.8% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 10\\.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36\\.3% were non\\-families. 33\\.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15\\.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.19 and the average family size was 2\\.72\\.", "In the village, the population was spread out, with 19\\.8% under the age of 18, 6\\.7% from 18 to 24, 27\\.7% from 25 to 44, 25\\.3% from 45 to 64, and 20\\.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 84\\.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83\\.6 males.", "The median income for a household in the village was $33,636, and the median income for a family was $45,729\\. Males had a median income of $35,804 versus $25,481 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the village was $19,343\\. About 5\\.6% of families and 10\\.1% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 7\\.2% of those under age 18 and 13\\.4% of those age 65 or over.", "" ]
In the texts ------------ ### In the Book of Tobit The Asmodeus of the [Book of Tobit](/wiki/Book_of_Tobit "Book of Tobit") is hostile to Sarah, [Raguel](/wiki/Reuel "Reuel")'s daughter,{{Cite web \|title\=Tobit 6:13 \|url\=https://bible.oremus.org/?passage\=Tobit%206:13\&version\=nrsvae \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-22 \|website\=bible.oremus.org}} and slays seven successive husbands on their wedding nights, impeding the sexual consummation of the marriages. In the [New Jerusalem Bible](/wiki/New_Jerusalem_Bible "New Jerusalem Bible") translation, he is described as "the worst of demons".{{Cite web \|last\= \|first\= \|title\=Tobit 3 \|url\=https://www.catholic.org/bible/book.php?bible\_chapter\=3\&id\=17 \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-22 \|website\=Catholic Online \|language\=en}} When the young Tobit is about to marry her, Asmodeus proposes the same fate for him, but Tobit is enabled, through the counsels of his attendant angel [Raphael](/wiki/Raphael_%28archangel%29 "Raphael (archangel)"), to render him innocuous. By placing a fish's heart and liver on red\-hot cinders, Tobit produces a smoky vapour that causes the demon to flee to [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt"), where [Raphael](/wiki/Raphael_%28archangel%29 "Raphael (archangel)") binds him.{{Cite web \|title\=Tobit 8:2–3 \|url\=https://bible.oremus.org/?passage\=Tobit%208:2%E2%80%933\&version\=nrsvae \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-22 \|website\=bible.oremus.org}} According to some translations,{{which\|date\=August 2024}} Asmodeus is strangled.{{fact\|date\=August 2024}} Perhaps Asmodeus punishes the suitors for their carnal desire, since Tobit prays to be free from such desire and is kept safe. Asmodeus is also described as an evil spirit in general: "Ασμοδαίος τὸ πονηρὸν δαιμόνιον or τὸ δαιμόνιον πονηρόν, and πνεῦμα ἀκάθαρτον".{{Cite web \|title\=Tobit 3:8 \|url\=https://bible.oremus.org/?passage\=Tobit%203:8\&version\=nrsvae \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-22 \|website\=bible.oremus.org}}{{Cite web \|title\=Tobit 3:17 \|url\=https://bible.oremus.org/?passage\=Tobit%203:17\&version\=nrsvae \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-22 \|website\=bible.oremus.org}}{{Cite web \|title\=Tobit 8:3 \|url\=https://bible.oremus.org/?passage\=Tobit%208:3\&version\=nrsvae \|access\-date\=2024\-05\-22 \|website\=bible.oremus.org}} ### In the Talmud The figure of Ashmedai in the [Talmud](/wiki/Talmud "Talmud") is less malign in character than the Asmodeus of Tobit. In the former, he appears repeatedly in the light of a good\-natured and humorous fellow. But besides that, there is one feature in which he parallels Asmodeus, in as much as his desires turn upon [Bathsheba](/wiki/Bathsheba "Bathsheba") and later [Solomon](/wiki/Solomon "Solomon")'s wives. Another Talmudic legend has King Solomon tricking Asmodeus into collaborating in the construction of [Solomon's Temple](/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple "Solomon's Temple")Raphael Patai *Encyclopedia of Jewish Folklore and Traditions* Routledge 2015 {{ISBN\|978\-1\-317\-47170\-7}} page 39 (see: [The Story of King Solomon and Ashmedai](/wiki/s:Translation:The_Story_of_King_Solomon_and_Ashmedai "Translation:The Story of King Solomon and Ashmedai")). Another legend depicts Asmodeus throwing King Solomon over 400 leagues away from the capital by putting one wing on the ground and the other stretched skyward. He then changed places for some years with King Solomon. When King Solomon returned, Asmodeus fled from his wrath.{{cite book\|last\=Talmud\|title\=Gittin\|pages\=68b}} Similar legends can be found in [Islamic](/wiki/Islam "Islam") lore. Asmodeus is referred to as **Sakhr** ({{lang\-ar\|صخر}} *the Rock* or *the Stony One*), because Solomon banished him into a rock, after he takes his kingdom back from him. He is considered to be a king of the *[divs](/wiki/Div_%28mythology%29 "Div (mythology)")* or *[ifrits](/wiki/Ifrit "Ifrit")*.Robert Lebling *Legends of the Fire Spirits: Jinn and Genies from Arabia to Zanzibar* I.B.Tauris 2010 {{ISBN\|978\-0\-857\-73063\-3}}{{page needed\|date\=August 2024}}{{page needed\|date\=August 2024}} Another passage describes him as marrying [Lilith](/wiki/Lilith "Lilith"), who became his queen.{{cite book \| last \= Schwartz \| first \= Howard \| author\-link \= Howard Schwartz \| year \= 1988 \| title \= Lilith's cave: Jewish tales of the supernatural \| publisher \= \[\[Harper \& Row]] \| location \= San Francisco, CA \| page \= \[https://archive.org/details/lilithscavejewis00schw/page/8 8] \| isbn \= 978\-0\-06\-250779\-2 \| oclc \= 62241318 \| lccn \= 87045196 \| url\-access \= registration \| url \= https://archive.org/details/lilithscavejewis00schw/page/8 }} ### In the Testament of Solomon In the [Testament of Solomon](/wiki/Testament_of_Solomon "Testament of Solomon"), a 1st–3rd century text, the king invokes Asmodeus to aid in the construction of the Temple. The demon appears and predicts Solomon's kingdom will one day be divided (Testament of Solomon, verse 21–25\).{{cite journal \| last \= Conybeare \| first \= Frederick Cornwallis (trans.) \| author\-link \= Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare \|date\=October 1898 \| title \= The Testament of Solomon \| journal \= \[\[The Jewish Quarterly Review]] \| volume \= 11 \| issue \= 1 \| pages \= 1–45 \| issn \= 0021\-6682 \| jstor \= 1450398 \| doi \= 10\.2307/1450398 \| url \= http://www.esotericarchives.com/solomon/testamen.htm \| access\-date \= 2012\-02\-09 }} When Solomon interrogates Asmodeus further, the king learns that Asmodeus is thwarted by the angel [Raphael](/wiki/Raphael_%28archangel%29 "Raphael (archangel)"), as well as by sheatfish found in the rivers of Assyria. He also admits to hating water. Asmodeus claims that he was born of a human mother and an angel father. ### In the *Malleus Maleficarum* In the *[Malleus Maleficarum](/wiki/Malleus_Maleficarum "Malleus Maleficarum")* (1486\), Asmodeus was considered the demon of [lust](/wiki/Lust "Lust"). {{cite book \| last1 \= Kramer \| first1 \= Heinrich \| author\-link1 \= Heinrich Kramer \| last2 \= Summers \| first2 \= Montague (trans.) \| title \= Malleus Maleficarum Part 1 Question IV \| author\-link2 \= \| publisher \= \[\[John Rodker\|J. Rodker]] \| location \= London, England \| volume \= 1 \| chapter \= Question IV: By which Devils are the Operations of Incubus and Succubus Practised? \| oclc \= 504248484 \| lccn \= 29017069 \| chapter\-url \= http://www.sacred\-texts.com/pag/mm/mm01\_04a.htm \| quote \= But the very devil of Fornication, and the chief of that abomination, is called Asmodeus, which means the Creature of Judgement: for because of this kind of sin a terrible judgement was executed upon Sodom and the four other cities. }} [Sebastien Michaelis](/wiki/Sebastien_Michaelis "Sebastien Michaelis") said that his adversary is [St. John](/wiki/John_the_Apostle "John the Apostle"). Some demonologists of the 16th century assigned a month to a demon and considered November to be the month in which Asmodeus's power was strongest. Other demonologists asserted that his [zodiacal](/wiki/Zodiac "Zodiac") sign was [Aquarius](/wiki/Aquarius_%28astrology%29 "Aquarius (astrology)") but only between January 30 and February 8\. He has 72 legions of demons under his command. He is one of the Kings of Hell under [Lucifer](/wiki/Lucifer "Lucifer") the emperor. He incites gambling, and is the overseer of all the gambling houses in the court of Hell. Some Catholic theologians compared him with [Abaddon](/wiki/Abaddon "Abaddon"). Yet other authors considered Asmodeus a prince of revenge. ### In the *Dictionnaire Infernal* The *[Dictionnaire Infernal](/wiki/Dictionnaire_Infernal "Dictionnaire Infernal")* (1818\) by [Collin de Plancy](/wiki/Collin_de_Plancy "Collin de Plancy") portrays Asmodeus with the breast of a [man](/wiki/Human "Human"), a [cock](/wiki/Rooster "Rooster") leg, [serpent](/wiki/Snake "Snake") tail, three heads (one of a man spitting fire, one of a [sheep](/wiki/Sheep "Sheep"), and one of a [bull](/wiki/Bull "Bull")), riding a [lion](/wiki/Lion "Lion") with [dragon](/wiki/Dragon "Dragon") wings and neck \- all of these creatures being associated with either lascivity, lust or revenge in some cultures.{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2009}} The [Archbishop of Paris](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Paris "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Paris"){{which\|date\=August 2024}} approved the portrait.{{sfn\|Rudwin\|1970\|p\=93}} ### In the Lesser Key of Solomon Asmodeus appears as the king 'Asmoday' in the *[Ars Goetia](/wiki/Ars_Goetia "Ars Goetia")*, where he is said to have a seal in gold and is listed as number thirty\-two according to respective rank.{{sfn\|Mathers\|Crowley\|1995\|pp\=68–70}} He "is strong, powerful and appears with three heads; the first is like a bull, the second like a man, and the third like a ram or a [goat](/wiki/Goat "Goat"); the tail of a serpent, and from his mouth issue flames of fire."{{sfn\|Mathers\|Crowley\|1995\|p\=32}} Also, he sits upon an infernal [dragon](/wiki/Dragon "Dragon"), holds a lance with a banner and, amongst the Legions of *Amaymon*, Asmoday governs seventy\-two legions of inferior spirits.{{sfn\|Mathers\|Crowley\|1995\|pp\=68–70}} ### In *The Magus* Asmodeus is referred to in Book Two, Chapter Eight of *[The Magus](/wiki/The_Magus_%28Barrett_book%29 "The Magus (Barrett book)")* (1801\) by [Francis Barrett](/wiki/Francis_Barrett_%28occultist%29 "Francis Barrett (occultist)").{{cite book \|last\=Barrett \|first\=Francis \|author\-link\=Francis Barrett (occultist) \|title\=\[\[The Magus (handbook)\|The Magus, a Complete System of Occult Philosophy]] \|publisher\=Cosimo Classics \|year\=2008 \|isbn\=978\-1\-60520\-301\-0 \|volume\=Book II \|location\=New York \|pages\=49–52 \|chapter\=VIII: The Annoyance of Evil Spirits, and the Preservation we have from Good Spirits \|lccn\=11015009 \|oclc\=428109956 \|access\-date\=2010\-09\-28 \|chapter\-url\=http://theology101\.org/grim/magus/ma220\.htm \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728100200/http://theology101\.org/grim/magus/ma220\.htm \|archive\-date\=2011\-07\-28 \|url\-status\=dead \|orig\-year\=1801}}
[ "In the texts\n------------", "### In the Book of Tobit", "The Asmodeus of the [Book of Tobit](/wiki/Book_of_Tobit \"Book of Tobit\") is hostile to Sarah, [Raguel](/wiki/Reuel \"Reuel\")'s daughter,{{Cite web \\|title\\=Tobit 6:13 \\|url\\=https://bible.oremus.org/?passage\\=Tobit%206:13\\&version\\=nrsvae \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-22 \\|website\\=bible.oremus.org}} and slays seven successive husbands on their wedding nights, impeding the sexual consummation of the marriages. In the [New Jerusalem Bible](/wiki/New_Jerusalem_Bible \"New Jerusalem Bible\") translation, he is described as \"the worst of demons\".{{Cite web \\|last\\= \\|first\\= \\|title\\=Tobit 3 \\|url\\=https://www.catholic.org/bible/book.php?bible\\_chapter\\=3\\&id\\=17 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-22 \\|website\\=Catholic Online \\|language\\=en}} When the young Tobit is about to marry her, Asmodeus proposes the same fate for him, but Tobit is enabled, through the counsels of his attendant angel [Raphael](/wiki/Raphael_%28archangel%29 \"Raphael (archangel)\"), to render him innocuous. By placing a fish's heart and liver on red\\-hot cinders, Tobit produces a smoky vapour that causes the demon to flee to [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\"), where [Raphael](/wiki/Raphael_%28archangel%29 \"Raphael (archangel)\") binds him.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Tobit 8:2–3 \\|url\\=https://bible.oremus.org/?passage\\=Tobit%208:2%E2%80%933\\&version\\=nrsvae \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-22 \\|website\\=bible.oremus.org}} According to some translations,{{which\\|date\\=August 2024}} Asmodeus is strangled.{{fact\\|date\\=August 2024}}", "Perhaps Asmodeus punishes the suitors for their carnal desire, since Tobit prays to be free from such desire and is kept safe. Asmodeus is also described as an evil spirit in general: \"Ασμοδαίος τὸ πονηρὸν δαιμόνιον or τὸ δαιμόνιον πονηρόν, and πνεῦμα ἀκάθαρτον\".{{Cite web \\|title\\=Tobit 3:8 \\|url\\=https://bible.oremus.org/?passage\\=Tobit%203:8\\&version\\=nrsvae \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-22 \\|website\\=bible.oremus.org}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Tobit 3:17 \\|url\\=https://bible.oremus.org/?passage\\=Tobit%203:17\\&version\\=nrsvae \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-22 \\|website\\=bible.oremus.org}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Tobit 8:3 \\|url\\=https://bible.oremus.org/?passage\\=Tobit%208:3\\&version\\=nrsvae \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-05\\-22 \\|website\\=bible.oremus.org}}", "### In the Talmud", "The figure of Ashmedai in the [Talmud](/wiki/Talmud \"Talmud\") is less malign in character than the Asmodeus of Tobit. In the former, he appears repeatedly in the light of a good\\-natured and humorous fellow. But besides that, there is one feature in which he parallels Asmodeus, in as much as his desires turn upon [Bathsheba](/wiki/Bathsheba \"Bathsheba\") and later [Solomon](/wiki/Solomon \"Solomon\")'s wives.", "Another Talmudic legend has King Solomon tricking Asmodeus into collaborating in the construction of [Solomon's Temple](/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple \"Solomon's Temple\")Raphael Patai *Encyclopedia of Jewish Folklore and Traditions* Routledge 2015 {{ISBN\\|978\\-1\\-317\\-47170\\-7}} page 39 (see: [The Story of King Solomon and Ashmedai](/wiki/s:Translation:The_Story_of_King_Solomon_and_Ashmedai \"Translation:The Story of King Solomon and Ashmedai\")).", "Another legend depicts Asmodeus throwing King Solomon over 400 leagues away from the capital by putting one wing on the ground and the other stretched skyward. He then changed places for some years with King Solomon. When King Solomon returned, Asmodeus fled from his wrath.{{cite book\\|last\\=Talmud\\|title\\=Gittin\\|pages\\=68b}} Similar legends can be found in [Islamic](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\") lore. Asmodeus is referred to as **Sakhr** ({{lang\\-ar\\|صخر}} *the Rock* or *the Stony One*), because Solomon banished him into a rock, after he takes his kingdom back from him. He is considered to be a king of the *[divs](/wiki/Div_%28mythology%29 \"Div (mythology)\")* or *[ifrits](/wiki/Ifrit \"Ifrit\")*.Robert Lebling *Legends of the Fire Spirits: Jinn and Genies from Arabia to Zanzibar* I.B.Tauris 2010 {{ISBN\\|978\\-0\\-857\\-73063\\-3}}{{page needed\\|date\\=August 2024}}{{page needed\\|date\\=August 2024}}", "Another passage describes him as marrying [Lilith](/wiki/Lilith \"Lilith\"), who became his queen.{{cite book\n\\| last \\= Schwartz\n\\| first \\= Howard\n\\| author\\-link \\= Howard Schwartz\n\\| year \\= 1988\n\\| title \\= Lilith's cave: Jewish tales of the supernatural\n\\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Harper \\& Row]]\n\\| location \\= San Francisco, CA\n\\| page \\= \\[https://archive.org/details/lilithscavejewis00schw/page/8 8]\n\\| isbn \\= 978\\-0\\-06\\-250779\\-2\n\\| oclc \\= 62241318\n\\| lccn \\= 87045196\n\\| url\\-access \\= registration\n\\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/lilithscavejewis00schw/page/8\n}}", "### In the Testament of Solomon", "In the [Testament of Solomon](/wiki/Testament_of_Solomon \"Testament of Solomon\"), a 1st–3rd century text, the king invokes Asmodeus to aid in the construction of the Temple. The demon appears and predicts Solomon's kingdom will one day be divided (Testament of Solomon, verse 21–25\\).{{cite journal\n\\| last \\= Conybeare\n\\| first \\= Frederick Cornwallis (trans.)\n\\| author\\-link \\= Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare\n\\|date\\=October 1898\n\\| title \\= The Testament of Solomon\n\\| journal \\= \\[\\[The Jewish Quarterly Review]]\n\\| volume \\= 11\n\\| issue \\= 1\n\\| pages \\= 1–45\n\\| issn \\= 0021\\-6682\n\\| jstor \\= 1450398\n\\| doi \\= 10\\.2307/1450398\n\\| url \\= http://www.esotericarchives.com/solomon/testamen.htm\n\\| access\\-date \\= 2012\\-02\\-09\n}} When Solomon interrogates Asmodeus further, the king learns that Asmodeus is thwarted by the angel [Raphael](/wiki/Raphael_%28archangel%29 \"Raphael (archangel)\"), as well as by sheatfish found in the rivers of Assyria. He also admits to hating water. Asmodeus claims that he was born of a human mother and an angel father.", "### In the *Malleus Maleficarum*", "In the *[Malleus Maleficarum](/wiki/Malleus_Maleficarum \"Malleus Maleficarum\")* (1486\\), Asmodeus was considered the demon of [lust](/wiki/Lust \"Lust\").\n{{cite book\n\\| last1 \\= Kramer\n\\| first1 \\= Heinrich\n\\| author\\-link1 \\= Heinrich Kramer\n\\| last2 \\= Summers\n\\| first2 \\= Montague (trans.)\n\\| title \\= Malleus Maleficarum Part 1 Question IV\n\\| author\\-link2 \\= \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[John Rodker\\|J. Rodker]]\n\\| location \\= London, England\n\\| volume \\= 1\n\\| chapter \\= Question IV: By which Devils are the Operations of Incubus and Succubus Practised?\n\\| oclc \\= 504248484\n\\| lccn \\= 29017069\n\\| chapter\\-url \\= http://www.sacred\\-texts.com/pag/mm/mm01\\_04a.htm\n\\| quote \\= But the very devil of Fornication, and the chief of that abomination, is called Asmodeus, which means the Creature of Judgement: for because of this kind of sin a terrible judgement was executed upon Sodom and the four other cities.\n}} [Sebastien Michaelis](/wiki/Sebastien_Michaelis \"Sebastien Michaelis\") said that his adversary is [St. John](/wiki/John_the_Apostle \"John the Apostle\"). Some demonologists of the 16th century assigned a month to a demon and considered November to be the month in which Asmodeus's power was strongest. Other demonologists asserted that his [zodiacal](/wiki/Zodiac \"Zodiac\") sign was [Aquarius](/wiki/Aquarius_%28astrology%29 \"Aquarius (astrology)\") but only between January 30 and February 8\\.", "He has 72 legions of demons under his command. He is one of the Kings of Hell under [Lucifer](/wiki/Lucifer \"Lucifer\") the emperor. He incites gambling, and is the overseer of all the gambling houses in the court of Hell. Some Catholic theologians compared him with [Abaddon](/wiki/Abaddon \"Abaddon\"). Yet other authors considered Asmodeus a prince of revenge.", "### In the *Dictionnaire Infernal*", "The *[Dictionnaire Infernal](/wiki/Dictionnaire_Infernal \"Dictionnaire Infernal\")* (1818\\) by [Collin de Plancy](/wiki/Collin_de_Plancy \"Collin de Plancy\") portrays Asmodeus with the breast of a [man](/wiki/Human \"Human\"), a [cock](/wiki/Rooster \"Rooster\") leg, [serpent](/wiki/Snake \"Snake\") tail, three heads (one of a man spitting fire, one of a [sheep](/wiki/Sheep \"Sheep\"), and one of a [bull](/wiki/Bull \"Bull\")), riding a [lion](/wiki/Lion \"Lion\") with [dragon](/wiki/Dragon \"Dragon\") wings and neck \\- all of these creatures being associated with either lascivity, lust or revenge in some cultures.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2009}} The [Archbishop of Paris](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Paris \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Paris\"){{which\\|date\\=August 2024}} approved the portrait.{{sfn\\|Rudwin\\|1970\\|p\\=93}}", "### In the Lesser Key of Solomon", "Asmodeus appears as the king 'Asmoday' in the *[Ars Goetia](/wiki/Ars_Goetia \"Ars Goetia\")*, where he is said to have a seal in gold and is listed as number thirty\\-two according to respective rank.{{sfn\\|Mathers\\|Crowley\\|1995\\|pp\\=68–70}}", "He \"is strong, powerful and appears with three heads; the first is like a bull, the second like a man, and the third like a ram or a [goat](/wiki/Goat \"Goat\"); the tail of a serpent, and from his mouth issue flames of fire.\"{{sfn\\|Mathers\\|Crowley\\|1995\\|p\\=32}} Also, he sits upon an infernal [dragon](/wiki/Dragon \"Dragon\"), holds a lance with a banner and, amongst the Legions of *Amaymon*, Asmoday governs seventy\\-two legions of inferior spirits.{{sfn\\|Mathers\\|Crowley\\|1995\\|pp\\=68–70}}", "### In *The Magus*", "Asmodeus is referred to in Book Two, Chapter Eight of *[The Magus](/wiki/The_Magus_%28Barrett_book%29 \"The Magus (Barrett book)\")* (1801\\) by [Francis Barrett](/wiki/Francis_Barrett_%28occultist%29 \"Francis Barrett (occultist)\").{{cite book \\|last\\=Barrett \\|first\\=Francis \\|author\\-link\\=Francis Barrett (occultist) \\|title\\=\\[\\[The Magus (handbook)\\|The Magus, a Complete System of Occult Philosophy]] \\|publisher\\=Cosimo Classics \\|year\\=2008 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-60520\\-301\\-0 \\|volume\\=Book II \\|location\\=New York \\|pages\\=49–52 \\|chapter\\=VIII: The Annoyance of Evil Spirits, and the Preservation we have from Good Spirits \\|lccn\\=11015009 \\|oclc\\=428109956 \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-09\\-28 \\|chapter\\-url\\=http://theology101\\.org/grim/magus/ma220\\.htm \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728100200/http://theology101\\.org/grim/magus/ma220\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-28 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|orig\\-year\\=1801}}", "" ]
Campaign -------- ### Invasion of Sicily {{Main\|Allied invasion of Sicily}} The initial plan was for landings in the south\-east, south and north\-west areas of the island which would lead to the rapid capture of key Axis airfields and except for [Messina](/wiki/Messina "Messina"), all the main ports on the island. This would allow a rapid Allied build\-up, as well as denying their use to the Axis.{{harvnb\|Molony\|Flynn\|Davies\|Gleave\|1973\|pp\=13–18}} This was altered into a reduced number of landings but with more concentration of force. The Allied invasion of [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily "Sicily"), Operation Husky, began on 9 July 1943 with both amphibious and airborne landings at the [Gulf of Gela](/wiki/Gela "Gela"). The land forces involved were the [U.S. Seventh Army](/wiki/Seventh_United_States_Army "Seventh United States Army"), under [Lieutenant General](/wiki/Lieutenant_general_%28United_States%29 "Lieutenant general (United States)") [George S. Patton](/wiki/George_S._Patton "George S. Patton"), the 1st Canadian Infantry Division and the 1st Canadian Armoured Brigade under the command of Major\-General [Guy Simonds](/wiki/Guy_Simonds "Guy Simonds") and the [British Eighth Army](/wiki/Eighth_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Eighth Army (United Kingdom)"), under [General](/wiki/General_%28United_Kingdom%29 "General (United Kingdom)") [Bernard Montgomery](/wiki/Bernard_Montgomery "Bernard Montgomery"). The original plan required a strong advance by the British northwards along the east coast to Messina. The Canadians took the central position, with the British on their right and the Americans on the left. The Canadian War Cemetery in Agira is testament to the sacrifice made driving the Germans from the rugged terrain. The Americans had the important role of pushing Axis forces out of mainland Sicily on left flank. When the Eighth Army were held up by stubborn defences in the rugged hills south of [Mount Etna](/wiki/Mount_Etna "Mount Etna"), Patton amplified the American role with a wide advance northwest toward [Palermo](/wiki/Palermo "Palermo") and then directly north to cut the northern coastal road. This was followed by an eastward advance north of Etna towards Messina, supported by a series of amphibious landings on the northern coast that propelled Patton's troops into Messina shortly before the first units of the Eighth Army. The defending German and Italian forces were unable to prevent the Allied capture of the island, but they succeeded in evacuating most of their troops to the mainland, with the last leaving on 17 August 1943\. The Allied forces gained experience in opposed amphibious operations, coalition warfare, and large airborne drops. ### Invasion of mainland Italy {{Main\|Allied invasion of Italy\|Armistice of Cassibile\|Operation Achse\|Four days of Naples}} [thumb\|left\|Artillery being landed during the invasion of mainland Italy at Salerno, September 1943](/wiki/File:ItalySalernoInvasion1943.jpg "ItalySalernoInvasion1943.jpg") Forces of the British Eighth Army, still under Montgomery, landed in the 'toe' of Italy on 3 September 1943 in [Operation Baytown](/wiki/Operation_Baytown "Operation Baytown"), the day the Italian government agreed to [an armistice](/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile "Armistice of Cassibile") with the Allies. The armistice was publicly announced on 8 September by two broadcasts, first by General Eisenhower and then by a [proclamation by Marshal Badoglio](/wiki/Badoglio_Proclamation "Badoglio Proclamation"). Although the German forces prepared to defend without Italian assistance, only two of their divisions opposite the Eighth Army and one at [Salerno](/wiki/Salerno "Salerno") were not [tied up disarming](/wiki/Operation_Achse "Operation Achse") the [Royal Italian Army](/wiki/Royal_Italian_Army "Royal Italian Army"). On 9 September, forces of the [U.S. Fifth Army](/wiki/United_States_Army_North "United States Army North"), under Lieutenant General [Mark W. Clark](/wiki/Mark_W._Clark "Mark W. Clark"), expecting little resistance, landed against heavy German resistance at Salerno in [Operation Avalanche](/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy%23Salerno_landings "Allied invasion of Italy#Salerno landings"); in addition, British forces landed at [Taranto](/wiki/Taranto "Taranto") in [Operation Slapstick](/wiki/Operation_Slapstick "Operation Slapstick"), which was almost unopposed. There had been a hope that, with the surrender of the Italian government, the Germans would withdraw to the north, since at the time [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") had been persuaded that [Southern Italy](/wiki/Southern_Italy "Southern Italy") was strategically unimportant. However, this was not to be; although, for a while, the Eighth Army was able to make relatively easy progress up the eastern coast, capturing the port of [Bari](/wiki/Bari "Bari") and the important airfields around [Foggia](/wiki/Foggia "Foggia"). Despite none of the northern reserves having been made available to the [German 10th Army](/wiki/10th_Army_%28Wehrmacht%29 "10th Army (Wehrmacht)"), it nevertheless came close to repelling the Salerno landing. The main Allied effort in the west initially centred on the port of [Naples](/wiki/Naples "Naples"): that city was selected because it was the northernmost port that could receive air cover by [fighter planes](/wiki/Fighter_plane "Fighter plane") flying from Sicily. In the city itself, anti\-Fascist Forces began an uprising, later known as the [Four days of Naples](/wiki/Four_Days_of_Naples "Four Days of Naples"), holding out despite continuous German reprisals until the arrival of Allied forces. As the Allies advanced, they encountered increasingly difficult terrain: the [Apennine Mountains](/wiki/Apennine_Mountains "Apennine Mountains") form a spine along the Italian peninsula offset somewhat to the east. In the most mountainous areas of [Abruzzo](/wiki/Abruzzo "Abruzzo"), more than half the width of the peninsula comprises crests and peaks over {{convert\|3000\|ft\|m\|order\=flip\|sigfig\=1\|abbr\=off}} that are relatively easy to defend; and the spurs and re\-entrants to the spine confronted the Allies with a succession of ridges and rivers across their line of advance. The rivers were subject to sudden and unexpected flooding, which had the potential to thwart the Allied commanders' plans.{{sfn\|Phillips\|1957\|p\=\[https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei\-WH2\-1Ita\-c1\-2\.html\#n20 20]}} ### Allied advance on Rome {{Main\|Bernhardt Line\|Moro River Campaign\|Battle of Monte Cassino\|Battle of Anzio}} [thumb\|left\|The situation south of Rome showing German prepared defensive lines](/wiki/File:ItalyDefenseLinesSouthofRome1943_4.jpg "ItalyDefenseLinesSouthofRome1943 4.jpg") In early October 1943, Hitler was persuaded by his Army Group Commander in Southern Italy, [Field Marshal](/wiki/Generalfeldmarschall "Generalfeldmarschall") [Albert Kesselring](/wiki/Albert_Kesselring "Albert Kesselring"), that the defence of Italy should be conducted as far away from Germany as possible. This would make the most of the natural defensive geography of [Central Italy](/wiki/Central_Italy "Central Italy"), whilst denying the Allies the easy capture of a succession of airfields, each one being ever closer to Germany. Hitler was also convinced that yielding southern Italy would provide the Allies with a springboard for an invasion of the Balkans, with its vital resources of oil, bauxite, and copper.{{sfn\|Orgill\|1967\|p\=5}} Kesselring was given command of the whole of Italy and immediately ordered the preparation of a series of defensive lines across Italy, south of [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome"). Two lines, the [Volturno](/wiki/Volturno_Line "Volturno Line") and the [Barbara](/wiki/Barbara_Line "Barbara Line"), were used to delay the Allied advance so as to buy time to prepare the most formidable defensive positions, which formed the *[Winter Line](/wiki/Winter_Line "Winter Line")* – the collective name for the Gustav Line and two associated defensive lines on the west of the Apennine Mountains, the [Bernhardt](/wiki/Bernhardt_Line "Bernhardt Line") and [Hitler](/wiki/Hitler_Line "Hitler Line") lines (the latter had been renamed the Senger Line by 23 May 1944\).{{sfn\|Carver\|2001\|p\=195}} The Winter Line proved a major obstacle to the Allies at the end of 1943, halting the Fifth Army's advance on the western side of Italy. Although the Gustav Line was penetrated on the Eighth Army's [Adriatic](/wiki/Adriatic "Adriatic") front, and [Ortona](/wiki/Battle_of_Ortona "Battle of Ortona") was liberated with heavy casualties to Canadian troops, the blizzards, drifting snow and zero visibility at the end of December caused the advance to grind to a halt. The Allies' focus then turned to the western front, where an attack through the [Liri](/wiki/Liri "Liri") valley was considered to have the best chance of a breakthrough towards the Italian capital. Landings behind the line [at Anzio](/wiki/Battle_of_Anzio "Battle of Anzio") during Operation Shingle, advocated by Churchill, were intended to destabilise the German Gustav line defences, but the early thrust inland to cut off the German defences did not occur because of disagreements that the American commander, [Major General](/wiki/Major_General_%28United_States%29 "Major General (United States)") [John P. Lucas](/wiki/John_P._Lucas "John P. Lucas"), had with the battle plan, and his insistence that his forces were not large enough to accomplish their mission. Lucas entrenched his forces, during which time Kesselring assembled sufficient forces to form a ring around the [beachhead](/wiki/Beachhead "Beachhead"). After a month of hard fighting against German and RSI forces, Lucas was replaced by Major General [Lucian Truscott](/wiki/Lucian_Truscott "Lucian Truscott"), who eventually broke out in May. It took four major offensives between January and May 1944 before the line was eventually broken by a combined assault of the Fifth and Eighth Armies (including British, American, French, Polish, and Canadian corps) concentrated along a {{convert\|20\|mi\|km\|order\=flip\|abbr\=off\|adj\=on\|sigfig\=1}} front between [Monte Cassino](/wiki/Monte_Cassino "Monte Cassino") and the western seaboard. In a concurrent action, Clark was ordered to break out of the stagnant position at Anzio and cash in on the opportunity to cut off and destroy a large part of the German 10th Army retreating from the Gustav Line between them and the Canadians. But this opportunity was lost on the brink of success, when Clark disobeyed his orders and sent his U.S. forces to enter the vacant Rome instead.{{sfn\|Katz\|2003\|p\=134}} Rome had been declared an [open city](/wiki/Open_city "Open city") by the German Army so no resistance was encountered. The American forces took possession of Rome on 4 June 1944\.Clark, *Calculated Risk p. 100* The German 10th Army was allowed to get away and, in the next few weeks, may have been responsible for doubling the Allied casualties in the next few months. ### Allied advance into Northern Italy [thumb\|British infantry moving cautiously through the ruined streets of [Impruneta](/wiki/Impruneta "Impruneta"), 3 August 1944](/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_Italy_1944_NA17570.jpg "The British Army in Italy 1944 NA17570.jpg") {{Main\|Gothic Line\|Spring 1945 offensive in Italy}} After the capture of Rome, and the Allied [invasion of Normandy](/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy "Invasion of Normandy") in June, the [U.S. VI Corps](/wiki/VI_Corps_%28United_States%29 "VI Corps (United States)") and the [French Expeditionary Corps](/wiki/French_Expeditionary_Corps_%281943%E2%80%9344%29 "French Expeditionary Corps (1943–44)") (CEF), which together amounted to seven divisions, were pulled out of Italy during the summer of 1944 to participate in [Operation Dragoon](/wiki/Operation_Dragoon "Operation Dragoon"), codename for the Allied invasion of [Southern France](/wiki/Southern_France "Southern France"). The sudden removal of these experienced units from the Italian front was only partially compensated for by the gradual arrival of three divisions, the [Brazilian 1st Infantry Division](/wiki/Brazilian_Expeditionary_Force "Brazilian Expeditionary Force"), the [U.S. 92nd Infantry Division](/wiki/92nd_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 "92nd Infantry Division (United States)"), both in the second half of 1944, and the [U.S. 10th Mountain Division](/wiki/10th_Mountain_Division "10th Mountain Division") in January 1945\. In the period from June to August 1944, the Allies advanced beyond Rome, taking [Florence](/wiki/Florence "Florence") and closing up on the Gothic Line.{{cite video\|year\=1944\|title \=Video: Allies Liberate Florence etc \|url\=https://archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.39132\|publisher\=\[\[Universal Newsreel]] \|access\-date \=February 21, 2012}} This last major defensive line ran from the coast some {{convert\|30\|mi\|km\|\-1\|order\=flip\|abbr\=off}} north of [Pisa](/wiki/Pisa "Pisa"), along the jagged Apennine Mountains chain between Florence and [Bologna](/wiki/Bologna "Bologna") to the [Adriatic coast](/wiki/Adriatic_Sea "Adriatic Sea"), just south of [Rimini](/wiki/Rimini "Rimini"). In order to shorten the Allied [lines of communication](/wiki/Line_of_communication "Line of communication") for the advance into Northern Italy, the [Polish II Corps](/wiki/II_Corps_%28Poland%29 "II Corps (Poland)") advanced towards the port of [Ancona](/wiki/Ancona "Ancona") and, after a month\-long [battle](/wiki/Battle_of_Ancona "Battle of Ancona"), succeeded in capturing it on 18 July. During *Operation Olive*, which commenced on 25 August, the Gothic Line defences were penetrated on both the Fifth and Eighth Army fronts; but, there was no decisive breakthrough. Churchill, the British Prime Minister, had hoped that a major advance in late 1944 would open the way for the Allied armies to advance northeast through the "Ljubljana Gap" (the area between [Venice](/wiki/Venice "Venice") and [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna"), which is today's [Slovenia](/wiki/Slovenia "Slovenia")) to Vienna and [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary") to forestall the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") from advancing into [Eastern Europe](/wiki/Eastern_Europe "Eastern Europe"). Churchill's proposal had been strongly opposed by the U.S. Chiefs of Staff, despite its importance to British postwar interests in the region, as they did not believe that it aligned with overall Allied war priorities. In October, Lieutenant General [Sir Richard McCreery](/wiki/Richard_McCreery "Richard McCreery") succeeded Lieutenant General [Sir Oliver Leese](/wiki/Oliver_Leese "Oliver Leese") as the commander of the Eighth Army. In December, Lieutenant General Mark Clark, the Fifth Army commander, was appointed to command the [15th Army Group](/wiki/15th_Army_Group "15th Army Group"), thereby succeeding the British General [Sir Harold Alexander](/wiki/Harold_Alexander%2C_1st_Earl_Alexander_of_Tunis "Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis") as commander of all Allied ground troops in Italy; Alexander succeeded [Field Marshal](/wiki/Field_marshal_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Field marshal (United Kingdom)") [Sir Henry Wilson](/wiki/Henry_Maitland_Wilson "Henry Maitland Wilson") as the [Supreme Allied Commander](/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander "Supreme Allied Commander") in the Mediterranean Theatre. Clark was succeeded in command of the Fifth Army by now\-Lieutenant General Truscott. In the winter and spring of 1944–45, extensive [partisan](/wiki/Italian_partisans "Italian partisans") activity in Northern Italy took place. As there were two Italian governments during this period, (one on each side of the war), the struggle took on some characteristics of a [civil war](/wiki/Civil_war "Civil war"). [thumb\|right\|[Brazilian troops](/wiki/Brazilian_Expeditionary_Force "Brazilian Expeditionary Force") arrive in the city of [Massarosa](/wiki/Massarosa "Massarosa"), Italy, September 1944](/wiki/File:Massarosaw.jpg "Massarosaw.jpg") The poor winter weather, which made armoured manoeuvre and the exploitation of overwhelming air superiority impossible, coupled with the massive losses suffered to its ranks during the autumn fighting,{{sfn\|Keegan\|2005\|p\=367}}{{sfn\|Brooks\|2003\|loc\=Chptrs XIX\-XX p. 254}} the need to transfer some British troops to [Greece](/wiki/Greek_Civil_War "Greek Civil War") (as well as the need to withdraw the [British 5th Infantry Division](/wiki/5th_Infantry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)") and [I Canadian Corps](/wiki/I_Canadian_Corps "I Canadian Corps") to [northwestern Europe](/wiki/Operation_Goldflake "Operation Goldflake")) made it impractical for the Allies to continue their offensive in early 1945\. Instead, the Allies adopted a strategy of "offensive defence" while preparing for a final attack when better weather and ground conditions arrived in the spring. In late February\-early March 1945, *[Operation Encore](/wiki/Operation_Encore "Operation Encore")* saw elements of the [U.S. IV Corps](/wiki/IV_Corps_%28United_States%29 "IV Corps (United States)") ([1st Brazilian Division](/wiki/Brazilian_Expeditionary_Force "Brazilian Expeditionary Force") and the newly arrived U.S. [10th Mountain Division](/wiki/10th_Mountain_Division_%28United_States%29 "10th Mountain Division (United States)")) battling forward across [minefields](/wiki/Land_mine "Land mine") in the Apennines to align their front with that of the [U.S. II Corps](/wiki/II_Corps_%28United_States%29 "II Corps (United States)") on their right.{{sfn\|Brooks\|2003\|loc\=Chptrs XX to XXII\|p\=678}} They pushed the German defenders from the commanding high point of [Monte Castello](/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Castello "Battle of Monte Castello") and the adjacent Monte Belvedere and Castelnuovo, depriving them of artillery positions that had been commanding the approaches to Bologna since the narrowly failed Allied attempt to take the city in the autumn.Moraes, "The Brazilian Expeditionary Force By Its Commander" Chapter V (The IV Corps Offensive); Sections *Monte Castello* \& *Castelnuovo*{{sfn\|Bohmler\|1964\|loc\=Chapter XI p. 483}}{{sfn\|Clark\|2007\|p\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=N8o9SKt1ZjIC\&dq\=calculated\+risk\+clark\+castello\&pg\=PA608 608]}} Meanwhile, damage to other transport infrastructure forced Axis forces to use sea, canal and river routes for re\-supply, leading to [Operation Bowler](/wiki/Operation_Bowler "Operation Bowler") against shipping in Venice harbour on 21 March 1945\. The Allies' final offensive commenced with massive aerial and artillery bombardments on 9 April 1945\.{{sfn\|Blaxland\|1979\|pp\=254–255}} The Allies had 1,500,000 men and women deployed in Italy in April 1945\.{{sfn\|Frieser\|2007\|p\=1158}} The Axis on 7 April had 599,404 troops of which 439,224 were Germans and 160,180 were Italians.{{sfn\|Frieser\|2007\|p\=1158}} By 18 April, Eighth Army forces in the east had broken through the [Argenta Gap](/wiki/Argenta_Gap "Argenta Gap") and sent armour racing forward in an encircling move to meet the U.S. IV Corps advancing from the Apennines in Central Italy and to trap the remaining defenders of Bologna. On 21 April, Bologna was entered by the [3rd Carpathian Division](/wiki/3rd_Carpathian_Rifle_Division_%28Poland%29 "3rd Carpathian Rifle Division (Poland)"), the Italian Friuli Group (both from the Eighth Army) and the [U.S. 34th Infantry Division](/wiki/34th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 "34th Infantry Division (United States)") (from the Fifth Army).{{sfn\|Blaxland\|1979\|p\=271}} The U.S. 10th Mountain Division, which had bypassed Bologna, reached the [River Po](/wiki/Po_%28river%29 "Po (river)") on 22 April; the [8th Indian Infantry Division](/wiki/8th_Infantry_Division_%28India%29 "8th Infantry Division (India)"), on the Eighth Army front, reached the river on 23 April.{{sfn\|Blaxland\|1979\|pp\=272–273}} By 25 April, the Italian Partisans' Committee of Liberation declared a general uprising,{{sfn\|Blaxland\|1979\|p\=275}} and on the same day, having crossed the Po on the right flank, forces of the Eighth Army advanced north\-northeast towards Venice and [Trieste](/wiki/Trieste "Trieste"). On the front of the U.S. Fifth Army, divisions drove north toward Austria and northwest to [Milan](/wiki/Milan "Milan"). On the Fifth Army's left flank, the [U.S. 92nd Infantry Division](/wiki/U.S._92nd_Infantry_Division "U.S. 92nd Infantry Division") (the "[Buffalo Soldiers](/wiki/Buffalo_Soldier "Buffalo Soldier") Division") went along the coast to [Genoa](/wiki/Genoa "Genoa"). A rapid advance towards [Turin](/wiki/Turin "Turin") by the Brazilian division on their right took the Italo\-German [Army Liguria](/wiki/Army_Liguria "Army Liguria") by surprise, causing its collapse.{{sfn\|Bohmler\|1964\|loc\=Chapter XI p. 483}} Between 26 April and 1 May there were the [Battles of Collecchio\-Fornovo di Taro](/wiki/Battle_of_Collecchio "Battle of Collecchio"), which resulted in the surrender of the [148th German Infantry Division](/wiki/148th_Infantry_Division_%28Germany%29 "148th Infantry Division (Germany)") to Brazilian soldiers of the FEB; the Brazilian soldiers captured about 15,000 German and RSI soldiers, the end of these battles marked the end of the conflicts in Italy and the end of the Italian fascist army.{{Cite web\|last\=Repubblica.it\|first\=Parma\-\|title\=I liberatori venuti dal Brasile\|url\=http://sul\-torrente\-parma.blogautore.repubblica.it/2011/04/22/i\-liberatori\-venuti\-dal\-brasile/\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-23\|website\=La finestra sul torrente\|language\=it}}{{Cite web\|last\=Corradi\|first\=Chiara\|date\=2016\-02\-04\|title\=Sacca di Fornovo: quando i tedeschi furono costretti alla resa\|url\=https://www.ilparmense.net/sacca\-di\-fornovo\-quando\-i\-tedeschi\-furono\-costretti\-alla\-resa/\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-23\|website\=ilParmense.net\|language\=it\-IT}} As April 1945 came to an end, the German Army Group C, retreating on all fronts and having lost most of its fighting strength, was left with little option but surrender.{{sfn\|Bohmler\|1964\|loc\=Chapter XI p. 483}} General [Heinrich von Vietinghoff](/wiki/Heinrich_von_Vietinghoff "Heinrich von Vietinghoff"), who had taken command of Army Group C after Albert Kesselring had been transferred to become Commander\-in\-Chief of the Western Front ([OB West](/wiki/OB_West "OB West")) in March 1945, signed the [instrument of surrender](/wiki/Surrender_of_Caserta "Surrender of Caserta") on behalf of the German and RSI forces in Italy on 29 April, formally bringing hostilities to an end on 2 May 1945\.{{sfn\|Blaxland\|1979\|p\=277}}.On 1 May, a day before the Axis forces in Italy capitulated. Marshal [Rodolfo Graziani](/wiki/Rodolfo_Graziani "Rodolfo Graziani"), the Minister of Defense of the Italian Social Republic ordered all Italian RSI units to surrender to the Allies. ### Progress of the campaign 1943\-07\-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg\| 1 July 1943 1943\-11\-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg\| 1 November 1943 1944\-07\-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg\| 1 July 1944 1944\-09\-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg\| 1 September 1944 1944\-12\-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg\| 1 December 1944 1945\-05\-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg\| 1 May 1945
[ "Campaign\n--------", "### Invasion of Sicily", "{{Main\\|Allied invasion of Sicily}}", "The initial plan was for landings in the south\\-east, south and north\\-west areas of the island which would lead to the rapid capture of key Axis airfields and except for [Messina](/wiki/Messina \"Messina\"), all the main ports on the island. This would allow a rapid Allied build\\-up, as well as denying their use to the Axis.{{harvnb\\|Molony\\|Flynn\\|Davies\\|Gleave\\|1973\\|pp\\=13–18}} This was altered into a reduced number of landings but with more concentration of force.", "The Allied invasion of [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\"), Operation Husky, began on 9 July 1943 with both amphibious and airborne landings at the [Gulf of Gela](/wiki/Gela \"Gela\"). The land forces involved were the [U.S. Seventh Army](/wiki/Seventh_United_States_Army \"Seventh United States Army\"), under [Lieutenant General](/wiki/Lieutenant_general_%28United_States%29 \"Lieutenant general (United States)\") [George S. Patton](/wiki/George_S._Patton \"George S. Patton\"), the 1st Canadian Infantry Division and the 1st Canadian Armoured Brigade under the command of Major\\-General [Guy Simonds](/wiki/Guy_Simonds \"Guy Simonds\") and the [British Eighth Army](/wiki/Eighth_Army_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Eighth Army (United Kingdom)\"), under [General](/wiki/General_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"General (United Kingdom)\") [Bernard Montgomery](/wiki/Bernard_Montgomery \"Bernard Montgomery\").", "The original plan required a strong advance by the British northwards along the east coast to Messina. The Canadians took the central position, with the British on their right and the Americans on the left. The Canadian War Cemetery in Agira is testament to the sacrifice made driving the Germans from the rugged terrain. The Americans had the important role of pushing Axis forces out of mainland Sicily on left flank. When the Eighth Army were held up by stubborn defences in the rugged hills south of [Mount Etna](/wiki/Mount_Etna \"Mount Etna\"), Patton amplified the American role with a wide advance northwest toward [Palermo](/wiki/Palermo \"Palermo\") and then directly north to cut the northern coastal road. This was followed by an eastward advance north of Etna towards Messina, supported by a series of amphibious landings on the northern coast that propelled Patton's troops into Messina shortly before the first units of the Eighth Army. The defending German and Italian forces were unable to prevent the Allied capture of the island, but they succeeded in evacuating most of their troops to the mainland, with the last leaving on 17 August 1943\\. The Allied forces gained experience in opposed amphibious operations, coalition warfare, and large airborne drops.", "### Invasion of mainland Italy", "{{Main\\|Allied invasion of Italy\\|Armistice of Cassibile\\|Operation Achse\\|Four days of Naples}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|Artillery being landed during the invasion of mainland Italy at Salerno, September 1943](/wiki/File:ItalySalernoInvasion1943.jpg \"ItalySalernoInvasion1943.jpg\")\nForces of the British Eighth Army, still under Montgomery, landed in the 'toe' of Italy on 3 September 1943 in [Operation Baytown](/wiki/Operation_Baytown \"Operation Baytown\"), the day the Italian government agreed to [an armistice](/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile \"Armistice of Cassibile\") with the Allies. The armistice was publicly announced on 8 September by two broadcasts, first by General Eisenhower and then by a [proclamation by Marshal Badoglio](/wiki/Badoglio_Proclamation \"Badoglio Proclamation\"). Although the German forces prepared to defend without Italian assistance, only two of their divisions opposite the Eighth Army and one at [Salerno](/wiki/Salerno \"Salerno\") were not [tied up disarming](/wiki/Operation_Achse \"Operation Achse\") the [Royal Italian Army](/wiki/Royal_Italian_Army \"Royal Italian Army\").", "On 9 September, forces of the [U.S. Fifth Army](/wiki/United_States_Army_North \"United States Army North\"), under Lieutenant General [Mark W. Clark](/wiki/Mark_W._Clark \"Mark W. Clark\"), expecting little resistance, landed against heavy German resistance at Salerno in [Operation Avalanche](/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy%23Salerno_landings \"Allied invasion of Italy#Salerno landings\"); in addition, British forces landed at [Taranto](/wiki/Taranto \"Taranto\") in [Operation Slapstick](/wiki/Operation_Slapstick \"Operation Slapstick\"), which was almost unopposed. There had been a hope that, with the surrender of the Italian government, the Germans would withdraw to the north, since at the time [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\") had been persuaded that [Southern Italy](/wiki/Southern_Italy \"Southern Italy\") was strategically unimportant. However, this was not to be; although, for a while, the Eighth Army was able to make relatively easy progress up the eastern coast, capturing the port of [Bari](/wiki/Bari \"Bari\") and the important airfields around [Foggia](/wiki/Foggia \"Foggia\"). Despite none of the northern reserves having been made available to the [German 10th Army](/wiki/10th_Army_%28Wehrmacht%29 \"10th Army (Wehrmacht)\"), it nevertheless came close to repelling the Salerno landing. The main Allied effort in the west initially centred on the port of [Naples](/wiki/Naples \"Naples\"): that city was selected because it was the northernmost port that could receive air cover by [fighter planes](/wiki/Fighter_plane \"Fighter plane\") flying from Sicily. In the city itself, anti\\-Fascist Forces began an uprising, later known as the [Four days of Naples](/wiki/Four_Days_of_Naples \"Four Days of Naples\"), holding out despite continuous German reprisals until the arrival of Allied forces.", "As the Allies advanced, they encountered increasingly difficult terrain: the [Apennine Mountains](/wiki/Apennine_Mountains \"Apennine Mountains\") form a spine along the Italian peninsula offset somewhat to the east. In the most mountainous areas of [Abruzzo](/wiki/Abruzzo \"Abruzzo\"), more than half the width of the peninsula comprises crests and peaks over {{convert\\|3000\\|ft\\|m\\|order\\=flip\\|sigfig\\=1\\|abbr\\=off}} that are relatively easy to defend; and the spurs and re\\-entrants to the spine confronted the Allies with a succession of ridges and rivers across their line of advance. The rivers were subject to sudden and unexpected flooding, which had the potential to thwart the Allied commanders' plans.{{sfn\\|Phillips\\|1957\\|p\\=\\[https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei\\-WH2\\-1Ita\\-c1\\-2\\.html\\#n20 20]}}", "### Allied advance on Rome", "{{Main\\|Bernhardt Line\\|Moro River Campaign\\|Battle of Monte Cassino\\|Battle of Anzio}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|The situation south of Rome showing German prepared defensive lines](/wiki/File:ItalyDefenseLinesSouthofRome1943_4.jpg \"ItalyDefenseLinesSouthofRome1943 4.jpg\")", "In early October 1943, Hitler was persuaded by his Army Group Commander in Southern Italy, [Field Marshal](/wiki/Generalfeldmarschall \"Generalfeldmarschall\") [Albert Kesselring](/wiki/Albert_Kesselring \"Albert Kesselring\"), that the defence of Italy should be conducted as far away from Germany as possible. This would make the most of the natural defensive geography of [Central Italy](/wiki/Central_Italy \"Central Italy\"), whilst denying the Allies the easy capture of a succession of airfields, each one being ever closer to Germany. Hitler was also convinced that yielding southern Italy would provide the Allies with a springboard for an invasion of the Balkans, with its vital resources of oil, bauxite, and copper.{{sfn\\|Orgill\\|1967\\|p\\=5}}", "Kesselring was given command of the whole of Italy and immediately ordered the preparation of a series of defensive lines across Italy, south of [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\"). Two lines, the [Volturno](/wiki/Volturno_Line \"Volturno Line\") and the [Barbara](/wiki/Barbara_Line \"Barbara Line\"), were used to delay the Allied advance so as to buy time to prepare the most formidable defensive positions, which formed the *[Winter Line](/wiki/Winter_Line \"Winter Line\")* – the collective name for the Gustav Line and two associated defensive lines on the west of the Apennine Mountains, the [Bernhardt](/wiki/Bernhardt_Line \"Bernhardt Line\") and [Hitler](/wiki/Hitler_Line \"Hitler Line\") lines (the latter had been renamed the Senger Line by 23 May 1944\\).{{sfn\\|Carver\\|2001\\|p\\=195}}", "The Winter Line proved a major obstacle to the Allies at the end of 1943, halting the Fifth Army's advance on the western side of Italy. Although the Gustav Line was penetrated on the Eighth Army's [Adriatic](/wiki/Adriatic \"Adriatic\") front, and [Ortona](/wiki/Battle_of_Ortona \"Battle of Ortona\") was liberated with heavy casualties to Canadian troops, the blizzards, drifting snow and zero visibility at the end of December caused the advance to grind to a halt. The Allies' focus then turned to the western front, where an attack through the [Liri](/wiki/Liri \"Liri\") valley was considered to have the best chance of a breakthrough towards the Italian capital. Landings behind the line [at Anzio](/wiki/Battle_of_Anzio \"Battle of Anzio\") during Operation Shingle, advocated by Churchill, were intended to destabilise the German Gustav line defences, but the early thrust inland to cut off the German defences did not occur because of disagreements that the American commander, [Major General](/wiki/Major_General_%28United_States%29 \"Major General (United States)\") [John P. Lucas](/wiki/John_P._Lucas \"John P. Lucas\"), had with the battle plan, and his insistence that his forces were not large enough to accomplish their mission. Lucas entrenched his forces, during which time Kesselring assembled sufficient forces to form a ring around the [beachhead](/wiki/Beachhead \"Beachhead\"). After a month of hard fighting against German and RSI forces, Lucas was replaced by Major General [Lucian Truscott](/wiki/Lucian_Truscott \"Lucian Truscott\"), who eventually broke out in May.", "It took four major offensives between January and May 1944 before the line was eventually broken by a combined assault of the Fifth and Eighth Armies (including British, American, French, Polish, and Canadian corps) concentrated along a {{convert\\|20\\|mi\\|km\\|order\\=flip\\|abbr\\=off\\|adj\\=on\\|sigfig\\=1}} front between [Monte Cassino](/wiki/Monte_Cassino \"Monte Cassino\") and the western seaboard. In a concurrent action, Clark was ordered to break out of the stagnant position at Anzio and cash in on the opportunity to cut off and destroy a large part of the German 10th Army retreating from the Gustav Line between them and the Canadians. But this opportunity was lost on the brink of success, when Clark disobeyed his orders and sent his U.S. forces to enter the vacant Rome instead.{{sfn\\|Katz\\|2003\\|p\\=134}} Rome had been declared an [open city](/wiki/Open_city \"Open city\") by the German Army so no resistance was encountered.", "The American forces took possession of Rome on 4 June 1944\\.Clark, *Calculated Risk p. 100* The German 10th Army was allowed to get away and, in the next few weeks, may have been responsible for doubling the Allied casualties in the next few months.", "### Allied advance into Northern Italy", "[thumb\\|British infantry moving cautiously through the ruined streets of [Impruneta](/wiki/Impruneta \"Impruneta\"), 3 August 1944](/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_Italy_1944_NA17570.jpg \"The British Army in Italy 1944 NA17570.jpg\")\n{{Main\\|Gothic Line\\|Spring 1945 offensive in Italy}}", "After the capture of Rome, and the Allied [invasion of Normandy](/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy \"Invasion of Normandy\") in June, the [U.S. VI Corps](/wiki/VI_Corps_%28United_States%29 \"VI Corps (United States)\") and the [French Expeditionary Corps](/wiki/French_Expeditionary_Corps_%281943%E2%80%9344%29 \"French Expeditionary Corps (1943–44)\") (CEF), which together amounted to seven divisions, were pulled out of Italy during the summer of 1944 to participate in [Operation Dragoon](/wiki/Operation_Dragoon \"Operation Dragoon\"), codename for the Allied invasion of [Southern France](/wiki/Southern_France \"Southern France\"). The sudden removal of these experienced units from the Italian front was only partially compensated for by the gradual arrival of three divisions, the [Brazilian 1st Infantry Division](/wiki/Brazilian_Expeditionary_Force \"Brazilian Expeditionary Force\"), the [U.S. 92nd Infantry Division](/wiki/92nd_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"92nd Infantry Division (United States)\"), both in the second half of 1944, and the [U.S. 10th Mountain Division](/wiki/10th_Mountain_Division \"10th Mountain Division\") in January 1945\\.", "In the period from June to August 1944, the Allies advanced beyond Rome, taking [Florence](/wiki/Florence \"Florence\") and closing up on the Gothic Line.{{cite video\\|year\\=1944\\|title \\=Video: Allies Liberate Florence etc \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.39132\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Universal Newsreel]] \\|access\\-date \\=February 21, 2012}} This last major defensive line ran from the coast some {{convert\\|30\\|mi\\|km\\|\\-1\\|order\\=flip\\|abbr\\=off}} north of [Pisa](/wiki/Pisa \"Pisa\"), along the jagged Apennine Mountains chain between Florence and [Bologna](/wiki/Bologna \"Bologna\") to the [Adriatic coast](/wiki/Adriatic_Sea \"Adriatic Sea\"), just south of [Rimini](/wiki/Rimini \"Rimini\"). In order to shorten the Allied [lines of communication](/wiki/Line_of_communication \"Line of communication\") for the advance into Northern Italy, the [Polish II Corps](/wiki/II_Corps_%28Poland%29 \"II Corps (Poland)\") advanced towards the port of [Ancona](/wiki/Ancona \"Ancona\") and, after a month\\-long [battle](/wiki/Battle_of_Ancona \"Battle of Ancona\"), succeeded in capturing it on 18 July.", "During *Operation Olive*, which commenced on 25 August, the Gothic Line defences were penetrated on both the Fifth and Eighth Army fronts; but, there was no decisive breakthrough. Churchill, the British Prime Minister, had hoped that a major advance in late 1944 would open the way for the Allied armies to advance northeast through the \"Ljubljana Gap\" (the area between [Venice](/wiki/Venice \"Venice\") and [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\"), which is today's [Slovenia](/wiki/Slovenia \"Slovenia\")) to Vienna and [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary \"Hungary\") to forestall the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") from advancing into [Eastern Europe](/wiki/Eastern_Europe \"Eastern Europe\"). Churchill's proposal had been strongly opposed by the U.S. Chiefs of Staff, despite its importance to British postwar interests in the region, as they did not believe that it aligned with overall Allied war priorities.", "In October, Lieutenant General [Sir Richard McCreery](/wiki/Richard_McCreery \"Richard McCreery\") succeeded Lieutenant General [Sir Oliver Leese](/wiki/Oliver_Leese \"Oliver Leese\") as the commander of the Eighth Army. In December, Lieutenant General Mark Clark, the Fifth Army commander, was appointed to command the [15th Army Group](/wiki/15th_Army_Group \"15th Army Group\"), thereby succeeding the British General [Sir Harold Alexander](/wiki/Harold_Alexander%2C_1st_Earl_Alexander_of_Tunis \"Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis\") as commander of all Allied ground troops in Italy; Alexander succeeded [Field Marshal](/wiki/Field_marshal_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Field marshal (United Kingdom)\") [Sir Henry Wilson](/wiki/Henry_Maitland_Wilson \"Henry Maitland Wilson\") as the [Supreme Allied Commander](/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander \"Supreme Allied Commander\") in the Mediterranean Theatre. Clark was succeeded in command of the Fifth Army by now\\-Lieutenant General Truscott. In the winter and spring of 1944–45, extensive [partisan](/wiki/Italian_partisans \"Italian partisans\") activity in Northern Italy took place. As there were two Italian governments during this period, (one on each side of the war), the struggle took on some characteristics of a [civil war](/wiki/Civil_war \"Civil war\").", "[thumb\\|right\\|[Brazilian troops](/wiki/Brazilian_Expeditionary_Force \"Brazilian Expeditionary Force\") arrive in the city of [Massarosa](/wiki/Massarosa \"Massarosa\"), Italy, September 1944](/wiki/File:Massarosaw.jpg \"Massarosaw.jpg\")", "The poor winter weather, which made armoured manoeuvre and the exploitation of overwhelming air superiority impossible, coupled with the massive losses suffered to its ranks during the autumn fighting,{{sfn\\|Keegan\\|2005\\|p\\=367}}{{sfn\\|Brooks\\|2003\\|loc\\=Chptrs XIX\\-XX p. 254}} the need to transfer some British troops to [Greece](/wiki/Greek_Civil_War \"Greek Civil War\") (as well as the need to withdraw the [British 5th Infantry Division](/wiki/5th_Infantry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\") and [I Canadian Corps](/wiki/I_Canadian_Corps \"I Canadian Corps\") to [northwestern Europe](/wiki/Operation_Goldflake \"Operation Goldflake\")) made it impractical for the Allies to continue their offensive in early 1945\\. Instead, the Allies adopted a strategy of \"offensive defence\" while preparing for a final attack when better weather and ground conditions arrived in the spring.", "In late February\\-early March 1945, *[Operation Encore](/wiki/Operation_Encore \"Operation Encore\")* saw elements of the [U.S. IV Corps](/wiki/IV_Corps_%28United_States%29 \"IV Corps (United States)\") ([1st Brazilian Division](/wiki/Brazilian_Expeditionary_Force \"Brazilian Expeditionary Force\") and the newly arrived U.S. [10th Mountain Division](/wiki/10th_Mountain_Division_%28United_States%29 \"10th Mountain Division (United States)\")) battling forward across [minefields](/wiki/Land_mine \"Land mine\") in the Apennines to align their front with that of the [U.S. II Corps](/wiki/II_Corps_%28United_States%29 \"II Corps (United States)\") on their right.{{sfn\\|Brooks\\|2003\\|loc\\=Chptrs XX to XXII\\|p\\=678}} They pushed the German defenders from the commanding high point of [Monte Castello](/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Castello \"Battle of Monte Castello\") and the adjacent Monte Belvedere and Castelnuovo, depriving them of artillery positions that had been commanding the approaches to Bologna since the narrowly failed Allied attempt to take the city in the autumn.Moraes, \"The Brazilian Expeditionary Force By Its Commander\" Chapter V (The IV Corps Offensive); Sections *Monte Castello* \\& *Castelnuovo*{{sfn\\|Bohmler\\|1964\\|loc\\=Chapter XI p. 483}}{{sfn\\|Clark\\|2007\\|p\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=N8o9SKt1ZjIC\\&dq\\=calculated\\+risk\\+clark\\+castello\\&pg\\=PA608 608]}} Meanwhile, damage to other transport infrastructure forced Axis forces to use sea, canal and river routes for re\\-supply, leading to [Operation Bowler](/wiki/Operation_Bowler \"Operation Bowler\") against shipping in Venice harbour on 21 March 1945\\.", "The Allies' final offensive commenced with massive aerial and artillery bombardments on 9 April 1945\\.{{sfn\\|Blaxland\\|1979\\|pp\\=254–255}} The Allies had 1,500,000 men and women deployed in Italy in April 1945\\.{{sfn\\|Frieser\\|2007\\|p\\=1158}} The Axis on 7 April had 599,404 troops of which 439,224 were Germans and 160,180 were Italians.{{sfn\\|Frieser\\|2007\\|p\\=1158}} By 18 April, Eighth Army forces in the east had broken through the [Argenta Gap](/wiki/Argenta_Gap \"Argenta Gap\") and sent armour racing forward in an encircling move to meet the U.S. IV Corps advancing from the Apennines in Central Italy and to trap the remaining defenders of Bologna. On 21 April, Bologna was entered by the [3rd Carpathian Division](/wiki/3rd_Carpathian_Rifle_Division_%28Poland%29 \"3rd Carpathian Rifle Division (Poland)\"), the Italian Friuli Group (both from the Eighth Army) and the [U.S. 34th Infantry Division](/wiki/34th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"34th Infantry Division (United States)\") (from the Fifth Army).{{sfn\\|Blaxland\\|1979\\|p\\=271}} The U.S. 10th Mountain Division, which had bypassed Bologna, reached the [River Po](/wiki/Po_%28river%29 \"Po (river)\") on 22 April; the [8th Indian Infantry Division](/wiki/8th_Infantry_Division_%28India%29 \"8th Infantry Division (India)\"), on the Eighth Army front, reached the river on 23 April.{{sfn\\|Blaxland\\|1979\\|pp\\=272–273}}", "By 25 April, the Italian Partisans' Committee of Liberation declared a general uprising,{{sfn\\|Blaxland\\|1979\\|p\\=275}} and on the same day, having crossed the Po on the right flank, forces of the Eighth Army advanced north\\-northeast towards Venice and [Trieste](/wiki/Trieste \"Trieste\"). On the front of the U.S. Fifth Army, divisions drove north toward Austria and northwest to [Milan](/wiki/Milan \"Milan\"). On the Fifth Army's left flank, the [U.S. 92nd Infantry Division](/wiki/U.S._92nd_Infantry_Division \"U.S. 92nd Infantry Division\") (the \"[Buffalo Soldiers](/wiki/Buffalo_Soldier \"Buffalo Soldier\") Division\") went along the coast to [Genoa](/wiki/Genoa \"Genoa\"). A rapid advance towards [Turin](/wiki/Turin \"Turin\") by the Brazilian division on their right took the Italo\\-German [Army Liguria](/wiki/Army_Liguria \"Army Liguria\") by surprise, causing its collapse.{{sfn\\|Bohmler\\|1964\\|loc\\=Chapter XI p. 483}}", "Between 26 April and 1 May there were the [Battles of Collecchio\\-Fornovo di Taro](/wiki/Battle_of_Collecchio \"Battle of Collecchio\"), which resulted in the surrender of the [148th German Infantry Division](/wiki/148th_Infantry_Division_%28Germany%29 \"148th Infantry Division (Germany)\") to Brazilian soldiers of the FEB; the Brazilian soldiers captured about 15,000 German and RSI soldiers, the end of these battles marked the end of the conflicts in Italy and the end of the Italian fascist army.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Repubblica.it\\|first\\=Parma\\-\\|title\\=I liberatori venuti dal Brasile\\|url\\=http://sul\\-torrente\\-parma.blogautore.repubblica.it/2011/04/22/i\\-liberatori\\-venuti\\-dal\\-brasile/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-23\\|website\\=La finestra sul torrente\\|language\\=it}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=Corradi\\|first\\=Chiara\\|date\\=2016\\-02\\-04\\|title\\=Sacca di Fornovo: quando i tedeschi furono costretti alla resa\\|url\\=https://www.ilparmense.net/sacca\\-di\\-fornovo\\-quando\\-i\\-tedeschi\\-furono\\-costretti\\-alla\\-resa/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-23\\|website\\=ilParmense.net\\|language\\=it\\-IT}}", "As April 1945 came to an end, the German Army Group C, retreating on all fronts and having lost most of its fighting strength, was left with little option but surrender.{{sfn\\|Bohmler\\|1964\\|loc\\=Chapter XI p. 483}} General [Heinrich von Vietinghoff](/wiki/Heinrich_von_Vietinghoff \"Heinrich von Vietinghoff\"), who had taken command of Army Group C after Albert Kesselring had been transferred to become Commander\\-in\\-Chief of the Western Front ([OB West](/wiki/OB_West \"OB West\")) in March 1945, signed the [instrument of surrender](/wiki/Surrender_of_Caserta \"Surrender of Caserta\") on behalf of the German and RSI forces in Italy on 29 April, formally bringing hostilities to an end on 2 May 1945\\.{{sfn\\|Blaxland\\|1979\\|p\\=277}}.On 1 May, a day before the Axis forces in Italy capitulated. Marshal [Rodolfo Graziani](/wiki/Rodolfo_Graziani \"Rodolfo Graziani\"), the Minister of Defense of the Italian Social Republic ordered all Italian RSI units to surrender to the Allies.", "### Progress of the campaign", "", "1943\\-07\\-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg\\| 1 July 1943\n1943\\-11\\-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg\\| 1 November 1943\n1944\\-07\\-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg\\| 1 July 1944\n1944\\-09\\-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg\\| 1 September 1944\n1944\\-12\\-15GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg\\| 1 December 1944\n1945\\-05\\-01GerWW2BattlefrontAtlas.jpg\\| 1 May 1945", "", "" ]
### Allied advance into Northern Italy [thumb\|British infantry moving cautiously through the ruined streets of [Impruneta](/wiki/Impruneta "Impruneta"), 3 August 1944](/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_Italy_1944_NA17570.jpg "The British Army in Italy 1944 NA17570.jpg") {{Main\|Gothic Line\|Spring 1945 offensive in Italy}} After the capture of Rome, and the Allied [invasion of Normandy](/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy "Invasion of Normandy") in June, the [U.S. VI Corps](/wiki/VI_Corps_%28United_States%29 "VI Corps (United States)") and the [French Expeditionary Corps](/wiki/French_Expeditionary_Corps_%281943%E2%80%9344%29 "French Expeditionary Corps (1943–44)") (CEF), which together amounted to seven divisions, were pulled out of Italy during the summer of 1944 to participate in [Operation Dragoon](/wiki/Operation_Dragoon "Operation Dragoon"), codename for the Allied invasion of [Southern France](/wiki/Southern_France "Southern France"). The sudden removal of these experienced units from the Italian front was only partially compensated for by the gradual arrival of three divisions, the [Brazilian 1st Infantry Division](/wiki/Brazilian_Expeditionary_Force "Brazilian Expeditionary Force"), the [U.S. 92nd Infantry Division](/wiki/92nd_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 "92nd Infantry Division (United States)"), both in the second half of 1944, and the [U.S. 10th Mountain Division](/wiki/10th_Mountain_Division "10th Mountain Division") in January 1945\. In the period from June to August 1944, the Allies advanced beyond Rome, taking [Florence](/wiki/Florence "Florence") and closing up on the Gothic Line.{{cite video\|year\=1944\|title \=Video: Allies Liberate Florence etc \|url\=https://archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.39132\|publisher\=\[\[Universal Newsreel]] \|access\-date \=February 21, 2012}} This last major defensive line ran from the coast some {{convert\|30\|mi\|km\|\-1\|order\=flip\|abbr\=off}} north of [Pisa](/wiki/Pisa "Pisa"), along the jagged Apennine Mountains chain between Florence and [Bologna](/wiki/Bologna "Bologna") to the [Adriatic coast](/wiki/Adriatic_Sea "Adriatic Sea"), just south of [Rimini](/wiki/Rimini "Rimini"). In order to shorten the Allied [lines of communication](/wiki/Line_of_communication "Line of communication") for the advance into Northern Italy, the [Polish II Corps](/wiki/II_Corps_%28Poland%29 "II Corps (Poland)") advanced towards the port of [Ancona](/wiki/Ancona "Ancona") and, after a month\-long [battle](/wiki/Battle_of_Ancona "Battle of Ancona"), succeeded in capturing it on 18 July. During *Operation Olive*, which commenced on 25 August, the Gothic Line defences were penetrated on both the Fifth and Eighth Army fronts; but, there was no decisive breakthrough. Churchill, the British Prime Minister, had hoped that a major advance in late 1944 would open the way for the Allied armies to advance northeast through the "Ljubljana Gap" (the area between [Venice](/wiki/Venice "Venice") and [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna "Vienna"), which is today's [Slovenia](/wiki/Slovenia "Slovenia")) to Vienna and [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary "Hungary") to forestall the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") from advancing into [Eastern Europe](/wiki/Eastern_Europe "Eastern Europe"). Churchill's proposal had been strongly opposed by the U.S. Chiefs of Staff, despite its importance to British postwar interests in the region, as they did not believe that it aligned with overall Allied war priorities. In October, Lieutenant General [Sir Richard McCreery](/wiki/Richard_McCreery "Richard McCreery") succeeded Lieutenant General [Sir Oliver Leese](/wiki/Oliver_Leese "Oliver Leese") as the commander of the Eighth Army. In December, Lieutenant General Mark Clark, the Fifth Army commander, was appointed to command the [15th Army Group](/wiki/15th_Army_Group "15th Army Group"), thereby succeeding the British General [Sir Harold Alexander](/wiki/Harold_Alexander%2C_1st_Earl_Alexander_of_Tunis "Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis") as commander of all Allied ground troops in Italy; Alexander succeeded [Field Marshal](/wiki/Field_marshal_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Field marshal (United Kingdom)") [Sir Henry Wilson](/wiki/Henry_Maitland_Wilson "Henry Maitland Wilson") as the [Supreme Allied Commander](/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander "Supreme Allied Commander") in the Mediterranean Theatre. Clark was succeeded in command of the Fifth Army by now\-Lieutenant General Truscott. In the winter and spring of 1944–45, extensive [partisan](/wiki/Italian_partisans "Italian partisans") activity in Northern Italy took place. As there were two Italian governments during this period, (one on each side of the war), the struggle took on some characteristics of a [civil war](/wiki/Civil_war "Civil war"). [thumb\|right\|[Brazilian troops](/wiki/Brazilian_Expeditionary_Force "Brazilian Expeditionary Force") arrive in the city of [Massarosa](/wiki/Massarosa "Massarosa"), Italy, September 1944](/wiki/File:Massarosaw.jpg "Massarosaw.jpg") The poor winter weather, which made armoured manoeuvre and the exploitation of overwhelming air superiority impossible, coupled with the massive losses suffered to its ranks during the autumn fighting,{{sfn\|Keegan\|2005\|p\=367}}{{sfn\|Brooks\|2003\|loc\=Chptrs XIX\-XX p. 254}} the need to transfer some British troops to [Greece](/wiki/Greek_Civil_War "Greek Civil War") (as well as the need to withdraw the [British 5th Infantry Division](/wiki/5th_Infantry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 "5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)") and [I Canadian Corps](/wiki/I_Canadian_Corps "I Canadian Corps") to [northwestern Europe](/wiki/Operation_Goldflake "Operation Goldflake")) made it impractical for the Allies to continue their offensive in early 1945\. Instead, the Allies adopted a strategy of "offensive defence" while preparing for a final attack when better weather and ground conditions arrived in the spring. In late February\-early March 1945, *[Operation Encore](/wiki/Operation_Encore "Operation Encore")* saw elements of the [U.S. IV Corps](/wiki/IV_Corps_%28United_States%29 "IV Corps (United States)") ([1st Brazilian Division](/wiki/Brazilian_Expeditionary_Force "Brazilian Expeditionary Force") and the newly arrived U.S. [10th Mountain Division](/wiki/10th_Mountain_Division_%28United_States%29 "10th Mountain Division (United States)")) battling forward across [minefields](/wiki/Land_mine "Land mine") in the Apennines to align their front with that of the [U.S. II Corps](/wiki/II_Corps_%28United_States%29 "II Corps (United States)") on their right.{{sfn\|Brooks\|2003\|loc\=Chptrs XX to XXII\|p\=678}} They pushed the German defenders from the commanding high point of [Monte Castello](/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Castello "Battle of Monte Castello") and the adjacent Monte Belvedere and Castelnuovo, depriving them of artillery positions that had been commanding the approaches to Bologna since the narrowly failed Allied attempt to take the city in the autumn.Moraes, "The Brazilian Expeditionary Force By Its Commander" Chapter V (The IV Corps Offensive); Sections *Monte Castello* \& *Castelnuovo*{{sfn\|Bohmler\|1964\|loc\=Chapter XI p. 483}}{{sfn\|Clark\|2007\|p\=\[https://books.google.com/books?id\=N8o9SKt1ZjIC\&dq\=calculated\+risk\+clark\+castello\&pg\=PA608 608]}} Meanwhile, damage to other transport infrastructure forced Axis forces to use sea, canal and river routes for re\-supply, leading to [Operation Bowler](/wiki/Operation_Bowler "Operation Bowler") against shipping in Venice harbour on 21 March 1945\. The Allies' final offensive commenced with massive aerial and artillery bombardments on 9 April 1945\.{{sfn\|Blaxland\|1979\|pp\=254–255}} The Allies had 1,500,000 men and women deployed in Italy in April 1945\.{{sfn\|Frieser\|2007\|p\=1158}} The Axis on 7 April had 599,404 troops of which 439,224 were Germans and 160,180 were Italians.{{sfn\|Frieser\|2007\|p\=1158}} By 18 April, Eighth Army forces in the east had broken through the [Argenta Gap](/wiki/Argenta_Gap "Argenta Gap") and sent armour racing forward in an encircling move to meet the U.S. IV Corps advancing from the Apennines in Central Italy and to trap the remaining defenders of Bologna. On 21 April, Bologna was entered by the [3rd Carpathian Division](/wiki/3rd_Carpathian_Rifle_Division_%28Poland%29 "3rd Carpathian Rifle Division (Poland)"), the Italian Friuli Group (both from the Eighth Army) and the [U.S. 34th Infantry Division](/wiki/34th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 "34th Infantry Division (United States)") (from the Fifth Army).{{sfn\|Blaxland\|1979\|p\=271}} The U.S. 10th Mountain Division, which had bypassed Bologna, reached the [River Po](/wiki/Po_%28river%29 "Po (river)") on 22 April; the [8th Indian Infantry Division](/wiki/8th_Infantry_Division_%28India%29 "8th Infantry Division (India)"), on the Eighth Army front, reached the river on 23 April.{{sfn\|Blaxland\|1979\|pp\=272–273}} By 25 April, the Italian Partisans' Committee of Liberation declared a general uprising,{{sfn\|Blaxland\|1979\|p\=275}} and on the same day, having crossed the Po on the right flank, forces of the Eighth Army advanced north\-northeast towards Venice and [Trieste](/wiki/Trieste "Trieste"). On the front of the U.S. Fifth Army, divisions drove north toward Austria and northwest to [Milan](/wiki/Milan "Milan"). On the Fifth Army's left flank, the [U.S. 92nd Infantry Division](/wiki/U.S._92nd_Infantry_Division "U.S. 92nd Infantry Division") (the "[Buffalo Soldiers](/wiki/Buffalo_Soldier "Buffalo Soldier") Division") went along the coast to [Genoa](/wiki/Genoa "Genoa"). A rapid advance towards [Turin](/wiki/Turin "Turin") by the Brazilian division on their right took the Italo\-German [Army Liguria](/wiki/Army_Liguria "Army Liguria") by surprise, causing its collapse.{{sfn\|Bohmler\|1964\|loc\=Chapter XI p. 483}} Between 26 April and 1 May there were the [Battles of Collecchio\-Fornovo di Taro](/wiki/Battle_of_Collecchio "Battle of Collecchio"), which resulted in the surrender of the [148th German Infantry Division](/wiki/148th_Infantry_Division_%28Germany%29 "148th Infantry Division (Germany)") to Brazilian soldiers of the FEB; the Brazilian soldiers captured about 15,000 German and RSI soldiers, the end of these battles marked the end of the conflicts in Italy and the end of the Italian fascist army.{{Cite web\|last\=Repubblica.it\|first\=Parma\-\|title\=I liberatori venuti dal Brasile\|url\=http://sul\-torrente\-parma.blogautore.repubblica.it/2011/04/22/i\-liberatori\-venuti\-dal\-brasile/\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-23\|website\=La finestra sul torrente\|language\=it}}{{Cite web\|last\=Corradi\|first\=Chiara\|date\=2016\-02\-04\|title\=Sacca di Fornovo: quando i tedeschi furono costretti alla resa\|url\=https://www.ilparmense.net/sacca\-di\-fornovo\-quando\-i\-tedeschi\-furono\-costretti\-alla\-resa/\|access\-date\=2021\-03\-23\|website\=ilParmense.net\|language\=it\-IT}} As April 1945 came to an end, the German Army Group C, retreating on all fronts and having lost most of its fighting strength, was left with little option but surrender.{{sfn\|Bohmler\|1964\|loc\=Chapter XI p. 483}} General [Heinrich von Vietinghoff](/wiki/Heinrich_von_Vietinghoff "Heinrich von Vietinghoff"), who had taken command of Army Group C after Albert Kesselring had been transferred to become Commander\-in\-Chief of the Western Front ([OB West](/wiki/OB_West "OB West")) in March 1945, signed the [instrument of surrender](/wiki/Surrender_of_Caserta "Surrender of Caserta") on behalf of the German and RSI forces in Italy on 29 April, formally bringing hostilities to an end on 2 May 1945\.{{sfn\|Blaxland\|1979\|p\=277}}.On 1 May, a day before the Axis forces in Italy capitulated. Marshal [Rodolfo Graziani](/wiki/Rodolfo_Graziani "Rodolfo Graziani"), the Minister of Defense of the Italian Social Republic ordered all Italian RSI units to surrender to the Allies.
[ "### Allied advance into Northern Italy", "[thumb\\|British infantry moving cautiously through the ruined streets of [Impruneta](/wiki/Impruneta \"Impruneta\"), 3 August 1944](/wiki/File:The_British_Army_in_Italy_1944_NA17570.jpg \"The British Army in Italy 1944 NA17570.jpg\")\n{{Main\\|Gothic Line\\|Spring 1945 offensive in Italy}}", "After the capture of Rome, and the Allied [invasion of Normandy](/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy \"Invasion of Normandy\") in June, the [U.S. VI Corps](/wiki/VI_Corps_%28United_States%29 \"VI Corps (United States)\") and the [French Expeditionary Corps](/wiki/French_Expeditionary_Corps_%281943%E2%80%9344%29 \"French Expeditionary Corps (1943–44)\") (CEF), which together amounted to seven divisions, were pulled out of Italy during the summer of 1944 to participate in [Operation Dragoon](/wiki/Operation_Dragoon \"Operation Dragoon\"), codename for the Allied invasion of [Southern France](/wiki/Southern_France \"Southern France\"). The sudden removal of these experienced units from the Italian front was only partially compensated for by the gradual arrival of three divisions, the [Brazilian 1st Infantry Division](/wiki/Brazilian_Expeditionary_Force \"Brazilian Expeditionary Force\"), the [U.S. 92nd Infantry Division](/wiki/92nd_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"92nd Infantry Division (United States)\"), both in the second half of 1944, and the [U.S. 10th Mountain Division](/wiki/10th_Mountain_Division \"10th Mountain Division\") in January 1945\\.", "In the period from June to August 1944, the Allies advanced beyond Rome, taking [Florence](/wiki/Florence \"Florence\") and closing up on the Gothic Line.{{cite video\\|year\\=1944\\|title \\=Video: Allies Liberate Florence etc \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/gov.archives.arc.39132\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Universal Newsreel]] \\|access\\-date \\=February 21, 2012}} This last major defensive line ran from the coast some {{convert\\|30\\|mi\\|km\\|\\-1\\|order\\=flip\\|abbr\\=off}} north of [Pisa](/wiki/Pisa \"Pisa\"), along the jagged Apennine Mountains chain between Florence and [Bologna](/wiki/Bologna \"Bologna\") to the [Adriatic coast](/wiki/Adriatic_Sea \"Adriatic Sea\"), just south of [Rimini](/wiki/Rimini \"Rimini\"). In order to shorten the Allied [lines of communication](/wiki/Line_of_communication \"Line of communication\") for the advance into Northern Italy, the [Polish II Corps](/wiki/II_Corps_%28Poland%29 \"II Corps (Poland)\") advanced towards the port of [Ancona](/wiki/Ancona \"Ancona\") and, after a month\\-long [battle](/wiki/Battle_of_Ancona \"Battle of Ancona\"), succeeded in capturing it on 18 July.", "During *Operation Olive*, which commenced on 25 August, the Gothic Line defences were penetrated on both the Fifth and Eighth Army fronts; but, there was no decisive breakthrough. Churchill, the British Prime Minister, had hoped that a major advance in late 1944 would open the way for the Allied armies to advance northeast through the \"Ljubljana Gap\" (the area between [Venice](/wiki/Venice \"Venice\") and [Vienna](/wiki/Vienna \"Vienna\"), which is today's [Slovenia](/wiki/Slovenia \"Slovenia\")) to Vienna and [Hungary](/wiki/Hungary \"Hungary\") to forestall the [Red Army](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") from advancing into [Eastern Europe](/wiki/Eastern_Europe \"Eastern Europe\"). Churchill's proposal had been strongly opposed by the U.S. Chiefs of Staff, despite its importance to British postwar interests in the region, as they did not believe that it aligned with overall Allied war priorities.", "In October, Lieutenant General [Sir Richard McCreery](/wiki/Richard_McCreery \"Richard McCreery\") succeeded Lieutenant General [Sir Oliver Leese](/wiki/Oliver_Leese \"Oliver Leese\") as the commander of the Eighth Army. In December, Lieutenant General Mark Clark, the Fifth Army commander, was appointed to command the [15th Army Group](/wiki/15th_Army_Group \"15th Army Group\"), thereby succeeding the British General [Sir Harold Alexander](/wiki/Harold_Alexander%2C_1st_Earl_Alexander_of_Tunis \"Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis\") as commander of all Allied ground troops in Italy; Alexander succeeded [Field Marshal](/wiki/Field_marshal_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Field marshal (United Kingdom)\") [Sir Henry Wilson](/wiki/Henry_Maitland_Wilson \"Henry Maitland Wilson\") as the [Supreme Allied Commander](/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander \"Supreme Allied Commander\") in the Mediterranean Theatre. Clark was succeeded in command of the Fifth Army by now\\-Lieutenant General Truscott. In the winter and spring of 1944–45, extensive [partisan](/wiki/Italian_partisans \"Italian partisans\") activity in Northern Italy took place. As there were two Italian governments during this period, (one on each side of the war), the struggle took on some characteristics of a [civil war](/wiki/Civil_war \"Civil war\").", "[thumb\\|right\\|[Brazilian troops](/wiki/Brazilian_Expeditionary_Force \"Brazilian Expeditionary Force\") arrive in the city of [Massarosa](/wiki/Massarosa \"Massarosa\"), Italy, September 1944](/wiki/File:Massarosaw.jpg \"Massarosaw.jpg\")", "The poor winter weather, which made armoured manoeuvre and the exploitation of overwhelming air superiority impossible, coupled with the massive losses suffered to its ranks during the autumn fighting,{{sfn\\|Keegan\\|2005\\|p\\=367}}{{sfn\\|Brooks\\|2003\\|loc\\=Chptrs XIX\\-XX p. 254}} the need to transfer some British troops to [Greece](/wiki/Greek_Civil_War \"Greek Civil War\") (as well as the need to withdraw the [British 5th Infantry Division](/wiki/5th_Infantry_Division_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)\") and [I Canadian Corps](/wiki/I_Canadian_Corps \"I Canadian Corps\") to [northwestern Europe](/wiki/Operation_Goldflake \"Operation Goldflake\")) made it impractical for the Allies to continue their offensive in early 1945\\. Instead, the Allies adopted a strategy of \"offensive defence\" while preparing for a final attack when better weather and ground conditions arrived in the spring.", "In late February\\-early March 1945, *[Operation Encore](/wiki/Operation_Encore \"Operation Encore\")* saw elements of the [U.S. IV Corps](/wiki/IV_Corps_%28United_States%29 \"IV Corps (United States)\") ([1st Brazilian Division](/wiki/Brazilian_Expeditionary_Force \"Brazilian Expeditionary Force\") and the newly arrived U.S. [10th Mountain Division](/wiki/10th_Mountain_Division_%28United_States%29 \"10th Mountain Division (United States)\")) battling forward across [minefields](/wiki/Land_mine \"Land mine\") in the Apennines to align their front with that of the [U.S. II Corps](/wiki/II_Corps_%28United_States%29 \"II Corps (United States)\") on their right.{{sfn\\|Brooks\\|2003\\|loc\\=Chptrs XX to XXII\\|p\\=678}} They pushed the German defenders from the commanding high point of [Monte Castello](/wiki/Battle_of_Monte_Castello \"Battle of Monte Castello\") and the adjacent Monte Belvedere and Castelnuovo, depriving them of artillery positions that had been commanding the approaches to Bologna since the narrowly failed Allied attempt to take the city in the autumn.Moraes, \"The Brazilian Expeditionary Force By Its Commander\" Chapter V (The IV Corps Offensive); Sections *Monte Castello* \\& *Castelnuovo*{{sfn\\|Bohmler\\|1964\\|loc\\=Chapter XI p. 483}}{{sfn\\|Clark\\|2007\\|p\\=\\[https://books.google.com/books?id\\=N8o9SKt1ZjIC\\&dq\\=calculated\\+risk\\+clark\\+castello\\&pg\\=PA608 608]}} Meanwhile, damage to other transport infrastructure forced Axis forces to use sea, canal and river routes for re\\-supply, leading to [Operation Bowler](/wiki/Operation_Bowler \"Operation Bowler\") against shipping in Venice harbour on 21 March 1945\\.", "The Allies' final offensive commenced with massive aerial and artillery bombardments on 9 April 1945\\.{{sfn\\|Blaxland\\|1979\\|pp\\=254–255}} The Allies had 1,500,000 men and women deployed in Italy in April 1945\\.{{sfn\\|Frieser\\|2007\\|p\\=1158}} The Axis on 7 April had 599,404 troops of which 439,224 were Germans and 160,180 were Italians.{{sfn\\|Frieser\\|2007\\|p\\=1158}} By 18 April, Eighth Army forces in the east had broken through the [Argenta Gap](/wiki/Argenta_Gap \"Argenta Gap\") and sent armour racing forward in an encircling move to meet the U.S. IV Corps advancing from the Apennines in Central Italy and to trap the remaining defenders of Bologna. On 21 April, Bologna was entered by the [3rd Carpathian Division](/wiki/3rd_Carpathian_Rifle_Division_%28Poland%29 \"3rd Carpathian Rifle Division (Poland)\"), the Italian Friuli Group (both from the Eighth Army) and the [U.S. 34th Infantry Division](/wiki/34th_Infantry_Division_%28United_States%29 \"34th Infantry Division (United States)\") (from the Fifth Army).{{sfn\\|Blaxland\\|1979\\|p\\=271}} The U.S. 10th Mountain Division, which had bypassed Bologna, reached the [River Po](/wiki/Po_%28river%29 \"Po (river)\") on 22 April; the [8th Indian Infantry Division](/wiki/8th_Infantry_Division_%28India%29 \"8th Infantry Division (India)\"), on the Eighth Army front, reached the river on 23 April.{{sfn\\|Blaxland\\|1979\\|pp\\=272–273}}", "By 25 April, the Italian Partisans' Committee of Liberation declared a general uprising,{{sfn\\|Blaxland\\|1979\\|p\\=275}} and on the same day, having crossed the Po on the right flank, forces of the Eighth Army advanced north\\-northeast towards Venice and [Trieste](/wiki/Trieste \"Trieste\"). On the front of the U.S. Fifth Army, divisions drove north toward Austria and northwest to [Milan](/wiki/Milan \"Milan\"). On the Fifth Army's left flank, the [U.S. 92nd Infantry Division](/wiki/U.S._92nd_Infantry_Division \"U.S. 92nd Infantry Division\") (the \"[Buffalo Soldiers](/wiki/Buffalo_Soldier \"Buffalo Soldier\") Division\") went along the coast to [Genoa](/wiki/Genoa \"Genoa\"). A rapid advance towards [Turin](/wiki/Turin \"Turin\") by the Brazilian division on their right took the Italo\\-German [Army Liguria](/wiki/Army_Liguria \"Army Liguria\") by surprise, causing its collapse.{{sfn\\|Bohmler\\|1964\\|loc\\=Chapter XI p. 483}}", "Between 26 April and 1 May there were the [Battles of Collecchio\\-Fornovo di Taro](/wiki/Battle_of_Collecchio \"Battle of Collecchio\"), which resulted in the surrender of the [148th German Infantry Division](/wiki/148th_Infantry_Division_%28Germany%29 \"148th Infantry Division (Germany)\") to Brazilian soldiers of the FEB; the Brazilian soldiers captured about 15,000 German and RSI soldiers, the end of these battles marked the end of the conflicts in Italy and the end of the Italian fascist army.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Repubblica.it\\|first\\=Parma\\-\\|title\\=I liberatori venuti dal Brasile\\|url\\=http://sul\\-torrente\\-parma.blogautore.repubblica.it/2011/04/22/i\\-liberatori\\-venuti\\-dal\\-brasile/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-23\\|website\\=La finestra sul torrente\\|language\\=it}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=Corradi\\|first\\=Chiara\\|date\\=2016\\-02\\-04\\|title\\=Sacca di Fornovo: quando i tedeschi furono costretti alla resa\\|url\\=https://www.ilparmense.net/sacca\\-di\\-fornovo\\-quando\\-i\\-tedeschi\\-furono\\-costretti\\-alla\\-resa/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-03\\-23\\|website\\=ilParmense.net\\|language\\=it\\-IT}}", "As April 1945 came to an end, the German Army Group C, retreating on all fronts and having lost most of its fighting strength, was left with little option but surrender.{{sfn\\|Bohmler\\|1964\\|loc\\=Chapter XI p. 483}} General [Heinrich von Vietinghoff](/wiki/Heinrich_von_Vietinghoff \"Heinrich von Vietinghoff\"), who had taken command of Army Group C after Albert Kesselring had been transferred to become Commander\\-in\\-Chief of the Western Front ([OB West](/wiki/OB_West \"OB West\")) in March 1945, signed the [instrument of surrender](/wiki/Surrender_of_Caserta \"Surrender of Caserta\") on behalf of the German and RSI forces in Italy on 29 April, formally bringing hostilities to an end on 2 May 1945\\.{{sfn\\|Blaxland\\|1979\\|p\\=277}}.On 1 May, a day before the Axis forces in Italy capitulated. Marshal [Rodolfo Graziani](/wiki/Rodolfo_Graziani \"Rodolfo Graziani\"), the Minister of Defense of the Italian Social Republic ordered all Italian RSI units to surrender to the Allies.", "" ]
Life ---- A native of Andes Antioquia, Colombia, Restrepo was born in February 1920\. He left home at an early age and went to Chile where he graduated from secondary school, and later attended the Universidad de Santiago de Chile. He traveled to Buenos Aires, Argentina, to further his education. His art studies began while in Santiago. Eventually he traveled to Brazil where he studied art at the Escola de Belas Artes, in Rio de Janeiro. Restrepo\-Peláez accepted an offer to represent his country as Vice\-Consul in Paris, France. After three years, he traveled to Florence, Italy to become a pupil of Giovanni Colacicchi at the Accademia di Belle Arti during an extended period. After a decade of travel throughout Europe he went to live in Mexico City and Los Angeles, California. He studied restoration and conservation at [Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando](/wiki/Real_Academia_de_Bellas_Artes_de_San_Fernando "Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando"), in Madrid, Spain, interning later at the Brooklyn Museum of Art. He wrote extensively on art as well as on political and historical subjects. His column appeared regularly in El Tiempo, Colombia's principal news publication. Restrepo\-Peláez died in 2012\.{{cite web \|title\=Palabras de Pedro Restrepo Peláez en la exposición de Oscar Rojas \|url\=https://catalogo.senalmemoria.co/cgi\-bin/koha/opac\-detail.pl?biblionumber\=30713 \|website\=Señal Memoria \|access\-date\=20 April 2022}} ### Education Attended, [Universidad de Santiago de Chile](/wiki/Universidad_de_Santiago_de_Chile "Universidad de Santiago de Chile") and the [Escola de Belas Artes, in Rio de Janeiro.](http://www.eba.ufrj.br/) ### Government posts Restrepo\-Peláez has held several government posts: * Private Secretary of the Governor of [Antioquia](/wiki/Antioquia_Department "Antioquia Department") (Colombia) * Vice Consul of Colombia in Paris * "Artistic" Mayor of [Villa de Leyva](/wiki/Villa_de_Leyva "Villa de Leyva") (Boyacá, Colombia) * Mayor of the colonial area of the City of [Bogotá](/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1 "Bogotá") \- [La Candelaria](/wiki/La_Candelaria%2C_Bogot%C3%A1 "La Candelaria, Bogotá") * Director of "Extension Cultural" (cultural director) of the City of Bogotá * Professor of Art History of the Escuela Nacional de Arte Dramática (the national school of theater) in Bogotá, Colombia. * Professor of Art History in the Colegio Odontológico (School of Dentistry) of Bogotá, Colombia. * Professor of Art History at the [Universidad Nacional](/wiki/Universidad_Nacional "Universidad Nacional") (National University), Bogotá, Colombia * Director of the [Museo Arqueologico de la Casa del Marques San Jorge](http://www.musarq.org.co/colecciones/colonial.htm) (Banco Popular) during twelve years. Restrepo\-Pelaez was knighted, Orden the Caballero de la Reina Isabel, in Spain. ### Conservation Restrepo\-Peláez played an important role in the conservation of colonial architecture and monuments in Colombia. He personally restored the murals in the [Casa de Juan de Castellanos](/wiki/Juan_de_Castellanos "Juan de Castellanos") in [Tunja, Boyacá](/wiki/Tunja "Tunja"). The restoration was sponsored by Citibank. He also restored the series of colonial paintings in Sopó, Los Angeles de Sopó (the Angels of Sopó). ### Other work He exhibited individually in Rio de Janeiro (Galeria Carioca), Mexico City, Paris (Maison De l'Amérique Latine), London, Madrid (Galeria de Arte Moderno), Washington D.C. (Pan American Union), Fort Lauderdale, Florida, Bogotá (Biblioteca Nacional, Biblioteca Luis Angel Arango), Houston, Texas (Colombe D'Or, The Houstonian, Cherqui Gallery), Telluride, Colorado (Elinoff Gallery), and Jakarta at the Colombian consulate. For several years he explored the possibilities of working exclusively in black and white in search of technical effects usually obtained through the use of color. He was a "minimalist" as it relates to economy of color and subject matter as well as in his use of primitive materials, such as burlap, plywood, and casein paint. Restrepo focused on nudes and still life, save for the period when he was "artistic" Mayor of the colonial town of Villa de Leyva, Colombia, when he did contemporary representations of the town's colonial architecture.
[ "Life\n----", "A native of Andes Antioquia, Colombia, Restrepo was born in February 1920\\. He left home at an early age and went to Chile where he graduated from secondary school, and later attended the Universidad de Santiago de Chile. He traveled to Buenos Aires, Argentina, to further his education. His art studies began while in Santiago. Eventually he traveled to Brazil where he studied art at the Escola de Belas Artes, in Rio de Janeiro.", "Restrepo\\-Peláez accepted an offer to represent his country as Vice\\-Consul in Paris, France. After three years, he traveled to Florence, Italy to become a pupil of Giovanni Colacicchi at the Accademia di Belle Arti during an extended period. After a decade of travel throughout Europe he went to live in Mexico City and Los Angeles, California. He studied restoration and conservation at [Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando](/wiki/Real_Academia_de_Bellas_Artes_de_San_Fernando \"Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando\"), in Madrid, Spain, interning later at the Brooklyn Museum of Art.", "He wrote extensively on art as well as on political and historical subjects. His column appeared regularly in El Tiempo, Colombia's principal news publication.", "Restrepo\\-Peláez died in 2012\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Palabras de Pedro Restrepo Peláez en la exposición de Oscar Rojas \\|url\\=https://catalogo.senalmemoria.co/cgi\\-bin/koha/opac\\-detail.pl?biblionumber\\=30713 \\|website\\=Señal Memoria \\|access\\-date\\=20 April 2022}}", "### Education", "Attended, [Universidad de Santiago de Chile](/wiki/Universidad_de_Santiago_de_Chile \"Universidad de Santiago de Chile\") and the [Escola de Belas Artes, in Rio de Janeiro.](http://www.eba.ufrj.br/)", "### Government posts", "Restrepo\\-Peláez has held several government posts:", "* Private Secretary of the Governor of [Antioquia](/wiki/Antioquia_Department \"Antioquia Department\") (Colombia)\n* Vice Consul of Colombia in Paris\n* \"Artistic\" Mayor of [Villa de Leyva](/wiki/Villa_de_Leyva \"Villa de Leyva\") (Boyacá, Colombia)\n* Mayor of the colonial area of the City of [Bogotá](/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1 \"Bogotá\") \\- [La Candelaria](/wiki/La_Candelaria%2C_Bogot%C3%A1 \"La Candelaria, Bogotá\")\n* Director of \"Extension Cultural\" (cultural director) of the City of Bogotá\n* Professor of Art History of the Escuela Nacional de Arte Dramática (the national school of theater) in Bogotá, Colombia.\n* Professor of Art History in the Colegio Odontológico (School of Dentistry) of Bogotá, Colombia.\n* Professor of Art History at the [Universidad Nacional](/wiki/Universidad_Nacional \"Universidad Nacional\") (National University), Bogotá, Colombia\n* Director of the [Museo Arqueologico de la Casa del Marques San Jorge](http://www.musarq.org.co/colecciones/colonial.htm) (Banco Popular) during twelve years.", "Restrepo\\-Pelaez was knighted, Orden the Caballero de la Reina Isabel, in Spain.", "### Conservation", "Restrepo\\-Peláez played an important role in the conservation of colonial architecture and monuments in Colombia. He personally restored the murals in the [Casa de Juan de Castellanos](/wiki/Juan_de_Castellanos \"Juan de Castellanos\") in [Tunja, Boyacá](/wiki/Tunja \"Tunja\"). The restoration was sponsored by Citibank. He also restored the series of colonial paintings in Sopó, Los Angeles de Sopó (the Angels of Sopó).", "### Other work", "He exhibited individually in Rio de Janeiro (Galeria Carioca), Mexico City, Paris (Maison De l'Amérique Latine), London, Madrid (Galeria de Arte Moderno), Washington D.C. (Pan American Union), Fort Lauderdale, Florida, Bogotá (Biblioteca Nacional, Biblioteca Luis Angel Arango), Houston, Texas (Colombe D'Or, The Houstonian, Cherqui Gallery), Telluride, Colorado (Elinoff Gallery), and Jakarta at the Colombian consulate.", "For several years he explored the possibilities of working exclusively in black and white in search of technical effects usually obtained through the use of color. He was a \"minimalist\" as it relates to economy of color and subject matter as well as in his use of primitive materials, such as burlap, plywood, and casein paint. Restrepo focused on nudes and still life, save for the period when he was \"artistic\" Mayor of the colonial town of Villa de Leyva, Colombia, when he did contemporary representations of the town's colonial architecture.", "" ]
Biography --------- {{Quantum field theory}} {{Standard model of particle physics}} {{Quote box \|quote \= Physics is a science that has made rapid progress in the twentieth century ... I desire, as I did in the past, to be a traveler in a strange land and a colonist in a new country. (from the foreword to his autobiography) \|width \= 30% \|align \= left }} He was born as **Hideki Ogawa** in [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo "Tokyo") and grew up in [Kyoto](/wiki/Kyoto "Kyoto") with two older brothers, two older sisters, and two younger brothers.{{cite book \| last\=Yukawa \| first \= Hideki \| title\=Tabibito (旅人) \= The Traveler \| publisher\=World Scientific \| year\=1982 \| isbn\=9971\-950\-10\-3 \| pages \= 46–47 \& 118; 121–123; 10; Foreword; 141 \& 163 \| doi \= 10\.1142/0014 \| s2cid \= 124612924 }} He read the Confucian *[Doctrine of the Mean](/wiki/Doctrine_of_the_Mean "Doctrine of the Mean")*, and later [Lao\-Tzu](/wiki/Lao-Tzu "Lao-Tzu") and [Chuang\-Tzu](/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou "Zhuang Zhou"). His father, for a time, considered sending him to technical college rather than university since he was "not as outstanding a student as his older brothers". However, when his father broached the idea with his middle school principal, the principal praised his "high potential" in mathematics and offered to adopt Ogawa himself in order to keep him on a scholarly career. At that, his father relented. Ogawa decided against becoming a mathematician when in high school; his teacher marked his exam answer as incorrect when Ogawa proved a theorem but in a different manner than the teacher expected. He decided against a career in experimental physics in college when he demonstrated clumsiness in glassblowing, a requirement for experiments in [spectroscopy](/wiki/Spectroscopy "Spectroscopy"). In 1929, after receiving his bachelor's degree at [Kyoto Imperial University](/wiki/Kyoto_Imperial_University "Kyoto Imperial University"), he stayed on as a lecturer for four years. After graduation, he was interested in [theoretical physics](/wiki/Theoretical_physics "Theoretical physics"), particularly in the theory of [elementary particles](/wiki/Elementary_particle "Elementary particle"). In 1932, he married {{nihongo\|Sumi Yukawa\|\[\[:ja:湯川スミ\|スミ]]}}. In accordance with Japanese customs of the time, since he came from a family with many sons but his father\-in\-law Genyo had none, he was adopted by Genyo and changed his family name from Ogawa to Yukawa. The couple had two sons, Harumi and Takaaki. In 1933 he became a lecturer at [Osaka Imperial University](/wiki/Osaka_University "Osaka University"), at 26 years old. In 1935 he published his theory of [mesons](/wiki/Meson "Meson"), which explained the interaction between [protons](/wiki/Proton "Proton") and [neutrons](/wiki/Neutron "Neutron") at [Osaka Imperial University](/wiki/Osaka_Imperial_University "Osaka Imperial University"), and was a major influence on research into elementary particles.{{cite journal \|year\=1935 \|title\=On the Interaction of Elementary Particles \|url\=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ppmsj1919/17/0/17\_0\_48/\_pdf/\-char/en \|journal\=Proc. Phys.\-Math. Soc. Jpn. \|volume\=17 \|issue\=48 \|author\=Yukawa, H. }} In 1938, he received his [Ph.D](/wiki/Ph.D "Ph.D") degree at [Osaka Imperial University](/wiki/Osaka_Imperial_University "Osaka Imperial University") for his predictions regarding the existence of mesons and his theoretical work on the nature of nuclear forces.{{Cite web \| url\=https://www\-yukawa.phys.sci.osaka\-u.ac.jp/en/wp\-content/uploads/2018/11/OU1938\-Y1\.pdf\| title\=学位論文 \| website\=www\-yukawa.phys.sci.osaka\-u.ac.jp \| language\=ja \| trans\-title\=Dissertation}}{{cite web \| url\=https://www.ias.edu/scholars/hideki\-yukawa \| title\=Hideki Yukawa \- Scholars \| Institute for Advanced Study \| date\=9 December 2019 }} These research achievements were the reason he was later awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. In 1940 he became a professor in [Kyoto Imperial University](/wiki/Kyoto_University "Kyoto University"). In 1940 he won the [Imperial Prize of the Japan Academy](/wiki/Imperial_Prize_of_the_Japan_Academy "Imperial Prize of the Japan Academy"), in 1943 the [Decoration of Cultural Merit](/wiki/Person_of_Cultural_Merit "Person of Cultural Merit") from the [Japanese government](/wiki/Japanese_government "Japanese government"). In 1949 he became a professor at [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University "Columbia University"), the same year he received the [Nobel Prize in Physics](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics "Nobel Prize in Physics"), after the discovery by [Cecil Frank Powell](/wiki/Cecil_Frank_Powell "Cecil Frank Powell"), [Giuseppe Occhialini](/wiki/Giuseppe_Occhialini "Giuseppe Occhialini") and [César Lattes](/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Lattes "César Lattes") of Yukawa's predicted [pi meson](/wiki/Pion "Pion") in 1947\. Yukawa also worked on the theory of [K\-capture](/wiki/K-capture "K-capture"), in which a low energy electron is absorbed by the nucleus, after its initial prediction by [G. C. Wick](/wiki/G._C._Wick "G. C. Wick").Segré, Emilio (1987\) "K\-Electron Capture by Nuclei", pp. 11–12, chapter 3 in *Discovering Alvarez: selected works of Luis W. Alvarez, with commentary by his students and colleagues*, Luis W. Alvarez and W. Peter Trower, University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN\|0\-226\-81304\-5}}. {{Quote box \|quote \= \[Once I had published my seminal 1934 paper on particle interaction] I felt like a traveler who rests himself at a small tea shop at the top of a mountain slope. At that time I was not thinking about whether there were any more mountains ahead. \[conclusion of his autobiography] \|width \= 30% \|align \= left }} Yukawa became the first chairman of [Yukawa Institute for Theoretical Physics](/wiki/Yukawa_Institute_for_Theoretical_Physics "Yukawa Institute for Theoretical Physics") in 1953\. He received a Doctorate, *[honoris causa](/wiki/Honoris_causa "Honoris causa"),* from the [University of Paris](/wiki/University_of_Paris "University of Paris") and honorary memberships in the [Royal Society](/wiki/Royal_Society "Royal Society"), [Royal Society of Edinburgh](/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh "Royal Society of Edinburgh"), the [Indian Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Indian_Academy_of_Sciences "Indian Academy of Sciences"), the International Academy of Philosophy and Sciences{{Citation needed\|date\=November 2010}}, the United States [National Academy of Sciences](/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences "National Academy of Sciences"), the [American Academy of Arts and Sciences](/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences "American Academy of Arts and Sciences"), the [American Philosophical Society](/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society "American Philosophical Society"), and the [Pontificia Academia Scientiarum](/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_of_Sciences "Pontifical Academy of Sciences"). He was an editor of *Progress of Theoretical Physics*,{{cite book\|last\=Yukawa Institute for Theoretical Physics \|author2\=Gakkai, Nihon Butsuri \|title\=Progress of Theoretical Physics \|location\=Kyoto \|publisher\=Yukawa Institute for Theoretical Physics and Physical Society of Japan \|year\=1946 \|url\=http://ptp.ipap.jp/journal/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020203114022/http://ptp.ipap.jp/journal/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=2002\-02\-03 \|oclc\=44519062 \|access\-date\=2008\-03\-03 }} and published the books *Introduction to Quantum Mechanics* (1946\) and *Introduction to the Theory of Elementary Particles* (1948\).
[ "Biography\n---------", "{{Quantum field theory}}\n{{Standard model of particle physics}}\n{{Quote box\n \\|quote \\= Physics is a science that has made rapid progress in the twentieth century ... I desire, as I did in the past, to be a traveler in a strange land and a colonist in a new country. (from the foreword to his autobiography)\n \\|width \\= 30%\n \\|align \\= left\n}}", "He was born as **Hideki Ogawa** in [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\") and grew up in [Kyoto](/wiki/Kyoto \"Kyoto\") with two older brothers, two older sisters, and two younger brothers.{{cite book \\| last\\=Yukawa \\| first \\= Hideki \\| title\\=Tabibito (旅人) \\= The Traveler \\| publisher\\=World Scientific \\| year\\=1982 \\| isbn\\=9971\\-950\\-10\\-3 \\| pages \\= 46–47 \\& 118; 121–123; 10; Foreword; 141 \\& 163 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1142/0014 \\| s2cid \\= 124612924 }} He read the Confucian *[Doctrine of the Mean](/wiki/Doctrine_of_the_Mean \"Doctrine of the Mean\")*, and later [Lao\\-Tzu](/wiki/Lao-Tzu \"Lao-Tzu\") and [Chuang\\-Tzu](/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou \"Zhuang Zhou\"). His father, for a time, considered sending him to technical college rather than university since he was \"not as outstanding a student as his older brothers\". However, when his father broached the idea with his middle school principal, the principal praised his \"high potential\" in mathematics and offered to adopt Ogawa himself in order to keep him on a scholarly career. At that, his father relented.", "Ogawa decided against becoming a mathematician when in high school; his teacher marked his exam answer as incorrect when Ogawa proved a theorem but in a different manner than the teacher expected. He decided against a career in experimental physics in college when he demonstrated clumsiness in glassblowing, a requirement for experiments in [spectroscopy](/wiki/Spectroscopy \"Spectroscopy\").", "In 1929, after receiving his bachelor's degree at [Kyoto Imperial University](/wiki/Kyoto_Imperial_University \"Kyoto Imperial University\"), he stayed on as a lecturer for four years. After graduation, he was interested in [theoretical physics](/wiki/Theoretical_physics \"Theoretical physics\"), particularly in the theory of [elementary particles](/wiki/Elementary_particle \"Elementary particle\").", "In 1932, he married {{nihongo\\|Sumi Yukawa\\|\\[\\[:ja:湯川スミ\\|スミ]]}}. In accordance with Japanese customs of the time, since he came from a family with many sons but his father\\-in\\-law Genyo had none, he was adopted by Genyo and changed his family name from Ogawa to Yukawa. The couple had two sons, Harumi and Takaaki. In 1933 he became a lecturer at [Osaka Imperial University](/wiki/Osaka_University \"Osaka University\"), at 26 years old.", "In 1935 he published his theory of [mesons](/wiki/Meson \"Meson\"), which explained the interaction between [protons](/wiki/Proton \"Proton\") and [neutrons](/wiki/Neutron \"Neutron\") at [Osaka Imperial University](/wiki/Osaka_Imperial_University \"Osaka Imperial University\"), and was a major influence on research into elementary particles.{{cite journal \\|year\\=1935 \\|title\\=On the Interaction of Elementary Particles \\|url\\=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ppmsj1919/17/0/17\\_0\\_48/\\_pdf/\\-char/en \\|journal\\=Proc. Phys.\\-Math. Soc. Jpn. \\|volume\\=17 \\|issue\\=48 \\|author\\=Yukawa, H. }}", "In 1938, he received his [Ph.D](/wiki/Ph.D \"Ph.D\") degree at [Osaka Imperial University](/wiki/Osaka_Imperial_University \"Osaka Imperial University\") for his predictions regarding the existence of mesons and his theoretical work on the nature of nuclear forces.{{Cite web \\| url\\=https://www\\-yukawa.phys.sci.osaka\\-u.ac.jp/en/wp\\-content/uploads/2018/11/OU1938\\-Y1\\.pdf\\| title\\=学位論文 \\| website\\=www\\-yukawa.phys.sci.osaka\\-u.ac.jp \\| language\\=ja \\| trans\\-title\\=Dissertation}}{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.ias.edu/scholars/hideki\\-yukawa \\| title\\=Hideki Yukawa \\- Scholars \\| Institute for Advanced Study \\| date\\=9 December 2019 }} These research achievements were the reason he was later awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics.", "In 1940 he became a professor in [Kyoto Imperial University](/wiki/Kyoto_University \"Kyoto University\"). In 1940 he won the [Imperial Prize of the Japan Academy](/wiki/Imperial_Prize_of_the_Japan_Academy \"Imperial Prize of the Japan Academy\"), in 1943 the [Decoration of Cultural Merit](/wiki/Person_of_Cultural_Merit \"Person of Cultural Merit\") from the [Japanese government](/wiki/Japanese_government \"Japanese government\"). In 1949 he became a professor at [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University \"Columbia University\"), the same year he received the [Nobel Prize in Physics](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics \"Nobel Prize in Physics\"), after the discovery by [Cecil Frank Powell](/wiki/Cecil_Frank_Powell \"Cecil Frank Powell\"), [Giuseppe Occhialini](/wiki/Giuseppe_Occhialini \"Giuseppe Occhialini\") and [César Lattes](/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Lattes \"César Lattes\") of Yukawa's predicted [pi meson](/wiki/Pion \"Pion\") in 1947\\. Yukawa also worked on the theory of [K\\-capture](/wiki/K-capture \"K-capture\"), in which a low energy electron is absorbed by the nucleus, after its initial prediction by [G. C. Wick](/wiki/G._C._Wick \"G. C. Wick\").Segré, Emilio (1987\\) \"K\\-Electron Capture by Nuclei\", pp. 11–12, chapter 3 in *Discovering Alvarez: selected works of Luis W. Alvarez, with commentary by his students and colleagues*, Luis W. Alvarez and W. Peter Trower, University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN\\|0\\-226\\-81304\\-5}}.", "{{Quote box\n \\|quote \\= \\[Once I had published my seminal 1934 paper on particle interaction] I felt like a traveler who rests himself at a small tea shop at the top of a mountain slope. At that time I was not thinking about whether there were any more mountains ahead. \\[conclusion of his autobiography]\n \\|width \\= 30%\n \\|align \\= left\n}}", "Yukawa became the first chairman of [Yukawa Institute for Theoretical Physics](/wiki/Yukawa_Institute_for_Theoretical_Physics \"Yukawa Institute for Theoretical Physics\") in 1953\\. He received a Doctorate, *[honoris causa](/wiki/Honoris_causa \"Honoris causa\"),* from the [University of Paris](/wiki/University_of_Paris \"University of Paris\") and honorary memberships in the [Royal Society](/wiki/Royal_Society \"Royal Society\"), [Royal Society of Edinburgh](/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh \"Royal Society of Edinburgh\"), the [Indian Academy of Sciences](/wiki/Indian_Academy_of_Sciences \"Indian Academy of Sciences\"), the International Academy of Philosophy and Sciences{{Citation needed\\|date\\=November 2010}}, the United States [National Academy of Sciences](/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences \"National Academy of Sciences\"), the [American Academy of Arts and Sciences](/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences \"American Academy of Arts and Sciences\"), the [American Philosophical Society](/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society \"American Philosophical Society\"), and the [Pontificia Academia Scientiarum](/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_of_Sciences \"Pontifical Academy of Sciences\").", "He was an editor of *Progress of Theoretical Physics*,{{cite book\\|last\\=Yukawa Institute for Theoretical Physics \\|author2\\=Gakkai, Nihon Butsuri \\|title\\=Progress of Theoretical Physics \\|location\\=Kyoto \\|publisher\\=Yukawa Institute for Theoretical Physics and Physical Society of Japan \\|year\\=1946 \\|url\\=http://ptp.ipap.jp/journal/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20020203114022/http://ptp.ipap.jp/journal/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=2002\\-02\\-03 \\|oclc\\=44519062 \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-03\\-03 }} and published the books *Introduction to Quantum Mechanics* (1946\\) and *Introduction to the Theory of Elementary Particles* (1948\\).", "" ]
History ------- Portuguese settlements in the north were conveniently constructed on hilltops, providing protection to local populations from raids. During the Roman Iberian invasion/occupation many of these settlements were converted into fortified villages, due to their strategic positions. The first defensive structures were believed to be constructed by these colonists, who worked in the older [castros](/wiki/Castro_culture "Castro culture") into their fortifications. Roman occupation of the territory was followed by successive waves of [Suevi](/wiki/Suebi "Suebi") and the [Visigoths](/wiki/Visigoths "Visigoths") who repurposed the structures. Muslim settlers, later known as [Moors](/wiki/Moors "Moors"), occupied the settlements during the [Taifa of Badajoz](/wiki/Taifa_of_Badajoz "Taifa of Badajoz"). The lands of Almeida were conquered from these Moors in 1039, by [Ferdinand I of León](/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Le%C3%B3n "Ferdinand I of León") and Castile, but remained contentious between 1156 and 1190, when they alternated between León, Moors and Portucalense forces. In 1190, the territory was [reconquered](/wiki/Reconquista "Reconquista") from the Moors by Pio Guterres, named the *Almeidão*, effectively ending Moorish dominance in the region and inspiring the name for the village. From here the lands alternated between Leonese and Portuguese, and by 1217 Almeida was recorded as a Leonese village, part of a group of settlements that protected the Côa valley. ### Medieval [235px\|thumb\|left\|Castle of Almeida in the [Book of Fortresses](/wiki/Livro_das_Fortalezas "Livro das Fortalezas"), compiled by Duarte D'Armas in 1510](/wiki/File:Livro_das_Fortalezas_73-_Almeida.jpg "Livro das Fortalezas 73- Almeida.jpg") By 1217, documents show that the castle at *Almeida* is one of several strong points that guard the border between Spain and Portugal. On 8 November 1296, King D. [Dinis](/wiki/Denis_of_Portugal "Denis of Portugal") issued a [foral](/wiki/Foral "Foral") (*charter*) to Almeida, ordering the re\-construction of a castle and walls. This structure was expanded in 1369 by order of D. [Ferdinand](/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Portugal "Ferdinand I of Portugal"). In 1372, [Isabella](/wiki/Isabella_of_Portugal%2C_Lady_of_Viseu "Isabella of Portugal, Lady of Viseu") the illegitimate daughter of Ferdinand I, married Alfonso, Count of Gijón and Noroña, who was the illegitimate son of King [Henrique II of Castile](/wiki/Henry_II_of_Castile "Henry II of Castile"). This marriage was one of the clauses of the peace treaty signed between Portugal and Castile in 1373, along with the castle and lands of *Almeida* been ceded to *Castile* for three years. In 1383, during the Succession Crisis, the castle's [alcalde](/wiki/Alcalde "Alcalde") swore fealty to D. Beatriz, and aligned himself with Castile, resulting in the 1386 conquest of Almeida by King D. [John I](/wiki/John_I_of_Portugal "John I of Portugal"), through the assistance of Portuguese nobles in Castile, securing the Portuguese throne. The village began to pertain to the Crown of Portugal in 1407, with the exchange of lands arranged between King John and the alcalde. King D. [Afonso V](/wiki/Afonso_V_of_Portugal "Afonso V of Portugal") donated Almeida to D. Pedro de Menezes. During the reign of King [Manuel I](/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal "Manuel I of Portugal") the strengthening and enlargement of the castle's walls and fortifications were ordered. The works were carried out under the instruction of the architect [Mateus Fernandes](/wiki/Mateus_Fernandes_%28architect%29 "Mateus Fernandes (architect)") and were completed in 1508\. In a letter dated 9 September 1508, King Manuel gave instructions to stonemason Álvaro Pires to examine the works, to which he assigned Francsico de Anzinho master of works, to undertake the task for 1$550\. On 27 October, D. Manuel ordered payment of mason Martim Lourenço for his work in Almeida, to *"look at the work that was completed by Francisco de Anzinho"*. Almeida Castle was included in a set of manuscripts formed into a book which contained drawings of all 56 castles located on the border between Portugal and Spain. The book, called the [Book of Fortresses](/wiki/Livro_das_Fortalezas "Livro das Fortalezas"), had been ordered compiled by [King Manuel I](/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal "Manuel I of Portugal"), was completed between 1509 and 1510\. The author was Duarte D'Armas, a squire of the Royal Household and a bachelor of [canon law](/wiki/Canon_law "Canon law") and apostolic notary, who held the office of Registrar of the Royal Library and [Torre do Tombo](/wiki/Torre_do_Tombo_National_Archive "Torre do Tombo National Archive"). He personally visited each castle and fortress for the purpose. There are two drawings of the castle at Almeida Castle in the book; a northern elevation and a southern elevation with both castle drawings bearing the personal standard of King Manuel I, who issued a new foral in 1510\. ### Restoration Wars [235px\|left\|thumb\|A plan of the castle/fortress of Almeida](/wiki/File:Fortress_of_Almeida.jpg "Fortress of Almeida.jpg") From 1517, buildings in the town were demolished for the fortress project. In addition, a tax of $100 was levied on each person for the project, which included walls and garrison. But, between 1580 and 1640, the defensive structures began to decay and fall into ruin. Following [John IV of Portugal](/wiki/John_IV_of_Portugal "John IV of Portugal")'s [restoration](/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War "Portuguese Restoration War") of the Crown of Portugal, on 1 December 1640, the monarch sought to consolidate and strengthen his throne, making decisions to strengthen his military control of the territory. He created a *Council of War* to organize the Kingdom's security along with a *Junta of the Frontiers*. This Junta had the responsibility of reviewing and strengthening the existing fortresses near the border. One of the Junta's projects was the construction of a new defensive structure at Almeida. Following 1640, the first Military Governor for Beira was established, D. Álvaro de Abranches da Câmara, who ordered the construction of modern fortifications, *"with four or five redoubts, placing within it a Church and the Castle"*. This project was undertaken by João Saldanha e Sousa, and was in rudimentary progress by January 1641\. This first fortification consisted of trenches. By November the Provincial Governor was established in Almeida, who transformed the installation into a military square. This became the fortress that stands on the site today, surrounding the previous medieval castle. Completed in 1641, it was 12 pointed\-star shaped.According to the plans of the french engineer Antoine de Ville Responsibility for the project was by the architect David Álvares. The fortress was built in a [Vaubanesque](/wiki/S%C3%A9bastien_Le_Prestre_de_Vauban "Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban") style, to which the French military engineer is believed to have personally been involved during end of its construction.{{citation\|title\=Portugal \- Cadogan guides\|last\=Evans\|first\=David\|publisher\=New Holland Publishers\|date\=2004\|isbn\=1860111262\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/portugal5thcadog00davi/page/200 200]\|work\=Reference to Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban participation in the construction\|url\=https://archive.org/details/portugal5thcadog00davi/page/200}} Between 1641 and 1643, architect Álvares was the superintendent on site, *"administrating the representatives, masons and more workers and assisting personally in the work at the fortifications"*.ALVES, p. 64 As he did not receive a wage for his work, he requested and received an exemption to the tithe. In 1642, Fernão Teles de Menezes decided to build a trench of stone and clay. King D. [John IV](/wiki/John_IV_of_Portugal "John IV of Portugal") ordered his royal engineer, Carlos Lassart, to design and reconnoitre the fortifications in the Entre Douro, Minho and Beira regions. Fernão Teles Cotão became responsible for the project between 1642 and 1646\. On 28 February 1643, a royal dispatch ordered Carlos Lassart to, as each fortification was being expanded, leave an official oriented to continue the project. Sometime around this time, French engineer Pierre Gilles de Saint Paul began serving the Crown within the Beira province, possibly directing some of the work in Almeida. By 1644, the fortress was described as having an open curtain of walls. As João Salgado de Araújo, indicated the execution of the Royal fortifications included an imposing structure of seven redoubts. On 25 February 1645, the Military Governor for Beira was D. Fernando de Mascaranhas, Count of Serém, who immediately ordered that the square be reduced in size. In that year, Spanish forces attempted to attack the town, without success. In 1646, Pierre Girles was substituted in the public works by lieutenant\-general Rodrigo Soares Pantoja, and the Governor of the Province immediately ordered the dimensions of the square be reduced. Yet, the following year, work on the fortress was expanded by sergeant\-major Agostinho de Andrade Freire. Similarly, in 1657, D. Rodrigo de Castro, Governor of Almeida, increased work on the fortification, ordering large changes its profile and organization. Sometime during the 17th century, the castle began being used to store gunpowder. In 1661, from the writings of the Count of Mesquitela, the square was not yet totally encircled, and was accessible from the town at various places and had no moat. On 2 July 1663, Spanish forces attacked the fort, but were repelled, but there were constant fears of Spanish invasion. On 11 September 1663 the Province of Beira was divided into two regions, due to its large frontier. The region of Almeida came under the control of Pedro Jacques e Magalhães, Master of the General Camp of the province, who established his post in the town. In order to safeguard his new post, in 1665, the public works on the fortress were adjudicated to businessmen António Francisco Maio and Domingos Vaz Heredes, but were later (16679 conceded to João Gonçalves and Manuel Fernandes, without discord. On 13 February 1668, Portugal and Spain signed a peace treaty, temporarily ending conflict between the two Iberian neighbours. The lull in hostilities did not dissuade Portuguese forces who vigorously continued work on the fortress, beginning with the left lateral walls near the Santo António Gate. In 1676, the magistral gate of Santo António and transition space to the ravelin of Cruz were begun. The Chapel of Vera Cruz was demolished in 1680, in order for the fortifications walls to be extended. Meanwhile, in 1695, there was an explosion in the castle, causing the death of 40 people and a large damage to the residences and fortifications nearby. This damage caused a change in the configuration of the castle. Between 1702 and 1714, during the War of Spanish Succession, Almeida began to serve as a garrison for troops, and base of operations for forces in Beira. In May 1704, Portugal was invaded by Spanish troops. Conflict between the two states would continue until February 1715, when a peace treaty was signed. In 1736, an explosion occurred in the warehouse of the bastion of São Pedro, at the same time that double ravelin was added to the fortress. Between 1737 and 1738, work at the site was directed by the Royal engineer Manuel de Azevedo Fortes, assisted by engineers Pinto de Alpoim and Jacinto Lopes da Costa. Manuel de Azevedo Fortes proposed the construction of: mounted horseman over the bastion of São João de Deus; a kitchen in front of the ravelin dos Amores; "tenalham" in front of the walls between the bastions of São Pedro and Santo António; vaults for defense of the moats, in front of all the walls, except in the rear and gates; a powder magazine alongside the castle; two bomb\-proof barracks under the bulwarks of São Francisco and Santa Bárbara; the division of the ravelin de Santo António into two separate corpos per moat and with gate to the east; and openings for posterns in the bastions of São Pedro, São Francisco and walls between the bastions of São João de Deus and Santa Bárbara. A majority of the proposed projects were not executed, and only the gates of São Francisco and some ravelins were begun. Between 1746 and 1747, lands was expropriated for execution of the fortress. On 1 November 1755, the [famous Lisbon earthquake](/wiki/1755_Lisbon_earthquake "1755 Lisbon earthquake") caused damage to the walls and destruction of the infantry barracks. by March 1762, the fortress had largely attained its current dimensions and profile, even as the ravelins were not concluded, nor the esplanade and battlements. At this time the works were under the direction of João Alexandre de Charmont, along with engineers João Victoire Aliron de Sabione, Luís de Alincourt, Vasco José Charpententier, Pedro Vicente Vidal and António Carlos Andreis. Work had begun on the kitchen in front of the ravelin of Santa Bárbara; correction of the parapets were undertaken, owing to their sub\-dimension, eliminating the road the circled it; construction of lateral paths in the walls between the bastions of São João de Deus and Santa Bárbara, and the bulwarks of São Pedro and Santo António; substitution of stone in the battlements and partial reconstruction of the covering. Charmont left with his success, António Carlos Andreis, a long list of works to be executed. A few of the request projects were considered inconvenient to the military engineers, and were changed. ### Seven Years' War As part of the circumstances of the [Seven Years' War](/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War "Seven Years' War"), on 18 May 1762, Portugal declared war on France and Spain. By June, work on covering the casemates in the bastion of São João de Deus were progressing, although Francisco Maclean has suggested making them bomb\-proof. On 15 June, Spain declared war on Portugal and concentrated a large number of Spanish and French along the frontiers of Beira. Meanwhile, work on the fortress continued, with the construction of platforms in wood and the opening of canon emplacements in the bastions. The excessive number of canons emplacements executed put in cause the defenses' resistance, and many had to be closed. {{main\|Siege of Almeida (1762\)}} Then, the fortress was besieged by Spanish forces for nine days between 16 and the 25 August 1762\.{{cite book \|title\=Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles from Antiquity through the Twenty\-first Century, Volume 1, A to E \|last\=Jaques \|first\=Tony \|publisher\=Greenwood \|year\=2007 \|isbn\=9780313335372 \|page\=37 \|work\=reference to the nine\-day siege and its outcome}} Known later as the *Siege of Almeida*, Spanish forces under the command of [Count of Aranda](/wiki/Pedro_Pablo_Abarca_de_Bolea%2C_10th_Count_of_Aranda "Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, 10th Count of Aranda") lead a major offensive to take control of Portugal. The northern pincer of this force crossed the border into Portugal from [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Spain%29 "Galicia (Spain)"), while the southern arm crossed the frontier from [Ciudad Rodrigo](/wiki/Ciudad_Rodrigo "Ciudad Rodrigo") and was soon outside Almeida. On the 25 August, Portuguese forces capitulated to the Spanish and advanced west towards [Porto](/wiki/Porto "Porto"). This advance towards *Porto* was stalled due to the influx of 8,000 [British troops](/wiki/British_Army "British Army") and the [Battle of Valencia de Alcántara](/wiki/Battle_of_Valencia_de_Alc%C3%A1ntara "Battle of Valencia de Alcántara"), events which interfered with Spanish resources and supply lines. The Almeida fortress was garrisoned by the Spanish and held, despite the set\-backs. Almeida remained the only major fortress still held by Spain by the end of the war. On 3 November 1762, the peace treaty of Fontainebleau was signed, leading to the 10 February 1763 [Treaty of Paris](/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_%281763%29 "Treaty of Paris (1763)"), ending the Seven Years' War. As part of the treaty, on 11 April 1763 Almeida was devolved to Portugal, when Field Marshall Francisco Maclean accepted Spanish surrender, in exchange for the return of [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba "Cuba") and the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines "Philippines") to Spain, which had previously been in the hands of the [British](/wiki/Great_Britain "Great Britain"). On 9 May 1764, the Count of Lippe reexamined the batteries, and Miguel Luís Jacob surveyed the state of the military square, along with their adjuncts, Francisco João Roscio and Francisco Gomes de Lima. On 30 January 1766, Maclean obtained regal authorization to proceed with work at the site, that included latrines for soldiers. A "General Plan for Additional Necessary Works for the Defense of the City of Almeida" was elaborated by Colonel Almeida Jacques Funck. Miguel Luís Jacob became director for the public works. While insisting that most of the work was necessary, little was executed. But, in 1766, a gunpowder magazine was constructed at the bastion of São Pedro, substituting the one that existed on the embankment, along with a similar one at the ravelin of Santa Bárbara. In 1773, the Field Marshall was substituted for Fernando da Costa Ataíde Theive. On 9 March 1770, *"Extracto de apontamentos sobre o estado atual desta fortificação, dos Reparos e Obras novas de q. Necessita..."* (*Extract of notes on the actual state of these fortifications, its Artillery and new public works that are Needed...*) by engineer Anastácio António de Sousa Miranda, which proposed several projects until 1810\. The work would be under the direction of Matias José Dias Azedo, assisted by Joaquim Pedro Pinto de Sousa and José Feliciano de Gouveia. On 21 November 1796, they solicited the construction of a battery where the enemy had constructed a temporary installation. ### Peninsular Wars In 1800, First Consul [Napoleon Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte "Napoleon Bonaparte") and his ally, the Spanish prime\-minister [Manuel de Godoy](/wiki/Manuel_de_Godoy "Manuel de Godoy"), sent an ultimatum to Portugal demanding that they should close their shipping to their old ally England (in the Anglo\-Portuguese Treaty of 1373\), and to enter into an alliance with France. The Portuguese refused and on 28 February 1801, France declared war on Portugal, followed on 2 March by Spanish declarations to support its alliance with France: instituting the [War of the Oranges](/wiki/War_of_the_Oranges "War of the Oranges"). The defense of Beira was left to the Marquess of Alorna, and the fortress was under the command of Field Marshall Gustavo Adolfo Hércules de Chermont, who accelerated the execution of complimentary plan presented in 1795 and 1796, and expressed the urgency of erecting an embankment over the bastion of São João de Deus. Spain invaded from the Alentejo and over the following months entered into a stalemate with Portuguese forces at Elvas, Campo Maior, Olivença and Juromenha. On 6 June 1801 Portugal entered into a formal peace treaty with Spain on the tenets of the [Treaty of Badajoz](/wiki/Treaty_of_Badajoz_%281801%29 "Treaty of Badajoz (1801)"), which was formalized with France on 29 September. But, after the [Battle of Trafalgar](/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar "Battle of Trafalgar") in 1805, Portugal restored relations with its old ally. In December 1806, Napoleon decreed the Continental Blockade, imposing on Europe the forced closing of ports to English ships, which Portugal did not accept. Napoleon, therefore, ordered the invasion of Portugal. On 20 November 1807, the first invasion, commanded by [Jean\-Andoche Junot](/wiki/Jean-Andoche_Junot "Jean-Andoche Junot"), began,{{cite book\|title\=Napoleon and Iberia \- The Twin Sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida, 1810\|last\=Horward\|first\=Donald D.\|publisher\=Greenhill Books\|date\=1984\|isbn\=9781853671838\|pages\=3/4\|work\=Reference occupation of the Fortress of Almeida by Loison}} resulting in the 13 January 1808 taking of the fortress, without resistance. The French left in August, and the Portuguese named Colonel Francisco Bernardo da Costa as the Governor of Almeida. Following [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon "Napoleon")'s brutal repression of the Spanish [Dos de Mayo Uprising](/wiki/Dos_de_Mayo_Uprising "Dos de Mayo Uprising") in [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid "Madrid"), the [Emperor](/wiki/Emperor_of_the_French "Emperor of the French") triggered the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War "Peninsular War") by ordering a force of 4,000 troops with sixteen cannon across the border to occupy the fortress of Almeida, which despite the earlier French invasion of the country, was still in the hands of the Portuguese. From the fortress, Napoleon ordered that his [general](/wiki/General_officer "General officer") [Junot](/wiki/Jean-Andoche_Junot "Jean-Andoche Junot") should closely observe the cities of [Valladolid](/wiki/Valladolid "Valladolid"), [Salamanca](/wiki/Salamanca "Salamanca") and [Ciudad Rodrigo](/wiki/Ciudad_Rodrigo "Ciudad Rodrigo"). On the 24 May 1808 the first body of troops under the command of General [Louis\-Henri Loison](/wiki/Louis_Henri_Loison "Louis Henri Loison") marched on to Almeida, arriving and occupying the fortress on 5 June. In February 1809, the second French invasion began under the command of Marshal [Soult](/wiki/Jean_Soult "Jean Soult"), but never reached Almeida. {{main\|Siege of Almeida (1810\)}} Then on 15 August 1810, [André Masséna](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Mass%C3%A9na "André Masséna") began the third intervention, bombarding the fortress, now under the command of British Brigadier General William Cox. On 26 August, a shell made a chance hit on the medieval castle within the fortress, which was being used as the powder magazine. It ignited 4,000 prepared charges, which in turn ignited {{convert\|68000\|kg\|lb}} of black powder and 1,000,000 musket cartridges. The ensuing explosion killed 600 defenders and wounded 300\. The medieval castle was razed to the ground and sections of the defenses were damaged. Unable to reply to the French cannonade without gunpowder, Cox was forced to capitulate the following day with the survivors of the blast and 100 cannon. The French losses during the operation were 58 killed and 320 wounded. Masséna left the fortress in the hands of General Brenier. On 7 April 1811, Wellington planned the retaking of Almeida. On 7 May, Masséna ordered the destruction of the fortress, so that Anglo\-Portuguese forces could not use it in the future. With that, on 10 May, as French abandoned the installation through the bastion of São João de Deus, they caused the destruction of the artillery within the fortress. Almeida, therefore, was retaken by troops of the Alliance and held provisionally. On 7 June 1813, Colonel Pedro Folque worked on a project for the revitalizing the fortress. Within the year, the war with France was over. [William Carr Beresford](/wiki/William_Carr_Beresford "William Carr Beresford") proposed to the Minister of War that the fortress should be dismantled and that the artillery should be removed. On 3 March 1817, Beresford ordered that work on the fort should cease and that the fortification should be mined, which began in October, against the wishes of the Governor of Almeida. In 1819, the Governor ordered the square be buried, and that the castle be transformed into a parkway or promenade. These changes made the fortress a campaign fort, providing monumental defensive functions, in times of crisis. ### Liberal Wars In 1828, the municipal authority sided with King D. [Miguel](/wiki/Miguel_of_Portugal "Miguel of Portugal"), but the military garrison at fortress remains loyal to King D. [Pedro](/wiki/Peter_IV_of_Portugal "Peter IV of Portugal"). By June, Miguelist/absolutist forces had the fortress encircled, leading to their surrender by 16 July. Miguelist troops then remained at Almeida until 18 April 1834, when they were evacuated. On 22 April, a Quadruple Alliance was signed between Liberal forces of England, France, Spain and Portugal, that required their intervention in the defence of Liberal parliamentary institutions. These events, ultimately, lead to the 26 May signing of the peace treaty at Evoramonte, forcing D. Miguel into exile, and beginning a period of free Liberal thinking in Portugal. Quickly, though, factionalism between Devourists, Chartists and Setembrists developed into a series of episodes that enriched internal politics, leading to internal strife and civil war. On 29 June 1847, the [Convention of Gramido](/wiki/Convention_of_Gramido "Convention of Gramido") put an end to the civil war, not before the fortress was taken by revolutionary forces in 1844 interested in reinstating the 1822 Constitution. In 1853, Marshall [Duke of Saldanha](/wiki/Duke_of_Saldanha "Duke of Saldanha"), commander of the Portuguese army, named a commission to examine the fortifications at Almeida and decide its military future. The commission took another year to visit the square, which they saw as one of the strongest of the Kingdom, and suggestion it should be repaired. Many of the required alterations and repairs were documented. On 27 August 1887, the fortress of Almeida returns to its classification as a first\-class fortification, and on 7 January 1888, a new military Governor is appointed. This "golden era" would be short\-lived: in September 1893, after public review, the fortress was partially destroyed, during the course of improving the accessibility and converting it from a defense fortification. In 1894 the majority of artillery pieces were removed, leading to the 28 June 1895 declassification of the square by the *Comissão Superior de Guerra* (*Superior Commission for War*). ### 20th century At the beginning of the 20th century, connections were made between the ravelin and magistral gate of Cruz. In October 1926, a cavalry contingent with its headquarters in Aveiro departed for Almeida. The Ministry of War obliged the squadron to return to their barracks, on 26 January 1927, but they only departed on 19 February 1927\. Starting in 1980, the fortress began to take on a socio\-cultural and historical function, with the installation of multiple exhibitions and centres for investigation. In that year, a military museum was inaugurated in the Gate of Cruz. A tourism post was inaugurated in the magistral gate in 1992\. As well, the fortress was placed in charge of the *Instituto Português do Património Arquitetónico* (*Portuguese Institute of Architectural Patrimony*) by decree 106F/92 (Diário da República, Série 1A), in the same year, resulting in a permanent exhibition dedicated to the 23rd Infantry Regiment, along with activity space for scouts and multi\-use halls in the guardhouse of the Santo António Gate was installed in 1996\. Ultimately, on 25 August 2002, the *Centro de Estudos de Arquitectura Militar* (*Centre for Studies into Military Architecture*) was implanted in the ravelin of Santo António. On 20 December 2007, the property became the responsibility of the *Direção Regional da Cultura do Centro* (*Centro Region Directorate for Culture*), under auspices of the dispatch 1130/2007 (Diário da República, Série 2, 245\).
[ "History\n-------", "Portuguese settlements in the north were conveniently constructed on hilltops, providing protection to local populations from raids. During the Roman Iberian invasion/occupation many of these settlements were converted into fortified villages, due to their strategic positions. The first defensive structures were believed to be constructed by these colonists, who worked in the older [castros](/wiki/Castro_culture \"Castro culture\") into their fortifications.", "Roman occupation of the territory was followed by successive waves of [Suevi](/wiki/Suebi \"Suebi\") and the [Visigoths](/wiki/Visigoths \"Visigoths\") who repurposed the structures. Muslim settlers, later known as [Moors](/wiki/Moors \"Moors\"), occupied the settlements during the [Taifa of Badajoz](/wiki/Taifa_of_Badajoz \"Taifa of Badajoz\"). The lands of Almeida were conquered from these Moors in 1039, by [Ferdinand I of León](/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Le%C3%B3n \"Ferdinand I of León\") and Castile, but remained contentious between 1156 and 1190, when they alternated between León, Moors and Portucalense forces. In 1190, the territory was [reconquered](/wiki/Reconquista \"Reconquista\") from the Moors by Pio Guterres, named the *Almeidão*, effectively ending Moorish dominance in the region and inspiring the name for the village. From here the lands alternated between Leonese and Portuguese, and by 1217 Almeida was recorded as a Leonese village, part of a group of settlements that protected the Côa valley.", "### Medieval", "[235px\\|thumb\\|left\\|Castle of Almeida in the [Book of Fortresses](/wiki/Livro_das_Fortalezas \"Livro das Fortalezas\"), compiled by Duarte D'Armas in 1510](/wiki/File:Livro_das_Fortalezas_73-_Almeida.jpg \"Livro das Fortalezas 73- Almeida.jpg\")\nBy 1217, documents show that the castle at *Almeida* is one of several strong points that guard the border between Spain and Portugal. On 8 November 1296, King D. [Dinis](/wiki/Denis_of_Portugal \"Denis of Portugal\") issued a [foral](/wiki/Foral \"Foral\") (*charter*) to Almeida, ordering the re\\-construction of a castle and walls. This structure was expanded in 1369 by order of D. [Ferdinand](/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Portugal \"Ferdinand I of Portugal\").", "In 1372, [Isabella](/wiki/Isabella_of_Portugal%2C_Lady_of_Viseu \"Isabella of Portugal, Lady of Viseu\") the illegitimate daughter of Ferdinand I, married Alfonso, Count of Gijón and Noroña, who was the illegitimate son of King [Henrique II of Castile](/wiki/Henry_II_of_Castile \"Henry II of Castile\"). This marriage was one of the clauses of the peace treaty signed between Portugal and Castile in 1373, along with the castle and lands of *Almeida* been ceded to *Castile* for three years.", "In 1383, during the Succession Crisis, the castle's [alcalde](/wiki/Alcalde \"Alcalde\") swore fealty to D. Beatriz, and aligned himself with Castile, resulting in the 1386 conquest of Almeida by King D. [John I](/wiki/John_I_of_Portugal \"John I of Portugal\"), through the assistance of Portuguese nobles in Castile, securing the Portuguese throne. The village began to pertain to the Crown of Portugal in 1407, with the exchange of lands arranged between King John and the alcalde. King D. [Afonso V](/wiki/Afonso_V_of_Portugal \"Afonso V of Portugal\") donated Almeida to D. Pedro de Menezes.", "During the reign of King [Manuel I](/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal \"Manuel I of Portugal\") the strengthening and enlargement of the castle's walls and fortifications were ordered. The works were carried out under the instruction of the architect [Mateus Fernandes](/wiki/Mateus_Fernandes_%28architect%29 \"Mateus Fernandes (architect)\") and were completed in 1508\\. In a letter dated 9 September 1508, King Manuel gave instructions to stonemason Álvaro Pires to examine the works, to which he assigned Francsico de Anzinho master of works, to undertake the task for 1$550\\. On 27 October, D. Manuel ordered payment of mason Martim Lourenço for his work in Almeida, to *\"look at the work that was completed by Francisco de Anzinho\"*. Almeida Castle was included in a set of manuscripts formed into a book which contained drawings of all 56 castles located on the border between Portugal and Spain. The book, called the [Book of Fortresses](/wiki/Livro_das_Fortalezas \"Livro das Fortalezas\"), had been ordered compiled by [King Manuel I](/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Portugal \"Manuel I of Portugal\"), was completed between 1509 and 1510\\. The author was Duarte D'Armas, a squire of the Royal Household and a bachelor of [canon law](/wiki/Canon_law \"Canon law\") and apostolic notary, who held the office of Registrar of the Royal Library and [Torre do Tombo](/wiki/Torre_do_Tombo_National_Archive \"Torre do Tombo National Archive\"). He personally visited each castle and fortress for the purpose. There are two drawings of the castle at Almeida Castle in the book; a northern elevation and a southern elevation with both castle drawings bearing the personal standard of King Manuel I, who issued a new foral in 1510\\.", "### Restoration Wars", "[235px\\|left\\|thumb\\|A plan of the castle/fortress of Almeida](/wiki/File:Fortress_of_Almeida.jpg \"Fortress of Almeida.jpg\")\nFrom 1517, buildings in the town were demolished for the fortress project. In addition, a tax of $100 was levied on each person for the project, which included walls and garrison.", "But, between 1580 and 1640, the defensive structures began to decay and fall into ruin. Following [John IV of Portugal](/wiki/John_IV_of_Portugal \"John IV of Portugal\")'s [restoration](/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War \"Portuguese Restoration War\") of the Crown of Portugal, on 1 December 1640, the monarch sought to consolidate and strengthen his throne, making decisions to strengthen his military control of the territory. He created a *Council of War* to organize the Kingdom's security along with a *Junta of the Frontiers*. This Junta had the responsibility of reviewing and strengthening the existing fortresses near the border. One of the Junta's projects was the construction of a new defensive structure at Almeida.", "Following 1640, the first Military Governor for Beira was established, D. Álvaro de Abranches da Câmara, who ordered the construction of modern fortifications, *\"with four or five redoubts, placing within it a Church and the Castle\"*. This project was undertaken by João Saldanha e Sousa, and was in rudimentary progress by January 1641\\. This first fortification consisted of trenches. By November the Provincial Governor was established in Almeida, who transformed the installation into a military square.", "This became the fortress that stands on the site today, surrounding the previous medieval castle. Completed in 1641, it was 12 pointed\\-star shaped.According to the plans of the french engineer Antoine de Ville Responsibility for the project was by the architect David Álvares. The fortress was built in a [Vaubanesque](/wiki/S%C3%A9bastien_Le_Prestre_de_Vauban \"Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban\") style, to which the French military engineer is believed to have personally been involved during end of its construction.{{citation\\|title\\=Portugal \\- Cadogan guides\\|last\\=Evans\\|first\\=David\\|publisher\\=New Holland Publishers\\|date\\=2004\\|isbn\\=1860111262\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/portugal5thcadog00davi/page/200 200]\\|work\\=Reference to Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban participation in the construction\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/portugal5thcadog00davi/page/200}}", "Between 1641 and 1643, architect Álvares was the superintendent on site, *\"administrating the representatives, masons and more workers and assisting personally in the work at the fortifications\"*.ALVES, p. 64 As he did not receive a wage for his work, he requested and received an exemption to the tithe. In 1642, Fernão Teles de Menezes decided to build a trench of stone and clay. King D. [John IV](/wiki/John_IV_of_Portugal \"John IV of Portugal\") ordered his royal engineer, Carlos Lassart, to design and reconnoitre the fortifications in the Entre Douro, Minho and Beira regions. Fernão Teles Cotão became responsible for the project between 1642 and 1646\\. On 28 February 1643, a royal dispatch ordered Carlos Lassart to, as each fortification was being expanded, leave an official oriented to continue the project. Sometime around this time, French engineer Pierre Gilles de Saint Paul began serving the Crown within the Beira province, possibly directing some of the work in Almeida. By 1644, the fortress was described as having an open curtain of walls. As João Salgado de Araújo, indicated the execution of the Royal fortifications included an imposing structure of seven redoubts.", "On 25 February 1645, the Military Governor for Beira was D. Fernando de Mascaranhas, Count of Serém, who immediately ordered that the square be reduced in size. In that year, Spanish forces attempted to attack the town, without success.", "In 1646, Pierre Girles was substituted in the public works by lieutenant\\-general Rodrigo Soares Pantoja, and the Governor of the Province immediately ordered the dimensions of the square be reduced. Yet, the following year, work on the fortress was expanded by sergeant\\-major Agostinho de Andrade Freire. Similarly, in 1657, D. Rodrigo de Castro, Governor of Almeida, increased work on the fortification, ordering large changes its profile and organization. Sometime during the 17th century, the castle began being used to store gunpowder. In 1661, from the writings of the Count of Mesquitela, the square was not yet totally encircled, and was accessible from the town at various places and had no moat.", "On 2 July 1663, Spanish forces attacked the fort, but were repelled, but there were constant fears of Spanish invasion. On 11 September 1663 the Province of Beira was divided into two regions, due to its large frontier. The region of Almeida came under the control of Pedro Jacques e Magalhães, Master of the General Camp of the province, who established his post in the town. In order to safeguard his new post, in 1665, the public works on the fortress were adjudicated to businessmen António Francisco Maio and Domingos Vaz Heredes, but were later (16679 conceded to João Gonçalves and Manuel Fernandes, without discord. On 13 February 1668, Portugal and Spain signed a peace treaty, temporarily ending conflict between the two Iberian neighbours.", "The lull in hostilities did not dissuade Portuguese forces who vigorously continued work on the fortress, beginning with the left lateral walls near the Santo António Gate. In 1676, the magistral gate of Santo António and transition space to the ravelin of Cruz were begun. The Chapel of Vera Cruz was demolished in 1680, in order for the fortifications walls to be extended. Meanwhile, in 1695, there was an explosion in the castle, causing the death of 40 people and a large damage to the residences and fortifications nearby. This damage caused a change in the configuration of the castle.", "Between 1702 and 1714, during the War of Spanish Succession, Almeida began to serve as a garrison for troops, and base of operations for forces in Beira. In May 1704, Portugal was invaded by Spanish troops. Conflict between the two states would continue until February 1715, when a peace treaty was signed.", "In 1736, an explosion occurred in the warehouse of the bastion of São Pedro, at the same time that double ravelin was added to the fortress. Between 1737 and 1738, work at the site was directed by the Royal engineer Manuel de Azevedo Fortes, assisted by engineers Pinto de Alpoim and Jacinto Lopes da Costa. Manuel de Azevedo Fortes proposed the construction of: mounted horseman over the bastion of São João de Deus; a kitchen in front of the ravelin dos Amores; \"tenalham\" in front of the walls between the bastions of São Pedro and Santo António; vaults for defense of the moats, in front of all the walls, except in the rear and gates; a powder magazine alongside the castle; two bomb\\-proof barracks under the bulwarks of São Francisco and Santa Bárbara; the division of the ravelin de Santo António into two separate corpos per moat and with gate to the east; and openings for posterns in the bastions of São Pedro, São Francisco and walls between the bastions of São João de Deus and Santa Bárbara. A majority of the proposed projects were not executed, and only the gates of São Francisco and some ravelins were begun. Between 1746 and 1747, lands was expropriated for execution of the fortress. On 1 November 1755, the [famous Lisbon earthquake](/wiki/1755_Lisbon_earthquake \"1755 Lisbon earthquake\") caused damage to the walls and destruction of the infantry barracks.", "by March 1762, the fortress had largely attained its current dimensions and profile, even as the ravelins were not concluded, nor the esplanade and battlements. At this time the works were under the direction of João Alexandre de Charmont, along with engineers João Victoire Aliron de Sabione, Luís de Alincourt, Vasco José Charpententier, Pedro Vicente Vidal and António Carlos Andreis. Work had begun on the kitchen in front of the ravelin of Santa Bárbara; correction of the parapets were undertaken, owing to their sub\\-dimension, eliminating the road the circled it; construction of lateral paths in the walls between the bastions of São João de Deus and Santa Bárbara, and the bulwarks of São Pedro and Santo António; substitution of stone in the battlements and partial reconstruction of the covering. Charmont left with his success, António Carlos Andreis, a long list of works to be executed. A few of the request projects were considered inconvenient to the military engineers, and were changed.", "### Seven Years' War", "As part of the circumstances of the [Seven Years' War](/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War \"Seven Years' War\"), on 18 May 1762, Portugal declared war on France and Spain. By June, work on covering the casemates in the bastion of São João de Deus were progressing, although Francisco Maclean has suggested making them bomb\\-proof. On 15 June, Spain declared war on Portugal and concentrated a large number of Spanish and French along the frontiers of Beira. Meanwhile, work on the fortress continued, with the construction of platforms in wood and the opening of canon emplacements in the bastions. The excessive number of canons emplacements executed put in cause the defenses' resistance, and many had to be closed.", "{{main\\|Siege of Almeida (1762\\)}}\nThen, the fortress was besieged by Spanish forces for nine days between 16 and the 25 August 1762\\.{{cite book \\|title\\=Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles from Antiquity through the Twenty\\-first Century, Volume 1, A to E \\|last\\=Jaques \\|first\\=Tony \\|publisher\\=Greenwood \\|year\\=2007 \\|isbn\\=9780313335372 \\|page\\=37 \\|work\\=reference to the nine\\-day siege and its outcome}} Known later as the *Siege of Almeida*, Spanish forces under the command of [Count of Aranda](/wiki/Pedro_Pablo_Abarca_de_Bolea%2C_10th_Count_of_Aranda \"Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea, 10th Count of Aranda\") lead a major offensive to take control of Portugal. The northern pincer of this force crossed the border into Portugal from [Galicia](/wiki/Galicia_%28Spain%29 \"Galicia (Spain)\"), while the southern arm crossed the frontier from [Ciudad Rodrigo](/wiki/Ciudad_Rodrigo \"Ciudad Rodrigo\") and was soon outside Almeida. On the 25 August, Portuguese forces capitulated to the Spanish and advanced west towards [Porto](/wiki/Porto \"Porto\"). This advance towards *Porto* was stalled due to the influx of 8,000 [British troops](/wiki/British_Army \"British Army\") and the [Battle of Valencia de Alcántara](/wiki/Battle_of_Valencia_de_Alc%C3%A1ntara \"Battle of Valencia de Alcántara\"), events which interfered with Spanish resources and supply lines. The Almeida fortress was garrisoned by the Spanish and held, despite the set\\-backs. Almeida remained the only major fortress still held by Spain by the end of the war. On 3 November 1762, the peace treaty of Fontainebleau was signed, leading to the 10 February 1763 [Treaty of Paris](/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_%281763%29 \"Treaty of Paris (1763)\"), ending the Seven Years' War. As part of the treaty, on 11 April 1763 Almeida was devolved to Portugal, when Field Marshall Francisco Maclean accepted Spanish surrender, in exchange for the return of [Cuba](/wiki/Cuba \"Cuba\") and the [Philippines](/wiki/Philippines \"Philippines\") to Spain, which had previously been in the hands of the [British](/wiki/Great_Britain \"Great Britain\").", "On 9 May 1764, the Count of Lippe reexamined the batteries, and Miguel Luís Jacob surveyed the state of the military square, along with their adjuncts, Francisco João Roscio and Francisco Gomes de Lima. On 30 January 1766, Maclean obtained regal authorization to proceed with work at the site, that included latrines for soldiers. A \"General Plan for Additional Necessary Works for the Defense of the City of Almeida\" was elaborated by Colonel Almeida Jacques Funck. Miguel Luís Jacob became director for the public works. While insisting that most of the work was necessary, little was executed. But, in 1766, a gunpowder magazine was constructed at the bastion of São Pedro, substituting the one that existed on the embankment, along with a similar one at the ravelin of Santa Bárbara. In 1773, the Field Marshall was substituted for Fernando da Costa Ataíde Theive. On 9 March 1770, *\"Extracto de apontamentos sobre o estado atual desta fortificação, dos Reparos e Obras novas de q. Necessita...\"* (*Extract of notes on the actual state of these fortifications, its Artillery and new public works that are Needed...*) by engineer Anastácio António de Sousa Miranda, which proposed several projects until 1810\\. The work would be under the direction of Matias José Dias Azedo, assisted by Joaquim Pedro Pinto de Sousa and José Feliciano de Gouveia. On 21 November 1796, they solicited the construction of a battery where the enemy had constructed a temporary installation.", "### Peninsular Wars", "In 1800, First Consul [Napoleon Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte \"Napoleon Bonaparte\") and his ally, the Spanish prime\\-minister [Manuel de Godoy](/wiki/Manuel_de_Godoy \"Manuel de Godoy\"), sent an ultimatum to Portugal demanding that they should close their shipping to their old ally England (in the Anglo\\-Portuguese Treaty of 1373\\), and to enter into an alliance with France. The Portuguese refused and on 28 February 1801, France declared war on Portugal, followed on 2 March by Spanish declarations to support its alliance with France: instituting the [War of the Oranges](/wiki/War_of_the_Oranges \"War of the Oranges\"). The defense of Beira was left to the Marquess of Alorna, and the fortress was under the command of Field Marshall Gustavo Adolfo Hércules de Chermont, who accelerated the execution of complimentary plan presented in 1795 and 1796, and expressed the urgency of erecting an embankment over the bastion of São João de Deus. Spain invaded from the Alentejo and over the following months entered into a stalemate with Portuguese forces at Elvas, Campo Maior, Olivença and Juromenha. On 6 June 1801 Portugal entered into a formal peace treaty with Spain on the tenets of the [Treaty of Badajoz](/wiki/Treaty_of_Badajoz_%281801%29 \"Treaty of Badajoz (1801)\"), which was formalized with France on 29 September. But, after the [Battle of Trafalgar](/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar \"Battle of Trafalgar\") in 1805, Portugal restored relations with its old ally.", "In December 1806, Napoleon decreed the Continental Blockade, imposing on Europe the forced closing of ports to English ships, which Portugal did not accept. Napoleon, therefore, ordered the invasion of Portugal. On 20 November 1807, the first invasion, commanded by [Jean\\-Andoche Junot](/wiki/Jean-Andoche_Junot \"Jean-Andoche Junot\"), began,{{cite book\\|title\\=Napoleon and Iberia \\- The Twin Sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo and Almeida, 1810\\|last\\=Horward\\|first\\=Donald D.\\|publisher\\=Greenhill Books\\|date\\=1984\\|isbn\\=9781853671838\\|pages\\=3/4\\|work\\=Reference occupation of the Fortress of Almeida by Loison}} resulting in the 13 January 1808 taking of the fortress, without resistance. The French left in August, and the Portuguese named Colonel Francisco Bernardo da Costa as the Governor of Almeida.", "Following [Napoleon](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\")'s brutal repression of the Spanish [Dos de Mayo Uprising](/wiki/Dos_de_Mayo_Uprising \"Dos de Mayo Uprising\") in [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid \"Madrid\"), the [Emperor](/wiki/Emperor_of_the_French \"Emperor of the French\") triggered the [Peninsular War](/wiki/Peninsular_War \"Peninsular War\") by ordering a force of 4,000 troops with sixteen cannon across the border to occupy the fortress of Almeida, which despite the earlier French invasion of the country, was still in the hands of the Portuguese. From the fortress, Napoleon ordered that his [general](/wiki/General_officer \"General officer\") [Junot](/wiki/Jean-Andoche_Junot \"Jean-Andoche Junot\") should closely observe the cities of [Valladolid](/wiki/Valladolid \"Valladolid\"), [Salamanca](/wiki/Salamanca \"Salamanca\") and [Ciudad Rodrigo](/wiki/Ciudad_Rodrigo \"Ciudad Rodrigo\"). On the 24 May 1808 the first body of troops under the command of General [Louis\\-Henri Loison](/wiki/Louis_Henri_Loison \"Louis Henri Loison\") marched on to Almeida, arriving and occupying the fortress on 5 June.", "In February 1809, the second French invasion began under the command of Marshal [Soult](/wiki/Jean_Soult \"Jean Soult\"), but never reached Almeida.", "{{main\\|Siege of Almeida (1810\\)}}\nThen on 15 August 1810, [André Masséna](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Mass%C3%A9na \"André Masséna\") began the third intervention, bombarding the fortress, now under the command of British Brigadier General William Cox. On 26 August, a shell made a chance hit on the medieval castle within the fortress, which was being used as the powder magazine. It ignited 4,000 prepared charges, which in turn ignited {{convert\\|68000\\|kg\\|lb}} of black powder and 1,000,000 musket cartridges. The ensuing explosion killed 600 defenders and wounded 300\\. The medieval castle was razed to the ground and sections of the defenses were damaged. Unable to reply to the French cannonade without gunpowder, Cox was forced to capitulate the following day with the survivors of the blast and 100 cannon. The French losses during the operation were 58 killed and 320 wounded. Masséna left the fortress in the hands of General Brenier. On 7 April 1811, Wellington planned the retaking of Almeida. On 7 May, Masséna ordered the destruction of the fortress, so that Anglo\\-Portuguese forces could not use it in the future. With that, on 10 May, as French abandoned the installation through the bastion of São João de Deus, they caused the destruction of the artillery within the fortress. Almeida, therefore, was retaken by troops of the Alliance and held provisionally. On 7 June 1813, Colonel Pedro Folque worked on a project for the revitalizing the fortress. Within the year, the war with France was over. [William Carr Beresford](/wiki/William_Carr_Beresford \"William Carr Beresford\") proposed to the Minister of War that the fortress should be dismantled and that the artillery should be removed. On 3 March 1817, Beresford ordered that work on the fort should cease and that the fortification should be mined, which began in October, against the wishes of the Governor of Almeida. In 1819, the Governor ordered the square be buried, and that the castle be transformed into a parkway or promenade. These changes made the fortress a campaign fort, providing monumental defensive functions, in times of crisis.", "### Liberal Wars", "In 1828, the municipal authority sided with King D. [Miguel](/wiki/Miguel_of_Portugal \"Miguel of Portugal\"), but the military garrison at fortress remains loyal to King D. [Pedro](/wiki/Peter_IV_of_Portugal \"Peter IV of Portugal\"). By June, Miguelist/absolutist forces had the fortress encircled, leading to their surrender by 16 July. Miguelist troops then remained at Almeida until 18 April 1834, when they were evacuated. On 22 April, a Quadruple Alliance was signed between Liberal forces of England, France, Spain and Portugal, that required their intervention in the defence of Liberal parliamentary institutions. These events, ultimately, lead to the 26 May signing of the peace treaty at Evoramonte, forcing D. Miguel into exile, and beginning a period of free Liberal thinking in Portugal. Quickly, though, factionalism between Devourists, Chartists and Setembrists developed into a series of episodes that enriched internal politics, leading to internal strife and civil war. On 29 June 1847, the [Convention of Gramido](/wiki/Convention_of_Gramido \"Convention of Gramido\") put an end to the civil war, not before the fortress was taken by revolutionary forces in 1844 interested in reinstating the 1822 Constitution.", "In 1853, Marshall [Duke of Saldanha](/wiki/Duke_of_Saldanha \"Duke of Saldanha\"), commander of the Portuguese army, named a commission to examine the fortifications at Almeida and decide its military future. The commission took another year to visit the square, which they saw as one of the strongest of the Kingdom, and suggestion it should be repaired. Many of the required alterations and repairs were documented. On 27 August 1887, the fortress of Almeida returns to its classification as a first\\-class fortification, and on 7 January 1888, a new military Governor is appointed. This \"golden era\" would be short\\-lived: in September 1893, after public review, the fortress was partially destroyed, during the course of improving the accessibility and converting it from a defense fortification. In 1894 the majority of artillery pieces were removed, leading to the 28 June 1895 declassification of the square by the *Comissão Superior de Guerra* (*Superior Commission for War*).", "### 20th century", "At the beginning of the 20th century, connections were made between the ravelin and magistral gate of Cruz.", "In October 1926, a cavalry contingent with its headquarters in Aveiro departed for Almeida. The Ministry of War obliged the squadron to return to their barracks, on 26 January 1927, but they only departed on 19 February 1927\\.", "Starting in 1980, the fortress began to take on a socio\\-cultural and historical function, with the installation of multiple exhibitions and centres for investigation. In that year, a military museum was inaugurated in the Gate of Cruz. A tourism post was inaugurated in the magistral gate in 1992\\. As well, the fortress was placed in charge of the *Instituto Português do Património Arquitetónico* (*Portuguese Institute of Architectural Patrimony*) by decree 106F/92 (Diário da República, Série 1A), in the same year, resulting in a permanent exhibition dedicated to the 23rd Infantry Regiment, along with activity space for scouts and multi\\-use halls in the guardhouse of the Santo António Gate was installed in 1996\\. Ultimately, on 25 August 2002, the *Centro de Estudos de Arquitectura Militar* (*Centre for Studies into Military Architecture*) was implanted in the ravelin of Santo António. On 20 December 2007, the property became the responsibility of the *Direção Regional da Cultura do Centro* (*Centro Region Directorate for Culture*), under auspices of the dispatch 1130/2007 (Diário da República, Série 2, 245\\).", "" ]
### Restoration Wars [235px\|left\|thumb\|A plan of the castle/fortress of Almeida](/wiki/File:Fortress_of_Almeida.jpg "Fortress of Almeida.jpg") From 1517, buildings in the town were demolished for the fortress project. In addition, a tax of $100 was levied on each person for the project, which included walls and garrison. But, between 1580 and 1640, the defensive structures began to decay and fall into ruin. Following [John IV of Portugal](/wiki/John_IV_of_Portugal "John IV of Portugal")'s [restoration](/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War "Portuguese Restoration War") of the Crown of Portugal, on 1 December 1640, the monarch sought to consolidate and strengthen his throne, making decisions to strengthen his military control of the territory. He created a *Council of War* to organize the Kingdom's security along with a *Junta of the Frontiers*. This Junta had the responsibility of reviewing and strengthening the existing fortresses near the border. One of the Junta's projects was the construction of a new defensive structure at Almeida. Following 1640, the first Military Governor for Beira was established, D. Álvaro de Abranches da Câmara, who ordered the construction of modern fortifications, *"with four or five redoubts, placing within it a Church and the Castle"*. This project was undertaken by João Saldanha e Sousa, and was in rudimentary progress by January 1641\. This first fortification consisted of trenches. By November the Provincial Governor was established in Almeida, who transformed the installation into a military square. This became the fortress that stands on the site today, surrounding the previous medieval castle. Completed in 1641, it was 12 pointed\-star shaped.According to the plans of the french engineer Antoine de Ville Responsibility for the project was by the architect David Álvares. The fortress was built in a [Vaubanesque](/wiki/S%C3%A9bastien_Le_Prestre_de_Vauban "Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban") style, to which the French military engineer is believed to have personally been involved during end of its construction.{{citation\|title\=Portugal \- Cadogan guides\|last\=Evans\|first\=David\|publisher\=New Holland Publishers\|date\=2004\|isbn\=1860111262\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/portugal5thcadog00davi/page/200 200]\|work\=Reference to Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban participation in the construction\|url\=https://archive.org/details/portugal5thcadog00davi/page/200}} Between 1641 and 1643, architect Álvares was the superintendent on site, *"administrating the representatives, masons and more workers and assisting personally in the work at the fortifications"*.ALVES, p. 64 As he did not receive a wage for his work, he requested and received an exemption to the tithe. In 1642, Fernão Teles de Menezes decided to build a trench of stone and clay. King D. [John IV](/wiki/John_IV_of_Portugal "John IV of Portugal") ordered his royal engineer, Carlos Lassart, to design and reconnoitre the fortifications in the Entre Douro, Minho and Beira regions. Fernão Teles Cotão became responsible for the project between 1642 and 1646\. On 28 February 1643, a royal dispatch ordered Carlos Lassart to, as each fortification was being expanded, leave an official oriented to continue the project. Sometime around this time, French engineer Pierre Gilles de Saint Paul began serving the Crown within the Beira province, possibly directing some of the work in Almeida. By 1644, the fortress was described as having an open curtain of walls. As João Salgado de Araújo, indicated the execution of the Royal fortifications included an imposing structure of seven redoubts. On 25 February 1645, the Military Governor for Beira was D. Fernando de Mascaranhas, Count of Serém, who immediately ordered that the square be reduced in size. In that year, Spanish forces attempted to attack the town, without success. In 1646, Pierre Girles was substituted in the public works by lieutenant\-general Rodrigo Soares Pantoja, and the Governor of the Province immediately ordered the dimensions of the square be reduced. Yet, the following year, work on the fortress was expanded by sergeant\-major Agostinho de Andrade Freire. Similarly, in 1657, D. Rodrigo de Castro, Governor of Almeida, increased work on the fortification, ordering large changes its profile and organization. Sometime during the 17th century, the castle began being used to store gunpowder. In 1661, from the writings of the Count of Mesquitela, the square was not yet totally encircled, and was accessible from the town at various places and had no moat. On 2 July 1663, Spanish forces attacked the fort, but were repelled, but there were constant fears of Spanish invasion. On 11 September 1663 the Province of Beira was divided into two regions, due to its large frontier. The region of Almeida came under the control of Pedro Jacques e Magalhães, Master of the General Camp of the province, who established his post in the town. In order to safeguard his new post, in 1665, the public works on the fortress were adjudicated to businessmen António Francisco Maio and Domingos Vaz Heredes, but were later (16679 conceded to João Gonçalves and Manuel Fernandes, without discord. On 13 February 1668, Portugal and Spain signed a peace treaty, temporarily ending conflict between the two Iberian neighbours. The lull in hostilities did not dissuade Portuguese forces who vigorously continued work on the fortress, beginning with the left lateral walls near the Santo António Gate. In 1676, the magistral gate of Santo António and transition space to the ravelin of Cruz were begun. The Chapel of Vera Cruz was demolished in 1680, in order for the fortifications walls to be extended. Meanwhile, in 1695, there was an explosion in the castle, causing the death of 40 people and a large damage to the residences and fortifications nearby. This damage caused a change in the configuration of the castle. Between 1702 and 1714, during the War of Spanish Succession, Almeida began to serve as a garrison for troops, and base of operations for forces in Beira. In May 1704, Portugal was invaded by Spanish troops. Conflict between the two states would continue until February 1715, when a peace treaty was signed. In 1736, an explosion occurred in the warehouse of the bastion of São Pedro, at the same time that double ravelin was added to the fortress. Between 1737 and 1738, work at the site was directed by the Royal engineer Manuel de Azevedo Fortes, assisted by engineers Pinto de Alpoim and Jacinto Lopes da Costa. Manuel de Azevedo Fortes proposed the construction of: mounted horseman over the bastion of São João de Deus; a kitchen in front of the ravelin dos Amores; "tenalham" in front of the walls between the bastions of São Pedro and Santo António; vaults for defense of the moats, in front of all the walls, except in the rear and gates; a powder magazine alongside the castle; two bomb\-proof barracks under the bulwarks of São Francisco and Santa Bárbara; the division of the ravelin de Santo António into two separate corpos per moat and with gate to the east; and openings for posterns in the bastions of São Pedro, São Francisco and walls between the bastions of São João de Deus and Santa Bárbara. A majority of the proposed projects were not executed, and only the gates of São Francisco and some ravelins were begun. Between 1746 and 1747, lands was expropriated for execution of the fortress. On 1 November 1755, the [famous Lisbon earthquake](/wiki/1755_Lisbon_earthquake "1755 Lisbon earthquake") caused damage to the walls and destruction of the infantry barracks. by March 1762, the fortress had largely attained its current dimensions and profile, even as the ravelins were not concluded, nor the esplanade and battlements. At this time the works were under the direction of João Alexandre de Charmont, along with engineers João Victoire Aliron de Sabione, Luís de Alincourt, Vasco José Charpententier, Pedro Vicente Vidal and António Carlos Andreis. Work had begun on the kitchen in front of the ravelin of Santa Bárbara; correction of the parapets were undertaken, owing to their sub\-dimension, eliminating the road the circled it; construction of lateral paths in the walls between the bastions of São João de Deus and Santa Bárbara, and the bulwarks of São Pedro and Santo António; substitution of stone in the battlements and partial reconstruction of the covering. Charmont left with his success, António Carlos Andreis, a long list of works to be executed. A few of the request projects were considered inconvenient to the military engineers, and were changed.
[ "### Restoration Wars", "[235px\\|left\\|thumb\\|A plan of the castle/fortress of Almeida](/wiki/File:Fortress_of_Almeida.jpg \"Fortress of Almeida.jpg\")\nFrom 1517, buildings in the town were demolished for the fortress project. In addition, a tax of $100 was levied on each person for the project, which included walls and garrison.", "But, between 1580 and 1640, the defensive structures began to decay and fall into ruin. Following [John IV of Portugal](/wiki/John_IV_of_Portugal \"John IV of Portugal\")'s [restoration](/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War \"Portuguese Restoration War\") of the Crown of Portugal, on 1 December 1640, the monarch sought to consolidate and strengthen his throne, making decisions to strengthen his military control of the territory. He created a *Council of War* to organize the Kingdom's security along with a *Junta of the Frontiers*. This Junta had the responsibility of reviewing and strengthening the existing fortresses near the border. One of the Junta's projects was the construction of a new defensive structure at Almeida.", "Following 1640, the first Military Governor for Beira was established, D. Álvaro de Abranches da Câmara, who ordered the construction of modern fortifications, *\"with four or five redoubts, placing within it a Church and the Castle\"*. This project was undertaken by João Saldanha e Sousa, and was in rudimentary progress by January 1641\\. This first fortification consisted of trenches. By November the Provincial Governor was established in Almeida, who transformed the installation into a military square.", "This became the fortress that stands on the site today, surrounding the previous medieval castle. Completed in 1641, it was 12 pointed\\-star shaped.According to the plans of the french engineer Antoine de Ville Responsibility for the project was by the architect David Álvares. The fortress was built in a [Vaubanesque](/wiki/S%C3%A9bastien_Le_Prestre_de_Vauban \"Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban\") style, to which the French military engineer is believed to have personally been involved during end of its construction.{{citation\\|title\\=Portugal \\- Cadogan guides\\|last\\=Evans\\|first\\=David\\|publisher\\=New Holland Publishers\\|date\\=2004\\|isbn\\=1860111262\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/portugal5thcadog00davi/page/200 200]\\|work\\=Reference to Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban participation in the construction\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/portugal5thcadog00davi/page/200}}", "Between 1641 and 1643, architect Álvares was the superintendent on site, *\"administrating the representatives, masons and more workers and assisting personally in the work at the fortifications\"*.ALVES, p. 64 As he did not receive a wage for his work, he requested and received an exemption to the tithe. In 1642, Fernão Teles de Menezes decided to build a trench of stone and clay. King D. [John IV](/wiki/John_IV_of_Portugal \"John IV of Portugal\") ordered his royal engineer, Carlos Lassart, to design and reconnoitre the fortifications in the Entre Douro, Minho and Beira regions. Fernão Teles Cotão became responsible for the project between 1642 and 1646\\. On 28 February 1643, a royal dispatch ordered Carlos Lassart to, as each fortification was being expanded, leave an official oriented to continue the project. Sometime around this time, French engineer Pierre Gilles de Saint Paul began serving the Crown within the Beira province, possibly directing some of the work in Almeida. By 1644, the fortress was described as having an open curtain of walls. As João Salgado de Araújo, indicated the execution of the Royal fortifications included an imposing structure of seven redoubts.", "On 25 February 1645, the Military Governor for Beira was D. Fernando de Mascaranhas, Count of Serém, who immediately ordered that the square be reduced in size. In that year, Spanish forces attempted to attack the town, without success.", "In 1646, Pierre Girles was substituted in the public works by lieutenant\\-general Rodrigo Soares Pantoja, and the Governor of the Province immediately ordered the dimensions of the square be reduced. Yet, the following year, work on the fortress was expanded by sergeant\\-major Agostinho de Andrade Freire. Similarly, in 1657, D. Rodrigo de Castro, Governor of Almeida, increased work on the fortification, ordering large changes its profile and organization. Sometime during the 17th century, the castle began being used to store gunpowder. In 1661, from the writings of the Count of Mesquitela, the square was not yet totally encircled, and was accessible from the town at various places and had no moat.", "On 2 July 1663, Spanish forces attacked the fort, but were repelled, but there were constant fears of Spanish invasion. On 11 September 1663 the Province of Beira was divided into two regions, due to its large frontier. The region of Almeida came under the control of Pedro Jacques e Magalhães, Master of the General Camp of the province, who established his post in the town. In order to safeguard his new post, in 1665, the public works on the fortress were adjudicated to businessmen António Francisco Maio and Domingos Vaz Heredes, but were later (16679 conceded to João Gonçalves and Manuel Fernandes, without discord. On 13 February 1668, Portugal and Spain signed a peace treaty, temporarily ending conflict between the two Iberian neighbours.", "The lull in hostilities did not dissuade Portuguese forces who vigorously continued work on the fortress, beginning with the left lateral walls near the Santo António Gate. In 1676, the magistral gate of Santo António and transition space to the ravelin of Cruz were begun. The Chapel of Vera Cruz was demolished in 1680, in order for the fortifications walls to be extended. Meanwhile, in 1695, there was an explosion in the castle, causing the death of 40 people and a large damage to the residences and fortifications nearby. This damage caused a change in the configuration of the castle.", "Between 1702 and 1714, during the War of Spanish Succession, Almeida began to serve as a garrison for troops, and base of operations for forces in Beira. In May 1704, Portugal was invaded by Spanish troops. Conflict between the two states would continue until February 1715, when a peace treaty was signed.", "In 1736, an explosion occurred in the warehouse of the bastion of São Pedro, at the same time that double ravelin was added to the fortress. Between 1737 and 1738, work at the site was directed by the Royal engineer Manuel de Azevedo Fortes, assisted by engineers Pinto de Alpoim and Jacinto Lopes da Costa. Manuel de Azevedo Fortes proposed the construction of: mounted horseman over the bastion of São João de Deus; a kitchen in front of the ravelin dos Amores; \"tenalham\" in front of the walls between the bastions of São Pedro and Santo António; vaults for defense of the moats, in front of all the walls, except in the rear and gates; a powder magazine alongside the castle; two bomb\\-proof barracks under the bulwarks of São Francisco and Santa Bárbara; the division of the ravelin de Santo António into two separate corpos per moat and with gate to the east; and openings for posterns in the bastions of São Pedro, São Francisco and walls between the bastions of São João de Deus and Santa Bárbara. A majority of the proposed projects were not executed, and only the gates of São Francisco and some ravelins were begun. Between 1746 and 1747, lands was expropriated for execution of the fortress. On 1 November 1755, the [famous Lisbon earthquake](/wiki/1755_Lisbon_earthquake \"1755 Lisbon earthquake\") caused damage to the walls and destruction of the infantry barracks.", "by March 1762, the fortress had largely attained its current dimensions and profile, even as the ravelins were not concluded, nor the esplanade and battlements. At this time the works were under the direction of João Alexandre de Charmont, along with engineers João Victoire Aliron de Sabione, Luís de Alincourt, Vasco José Charpententier, Pedro Vicente Vidal and António Carlos Andreis. Work had begun on the kitchen in front of the ravelin of Santa Bárbara; correction of the parapets were undertaken, owing to their sub\\-dimension, eliminating the road the circled it; construction of lateral paths in the walls between the bastions of São João de Deus and Santa Bárbara, and the bulwarks of São Pedro and Santo António; substitution of stone in the battlements and partial reconstruction of the covering. Charmont left with his success, António Carlos Andreis, a long list of works to be executed. A few of the request projects were considered inconvenient to the military engineers, and were changed.", "" ]
History ------- ### Beginning AM General traces its roots to the [Standard Wheel Company](/wiki/Standard_Wheel_Company "Standard Wheel Company") of [Terre Haute, Indiana](/wiki/Terre_Haute%2C_Indiana "Terre Haute, Indiana"), which expanded in 1903 to include the [Overland Automotive](/wiki/Overland_Automobile "Overland Automobile") Division.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.amgeneral.com/corporate/history.php \|title\=Company History \|publisher\=AM General \|access\-date\=17 May 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100826093659/http://www.amgeneral.com/corporate/history.php \|archive\-date\=26 August 2010 \|url\-status\=dead }} In 1908, [John North Willys](/wiki/John_North_Willys "John North Willys") purchased the Overland company, then based in [Indianapolis, Indiana](/wiki/Indianapolis%2C_Indiana "Indianapolis, Indiana"), and renamed it [Willys\-Overland](/wiki/Willys-Overland "Willys-Overland") Motors. In the 1940s, as Willys, it collaborated with [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company "Ford Motor Company") to develop a vehicle to [US Army](/wiki/United_States_Army "United States Army") specifications. It then mass\-produced that vehicle as "America's first four\-wheel\-drive, one\-fourth\-ton, tactical utility truck"—the [Jeep](/wiki/Willys_MB "Willys MB") of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") fame. In 1953, [Kaiser Motors](/wiki/Kaiser_Motors "Kaiser Motors") purchased Willys\-Overland, changing its name first to Kaiser\-Willys Motor Company, and in 1963, to [Kaiser\-Jeep](/wiki/Kaiser-Jeep "Kaiser-Jeep") Corporation. In 1970, it was purchased by [American Motors Corporation](/wiki/American_Motors_Corporation "American Motors Corporation") (AMC). In July 2020, [KPS Capital Partners](/wiki/KPS_Capital_Partners "KPS Capital Partners") acquired the company.{{Cite news\|url\= https://www.defensenews.com/land/2020/07/22/private\-equity\-firm\-buys\-humvee\-maker\-am\-general/\|title\=Private equity firm buys Humvee\-maker AM General\|website\=defensenews.com\|date\=2020\-07\-22 \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-02}} ### Defense and Government Products Division In 1964, Kaiser\-Jeep purchased the [Studebaker facilities on Chippewa Avenue](/wiki/Studebaker%23Studebaker_Factories "Studebaker#Studebaker Factories") in [South Bend, Indiana](/wiki/South_Bend%2C_Indiana "South Bend, Indiana"), which included Studebaker's "General Products Division", along with its substantial defense contracts. At the time, Kaiser had been awarded a [US$](/wiki/United_States_dollar "United States dollar")87 million Army truck contract, and under government pressure, agreed to perform the work at the South Bend plant it had recently acquired from Studebaker. ### American Motors [American Motors Corporation](/wiki/American_Motors "American Motors") (AMC) purchased the Jeep Corporation from Kaiser in 1970 when Kaiser decided to leave the auto business.{{cite book\|last\=Statham \|first\=Steve \|title\=Jeep Color History \|year\=2002 \|publisher\=MotorBooks International \|isbn\=978\-0\-7603\-0636\-9 \|pages\=97–100 \|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=dR3wmKlfnrMC\&q\=Kaiser\+sold\+the\+Jeep\+division\+to\+American\+Motors\&pg\=PA99 \|access\-date\=17 May 2015}} In 1971, AMC made the General Products Division of [Jeep](/wiki/Jeep "Jeep") (producing military trucks as well as contract and non\-commercial vehicles) a [wholly owned subsidiary](/wiki/Wholly_owned_subsidiary "Wholly owned subsidiary") and renamed it "AM General Corporation".{{cite book \|last\=Hyde\|first\=Charles K. \|title\=Storied Independent Automakers: Nash, Hudson, and American Motors \|publisher\=Wayne State University Press \|year\=2009 \|page\=194 \|isbn\=978\-0\-8143\-3446\-1}} American Motors ceased to function as an independent [automaker](/wiki/Automaker "Automaker") in 1982 when a controlling interest was purchased by [Renault](/wiki/Renault "Renault").{{cite journal\|last\=Foster \|first\=Patrick \|title\=Biography: Roy Chapin, Jr. \|journal\=Automobile Quarterly \|year\=2002 \|volume\=42 \|issue\=3 \|page\=109}} US government regulations at that time forbade ownership of [defense contractors](/wiki/Defense_contractor "Defense contractor") by foreign governments—and Renault was partially owned by the French government.{{cite book \|first1\=Byron \|last1\=Olsen \|first2\=Joseph P. \|last2\=Cabadas \|first3\=Joseph \|last3\=Cabadas \|title\=The American Auto Factory\|year\=2002\|publisher\=MotorBooks International\|isbn\=978\-0\-7603\-1059\-5\|url\= https://books.google.com/books?id\=iZJzb91qsE4C\&q\=the\+Pentagon\+didn't\+want\+a\+French\-\+controlled\+company\+making\+American\+military\+equipment\&pg\=PA127 \|page\=127 \|quote\=The Pentagon didn't want a French\-controlled company making American military equipment \|access\-date\=21 September 2010}} ### LTV Corporation In 1983, [LTV Corporation](/wiki/LTV_Corporation "LTV Corporation") bought AM General and established it as a wholly owned subsidiary. In 1984, its headquarters moved from the American Motors AMTEK Building in [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit%2C_Michigan "Detroit, Michigan"), [Michigan](/wiki/Michigan "Michigan"), to [Livonia, Michigan](/wiki/Livonia%2C_Michigan "Livonia, Michigan"), and two years later to South Bend, Indiana, where primary manufacturing operations were located. ### Renco Group In 1992, AM General was sold to [Renco Group](/wiki/Renco_Group "Renco Group"), which in 2002 converted it to a [limited liability company](/wiki/Limited_liability_company "Limited liability company"). ### Hummer brand In 1984 AM General built a separate factory at 13200 McKinley Hwy in Mishawaka for HMMWV production. In 1992 AM General began marketing the HMMWV to the civilian market under the [Hummer](/wiki/Hummer "Hummer") brand. In 1999, GM acquired the rights to the brand and continued production of the original civilian Hummer as the [H1](/wiki/Hummer_H1 "Hummer H1") until June 2006\.{{cite news \|url\= https://www.foxnews.com/story/gm\-end\-of\-production\-line\-for\-hummer\-h1 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20071022152436/https://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,195303,00\.html?sPage\=fnc.business%2Fautos \|archive\-date\=22 October 2007 \|publisher\=Fox News \|title\=GM: End of Production Line for Hummer H1 \|agency\=Associated Press \|date\=12 May 2006 \|access\-date\=17 May 2015 \|url\-status\=live }} The [Hummer H2](/wiki/Hummer_H2 "Hummer H2") went on the market in 2002, and was produced until January 2009\. It was designed and marketed by GM, but manufactured by AM General at the Mishawaka plant. AM General did not build the H3 model. GM was sued early in 2003 by [DaimlerChrysler](/wiki/DaimlerChrysler "DaimlerChrysler"), owners of the [Jeep](/wiki/Jeep "Jeep") brand, for the resemblance of the Hummer's seven\-slot grille to Jeep's.{{cite web\| url\= http://www.autointell.com/News\-2001/February\-2001/February\-21\-02\-p2\.htm \|title\=DaimlerChrysler Files Suit to Block Copycat Jeep Grille \|website\=autointell.com \|date\=21 February 2001 \|access\-date\=17 May 2015}} The lawsuit was dismissed after acknowledgment of the shared corporate history of AMC and Jeep.{{cite web \|first1\=K.C. \|last1\=Crain \|first2\=Dale \|last2\=Jewett \|title\=GM wins another round in the Hummer\-Jeep grille battle \|url\= https://www.autonews.com/article/20021125/ANA/211250721/gm\-wins\-another\-round\-in\-the\-hummer\-jeep\-grille\-battle \|work\=Automotive News \|access\-date\=10 June 2020 \|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200610173721/https://www.autonews.com/article/20021125/ANA/211250721/gm\-wins\-another\-round\-in\-the\-hummer\-jeep\-grille\-battle \|archive\-date\=10 June 2020 \|date\=25 November 2002}} GM in turn sued boutique automaker Avanti Motor Corporation of Cancun, Mexico after it introduced the Studebaker XUV at the Chicago Auto show in 2002\. GM said Avanti infringed on the Hummer looks by planning a vehicle that closely resembled the Hummer. It seemed the AM General Hummer line had gone full circle back to the original Studebaker General Products Division which was responsible for all military contracts. ### 2004–present On August 20, 2004, it was announced that [Ronald Perelman](/wiki/Ronald_Perelman "Ronald Perelman")'s [MacAndrews \& Forbes](/wiki/MacAndrews_%26_Forbes "MacAndrews & Forbes") company would form a joint venture with AM General's then\-owner, Renco Group, to give Perelman 70% ownership. The deal reportedly cost close to US$1 billion.{{cite news \|first1\=Andrew Ross \|last1\=Sorkin \|first2\=Danny \|last2\=Hakim \|title\=Perelman Seeks Controlling Stake in Maker of Hummer \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/10/business/perelman\-seeks\-controlling\-stake\-in\-maker\-of\-hummer.html \|newspaper\=The New York Times \|date\=10 August 2004 \|access\-date\=17 May 2015}} In 2008, AM General and the [Vehicle Production Group](/wiki/MV-1 "MV-1") (VPG), of [Troy, Michigan](/wiki/Troy%2C_Michigan "Troy, Michigan"), announced that contracts had been signed for AM General to begin producing purpose\-built taxi\-cabs in 2009\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.standardtaxi.com/documents/Issue\_11\.htm \|title\=VPG Partners with AM General to Build the Standard Taxi! \|publisher\=Vehicle Production Group \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080815041910/http://www.standardtaxi.com/documents/Issue\_11\.htm \|archive\-date\=August 15, 2008 \|access\-date\=December 29, 2017}} Actual production would not begin until October 2011\. The first vehicle off the line was presented to Marc Buoniconti, a former linebacker for [The Citadel](/wiki/The_Citadel%2C_The_Military_College_of_South_Carolina "The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina") who was partially paralyzed in 1985\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.autoblog.com/2011/10/06/2011\-vpg\-autos\-mv\-1\-quick\-spin\-review/ \|date\=6 October 2011 \|title\=2011 VPG Autos MV\-1 \|first\=Steven J. \|last\=Ewing \|website\=autoblog.com \|access\-date\=17 May 2015}} In May 2010, [Azure Dynamics](/wiki/Azure_Dynamics "Azure Dynamics") announced it had chosen AM General to assemble its electric drivetrain for [Ford Transit Connect](/wiki/Ford_Transit_Connect "Ford Transit Connect") vehicles for the North American market at its Livonia, Michigan, factory.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.freep.com/article/20100518/BUSINESS01/100518048/1210/AM\-General\-to\-assemble\-electric\-Transit\-Connect \|first\=Brent \|last\=Snavely \|title\=AM General to assemble electric Transit Connect \|date\=28 May 2010 \|access\-date\=17 May 2015}} In September 2013, AM General reached an agreement to purchase the [United States Department of Energy](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy "United States Department of Energy")'s secured loan to the [Vehicle Production Group](/wiki/Vehicle_Production_Group "Vehicle Production Group") (VPG). Prior to this, AM General acted as the sole vehicle assembler for VPG. As a result of this transaction, AM General created a wholly owned company, Mobility Ventures LLC, to operate the Mobility Vehicle\-1 (MV\-1\) business and receive all VPG assets.{{cite press release \|url\=http://www.amgeneral.com/corporate/news/amg\-announces\-agreement\-for\-vehicle\-production\-group \|title\=AM General Announces Agreement Leading To Ownership And Control Of The Vehicle Production Group \|date\=5 September 2013 \|publisher\=AM General \|access\-date\=17 May 2015 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129070847/http://www.amgeneral.com/corporate/news/amg\-announces\-agreement\-for\-vehicle\-production\-group \|archive\-date\=29 November 2014}} In 2015, production of the [Mercedes\-Benz R\-Class](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_R-Class "Mercedes-Benz R-Class") began at the Mishawaka assembly plant.{{cite news\|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/cars/2015/01/27/mercedes\-benz\-am\-general/22413627/ \|title\=Mercedes\-Benz moves R\-Class output to AM General \|first\=Greg \|last\=Gardner \|agency\=Detroit Free Press \|date\=27 January 2015 \|newspaper\=USA Today \|access\-date\=24 November 2016}} Without this deal, "the German automaker would likely have had to shut down production of the vehicle, currently only sold in China."{{cite news\|url\=http://www.autonews.com/article/20150811/OEM01/150819973/mercedes\-r\-class\-production\-launched\-at\-am\-general \|title\=Mercedes R class production launched at AM General \|date\=11 August 2015 \|first\=Nora \|last\=Naughton \|newspaper\=Automotive News \|access\-date\=24 November 2016}} Production ended in October 2017\.{{citation needed\|date\=December 2017}} In July 2020, it was revealed that [investment company](/wiki/Investment_company "Investment company") [KPS Capital Partners](/wiki/KPS_Capital_Partners "KPS Capital Partners") had reached an agreement to acquire AM General from its previous owner, [MacAndrews \& Forbes](/wiki/MacAndrews_%26_Forbes "MacAndrews & Forbes").[KPS Capital Partners adquirirá AM General LLC](https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/kps-capital-partners-adquirira-am-general-llc-852949524.html) on PR Newswire, 22 Jul 2020 AM General submitted a prototype to become the [United States Postal Service](/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service "United States Postal Service")'s [Next Generation Delivery Vehicle](/wiki/Next_Generation_Delivery_Vehicle "Next Generation Delivery Vehicle"), but their entry was not chosen.{{cite web \|url\=https://jalopnik.com/here\-are\-all\-the\-mail\-trucks\-that\-didn\-t\-get\-selected\-1846349662 \|title\=Here Are All The Mail Trucks That Didn't Get Selected \|last\=Rodríguez \|first\=José Jr. \|date\=25 February 2021 \|website\=\[\[Jalopnik]] \|access\-date\=14 August 2021}}
[ "History\n-------", "### Beginning", "AM General traces its roots to the [Standard Wheel Company](/wiki/Standard_Wheel_Company \"Standard Wheel Company\") of [Terre Haute, Indiana](/wiki/Terre_Haute%2C_Indiana \"Terre Haute, Indiana\"), which expanded in 1903 to include the [Overland Automotive](/wiki/Overland_Automobile \"Overland Automobile\") Division.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.amgeneral.com/corporate/history.php \\|title\\=Company History \\|publisher\\=AM General \\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100826093659/http://www.amgeneral.com/corporate/history.php \\|archive\\-date\\=26 August 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} In 1908, [John North Willys](/wiki/John_North_Willys \"John North Willys\") purchased the Overland company, then based in [Indianapolis, Indiana](/wiki/Indianapolis%2C_Indiana \"Indianapolis, Indiana\"), and renamed it [Willys\\-Overland](/wiki/Willys-Overland \"Willys-Overland\") Motors. In the 1940s, as Willys, it collaborated with [Ford](/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company \"Ford Motor Company\") to develop a vehicle to [US Army](/wiki/United_States_Army \"United States Army\") specifications. It then mass\\-produced that vehicle as \"America's first four\\-wheel\\-drive, one\\-fourth\\-ton, tactical utility truck\"—the [Jeep](/wiki/Willys_MB \"Willys MB\") of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") fame. In 1953, [Kaiser Motors](/wiki/Kaiser_Motors \"Kaiser Motors\") purchased Willys\\-Overland, changing its name first to Kaiser\\-Willys Motor Company, and in 1963, to [Kaiser\\-Jeep](/wiki/Kaiser-Jeep \"Kaiser-Jeep\") Corporation. In 1970, it was purchased by [American Motors Corporation](/wiki/American_Motors_Corporation \"American Motors Corporation\") (AMC). In July 2020, [KPS Capital Partners](/wiki/KPS_Capital_Partners \"KPS Capital Partners\") acquired the company.{{Cite news\\|url\\= https://www.defensenews.com/land/2020/07/22/private\\-equity\\-firm\\-buys\\-humvee\\-maker\\-am\\-general/\\|title\\=Private equity firm buys Humvee\\-maker AM General\\|website\\=defensenews.com\\|date\\=2020\\-07\\-22 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-02}}", "### Defense and Government Products Division", "In 1964, Kaiser\\-Jeep purchased the [Studebaker facilities on Chippewa Avenue](/wiki/Studebaker%23Studebaker_Factories \"Studebaker#Studebaker Factories\") in [South Bend, Indiana](/wiki/South_Bend%2C_Indiana \"South Bend, Indiana\"), which included Studebaker's \"General Products Division\", along with its substantial defense contracts.", "At the time, Kaiser had been awarded a [US$](/wiki/United_States_dollar \"United States dollar\")87 million Army truck contract, and under government pressure, agreed to perform the work at the South Bend plant it had recently acquired from Studebaker.", "### American Motors", "[American Motors Corporation](/wiki/American_Motors \"American Motors\") (AMC) purchased the Jeep Corporation from Kaiser in 1970 when Kaiser decided to leave the auto business.{{cite book\\|last\\=Statham \\|first\\=Steve \\|title\\=Jeep Color History \\|year\\=2002 \\|publisher\\=MotorBooks International \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7603\\-0636\\-9 \\|pages\\=97–100 \\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=dR3wmKlfnrMC\\&q\\=Kaiser\\+sold\\+the\\+Jeep\\+division\\+to\\+American\\+Motors\\&pg\\=PA99 \\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2015}}", "In 1971, AMC made the General Products Division of [Jeep](/wiki/Jeep \"Jeep\") (producing military trucks as well as contract and non\\-commercial vehicles) a [wholly owned subsidiary](/wiki/Wholly_owned_subsidiary \"Wholly owned subsidiary\") and renamed it \"AM General Corporation\".{{cite book \\|last\\=Hyde\\|first\\=Charles K. \\|title\\=Storied Independent Automakers: Nash, Hudson, and American Motors \\|publisher\\=Wayne State University Press \\|year\\=2009 \\|page\\=194 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8143\\-3446\\-1}}", "American Motors ceased to function as an independent [automaker](/wiki/Automaker \"Automaker\") in 1982 when a controlling interest was purchased by [Renault](/wiki/Renault \"Renault\").{{cite journal\\|last\\=Foster \\|first\\=Patrick \\|title\\=Biography: Roy Chapin, Jr. \\|journal\\=Automobile Quarterly \\|year\\=2002 \\|volume\\=42 \\|issue\\=3 \\|page\\=109}}", "US government regulations at that time forbade ownership of [defense contractors](/wiki/Defense_contractor \"Defense contractor\") by foreign governments—and Renault was partially owned by the French government.{{cite book \\|first1\\=Byron \\|last1\\=Olsen \\|first2\\=Joseph P. \\|last2\\=Cabadas \\|first3\\=Joseph \\|last3\\=Cabadas \\|title\\=The American Auto Factory\\|year\\=2002\\|publisher\\=MotorBooks International\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7603\\-1059\\-5\\|url\\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=iZJzb91qsE4C\\&q\\=the\\+Pentagon\\+didn't\\+want\\+a\\+French\\-\\+controlled\\+company\\+making\\+American\\+military\\+equipment\\&pg\\=PA127 \\|page\\=127 \\|quote\\=The Pentagon didn't want a French\\-controlled company making American military equipment \\|access\\-date\\=21 September 2010}}", "### LTV Corporation", "In 1983, [LTV Corporation](/wiki/LTV_Corporation \"LTV Corporation\") bought AM General and established it as a wholly owned subsidiary. In 1984, its headquarters moved from the American Motors AMTEK Building in [Detroit](/wiki/Detroit%2C_Michigan \"Detroit, Michigan\"), [Michigan](/wiki/Michigan \"Michigan\"), to [Livonia, Michigan](/wiki/Livonia%2C_Michigan \"Livonia, Michigan\"), and two years later to South Bend, Indiana, where primary manufacturing operations were located.", "### Renco Group", "In 1992, AM General was sold to [Renco Group](/wiki/Renco_Group \"Renco Group\"), which in 2002 converted it to a [limited liability company](/wiki/Limited_liability_company \"Limited liability company\").", "### Hummer brand", "In 1984 AM General built a separate factory at 13200 McKinley Hwy in Mishawaka for HMMWV production.", "In 1992 AM General began marketing the HMMWV to the civilian market under the [Hummer](/wiki/Hummer \"Hummer\") brand. In 1999, GM acquired the rights to the brand and continued production of the original civilian Hummer as the [H1](/wiki/Hummer_H1 \"Hummer H1\") until June 2006\\.{{cite news \\|url\\= https://www.foxnews.com/story/gm\\-end\\-of\\-production\\-line\\-for\\-hummer\\-h1 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20071022152436/https://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,195303,00\\.html?sPage\\=fnc.business%2Fautos \\|archive\\-date\\=22 October 2007 \\|publisher\\=Fox News \\|title\\=GM: End of Production Line for Hummer H1 \\|agency\\=Associated Press \\|date\\=12 May 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "The [Hummer H2](/wiki/Hummer_H2 \"Hummer H2\") went on the market in 2002, and was produced until January 2009\\. It was designed and marketed by GM, but manufactured by AM General at the Mishawaka plant. AM General did not build the H3 model.", "GM was sued early in 2003 by [DaimlerChrysler](/wiki/DaimlerChrysler \"DaimlerChrysler\"), owners of the [Jeep](/wiki/Jeep \"Jeep\") brand, for the resemblance of the Hummer's seven\\-slot grille to Jeep's.{{cite web\\| url\\= http://www.autointell.com/News\\-2001/February\\-2001/February\\-21\\-02\\-p2\\.htm \\|title\\=DaimlerChrysler Files Suit to Block Copycat Jeep Grille \\|website\\=autointell.com \\|date\\=21 February 2001 \\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2015}} The lawsuit was dismissed after acknowledgment of the shared corporate history of AMC and Jeep.{{cite web \\|first1\\=K.C. \\|last1\\=Crain \\|first2\\=Dale \\|last2\\=Jewett \\|title\\=GM wins another round in the Hummer\\-Jeep grille battle \\|url\\= https://www.autonews.com/article/20021125/ANA/211250721/gm\\-wins\\-another\\-round\\-in\\-the\\-hummer\\-jeep\\-grille\\-battle \\|work\\=Automotive News \\|access\\-date\\=10 June 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20200610173721/https://www.autonews.com/article/20021125/ANA/211250721/gm\\-wins\\-another\\-round\\-in\\-the\\-hummer\\-jeep\\-grille\\-battle \\|archive\\-date\\=10 June 2020 \\|date\\=25 November 2002}} GM in turn sued boutique automaker Avanti Motor Corporation of Cancun, Mexico after it introduced the Studebaker XUV at the Chicago Auto show in 2002\\. GM said Avanti infringed on the Hummer looks by planning a vehicle that closely resembled the Hummer. It seemed the AM General Hummer line had gone full circle back to the original Studebaker General Products Division which was responsible for all military contracts.", "### 2004–present", "On August 20, 2004, it was announced that [Ronald Perelman](/wiki/Ronald_Perelman \"Ronald Perelman\")'s [MacAndrews \\& Forbes](/wiki/MacAndrews_%26_Forbes \"MacAndrews & Forbes\") company would form a joint venture with AM General's then\\-owner, Renco Group, to give Perelman 70% ownership. The deal reportedly cost close to US$1 billion.{{cite news \\|first1\\=Andrew Ross \\|last1\\=Sorkin \\|first2\\=Danny \\|last2\\=Hakim \\|title\\=Perelman Seeks Controlling Stake in Maker of Hummer \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/10/business/perelman\\-seeks\\-controlling\\-stake\\-in\\-maker\\-of\\-hummer.html \\|newspaper\\=The New York Times \\|date\\=10 August 2004 \\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2015}}", "In 2008, AM General and the [Vehicle Production Group](/wiki/MV-1 \"MV-1\") (VPG), of [Troy, Michigan](/wiki/Troy%2C_Michigan \"Troy, Michigan\"), announced that contracts had been signed for AM General to begin producing purpose\\-built taxi\\-cabs in 2009\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.standardtaxi.com/documents/Issue\\_11\\.htm \\|title\\=VPG Partners with AM General to Build the Standard Taxi! \\|publisher\\=Vehicle Production Group \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080815041910/http://www.standardtaxi.com/documents/Issue\\_11\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=August 15, 2008 \\|access\\-date\\=December 29, 2017}} Actual production would not begin until October 2011\\. The first vehicle off the line was presented to Marc Buoniconti, a former linebacker for [The Citadel](/wiki/The_Citadel%2C_The_Military_College_of_South_Carolina \"The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina\") who was partially paralyzed in 1985\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.autoblog.com/2011/10/06/2011\\-vpg\\-autos\\-mv\\-1\\-quick\\-spin\\-review/ \\|date\\=6 October 2011 \\|title\\=2011 VPG Autos MV\\-1 \\|first\\=Steven J. \\|last\\=Ewing \\|website\\=autoblog.com \\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2015}}", "In May 2010, [Azure Dynamics](/wiki/Azure_Dynamics \"Azure Dynamics\") announced it had chosen AM General to assemble its electric drivetrain for [Ford Transit Connect](/wiki/Ford_Transit_Connect \"Ford Transit Connect\") vehicles for the North American market at its Livonia, Michigan, factory.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.freep.com/article/20100518/BUSINESS01/100518048/1210/AM\\-General\\-to\\-assemble\\-electric\\-Transit\\-Connect \\|first\\=Brent \\|last\\=Snavely \\|title\\=AM General to assemble electric Transit Connect \\|date\\=28 May 2010 \\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2015}}", "In September 2013, AM General reached an agreement to purchase the [United States Department of Energy](/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy \"United States Department of Energy\")'s secured loan to the [Vehicle Production Group](/wiki/Vehicle_Production_Group \"Vehicle Production Group\") (VPG). Prior to this, AM General acted as the sole vehicle assembler for VPG. As a result of this transaction, AM General created a wholly owned company, Mobility Ventures LLC, to operate the Mobility Vehicle\\-1 (MV\\-1\\) business and receive all VPG assets.{{cite press release \\|url\\=http://www.amgeneral.com/corporate/news/amg\\-announces\\-agreement\\-for\\-vehicle\\-production\\-group \\|title\\=AM General Announces Agreement Leading To Ownership And Control Of The Vehicle Production Group \\|date\\=5 September 2013 \\|publisher\\=AM General \\|access\\-date\\=17 May 2015 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129070847/http://www.amgeneral.com/corporate/news/amg\\-announces\\-agreement\\-for\\-vehicle\\-production\\-group \\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2014}}", "In 2015, production of the [Mercedes\\-Benz R\\-Class](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_R-Class \"Mercedes-Benz R-Class\") began at the Mishawaka assembly plant.{{cite news\\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/cars/2015/01/27/mercedes\\-benz\\-am\\-general/22413627/ \\|title\\=Mercedes\\-Benz moves R\\-Class output to AM General \\|first\\=Greg \\|last\\=Gardner \\|agency\\=Detroit Free Press \\|date\\=27 January 2015 \\|newspaper\\=USA Today \\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2016}} Without this deal, \"the German automaker would likely have had to shut down production of the vehicle, currently only sold in China.\"{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.autonews.com/article/20150811/OEM01/150819973/mercedes\\-r\\-class\\-production\\-launched\\-at\\-am\\-general \\|title\\=Mercedes R class production launched at AM General \\|date\\=11 August 2015 \\|first\\=Nora \\|last\\=Naughton \\|newspaper\\=Automotive News \\|access\\-date\\=24 November 2016}} Production ended in October 2017\\.{{citation needed\\|date\\=December 2017}}", "In July 2020, it was revealed that [investment company](/wiki/Investment_company \"Investment company\") [KPS Capital Partners](/wiki/KPS_Capital_Partners \"KPS Capital Partners\") had reached an agreement to acquire AM General from its previous owner, [MacAndrews \\& Forbes](/wiki/MacAndrews_%26_Forbes \"MacAndrews & Forbes\").[KPS Capital Partners adquirirá AM General LLC](https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/kps-capital-partners-adquirira-am-general-llc-852949524.html) on PR Newswire, 22 Jul 2020", "AM General submitted a prototype to become the [United States Postal Service](/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service \"United States Postal Service\")'s [Next Generation Delivery Vehicle](/wiki/Next_Generation_Delivery_Vehicle \"Next Generation Delivery Vehicle\"), but their entry was not chosen.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://jalopnik.com/here\\-are\\-all\\-the\\-mail\\-trucks\\-that\\-didn\\-t\\-get\\-selected\\-1846349662 \\|title\\=Here Are All The Mail Trucks That Didn't Get Selected \\|last\\=Rodríguez \\|first\\=José Jr. \\|date\\=25 February 2021 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Jalopnik]] \\|access\\-date\\=14 August 2021}}", "" ]
Life and career --------------- Krämer, born on August 23, 1861, in Adamsthal (near Brno / Mähborn), was the son of Alwin Krämer, a mechanical engineer from Dresden employed at a factory in Adamsthal belonging for [Johann II, Prince of Liechtenstein](/wiki/Johann_II%2C_Prince_of_Liechtenstein "Johann II, Prince of Liechtenstein"). He received a scholarship from the Prince, who was to remain his patron until the 1920s, and studied at the *[Kunstgewerbeschule](/wiki/Kunstgewerbeschule "Kunstgewerbeschule")* (School of Applied Arts) in Vienna from 1878 to 1881\. [Gustav Klimt](/wiki/Gustav_Klimt "Gustav Klimt") and [Franz Matsch](/wiki/Franz_Matsch "Franz Matsch") were among his classmates. He attended the General School of Painting (*Allgemeine Malerschule*) of the [Academy of Fine Arts, Vienna](/wiki/Academy_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Vienna "Academy of Fine Arts, Vienna") from 1881 to 1883, then from 1883 to 1888, he was a student of the Austrian historical and Oriental painter [Leopold Carl Müller](/wiki/Leopold_Carl_M%C3%BCller "Leopold Carl Müller") at the Special School for Historical Painting (*Spezialschule für Historienmalerei*). Krämer received the [Rome Prize](/wiki/Rome_Prize "Rome Prize") in 1888 for his depiction of the [judgment of Paris](/wiki/Judgment_of_Paris "Judgment of Paris"); with the accompanying travel scholarship, he visited [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"), [London](/wiki/London "London"), [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid "Madrid"), [Tangiers](/wiki/Tangiers "Tangiers") (with [Hermann Bahr](/wiki/Hermann_Bahr "Hermann Bahr") and [Gyula Tomai](/wiki/Gyula_Tomai "Gyula Tomai")) and [Italy](/wiki/Italy "Italy") from 1888 to 1890\. He moved to a Vienna studio in 1891, which he would keep until his death, and in 1892 joined the *[Old World](/wiki/Old_World_%28club%29 "Old World (club)")*, a club of visual artists. He worked for commissions in this period, and spent time as an art tutor to the family of the industrialist [Karl Wittgenstein](/wiki/Karl_Wittgenstein "Karl Wittgenstein"). He joined the [Vienna Künstlerhaus](/wiki/Vienna_K%C3%BCnstlerhaus "Vienna Künstlerhaus") in 1893, and was a founding member of the [Vienna Secession](/wiki/Vienna_Secession "Vienna Secession") in 1897 when he left it. His work was exhibited at the Second Exhibition of the Secession. With patronage from [Leopoldine Wittgenstein](/wiki/Leopoldine_Wittgenstein "Leopoldine Wittgenstein"), he spent 1898–1900 travelling in [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt") and [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29 "Palestine (region)"), reaching as far as [Abu Simbel](/wiki/Abu_Simbel "Abu Simbel") and [Baalbek](/wiki/Baalbek "Baalbek"). With a [Kodak](/wiki/Kodak "Kodak") camera, he took many photographs, which are now part of the [Albertina](/wiki/Albertina "Albertina") museum's collections. In 1901, the 11th exhibition of the Secession was entirely made up of his work, including the start of a book recording s journey to Egypt and Palestine. Also in 1901, he had a number of his works featured in the Secession's magazine, *[Ver Sacrum](/wiki/Ver_Sacrum "Ver Sacrum")*. He followed an active exhibition schedule, including in [Munich](/wiki/Munich "Munich"), [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin"), [Prague](/wiki/Prague "Prague") (1902\), [Graz](/wiki/Graz "Graz") (1904\) and [Linz](/wiki/Linz "Linz") (1910\). At the age of 49 he married Emilie Franziska Bohlinger in Vienna on 1 January 1911, and together they had a daughter Maria and sons Hans and Gustav. Krämer remained artistically active in his old age, but he did not remain in the [avant\-garde](/wiki/Avant-garde "Avant-garde"), particularly after 1900;. He introduced more religious themes into his work as he aged. Having rejoined the Künstlerhaus in 1939, he exhibited collectively there in 1941 at the age of 80\. He died in Vienna on 6 May 1949, leaving behind a large body of work, including paintings in [oil](/wiki/Oil_painting "Oil painting"), [watercolour](/wiki/Watercolour "Watercolour"), [gouache](/wiki/Gouache "Gouache") and [pastel](/wiki/Pastel "Pastel"), as well as many drawings and photographs and much correspondence. He enjoyed a significant reputation in his early life, but gradually faded to obscurity. Since 1980, there has been an increased interest in 19th century Orientalist painting and in his life and work.
[ "Life and career\n---------------", "Krämer, born on August 23, 1861, in Adamsthal (near Brno / Mähborn), was the son of Alwin Krämer, a mechanical engineer from Dresden employed at a factory in Adamsthal belonging for [Johann II, Prince of Liechtenstein](/wiki/Johann_II%2C_Prince_of_Liechtenstein \"Johann II, Prince of Liechtenstein\"). He received a scholarship from the Prince, who was to remain his patron until the 1920s, and studied at the *[Kunstgewerbeschule](/wiki/Kunstgewerbeschule \"Kunstgewerbeschule\")* (School of Applied Arts) in Vienna from 1878 to 1881\\. [Gustav Klimt](/wiki/Gustav_Klimt \"Gustav Klimt\") and [Franz Matsch](/wiki/Franz_Matsch \"Franz Matsch\") were among his classmates.", "He attended the General School of Painting (*Allgemeine Malerschule*) of the [Academy of Fine Arts, Vienna](/wiki/Academy_of_Fine_Arts%2C_Vienna \"Academy of Fine Arts, Vienna\") from 1881 to 1883, then from 1883 to 1888, he was a student of the Austrian historical and Oriental painter [Leopold Carl Müller](/wiki/Leopold_Carl_M%C3%BCller \"Leopold Carl Müller\") at the Special School for Historical Painting (*Spezialschule für Historienmalerei*). Krämer received the [Rome Prize](/wiki/Rome_Prize \"Rome Prize\") in 1888 for his depiction of the [judgment of Paris](/wiki/Judgment_of_Paris \"Judgment of Paris\"); with the accompanying travel scholarship, he visited [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"), [London](/wiki/London \"London\"), [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid \"Madrid\"), [Tangiers](/wiki/Tangiers \"Tangiers\") (with [Hermann Bahr](/wiki/Hermann_Bahr \"Hermann Bahr\") and [Gyula Tomai](/wiki/Gyula_Tomai \"Gyula Tomai\")) and [Italy](/wiki/Italy \"Italy\") from 1888 to 1890\\.", "He moved to a Vienna studio in 1891, which he would keep until his death, and in 1892 joined the *[Old World](/wiki/Old_World_%28club%29 \"Old World (club)\")*, a club of visual artists. He worked for commissions in this period, and spent time as an art tutor to the family of the industrialist [Karl Wittgenstein](/wiki/Karl_Wittgenstein \"Karl Wittgenstein\"). He joined the [Vienna Künstlerhaus](/wiki/Vienna_K%C3%BCnstlerhaus \"Vienna Künstlerhaus\") in 1893, and was a founding member of the [Vienna Secession](/wiki/Vienna_Secession \"Vienna Secession\") in 1897 when he left it. His work was exhibited at the Second Exhibition of the Secession.", "With patronage from [Leopoldine Wittgenstein](/wiki/Leopoldine_Wittgenstein \"Leopoldine Wittgenstein\"), he spent 1898–1900 travelling in [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\") and [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29 \"Palestine (region)\"), reaching as far as [Abu Simbel](/wiki/Abu_Simbel \"Abu Simbel\") and [Baalbek](/wiki/Baalbek \"Baalbek\"). With a [Kodak](/wiki/Kodak \"Kodak\") camera, he took many photographs, which are now part of the [Albertina](/wiki/Albertina \"Albertina\") museum's collections. In 1901, the 11th exhibition of the Secession was entirely made up of his work, including the start of a book recording s journey to Egypt and Palestine. Also in 1901, he had a number of his works featured in the Secession's magazine, *[Ver Sacrum](/wiki/Ver_Sacrum \"Ver Sacrum\")*. He followed an active exhibition schedule, including in [Munich](/wiki/Munich \"Munich\"), [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\"), [Prague](/wiki/Prague \"Prague\") (1902\\), [Graz](/wiki/Graz \"Graz\") (1904\\) and [Linz](/wiki/Linz \"Linz\") (1910\\).", "At the age of 49 he married Emilie Franziska Bohlinger in Vienna on 1 January 1911, and together they had a daughter Maria and sons Hans and Gustav. Krämer remained artistically active in his old age, but he did not remain in the [avant\\-garde](/wiki/Avant-garde \"Avant-garde\"), particularly after 1900;. He introduced more religious themes into his work as he aged. Having rejoined the Künstlerhaus in 1939, he exhibited collectively there in 1941 at the age of 80\\.", "He died in Vienna on 6 May 1949, leaving behind a large body of work, including paintings in [oil](/wiki/Oil_painting \"Oil painting\"), [watercolour](/wiki/Watercolour \"Watercolour\"), [gouache](/wiki/Gouache \"Gouache\") and [pastel](/wiki/Pastel \"Pastel\"), as well as many drawings and photographs and much correspondence. He enjoyed a significant reputation in his early life, but gradually faded to obscurity. Since 1980, there has been an increased interest in 19th century Orientalist painting and in his life and work.", "" ]
Demographics ------------ {{US Census population \|1890\= 640 \|1900\= 446 \|1910\= 417 \|1920\= 574 \|1930\= 575 \|1940\= 858 \|1950\= 1025 \|1960\= 1519 \|1970\= 3349 \|1980\= 3703 \|1990\= 4368 \|2000\= 5032 \|2010\= 6357 \|2020\= 7751 \|align\-fn\=center \|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|author\=United States Census Bureau\|author\-link\=United States Census Bureau\|access\-date\=July 14, 2016}} }} [thumb\|View from the top of Big Mountain, near Whitefish, in winter](/wiki/File:Big_Mountain_summit.jpg "Big Mountain summit.jpg") ### 2000 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=January 31, 2008\|title\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 5,032 people, 2,229 households, and 1,203 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\|1,138\.5\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 2,652 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|600\.0\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 95\.97% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.14% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 1\.11% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.58% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.06% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 0\.72% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 1\.43% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 1\.93% of the population. There were 2,229 households, out of which 26\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 9\.8% had a female householder with no male present, and 46\.0% were non\-families. 34\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.20, and the average family size was 2\.86\. The population was spread out in the city, with 21\.6% under 18, 8\.6% from 18 to 24, 32\.9% from 25 to 44, 22\.5% from 45 to 64, and 14\.4% 65\. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 92\.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91\.7 males. The median income for a household in the city was $33,038, and the median income for a family was $41,009\. Males had a median income of $36,298 versus $19,583 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $24,098\. About 13\.8% of families and 18\.2% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 32\.9% of those under age 18 and 12\.7% of those age 65 or over. ### 2010 census As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=December 18, 2012}} of 2010, there were 6,357 people, 2,982 households, and 1,562 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|988\.6\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 4,086 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|635\.5\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 95\.8% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.5% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.8% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 0\.8% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), 0\.3% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 1\.7% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.8% of the population. There were 2,982 households, of which 24\.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 8\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 3\.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 47\.6% were non\-families. 36\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11\.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.10, and the average family size was 2\.77\. The median age in the city was 40\.1 years. 19\.6% of residents were under 18; 7\.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 30\.2% were from 25 to 44; 28\.9% were from 45 to 64, and 14\.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50\.3% male and 49\.7% female. ### 2019 American Community Survey Estimate As of 2019, according to the Census' American Community Survey estimates,{{Cite web\|url\=https://censusreporter.org/profiles/16000US3079825\-whitefish\-mt/\|title \= Census profile: Whitefish, MT}} of 2019, there were 7,714 people, 3,332 households in the city. The median age was 41 years old. The median yearly salary was 52,037 dollars, the home average value was 364,500 dollars, 54\.7% had a college degree, and 9\.5% were veterans who served in wartime higher than the national average. The population was 97% White, 2% Hispanic, and 1% Native American.
[ "Demographics\n------------", "{{US Census population\n\\|1890\\= 640\n\\|1900\\= 446\n\\|1910\\= 417\n\\|1920\\= 574\n\\|1930\\= 575\n\\|1940\\= 858\n\\|1950\\= 1025\n\\|1960\\= 1519\n\\|1970\\= 3349\n\\|1980\\= 3703\n\\|1990\\= 4368\n\\|2000\\= 5032\n\\|2010\\= 6357\n\\|2020\\= 7751\n\\|align\\-fn\\=center\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|author\\=United States Census Bureau\\|author\\-link\\=United States Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=July 14, 2016}}\n}}", "[thumb\\|View from the top of Big Mountain, near Whitefish, in winter](/wiki/File:Big_Mountain_summit.jpg \"Big Mountain summit.jpg\")", "### 2000 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 31, 2008\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}} of 2000, there were 5,032 people, 2,229 households, and 1,203 families living in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|1,138\\.5\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 2,652 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|600\\.0\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 95\\.97% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.14% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.11% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.58% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.06% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.72% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 1\\.43% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 1\\.93% of the population.", "There were 2,229 households, out of which 26\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41\\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 9\\.8% had a female householder with no male present, and 46\\.0% were non\\-families. 34\\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\\.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.20, and the average family size was 2\\.86\\.", "The population was spread out in the city, with 21\\.6% under 18, 8\\.6% from 18 to 24, 32\\.9% from 25 to 44, 22\\.5% from 45 to 64, and 14\\.4% 65\\. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 92\\.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91\\.7 males.", "The median income for a household in the city was $33,038, and the median income for a family was $41,009\\. Males had a median income of $36,298 versus $19,583 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $24,098\\. About 13\\.8% of families and 18\\.2% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 32\\.9% of those under age 18 and 12\\.7% of those age 65 or over.", "### 2010 census", "As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=December 18, 2012}} of 2010, there were 6,357 people, 2,982 households, and 1,562 families living in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|988\\.6\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 4,086 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|635\\.5\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 95\\.8% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.5% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.8% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.8% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.3% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 1\\.7% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.8% of the population.", "There were 2,982 households, of which 24\\.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40\\.1% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 8\\.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 3\\.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 47\\.6% were non\\-families. 36\\.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11\\.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.10, and the average family size was 2\\.77\\.", "The median age in the city was 40\\.1 years. 19\\.6% of residents were under 18; 7\\.1% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 30\\.2% were from 25 to 44; 28\\.9% were from 45 to 64, and 14\\.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50\\.3% male and 49\\.7% female.", "### 2019 American Community Survey Estimate", "As of 2019, according to the Census' American Community Survey estimates,{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://censusreporter.org/profiles/16000US3079825\\-whitefish\\-mt/\\|title \\= Census profile: Whitefish, MT}} of 2019, there were 7,714 people, 3,332 households in the city. The median age was 41 years old. The median yearly salary was 52,037 dollars, the home average value was 364,500 dollars, 54\\.7% had a college degree, and 9\\.5% were veterans who served in wartime higher than the national average. The population was 97% White, 2% Hispanic, and 1% Native American.", "" ]
Biography --------- Hall was born in [Goshen, Connecticut](/wiki/Goshen%2C_Connecticut "Goshen, Connecticut"), the son of Asaph Hall II (1800–42\), a clockmaker, and Hannah Palmer (1804–80\). His paternal grandfather [Asaph Hall I](/wiki/Asaph_Hall_I "Asaph Hall I") (June 11, 1735 – March 29, 1800\) was a Revolutionary War officer and Connecticut state legislator.Connecticut Revolutionary War Lists, 1775–1783\. p. 20\.Heads of families at the first U.S. census. Ct. By U.S. Bureau of the Census. Washington, 1908\. (227p.): 45 Record of Conn. Men in mil. and naval service during the Rev. War, 1775–1783\. By Henry P.Johnston. Hartford. 1889\. (17,779p.): 61, 424, 548 His father died when he was 13, leaving the family in financial difficulty, so Hall left school at 16 to become an apprentice to a carpenter. He later enrolled at the [New\-York Central College](/wiki/New-York_Central_College%2C_McGrawville "New-York Central College, McGrawville") in [McGrawville, New York](/wiki/McGraw%2C_New_York "McGraw, New York"), where he studied mathematics. There he took classes from an instructor of geometry and German, [Angeline Stickney](/wiki/Angeline_Stickney "Angeline Stickney"). In 1856 they married. In 1856, Hall took a job at the [Harvard College Observatory](/wiki/Harvard_College_Observatory "Harvard College Observatory") in [Cambridge, Massachusetts](/wiki/Cambridge%2C_Massachusetts "Cambridge, Massachusetts"), and turned out to be an expert computer of orbits. Hall became assistant astronomer at the [US Naval Observatory](/wiki/US_Naval_Observatory "US Naval Observatory") in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") in 1862, and within a year of his arrival he was made professor. On June 5, 1872 Hall published an article entitled "On an experimental determination of \\pi" in the journal *[Messenger of Mathematics](/wiki/Messenger_of_Mathematics "Messenger of Mathematics")*.{{cite journal\|journal\=Messenger of Mathematics\|first\=Asaph\|last\=Hall\|date\=1873\|oclc\=2448539\|title\=On an experimental determination of \\pi\|pages\=113–114\|volume\=2\|url\=https://gdz.sub.uni\-goettingen.de/id/PPN599484047\_0002?tify\=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B123%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D}} In this article, Hall reported the results of an experiment in random sampling that Hall had persuaded his friend, Captain O.C. Fox, to perform when Fox was recuperating from a wound received at the [Second Battle of Bull Run](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bull_Run "Second Battle of Bull Run"). The experiment involved repetitively throwing at random a fine steel wire onto a plane wooden surface ruled with equidistant parallel lines. An approximation of \\pi was then computed as 2ml/an, where m is the number of trials, l is the length of the steel wire, a is the distance between parallel lines, and n is the number of intersections. This paper, an experiment on [Buffon's needle](/wiki/Buffon%27s_needle "Buffon's needle") problem, is a very early documented use of random sampling (which [Nicholas Metropolis](/wiki/Nicholas_Metropolis "Nicholas Metropolis") would name the [Monte Carlo method](/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method "Monte Carlo method") during the [Manhattan Project](/wiki/Manhattan_Project "Manhattan Project") of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II")) in scientific inquiry. In 1875 Hall was given responsibility for the [USNO](/wiki/USNO "USNO") 26\-inch (66\-cm) telescope, the largest [refracting telescope](/wiki/Refracting_telescope "Refracting telescope") in the world at the time. It was with this telescope that he discovered Phobos and Deimos in August 1877\. Hall also noticed a white spot on Saturn which he used as a marker to ascertain the planet's rotational period. In 1884, Hall showed that the position of the elliptical orbit of Saturn's moon, [Hyperion](/wiki/Hyperion_%28moon%29 "Hyperion (moon)"), was [retrograding](/wiki/Retrograde_motion "Retrograde motion") by about 20° per year. Hall also investigated stellar [parallaxes](/wiki/Parallax "Parallax") and the positions of the stars in the [Pleiades](/wiki/Pleiades "Pleiades") star [cluster](/wiki/Open_cluster "Open cluster"). Hall was responsible for apprenticing [Henry S. Pritchett](/wiki/Henry_S._Pritchett "Henry S. Pritchett") at the Naval Observatory in 1875\. ### Discovery of Phobos and Deimos During Mars' closest approach in 1877, Hall was encouraged by [Angeline Stickney](/wiki/Angeline_Stickney "Angeline Stickney"), his wife, to search for the Martian moons. His calculations had shown that the orbit should be very close to the planet. Hall wrote "The chance of finding a satellite appeared to be very slight, so that I might have abandoned the search had it not been for the encouragement of my wife."Hall, Asaph, *Observations and orbits of the satellites of Mars*, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1878 (quoted in Hall, Angelo, *An astronomer's wife*, Baltimore: Nunn and Company, 1908, p. 112\). Asaph Hall discovered Deimos on August 12, 1877 at about 07:48 [UTC](/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time "Coordinated Universal Time") and Phobos on August 18, 1877, at the [US Naval Observatory](/wiki/US_Naval_Observatory "US Naval Observatory") in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C."), at about 09:14 [GMT](/wiki/GMT "GMT") (contemporary sources, using the pre\-1925 astronomical convention that began the day at noon, give the time of discovery as 11 August 14:40 and 17 August 16:06 [Washington mean time](/wiki/Washington_mean_time "Washington mean time") respectively).{{cite web \|url\=http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/Obs../0001//0000181\.000\.html \|title\=Notes: The Satellites of Mars \|publisher\=The Observatory, Vol. 1, No. 6 \|date\=September 20, 1877 \|pages\=181–185 \|access\-date\=September 12, 2006}}{{cite web \|url\=http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AN.../0091//0000013\.000\.html \|title\=Observations of the Satellites of Mars \|author\=Hall, A. \|publisher\=Astronomische Nachrichten, Vol. 91, No. 2161 \|pages\=11/12–13/14 \|date\=October 17, 1877 \|type\=Signed September 21, 1877 \|access\-date\=September 12, 2006}}Morley, T. A.; [*A Catalogue of Ground\-Based Astrometric Observations of the Martian Satellites, 1877\-1982*](http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/A+AS./0077//0000220.000.html), Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series, Vol. 77, No. 2 (February 1989\), pp. 209–226 (Table II, p. 220: first observation of Phobos on August 17, 1877\.38498\) At the time, he was deliberately searching for Martian moons. Hall had previously seen what appeared to be a Martian moon on August 10, but due to bad weather, he could not definitively identify them until later. Hall recorded his discovery of Phobos in his notebook as follows:{{cite journal \|url\=http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0038//0000205\.000\.html \|journal\=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society \|volume\=38 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=205–209 \|title\=The Discovery of the Satellites of Mars \|date\=February 8, 1878 \|bibcode\=1878MNRAS..38\..205H \|access\-date\=September 12, 2006 \|last1\=Hall \|first1\=A. \|doi\=10\.1093/mnras/38\.4\.190 \|doi\-access\=free }} [thumb\|left\|The telescope used to discover the Martian moons](/wiki/File:Usno-telescope-equalized-1.png "Usno-telescope-equalized-1.png") {{quote\| :"I repeated the examination in the early part of the night of 11th \[August 1877], and again found nothing, but trying again some hours later I found a faint object on the following side and a little north of the planet. I had barely time to secure an observation of its position when fog from the River stopped the work. This was at half past two o'clock on the night of the 11th. Cloudy weather intervened for several days. :"On 15 August the weather looking more promising, I slept at the Observatory. The sky cleared off with a thunderstorm at 11 o'clock and the search was resumed. The atmosphere however was in a very bad condition and Mars was so blazing and unsteady that nothing could be seen of the object, which we now know was at that time so near the planet as to be invisible. :"On 16 August the object was found again on the following side of the planet, and the observations of that night showed that it was moving with the planet, and if a satellite, was near one of its elongations. Until this time I had said nothing to anyone at the Observatory of my search for a satellite of Mars, but on leaving the observatory after these observations of the 16th, at about three o'clock in the morning, I told my assistant, George Anderson, to whom I had shown the object, that I thought I had discovered a satellite of Mars. I told him also to keep quiet as I did not wish anything said until the matter was beyond doubt. He said nothing, but the thing was too good to keep and I let it out myself. On 17 August between one and two o'clock, while I was reducing my observations, Professor Newcomb came into my room to eat his lunch and I showed him my measures of the faint object near Mars which proved that it was moving with the planet. :"On 17 August while waiting and watching for the outer moon, the inner one was discovered. The observations of the 17th and 18th put beyond doubt the character of these objects and the discovery was publicly announced by Admiral Rodgers." \|}} [thumb\|right\|Hall's former home in the [Georgetown](/wiki/Georgetown%2C_Washington%2C_D.C. "Georgetown, Washington, D.C.") neighborhood of [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C."), after enlargement. Note Angeline on front steps and two workers.](/wiki/File:The_Angeline_and_Asaph_Hall_house.jpg "The Angeline and Asaph Hall house.jpg") Hall retired from the Navy in 1891\. He became a lecturer in celestial mechanics at Harvard University in 1896, and continued to teach there until 1901\.
[ "Biography\n---------", "Hall was born in [Goshen, Connecticut](/wiki/Goshen%2C_Connecticut \"Goshen, Connecticut\"), the son of Asaph Hall II (1800–42\\), a clockmaker, and Hannah Palmer (1804–80\\). His paternal grandfather [Asaph Hall I](/wiki/Asaph_Hall_I \"Asaph Hall I\") (June 11, 1735 – March 29, 1800\\) was a Revolutionary War officer and Connecticut state legislator.Connecticut Revolutionary War Lists, 1775–1783\\. p. 20\\.Heads of families at the first U.S. census. Ct. By U.S. Bureau of the Census. Washington, 1908\\. (227p.): 45 Record of Conn. Men in mil. and naval service during the Rev. War, 1775–1783\\. By Henry P.Johnston. Hartford. 1889\\. (17,779p.): 61, 424, 548 His father died when he was 13, leaving the family in financial difficulty, so Hall left school at 16 to become an apprentice to a carpenter. He later enrolled at the [New\\-York Central College](/wiki/New-York_Central_College%2C_McGrawville \"New-York Central College, McGrawville\") in [McGrawville, New York](/wiki/McGraw%2C_New_York \"McGraw, New York\"), where he studied mathematics. There he took classes from an instructor of geometry and German, [Angeline Stickney](/wiki/Angeline_Stickney \"Angeline Stickney\"). In 1856 they married.", "In 1856, Hall took a job at the [Harvard College Observatory](/wiki/Harvard_College_Observatory \"Harvard College Observatory\") in [Cambridge, Massachusetts](/wiki/Cambridge%2C_Massachusetts \"Cambridge, Massachusetts\"), and turned out to be an expert computer of orbits. Hall became assistant astronomer at the [US Naval Observatory](/wiki/US_Naval_Observatory \"US Naval Observatory\") in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") in 1862, and within a year of his arrival he was made professor.", "On June 5, 1872 Hall published an article entitled \"On an experimental determination of \\\\pi\" in the journal *[Messenger of Mathematics](/wiki/Messenger_of_Mathematics \"Messenger of Mathematics\")*.{{cite journal\\|journal\\=Messenger of Mathematics\\|first\\=Asaph\\|last\\=Hall\\|date\\=1873\\|oclc\\=2448539\\|title\\=On an experimental determination of \\\\pi\\|pages\\=113–114\\|volume\\=2\\|url\\=https://gdz.sub.uni\\-goettingen.de/id/PPN599484047\\_0002?tify\\=%7B%22pages%22%3A%5B123%5D%2C%22view%22%3A%22info%22%7D}} In this article, Hall reported the results of an experiment in random sampling that Hall had persuaded his friend, Captain O.C. Fox, to perform when Fox was recuperating from a wound received at the [Second Battle of Bull Run](/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bull_Run \"Second Battle of Bull Run\"). The experiment involved repetitively throwing at random a fine steel wire onto a plane wooden surface ruled with equidistant parallel lines. An approximation of \\\\pi was then computed as 2ml/an, where m is the number of trials, l is the length of the steel wire, a is the distance between parallel lines, and n is the number of intersections. This paper, an experiment on [Buffon's needle](/wiki/Buffon%27s_needle \"Buffon's needle\") problem, is a very early documented use of random sampling (which [Nicholas Metropolis](/wiki/Nicholas_Metropolis \"Nicholas Metropolis\") would name the [Monte Carlo method](/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method \"Monte Carlo method\") during the [Manhattan Project](/wiki/Manhattan_Project \"Manhattan Project\") of [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\")) in scientific inquiry.", "In 1875 Hall was given responsibility for the [USNO](/wiki/USNO \"USNO\") 26\\-inch (66\\-cm) telescope, the largest [refracting telescope](/wiki/Refracting_telescope \"Refracting telescope\") in the world at the time. It was with this telescope that he discovered Phobos and Deimos in August 1877\\. Hall also noticed a white spot on Saturn which he used as a marker to ascertain the planet's rotational period. In 1884, Hall showed that the position of the elliptical orbit of Saturn's moon, [Hyperion](/wiki/Hyperion_%28moon%29 \"Hyperion (moon)\"), was [retrograding](/wiki/Retrograde_motion \"Retrograde motion\") by about 20° per year. Hall also investigated stellar [parallaxes](/wiki/Parallax \"Parallax\") and the positions of the stars in the [Pleiades](/wiki/Pleiades \"Pleiades\") star [cluster](/wiki/Open_cluster \"Open cluster\").", "Hall was responsible for apprenticing [Henry S. Pritchett](/wiki/Henry_S._Pritchett \"Henry S. Pritchett\") at the Naval Observatory in 1875\\.", "### Discovery of Phobos and Deimos", "During Mars' closest approach in 1877, Hall was encouraged by [Angeline Stickney](/wiki/Angeline_Stickney \"Angeline Stickney\"), his wife, to search for the Martian moons. His calculations had shown that the orbit should be very close to the planet. Hall wrote \"The chance of finding a satellite appeared to be very slight, so that I might have abandoned the search had it not been for the encouragement of my wife.\"Hall, Asaph, *Observations and orbits of the satellites of Mars*, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1878 (quoted in Hall, Angelo, *An astronomer's wife*, Baltimore: Nunn and Company, 1908, p. 112\\).", "Asaph Hall discovered Deimos on August 12, 1877 at about 07:48 [UTC](/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time \"Coordinated Universal Time\") and Phobos on August 18, 1877, at the [US Naval Observatory](/wiki/US_Naval_Observatory \"US Naval Observatory\") in [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"), at about 09:14 [GMT](/wiki/GMT \"GMT\") (contemporary sources, using the pre\\-1925 astronomical convention that began the day at noon, give the time of discovery as 11 August 14:40 and 17 August 16:06 [Washington mean time](/wiki/Washington_mean_time \"Washington mean time\") respectively).{{cite web \\|url\\=http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/Obs../0001//0000181\\.000\\.html \\|title\\=Notes: The Satellites of Mars \\|publisher\\=The Observatory, Vol. 1, No. 6 \\|date\\=September 20, 1877 \\|pages\\=181–185 \\|access\\-date\\=September 12, 2006}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AN.../0091//0000013\\.000\\.html \\|title\\=Observations of the Satellites of Mars \\|author\\=Hall, A. \\|publisher\\=Astronomische Nachrichten, Vol. 91, No. 2161 \\|pages\\=11/12–13/14 \\|date\\=October 17, 1877 \\|type\\=Signed September 21, 1877 \\|access\\-date\\=September 12, 2006}}Morley, T. A.; [*A Catalogue of Ground\\-Based Astrometric Observations of the Martian Satellites, 1877\\-1982*](http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/A+AS./0077//0000220.000.html), Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series, Vol. 77, No. 2 (February 1989\\), pp. 209–226 (Table II, p. 220: first observation of Phobos on August 17, 1877\\.38498\\) At the time, he was deliberately searching for Martian moons. Hall had previously seen what appeared to be a Martian moon on August 10, but due to bad weather, he could not definitively identify them until later.", "Hall recorded his discovery of Phobos in his notebook as follows:{{cite journal \\|url\\=http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0038//0000205\\.000\\.html \\|journal\\=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society \\|volume\\=38 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=205–209 \\|title\\=The Discovery of the Satellites of Mars \\|date\\=February 8, 1878 \\|bibcode\\=1878MNRAS..38\\..205H \\|access\\-date\\=September 12, 2006 \\|last1\\=Hall \\|first1\\=A. \\|doi\\=10\\.1093/mnras/38\\.4\\.190 \\|doi\\-access\\=free }}\n[thumb\\|left\\|The telescope used to discover the Martian moons](/wiki/File:Usno-telescope-equalized-1.png \"Usno-telescope-equalized-1.png\")\n{{quote\\|\n:\"I repeated the examination in the early part of the night of 11th \\[August 1877], and again found nothing, but trying again some hours later I found a faint object on the following side and a little north of the planet. I had barely time to secure an observation of its position when fog from the River stopped the work. This was at half past two o'clock on the night of the 11th. Cloudy weather intervened for several days.\n:\"On 15 August the weather looking more promising, I slept at the Observatory. The sky cleared off with a thunderstorm at 11 o'clock and the search was resumed. The atmosphere however was in a very bad condition and Mars was so blazing and unsteady that nothing could be seen of the object, which we now know was at that time so near the planet as to be invisible.\n:\"On 16 August the object was found again on the following side of the planet, and the observations of that night showed that it was moving with the planet, and if a satellite, was near one of its elongations. Until this time I had said nothing to anyone at the Observatory of my search for a satellite of Mars, but on leaving the observatory after these observations of the 16th, at about three o'clock in the morning, I told my assistant, George Anderson, to whom I had shown the object, that I thought I had discovered a satellite of Mars. I told him also to keep quiet as I did not wish anything said until the matter was beyond doubt. He said nothing, but the thing was too good to keep and I let it out myself. On 17 August between one and two o'clock, while I was reducing my observations, Professor Newcomb came into my room to eat his lunch and I showed him my measures of the faint object near Mars which proved that it was moving with the planet.\n:\"On 17 August while waiting and watching for the outer moon, the inner one was discovered. The observations of the 17th and 18th put beyond doubt the character of these objects and the discovery was publicly announced by Admiral Rodgers.\"\n\\|}}", "[thumb\\|right\\|Hall's former home in the [Georgetown](/wiki/Georgetown%2C_Washington%2C_D.C. \"Georgetown, Washington, D.C.\") neighborhood of [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\"), after enlargement. Note Angeline on front steps and two workers.](/wiki/File:The_Angeline_and_Asaph_Hall_house.jpg \"The Angeline and Asaph Hall house.jpg\")\nHall retired from the Navy in 1891\\. He became a lecturer in celestial mechanics at Harvard University in 1896, and continued to teach there until 1901\\.", "" ]
Synopsis -------- The story begins – > Long, long ago there was born to a Roman knight and his wife Maja a little boy called Virgilius. While he was still quite little, his father died, and the kinsmen, instead of being a help and protection to the child and his mother, robbed them of their lands and money, and the widow, fearing that they might take the boy's life also, sent him away to [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain"), that he might study in the great University of [Toledo](/wiki/Toledo%2C_Spain "Toledo, Spain"). One holiday, when walking, he came upon an evil spirit that was trapped; the spirit offered him magical books in exchange for setting him free. Virgilius demanded the books, and the knowledge how to use them, first; then he freed the spirit. It grew to an enormous size, so the quick\-witted Virgilius declared he did not believe it came out of the hole, and the spirit, to prove it, went back in whereupon Virgilius quickly trapped it again. He studied magic for many days gaining a wonderful reputation for his powers ("he was much thought of as showing promise of great learning"). This was cut short when his mother sent for him because she was ill and could no longer look after their affairs. When he arrived home, his rich relatives were displeased because his presence meant they could no longer rob their kinsmen. They were, however, related to the emperor, who put off the matter of giving Virgilius his due. His enemies attacked him but Virgilius used his magic to drive them off or cast spells on them. The emperor himself went to him without effect until a magician came into camp and was hired to battle Virgilius. Virgilius had a hard time fighting the magician, but reached the emperor in secret with a proposition: he would stop the fight if he could have justice, compelling the emperor to agree. Virgilius then fell in love with a woman named Febilla. She told him that she would let him visit her by drawing him up in a basket to a tower. Once he was in the basket, she lifted it only half way, leaving him a dangling target of the crowd's ridicule. The emperor ordered his release, but the next day, no fire in Rome would light. Virgilius told them to bring Febilla to a scaffold in the market place and take fire from her. Fire started about her and she had to stand there until everyone had re\-lit their fires. The emperor threw Virgilius into prison with a death sentence, but when he was brought up, thirsty Virgilius asked for water. When the guards brought him a pail of water, Virgilius jumped into it, saying he was going to Sicily and magically vanished. Andrew Lang has heavily bowdlerized his sources here; in the original Medieval tradition, the fire could only be rekindled from her vagina. The story was very popular with Renaissance artists. The [Metropolitan Museum](/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum "Metropolitan Museum") has a Venetian *confittiera* (ca. 1475–1500\) showing Febilla standing on the square with raised skirt, a gift by [J. Pierpont Morgan](/wiki/J._Pierpont_Morgan "J. Pierpont Morgan").[Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History](http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/arlo/ho_17.190.730a,b.htm)[Les cahiers d'Alain Truong](http://alaintruong.canalblog.com/archives/2008/11/23/11465448.html) ### Effects on Rome The fairy tale says that it is unknown how he reconciled with the emperor, but he next made statues of the gods of every country, including Rome, with bells in their hands, and the bells would ring if they intended treachery toward Rome, so the Romans would send their armies against them. A country that hated them sent men to Rome; they claimed to be diviners and to have dreamed of gold, and then, with the Senate's permission, dug up the gold they had buried the night before. The [third](/wiki/Rule_of_three_%28writing%29 "Rule of three (writing)") time, they told the Senate it was under the Capitol and they would dig for them, for their generosity; they undermined the Capitol and stole away. Immediately after, the statues fell and were ruined. Much crime followed in the city. Virgilius had a copper horse and rider made and ordered all men indoors. Only the honest obeyed, and the horse trampled those it found outside. The next day, the surviving thieves tried to use ropes and grapples to stop it, and used rope ladders to escape it. Two copper dogs were added, to jump up and bite them to death. Virgilius fell in love with a foreign princess, the daughter of a sultan, and carried her away from her father. She was a guest in his house, wondering at the marvels, until she wished to return to her father. Virgilius returned her, but the sultan ordered his death. Virgilius cast a spell on him and his court and carried the princess away again. Then, thinking Rome not fine enough, he built a marvelous city for her, which was [Naples](/wiki/Naples "Naples").
[ "Synopsis\n--------", "The story begins –", "> Long, long ago there was born to a Roman knight and his wife Maja a little boy called Virgilius. While he was still quite little, his father died, and the kinsmen, instead of being a help and protection to the child and his mother, robbed them of their lands and money, and the widow, fearing that they might take the boy's life also, sent him away to [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\"), that he might study in the great University of [Toledo](/wiki/Toledo%2C_Spain \"Toledo, Spain\").", "", "One holiday, when walking, he came upon an evil spirit that was trapped; the spirit offered him magical books in exchange for setting him free. Virgilius demanded the books, and the knowledge how to use them, first; then he freed the spirit. It grew to an enormous size, so the quick\\-witted Virgilius declared he did not believe it came out of the hole, and the spirit, to prove it, went back in whereupon Virgilius quickly trapped it again.", "He studied magic for many days gaining a wonderful reputation for his powers (\"he was much thought of as showing promise of great learning\"). This was cut short when his mother sent for him because she was ill and could no longer look after their affairs. When he arrived home, his rich relatives were displeased because his presence meant they could no longer rob their kinsmen. They were, however, related to the emperor, who put off the matter of giving Virgilius his due. His enemies attacked him but Virgilius used his magic to drive them off or cast spells on them. The emperor himself went to him without effect until a magician came into camp and was hired to battle Virgilius. Virgilius had a hard time fighting the magician, but reached the emperor in secret with a proposition: he would stop the fight if he could have justice, compelling the emperor to agree.", "Virgilius then fell in love with a woman named Febilla. She told him that she would let him visit her by drawing him up in a basket to a tower. Once he was in the basket, she lifted it only half way, leaving him a dangling target of the crowd's ridicule. The emperor ordered his release, but the next day, no fire in Rome would light. Virgilius told them to bring Febilla to a scaffold in the market place and take fire from her. Fire started about her and she had to stand there until everyone had re\\-lit their fires. The emperor threw Virgilius into prison with a death sentence, but when he was brought up, thirsty Virgilius asked for water. When the guards brought him a pail of water, Virgilius jumped into it, saying he was going to Sicily and magically vanished.", "Andrew Lang has heavily bowdlerized his sources here; in the original Medieval tradition, the fire could only be rekindled from her vagina. The story was very popular with Renaissance artists. The [Metropolitan Museum](/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum \"Metropolitan Museum\") has a Venetian *confittiera* (ca. 1475–1500\\) showing Febilla standing on the square with raised skirt, a gift by [J. Pierpont Morgan](/wiki/J._Pierpont_Morgan \"J. Pierpont Morgan\").[Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History](http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/arlo/ho_17.190.730a,b.htm)[Les cahiers d'Alain Truong](http://alaintruong.canalblog.com/archives/2008/11/23/11465448.html)", "### Effects on Rome", "The fairy tale says that it is unknown how he reconciled with the emperor, but he next made statues of the gods of every country, including Rome, with bells in their hands, and the bells would ring if they intended treachery toward Rome, so the Romans would send their armies against them.", "A country that hated them sent men to Rome; they claimed to be diviners and to have dreamed of gold, and then, with the Senate's permission, dug up the gold they had buried the night before. The [third](/wiki/Rule_of_three_%28writing%29 \"Rule of three (writing)\") time, they told the Senate it was under the Capitol and they would dig for them, for their generosity; they undermined the Capitol and stole away. Immediately after, the statues fell and were ruined.", "Much crime followed in the city. Virgilius had a copper horse and rider made and ordered all men indoors. Only the honest obeyed, and the horse trampled those it found outside. The next day, the surviving thieves tried to use ropes and grapples to stop it, and used rope ladders to escape it. Two copper dogs were added, to jump up and bite them to death.", "Virgilius fell in love with a foreign princess, the daughter of a sultan, and carried her away from her father. She was a guest in his house, wondering at the marvels, until she wished to return to her father. Virgilius returned her, but the sultan ordered his death. Virgilius cast a spell on him and his court and carried the princess away again. Then, thinking Rome not fine enough, he built a marvelous city for her, which was [Naples](/wiki/Naples \"Naples\").", "" ]
Geology ------- {{Geology of the Andes}} The Andes are an [orogenic](/wiki/Orogenic "Orogenic") belt of mountains along the [Pacific Ring of Fire](/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire "Pacific Ring of Fire"), a zone of [volcanic activity](/wiki/Volcanic_activity "Volcanic activity") that encompasses the Pacific rim of the Americas as well as the [Asia\-Pacific](/wiki/Asia-Pacific "Asia-Pacific") region. The Andes are the result of [tectonic plate](/wiki/Tectonic_plate "Tectonic plate") processes extending during the [Mesozoic](/wiki/Mesozoic "Mesozoic") and [Tertiary](/wiki/Tertiary "Tertiary") eras, caused by the [subduction](/wiki/Subduction "Subduction") of [oceanic crust](/wiki/Oceanic_crust "Oceanic crust") beneath the [South American Plate](/wiki/South_American_Plate "South American Plate") as the [Nazca Plate](/wiki/Nazca_Plate "Nazca Plate") and South American Plate converge. These processes were accelerated by the effects of climate. As the uplift of the Andes created a rain shadow on the western fringes of Chile, ocean currents and prevailing winds carried moisture away from the Chilean coast. This caused some areas of the subduction zone to be sediment\-starved, causing excess friction and an increased rate of compressed coastal uplift.{{cite journal\| url\=https://doi.org/10\.1038/nature02049\| doi\=10\.1038/nature02049\| title\=Cenozoic climate change as a possible cause for the rise of the Andes\| year\=2003\| last1\=Lamb\| first1\=Simon\| last2\=Davis\| first2\=Paul\| journal\=Nature\| volume\=425\| issue\=6960\| pages\=792–797\| pmid\=14574402\| bibcode\=2003Natur.425\..792L\| s2cid\=4354886}} The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the western rim of the [South American Plate](/wiki/South_American_Plate "South American Plate") due to the subduction of the [Nazca Plate](/wiki/Nazca_Plate "Nazca Plate") and the [Antarctic Plate](/wiki/Antarctic_Plate "Antarctic Plate"). To the east, the Andes range is bounded by several [sedimentary basins](/wiki/Sedimentary_basin "Sedimentary basin"), such as the [Orinoco Basin](/wiki/Orinoco_Basin "Orinoco Basin"), the [Amazon Basin](/wiki/Amazon_Basin "Amazon Basin"), the [Madre de Dios](/wiki/Madre_de_Dios_River "Madre de Dios River") Basin, and the [Gran Chaco](/wiki/Gran_Chaco "Gran Chaco"), that separate the Andes from the ancient [cratons](/wiki/Craton "Craton") in eastern South America. In the south, the Andes share a long boundary with the former [Patagonia Terrane](/wiki/Patagonia%23Geology "Patagonia#Geology"). To the west, the Andes end at the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean "Pacific Ocean"), although the [Peru\-Chile trench](/wiki/Peru-Chile_trench "Peru-Chile trench") can be considered their ultimate western limit. From a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and less\-rugged topography. The Andes also contain large quantities of [iron ore](/wiki/Iron_ore "Iron ore") located in many mountains within the range. The Andean orogen has a series of bends or [oroclines](/wiki/Orocline "Orocline"). The [Bolivian Orocline](/wiki/Bolivian_Orocline "Bolivian Orocline") is a seaward\-concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S.{{Citation \| last \= Kley \| first \= J. \| title \= Geologic and geometric constraints on a kinematic model of the Bolivian orocline \| journal \= \[\[Journal of South American Earth Sciences]] \| volume \= 12 \| issue \= 2 \| year \= 1999 \| pages \= 221–235 \| doi\=10\.1016/s0895\-9811(99\)00015\-2 \| bibcode\= 1999JSAES..12\..221K }} At this point, the orientation of the Andes turns from northwest in [Peru](/wiki/Peru "Peru") to south in [Chile](/wiki/Chile "Chile") and [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina"). The Andean segments north and south of the Orocline have been rotated 15° counter\-clockwise to 20° clockwise respectively.{{Citation \| last \= Beck \| first \= Myrl E. \| title \= Tectonic rotations on the leading edge of South America: The Bolivian orocline revisited \| journal \= \[\[Geology (journal)\|Geology]] \| volume \= 15 \| issue \= 9 \| year \= 1987 \| pages \= 806–808 \| doi\=10\.1130/0091\-7613(1987\)15\<806:trotle\>2\.0\.co;2 \| bibcode\= 1987Geo....15\..806B }} The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of the maximum width of the [Altiplano Plateau](/wiki/Altiplano "Altiplano"), and according to Isacks (1988\) the Orocline is related to [crustal shortening](/wiki/Crustal_shortening "Crustal shortening").{{Citation \| last \= Isacks \| first \= Bryan L. \| title \= Uplift of the Central Andean Plateau and Bending of the Bolivian Orocline \| journal \= \[\[Journal of Geophysical Research]] \| volume \= 93 \| issue \= B4 \| year \= 1988 \| pages \= 3211–3231 \| url \= http://geomorphology.sese.asu.edu/Papers/Isacks\_Uplift\_Andean\_Plateau\_1988\.pdf \| doi\=10\.1029/jb093ib04p03211 \| bibcode\= 1988JGR....93\.3211I }} The specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the [Arica](/wiki/Arica "Arica") Elbow.{{cite journal \|last1\=Prezzi \|first1\=Claudia B. \|last2\=Vilas \|first2\=Juan F.\|date\=1998 \|title\=New evidence of clockwise vertical axis rotations south of the Arica elbow (Argentine Puna) \|journal\=\[\[Tectonophysics (journal)\|Tectonophysics]] \|volume\=292 \|issue\= 1\|pages\=85–100 \|doi\= 10\.1016/s0040\-1951(98\)00058\-4\|bibcode\=1998Tectp.292\...85P}} Further south lies the Maipo Orocline, a more subtle orocline between 30° S and 38°S with a seaward\-concave break in the trend at 33° S.{{Citation \| last1 \= Arriagada \| first1 \= César \| last2 \= Ferrando \| first2 \= Rodolfo \| last3 \= Córdova \| first3 \= Loreto \| last4 \= Morata \| first4 \= Diego \| last5 \= Roperch \| first5 \= Pierrick \| title \= The Maipo Orocline: A first scale structural feature in the Miocene to Recent geodynamic evolution in the central Chilean Andes \| journal \= \[\[Andean Geology]] \| volume \= 40 \| issue \= 3 \| year \= 2013 \| pages \= 419–437 \| url \= http://www.scielo.cl/pdf/andgeol/v40n3/art02\.pdf }} Near the southern tip of the Andes lies the Patagonian Orocline.{{cite book \|last1\=Charrier \|first1\=Reynaldo\|last2\=Pinto \|first2\=Luisa \|last3\=Rodríguez \|first3\=María Pía\|author\-link\=Reynaldo Charrier \|editor\-last\=Moreno \|editor\-first\=Teresa \|editor2\-last\=Gibbons \|editor2\-first\=Wes \|title\=Geology of Chile \|publisher\=Geological Society of London \|date\=2006 \|pages\=5–19 \|chapter\=3\. Tectonostratigraphic evolution of the Andean Orogen in Chile \|isbn\=978\-1\-86239\-219\-9}} ### Orogeny {{main\|Andean orogeny}} The western rim of the [South American Plate](/wiki/South_American_Plate "South American Plate") has been the place of several pre\-Andean [orogenies](/wiki/Orogeny "Orogeny") since at least the late [Proterozoic](/wiki/Proterozoic "Proterozoic") and early [Paleozoic](/wiki/Paleozoic "Paleozoic"), when several [terranes](/wiki/Terrane "Terrane") and [microcontinents](/wiki/Microcontinent "Microcontinent") collided and amalgamated with the ancient [cratons](/wiki/Craton "Craton") of eastern South America, by then the [South American part](/wiki/South_American_Plate "South American Plate") of [Gondwana](/wiki/Gondwana "Gondwana"). The formation of the modern Andes began with the events of the [Triassic](/wiki/Triassic "Triassic"), when [Pangaea](/wiki/Pangaea "Pangaea") began the breakup that resulted in developing several [rifts](/wiki/Rift "Rift"). The development continued through the [Jurassic](/wiki/Jurassic "Jurassic") Period. It was during the [Cretaceous](/wiki/Cretaceous "Cretaceous") Period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the [uplifting](/wiki/Tectonic_uplift "Tectonic uplift"), [faulting](/wiki/Fault_%28geology%29 "Fault (geology)"), and [folding](/wiki/Fold_%28geology%29 "Fold (geology)") of [sedimentary](/wiki/Sedimentary_rock "Sedimentary rock") and [metamorphic](/wiki/Metamorphic_rock "Metamorphic rock") rocks of the ancient cratons to the east. The rise of the Andes has not been constant, as different regions have had different degrees of tectonic stress, uplift, and [erosion](/wiki/Erosion "Erosion"). Across the {{convert\|1000\|km\|mi\|\-wide\|sp\=us\|adj\=mid}} [Drake Passage](/wiki/Drake_Passage "Drake Passage") lie the mountains of the [Antarctic Peninsula](/wiki/Antarctic_Peninsula "Antarctic Peninsula") south of the [Scotia Plate](/wiki/Scotia_Plate "Scotia Plate"), which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain. The far east regions of the Andes experience a series of changes resulting from the Andean orogeny. Parts of the [Sunsás Orogen](/wiki/Suns%C3%A1s_orogeny "Sunsás orogeny") in [Amazonian craton](/wiki/Amazonian_craton "Amazonian craton") disappeared from the surface of the earth, being [overridden](/wiki/Thrust_fault "Thrust fault") by the Andes.{{cite journal \|last1\=Santos \|first1\=J.O.S. \|last2\=Rizzotto \|first2\=G.J. \|last4\=McNaughton \|first4\=N.J.\|last3\=Potter \|first3\=P.E.\|last5\=Matos \|first5\=R.S.\|last6\=Hartmann \|first6\=L.A.\|last7\=Chemale Jr. \|first7\=F.\|last8\=Quadros \|first8\=M.E.S.\|date\=2008 \|title\=Age and autochthonous evolution of the Sunsás Orogen in West Amazon Craton based on mapping and U–Pb geochronology \|journal\=\[\[Precambrian Research]] \|volume\=165 \|issue\=3–4 \|pages\=120–152 \|doi\= 10\.1016/j.precamres.2008\.06\.009\|bibcode\=2008PreR..165\..120S}} The [Sierras de Córdoba](/wiki/Sierras_de_C%C3%B3rdoba "Sierras de Córdoba"), where the effects of the ancient [Pampean orogeny](/wiki/Pampean_orogeny "Pampean orogeny") can be observed, owe their modern uplift and relief to the [Andean orogeny](/wiki/Andean_orogeny "Andean orogeny") in the [Tertiary](/wiki/Tertiary "Tertiary").{{cite book \|last1\=Rapela \|first1\=C.W. \|last2\=Pankhurst \|first2\=R.J\|last3\=Casquet \|first3\=C.\|last4\=Baldo \|first4\=E.\|last5\=Saavedra \|first5\=J.\|last6\=Galindo \|first6\=C.\|last7\=Fanning \|first7\=C.M. \|author\-link2\=Robert John Pankhurst\|date\=1998 \|editor2\-last\=Rapela \|editor2\-first\=C.W. \|editor1\-last\=Pankhurst \|editor1\-first\=R.J\|chapter\=The Pampean Orogeny of the southern proto\-Andes: Cambrian continental collision in the Sierras de Córdoba \|chapter\-url\=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/142/1/181\.full.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/142/1/181\.full.pdf \|archive\-date\=2022\-10\-09 \|url\-status\=live \|title\=The Proto\-Andean Margin of Gondwana \|journal\=Geological Society, London, Special Publications \|volume\=142 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=181–217 \|doi\= 10\.1144/GSL.SP.1998\.142\.01\.10\|s2cid\=128814617 \|access\-date\=7 December 2015}} Further south in southern [Patagonia](/wiki/Patagonia "Patagonia"), the onset of the Andean orogeny caused the [Magallanes Basin](/wiki/Magallanes_Basin "Magallanes Basin") to evolve from being an [extensional](/wiki/Extensional_tectonics "Extensional tectonics") [back\-arc basin](/wiki/Back-arc_basin "Back-arc basin") in the [Mesozoic](/wiki/Mesozoic "Mesozoic") to being a compressional [foreland basin](/wiki/Andean_Foreland_Basin "Andean Foreland Basin") in the [Cenozoic](/wiki/Cenozoic "Cenozoic").{{cite journal \|last\=Wilson \|first\=T.J. \|date\=1991 \|title\=Transition from back\-arc to foreland basin development in the southernmost Andes: Stratigraphic record from the Ultima Esperanza District, Chile \|journal\=Geological Society of America Bulletin \|volume\=103 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=98–111 \|doi\= 10\.1130/0016\-7606(1991\)103\<0098:tfbatf\>2\.3\.co;2\|bibcode\=1991GSAB..103\...98W}} ### Seismic activity Tectonic forces above the [subduction zone](/wiki/Subduction_zone "Subduction zone") along the entire west coast of South America where the [Nazca Plate](/wiki/Nazca_Plate "Nazca Plate") and a part of the [Antarctic Plate](/wiki/Antarctic_Plate "Antarctic Plate") are sliding beneath the [South American Plate](/wiki/South_American_Plate "South American Plate") continue to produce an ongoing [orogenic event](/wiki/Orogeny "Orogeny") resulting in minor to major [earthquakes](/wiki/Earthquake "Earthquake") and [volcanic eruptions](/wiki/Volcanic_eruption "Volcanic eruption") to this day. Many high\-magnitude earthquakes have been recorded in the region, such as the [2010 Maule earthquake](/wiki/2010_Chile_earthquake "2010 Chile earthquake") (M8\.8\), the [2015 Illapel earthquake](/wiki/2015_Illapel_earthquake "2015 Illapel earthquake") (M8\.2\), and the [1960 Valdivia earthquake](/wiki/1960_Valdivia_earthquake "1960 Valdivia earthquake") (M9\.5\), which as of 2024 was the strongest ever recorded on seismometers. The amount, magnitude, and type of seismic activity varies greatly along the subduction zone. These differences are due to a wide range of factors, including friction between the plates, angle of subduction, buoyancy of the subducting plate, rate of subduction, and hydration value of the mantle material. The highest rate of seismic activity is observed in the central portion of the boundary, between 33°S and 35°S. In this area, the angle of subduction is very low, meaning the subducting plate is nearly horizontal. Studies of mantle hydration across the subduction zone have shown a correlation between increased material hydration and lower\-magnitude, more\-frequent seismic activity. Zones exhibiting dehydration instead are thought to have a higher potential for larger, high\-magnitude earthquakes in the future. {{Cite journal \|last1\=Rodriguez Piceda \|first1\=Constanza \|last2\=Gao \|first2\=Ya\-Jian \|last3\=Cacace \|first3\=Mauro \|last4\=Scheck\-Wenderoth \|first4\=Magdalena \|last5\=Bott \|first5\=Judith \|last6\=Strecker \|first6\=Manfred \|last7\=Tilmann \|first7\=Frederik \|date\=2023\-03\-17 \|title\=The influence of mantle hydration and flexure on slab seismicity in the southern Central Andes \|journal\=Communications Earth \& Environment \|language\=en \|volume\=4 \|issue\=1 \|page\=79 \|doi\=10\.1038/s43247\-023\-00729\-1 \|issn\=2662\-4435\|doi\-access\=free \|bibcode\=2023ComEE...4\...79R }} The mountain range is also a source of shallow intraplate earthquakes within the South American Plate. The largest such earthquake (as of 2024\) [struck Peru in 1947](/wiki/1947_Satipo_earthquake "1947 Satipo earthquake") and measured {{M\|s}} 7\.5\. In the Peruvian Andes, these earthquakes display normal ([1946](/wiki/1946_Ancash_earthquake "1946 Ancash earthquake")), strike\-slip (1976\), and reverse ([1969](/wiki/1969_Huaytapallana_earthquake "1969 Huaytapallana earthquake"), 1983\) mechanisms. The Amazonian Craton is actively underthrusted beneath the sub\-Andes region of Peru, producing thrust faults.{{cite journal \|last1\=Dorbath \|first1\=L. \|last2\=Dorbath \|first2\=C. \|last3\=Jimenez \|first3\=E. \|last4\=Rivera \|first4\=L. \|title\=Seismicity and tectonic deformation in the Eastern Cordillera and the sub\-Andean zone of central Peru \|journal\=Journal of South American Earth Sciences \|date\=1991 \|volume\=4 \|issue\=1–2 \|page\=13\-24 \|doi\=10\.1016/0895\-9811(91\)90015\-D \|bibcode\=1991JSAES...4\...13D \|url\=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/39863456\.pdf}} In Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, thrust faulting occurs along the sub\-Andes due in response to compression brought on by subduction, while in the high Andes, normal faulting occurs in response to gravitational forces.{{cite journal \|last1\=Suárez \|first1\=Gerardo \|last2\=Molnar \|first2\=Peter \|last3\=Burchfiel \|first3\=B. Clark \|title\=Seismicity, fault plane solutions, depth of faulting, and active tectonics of the Andes of Peru, Ecuador, and southern Colombia \|journal\=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth \|date\=1983 \|volume\=88 \|issue\=B12 \|pages\=10403–10428 \|doi\=10\.1029/JB088iB12p10403\|bibcode\=1983JGR....8810403S }} In the extreme south, a major [transform fault](/wiki/Transform_fault "Transform fault") separates [Tierra del Fuego](/wiki/Tierra_del_Fuego "Tierra del Fuego") from the small [Scotia Plate](/wiki/Scotia_Plate "Scotia Plate"). ### Volcanism {{Main\|Andean Volcanic Belt}} [thumb\|upright\=1\.3\|[Rift Valley](/wiki/Rift_valley "Rift valley") near [Quilotoa](/wiki/Quilotoa "Quilotoa"), [Ecuador](/wiki/Ecuador "Ecuador")](/wiki/File:Browncanyonquilotoa.jpg "Browncanyonquilotoa.jpg") [thumb\|upright\|This photo from the [ISS](/wiki/ISS "ISS") shows the high plains of the Andes Mountains in the foreground, with a line of young volcanoes facing the much lower Atacama Desert](/wiki/File:Central_Andes_Mountains%2C_Salar_de_Arizaro%2C_Argentina.jpg "Central Andes Mountains, Salar de Arizaro, Argentina.jpg") The Andes range has many active volcanoes distributed in four volcanic zones separated by areas of inactivity. The Andean volcanism is a result of the [subduction](/wiki/Subduction "Subduction") of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South American Plate. The belt is subdivided into four main volcanic zones that are separated from each other by volcanic gaps. The volcanoes of the belt are diverse in terms of activity style, products, and morphology.{{Cite journal\|last1\=González\-Maurel\|first1\=Osvaldo\|last2\=le Roux\|first2\=Petrus\|last3\=Godoy\|first3\=Benigno\|last4\=Troll\|first4\=Valentin R.\|last5\=Deegan\|first5\=Frances M.\|last6\=Menzies\|first6\=Andrew\|date\=15 November 2019\|title\=The great escape: Petrogenesis of low\-silica volcanism of Pliocene to Quaternary age associated with the Altiplano\-Puna Volcanic Complex of northern Chile (21°10′\-22°50′S)\|url\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0024493719303196\|journal\=Lithos\|language\=en\|volume\=346–347\|pages\=105162\|doi\=10\.1016/j.lithos.2019\.105162\|bibcode\=2019Litho.34605162G\|s2cid\=201291787\|issn\=0024\-4937}} While some differences can be explained by which volcanic zone a volcano belongs to, there are significant differences inside volcanic zones and even between neighboring volcanoes. Despite being a typical location for [calc\-alkalic](/wiki/Calc-alkalic "Calc-alkalic") and subduction volcanism, the Andean Volcanic Belt has a large range of volcano\-tectonic settings, such as rift systems, extensional zones, [transpressional faults](/wiki/Transpression "Transpression"), subduction of [mid\-ocean ridges](/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge "Mid-ocean ridge"), and [seamount](/wiki/Seamount "Seamount") chains apart from a large range of crustal thicknesses and [magma](/wiki/Magma "Magma") ascent paths, and different amount of crustal assimilations. ### Ore deposits and evaporates The Andes Mountains host large [ore](/wiki/Ore "Ore") and [salt](/wiki/Salt "Salt") deposits, and some of their eastern [fold and thrust belts](/wiki/Fold_and_thrust_belt "Fold and thrust belt") act as traps for commercially exploitable amounts of [hydrocarbons](/wiki/Hydrocarbon "Hydrocarbon"). In the forelands of the [Atacama Desert](/wiki/Atacama_Desert "Atacama Desert"), some of the largest [porphyry copper](/wiki/Porphyry_copper "Porphyry copper") mineralizations occur, making Chile and Peru the first\- and second\-largest exporters of [copper](/wiki/Copper "Copper") in the world. Porphyry copper in the western slopes of the Andes has been generated by [hydrothermal fluids](/wiki/Hydrothermal_fluid "Hydrothermal fluid") (mostly water) during the cooling of [plutons](/wiki/Pluton_%28geology%29 "Pluton (geology)") or volcanic systems. The porphyry mineralization further benefited from the dry climate that reduced the disturbing actions of [meteoric water](/wiki/Meteoric_water "Meteoric water"). The dry climate in the central western Andes has also led to the creation of extensive [saltpeter deposits](/wiki/Chile_saltpeter "Chile saltpeter") which were extensively mined until the invention of synthetic [nitrates](/wiki/Nitrate "Nitrate"). Yet another result of the dry climate are the [salars](/wiki/Dry_lake "Dry lake") of [Atacama](/wiki/Salar_de_Atacama "Salar de Atacama") and [Uyuni](/wiki/Salar_de_Uyuni "Salar de Uyuni"), the former being the largest source of [lithium](/wiki/Lithium "Lithium") and the latter the world's largest reserve of the element. Early Mesozoic and [Neogene](/wiki/Neogene "Neogene") plutonism in Bolivia's Cordillera Central created the Bolivian [tin](/wiki/Tin "Tin") belt as well as the famous, now\-mostly\-depleted, deposits of [Cerro Rico de Potosí](/wiki/Cerro_Rico "Cerro Rico").
[ "Geology\n-------", "{{Geology of the Andes}}\nThe Andes are an [orogenic](/wiki/Orogenic \"Orogenic\") belt of mountains along the [Pacific Ring of Fire](/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire \"Pacific Ring of Fire\"), a zone of [volcanic activity](/wiki/Volcanic_activity \"Volcanic activity\") that encompasses the Pacific rim of the Americas as well as the [Asia\\-Pacific](/wiki/Asia-Pacific \"Asia-Pacific\") region. The Andes are the result of [tectonic plate](/wiki/Tectonic_plate \"Tectonic plate\") processes extending during the [Mesozoic](/wiki/Mesozoic \"Mesozoic\") and [Tertiary](/wiki/Tertiary \"Tertiary\") eras, caused by the [subduction](/wiki/Subduction \"Subduction\") of [oceanic crust](/wiki/Oceanic_crust \"Oceanic crust\") beneath the [South American Plate](/wiki/South_American_Plate \"South American Plate\") as the [Nazca Plate](/wiki/Nazca_Plate \"Nazca Plate\") and South American Plate converge. These processes were accelerated by the effects of climate. As the uplift of the Andes created a rain shadow on the western fringes of Chile, ocean currents and prevailing winds carried moisture away from the Chilean coast. This caused some areas of the subduction zone to be sediment\\-starved, causing excess friction and an increased rate of compressed coastal uplift.{{cite journal\\| url\\=https://doi.org/10\\.1038/nature02049\\| doi\\=10\\.1038/nature02049\\| title\\=Cenozoic climate change as a possible cause for the rise of the Andes\\| year\\=2003\\| last1\\=Lamb\\| first1\\=Simon\\| last2\\=Davis\\| first2\\=Paul\\| journal\\=Nature\\| volume\\=425\\| issue\\=6960\\| pages\\=792–797\\| pmid\\=14574402\\| bibcode\\=2003Natur.425\\..792L\\| s2cid\\=4354886}} The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the western rim of the [South American Plate](/wiki/South_American_Plate \"South American Plate\") due to the subduction of the [Nazca Plate](/wiki/Nazca_Plate \"Nazca Plate\") and the [Antarctic Plate](/wiki/Antarctic_Plate \"Antarctic Plate\"). To the east, the Andes range is bounded by several [sedimentary basins](/wiki/Sedimentary_basin \"Sedimentary basin\"), such as the [Orinoco Basin](/wiki/Orinoco_Basin \"Orinoco Basin\"), the [Amazon Basin](/wiki/Amazon_Basin \"Amazon Basin\"), the [Madre de Dios](/wiki/Madre_de_Dios_River \"Madre de Dios River\") Basin, and the [Gran Chaco](/wiki/Gran_Chaco \"Gran Chaco\"), that separate the Andes from the ancient [cratons](/wiki/Craton \"Craton\") in eastern South America. In the south, the Andes share a long boundary with the former [Patagonia Terrane](/wiki/Patagonia%23Geology \"Patagonia#Geology\"). To the west, the Andes end at the [Pacific Ocean](/wiki/Pacific_Ocean \"Pacific Ocean\"), although the [Peru\\-Chile trench](/wiki/Peru-Chile_trench \"Peru-Chile trench\") can be considered their ultimate western limit. From a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and less\\-rugged topography. The Andes also contain large quantities of [iron ore](/wiki/Iron_ore \"Iron ore\") located in many mountains within the range.", "The Andean orogen has a series of bends or [oroclines](/wiki/Orocline \"Orocline\"). The [Bolivian Orocline](/wiki/Bolivian_Orocline \"Bolivian Orocline\") is a seaward\\-concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S.{{Citation\n\\| last \\= Kley\n\\| first \\= J.\n\\| title \\= Geologic and geometric constraints on a kinematic model of the Bolivian orocline\n\\| journal \\= \\[\\[Journal of South American Earth Sciences]]\n\\| volume \\= 12\n\\| issue \\= 2\n\\| year \\= 1999\n\\| pages \\= 221–235\n\\| doi\\=10\\.1016/s0895\\-9811(99\\)00015\\-2\n\\| bibcode\\= 1999JSAES..12\\..221K\n}} At this point, the orientation of the Andes turns from northwest in [Peru](/wiki/Peru \"Peru\") to south in [Chile](/wiki/Chile \"Chile\") and [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\"). The Andean segments north and south of the Orocline have been rotated 15° counter\\-clockwise to 20° clockwise respectively.{{Citation\n\\| last \\= Beck\n\\| first \\= Myrl E.\n\\| title \\= Tectonic rotations on the leading edge of South America: The Bolivian orocline revisited\n\\| journal \\= \\[\\[Geology (journal)\\|Geology]]\n\\| volume \\= 15\n\\| issue \\= 9\n\\| year \\= 1987\n\\| pages \\= 806–808\n\\| doi\\=10\\.1130/0091\\-7613(1987\\)15\\<806:trotle\\>2\\.0\\.co;2\n\\| bibcode\\= 1987Geo....15\\..806B\n}} The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of the maximum width of the [Altiplano Plateau](/wiki/Altiplano \"Altiplano\"), and according to Isacks (1988\\) the Orocline is related to [crustal shortening](/wiki/Crustal_shortening \"Crustal shortening\").{{Citation\n\\| last \\= Isacks\n\\| first \\= Bryan L.\n\\| title \\= Uplift of the Central Andean Plateau and Bending of the Bolivian Orocline\n\\| journal \\= \\[\\[Journal of Geophysical Research]]\n\\| volume \\= 93\n\\| issue \\= B4\n\\| year \\= 1988\n\\| pages \\= 3211–3231\n\\| url \\= http://geomorphology.sese.asu.edu/Papers/Isacks\\_Uplift\\_Andean\\_Plateau\\_1988\\.pdf\n\\| doi\\=10\\.1029/jb093ib04p03211\n\\| bibcode\\= 1988JGR....93\\.3211I\n}} The specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the [Arica](/wiki/Arica \"Arica\") Elbow.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Prezzi \\|first1\\=Claudia B. \\|last2\\=Vilas \\|first2\\=Juan F.\\|date\\=1998 \\|title\\=New evidence of clockwise vertical axis rotations south of the Arica elbow (Argentine Puna) \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Tectonophysics (journal)\\|Tectonophysics]] \\|volume\\=292 \\|issue\\= 1\\|pages\\=85–100 \\|doi\\= 10\\.1016/s0040\\-1951(98\\)00058\\-4\\|bibcode\\=1998Tectp.292\\...85P}} Further south lies the Maipo Orocline, a more subtle orocline between 30° S and 38°S with a seaward\\-concave break in the trend at 33° S.{{Citation\n\\| last1 \\= Arriagada\n\\| first1 \\= César\n\\| last2 \\= Ferrando\n\\| first2 \\= Rodolfo\n\\| last3 \\= Córdova\n\\| first3 \\= Loreto\n\\| last4 \\= Morata\n\\| first4 \\= Diego\n\\| last5 \\= Roperch\n\\| first5 \\= Pierrick\n\\| title \\= The Maipo Orocline: A first scale structural feature in the Miocene to Recent geodynamic evolution in the central Chilean Andes\n\\| journal \\= \\[\\[Andean Geology]]\n\\| volume \\= 40\n\\| issue \\= 3\n\\| year \\= 2013\n\\| pages \\= 419–437\n\\| url \\= http://www.scielo.cl/pdf/andgeol/v40n3/art02\\.pdf\n}} Near the southern tip of the Andes lies the Patagonian Orocline.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Charrier \\|first1\\=Reynaldo\\|last2\\=Pinto \\|first2\\=Luisa \\|last3\\=Rodríguez \\|first3\\=María Pía\\|author\\-link\\=Reynaldo Charrier \\|editor\\-last\\=Moreno \\|editor\\-first\\=Teresa \\|editor2\\-last\\=Gibbons \\|editor2\\-first\\=Wes \\|title\\=Geology of Chile \\|publisher\\=Geological Society of London \\|date\\=2006 \\|pages\\=5–19 \\|chapter\\=3\\. Tectonostratigraphic evolution of the Andean Orogen in Chile \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-86239\\-219\\-9}}", "### Orogeny", "{{main\\|Andean orogeny}}\nThe western rim of the [South American Plate](/wiki/South_American_Plate \"South American Plate\") has been the place of several pre\\-Andean [orogenies](/wiki/Orogeny \"Orogeny\") since at least the late [Proterozoic](/wiki/Proterozoic \"Proterozoic\") and early [Paleozoic](/wiki/Paleozoic \"Paleozoic\"), when several [terranes](/wiki/Terrane \"Terrane\") and [microcontinents](/wiki/Microcontinent \"Microcontinent\") collided and amalgamated with the ancient [cratons](/wiki/Craton \"Craton\") of eastern South America, by then the [South American part](/wiki/South_American_Plate \"South American Plate\") of [Gondwana](/wiki/Gondwana \"Gondwana\").", "The formation of the modern Andes began with the events of the [Triassic](/wiki/Triassic \"Triassic\"), when [Pangaea](/wiki/Pangaea \"Pangaea\") began the breakup that resulted in developing several [rifts](/wiki/Rift \"Rift\"). The development continued through the [Jurassic](/wiki/Jurassic \"Jurassic\") Period. It was during the [Cretaceous](/wiki/Cretaceous \"Cretaceous\") Period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the [uplifting](/wiki/Tectonic_uplift \"Tectonic uplift\"), [faulting](/wiki/Fault_%28geology%29 \"Fault (geology)\"), and [folding](/wiki/Fold_%28geology%29 \"Fold (geology)\") of [sedimentary](/wiki/Sedimentary_rock \"Sedimentary rock\") and [metamorphic](/wiki/Metamorphic_rock \"Metamorphic rock\") rocks of the ancient cratons to the east. The rise of the Andes has not been constant, as different regions have had different degrees of tectonic stress, uplift, and [erosion](/wiki/Erosion \"Erosion\").", "Across the {{convert\\|1000\\|km\\|mi\\|\\-wide\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=mid}} [Drake Passage](/wiki/Drake_Passage \"Drake Passage\") lie the mountains of the [Antarctic Peninsula](/wiki/Antarctic_Peninsula \"Antarctic Peninsula\") south of the [Scotia Plate](/wiki/Scotia_Plate \"Scotia Plate\"), which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain.", "The far east regions of the Andes experience a series of changes resulting from the Andean orogeny. Parts of the [Sunsás Orogen](/wiki/Suns%C3%A1s_orogeny \"Sunsás orogeny\") in [Amazonian craton](/wiki/Amazonian_craton \"Amazonian craton\") disappeared from the surface of the earth, being [overridden](/wiki/Thrust_fault \"Thrust fault\") by the Andes.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Santos \\|first1\\=J.O.S. \\|last2\\=Rizzotto \\|first2\\=G.J. \\|last4\\=McNaughton \\|first4\\=N.J.\\|last3\\=Potter \\|first3\\=P.E.\\|last5\\=Matos \\|first5\\=R.S.\\|last6\\=Hartmann \\|first6\\=L.A.\\|last7\\=Chemale Jr. \\|first7\\=F.\\|last8\\=Quadros \\|first8\\=M.E.S.\\|date\\=2008 \\|title\\=Age and autochthonous evolution of the Sunsás Orogen in West Amazon Craton based on mapping and U–Pb geochronology \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Precambrian Research]] \\|volume\\=165 \\|issue\\=3–4 \\|pages\\=120–152 \\|doi\\= 10\\.1016/j.precamres.2008\\.06\\.009\\|bibcode\\=2008PreR..165\\..120S}} The [Sierras de Córdoba](/wiki/Sierras_de_C%C3%B3rdoba \"Sierras de Córdoba\"), where the effects of the ancient [Pampean orogeny](/wiki/Pampean_orogeny \"Pampean orogeny\") can be observed, owe their modern uplift and relief to the [Andean orogeny](/wiki/Andean_orogeny \"Andean orogeny\") in the [Tertiary](/wiki/Tertiary \"Tertiary\").{{cite book \\|last1\\=Rapela \\|first1\\=C.W. \\|last2\\=Pankhurst \\|first2\\=R.J\\|last3\\=Casquet \\|first3\\=C.\\|last4\\=Baldo \\|first4\\=E.\\|last5\\=Saavedra \\|first5\\=J.\\|last6\\=Galindo \\|first6\\=C.\\|last7\\=Fanning \\|first7\\=C.M. \\|author\\-link2\\=Robert John Pankhurst\\|date\\=1998 \\|editor2\\-last\\=Rapela \\|editor2\\-first\\=C.W. \\|editor1\\-last\\=Pankhurst \\|editor1\\-first\\=R.J\\|chapter\\=The Pampean Orogeny of the southern proto\\-Andes: Cambrian continental collision in the Sierras de Córdoba \\|chapter\\-url\\=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/142/1/181\\.full.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/142/1/181\\.full.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-10\\-09 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|title\\=The Proto\\-Andean Margin of Gondwana \\|journal\\=Geological Society, London, Special Publications \\|volume\\=142 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=181–217 \\|doi\\= 10\\.1144/GSL.SP.1998\\.142\\.01\\.10\\|s2cid\\=128814617 \\|access\\-date\\=7 December 2015}} Further south in southern [Patagonia](/wiki/Patagonia \"Patagonia\"), the onset of the Andean orogeny caused the [Magallanes Basin](/wiki/Magallanes_Basin \"Magallanes Basin\") to evolve from being an [extensional](/wiki/Extensional_tectonics \"Extensional tectonics\") [back\\-arc basin](/wiki/Back-arc_basin \"Back-arc basin\") in the [Mesozoic](/wiki/Mesozoic \"Mesozoic\") to being a compressional [foreland basin](/wiki/Andean_Foreland_Basin \"Andean Foreland Basin\") in the [Cenozoic](/wiki/Cenozoic \"Cenozoic\").{{cite journal \\|last\\=Wilson \\|first\\=T.J. \\|date\\=1991 \\|title\\=Transition from back\\-arc to foreland basin development in the southernmost Andes: Stratigraphic record from the Ultima Esperanza District, Chile \\|journal\\=Geological Society of America Bulletin \\|volume\\=103 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=98–111 \\|doi\\= 10\\.1130/0016\\-7606(1991\\)103\\<0098:tfbatf\\>2\\.3\\.co;2\\|bibcode\\=1991GSAB..103\\...98W}}", "### Seismic activity", "Tectonic forces above the [subduction zone](/wiki/Subduction_zone \"Subduction zone\") along the entire west coast of South America where the [Nazca Plate](/wiki/Nazca_Plate \"Nazca Plate\") and a part of the [Antarctic Plate](/wiki/Antarctic_Plate \"Antarctic Plate\") are sliding beneath the [South American Plate](/wiki/South_American_Plate \"South American Plate\") continue to produce an ongoing [orogenic event](/wiki/Orogeny \"Orogeny\") resulting in minor to major [earthquakes](/wiki/Earthquake \"Earthquake\") and [volcanic eruptions](/wiki/Volcanic_eruption \"Volcanic eruption\") to this day. Many high\\-magnitude earthquakes have been recorded in the region, such as the [2010 Maule earthquake](/wiki/2010_Chile_earthquake \"2010 Chile earthquake\") (M8\\.8\\), the [2015 Illapel earthquake](/wiki/2015_Illapel_earthquake \"2015 Illapel earthquake\") (M8\\.2\\), and the [1960 Valdivia earthquake](/wiki/1960_Valdivia_earthquake \"1960 Valdivia earthquake\") (M9\\.5\\), which as of 2024 was the strongest ever recorded on seismometers.", "The amount, magnitude, and type of seismic activity varies greatly along the subduction zone. These differences are due to a wide range of factors, including friction between the plates, angle of subduction, buoyancy of the subducting plate, rate of subduction, and hydration value of the mantle material. The highest rate of seismic activity is observed in the central portion of the boundary, between 33°S and 35°S. In this area, the angle of subduction is very low, meaning the subducting plate is nearly horizontal. Studies of mantle hydration across the subduction zone have shown a correlation between increased material hydration and lower\\-magnitude, more\\-frequent seismic activity. Zones exhibiting dehydration instead are thought to have a higher potential for larger, high\\-magnitude earthquakes in the future. {{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Rodriguez Piceda \\|first1\\=Constanza \\|last2\\=Gao \\|first2\\=Ya\\-Jian \\|last3\\=Cacace \\|first3\\=Mauro \\|last4\\=Scheck\\-Wenderoth \\|first4\\=Magdalena \\|last5\\=Bott \\|first5\\=Judith \\|last6\\=Strecker \\|first6\\=Manfred \\|last7\\=Tilmann \\|first7\\=Frederik \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-17 \\|title\\=The influence of mantle hydration and flexure on slab seismicity in the southern Central Andes \\|journal\\=Communications Earth \\& Environment \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=4 \\|issue\\=1 \\|page\\=79 \\|doi\\=10\\.1038/s43247\\-023\\-00729\\-1 \\|issn\\=2662\\-4435\\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|bibcode\\=2023ComEE...4\\...79R }}", "The mountain range is also a source of shallow intraplate earthquakes within the South American Plate. The largest such earthquake (as of 2024\\) [struck Peru in 1947](/wiki/1947_Satipo_earthquake \"1947 Satipo earthquake\") and measured {{M\\|s}} 7\\.5\\. In the Peruvian Andes, these earthquakes display normal ([1946](/wiki/1946_Ancash_earthquake \"1946 Ancash earthquake\")), strike\\-slip (1976\\), and reverse ([1969](/wiki/1969_Huaytapallana_earthquake \"1969 Huaytapallana earthquake\"), 1983\\) mechanisms. The Amazonian Craton is actively underthrusted beneath the sub\\-Andes region of Peru, producing thrust faults.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Dorbath \\|first1\\=L. \\|last2\\=Dorbath \\|first2\\=C. \\|last3\\=Jimenez \\|first3\\=E. \\|last4\\=Rivera \\|first4\\=L. \\|title\\=Seismicity and tectonic deformation in the Eastern Cordillera and the sub\\-Andean zone of central Peru \\|journal\\=Journal of South American Earth Sciences \\|date\\=1991 \\|volume\\=4 \\|issue\\=1–2 \\|page\\=13\\-24 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/0895\\-9811(91\\)90015\\-D \\|bibcode\\=1991JSAES...4\\...13D \\|url\\=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/39863456\\.pdf}} In Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, thrust faulting occurs along the sub\\-Andes due in response to compression brought on by subduction, while in the high Andes, normal faulting occurs in response to gravitational forces.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Suárez \\|first1\\=Gerardo \\|last2\\=Molnar \\|first2\\=Peter \\|last3\\=Burchfiel \\|first3\\=B. Clark \\|title\\=Seismicity, fault plane solutions, depth of faulting, and active tectonics of the Andes of Peru, Ecuador, and southern Colombia \\|journal\\=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth \\|date\\=1983 \\|volume\\=88 \\|issue\\=B12 \\|pages\\=10403–10428 \\|doi\\=10\\.1029/JB088iB12p10403\\|bibcode\\=1983JGR....8810403S }}", "In the extreme south, a major [transform fault](/wiki/Transform_fault \"Transform fault\") separates [Tierra del Fuego](/wiki/Tierra_del_Fuego \"Tierra del Fuego\") from the small [Scotia Plate](/wiki/Scotia_Plate \"Scotia Plate\").", "### Volcanism", "{{Main\\|Andean Volcanic Belt}}\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.3\\|[Rift Valley](/wiki/Rift_valley \"Rift valley\") near [Quilotoa](/wiki/Quilotoa \"Quilotoa\"), [Ecuador](/wiki/Ecuador \"Ecuador\")](/wiki/File:Browncanyonquilotoa.jpg \"Browncanyonquilotoa.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|This photo from the [ISS](/wiki/ISS \"ISS\") shows the high plains of the Andes Mountains in the foreground, with a line of young volcanoes facing the much lower Atacama Desert](/wiki/File:Central_Andes_Mountains%2C_Salar_de_Arizaro%2C_Argentina.jpg \"Central Andes Mountains, Salar de Arizaro, Argentina.jpg\")", "The Andes range has many active volcanoes distributed in four volcanic zones separated by areas of inactivity. The Andean volcanism is a result of the [subduction](/wiki/Subduction \"Subduction\") of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South American Plate. The belt is subdivided into four main volcanic zones that are separated from each other by volcanic gaps. The volcanoes of the belt are diverse in terms of activity style, products, and morphology.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=González\\-Maurel\\|first1\\=Osvaldo\\|last2\\=le Roux\\|first2\\=Petrus\\|last3\\=Godoy\\|first3\\=Benigno\\|last4\\=Troll\\|first4\\=Valentin R.\\|last5\\=Deegan\\|first5\\=Frances M.\\|last6\\=Menzies\\|first6\\=Andrew\\|date\\=15 November 2019\\|title\\=The great escape: Petrogenesis of low\\-silica volcanism of Pliocene to Quaternary age associated with the Altiplano\\-Puna Volcanic Complex of northern Chile (21°10′\\-22°50′S)\\|url\\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0024493719303196\\|journal\\=Lithos\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=346–347\\|pages\\=105162\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.lithos.2019\\.105162\\|bibcode\\=2019Litho.34605162G\\|s2cid\\=201291787\\|issn\\=0024\\-4937}} While some differences can be explained by which volcanic zone a volcano belongs to, there are significant differences inside volcanic zones and even between neighboring volcanoes. Despite being a typical location for [calc\\-alkalic](/wiki/Calc-alkalic \"Calc-alkalic\") and subduction volcanism, the Andean Volcanic Belt has a large range of volcano\\-tectonic settings, such as rift systems, extensional zones, [transpressional faults](/wiki/Transpression \"Transpression\"), subduction of [mid\\-ocean ridges](/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge \"Mid-ocean ridge\"), and [seamount](/wiki/Seamount \"Seamount\") chains apart from a large range of crustal thicknesses and [magma](/wiki/Magma \"Magma\") ascent paths, and different amount of crustal assimilations.", "### Ore deposits and evaporates", "The Andes Mountains host large [ore](/wiki/Ore \"Ore\") and [salt](/wiki/Salt \"Salt\") deposits, and some of their eastern [fold and thrust belts](/wiki/Fold_and_thrust_belt \"Fold and thrust belt\") act as traps for commercially exploitable amounts of [hydrocarbons](/wiki/Hydrocarbon \"Hydrocarbon\"). In the forelands of the [Atacama Desert](/wiki/Atacama_Desert \"Atacama Desert\"), some of the largest [porphyry copper](/wiki/Porphyry_copper \"Porphyry copper\") mineralizations occur, making Chile and Peru the first\\- and second\\-largest exporters of [copper](/wiki/Copper \"Copper\") in the world. Porphyry copper in the western slopes of the Andes has been generated by [hydrothermal fluids](/wiki/Hydrothermal_fluid \"Hydrothermal fluid\") (mostly water) during the cooling of [plutons](/wiki/Pluton_%28geology%29 \"Pluton (geology)\") or volcanic systems. The porphyry mineralization further benefited from the dry climate that reduced the disturbing actions of [meteoric water](/wiki/Meteoric_water \"Meteoric water\"). The dry climate in the central western Andes has also led to the creation of extensive [saltpeter deposits](/wiki/Chile_saltpeter \"Chile saltpeter\") which were extensively mined until the invention of synthetic [nitrates](/wiki/Nitrate \"Nitrate\"). Yet another result of the dry climate are the [salars](/wiki/Dry_lake \"Dry lake\") of [Atacama](/wiki/Salar_de_Atacama \"Salar de Atacama\") and [Uyuni](/wiki/Salar_de_Uyuni \"Salar de Uyuni\"), the former being the largest source of [lithium](/wiki/Lithium \"Lithium\") and the latter the world's largest reserve of the element. Early Mesozoic and [Neogene](/wiki/Neogene \"Neogene\") plutonism in Bolivia's Cordillera Central created the Bolivian [tin](/wiki/Tin \"Tin\") belt as well as the famous, now\\-mostly\\-depleted, deposits of [Cerro Rico de Potosí](/wiki/Cerro_Rico \"Cerro Rico\").", "" ]
Human activity -------------- {{See also\|Cultural periods of Peru\|Inca Empire\|Viceroyalty of Peru}} {{more citations needed section\|date\=January 2011}} The Andes Mountains form a north–south axis of cultural influences. A long series of cultural development culminated in the expansion of the [Inca civilization](/wiki/Inca_civilization "Inca civilization") and [Inca Empire](/wiki/Inca_Empire "Inca Empire") in the central Andes during the 15th century. The Incas formed this civilization through [imperialistic](/wiki/Imperialism "Imperialism") [militarism](/wiki/Militarism "Militarism") as well as careful and meticulous governmental management.D'Altroy, Terence N. The Incas. Blackwell Publishing, 2003 The government sponsored the construction of [aqueducts](/wiki/Aqueduct_%28watercourse%29 "Aqueduct (watercourse)") and [roads](/wiki/Roads "Roads") in addition to pre\-existing installations. Some of these constructions still exist today. [thumb\|[Frederic Edwin Church](/wiki/Frederic_Edwin_Church "Frederic Edwin Church"), *Heart of the Andes,* 1859\.](/wiki/File:Church_Heart_of_the_Andes.jpg "Church Heart of the Andes.jpg") Devastated by European diseases and by [civil war](/wiki/Inca_Civil_War "Inca Civil War"), the Incas were defeated in 1532 by an alliance composed of tens of thousands of allies from nations they had subjugated (e.g. [Huancas](/wiki/Huanca_people "Huanca people"), [Chachapoyas](/wiki/Chachapoyas_culture "Chachapoyas culture"), [Cañaris](/wiki/Ca%C3%B1ari "Cañari")) and a small army of 180 Spaniards led by [Francisco Pizarro](/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro "Francisco Pizarro"). One of the few Inca sites the Spanish never found in their conquest was [Machu Picchu](/wiki/Machu_Picchu "Machu Picchu"), which lay hidden on a peak on the eastern edge of the Andes where they descend to the Amazon. The main surviving languages of the Andean peoples are those of the [Quechua](/wiki/Quechua_languages "Quechua languages") and [Aymara language](/wiki/Aymara_language "Aymara language") families. [Woodbine Parish](/wiki/Woodbine_Parish "Woodbine Parish") and [Joseph Barclay Pentland](/wiki/Joseph_Barclay_Pentland "Joseph Barclay Pentland") surveyed a large part of the Bolivian Andes from 1826 to 1827\. ### Cities In modern times, the largest cities in the Andes are [Bogotá](/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1 "Bogotá"), with a metropolitan population of over ten million, and [Santiago](/wiki/Santiago "Santiago"), [Medellín](/wiki/Medell%C3%ADn "Medellín"), [Cali](/wiki/Cali "Cali"), and [Quito](/wiki/Quito "Quito"). [Lima](/wiki/Lima "Lima") is a coastal city adjacent to the Andes and is the largest city of all Andean countries. It is the seat of the [Andean Community of Nations](/wiki/Andean_Community_of_Nations "Andean Community of Nations"). [La Paz](/wiki/La_Paz "La Paz"), [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia "Bolivia")'s seat of government, is the highest capital city in the world, at an elevation of approximately {{convert\|3650\|m\|0\|abbr\=on}}. Parts of the La Paz conurbation, including the city of [El Alto](/wiki/El_Alto "El Alto"), extend up to {{convert\|4200\|m\|0\|abbr\=on}}. Other cities in or near the Andes include [Bariloche](/wiki/Bariloche "Bariloche"), [Catamarca](/wiki/San_Fernando_del_Valle_de_Catamarca "San Fernando del Valle de Catamarca"), [Jujuy](/wiki/San_Salvador_de_Jujuy "San Salvador de Jujuy"), [Mendoza](/wiki/Mendoza%2C_Argentina "Mendoza, Argentina"), [Salta](/wiki/Salta%2C_Argentina "Salta, Argentina"), [San Juan](/wiki/San_Juan%2C_Argentina "San Juan, Argentina"), [Tucumán](/wiki/San_Miguel_de_Tucum%C3%A1n "San Miguel de Tucumán"), and [Ushuaia](/wiki/Ushuaia "Ushuaia") in Argentina; [Calama](/wiki/Calama%2C_Chile "Calama, Chile") and [Rancagua](/wiki/Rancagua "Rancagua") in Chile; [Cochabamba](/wiki/Cochabamba "Cochabamba"), [Oruro](/wiki/Oruro%2C_Bolivia "Oruro, Bolivia"), [Potosí](/wiki/Potos%C3%AD "Potosí"), [Sucre](/wiki/Sucre "Sucre"), [Tarija](/wiki/Tarija "Tarija"), and [Yacuiba](/wiki/Yacuiba "Yacuiba") in Bolivia; [Arequipa](/wiki/Arequipa "Arequipa"), [Cajamarca](/wiki/Cajamarca "Cajamarca"), [Cusco](/wiki/Cusco "Cusco"), [Huancayo](/wiki/Huancayo "Huancayo"), [Huánuco](/wiki/Hu%C3%A1nuco "Huánuco"), [Huaraz](/wiki/Huaraz "Huaraz"), [Juliaca](/wiki/Juliaca "Juliaca"), and [Puno](/wiki/Puno "Puno") in Peru; [Ambato](/wiki/Ambato%2C_Ecuador "Ambato, Ecuador"), [Cuenca](/wiki/Cuenca%2C_Ecuador "Cuenca, Ecuador"), [Ibarra](/wiki/Ibarra%2C_Ecuador "Ibarra, Ecuador"), [Latacunga](/wiki/Latacunga "Latacunga"), [Loja](/wiki/Loja%2C_Ecuador "Loja, Ecuador"), [Riobamba](/wiki/Riobamba "Riobamba"), and [Tulcán](/wiki/Tulc%C3%A1n "Tulcán") in Ecuador; [Armenia](/wiki/Armenia%2C_Colombia "Armenia, Colombia"), [Cúcuta](/wiki/C%C3%BAcuta "Cúcuta"), [Bucaramanga](/wiki/Bucaramanga "Bucaramanga"), [Duitama](/wiki/Duitama "Duitama"), [Ibagué](/wiki/Ibagu%C3%A9 "Ibagué"), [Ipiales](/wiki/Ipiales "Ipiales"), [Manizales](/wiki/Manizales "Manizales"), [Palmira](/wiki/Palmira%2C_Valle_del_Cauca "Palmira, Valle del Cauca"), [Pasto](/wiki/Pasto%2C_Colombia "Pasto, Colombia"), [Pereira](/wiki/Pereira%2C_Colombia "Pereira, Colombia"), [Popayán](/wiki/Popay%C3%A1n "Popayán"), [Sogamoso](/wiki/Sogamoso "Sogamoso"), [Tunja](/wiki/Tunja "Tunja"), and [Villavicencio](/wiki/Villavicencio "Villavicencio") in Colombia; and [Barquisimeto](/wiki/Barquisimeto "Barquisimeto"), [La Grita](/wiki/La_Grita "La Grita"), [Mérida](/wiki/M%C3%A9rida%2C_M%C3%A9rida "Mérida, Mérida"), [San Cristóbal](/wiki/San_Crist%C3%B3bal%2C_T%C3%A1chira "San Cristóbal, Táchira"), Tovar, [Trujillo](/wiki/Trujillo%2C_Trujillo "Trujillo, Trujillo"), and [Valera](/wiki/Valera "Valera") in Venezuela. The cities of [Caracas](/wiki/Caracas "Caracas"), [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia%2C_Carabobo "Valencia, Carabobo"), and [Maracay](/wiki/Maracay "Maracay") are in the [Venezuelan Coastal Range](/wiki/Venezuelan_Coastal_Range "Venezuelan Coastal Range"), which is a debatable extension of the Andes at the northern extremity of South America. {{Gallery \| height \= 160 \| width \= 200 \|File:La Paz Skyline.jpg\|\[\[La Paz]], \[\[Bolivia]] is the highest capital city in the world \|File:Santiago depois da chuva (11\).JPG\|\[\[Santiago de Chile]] \|File:Cerros orientales Bogota.jpg\|\[\[Bogotá]] \|File:FACHADA ASAMBLEA NACIONAL. QUITO, 20 DE FEBRERO 2020\. 01\.jpg\|\[\[Quito]] \|File:Mérida3\.jpg\|View of \[\[Mérida, Mérida\|Mérida, Venezuela]] }} ### Transportation Cities and large towns are connected with [asphalt](/wiki/Asphalt_concrete "Asphalt concrete")\-paved roads, while smaller towns are often connected by dirt roads, which may require a [four\-wheel\-drive](/wiki/Four-wheel-drive "Four-wheel-drive") vehicle.{{Cite web \|url\=http://andes.zoom\-maps.com/ \|title\=Andes travel map \|access\-date\=20 June 2010 \|archive\-date\=24 September 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924154519/http://andes.zoom\-maps.com/ \|url\-status\=dead }} The rough terrain has historically put the costs of building [highways](/wiki/Highway "Highway") and [railroads](/wiki/Railroad "Railroad") that cross the Andes out of reach of most neighboring countries, even with modern [civil engineering](/wiki/Civil_engineering "Civil engineering") practices. For example, the main crossover of the Andes between Argentina and Chile is still accomplished through the [Paso Internacional Los Libertadores](/wiki/Paso_Internacional_Los_Libertadores "Paso Internacional Los Libertadores"). Only recently{{When\|date\=June 2024}} have the ends of some highways that came rather close to one another from the east and the west been connected.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1159492\-jujuy\-apuesta\-a\-captar\-las\-cargas\-de\-brasil\-en\-transito\-hacia\-chile\|title\=''Jujuy apuesta a captar las cargas de Brasil en tránsito hacia Chile'' by Emiliano Galli \|newspaper\=La Nación \|publisher\=La Nación newspaper\|access\-date\=22 July 2011\|date\=7 August 2009 }} Much of the transportation of passengers is done via aircraft. However, there is one railroad that connects Chile with Peru via the Andes, and there are others that make the same connection via southern Bolivia. There are multiple highways in Bolivia that cross the Andes. Some of these were built during a [period of war](/wiki/Chaco_War "Chaco War") between Bolivia and [Paraguay](/wiki/Paraguay "Paraguay"), in order to transport Bolivian troops and their supplies to the war front in the lowlands of southeastern Bolivia and western Paraguay. For decades, Chile claimed ownership of land on the eastern side of the Andes. However, these claims were given up in about 1870 during the [War of the Pacific](/wiki/War_of_the_Pacific "War of the Pacific") between Chile and the allied Bolivia and Peru, in a diplomatic deal to keep Peru out of the war. The [Chilean Army](/wiki/Chilean_Army "Chilean Army") and [Chilean Navy](/wiki/Chilean_Navy "Chilean Navy") defeated the combined forces of Bolivia and Peru, and Chile took over Bolivia's only province on the Pacific Coast, some land from Peru that was returned to Peru decades later. Bolivia has been completely [landlocked](/wiki/Landlocked "Landlocked") ever since. It mostly uses [seaports](/wiki/Seaport "Seaport") in eastern Argentina and [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay "Uruguay") for international trade because its diplomatic relations with Chile have been suspended since 1978\. Because of the tortuous terrain in places, villages and towns in the mountains—to which travel via [motorized vehicles](/wiki/Motorized_vehicle "Motorized vehicle") is of little use—are still located in the high Andes of Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and [Ecuador](/wiki/Ecuador "Ecuador"). Locally, the relatives of the [camel](/wiki/Camel "Camel"), the [llama](/wiki/Llama "Llama"), and the [alpaca](/wiki/Alpaca "Alpaca") continue to carry out important uses as pack animals, but this use has generally diminished in modern times. [Donkeys](/wiki/Donkey "Donkey"), [mules](/wiki/Mule "Mule"), and horses are also useful. ### Agriculture [thumb\|Peruvian farmers sowing maize and beans](/wiki/File:Peruvianterracefarmers.jpg "Peruvianterracefarmers.jpg") {{See also\|Andean agriculture\|Incan agriculture\|Vertical archipelago}} The ancient peoples of the Andes such as the Incas have practiced [irrigation](/wiki/Irrigation "Irrigation") techniques for over 6,000 years. Because of the mountain slopes, [terracing](/wiki/And%C3%A9n "Andén") has been a common practice. Terracing, however, was only extensively employed after Incan imperial expansions to fuel their expanding realm. The [potato](/wiki/Potato "Potato") holds a very important role as an internally\-consumed staple crop. [Maize](/wiki/Maize "Maize") was also an important crop for these people, and was used for the production of [chicha](/wiki/Chicha "Chicha"), important to Andean native people. Currently,{{When\|date\=June 2024}} [tobacco](/wiki/Tobacco "Tobacco"), [cotton](/wiki/Cotton "Cotton"), and [coffee](/wiki/Coffee "Coffee") are the main export crops. [Coca](/wiki/Coca "Coca"), despite eradication programs in some countries, remains an important crop for legal local use in a mildly stimulating [herbal tea](/wiki/Herbal_tea "Herbal tea"), and illegally for the production of [cocaine](/wiki/Cocaine "Cocaine"). ### Irrigation [thumb\|Irrigating land in the Peruvian Andes](/wiki/File:Women_irrigators_in_the_Andes.jpg "Women irrigators in the Andes.jpg") In unirrigated land, [pasture](/wiki/Pasture "Pasture") is the most common type of land use. In the rainy season (summer), part of the rangeland is used for cropping (mainly potatoes, barley, broad beans, and wheat). Irrigation is helpful in advancing the sowing data of the summer crops, which guarantees an early yield in periods of food shortage. Also, by early sowing, maize can be cultivated higher up in the mountains (up to {{cvt\|3800\|m\|\|\|}}). In addition, it makes cropping in the dry season (winter) possible and allows the cultivation of frost\-resistant vegetable crops like [onion](/wiki/Onion "Onion") and [carrot](/wiki/Carrot "Carrot").W. van Immerzeel, 1989\. *Irrigation and erosion/flood control at high altitudes in the Andes.* Published in Annual Report 1989, pp. 8–24, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, The Netherlands. On line: <https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/andes.pdf> ### Mining [thumb\|left\|Chilean [huasos](/wiki/Huaso "Huaso"), 19th century](/wiki/File:Huasos_Maulinos_-_Rugendas.jpg "Huasos Maulinos - Rugendas.jpg") The Andes rose to fame for their mineral wealth during the [Spanish conquest of South America](/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas "Spanish colonization of the Americas"). Although Andean Amerindian peoples crafted ceremonial jewelry of gold and other metals, the [mineralizations](/wiki/Mineralization_%28geology%29 "Mineralization (geology)") of the Andes were first mined on a large scale after the Spanish arrival. [Potosí](/wiki/Potos%C3%AD "Potosí") in present\-day [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia "Bolivia") and [Cerro de Pasco](/wiki/Cerro_de_Pasco "Cerro de Pasco") in Peru were among the principal mines of the Spanish Empire in the New World. [Río de la Plata](/wiki/R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata "Río de la Plata") and [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina "Argentina"){{Cite web\|url\=http://www.argentine\-embassy\-uk.org/docs\_eng/links/links\_information\_argentina.shtml\|title\=Information on Argentina\|website\=Argentine Embassy London}} derive their names from the silver of Potosí. Currently, mining in the Andes of [Chile](/wiki/Chile "Chile") and [Peru](/wiki/Peru "Peru") places these countries as the first and second major producers of [copper](/wiki/Copper "Copper") in the world. [Peru](/wiki/Peru "Peru") also contains the 4th\-largest goldmine in the world: the [Yanacocha](/wiki/Yanacocha "Yanacocha"). The Bolivian Andes principally produce [tin](/wiki/Tin "Tin"), although historically silver mining had a huge impact on the [economy](/wiki/Price_revolution "Price revolution") of 17th\-century Europe. There is a long history of mining in the Andes, from the Spanish [silver](/wiki/Silver "Silver") [mines](/wiki/Mining "Mining") in [Potosí](/wiki/Potos%C3%AD "Potosí") in the 16th century to the vast current [porphyry copper deposits](/wiki/Porphyry_copper_deposit "Porphyry copper deposit") of [Chuquicamata](/wiki/Chuquicamata "Chuquicamata") and [Escondida](/wiki/Escondida "Escondida") in Chile and [Toquepala](/wiki/Toquepala_mine "Toquepala mine") in Peru. Other metals, including iron, gold, and tin, in addition to non\-metallic resources are important. The Andes have a vast supply of lithium; Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile have the three largest reserves in the world respectively.{{Cite web \|title\=Lithium: What Role Does Tesla Play In The Demand For This Precious Metal? \- Commodity.com \|url\=https://commodity.com/precious\-metals/lithium/ \|access\-date\=2023\-03\-09 \|website\=commodity.com \|language\=en\-US}} ### Accion Andina's reforestation plan Depending on the country, this species goes by different names. In Peru, it is known as queñual, queuña, or queñoa; in Bolivia, as kewiña; in Ecuador, as yagual; and in Argentina, tabaquillo. Regardless of the name, *Polylepis* is a high\-Andean genus encompassing up to 45 species of trees and shrubs distributed across the South American Andes, from Venezuela to Patagonia, found up to 5,000 meters above sea level.{{Cite web \|last\=Ruiz \|first\=Iván Antezana Q. , Flor \|date\=2024\-01\-11 \|title\=Más de 10 millones de árboles nuevos: el premiado plan que reforesta los Andes \|url\=https://elpais.com/america\-futura/2024\-01\-11/mas\-de\-10\-millones\-de\-arboles\-nuevos\-el\-premiado\-plan\-que\-reforesta\-los\-andes.html \|access\-date\=2024\-02\-12 \|website\=El País América \|language\=es}} In 2000, biologist Constantino Aucca founded Ecoan, an NGO promoting conservation of threatened species and endangered Andean ecosystems. Since then, the organization has reforested 4\.5 million plants across 16 protected areas, involving 37 Andean communities in the process. Aucca's efforts caught the attention of Florent Kaiser, a Franco\-German forest engineer. During a visit to Peru in 2018, Aucca invited Kaiser to the Queuña Raymi festival, where Cusco communities engage in queñual reforestation.
[ "Human activity\n--------------", "{{See also\\|Cultural periods of Peru\\|Inca Empire\\|Viceroyalty of Peru}}\n{{more citations needed section\\|date\\=January 2011}}", "The Andes Mountains form a north–south axis of cultural influences. A long series of cultural development culminated in the expansion of the [Inca civilization](/wiki/Inca_civilization \"Inca civilization\") and [Inca Empire](/wiki/Inca_Empire \"Inca Empire\") in the central Andes during the 15th century. The Incas formed this civilization through [imperialistic](/wiki/Imperialism \"Imperialism\") [militarism](/wiki/Militarism \"Militarism\") as well as careful and meticulous governmental management.D'Altroy, Terence N. The Incas. Blackwell Publishing, 2003 The government sponsored the construction of [aqueducts](/wiki/Aqueduct_%28watercourse%29 \"Aqueduct (watercourse)\") and [roads](/wiki/Roads \"Roads\") in addition to pre\\-existing installations. Some of these constructions still exist today.\n[thumb\\|[Frederic Edwin Church](/wiki/Frederic_Edwin_Church \"Frederic Edwin Church\"), *Heart of the Andes,* 1859\\.](/wiki/File:Church_Heart_of_the_Andes.jpg \"Church Heart of the Andes.jpg\")\nDevastated by European diseases and by [civil war](/wiki/Inca_Civil_War \"Inca Civil War\"), the Incas were defeated in 1532 by an alliance composed of tens of thousands of allies from nations they had subjugated (e.g. [Huancas](/wiki/Huanca_people \"Huanca people\"), [Chachapoyas](/wiki/Chachapoyas_culture \"Chachapoyas culture\"), [Cañaris](/wiki/Ca%C3%B1ari \"Cañari\")) and a small army of 180 Spaniards led by [Francisco Pizarro](/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro \"Francisco Pizarro\"). One of the few Inca sites the Spanish never found in their conquest was [Machu Picchu](/wiki/Machu_Picchu \"Machu Picchu\"), which lay hidden on a peak on the eastern edge of the Andes where they descend to the Amazon. The main surviving languages of the Andean peoples are those of the [Quechua](/wiki/Quechua_languages \"Quechua languages\") and [Aymara language](/wiki/Aymara_language \"Aymara language\") families. [Woodbine Parish](/wiki/Woodbine_Parish \"Woodbine Parish\") and [Joseph Barclay Pentland](/wiki/Joseph_Barclay_Pentland \"Joseph Barclay Pentland\") surveyed a large part of the Bolivian Andes from 1826 to 1827\\.", "### Cities", "In modern times, the largest cities in the Andes are [Bogotá](/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1 \"Bogotá\"), with a metropolitan population of over ten million, and [Santiago](/wiki/Santiago \"Santiago\"), [Medellín](/wiki/Medell%C3%ADn \"Medellín\"), [Cali](/wiki/Cali \"Cali\"), and [Quito](/wiki/Quito \"Quito\"). [Lima](/wiki/Lima \"Lima\") is a coastal city adjacent to the Andes and is the largest city of all Andean countries. It is the seat of the [Andean Community of Nations](/wiki/Andean_Community_of_Nations \"Andean Community of Nations\").", "[La Paz](/wiki/La_Paz \"La Paz\"), [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia \"Bolivia\")'s seat of government, is the highest capital city in the world, at an elevation of approximately {{convert\\|3650\\|m\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}. Parts of the La Paz conurbation, including the city of [El Alto](/wiki/El_Alto \"El Alto\"), extend up to {{convert\\|4200\\|m\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}.", "Other cities in or near the Andes include [Bariloche](/wiki/Bariloche \"Bariloche\"), [Catamarca](/wiki/San_Fernando_del_Valle_de_Catamarca \"San Fernando del Valle de Catamarca\"), [Jujuy](/wiki/San_Salvador_de_Jujuy \"San Salvador de Jujuy\"), [Mendoza](/wiki/Mendoza%2C_Argentina \"Mendoza, Argentina\"), [Salta](/wiki/Salta%2C_Argentina \"Salta, Argentina\"), [San Juan](/wiki/San_Juan%2C_Argentina \"San Juan, Argentina\"), [Tucumán](/wiki/San_Miguel_de_Tucum%C3%A1n \"San Miguel de Tucumán\"), and [Ushuaia](/wiki/Ushuaia \"Ushuaia\") in Argentina; [Calama](/wiki/Calama%2C_Chile \"Calama, Chile\") and [Rancagua](/wiki/Rancagua \"Rancagua\") in Chile; [Cochabamba](/wiki/Cochabamba \"Cochabamba\"), [Oruro](/wiki/Oruro%2C_Bolivia \"Oruro, Bolivia\"), [Potosí](/wiki/Potos%C3%AD \"Potosí\"), [Sucre](/wiki/Sucre \"Sucre\"), [Tarija](/wiki/Tarija \"Tarija\"), and [Yacuiba](/wiki/Yacuiba \"Yacuiba\") in Bolivia; [Arequipa](/wiki/Arequipa \"Arequipa\"), [Cajamarca](/wiki/Cajamarca \"Cajamarca\"), [Cusco](/wiki/Cusco \"Cusco\"), [Huancayo](/wiki/Huancayo \"Huancayo\"), [Huánuco](/wiki/Hu%C3%A1nuco \"Huánuco\"), [Huaraz](/wiki/Huaraz \"Huaraz\"), [Juliaca](/wiki/Juliaca \"Juliaca\"), and [Puno](/wiki/Puno \"Puno\") in Peru; [Ambato](/wiki/Ambato%2C_Ecuador \"Ambato, Ecuador\"), [Cuenca](/wiki/Cuenca%2C_Ecuador \"Cuenca, Ecuador\"), [Ibarra](/wiki/Ibarra%2C_Ecuador \"Ibarra, Ecuador\"), [Latacunga](/wiki/Latacunga \"Latacunga\"), [Loja](/wiki/Loja%2C_Ecuador \"Loja, Ecuador\"), [Riobamba](/wiki/Riobamba \"Riobamba\"), and [Tulcán](/wiki/Tulc%C3%A1n \"Tulcán\") in Ecuador; [Armenia](/wiki/Armenia%2C_Colombia \"Armenia, Colombia\"), [Cúcuta](/wiki/C%C3%BAcuta \"Cúcuta\"), [Bucaramanga](/wiki/Bucaramanga \"Bucaramanga\"), [Duitama](/wiki/Duitama \"Duitama\"), [Ibagué](/wiki/Ibagu%C3%A9 \"Ibagué\"), [Ipiales](/wiki/Ipiales \"Ipiales\"), [Manizales](/wiki/Manizales \"Manizales\"), [Palmira](/wiki/Palmira%2C_Valle_del_Cauca \"Palmira, Valle del Cauca\"), [Pasto](/wiki/Pasto%2C_Colombia \"Pasto, Colombia\"), [Pereira](/wiki/Pereira%2C_Colombia \"Pereira, Colombia\"), [Popayán](/wiki/Popay%C3%A1n \"Popayán\"), [Sogamoso](/wiki/Sogamoso \"Sogamoso\"), [Tunja](/wiki/Tunja \"Tunja\"), and [Villavicencio](/wiki/Villavicencio \"Villavicencio\") in Colombia; and [Barquisimeto](/wiki/Barquisimeto \"Barquisimeto\"), [La Grita](/wiki/La_Grita \"La Grita\"), [Mérida](/wiki/M%C3%A9rida%2C_M%C3%A9rida \"Mérida, Mérida\"), [San Cristóbal](/wiki/San_Crist%C3%B3bal%2C_T%C3%A1chira \"San Cristóbal, Táchira\"), Tovar, [Trujillo](/wiki/Trujillo%2C_Trujillo \"Trujillo, Trujillo\"), and [Valera](/wiki/Valera \"Valera\") in Venezuela. The cities of [Caracas](/wiki/Caracas \"Caracas\"), [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia%2C_Carabobo \"Valencia, Carabobo\"), and [Maracay](/wiki/Maracay \"Maracay\") are in the [Venezuelan Coastal Range](/wiki/Venezuelan_Coastal_Range \"Venezuelan Coastal Range\"), which is a debatable extension of the Andes at the northern extremity of South America.", "{{Gallery\n\\| height \\= 160\n\\| width \\= 200\n\\|File:La Paz Skyline.jpg\\|\\[\\[La Paz]], \\[\\[Bolivia]] is the highest capital city in the world\n\\|File:Santiago depois da chuva (11\\).JPG\\|\\[\\[Santiago de Chile]]\n\\|File:Cerros orientales Bogota.jpg\\|\\[\\[Bogotá]]\n\\|File:FACHADA ASAMBLEA NACIONAL. QUITO, 20 DE FEBRERO 2020\\. 01\\.jpg\\|\\[\\[Quito]]\n\\|File:Mérida3\\.jpg\\|View of \\[\\[Mérida, Mérida\\|Mérida, Venezuela]]\n}}", "### Transportation", "Cities and large towns are connected with [asphalt](/wiki/Asphalt_concrete \"Asphalt concrete\")\\-paved roads, while smaller towns are often connected by dirt roads, which may require a [four\\-wheel\\-drive](/wiki/Four-wheel-drive \"Four-wheel-drive\") vehicle.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://andes.zoom\\-maps.com/ \\|title\\=Andes travel map \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2010 \\|archive\\-date\\=24 September 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924154519/http://andes.zoom\\-maps.com/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "The rough terrain has historically put the costs of building [highways](/wiki/Highway \"Highway\") and [railroads](/wiki/Railroad \"Railroad\") that cross the Andes out of reach of most neighboring countries, even with modern [civil engineering](/wiki/Civil_engineering \"Civil engineering\") practices. For example, the main crossover of the Andes between Argentina and Chile is still accomplished through the [Paso Internacional Los Libertadores](/wiki/Paso_Internacional_Los_Libertadores \"Paso Internacional Los Libertadores\"). Only recently{{When\\|date\\=June 2024}} have the ends of some highways that came rather close to one another from the east and the west been connected.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1159492\\-jujuy\\-apuesta\\-a\\-captar\\-las\\-cargas\\-de\\-brasil\\-en\\-transito\\-hacia\\-chile\\|title\\=''Jujuy apuesta a captar las cargas de Brasil en tránsito hacia Chile'' by Emiliano Galli \\|newspaper\\=La Nación \\|publisher\\=La Nación newspaper\\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2011\\|date\\=7 August 2009 }} Much of the transportation of passengers is done via aircraft.", "However, there is one railroad that connects Chile with Peru via the Andes, and there are others that make the same connection via southern Bolivia.", "There are multiple highways in Bolivia that cross the Andes. Some of these were built during a [period of war](/wiki/Chaco_War \"Chaco War\") between Bolivia and [Paraguay](/wiki/Paraguay \"Paraguay\"), in order to transport Bolivian troops and their supplies to the war front in the lowlands of southeastern Bolivia and western Paraguay.", "For decades, Chile claimed ownership of land on the eastern side of the Andes. However, these claims were given up in about 1870 during the [War of the Pacific](/wiki/War_of_the_Pacific \"War of the Pacific\") between Chile and the allied Bolivia and Peru, in a diplomatic deal to keep Peru out of the war. The [Chilean Army](/wiki/Chilean_Army \"Chilean Army\") and [Chilean Navy](/wiki/Chilean_Navy \"Chilean Navy\") defeated the combined forces of Bolivia and Peru, and Chile took over Bolivia's only province on the Pacific Coast, some land from Peru that was returned to Peru decades later. Bolivia has been completely [landlocked](/wiki/Landlocked \"Landlocked\") ever since. It mostly uses [seaports](/wiki/Seaport \"Seaport\") in eastern Argentina and [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay \"Uruguay\") for international trade because its diplomatic relations with Chile have been suspended since 1978\\.", "Because of the tortuous terrain in places, villages and towns in the mountains—to which travel via [motorized vehicles](/wiki/Motorized_vehicle \"Motorized vehicle\") is of little use—are still located in the high Andes of Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and [Ecuador](/wiki/Ecuador \"Ecuador\"). Locally, the relatives of the [camel](/wiki/Camel \"Camel\"), the [llama](/wiki/Llama \"Llama\"), and the [alpaca](/wiki/Alpaca \"Alpaca\") continue to carry out important uses as pack animals, but this use has generally diminished in modern times. [Donkeys](/wiki/Donkey \"Donkey\"), [mules](/wiki/Mule \"Mule\"), and horses are also useful.", "### Agriculture", "[thumb\\|Peruvian farmers sowing maize and beans](/wiki/File:Peruvianterracefarmers.jpg \"Peruvianterracefarmers.jpg\")\n{{See also\\|Andean agriculture\\|Incan agriculture\\|Vertical archipelago}}", "The ancient peoples of the Andes such as the Incas have practiced [irrigation](/wiki/Irrigation \"Irrigation\") techniques for over 6,000 years. Because of the mountain slopes, [terracing](/wiki/And%C3%A9n \"Andén\") has been a common practice. Terracing, however, was only extensively employed after Incan imperial expansions to fuel their expanding realm. The [potato](/wiki/Potato \"Potato\") holds a very important role as an internally\\-consumed staple crop. [Maize](/wiki/Maize \"Maize\") was also an important crop for these people, and was used for the production of [chicha](/wiki/Chicha \"Chicha\"), important to Andean native people. Currently,{{When\\|date\\=June 2024}} [tobacco](/wiki/Tobacco \"Tobacco\"), [cotton](/wiki/Cotton \"Cotton\"), and [coffee](/wiki/Coffee \"Coffee\") are the main export crops. [Coca](/wiki/Coca \"Coca\"), despite eradication programs in some countries, remains an important crop for legal local use in a mildly stimulating [herbal tea](/wiki/Herbal_tea \"Herbal tea\"), and illegally for the production of [cocaine](/wiki/Cocaine \"Cocaine\").", "### Irrigation", "[thumb\\|Irrigating land in the Peruvian Andes](/wiki/File:Women_irrigators_in_the_Andes.jpg \"Women irrigators in the Andes.jpg\")", "In unirrigated land, [pasture](/wiki/Pasture \"Pasture\") is the most common type of land use. In the rainy season (summer), part of the rangeland is used for cropping (mainly potatoes, barley, broad beans, and wheat).", "Irrigation is helpful in advancing the sowing data of the summer crops, which guarantees an early yield in periods of food shortage. Also, by early sowing, maize can be cultivated higher up in the mountains (up to {{cvt\\|3800\\|m\\|\\|\\|}}). In addition, it makes cropping in the dry season (winter) possible and allows the cultivation of frost\\-resistant vegetable crops like [onion](/wiki/Onion \"Onion\") and [carrot](/wiki/Carrot \"Carrot\").W. van Immerzeel, 1989\\. *Irrigation and erosion/flood control at high altitudes in the Andes.* Published in Annual Report 1989, pp. 8–24, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, The Netherlands. On line: <https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/andes.pdf>", "### Mining", "[thumb\\|left\\|Chilean [huasos](/wiki/Huaso \"Huaso\"), 19th century](/wiki/File:Huasos_Maulinos_-_Rugendas.jpg \"Huasos Maulinos - Rugendas.jpg\")\nThe Andes rose to fame for their mineral wealth during the [Spanish conquest of South America](/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas \"Spanish colonization of the Americas\"). Although Andean Amerindian peoples crafted ceremonial jewelry of gold and other metals, the [mineralizations](/wiki/Mineralization_%28geology%29 \"Mineralization (geology)\") of the Andes were first mined on a large scale after the Spanish arrival. [Potosí](/wiki/Potos%C3%AD \"Potosí\") in present\\-day [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia \"Bolivia\") and [Cerro de Pasco](/wiki/Cerro_de_Pasco \"Cerro de Pasco\") in Peru were among the principal mines of the Spanish Empire in the New World. [Río de la Plata](/wiki/R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata \"Río de la Plata\") and [Argentina](/wiki/Argentina \"Argentina\"){{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.argentine\\-embassy\\-uk.org/docs\\_eng/links/links\\_information\\_argentina.shtml\\|title\\=Information on Argentina\\|website\\=Argentine Embassy London}} derive their names from the silver of Potosí.", "Currently, mining in the Andes of [Chile](/wiki/Chile \"Chile\") and [Peru](/wiki/Peru \"Peru\") places these countries as the first and second major producers of [copper](/wiki/Copper \"Copper\") in the world. [Peru](/wiki/Peru \"Peru\") also contains the 4th\\-largest goldmine in the world: the [Yanacocha](/wiki/Yanacocha \"Yanacocha\"). The Bolivian Andes principally produce [tin](/wiki/Tin \"Tin\"), although historically silver mining had a huge impact on the [economy](/wiki/Price_revolution \"Price revolution\") of 17th\\-century Europe.", "There is a long history of mining in the Andes, from the Spanish [silver](/wiki/Silver \"Silver\") [mines](/wiki/Mining \"Mining\") in [Potosí](/wiki/Potos%C3%AD \"Potosí\") in the 16th century to the vast current [porphyry copper deposits](/wiki/Porphyry_copper_deposit \"Porphyry copper deposit\") of [Chuquicamata](/wiki/Chuquicamata \"Chuquicamata\") and [Escondida](/wiki/Escondida \"Escondida\") in Chile and [Toquepala](/wiki/Toquepala_mine \"Toquepala mine\") in Peru. Other metals, including iron, gold, and tin, in addition to non\\-metallic resources are important. The Andes have a vast supply of lithium; Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile have the three largest reserves in the world respectively.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Lithium: What Role Does Tesla Play In The Demand For This Precious Metal? \\- Commodity.com \\|url\\=https://commodity.com/precious\\-metals/lithium/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-09 \\|website\\=commodity.com \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "### Accion Andina's reforestation plan", "Depending on the country, this species goes by different names. In Peru, it is known as queñual, queuña, or queñoa; in Bolivia, as kewiña; in Ecuador, as yagual; and in Argentina, tabaquillo. Regardless of the name, *Polylepis* is a high\\-Andean genus encompassing up to 45 species of trees and shrubs distributed across the South American Andes, from Venezuela to Patagonia, found up to 5,000 meters above sea level.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Ruiz \\|first\\=Iván Antezana Q. , Flor \\|date\\=2024\\-01\\-11 \\|title\\=Más de 10 millones de árboles nuevos: el premiado plan que reforesta los Andes \\|url\\=https://elpais.com/america\\-futura/2024\\-01\\-11/mas\\-de\\-10\\-millones\\-de\\-arboles\\-nuevos\\-el\\-premiado\\-plan\\-que\\-reforesta\\-los\\-andes.html \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-02\\-12 \\|website\\=El País América \\|language\\=es}}", "In 2000, biologist Constantino Aucca founded Ecoan, an NGO promoting conservation of threatened species and endangered Andean ecosystems. Since then, the organization has reforested 4\\.5 million plants across 16 protected areas, involving 37 Andean communities in the process.", "Aucca's efforts caught the attention of Florent Kaiser, a Franco\\-German forest engineer. During a visit to Peru in 2018, Aucca invited Kaiser to the Queuña Raymi festival, where Cusco communities engage in queñual reforestation.", "" ]
### Transportation Cities and large towns are connected with [asphalt](/wiki/Asphalt_concrete "Asphalt concrete")\-paved roads, while smaller towns are often connected by dirt roads, which may require a [four\-wheel\-drive](/wiki/Four-wheel-drive "Four-wheel-drive") vehicle.{{Cite web \|url\=http://andes.zoom\-maps.com/ \|title\=Andes travel map \|access\-date\=20 June 2010 \|archive\-date\=24 September 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924154519/http://andes.zoom\-maps.com/ \|url\-status\=dead }} The rough terrain has historically put the costs of building [highways](/wiki/Highway "Highway") and [railroads](/wiki/Railroad "Railroad") that cross the Andes out of reach of most neighboring countries, even with modern [civil engineering](/wiki/Civil_engineering "Civil engineering") practices. For example, the main crossover of the Andes between Argentina and Chile is still accomplished through the [Paso Internacional Los Libertadores](/wiki/Paso_Internacional_Los_Libertadores "Paso Internacional Los Libertadores"). Only recently{{When\|date\=June 2024}} have the ends of some highways that came rather close to one another from the east and the west been connected.{{cite news \|url\=http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1159492\-jujuy\-apuesta\-a\-captar\-las\-cargas\-de\-brasil\-en\-transito\-hacia\-chile\|title\=''Jujuy apuesta a captar las cargas de Brasil en tránsito hacia Chile'' by Emiliano Galli \|newspaper\=La Nación \|publisher\=La Nación newspaper\|access\-date\=22 July 2011\|date\=7 August 2009 }} Much of the transportation of passengers is done via aircraft. However, there is one railroad that connects Chile with Peru via the Andes, and there are others that make the same connection via southern Bolivia. There are multiple highways in Bolivia that cross the Andes. Some of these were built during a [period of war](/wiki/Chaco_War "Chaco War") between Bolivia and [Paraguay](/wiki/Paraguay "Paraguay"), in order to transport Bolivian troops and their supplies to the war front in the lowlands of southeastern Bolivia and western Paraguay. For decades, Chile claimed ownership of land on the eastern side of the Andes. However, these claims were given up in about 1870 during the [War of the Pacific](/wiki/War_of_the_Pacific "War of the Pacific") between Chile and the allied Bolivia and Peru, in a diplomatic deal to keep Peru out of the war. The [Chilean Army](/wiki/Chilean_Army "Chilean Army") and [Chilean Navy](/wiki/Chilean_Navy "Chilean Navy") defeated the combined forces of Bolivia and Peru, and Chile took over Bolivia's only province on the Pacific Coast, some land from Peru that was returned to Peru decades later. Bolivia has been completely [landlocked](/wiki/Landlocked "Landlocked") ever since. It mostly uses [seaports](/wiki/Seaport "Seaport") in eastern Argentina and [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay "Uruguay") for international trade because its diplomatic relations with Chile have been suspended since 1978\. Because of the tortuous terrain in places, villages and towns in the mountains—to which travel via [motorized vehicles](/wiki/Motorized_vehicle "Motorized vehicle") is of little use—are still located in the high Andes of Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and [Ecuador](/wiki/Ecuador "Ecuador"). Locally, the relatives of the [camel](/wiki/Camel "Camel"), the [llama](/wiki/Llama "Llama"), and the [alpaca](/wiki/Alpaca "Alpaca") continue to carry out important uses as pack animals, but this use has generally diminished in modern times. [Donkeys](/wiki/Donkey "Donkey"), [mules](/wiki/Mule "Mule"), and horses are also useful.
[ "### Transportation", "Cities and large towns are connected with [asphalt](/wiki/Asphalt_concrete \"Asphalt concrete\")\\-paved roads, while smaller towns are often connected by dirt roads, which may require a [four\\-wheel\\-drive](/wiki/Four-wheel-drive \"Four-wheel-drive\") vehicle.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://andes.zoom\\-maps.com/ \\|title\\=Andes travel map \\|access\\-date\\=20 June 2010 \\|archive\\-date\\=24 September 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924154519/http://andes.zoom\\-maps.com/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}", "The rough terrain has historically put the costs of building [highways](/wiki/Highway \"Highway\") and [railroads](/wiki/Railroad \"Railroad\") that cross the Andes out of reach of most neighboring countries, even with modern [civil engineering](/wiki/Civil_engineering \"Civil engineering\") practices. For example, the main crossover of the Andes between Argentina and Chile is still accomplished through the [Paso Internacional Los Libertadores](/wiki/Paso_Internacional_Los_Libertadores \"Paso Internacional Los Libertadores\"). Only recently{{When\\|date\\=June 2024}} have the ends of some highways that came rather close to one another from the east and the west been connected.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1159492\\-jujuy\\-apuesta\\-a\\-captar\\-las\\-cargas\\-de\\-brasil\\-en\\-transito\\-hacia\\-chile\\|title\\=''Jujuy apuesta a captar las cargas de Brasil en tránsito hacia Chile'' by Emiliano Galli \\|newspaper\\=La Nación \\|publisher\\=La Nación newspaper\\|access\\-date\\=22 July 2011\\|date\\=7 August 2009 }} Much of the transportation of passengers is done via aircraft.", "However, there is one railroad that connects Chile with Peru via the Andes, and there are others that make the same connection via southern Bolivia.", "There are multiple highways in Bolivia that cross the Andes. Some of these were built during a [period of war](/wiki/Chaco_War \"Chaco War\") between Bolivia and [Paraguay](/wiki/Paraguay \"Paraguay\"), in order to transport Bolivian troops and their supplies to the war front in the lowlands of southeastern Bolivia and western Paraguay.", "For decades, Chile claimed ownership of land on the eastern side of the Andes. However, these claims were given up in about 1870 during the [War of the Pacific](/wiki/War_of_the_Pacific \"War of the Pacific\") between Chile and the allied Bolivia and Peru, in a diplomatic deal to keep Peru out of the war. The [Chilean Army](/wiki/Chilean_Army \"Chilean Army\") and [Chilean Navy](/wiki/Chilean_Navy \"Chilean Navy\") defeated the combined forces of Bolivia and Peru, and Chile took over Bolivia's only province on the Pacific Coast, some land from Peru that was returned to Peru decades later. Bolivia has been completely [landlocked](/wiki/Landlocked \"Landlocked\") ever since. It mostly uses [seaports](/wiki/Seaport \"Seaport\") in eastern Argentina and [Uruguay](/wiki/Uruguay \"Uruguay\") for international trade because its diplomatic relations with Chile have been suspended since 1978\\.", "Because of the tortuous terrain in places, villages and towns in the mountains—to which travel via [motorized vehicles](/wiki/Motorized_vehicle \"Motorized vehicle\") is of little use—are still located in the high Andes of Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and [Ecuador](/wiki/Ecuador \"Ecuador\"). Locally, the relatives of the [camel](/wiki/Camel \"Camel\"), the [llama](/wiki/Llama \"Llama\"), and the [alpaca](/wiki/Alpaca \"Alpaca\") continue to carry out important uses as pack animals, but this use has generally diminished in modern times. [Donkeys](/wiki/Donkey \"Donkey\"), [mules](/wiki/Mule \"Mule\"), and horses are also useful.", "" ]
Cultural aspects ---------------- ### Ancient Greek names and concepts The concept of the solstices was embedded in ancient Greek [celestial navigation](/wiki/Celestial_navigation "Celestial navigation"). As soon as they discovered that the Earth was spherical{{cite book \|author\=Strabo \|author\-link\=Strabo \|title\=The Geography \|at\=II.5\.1 \|quote\=sphairikē ... tēs gēs epiphaneia, spherical is the surface of the Earth}} they devised the concept of the [celestial sphere](/wiki/Celestial_sphere "Celestial sphere"),{{cite book \|author\=Strabo \|author\-link\=Strabo \|title\=The Geography \|pages\=II.5\.2 \|quote\=sphairoeidēs ... ouranos, spherical in appearance ... is heaven}} an imaginary spherical surface rotating with the heavenly bodies (*ouranioi*) fixed in it (the modern one does not rotate, but the stars in it do). As long as no assumptions are made concerning the distances of those bodies from Earth or from each other, the sphere can be accepted as real and is in fact still in use. The Ancient Greeks use the term *"ηλιοστάσιο" (heliostāsio)*, meaning *stand of the Sun*. The [stars](/wiki/Star "Star") move across the inner surface of the celestial [sphere](/wiki/Sphere "Sphere") along the [circumferences](/wiki/Circumference "Circumference") of [circles](/wiki/Circle "Circle") in [parallel](/wiki/Parallel_%28geometry%29 "Parallel (geometry)") planesStrabo II.5\.2\., "aplaneis asteres kata parallēlōn pherontai kuklōn", "the fixed stars are borne in parallel circles" [perpendicular](/wiki/Perpendicular "Perpendicular") to the Earth's axis extended indefinitely into the heavens and intersecting the celestial sphere in a celestial pole.Strabo II.5\.2, "ho di'autēs (gē) aksōn kai tou ouranou mesou tetagmenos", "the axis through it (the Earth) extending through the middle of the sky" The Sun and the [planets](/wiki/Planet "Planet") do not move in these parallel paths but along another circle, the ecliptic, whose plane is at an angle, the [obliquity of the ecliptic](/wiki/Obliquity_of_the_ecliptic "Obliquity of the ecliptic"), to the axis, bringing the Sun and planets across the paths of and in among the stars.\* [Cleomedes](/wiki/Cleomedes "Cleomedes") states:{{cite book \|title\=Cleomedes' Lectures on Astronomy: A Translation of The Heavens \|author\=Cleomedes \|author\-link\=Cleomedes \|others\=Translated by Alan C. Bowen and Robert B. Todd \|publisher\=\[\[University of California Press]] \|location\=Berkeley \|date\=2004 \|isbn\=0\-520\-23325\-5 \|page\=41}} This translation cites this passage at the end of Book I Chapter 2 but other arrangements have it at the start of Chapter 3\. In the Greek version of {{cite book\|title\=Cleomedis De motu circulari corporum caelestium libri duo\|url\=https://archive.org/details/kleomedouskyklik00cleo\|author\=Cleomedes \|editor\-first\=Hermann\|editor\-last\=Ziegler \|publisher\=B. G. Teubneri\|date\=1891\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/kleomedouskyklik00cleo/page/32 32]}} the passage starts Chapter 4\. > The band of the [Zodiac](/wiki/Zodiac "Zodiac") (*zōdiakos kuklos*, "zodiacal circle") is at an oblique angle (*loksos*) because it is positioned between the tropical circles and equinoctial circle touching each of the tropical circles at one point ... This Zodiac has a determinable width (set at 8° today) ... that is why it is described by three circles: the central one is called "heliacal" (*hēliakos*, "of the sun"). The term heliacal circle is used for the ecliptic, which is in the center of the zodiacal circle, conceived as a band including the noted constellations named on mythical themes. Other authors use Zodiac to mean ecliptic, which first appears in a gloss of unknown author in a passage of Cleomedes where he is explaining that the [Moon](/wiki/Moon "Moon") is in the zodiacal circle as well and periodically crosses the path of the Sun. As some of these crossings represent [eclipses](/wiki/Eclipse "Eclipse") of the Moon, the path of the Sun is given a synonym, the *ekleiptikos (kuklos)* from *ekleipsis*, "eclipse". ### English names [thumb\|Sun Triangle in New York points at Sun upon equinox and solstices](/wiki/File:McGraw-Hill_sundial_jeh.JPG "McGraw-Hill sundial jeh.JPG") The two solstices can be distinguished by different pairs of names, depending on which feature one wants to stress. * **[Summer solstice](/wiki/Summer_solstice "Summer solstice")** and **[winter solstice](/wiki/Winter_solstice "Winter solstice")** are the most common names, referring to the seasons they are associated with. However, these can be ambiguous since the [Northern Hemisphere](/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere "Northern Hemisphere")'s summer is the [Southern Hemisphere](/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere "Southern Hemisphere")'s winter, and vice versa. The [Latinate](/wiki/Latin "Latin") names **estival solstice** (summer) and **hibernal solstice** (winter) are sometimes used to the same effect,{{cite book \|last\=Kent \|first\=April Elliott \|title\=The Essential Guide to Practical Astrology \|url\=http://google.com/books?id\=DOfnC5vAff4C\&pg\=PA284 \|access\-date\=December 9, 2015 \|date\=June 7, 2011 \|publisher\=Penguin \|isbn\=978\-1\-61564\-093\-5 \|page\=284}} as are **midsummer** and **midwinter**. * **[June solstice](/wiki/June_solstice "June solstice")** and **[December solstice](/wiki/December_solstice "December solstice")** refer to the months of year in which they take place,{{cite book \|last\=Bass \|first\=Charles O. \|title\=Astronomy Essentials \|url\=http://google.com/books?id\=wwsqvLL10KEC\&pg\=PA35 \|access\-date\=December 9, 2015 \|date\=1994 \|publisher\=Research \& Education Assoc \|isbn\=978\-0\-87891\-965\-9 \|page\=35}} with no ambiguity as to which hemisphere is the context. They are still not universal, however, as not all cultures use a solar\-based calendar where the solstices occur every year in the same month (as they do not in the [Islamic calendar](/wiki/Islamic_calendar "Islamic calendar") and [Hebrew calendar](/wiki/Hebrew_calendar "Hebrew calendar"), for example). * **Northern solstice** and **southern solstice** indicate the hemisphere of the Sun's location.{{cite book \|last\=Kiddle \|first\=Henry \|title\=A new manual of the elements of astronomy, descriptive and mathematical: comprising the latest discoveries and theoretic views : with directions for the use of the globes, and for studying the constellations \|url\=http://google.com/books?id\=NkwAAAAAYAAJ\&pg\=PA82 \|access\-date\=June 2, 2011 \|date\=1877 \|publisher\=Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor, \& Company \|page\=82}} The northern solstice is in June, when the Sun is directly over the [Tropic of Cancer](/wiki/Tropic_of_Cancer "Tropic of Cancer") in the [Northern Hemisphere](/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere "Northern Hemisphere"), and the southern solstice is in December, when the Sun is directly over the [Tropic of Capricorn](/wiki/Tropic_of_Capricorn "Tropic of Capricorn") in the [Southern Hemisphere](/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere "Southern Hemisphere").{{cite book \|last\=Jain \|first\=R.K. \|title\=ICSE Geography \|url\=http://google.com/books?id\=s4SdkMyKHNUC\&pg\=PA25 \|access\-date\=December 9, 2015 \|publisher\=Ratna Sagar \|isbn\=978\-81\-8332\-579\-0 \|page\=25}} These terms can be used unambiguously for other planets. * **First point of [Cancer](/wiki/Cancer_%28astrology%29 "Cancer (astrology)")** and **first point of [Capricorn](/wiki/Capricorn_%28astrology%29 "Capricorn (astrology)")** refer to the [astrological signs](/wiki/Zodiac "Zodiac") that the sun "is entering" (a system rooted in Roman Classical period dates).{{cite book \|last\=Stewart \|first\=Alexander \|title\=A Compendium of ModernGeography \|url\=http://google.com/books?id\=Y3QDAAAAQAAJ\&pg\=PA383 \|access\-date\=December 9, 2015 \|date\=1869 \|publisher\=Oliver \& Boyd \|location\=Edinburgh \|page\=383}} Due to the [precession of the equinoxes](/wiki/Precession_of_the_equinoxes "Precession of the equinoxes"), the [constellations](/wiki/Constellation "Constellation") the sun appears in at solstices are currently [Taurus](/wiki/Taurus_%28constellation%29 "Taurus (constellation)") in June and [Sagittarius](/wiki/Sagittarius_%28constellation%29 "Sagittarius (constellation)") in December. | \+Names of the equinoxes and solstices | [Ls](/wiki/Celestial_longitude "Celestial longitude") | By date ([Gregorian calendar](/wiki/Gregorian_calendar "Gregorian calendar")) | By sun position ([subsolar point](/wiki/Subsolar_point "Subsolar point")) | By season ([Northern Hemisphere](/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere "Northern Hemisphere")) | By season ([Southern Hemisphere](/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere "Southern Hemisphere")) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 0° | [March equinox](/wiki/March_equinox "March equinox") | Northward equinox | Vernal (spring) equinox | Autumnal (fall) equinox | | 90° | [June solstice](/wiki/June_solstice "June solstice") | Northern solstice | [Estival (summer) solstice](/wiki/Summer_solstice "Summer solstice") | [Hibernal (winter) solstice](/wiki/Winter_solstice "Winter solstice") | | 180° | [September equinox](/wiki/September_equinox "September equinox") | Southward equinox | Autumnal (fall) equinox | Vernal (spring) equinox | | 270° | [December solstice](/wiki/December_solstice "December solstice") | Southern solstice | [Hibernal (winter) solstice](/wiki/Winter_solstice "Winter solstice") | [Estival (summer) solstice](/wiki/Summer_solstice "Summer solstice") | ### Solstice terms in East Asia {{Main\|Xiazhi\|Dongzhi (solar term)}} The traditional East Asian calendars divide a year into 24 [solar terms](/wiki/Solar_term "Solar term") (節氣). **Xiàzhì** ([pīnyīn](/wiki/Pinyin "Pinyin")) or **Geshi** ([rōmaji](/wiki/Romanization_of_Japanese "Romanization of Japanese")) ({{CJKV\|t\=夏至\|s\=夏至\|j\=夏至\|k\=하지(Haji)\|Tibetan\=དབྱར་ཉི་ལྡོག\|v\=Hạ chí\|l\=''summer's extreme''}}) is the 10th solar term, and marks the **summer solstice**. It begins when the Sun reaches the [celestial longitude](/wiki/Celestial_longitude "Celestial longitude") of 90° (around June 21\) and ends when the Sun reaches the longitude of 105° (around July 7\). Xiàzhì more often refers in particular to the day when the Sun is exactly at the celestial longitude of 90°. **Dōngzhì** ([pīnyīn](/wiki/Pinyin "Pinyin")) or **Tōji** ([rōmaji](/wiki/Romanization_of_Japanese "Romanization of Japanese")) ({{CJKV\|t\=冬至\|s\=冬至\|j\=冬至\|k\=동지(Dongji)\|Tibetan\= དགུན་ཉི་ལྡོག\|v\=Đông chí\|l\=''winter's extreme''}}) is the 22nd solar term, and marks the **winter solstice**. It begins when the Sun reaches the [celestial longitude](/wiki/Celestial_longitude "Celestial longitude") of 270° (around December 22\) and ends when the Sun reaches the longitude of 285° (around January 5\). Dōngzhì more often refers in particular to the day when the Sun is exactly at the celestial longitude of 270°. The solstices (as well as the [equinoxes](/wiki/Equinox "Equinox")) mark the middle of the seasons in East Asian calendars. Here, the Chinese character [至](/wiki/wikt:%E8%87%B3 "至") means "extreme", so the terms for the solstices directly signify the summits of summer and winter. ### Solstice celebrations {{See also\|Fête St\-Jean\-Baptiste\|Festival of San Juan\|Saint Jonas Day\|St John's Day (Estonia)\|Ivan Kupala Day\|Golowan\|Wheel of the Year}} {{unreferenced section\|date\=June 2012}} [2005 Summer solstice sunrise over [Stonehenge](/wiki/Stonehenge "Stonehenge")\|thumb](/wiki/File:Summer_Solstice_Sunrise_over_Stonehenge_2005.jpg "Summer Solstice Sunrise over Stonehenge 2005.jpg") The term *solstice* can also be used in a wider sense, as the date (day) that such a passage happens. The solstices, together with the equinoxes, are connected with the seasons. In some languages they are considered to start or separate the seasons; in others they are considered to be centre points (in [England](/wiki/England "England"), in the Northern Hemisphere, for example, the period around the northern solstice is known as midsummer). [Midsummer's Day](/wiki/Midsummer%27s_Day "Midsummer's Day"), defined as St. Johns Day by the [Christian Church](/wiki/Christian_Church "Christian Church"), is June 24, about three days after the solstice itself). Similarly December 25 is the start of the [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas "Christmas") celebration, and is the day the Sun begins to return to the Northern Hemisphere. The traditional British and Irish main rent and meeting days of the year, "the usual [quarter days](/wiki/Quarter_days "Quarter days")," were often those of the solstices and equinoxes. Many cultures celebrate various combinations of the winter and summer solstices, the equinoxes, and the midpoints between them, leading to various holidays arising around these events. During the southern or [winter solstice](/wiki/Winter_solstice "Winter solstice"), Christmas is the most widespread contemporary holiday, while [Yalda](/wiki/Yald%C4%81_Night "Yaldā Night"), [Saturnalia](/wiki/Saturnalia "Saturnalia"), [Karachun](/wiki/Karachun "Karachun"), [Hanukkah](/wiki/Hanukkah "Hanukkah"), [Kwanzaa](/wiki/Kwanzaa "Kwanzaa"), and [Yule](/wiki/Yule "Yule") are also celebrated around this time. In East Asian cultures, the [Dongzhi Festival](/wiki/Dongzhi_Festival "Dongzhi Festival") is celebrated on the winter solstice. For the northern or [summer solstice](/wiki/Summer_solstice "Summer solstice"), Christian cultures celebrate the feast of [St. John](/wiki/John_the_Baptist "John the Baptist") from June 23 to 24 (see [St. John's Eve](/wiki/St._John%27s_Eve "St. John's Eve"), [Ivan Kupala Day](/wiki/Ivan_Kupala_Day "Ivan Kupala Day")), while [Modern Pagans](/wiki/Modern_Paganism "Modern Paganism") observe Midsummer, known as [Litha](/wiki/Wheel_of_the_Year "Wheel of the Year") among [Wiccans](/wiki/Wicca "Wicca"). For the vernal (spring) equinox, several springtime festivals are celebrated, such as the [Persian](/wiki/Persia "Persia") [Nowruz](/wiki/Nowruz "Nowruz"), the observance in [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism "Judaism") of [Passover](/wiki/Passover "Passover"), the rites of [Easter](/wiki/Easter "Easter") in most Christian churches, as well as the Wiccan [Ostara](/wiki/Ostara_%28Wicca%29 "Ostara (Wicca)"). The autumnal equinox is associated with the Jewish holiday of [Sukkot](/wiki/Sukkot "Sukkot") and the Wiccan [Mabon](/wiki/Wheel_of_the_Year "Wheel of the Year"). In the southern tip of [South America](/wiki/South_America "South America"), the [Mapuche people](/wiki/Mapuche_people "Mapuche people") celebrate [We Tripantu](/wiki/We_Tripantu "We Tripantu") (the New Year) a few days after the northern solstice, on June 24\. Further north, the [Atacama people](/wiki/Atacama_people "Atacama people") formerly celebrated this date with a noise festival, to call the Sun back. Further east, the [Aymara people](/wiki/Aymara_people "Aymara people") celebrate their New Year on June 21\. A celebration occurs at sunrise, when the sun shines directly through the [Gate of the Sun](/wiki/Gate_of_the_Sun "Gate of the Sun") in [Tiwanaku](/wiki/Tiwanaku "Tiwanaku"). Other Aymara New Year feasts occur throughout [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia "Bolivia"), including at the site of [El Fuerte de Samaipata](/wiki/El_Fuerte_de_Samaipata "El Fuerte de Samaipata"). In the [Hindu calendar](/wiki/Hindu_calendar "Hindu calendar"), two sidereal solstices are named [Makara Sankranti](/wiki/Makar_Sankranti "Makar Sankranti") which marks the start of [Uttarayana](/wiki/Uttarayana "Uttarayana") and Karka [Sankranti](/wiki/Sankranti "Sankranti") which marks the start of [Dakshinayana](/wiki/Dakshinayana "Dakshinayana"). The former occurs around January 14 each year, while the latter occurs around July 14 each year. These mark the movement of the Sun along a sidereally fixed [zodiac](/wiki/Zodiac "Zodiac") ([precession](/wiki/Precession_%28astronomy%29 "Precession (astronomy)") is ignored) into Makara, the zodiacal sign which corresponds with [Capricorn](/wiki/Capricorn_%28astrology%29 "Capricorn (astrology)"), and into Karka, the zodiacal sign which corresponds with [Cancer](/wiki/Cancer_%28astrology%29 "Cancer (astrology)"), respectively. The [Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station](/wiki/Amundsen%E2%80%93Scott_South_Pole_Station "Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station") celebrates every year on June 21 a midwinter party, to celebrate that the Sun is at its lowest point and coming back. The [Fremont Solstice Parade](/wiki/Fremont_Solstice_Parade "Fremont Solstice Parade") takes place every summer solstice in [Fremont, Seattle, Washington](/wiki/Fremont%2C_Seattle%2C_Washington "Fremont, Seattle, Washington") in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"). The reconstructed [Cahokia Woodhenge](/wiki/Cahokia_Woodhenge "Cahokia Woodhenge"), a large [timber circle](/wiki/Timber_circle "Timber circle") located at the [Mississippian culture](/wiki/Mississippian_culture "Mississippian culture") [Cahokia](/wiki/Cahokia "Cahokia") [archaeological site](/wiki/Archaeological_site "Archaeological site") near [Collinsville, Illinois](/wiki/Collinsville%2C_Illinois "Collinsville, Illinois"),{{Cite web\| title\= Visitors Guide to the Woodhenge\| url\= http://greatriverroad.com/somadco/collins/woodhenge.htm\| access\-date\= December 19, 2017\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20171222051732/http://greatriverroad.com/somadco/collins/woodhenge.htm\| archive\-date\= December 22, 2017\| url\-status\= dead}} is the site of annual equinox and solstice sunrise observances. Out of respect for [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States") beliefs these events do not feature ceremonies or rituals of any kind.{{cite web\| title\= Welcome the Fall Equinox at Cahokia Mounds\| author\= Iseminger, William \| publisher\= Illinois Department of Natural Resources \| url\= https://www.dnr.illinois.gov/news/Pages/Welcome\-the\-Fall\-Equinox\-at\-Cahokia\-Mounds.aspx \| access\-date\= December 20, 2017 }}{{Cite web\| title\= Winter Solstice Sunrise Observance at Cahokia Mounds\| publisher \= Collinsville Chamber of Commerce\| url \= http://www.discovercollinsville.com/events/details/winter\-solstice\-sunrise\-observance\-at\-cahokia\-mounds\-3895 \| access\-date\= December 20, 2017 }}{{Cite news \| title\= Cahokia Mounds Mark Spring Equinox : The keepers of Cahokia Mounds will host a spring gathering to celebrate the vernal equinox \| url\= https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/travel/destinations/spring\-equinox\-cahokia\-mounds/ \| newspaper\= Indian Country Today \| publisher\= \[\[Indian Country Media Network]] \| access\-date\= December 20, 2017 \| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20171222052220/https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/travel/destinations/spring\-equinox\-cahokia\-mounds/ \| archive\-date\= December 22, 2017 \| url\-status\= dead }} ### Solstice determination Unlike the equinox, the solstice time is not easy to determine. The changes in [solar declination](/wiki/Position_of_the_Sun "Position of the Sun") become smaller as the Sun gets closer to its maximum/minimum declination. The days before and after the solstice, the declination speed is less than 30 [arcseconds](/wiki/Arcseconds "Arcseconds") per day which is less than {{frac\|60}} of the [angular size](/wiki/Angular_size "Angular size") of the Sun, or the equivalent to just 2 seconds of [right ascension](/wiki/Right_ascension "Right ascension"). This difference is hardly detectable with indirect viewing based devices like [sextant](/wiki/Sextant "Sextant") equipped with a [vernier](/wiki/Vernier_scale "Vernier scale"), and impossible with more traditional tools like a [gnomon](/wiki/Gnomon "Gnomon"){{cite web \|title\=Solstice Determination based on Observations \|last\=Mollerup \|first\=Asger \|date\=January 12, 2008 \|url\=http://sundial.thai\-isan\-lao.com/solstice\-determination.html \|access\-date\=September 27, 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211044959/http://sundial.thai\-isan\-lao.com/solstice\-determination.html \|archive\-date\=February 11, 2009}} or an [astrolabe](/wiki/Astrolabe "Astrolabe"). It is also hard to detect the changes in sunrise/sunset azimuth due to the [atmospheric refraction](/wiki/Atmospheric_refraction "Atmospheric refraction"){{cite journal \|last \= Exton \|first \= Harold \|title \= A Fresh Analysis of Some Recent Data on Atmospheric Refraction Near the Horizon with Implications in Archaeoastronomy \|journal \= Journal of History of Astronomy, Archaeoastronomy Supplement \|volume \= 23 \|page \= S57 \|date \= 1992 \|issue \= 17 \|bibcode \= 1992JHAS...23\...57E \|doi \= 10\.1177/002182869202301707\|s2cid \= 118484271 }} changes. Those accuracy issues render it impossible to determine the solstice day based on observations made within the 3 (or even 5\) days surrounding the solstice without the use of more complex tools. Accounts do not survive but Greek astronomers must have used an approximation method based on interpolation, which is still used by some amateurs. This method consists of recording the declination angle at noon during some days before and after the solstice, trying to find two separate days with the same declination. When those two days are found, the halfway time between both noons is estimated solstice time. An interval of 45 days has been postulated as the best one to achieve up to a quarter\-day precision, in the solstice determination.{{cite journal \|last \= Hugh \|first \= Thurston \|title \= Early Greek Solstices and Equinoxes \|journal \= Journal for the History of Astronomy \|volume \= 32, Part 2 \|issue \= 107 \|pages \= 154–156 \|date \= 2001 \|doi \= 10\.1177/002182860103200208 \|bibcode \= 2001JHA....32\..154T \|s2cid \= 118464897 \|issn \= 0021\-8286\|doi\-access \= }} In 2012, the journal DIO [found](http://www.dioi.org/cot.htm#ngmw) that accuracy of one or two hours with balanced errors can be attained by observing the Sun's equal altitudes about S \= twenty degrees (or d \= about 20 days) before and after the summer solstice because the average of the two times will be early by q arc minutes where q is (πe cosA)/3 times the square of S in degrees (e \= earth orbit eccentricity, A \= earth's perihelion or Sun's apogee), and the noise in the result will be about 41 hours divided by d if the eye's sharpness is taken as one arc minute. Astronomical almanacs define the solstices as the moments when the Sun passes through the [solstitial colure](/wiki/Colure "Colure"), i.e. the times when the apparent geocentric [celestial longitude](/wiki/Celestial_longitude "Celestial longitude") of the Sun is equal to 90° (June solstice) or 270° (December solstice).{{cite book \|last\=Meeus \|first\=Jean \|author\-link1\=Jean Meeus \|date\=1998 \|title\=Astronomical Algorithms \|edition\=Second English \|url\=https://archive.org/details/astronomicalalgo00meeu \|url\-access\=limited \|location\=Richmond \|publisher\=Willmann\-Bell, Inc. \|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/astronomicalalgo00meeu/page/n184 177]–182 \|isbn\=0\-943396\-61\-1}} The dates of the solstice varies each year and may occur a day earlier or later depending on the [time zone](/wiki/Time_zone "Time zone"). Because the earth's orbit takes slightly longer than a calendar year of 365 days, the solstices occur slightly later each calendar year, until a leap day re\-aligns the calendar with the orbit. Thus the solstices always occur between June 20 and 22 and between December 20 and 23 {{cite web\|title\=December solstice\|url\=https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/december\-solstice.html\|access\-date\=March 21, 2018}}{{cite web\|title\=June solstice\|url\=https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/june\-solstice.html\|access\-date\=March 21, 2018}} in a four\-year\-long cycle with the 21st and 22nd being the most common dates, as can be seen in the schedule at the start of the article.
[ "Cultural aspects\n----------------", "### Ancient Greek names and concepts", "The concept of the solstices was embedded in ancient Greek [celestial navigation](/wiki/Celestial_navigation \"Celestial navigation\"). As soon as they discovered that the Earth was spherical{{cite book\n\\|author\\=Strabo\n\\|author\\-link\\=Strabo\n\\|title\\=The Geography\n\\|at\\=II.5\\.1\n\\|quote\\=sphairikē ... tēs gēs epiphaneia, spherical is the surface of the Earth}} they devised the concept of the [celestial sphere](/wiki/Celestial_sphere \"Celestial sphere\"),{{cite book\n\\|author\\=Strabo\n\\|author\\-link\\=Strabo\n\\|title\\=The Geography\n\\|pages\\=II.5\\.2\n\\|quote\\=sphairoeidēs ... ouranos, spherical in appearance ... is heaven}} an imaginary spherical surface rotating with the heavenly bodies (*ouranioi*) fixed in it (the modern one does not rotate, but the stars in it do). As long as no assumptions are made concerning the distances of those bodies from Earth or from each other, the sphere can be accepted as real and is in fact still in use. The Ancient Greeks use the term *\"ηλιοστάσιο\" (heliostāsio)*, meaning *stand of the Sun*.", "The [stars](/wiki/Star \"Star\") move across the inner surface of the celestial [sphere](/wiki/Sphere \"Sphere\") along the [circumferences](/wiki/Circumference \"Circumference\") of [circles](/wiki/Circle \"Circle\") in [parallel](/wiki/Parallel_%28geometry%29 \"Parallel (geometry)\") planesStrabo II.5\\.2\\., \"aplaneis asteres kata parallēlōn pherontai kuklōn\", \"the fixed stars are borne in parallel circles\" [perpendicular](/wiki/Perpendicular \"Perpendicular\") to the Earth's axis extended indefinitely into the heavens and intersecting the celestial sphere in a celestial pole.Strabo II.5\\.2, \"ho di'autēs (gē) aksōn kai tou ouranou mesou tetagmenos\", \"the axis through it (the Earth) extending through the middle of the sky\" The Sun and the [planets](/wiki/Planet \"Planet\") do not move in these parallel paths but along another circle, the ecliptic, whose plane is at an angle, the [obliquity of the ecliptic](/wiki/Obliquity_of_the_ecliptic \"Obliquity of the ecliptic\"), to the axis, bringing the Sun and planets across the paths of and in among the stars.\\*", "[Cleomedes](/wiki/Cleomedes \"Cleomedes\") states:{{cite book\n\\|title\\=Cleomedes' Lectures on Astronomy: A Translation of The Heavens\n\\|author\\=Cleomedes\n\\|author\\-link\\=Cleomedes\n\\|others\\=Translated by Alan C. Bowen and Robert B. Todd\n\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[University of California Press]]\n\\|location\\=Berkeley\n\\|date\\=2004\n\\|isbn\\=0\\-520\\-23325\\-5\n\\|page\\=41}} This translation cites this passage at the end of Book I Chapter 2 but other arrangements have it at the start of Chapter 3\\. In the Greek version of {{cite book\\|title\\=Cleomedis De motu circulari corporum caelestium libri duo\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/kleomedouskyklik00cleo\\|author\\=Cleomedes \\|editor\\-first\\=Hermann\\|editor\\-last\\=Ziegler \\|publisher\\=B. G. Teubneri\\|date\\=1891\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/kleomedouskyklik00cleo/page/32 32]}} the passage starts Chapter 4\\.\n> The band of the [Zodiac](/wiki/Zodiac \"Zodiac\") (*zōdiakos kuklos*, \"zodiacal circle\") is at an oblique angle (*loksos*) because it is positioned between the tropical circles and equinoctial circle touching each of the tropical circles at one point ... This Zodiac has a determinable width (set at 8° today) ... that is why it is described by three circles: the central one is called \"heliacal\" (*hēliakos*, \"of the sun\").", "", "The term heliacal circle is used for the ecliptic, which is in the center of the zodiacal circle, conceived as a band including the noted constellations named on mythical themes. Other authors use Zodiac to mean ecliptic, which first appears in a gloss of unknown author in a passage of Cleomedes where he is explaining that the [Moon](/wiki/Moon \"Moon\") is in the zodiacal circle as well and periodically crosses the path of the Sun. As some of these crossings represent [eclipses](/wiki/Eclipse \"Eclipse\") of the Moon, the path of the Sun is given a synonym, the *ekleiptikos (kuklos)* from *ekleipsis*, \"eclipse\".", "### English names", "[thumb\\|Sun Triangle in New York points at Sun upon equinox and solstices](/wiki/File:McGraw-Hill_sundial_jeh.JPG \"McGraw-Hill sundial jeh.JPG\")\nThe two solstices can be distinguished by different pairs of names, depending on which feature one wants to stress.\n* **[Summer solstice](/wiki/Summer_solstice \"Summer solstice\")** and **[winter solstice](/wiki/Winter_solstice \"Winter solstice\")** are the most common names, referring to the seasons they are associated with. However, these can be ambiguous since the [Northern Hemisphere](/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere \"Northern Hemisphere\")'s summer is the [Southern Hemisphere](/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere \"Southern Hemisphere\")'s winter, and vice versa. The [Latinate](/wiki/Latin \"Latin\") names **estival solstice** (summer) and **hibernal solstice** (winter) are sometimes used to the same effect,{{cite book\n\\|last\\=Kent\n\\|first\\=April Elliott\n\\|title\\=The Essential Guide to Practical Astrology\n\\|url\\=http://google.com/books?id\\=DOfnC5vAff4C\\&pg\\=PA284\n\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2015\n\\|date\\=June 7, 2011\n\\|publisher\\=Penguin\n\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-61564\\-093\\-5\n\\|page\\=284}} as are **midsummer** and **midwinter**.\n* **[June solstice](/wiki/June_solstice \"June solstice\")** and **[December solstice](/wiki/December_solstice \"December solstice\")** refer to the months of year in which they take place,{{cite book\n\\|last\\=Bass\n\\|first\\=Charles O.\n\\|title\\=Astronomy Essentials\n\\|url\\=http://google.com/books?id\\=wwsqvLL10KEC\\&pg\\=PA35\n\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2015\n\\|date\\=1994\n\\|publisher\\=Research \\& Education Assoc\n\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-87891\\-965\\-9\n\\|page\\=35}} with no ambiguity as to which hemisphere is the context. They are still not universal, however, as not all cultures use a solar\\-based calendar where the solstices occur every year in the same month (as they do not in the [Islamic calendar](/wiki/Islamic_calendar \"Islamic calendar\") and [Hebrew calendar](/wiki/Hebrew_calendar \"Hebrew calendar\"), for example).\n* **Northern solstice** and **southern solstice** indicate the hemisphere of the Sun's location.{{cite book\n\\|last\\=Kiddle\n\\|first\\=Henry\n\\|title\\=A new manual of the elements of astronomy, descriptive and mathematical: comprising the latest discoveries and theoretic views : with directions for the use of the globes, and for studying the constellations\n\\|url\\=http://google.com/books?id\\=NkwAAAAAYAAJ\\&pg\\=PA82\n\\|access\\-date\\=June 2, 2011\n\\|date\\=1877\n\\|publisher\\=Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor, \\& Company\n\\|page\\=82}} The northern solstice is in June, when the Sun is directly over the [Tropic of Cancer](/wiki/Tropic_of_Cancer \"Tropic of Cancer\") in the [Northern Hemisphere](/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere \"Northern Hemisphere\"), and the southern solstice is in December, when the Sun is directly over the [Tropic of Capricorn](/wiki/Tropic_of_Capricorn \"Tropic of Capricorn\") in the [Southern Hemisphere](/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere \"Southern Hemisphere\").{{cite book\n\\|last\\=Jain\n\\|first\\=R.K.\n\\|title\\=ICSE Geography\n\\|url\\=http://google.com/books?id\\=s4SdkMyKHNUC\\&pg\\=PA25\n\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2015\n\\|publisher\\=Ratna Sagar\n\\|isbn\\=978\\-81\\-8332\\-579\\-0\n\\|page\\=25}} These terms can be used unambiguously for other planets.\n* **First point of [Cancer](/wiki/Cancer_%28astrology%29 \"Cancer (astrology)\")** and **first point of [Capricorn](/wiki/Capricorn_%28astrology%29 \"Capricorn (astrology)\")** refer to the [astrological signs](/wiki/Zodiac \"Zodiac\") that the sun \"is entering\" (a system rooted in Roman Classical period dates).{{cite book\n\\|last\\=Stewart\n\\|first\\=Alexander\n\\|title\\=A Compendium of ModernGeography\n\\|url\\=http://google.com/books?id\\=Y3QDAAAAQAAJ\\&pg\\=PA383\n\\|access\\-date\\=December 9, 2015\n\\|date\\=1869\n\\|publisher\\=Oliver \\& Boyd\n\\|location\\=Edinburgh\n\\|page\\=383}} Due to the [precession of the equinoxes](/wiki/Precession_of_the_equinoxes \"Precession of the equinoxes\"), the [constellations](/wiki/Constellation \"Constellation\") the sun appears in at solstices are currently [Taurus](/wiki/Taurus_%28constellation%29 \"Taurus (constellation)\") in June and [Sagittarius](/wiki/Sagittarius_%28constellation%29 \"Sagittarius (constellation)\") in December.", "", "| \\+Names of the equinoxes and solstices | [Ls](/wiki/Celestial_longitude \"Celestial longitude\") | By date ([Gregorian calendar](/wiki/Gregorian_calendar \"Gregorian calendar\")) | By sun position ([subsolar point](/wiki/Subsolar_point \"Subsolar point\")) | By season ([Northern Hemisphere](/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere \"Northern Hemisphere\")) | By season ([Southern Hemisphere](/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere \"Southern Hemisphere\")) |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 0° | [March equinox](/wiki/March_equinox \"March equinox\") | Northward equinox | Vernal (spring) equinox | Autumnal (fall) equinox |\n| 90° | [June solstice](/wiki/June_solstice \"June solstice\") | Northern solstice | [Estival (summer) solstice](/wiki/Summer_solstice \"Summer solstice\") | [Hibernal (winter) solstice](/wiki/Winter_solstice \"Winter solstice\") |\n| 180° | [September equinox](/wiki/September_equinox \"September equinox\") | Southward equinox | Autumnal (fall) equinox | Vernal (spring) equinox |\n| 270° | [December solstice](/wiki/December_solstice \"December solstice\") | Southern solstice | [Hibernal (winter) solstice](/wiki/Winter_solstice \"Winter solstice\") | [Estival (summer) solstice](/wiki/Summer_solstice \"Summer solstice\") |", "### Solstice terms in East Asia", "{{Main\\|Xiazhi\\|Dongzhi (solar term)}}", "The traditional East Asian calendars divide a year into 24 [solar terms](/wiki/Solar_term \"Solar term\") (節氣). **Xiàzhì** ([pīnyīn](/wiki/Pinyin \"Pinyin\")) or **Geshi** ([rōmaji](/wiki/Romanization_of_Japanese \"Romanization of Japanese\")) ({{CJKV\\|t\\=夏至\\|s\\=夏至\\|j\\=夏至\\|k\\=하지(Haji)\\|Tibetan\\=དབྱར་ཉི་ལྡོག\\|v\\=Hạ chí\\|l\\=''summer's extreme''}}) is the 10th solar term, and marks the **summer solstice**. It begins when the Sun reaches the [celestial longitude](/wiki/Celestial_longitude \"Celestial longitude\") of 90° (around June 21\\) and ends when the Sun reaches the longitude of 105° (around July 7\\). Xiàzhì more often refers in particular to the day when the Sun is exactly at the celestial longitude of 90°.", "**Dōngzhì** ([pīnyīn](/wiki/Pinyin \"Pinyin\")) or **Tōji** ([rōmaji](/wiki/Romanization_of_Japanese \"Romanization of Japanese\")) ({{CJKV\\|t\\=冬至\\|s\\=冬至\\|j\\=冬至\\|k\\=동지(Dongji)\\|Tibetan\\= དགུན་ཉི་ལྡོག\\|v\\=Đông chí\\|l\\=''winter's extreme''}}) is the 22nd solar term, and marks the **winter solstice**. It begins when the Sun reaches the [celestial longitude](/wiki/Celestial_longitude \"Celestial longitude\") of 270° (around December 22\\) and ends when the Sun reaches the longitude of 285° (around January 5\\). Dōngzhì more often refers in particular to the day when the Sun is exactly at the celestial longitude of 270°.", "The solstices (as well as the [equinoxes](/wiki/Equinox \"Equinox\")) mark the middle of the seasons in East Asian calendars. Here, the Chinese character [至](/wiki/wikt:%E8%87%B3 \"至\") means \"extreme\", so the terms for the solstices directly signify the summits of summer and winter.", "### Solstice celebrations", "{{See also\\|Fête St\\-Jean\\-Baptiste\\|Festival of San Juan\\|Saint Jonas Day\\|St John's Day (Estonia)\\|Ivan Kupala Day\\|Golowan\\|Wheel of the Year}}\n{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=June 2012}}\n[2005 Summer solstice sunrise over [Stonehenge](/wiki/Stonehenge \"Stonehenge\")\\|thumb](/wiki/File:Summer_Solstice_Sunrise_over_Stonehenge_2005.jpg \"Summer Solstice Sunrise over Stonehenge 2005.jpg\")\nThe term *solstice* can also be used in a wider sense, as the date (day) that such a passage happens. The solstices, together with the equinoxes, are connected with the seasons. In some languages they are considered to start or separate the seasons; in others they are considered to be centre points (in [England](/wiki/England \"England\"), in the Northern Hemisphere, for example, the period around the northern solstice is known as midsummer). [Midsummer's Day](/wiki/Midsummer%27s_Day \"Midsummer's Day\"), defined as St. Johns Day by the [Christian Church](/wiki/Christian_Church \"Christian Church\"), is June 24, about three days after the solstice itself). Similarly December 25 is the start of the [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas \"Christmas\") celebration, and is the day the Sun begins to return to the Northern Hemisphere. The traditional British and Irish main rent and meeting days of the year, \"the usual [quarter days](/wiki/Quarter_days \"Quarter days\"),\" were often those of the solstices and equinoxes.", "Many cultures celebrate various combinations of the winter and summer solstices, the equinoxes, and the midpoints between them, leading to various holidays arising around these events. During the southern or [winter solstice](/wiki/Winter_solstice \"Winter solstice\"), Christmas is the most widespread contemporary holiday, while [Yalda](/wiki/Yald%C4%81_Night \"Yaldā Night\"), [Saturnalia](/wiki/Saturnalia \"Saturnalia\"), [Karachun](/wiki/Karachun \"Karachun\"), [Hanukkah](/wiki/Hanukkah \"Hanukkah\"), [Kwanzaa](/wiki/Kwanzaa \"Kwanzaa\"), and [Yule](/wiki/Yule \"Yule\") are also celebrated around this time. In East Asian cultures, the [Dongzhi Festival](/wiki/Dongzhi_Festival \"Dongzhi Festival\") is celebrated on the winter solstice. For the northern or [summer solstice](/wiki/Summer_solstice \"Summer solstice\"), Christian cultures celebrate the feast of [St. John](/wiki/John_the_Baptist \"John the Baptist\") from June 23 to 24 (see [St. John's Eve](/wiki/St._John%27s_Eve \"St. John's Eve\"), [Ivan Kupala Day](/wiki/Ivan_Kupala_Day \"Ivan Kupala Day\")), while [Modern Pagans](/wiki/Modern_Paganism \"Modern Paganism\") observe Midsummer, known as [Litha](/wiki/Wheel_of_the_Year \"Wheel of the Year\") among [Wiccans](/wiki/Wicca \"Wicca\"). For the vernal (spring) equinox, several springtime festivals are celebrated, such as the [Persian](/wiki/Persia \"Persia\") [Nowruz](/wiki/Nowruz \"Nowruz\"), the observance in [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism \"Judaism\") of [Passover](/wiki/Passover \"Passover\"), the rites of [Easter](/wiki/Easter \"Easter\") in most Christian churches, as well as the Wiccan [Ostara](/wiki/Ostara_%28Wicca%29 \"Ostara (Wicca)\"). The autumnal equinox is associated with the Jewish holiday of [Sukkot](/wiki/Sukkot \"Sukkot\") and the Wiccan [Mabon](/wiki/Wheel_of_the_Year \"Wheel of the Year\").", "In the southern tip of [South America](/wiki/South_America \"South America\"), the [Mapuche people](/wiki/Mapuche_people \"Mapuche people\") celebrate [We Tripantu](/wiki/We_Tripantu \"We Tripantu\") (the New Year) a few days after the northern solstice, on June 24\\. Further north, the [Atacama people](/wiki/Atacama_people \"Atacama people\") formerly celebrated this date with a noise festival, to call the Sun back. Further east, the [Aymara people](/wiki/Aymara_people \"Aymara people\") celebrate their New Year on June 21\\. A celebration occurs at sunrise, when the sun shines directly through the [Gate of the Sun](/wiki/Gate_of_the_Sun \"Gate of the Sun\") in [Tiwanaku](/wiki/Tiwanaku \"Tiwanaku\"). Other Aymara New Year feasts occur throughout [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia \"Bolivia\"), including at the site of [El Fuerte de Samaipata](/wiki/El_Fuerte_de_Samaipata \"El Fuerte de Samaipata\").", "In the [Hindu calendar](/wiki/Hindu_calendar \"Hindu calendar\"), two sidereal solstices are named [Makara Sankranti](/wiki/Makar_Sankranti \"Makar Sankranti\") which marks the start of [Uttarayana](/wiki/Uttarayana \"Uttarayana\") and Karka [Sankranti](/wiki/Sankranti \"Sankranti\") which marks the start of [Dakshinayana](/wiki/Dakshinayana \"Dakshinayana\"). The former occurs around January 14 each year, while the latter occurs around July 14 each year. These mark the movement of the Sun along a sidereally fixed [zodiac](/wiki/Zodiac \"Zodiac\") ([precession](/wiki/Precession_%28astronomy%29 \"Precession (astronomy)\") is ignored) into Makara, the zodiacal sign which corresponds with [Capricorn](/wiki/Capricorn_%28astrology%29 \"Capricorn (astrology)\"), and into Karka, the zodiacal sign which corresponds with [Cancer](/wiki/Cancer_%28astrology%29 \"Cancer (astrology)\"), respectively.", "The [Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station](/wiki/Amundsen%E2%80%93Scott_South_Pole_Station \"Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station\") celebrates every year on June 21 a midwinter party, to celebrate that the Sun is at its lowest point and coming back.", "The [Fremont Solstice Parade](/wiki/Fremont_Solstice_Parade \"Fremont Solstice Parade\") takes place every summer solstice in [Fremont, Seattle, Washington](/wiki/Fremont%2C_Seattle%2C_Washington \"Fremont, Seattle, Washington\") in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\").", "The reconstructed [Cahokia Woodhenge](/wiki/Cahokia_Woodhenge \"Cahokia Woodhenge\"), a large [timber circle](/wiki/Timber_circle \"Timber circle\") located at the [Mississippian culture](/wiki/Mississippian_culture \"Mississippian culture\") [Cahokia](/wiki/Cahokia \"Cahokia\") [archaeological site](/wiki/Archaeological_site \"Archaeological site\") near [Collinsville, Illinois](/wiki/Collinsville%2C_Illinois \"Collinsville, Illinois\"),{{Cite web\\| title\\= Visitors Guide to the Woodhenge\\| url\\= http://greatriverroad.com/somadco/collins/woodhenge.htm\\| access\\-date\\= December 19, 2017\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20171222051732/http://greatriverroad.com/somadco/collins/woodhenge.htm\\| archive\\-date\\= December 22, 2017\\| url\\-status\\= dead}} is the site of annual equinox and solstice sunrise observances. Out of respect for [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\") beliefs these events do not feature ceremonies or rituals of any kind.{{cite web\\| title\\= Welcome the Fall Equinox at Cahokia Mounds\\| author\\= Iseminger, William \\| publisher\\= Illinois Department of Natural Resources \\| url\\= https://www.dnr.illinois.gov/news/Pages/Welcome\\-the\\-Fall\\-Equinox\\-at\\-Cahokia\\-Mounds.aspx \\| access\\-date\\= December 20, 2017 }}{{Cite web\\| title\\= Winter Solstice Sunrise Observance at Cahokia Mounds\\| publisher \\= Collinsville Chamber of Commerce\\| url \\= http://www.discovercollinsville.com/events/details/winter\\-solstice\\-sunrise\\-observance\\-at\\-cahokia\\-mounds\\-3895 \\| access\\-date\\= December 20, 2017 }}{{Cite news \\| title\\= Cahokia Mounds Mark Spring Equinox : The keepers of Cahokia Mounds will host a spring gathering to celebrate the vernal equinox \\| url\\= https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/travel/destinations/spring\\-equinox\\-cahokia\\-mounds/ \\| newspaper\\= Indian Country Today \\| publisher\\= \\[\\[Indian Country Media Network]] \\| access\\-date\\= December 20, 2017 \\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20171222052220/https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/travel/destinations/spring\\-equinox\\-cahokia\\-mounds/ \\| archive\\-date\\= December 22, 2017 \\| url\\-status\\= dead }}", "### Solstice determination", "Unlike the equinox, the solstice time is not easy to determine. The changes in [solar declination](/wiki/Position_of_the_Sun \"Position of the Sun\") become smaller as the Sun gets closer to its maximum/minimum declination. The days before and after the solstice, the declination speed is less than 30 [arcseconds](/wiki/Arcseconds \"Arcseconds\") per day which is less than {{frac\\|60}} of the [angular size](/wiki/Angular_size \"Angular size\") of the Sun, or the equivalent to just 2 seconds of [right ascension](/wiki/Right_ascension \"Right ascension\").", "This difference is hardly detectable with indirect viewing based devices like [sextant](/wiki/Sextant \"Sextant\") equipped with a [vernier](/wiki/Vernier_scale \"Vernier scale\"), and impossible with more traditional tools like a [gnomon](/wiki/Gnomon \"Gnomon\"){{cite web\n\\|title\\=Solstice Determination based on Observations\n\\|last\\=Mollerup\n\\|first\\=Asger\n\\|date\\=January 12, 2008\n\\|url\\=http://sundial.thai\\-isan\\-lao.com/solstice\\-determination.html\n\\|access\\-date\\=September 27, 2010\n\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211044959/http://sundial.thai\\-isan\\-lao.com/solstice\\-determination.html\n\\|archive\\-date\\=February 11, 2009}} or an [astrolabe](/wiki/Astrolabe \"Astrolabe\"). It is also hard to detect the changes in sunrise/sunset azimuth due to the [atmospheric refraction](/wiki/Atmospheric_refraction \"Atmospheric refraction\"){{cite journal\n\\|last \\= Exton\n\\|first \\= Harold\n\\|title \\= A Fresh Analysis of Some Recent Data on Atmospheric Refraction Near the Horizon with Implications in Archaeoastronomy\n\\|journal \\= Journal of History of Astronomy, Archaeoastronomy Supplement\n\\|volume \\= 23\n\\|page \\= S57\n\\|date \\= 1992\n\\|issue \\= 17\n\\|bibcode \\= 1992JHAS...23\\...57E\n\\|doi \\= 10\\.1177/002182869202301707\\|s2cid \\= 118484271\n}} changes. Those accuracy issues render it impossible to determine the solstice day based on observations made within the 3 (or even 5\\) days surrounding the solstice without the use of more complex tools.", "Accounts do not survive but Greek astronomers must have used an approximation method based on interpolation, which is still used by some amateurs. This method consists of recording the declination angle at noon during some days before and after the solstice, trying to find two separate days with the same declination. When those two days are found, the halfway time between both noons is estimated solstice time. An interval of 45 days has been postulated as the best one to achieve up to a quarter\\-day precision, in the solstice determination.{{cite journal\n\\|last \\= Hugh\n\\|first \\= Thurston\n\\|title \\= Early Greek Solstices and Equinoxes\n\\|journal \\= Journal for the History of Astronomy\n\\|volume \\= 32, Part 2\n\\|issue \\= 107\n\\|pages \\= 154–156\n\\|date \\= 2001\n\\|doi \\= 10\\.1177/002182860103200208\n\\|bibcode \\= 2001JHA....32\\..154T\n\\|s2cid \\= 118464897\n\\|issn \\= 0021\\-8286\\|doi\\-access \\= \n}}\nIn 2012, the journal DIO [found](http://www.dioi.org/cot.htm#ngmw) that accuracy of one or two hours with balanced errors can be attained by observing the Sun's equal altitudes about S \\= twenty degrees (or d \\= about 20 days) before and after the summer solstice because the average of the two times will be early by q arc minutes where q is (πe cosA)/3 times the square of S in degrees (e \\= earth orbit eccentricity, A \\= earth's perihelion or Sun's apogee), and the noise in the result will be about 41 hours divided by d if the eye's sharpness is taken as one arc minute.", "Astronomical almanacs define the solstices as the moments when the Sun passes through the [solstitial colure](/wiki/Colure \"Colure\"), i.e. the times when the apparent geocentric [celestial longitude](/wiki/Celestial_longitude \"Celestial longitude\") of the Sun is equal to 90° (June solstice) or 270° (December solstice).{{cite book\n\\|last\\=Meeus\n\\|first\\=Jean\n\\|author\\-link1\\=Jean Meeus\n\\|date\\=1998\n\\|title\\=Astronomical Algorithms\n\\|edition\\=Second English\n\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/astronomicalalgo00meeu\n\\|url\\-access\\=limited\n\\|location\\=Richmond\n\\|publisher\\=Willmann\\-Bell, Inc.\n\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/astronomicalalgo00meeu/page/n184 177]–182\n\\|isbn\\=0\\-943396\\-61\\-1}} The dates of the solstice varies each year and may occur a day earlier or later depending on the [time zone](/wiki/Time_zone \"Time zone\"). Because the earth's orbit takes slightly longer than a calendar year of 365 days, the solstices occur slightly later each calendar year, until a leap day re\\-aligns the calendar with the orbit. Thus the solstices always occur between June 20 and 22 and between December 20 and 23 {{cite web\\|title\\=December solstice\\|url\\=https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/december\\-solstice.html\\|access\\-date\\=March 21, 2018}}{{cite web\\|title\\=June solstice\\|url\\=https://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/june\\-solstice.html\\|access\\-date\\=March 21, 2018}} in a four\\-year\\-long cycle with the 21st and 22nd being the most common dates, as can be seen in the schedule at the start of the article.", "" ]
### Solstice celebrations {{See also\|Fête St\-Jean\-Baptiste\|Festival of San Juan\|Saint Jonas Day\|St John's Day (Estonia)\|Ivan Kupala Day\|Golowan\|Wheel of the Year}} {{unreferenced section\|date\=June 2012}} [2005 Summer solstice sunrise over [Stonehenge](/wiki/Stonehenge "Stonehenge")\|thumb](/wiki/File:Summer_Solstice_Sunrise_over_Stonehenge_2005.jpg "Summer Solstice Sunrise over Stonehenge 2005.jpg") The term *solstice* can also be used in a wider sense, as the date (day) that such a passage happens. The solstices, together with the equinoxes, are connected with the seasons. In some languages they are considered to start or separate the seasons; in others they are considered to be centre points (in [England](/wiki/England "England"), in the Northern Hemisphere, for example, the period around the northern solstice is known as midsummer). [Midsummer's Day](/wiki/Midsummer%27s_Day "Midsummer's Day"), defined as St. Johns Day by the [Christian Church](/wiki/Christian_Church "Christian Church"), is June 24, about three days after the solstice itself). Similarly December 25 is the start of the [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas "Christmas") celebration, and is the day the Sun begins to return to the Northern Hemisphere. The traditional British and Irish main rent and meeting days of the year, "the usual [quarter days](/wiki/Quarter_days "Quarter days")," were often those of the solstices and equinoxes. Many cultures celebrate various combinations of the winter and summer solstices, the equinoxes, and the midpoints between them, leading to various holidays arising around these events. During the southern or [winter solstice](/wiki/Winter_solstice "Winter solstice"), Christmas is the most widespread contemporary holiday, while [Yalda](/wiki/Yald%C4%81_Night "Yaldā Night"), [Saturnalia](/wiki/Saturnalia "Saturnalia"), [Karachun](/wiki/Karachun "Karachun"), [Hanukkah](/wiki/Hanukkah "Hanukkah"), [Kwanzaa](/wiki/Kwanzaa "Kwanzaa"), and [Yule](/wiki/Yule "Yule") are also celebrated around this time. In East Asian cultures, the [Dongzhi Festival](/wiki/Dongzhi_Festival "Dongzhi Festival") is celebrated on the winter solstice. For the northern or [summer solstice](/wiki/Summer_solstice "Summer solstice"), Christian cultures celebrate the feast of [St. John](/wiki/John_the_Baptist "John the Baptist") from June 23 to 24 (see [St. John's Eve](/wiki/St._John%27s_Eve "St. John's Eve"), [Ivan Kupala Day](/wiki/Ivan_Kupala_Day "Ivan Kupala Day")), while [Modern Pagans](/wiki/Modern_Paganism "Modern Paganism") observe Midsummer, known as [Litha](/wiki/Wheel_of_the_Year "Wheel of the Year") among [Wiccans](/wiki/Wicca "Wicca"). For the vernal (spring) equinox, several springtime festivals are celebrated, such as the [Persian](/wiki/Persia "Persia") [Nowruz](/wiki/Nowruz "Nowruz"), the observance in [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism "Judaism") of [Passover](/wiki/Passover "Passover"), the rites of [Easter](/wiki/Easter "Easter") in most Christian churches, as well as the Wiccan [Ostara](/wiki/Ostara_%28Wicca%29 "Ostara (Wicca)"). The autumnal equinox is associated with the Jewish holiday of [Sukkot](/wiki/Sukkot "Sukkot") and the Wiccan [Mabon](/wiki/Wheel_of_the_Year "Wheel of the Year"). In the southern tip of [South America](/wiki/South_America "South America"), the [Mapuche people](/wiki/Mapuche_people "Mapuche people") celebrate [We Tripantu](/wiki/We_Tripantu "We Tripantu") (the New Year) a few days after the northern solstice, on June 24\. Further north, the [Atacama people](/wiki/Atacama_people "Atacama people") formerly celebrated this date with a noise festival, to call the Sun back. Further east, the [Aymara people](/wiki/Aymara_people "Aymara people") celebrate their New Year on June 21\. A celebration occurs at sunrise, when the sun shines directly through the [Gate of the Sun](/wiki/Gate_of_the_Sun "Gate of the Sun") in [Tiwanaku](/wiki/Tiwanaku "Tiwanaku"). Other Aymara New Year feasts occur throughout [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia "Bolivia"), including at the site of [El Fuerte de Samaipata](/wiki/El_Fuerte_de_Samaipata "El Fuerte de Samaipata"). In the [Hindu calendar](/wiki/Hindu_calendar "Hindu calendar"), two sidereal solstices are named [Makara Sankranti](/wiki/Makar_Sankranti "Makar Sankranti") which marks the start of [Uttarayana](/wiki/Uttarayana "Uttarayana") and Karka [Sankranti](/wiki/Sankranti "Sankranti") which marks the start of [Dakshinayana](/wiki/Dakshinayana "Dakshinayana"). The former occurs around January 14 each year, while the latter occurs around July 14 each year. These mark the movement of the Sun along a sidereally fixed [zodiac](/wiki/Zodiac "Zodiac") ([precession](/wiki/Precession_%28astronomy%29 "Precession (astronomy)") is ignored) into Makara, the zodiacal sign which corresponds with [Capricorn](/wiki/Capricorn_%28astrology%29 "Capricorn (astrology)"), and into Karka, the zodiacal sign which corresponds with [Cancer](/wiki/Cancer_%28astrology%29 "Cancer (astrology)"), respectively. The [Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station](/wiki/Amundsen%E2%80%93Scott_South_Pole_Station "Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station") celebrates every year on June 21 a midwinter party, to celebrate that the Sun is at its lowest point and coming back. The [Fremont Solstice Parade](/wiki/Fremont_Solstice_Parade "Fremont Solstice Parade") takes place every summer solstice in [Fremont, Seattle, Washington](/wiki/Fremont%2C_Seattle%2C_Washington "Fremont, Seattle, Washington") in the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States"). The reconstructed [Cahokia Woodhenge](/wiki/Cahokia_Woodhenge "Cahokia Woodhenge"), a large [timber circle](/wiki/Timber_circle "Timber circle") located at the [Mississippian culture](/wiki/Mississippian_culture "Mississippian culture") [Cahokia](/wiki/Cahokia "Cahokia") [archaeological site](/wiki/Archaeological_site "Archaeological site") near [Collinsville, Illinois](/wiki/Collinsville%2C_Illinois "Collinsville, Illinois"),{{Cite web\| title\= Visitors Guide to the Woodhenge\| url\= http://greatriverroad.com/somadco/collins/woodhenge.htm\| access\-date\= December 19, 2017\| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20171222051732/http://greatriverroad.com/somadco/collins/woodhenge.htm\| archive\-date\= December 22, 2017\| url\-status\= dead}} is the site of annual equinox and solstice sunrise observances. Out of respect for [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States") beliefs these events do not feature ceremonies or rituals of any kind.{{cite web\| title\= Welcome the Fall Equinox at Cahokia Mounds\| author\= Iseminger, William \| publisher\= Illinois Department of Natural Resources \| url\= https://www.dnr.illinois.gov/news/Pages/Welcome\-the\-Fall\-Equinox\-at\-Cahokia\-Mounds.aspx \| access\-date\= December 20, 2017 }}{{Cite web\| title\= Winter Solstice Sunrise Observance at Cahokia Mounds\| publisher \= Collinsville Chamber of Commerce\| url \= http://www.discovercollinsville.com/events/details/winter\-solstice\-sunrise\-observance\-at\-cahokia\-mounds\-3895 \| access\-date\= December 20, 2017 }}{{Cite news \| title\= Cahokia Mounds Mark Spring Equinox : The keepers of Cahokia Mounds will host a spring gathering to celebrate the vernal equinox \| url\= https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/travel/destinations/spring\-equinox\-cahokia\-mounds/ \| newspaper\= Indian Country Today \| publisher\= \[\[Indian Country Media Network]] \| access\-date\= December 20, 2017 \| archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20171222052220/https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/travel/destinations/spring\-equinox\-cahokia\-mounds/ \| archive\-date\= December 22, 2017 \| url\-status\= dead }}
[ "### Solstice celebrations", "{{See also\\|Fête St\\-Jean\\-Baptiste\\|Festival of San Juan\\|Saint Jonas Day\\|St John's Day (Estonia)\\|Ivan Kupala Day\\|Golowan\\|Wheel of the Year}}\n{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=June 2012}}\n[2005 Summer solstice sunrise over [Stonehenge](/wiki/Stonehenge \"Stonehenge\")\\|thumb](/wiki/File:Summer_Solstice_Sunrise_over_Stonehenge_2005.jpg \"Summer Solstice Sunrise over Stonehenge 2005.jpg\")\nThe term *solstice* can also be used in a wider sense, as the date (day) that such a passage happens. The solstices, together with the equinoxes, are connected with the seasons. In some languages they are considered to start or separate the seasons; in others they are considered to be centre points (in [England](/wiki/England \"England\"), in the Northern Hemisphere, for example, the period around the northern solstice is known as midsummer). [Midsummer's Day](/wiki/Midsummer%27s_Day \"Midsummer's Day\"), defined as St. Johns Day by the [Christian Church](/wiki/Christian_Church \"Christian Church\"), is June 24, about three days after the solstice itself). Similarly December 25 is the start of the [Christmas](/wiki/Christmas \"Christmas\") celebration, and is the day the Sun begins to return to the Northern Hemisphere. The traditional British and Irish main rent and meeting days of the year, \"the usual [quarter days](/wiki/Quarter_days \"Quarter days\"),\" were often those of the solstices and equinoxes.", "Many cultures celebrate various combinations of the winter and summer solstices, the equinoxes, and the midpoints between them, leading to various holidays arising around these events. During the southern or [winter solstice](/wiki/Winter_solstice \"Winter solstice\"), Christmas is the most widespread contemporary holiday, while [Yalda](/wiki/Yald%C4%81_Night \"Yaldā Night\"), [Saturnalia](/wiki/Saturnalia \"Saturnalia\"), [Karachun](/wiki/Karachun \"Karachun\"), [Hanukkah](/wiki/Hanukkah \"Hanukkah\"), [Kwanzaa](/wiki/Kwanzaa \"Kwanzaa\"), and [Yule](/wiki/Yule \"Yule\") are also celebrated around this time. In East Asian cultures, the [Dongzhi Festival](/wiki/Dongzhi_Festival \"Dongzhi Festival\") is celebrated on the winter solstice. For the northern or [summer solstice](/wiki/Summer_solstice \"Summer solstice\"), Christian cultures celebrate the feast of [St. John](/wiki/John_the_Baptist \"John the Baptist\") from June 23 to 24 (see [St. John's Eve](/wiki/St._John%27s_Eve \"St. John's Eve\"), [Ivan Kupala Day](/wiki/Ivan_Kupala_Day \"Ivan Kupala Day\")), while [Modern Pagans](/wiki/Modern_Paganism \"Modern Paganism\") observe Midsummer, known as [Litha](/wiki/Wheel_of_the_Year \"Wheel of the Year\") among [Wiccans](/wiki/Wicca \"Wicca\"). For the vernal (spring) equinox, several springtime festivals are celebrated, such as the [Persian](/wiki/Persia \"Persia\") [Nowruz](/wiki/Nowruz \"Nowruz\"), the observance in [Judaism](/wiki/Judaism \"Judaism\") of [Passover](/wiki/Passover \"Passover\"), the rites of [Easter](/wiki/Easter \"Easter\") in most Christian churches, as well as the Wiccan [Ostara](/wiki/Ostara_%28Wicca%29 \"Ostara (Wicca)\"). The autumnal equinox is associated with the Jewish holiday of [Sukkot](/wiki/Sukkot \"Sukkot\") and the Wiccan [Mabon](/wiki/Wheel_of_the_Year \"Wheel of the Year\").", "In the southern tip of [South America](/wiki/South_America \"South America\"), the [Mapuche people](/wiki/Mapuche_people \"Mapuche people\") celebrate [We Tripantu](/wiki/We_Tripantu \"We Tripantu\") (the New Year) a few days after the northern solstice, on June 24\\. Further north, the [Atacama people](/wiki/Atacama_people \"Atacama people\") formerly celebrated this date with a noise festival, to call the Sun back. Further east, the [Aymara people](/wiki/Aymara_people \"Aymara people\") celebrate their New Year on June 21\\. A celebration occurs at sunrise, when the sun shines directly through the [Gate of the Sun](/wiki/Gate_of_the_Sun \"Gate of the Sun\") in [Tiwanaku](/wiki/Tiwanaku \"Tiwanaku\"). Other Aymara New Year feasts occur throughout [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia \"Bolivia\"), including at the site of [El Fuerte de Samaipata](/wiki/El_Fuerte_de_Samaipata \"El Fuerte de Samaipata\").", "In the [Hindu calendar](/wiki/Hindu_calendar \"Hindu calendar\"), two sidereal solstices are named [Makara Sankranti](/wiki/Makar_Sankranti \"Makar Sankranti\") which marks the start of [Uttarayana](/wiki/Uttarayana \"Uttarayana\") and Karka [Sankranti](/wiki/Sankranti \"Sankranti\") which marks the start of [Dakshinayana](/wiki/Dakshinayana \"Dakshinayana\"). The former occurs around January 14 each year, while the latter occurs around July 14 each year. These mark the movement of the Sun along a sidereally fixed [zodiac](/wiki/Zodiac \"Zodiac\") ([precession](/wiki/Precession_%28astronomy%29 \"Precession (astronomy)\") is ignored) into Makara, the zodiacal sign which corresponds with [Capricorn](/wiki/Capricorn_%28astrology%29 \"Capricorn (astrology)\"), and into Karka, the zodiacal sign which corresponds with [Cancer](/wiki/Cancer_%28astrology%29 \"Cancer (astrology)\"), respectively.", "The [Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station](/wiki/Amundsen%E2%80%93Scott_South_Pole_Station \"Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station\") celebrates every year on June 21 a midwinter party, to celebrate that the Sun is at its lowest point and coming back.", "The [Fremont Solstice Parade](/wiki/Fremont_Solstice_Parade \"Fremont Solstice Parade\") takes place every summer solstice in [Fremont, Seattle, Washington](/wiki/Fremont%2C_Seattle%2C_Washington \"Fremont, Seattle, Washington\") in the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\").", "The reconstructed [Cahokia Woodhenge](/wiki/Cahokia_Woodhenge \"Cahokia Woodhenge\"), a large [timber circle](/wiki/Timber_circle \"Timber circle\") located at the [Mississippian culture](/wiki/Mississippian_culture \"Mississippian culture\") [Cahokia](/wiki/Cahokia \"Cahokia\") [archaeological site](/wiki/Archaeological_site \"Archaeological site\") near [Collinsville, Illinois](/wiki/Collinsville%2C_Illinois \"Collinsville, Illinois\"),{{Cite web\\| title\\= Visitors Guide to the Woodhenge\\| url\\= http://greatriverroad.com/somadco/collins/woodhenge.htm\\| access\\-date\\= December 19, 2017\\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20171222051732/http://greatriverroad.com/somadco/collins/woodhenge.htm\\| archive\\-date\\= December 22, 2017\\| url\\-status\\= dead}} is the site of annual equinox and solstice sunrise observances. Out of respect for [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\") beliefs these events do not feature ceremonies or rituals of any kind.{{cite web\\| title\\= Welcome the Fall Equinox at Cahokia Mounds\\| author\\= Iseminger, William \\| publisher\\= Illinois Department of Natural Resources \\| url\\= https://www.dnr.illinois.gov/news/Pages/Welcome\\-the\\-Fall\\-Equinox\\-at\\-Cahokia\\-Mounds.aspx \\| access\\-date\\= December 20, 2017 }}{{Cite web\\| title\\= Winter Solstice Sunrise Observance at Cahokia Mounds\\| publisher \\= Collinsville Chamber of Commerce\\| url \\= http://www.discovercollinsville.com/events/details/winter\\-solstice\\-sunrise\\-observance\\-at\\-cahokia\\-mounds\\-3895 \\| access\\-date\\= December 20, 2017 }}{{Cite news \\| title\\= Cahokia Mounds Mark Spring Equinox : The keepers of Cahokia Mounds will host a spring gathering to celebrate the vernal equinox \\| url\\= https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/travel/destinations/spring\\-equinox\\-cahokia\\-mounds/ \\| newspaper\\= Indian Country Today \\| publisher\\= \\[\\[Indian Country Media Network]] \\| access\\-date\\= December 20, 2017 \\| archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20171222052220/https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/travel/destinations/spring\\-equinox\\-cahokia\\-mounds/ \\| archive\\-date\\= December 22, 2017 \\| url\\-status\\= dead }}", "" ]
Production ---------- ### Conception [thumb\|upright\=0\.8\|right\|*Better Call Saul* is a spin\-off prequel series centered on [Saul Goodman](/wiki/Saul_Goodman "Saul Goodman"), a character created for *[Breaking Bad](/wiki/Breaking_Bad "Breaking Bad")*.](/wiki/File:Bob_Odenkirk_as_Saul_Goodman_during_shooting_Breaking_Bad.jpg "Bob Odenkirk as Saul Goodman during shooting Breaking Bad.jpg") The character of [Saul Goodman](/wiki/Saul_Goodman "Saul Goodman") first appeared during *[Breaking Bad](/wiki/Breaking_Bad "Breaking Bad")*{{'}}s [second season](/wiki/Breaking_Bad_season_2 "Breaking Bad season 2"), in an episode that was also titled "[Better Call Saul](/wiki/Better_Call_Saul_%28Breaking_Bad%29 "Better Call Saul (Breaking Bad)")". The character was originally intended to appear in only four episodes, but soon became much more developed than the staff had planned. He would eventually stay on the series and become central to its narrative.{{Cite web \|last\=Saporito \|first\=Jeff \|title\=How has Bob Odenkirk interpreted and evolved his "Better Call Saul" character after "Breaking Bad"? \|url\=http://screenprism.com/insights/article/how\-has\-bob\-odenkirk\-interpreted\-and\-developed\-his\-better\-call\-saul\-charact \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419192640/http://screenprism.com/insights/article/how\-has\-bob\-odenkirk\-interpreted\-and\-developed\-his\-better\-call\-saul\-charact \|archive\-date\=April 19, 2017 \|access\-date\=April 19, 2017 \|website\=screenprism.com}}{{Cite web \|last\=Smith \|first\=Kyle \|date\=May 1, 2022 \|title\=Everybody Loves Bob \|url\=https://www.nationalreview.com/2022/05/everybody\-loves\-bob/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220501122237/https://www.nationalreview.com/2022/05/everybody\-loves\-bob/ \|archive\-date\=May 1, 2022 \|access\-date\=May 1, 2022 \|website\=\[\[National Review]]}} As *Breaking Bad* continued its run, the character would grow in popularity with the audience. [Bob Odenkirk](/wiki/Bob_Odenkirk "Bob Odenkirk"), who portrayed Saul Goodman, speculated this was because he is "the program's least hypocritical figure", and "is good at his job".{{Cite episode \|series\=Talking Bad \|network\=AMC \|number\=3 \|airdate\=August 25, 2013}} [Vince Gilligan](/wiki/Vince_Gilligan "Vince Gilligan"), who created and developed *Breaking Bad*, and [Peter Gould](/wiki/Peter_Gould "Peter Gould"), who wrote the episode with Goodman's first appearance, considered a Saul Goodman spinoff as early as 2009\.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Hiatt \|first\=Brian \|date\=March 16, 2015 \|title\=Bob Odenkirk on 'Saul' and 'Mr. Show'{{'}}s Non\-Reunion \|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv\-news/bob\-odenkirk\-on\-better\-call\-saul\-and\-the\-mr\-show\-non\-reunion\-96299/ \|url\-access\=limited \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024022920/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv\-news/bob\-odenkirk\-on\-better\-call\-saul\-and\-the\-mr\-show\-non\-reunion\-96299/ \|archive\-date\=October 24, 2019 \|access\-date\=October 24, 2019 \|magazine\=\[\[Rolling Stone]]}} Gould noted that over the course of *Breaking Bad*, there were several "what ifs” their team considered, such as if the show won a [Primetime Emmy Award](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award "Primetime Emmy Award"), or if people would buy "[Los Pollos Hermanos](/wiki/Los_Pollos_Hermanos "Los Pollos Hermanos")" T\-shirts. The staff did not expect these events to come to fruition, but after they did, they started considering a spin\-off featuring Saul as a thought experiment. With the growth of Saul's character, the writers saw ways to explore the character further.{{Cite web \|last\=Potts \|first\=Kimberly \|date\=November 26, 2013 \|title\='Breaking Bad' Spinoff Scoop From the Man Who Created Saul Goodman \|url\=https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/blogs/tv\-news/breaking\-bad\-\-spinoff\-scoop\-from\-the\-man\-who\-created\-saul\-goodman\-014449665\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814232823/https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/blogs/tv\-news/breaking\-bad\-\-spinoff\-scoop\-from\-the\-man\-who\-created\-saul\-goodman\-014449665\.html \|archive\-date\=August 14, 2018 \|access\-date\=August 14, 2018 \|website\=\[\[Yahoo! News]]}} While filming the *Breaking Bad* episode "[Full Measure](/wiki/Full_Measure_%28Breaking_Bad%29 "Full Measure (Breaking Bad)")", Gilligan asked Odenkirk his thoughts on a spinoff. In July 2012, Gilligan publicly hinted at the idea, stating that he liked "the idea of a lawyer show in which the main lawyer will do anything it takes to stay out of court", including settling on the courthouse steps.{{Cite web \|date\=July 15, 2012 \|title\=Comic\-Con Q\&A: Vince Gilligan on 'Breaking Bad' \|url\=https://www.deadline.com/2012/07/comic\-con\-qa\-vince\-gilligan\-on\-breaking\-bad/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002050559/http://www.deadline.com/2012/07/comic\-con\-qa\-vince\-gilligan\-on\-breaking\-bad/ \|archive\-date\=October 2, 2013 \|access\-date\=July 19, 2012 \|website\=\[\[Deadline Hollywood]]}}{{Cite web \|last\=Andreeva \|first\=Nellie \|date\=September 11, 2013 \|title\='Breaking Bad' Saul Goodman Spinoff A Go At AMC, Will Serve As Prequel To Original \|url\=https://www.deadline.com/2013/09/breaking\-bad\-saul\-goodman\-spinoff\-amc\-series \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810235809/http://www.deadline.com/2013/09/breaking\-bad\-saul\-goodman\-spinoff\-amc\-series/ \|archive\-date\=August 10, 2014 \|access\-date\=September 13, 2013 \|website\=\[\[Deadline Hollywood]]}} ### Development {{multiple image\|perrow\=2\|align\=left\|total\_width\=300 \|image1\=Vince Gilligan by Gage Skidmore 3\.jpg \|image2\=Peter Gould by Gage Skidmore.jpg \|footer\=''Better Call Saul'' was developed and co\-showrun by \[\[Vince Gilligan]] (left) and \[\[Peter Gould]] (right). Gould took over as sole showrunner after Gilligan left the writing staff during the third season. }} In April 2013, *Better Call Saul* was confirmed to be in development by Gilligan and Gould.{{Cite web \|last\=Andreeva \|first\=Nellie \|date\=April 9, 2013 \|title\=AMC Eyes 'Breaking Bad' Spinoff Toplined By Bob Odenkirk \|url\=https://www.deadline.com/2013/04/breaking\-bad\-spinoff\-series\-bob\-odenkirk\-saul\-goodman\-amc/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140619103751/http://www.deadline.com/2013/04/breaking\-bad\-spinoff\-series\-bob\-odenkirk\-saul\-goodman\-amc/ \|archive\-date\=June 19, 2014 \|access\-date\=April 9, 2013 \|website\=\[\[Deadline Hollywood]]}} In July 2013, before the [second half of *Breaking Bad*{{'}}s final season](/wiki/Breaking_Bad_season_5 "Breaking Bad season 5") aired, Gilligan said he and Gould were still working out ideas for the spin\-off, but a deal had not yet been made.{{Cite web \|last\=Molloy \|first\=Tim \|date\=July 2, 2013 \|title\=''Breaking Bad'' Creator Vince Gilligan: Saul Goodman Spinoff Moving 'Full Speed Ahead' \|url\=https://www.thewrap.com/tv/article/breaking\-bad\-creator\-vince\-gilligan\-saul\-goodman\-spinoff\-moving\-full\-speed\-ahead\-101091 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151209035421/http://www.thewrap.com/tv/article/breaking\-bad\-creator\-vince\-gilligan\-saul\-goodman\-spinoff\-moving\-full\-speed\-ahead\-101091/ \|archive\-date\=December 9, 2015 \|access\-date\=September 13, 2013 \|website\=\[\[TheWrap]]}} [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix "Netflix") was one of many interested distributors, but ultimately a deal was made between AMC and the *Breaking Bad* production company [Sony Pictures Television](/wiki/Sony_Pictures_Television "Sony Pictures Television").{{Cite web \|last1\=Guthrie \|first1\=Melissa \|last2\=Rose \|first2\=Lacey \|date\=September 18, 2013 \|title\=How AMC Almost Lost ''Breaking Bad'' Spinoff ''Better Call Saul'' to Netflix \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/breaking\-bad\-spinoff\-how\-amc\-630464 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150315112543/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/breaking\-bad\-spinoff\-how\-amc\-630464 \|archive\-date\=March 15, 2015 \|access\-date\=January 12, 2014 \|website\=\[\[The Hollywood Reporter]] \|publisher\=\[\[Prometheus Global Media]]}} As Sony and AMC began to commit to a spinoff, Gilligan and Gould worked on what it would be about. They initially considered making it a half\-hour show where Saul would see various clients – celebrities in guest roles – in his strip mall office, similarly to *[Dr. Katz, Professional Therapist](/wiki/Dr._Katz%2C_Professional_Therapist "Dr. Katz, Professional Therapist")*, but they had no idea how to write for this type of format. They eventually fell back to planning for hour\-long episodes. Gilligan described *Breaking Bad* as being "25\-percent humor, 75\-percent drama", and speculated that they would reverse that for *Better Call Saul*.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Sepinwall \|first\=Alan \|author\-link\=Alan Sepinwall \|date\=August 3, 2018 \|title\=A Candid Conversation With Vince Gilligan on 'Better Call Saul' \|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv\-features/vince\-gilligan\-better\-call\-saul\-interview\-704094/ \|url\-access\=limited \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401233253/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv\-features/vince\-gilligan\-better\-call\-saul\-interview\-704094/ \|archive\-date\=April 1, 2020 \|access\-date\=February 29, 2020 \|magazine\=\[\[Rolling Stone]]}} While the intent was to add more humor, the show remained heavy with dramatic elements, with Odenkirk calling the [first season](/wiki/Breaking_Bad_season_1 "Breaking Bad season 1") "85 percent drama, 15 percent comedy."{{Cite web \|last\=Sandberg \|first\=Bryn Elise \|date\=October 27, 2014 \|title\=Bob Odenkirk on 'Better Call Saul': "It's Total Drama" \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\-feed/bob\-odenkirk\-better\-call\-saul\-744069 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180118212350/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\-feed/bob\-odenkirk\-better\-call\-saul\-744069 \|archive\-date\=January 18, 2018 \|access\-date\=November 21, 2014 \|website\=\[\[The Hollywood Reporter]]}} Gilligan and Gould initially believed that Saul Goodman was insufficient to carry the show by himself, with Gilligan thinking the character was "great flavoring" for a show but not the substance. Eventually they came to realize that Saul, in the *Breaking Bad* timeframe, was a man who had come to accept himself, and recognized the potential of telling the story of how Saul got to be that person. While several of the characters are lawyers in the show, Gilligan and Gould did not want to write a legal show, but instead a crime show, but one that would necessitate some legal elements. To help in these areas, the writers spoke to real lawyers and spent time observing cases at [Los Angeles Superior Court](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Superior_Court "Los Angeles Superior Court"), observing that the bulk of the activity in these cases was downtime while waiting for others to complete actions.{{Cite web \|last\=Todd vanDerWerff \|first\=Emily \|date\=February 3, 2015 \|title\=Better Call Saul's Vince Gilligan and Peter Gould on constructing the Breaking Bad spinoff \|url\=https://www.vox.com/2015/2/3/7968975/better\-call\-saul\-vince\-gilligan \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407151844/https://www.vox.com/2015/2/3/7968975/better\-call\-saul\-vince\-gilligan \|archive\-date\=April 7, 2020 \|access\-date\=March 9, 2020 \|website\=\[\[Vox (website)\|Vox]]}} ### Writing Gilligan and Gould began as co\-[showrunners](/wiki/Showrunner "Showrunner") for the series.{{Cite web \|last\=Kondolojy \|first\=Amanda \|date\=June 19, 2014 \|title\='Better Call Saul' Renewed for Second Season by AMC; First Season Pushed Back to 2015 \|url\=http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2014/06/19/amc\-releases\-first\-photo\-from\-better\-call\-saul/275154/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140622005705/http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2014/06/19/amc\-releases\-first\-photo\-from\-better\-call\-saul/275154/ \|archive\-date\=June 22, 2014 \|access\-date\=June 19, 2014 \|website\=\[\[TV by the Numbers]]}} Former *Breaking Bad* writers [Thomas Schnauz](/wiki/Thomas_Schnauz "Thomas Schnauz") and [Gennifer Hutchison](/wiki/Gennifer_Hutchison "Gennifer Hutchison") joined the writing staff, with Schnauz serving as co\-executive producer and Hutchison as supervising producer.{{Cite web \|last\=Littleton \|first\=Cynthia \|date\=December 20, 2013 \|title\='Breaking Bad' Writers Join 'Better Call Saul' Staff \|url\=https://variety.com/2013/tv/news/breaking\-bad\-writers\-join\-better\-call\-saul\-staff\-1200981189/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403080458/https://variety.com/2013/tv/news/breaking\-bad\-writers\-join\-better\-call\-saul\-staff\-1200981189/ \|archive\-date\=April 3, 2019 \|access\-date\=January 12, 2014 \|website\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}} Also joining the initial writing staff were [Bradley Paul](/wiki/Bradley_Paul "Bradley Paul") and former *Breaking Bad* writer's assistant [Gordon Smith](/wiki/Gordon_Smith_%28screenwriter%29 "Gordon Smith (screenwriter)"). Having learned several lessons from *Breaking Bad* related to foreshadowing without writing the foresight, Gilligan and Gould gave themselves more flexibility in how *Better Call Saul*{{'}}s plot would develop over its run. From the beginning they had no firm idea where it would end up outside the connection to *Breaking Bad*.{{Cite web \|last\=Sepinwall \|first\=Alan \|author\-link\=Alan Sepinwall \|date\=January 17, 2018 \|title\=Vince Gilligan On The Toughest Jams The 'Breaking Bad' Writers Put Walter White Into \|url\=https://uproxx.com/sepinwall/breaking\-bad\-10th\-anniversary\-vince\-gilligan/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229180044/https://uproxx.com/sepinwall/breaking\-bad\-10th\-anniversary\-vince\-gilligan/ \|archive\-date\=February 29, 2020 \|access\-date\=February 29, 2020 \|website\=\[\[Uproxx]]}} For example, Gilligan and Gould had already committed to the *Better Call Saul* title in the beginning, so that in following this route, they believed they had to quickly get from Jimmy McGill to Saul Goodman, or they would otherwise disappoint their audience. However, as they wrote the show, they realized "we don't want to get to Saul Goodman … and that's the tragedy". Another example includes [Rhea Seehorn](/wiki/Rhea_Seehorn "Rhea Seehorn")'s performance as [Kim Wexler](/wiki/Kim_Wexler "Kim Wexler") during the first season further slowing Jimmy's transition, and putting more focus on the Jimmy–Kim relationship for the remainder of the series. Gilligan compared this to the impact [Aaron Paul](/wiki/Aaron_Paul "Aaron Paul")'s acting had on *Breaking Bad*{{'}}s ultimate pacing.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Sepinwall \|first\=Alan \|author\-link\=Alan Sepinwall \|date\=March 25, 2020 \|title\=How Rhea Seehorn Became the MVP of 'Better Call Saul' \|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv\-features/better\-call\-saul\-rhea\-seehorn\-interview\-971200/ \|url\-access\=limited \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325131344/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv\-features/better\-call\-saul\-rhea\-seehorn\-interview\-971200/ \|archive\-date\=March 25, 2020 \|access\-date\=April 11, 2020 \|magazine\=\[\[Rolling Stone]]}} In writing for *Better Call Saul*, Gilligan and Gould recognized they were including overlaps with *Breaking Bad*, and had ideas of characters that they would include, such as [Gus Fring](/wiki/Gus_Fring "Gus Fring"), though on no set timetable within the show's development. Gilligan described the writing approach as if developing two separate shows, one that centered on Jimmy/Saul, Kim, Chuck, and Howard, and a second on the more familiar *Breaking Bad* characters like Mike and Gus. Where possible, they had written in minor *Breaking Bad* characters in smaller parts or as [Easter eggs](/wiki/Easter_egg_%28media%29 "Easter egg (media)") to fans, but Gilligan preferred to include such major *Breaking Bad* characters as [Walter](/wiki/Walter_White_%28Breaking_Bad%29 "Walter White (Breaking Bad)") or [Jesse](/wiki/Jesse_Pinkman "Jesse Pinkman") only if this seemed unconstrained and satisfactory to both the production team and the audiences. Because of the closeness to the *Breaking Bad* storyline, a writer would be tasked at the start of each season to rewatch [all 62 episodes](/wiki/List_of_Breaking_Bad_episodes "List of Breaking Bad episodes") of the show and verify that the scripts for the *Better Call Saul* season introduced no conflicts.{{Cite web \|last\=Keveney \|first\=Bill \|date\=March 2, 2020 \|title\=Exclusive: Dean Norris on revisiting his 'Breaking Bad' character on 'Better Call Saul' \|url\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/tv/2020/03/02/dean\-norris\-breaking\-bad\-dea\-agent\-better\-call\-saul/4895744002/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303040859/https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/tv/2020/03/02/dean\-norris\-breaking\-bad\-dea\-agent\-better\-call\-saul/4895744002/ \|archive\-date\=March 3, 2020 \|access\-date\=March 3, 2020 \|website\=\[\[USA Today]]}} As the show continued, the show's "brain trust" consisting of script coordinators Ariel Levine and Kathleen Williams\-Foshee reviewed each script to help maintain the continuity with *Breaking Bad*, including tracking minor character traits and assuring small details from the previous show were kept correct if brought up again.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/18/arts/television/better\-call\-saul\-ariel\-levine\-kathleen\-williams\-foshee.html \|title\=Meet the 'Better Call Saul' Staffers Who Kept Its Story Straight \|first\=Reggie \|last\=Uwgu \|date\=August 18, 2022 \|accessdate\=August 18, 2022 \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]]}} Gilligan left the *Better Call Saul* writing staff early in the [third season](/wiki/Better_Call_Saul_season_3 "Better Call Saul season 3") to focus on other projects, resulting in Gould becoming sole showrunner. This transition had been planned since the show's debut. Upon his departure, Gilligan expressed his hopes to return to the writers room during the show's [final season](/wiki/Better_Call_Saul_season_6 "Better Call Saul season 6").{{Cite web \|last\=Birnbaum \|first\=Debra \|date\=April 5, 2017 \|title\='Better Call Saul's' 'Breaking' Point: How It's Gearing Up for Gus Fring \|url\=https://variety.com/2017/tv/features/better\-call\-saul\-breaking\-bad\-gus\-fring\-giancarlo\-esposito\-1202022793/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200722135831/https://variety.com/2017/tv/features/better\-call\-saul\-breaking\-bad\-gus\-fring\-giancarlo\-esposito\-1202022793/ \|archive\-date\=July 22, 2020 \|access\-date\=February 16, 2022 \|website\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}} He remained involved in the fourth and fifth seasons, but had little to do with developing the show's contents during this period. Instead, Gilligan reduced his role to being a "director for hire", having directed an episode during each season when he was not on the writing staff.{{cite web \|last\=Harding \|first\=Amanda \|date\=March 30, 2020 \|title\=Vince Gilligan Gets All the Credit for 'Better Call Saul' But Said He Has 'Very Little' to Do With the Show — It's All Peter Gould \|url\=https://www.cheatsheet.com/entertainment/vince\-gilligan\-gets\-all\-the\-credit\-for\-better\-call\-saul\-but\-said\-he\-has\-very\-little\-to\-do\-with\-the\-show\-its\-all\-peter\-gould.html/ \|work\=Showbiz Cheatsheet \|access\-date\=February 15, 2022 \|archive\-date\=February 15, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215192606/https://www.cheatsheet.com/entertainment/vince\-gilligan\-gets\-all\-the\-credit\-for\-better\-call\-saul\-but\-said\-he\-has\-very\-little\-to\-do\-with\-the\-show\-its\-all\-peter\-gould.html/ \|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web \|last\=Grant \|first\=Drew \|date\=October 4, 2018 \|title\='Better Call Saul' 4x9 Recap: So Long, Farewell, Auf Wiedersehen, Adieu \|url\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/drewgrant/2018/10/04/better\-call\-saul\-4x9\-recap\-so\-long\-farewell\-auf\-wiedersehen\-adieu/\#632a8f3914f9 \|work\=\[\[Forbes]] \|access\-date\=February 19, 2022 \|archive\-date\=February 19, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219001911/https://www.forbes.com/sites/drewgrant/2018/10/04/better\-call\-saul\-4x9\-recap\-so\-long\-farewell\-auf\-wiedersehen\-adieu/\#632a8f3914f9 \|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web \|last\=Schneider \|first\=Michael \|date\=April 6, 2020 \|title\='Better Call Saul' Co\-Creator Vince Gilligan on Directing the Most Challenging Episode of His Career \|url\=https://variety.com/2020/tv/news/better\-call\-saul\-vince\-gilligan\-recap\-episode\-8\-1234572360/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407032114/https://variety.com/2020/tv/news/better\-call\-saul\-vince\-gilligan\-recap\-episode\-8\-1234572360/ \|archive\-date\=April 7, 2020 \|access\-date\=April 6, 2020 \|website\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}} Gilligan went on to credit Gould for maintaining the series' high quality. Gould would bring Gilligan back to the writers room for the sixth and final season, calling it "wonderful to have him there, so we can finish this show that we started together."{{Cite web \|last\=Schneider \|first\=Michael \|date\=April 21, 2020 \|title\=''Better Call Saul'' Co\-Creator Peter Gould on That Explosive Season Finale and How Kim May Be Breaking Bad \|work\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]] \|url\=https://variety.com/2020/tv/news/better\-call\-saul\-season\-5\-finale\-recap\-peter\-gould\-1234585484/ \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=April 22, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422080044/https://variety.com/2020/tv/news/better\-call\-saul\-season\-5\-finale\-recap\-peter\-gould\-1234585484/ \|archive\-date\=April 22, 2020}} ### Casting #### Starring cast [thumb\|right\|*Better Call Saul* cast members [Bob Odenkirk](/wiki/Bob_Odenkirk "Bob Odenkirk"), [Rhea Seehorn](/wiki/Rhea_Seehorn "Rhea Seehorn"), [Patrick Fabian](/wiki/Patrick_Fabian "Patrick Fabian"), [Michael Mando](/wiki/Michael_Mando "Michael Mando") and [Giancarlo Esposito](/wiki/Giancarlo_Esposito "Giancarlo Esposito").](/wiki/File:Bob_Odenkirk%2C_Rhea_Seehorn%2C_Patrick_Fabian%2C_Michael_Mando_%26_Giancarlo_Epsosito_%2843602600451%29.jpg "Bob Odenkirk, Rhea Seehorn, Patrick Fabian, Michael Mando & Giancarlo Epsosito (43602600451).jpg") [Bob Odenkirk](/wiki/Bob_Odenkirk "Bob Odenkirk") confirmed he would reprise Saul Goodman in the starring role when the series was first announced, but his character would be introduced as lawyer [Jimmy McGill](/wiki/Jimmy_McGill "Jimmy McGill"). In January 2014, it was announced that [Jonathan Banks](/wiki/Jonathan_Banks "Jonathan Banks") would reprise his *Breaking Bad* role as [Mike Ehrmantraut](/wiki/Mike_Ehrmantraut "Mike Ehrmantraut") and be a series regular.{{Cite web \|last\=Kenneally \|first\=Tim \|date\=January 27, 2014 \|title\='Breaking Bad' Prequel 'Better Call Saul' Enlists Jonathan Banks \|url\=https://www.thewrap.com/breaking\-bad\-prequel\-better\-call\-saul\-enlists\-jonathan\-banks/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161016150457/https://www.thewrap.com/breaking\-bad\-prequel\-better\-call\-saul\-enlists\-jonathan\-banks/ \|archive\-date\=October 16, 2016 \|access\-date\=January 27, 2014 \|website\=\[\[TheWrap]]}} New cast members included [Michael McKean](/wiki/Michael_McKean "Michael McKean") as McGill's elder brother Chuck. McKean previously guest\-starred in an episode of Odenkirk's *[Mr. Show](/wiki/Mr._Show "Mr. Show")* and Gilligan's *[X\-Files](/wiki/The_X-Files "The X-Files")* episode "[Dreamland](/wiki/Dreamland_%28The_X-Files%29 "Dreamland (The X-Files)")".{{Cite web \|last\=Friedlander \|first\=Whitney \|date\=April 30, 2014 \|title\=Michael McKean Joins 'Breaking Bad' Prequel 'Better Call Saul' \|url\=https://variety.com/2014/tv/news/michael\-mckean\-better\-call\-saul\-1201168991/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613184322/https://variety.com/2014/tv/news/michael\-mckean\-better\-call\-saul\-1201168991/ \|archive\-date\=June 13, 2018 \|access\-date\=May 1, 2014 \|website\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}}{{Cite web \|last\=Silman \|first\=Anna \|date\=April 6, 2015 \|title\=Michael McKean: "Better Call Saul" is about "the American escape hatch instead of the American dream" \|url\=http://www.salon.com/2015/04/06/michael\_mckean\_better\_call\_saul\_is\_about\_the\_american\_escape\_hatch\_instead\_of\_the\_american\_dream/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229213747/https://www.salon.com/2015/04/06/michael\_mckean\_better\_call\_saul\_is\_about\_the\_american\_escape\_hatch\_instead\_of\_the\_american\_dream/ \|archive\-date\=February 29, 2020 \|access\-date\=April 3, 2016 \|website\=Salon}} [Rhea Seehorn](/wiki/Rhea_Seehorn "Rhea Seehorn") auditioned and got the role of [Kimberly "Kim" Wexler](/wiki/Kim_Wexler "Kim Wexler") in April 2014, her character being described as "prestigious attorney ... whose hard life is complicated by her romantic entanglements with somebody else at the firm". In May 2014, [Patrick Fabian](/wiki/Patrick_Fabian "Patrick Fabian") was cast on the show as [Howard Hamlin](/wiki/Howard_Hamlin "Howard Hamlin"), a "[Kennedy](/wiki/Kennedy_family "Kennedy family")\-esque lawyer who's winning at life". After impressing Gilligan and Gould with his audition tape and screen test, [Michael Mando](/wiki/Michael_Mando "Michael Mando") was cast as the "smart and calculating criminal" [Ignacio "Nacho" Varga](/wiki/Nacho_Varga "Nacho Varga").{{Cite web \|last\=Friedlander \|first\=Whitney \|date\=July 11, 2014 \|title\='Better Call Saul': Cast, Timeline Details and New Photos \|url\=https://variety.com/2014/tv/news/better\-call\-saul\-cast\-1201261529/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712051956/https://variety.com/2014/tv/news/better\-call\-saul\-cast\-1201261529/ \|archive\-date\=July 12, 2014 \|access\-date\=July 12, 2014 \|website\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}}{{Cite web \|last\=Aguilera \|first\=Leanne \|date\=May 8, 2014 \|title\=Breaking Bad Spinoff Casts Key Roles—See Who! \|url\=https://www.eonline.com/news/540180/breaking\-bad\-spinoff\-casts\-orphan\-black\-alum\-and\-2\-more\-see\-who \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916121025/http://www.eonline.com/news/540180/breaking\-bad\-spinoff\-casts\-orphan\-black\-alum\-and\-2\-more\-see\-who \|archive\-date\=September 16, 2015 \|access\-date\=July 8, 2020 \|website\=\[\[E! Online]]}}{{Cite web \|last\=Gomez \|first\=Adrian \|date\=February 22, 2015 \|title\='Better Call Saul's bad guy looks forward to season two \|work\=\[\[Albuquerque Journal]] \|url\=https://www.abqjournal.com/544900/better\-call\-saul\-star\-delves\-into\-role.html \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=March 9, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410180943/https://www.abqjournal.com/544900/better\-call\-saul\-star\-delves\-into\-role.html \|archive\-date\=April 10, 2019}} Mando's character had been previously mentioned but not seen in the *Breaking Bad* episode "[Better Call Saul](/wiki/Better_Call_Saul_%28Breaking_Bad%29 "Better Call Saul (Breaking Bad)")".{{Cite web \|last\=Real \|first\=Evan \|date\=June 20, 2018 \|title\='Better Call Saul' and 'Breaking Bad' Overlap to Get "Bigger and Bigger" With Season 4 \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\-feed/better\-call\-saul\-bosses\-breaking\-bad\-crossover\-season\-4\-1121993 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621021319/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\-feed/better\-call\-saul\-bosses\-breaking\-bad\-crossover\-season\-4\-1121993 \|archive\-date\=June 21, 2018 \|access\-date\=June 21, 2018 \|website\=\[\[The Hollywood Reporter]]}} Going into the third season, [Giancarlo Esposito](/wiki/Giancarlo_Esposito "Giancarlo Esposito") was added to the main cast as [Gus Fring](/wiki/Gus_Fring "Gus Fring"), a drug kingpin who previously served as one of *Breaking Bad*{{'}}s main antagonists. Esposito was previously a starring cast member in *Breaking Bad* for the same role.{{Cite web \|last\=Nemetz \|first\=Dave \|date\=January 14, 2017 \|title\=Better Call Saul Season 3: Yep, Giancarlo Esposito Will Be Breaking Bad \|url\=https://tvline.com/2017/01/14/giancarlo\-esposito\-cast\-better\-call\-saul\-season\-3\-gus\-fring/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622004945/https://tvline.com/2017/01/14/giancarlo\-esposito\-cast\-better\-call\-saul\-season\-3\-gus\-fring/ \|archive\-date\=June 22, 2018 \|access\-date\=June 21, 2018 \|website\=\[\[TVLine]]}} McKean would leave the series at season's end due to his character being written out, but would make appearances in the next season and the series finale.{{Cite web \|last\=Dwilson \|first\=Stephanie Dube \|date\=June 20, 2017 \|title\='Better Call Saul': What Happened to Chuck in the Finale? \[SPOILERS] \|url\=https://heavy.com/entertainment/2017/06/better\-call\-saul\-did\-chuck\-die\-or\-commit\-suicide\-what\-happened\-in\-the\-finale\-theories/ \|access\-date\=March 29, 2021 \|website\=\[\[Heavy (website)\|Heavy]] \|archive\-date\=February 25, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225092323/https://heavy.com/entertainment/2017/06/better\-call\-saul\-did\-chuck\-die\-or\-commit\-suicide\-what\-happened\-in\-the\-finale\-theories/ \|url\-status\=live}} [Tony Dalton](/wiki/Tony_Dalton "Tony Dalton") made his first appearance as [Lalo Salamanca](/wiki/Lalo_Salamanca "Lalo Salamanca") in the [fourth season](/wiki/Better_Call_Saul_season_4 "Better Call Saul season 4"), and would be promoted to the main cast for the fifth.{{Cite web \|last\=Ramos \|first\=Dino\-Ray \|date\=April 8, 2019 \|title\='Better Call Saul' Adds Tony Dalton As Series Regular For Season 5 \|url\=https://deadline.com/2019/04/better\-call\-saul\-tony\-dalton\-series\-regular\-season\-5\-1202591334/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190409061114/https://deadline.com/2019/04/better\-call\-saul\-tony\-dalton\-series\-regular\-season\-5\-1202591334/ \|archive\-date\=April 9, 2019 \|access\-date\=April 8, 2019 \|website\=\[\[Deadline Hollywood]]}} Similar to Nacho, Lalo had been a character mentioned only by name in the same *Breaking Bad* episode "Better Call Saul". #### Return appearances from *Breaking Bad* cast members Before the second season, Gilligan confirmed that more *Breaking Bad* characters would appear on the spin\-off, but remained vague on which ones were likely to be seen.{{Cite web \|last\=Bernardino, Shiena \|date\=May 20, 2015 \|title\='Better Call Saul' season 2 air date, spoilers, plot news: More 'Breaking Bad' appearances, major character to die next season? \|url\=http://www.christiantoday.com/article/better.call.saul.s2\.more.breaking.bad.appearances.major.character.to.die/54130\.htm \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20150612191524/http://www.christiantoday.com/article/better.call.saul.s2\.more.breaking.bad.appearances.major.character.to.die/54130\.htm \|archive\-date\=June 12, 2015 \|access\-date\=May 25, 2015}} By the next season, Gilligan said that the show had been on long enough that any reuse of *Breaking Bad* characters would require more than "just a cameo or an [Alfred Hitchcock](/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock "Alfred Hitchcock") walkthrough", and that their appearances would need to be essential to the story. *Breaking Bad* lead actors [Bryan Cranston](/wiki/Bryan_Cranston "Bryan Cranston") and [Aaron Paul](/wiki/Aaron_Paul "Aaron Paul") regularly said they would be open to reprising their respective roles as [Walter White](/wiki/Walter_White_%28Breaking_Bad%29 "Walter White (Breaking Bad)") and [Jesse Pinkman](/wiki/Jesse_Pinkman "Jesse Pinkman") on *Better Call Saul*. However, both maintained that they would appear only if Gilligan found a sufficiently good reason to bring them on the show.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Snierson \|first\=Dan \|date\=June 29, 2018 \|title\=Breaking Bad creator 'desperately' wants Walt and Jesse in Better Call Saul \|url\=https://ew.com/tv/2018/06/29/bryan\-cranston\-aaron\-paul\-walt\-jesse\-better\-call\-saul/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630032920/http://ew.com/tv/2018/06/29/bryan\-cranston\-aaron\-paul\-walt\-jesse\-better\-call\-saul/ \|archive\-date\=June 30, 2018 \|access\-date\=June 29, 2018 \|magazine\=\[\[Entertainment Weekly]]}}{{cite web \|last\=Atkinson \|first\=John \|date\=May 8, 2020 \|title\=Bryan Cranston \& Aaron Paul are Ready To Return For Better Call Saul \|url\=https://screenrant.com/better\-call\-saul\-bryan\-cranston\-aaron\-paul\-role/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819210146/https://screenrant.com/better\-call\-saul\-bryan\-cranston\-aaron\-paul\-role/ \|archive\-date\=August 19, 2020 \|access\-date\=June 14, 2021 \|work\=\[\[Screen Rant]] \|location\=Saint\-Laurent, Quebec, Canada}} Paul mentioned the possibility of a cameo during the first season but this fell through.{{Cite web \|last\=Pearson \|first\=Ryan \|date\=March 9, 2014 \|title\=Aaron Paul wants in, Dean Norris out for 'Better Call Saul,' the 'Breaking Bad' spinoff \|url\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/tv/aaron\-paul\-wants\-in\-dean\-norris\-out\-for\-better\-call\-saul\-the\-breaking\-bad\-spinoff/2014/03/06/e3c521c0\-a4b8\-11e3\-a5fa\-55f0c77bf39c\_story.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822021706/https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/tv/aaron\-paul\-wants\-in\-dean\-norris\-out\-for\-better\-call\-saul\-the\-breaking\-bad\-spinoff/2014/03/06/e3c521c0\-a4b8\-11e3\-a5fa\-55f0c77bf39c\_story.html \|archive\-date\=August 22, 2017 \|access\-date\=May 1, 2014 \|newspaper\=\[\[The Washington Post]]}}{{Cite web \|last\=Whitney, Erin \|date\=June 13, 2014 \|title\=Aaron Paul Offers Two Different 'Better Call Saul' Scenarios For Jesse Pinkman \|url\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/06/13/aaron\-paul\-better\-call\-saul\_n\_5492079\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140614041818/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/06/13/aaron\-paul\-better\-call\-saul\_n\_5492079\.html \|archive\-date\=June 14, 2014 \|access\-date\=June 13, 2014 \|website\=\[\[The Huffington Post]]}} Both Cranston and Paul would eventually appear in the final season.{{cite web \|url\=https://variety.com/2022/tv/news/bryan\-cranston\-aaron\-paul\-better\-call\-saul\-1235229217/ \|title\='Better Call Saul': Bryan Cranston and Aaron Paul Will Guest Star in Final Season \|first\=Ethan \|last\=Shanfeld \|date\=April 9, 2022 \|access\-date\=April 9, 2022 \|work\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}} [Dean Norris](/wiki/Dean_Norris "Dean Norris"), who was also a starring cast member on *Breaking Bad*, stated he could not be part of the earlier seasons, partly due to his involvement in the [CBS](/wiki/CBS "CBS") series *[Under the Dome](/wiki/Under_the_Dome_%28TV_series%29 "Under the Dome (TV series)")*.{{Cite web \|last\=Dekel, Jonathan \|date\=July 3, 2014 \|title\=Dean Norris says appearance on Better Call Saul unlikely: CBS, exec Les Moonves 'won't let me do it' \|url\=http://arts.nationalpost.com/2014/07/03/dean\-norris\-says\-appearance\-on\-better\-call\-saul\-unlikely\-cbs\-exec\-les\-moonves\-wont\-let\-me\-do\-it/ \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20140707075719/http://arts.nationalpost.com/2014/07/03/dean\-norris\-says\-appearance\-on\-better\-call\-saul\-unlikely\-cbs\-exec\-les\-moonves\-wont\-let\-me\-do\-it/ \|archive\-date\=July 7, 2014 \|access\-date\=July 3, 2014 \|website\=\[\[The National Post]]}} However, he reprised his role as [Hank Schrader](/wiki/Hank_Schrader "Hank Schrader") as a guest star in the fifth season.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Snierson \|first\=Dan \|date\=January 16, 2020 \|title\='Better Call Saul' season 5 to feature the late Robert Forster, Dean Norris \|url\=https://ew.com/tv/2020/01/16/better\-call\-saul\-season\-5\-robert\-forster\-dean\-norris/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117041936/https://ew.com/tv/2020/01/16/better\-call\-saul\-season\-5\-robert\-forster\-dean\-norris/ \|archive\-date\=January 17, 2020 \|access\-date\=January 17, 2020 \|magazine\=\[\[Entertainment Weekly]]}} Plans were initially made for [Betsy Brandt](/wiki/Betsy_Brandt "Betsy Brandt") to reprise her role as Hank's wife [Marie Schrader](/wiki/Marie_Schrader "Marie Schrader") in a cameo in the second season, but the writer's room objected, considering the idea to be distracting for audiences.{{Cite magazine \|title\='Breaking Bad' alum Betsy Brandt talks nixed Marie cameo on 'Better Call Saul' \|url\=https://ew.com/article/2016/04/22/breaking\-bad\-betsy\-brandt\-marie\-better\-call\-saul\-cameo/ \|last\=Snierson \|first\=Dan \|date\=April 22, 2016 \|magazine\=\[\[Entertainment Weekly]] \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302221415/https://ew.com/article/2016/04/22/breaking\-bad\-betsy\-brandt\-marie\-better\-call\-saul\-cameo/ \|archive\-date\=March 2, 2020 \|access\-date\=June 12, 2021}} Brandt would eventually reprise the role in the final season.{{cite web \|last\=Osborne \|first\=James \|date\=August 19, 2022 \|title\=Actually, Marie had the most important cameo in ''Better Call Saul''{{'}}s s finale\|url\=https://www.avclub.com/why\-marie\-had\-the\-most\-important\-cameo\-in\-better\-call\-s\-1849432070 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220821212016/https://www.avclub.com/why\-marie\-had\-the\-most\-important\-cameo\-in\-better\-call\-s\-1849432070 \|archive\-date\=August 21, 2022 \|access\-date\=August 21, 2022 \|website\=\[\[The A.V. Club]]}} Other *Breaking Bad* cast members spoke of the potential of being on *Better Call Saul*. Before the series began, [Anna Gunn](/wiki/Anna_Gunn "Anna Gunn") mentioned a "talk" with Gilligan over possible guest appearances as [Skyler White](/wiki/Skyler_White "Skyler White").{{Cite web \|last\=Dos Santos \|first\=Kristin \|date\=May 13, 2014 \|title\=Anna Gunn Coming to ''Breaking Bad'' Spinoff? Star Reveals There's Been Talk—Plus, Why We're Dying Over ''Gracepoint''! \|url\=http://www.eonline.com/news/541399/anna\-gunn\-coming\-to\-breaking\-bad\-spinoff\-star\-reveals\-there\-s\-been\-talk\-plus\-why\-we\-re\-dying\-over\-gracepoint \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151129005723/http://www.eonline.com/news/541399/anna\-gunn\-coming\-to\-breaking\-bad\-spinoff\-star\-reveals\-there\-s\-been\-talk\-plus\-why\-we\-re\-dying\-over\-gracepoint \|archive\-date\=November 29, 2015 \|access\-date\=June 4, 2014 \|website\=\[\[E! Online]]}} [Bill Burr](/wiki/Bill_Burr "Bill Burr") was set to return as [Patrick Kuby](/wiki/Patrick_Kuby "Patrick Kuby") in the [fifth season](/wiki/Better_Call_Saul_season_5 "Better Call Saul season 5"), but scheduling fell through due to him needing to attend to a personal matter.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Sepinwall \|first\=Alan \|author\-link\=Alan Sepinwall \|date\=August 1, 2022 \|title\='Better Call Saul' Writer on Finally Entering the World of 'Breaking Bad' \|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\-movies/tv\-movie\-features/better\-call\-saul\-breaking\-bad\-episode\-interview\-writer\-1389065/ \|url\-access\=limited \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802050426/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\-movies/tv\-movie\-features/better\-call\-saul\-breaking\-bad\-episode\-interview\-writer\-1389065/ \|archive\-date\=August 2, 2022 \|access\-date\=August 2, 2022 \|magazine\=\[\[Rolling Stone]]}}{{cite web \|last\=Mullen \|first\=Amanda \|url\=https://www.cheatsheet.com/entertainment/better\-call\-saul\-bill\-burr\-reprise\-role\-breaking\-bad\-prequel.html/ \|title\='Better Call Saul': Why Bill Burr Didn't Return for the 'Breaking Bad' Prequel \|work\=Showbiz Cheatsheet \|date\=September 27, 2021\|access\-date\=October 23, 2021\|archive\-date\=November 5, 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105165040/https://www.cheatsheet.com/entertainment/better\-call\-saul\-bill\-burr\-reprise\-role\-breaking\-bad\-prequel.html/\|url\-status\=live}} After the series ended, Gould mentioned his desire to bring back the remaining *Breaking Bad* characters for the finale, but he and the writing staff could not find a proper way to have them fit into the story.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Sepinwall \|first\=Alan \|author\-link\=Alan Sepinwall \|date\=August 15, 2022 \|title\=''Better Call Saul'' Creator Explains the Series Finale \|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\-movies/tv\-movie\-features/better\-call\-saul\-series\-finale\-explained\-creator\-interview\-1394766/ \|url\-status\=live \|magazine\=\[\[Rolling Stone]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816031239/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\-movies/tv\-movie\-features/better\-call\-saul\-series\-finale\-explained\-creator\-interview\-1394766 \|archive\-date\=August 16, 2022 \|access\-date\=August 16, 2022 \|url\-access\=limited}}{{Cite magazine \|last\=Snierson \|first\=Dan \|date\=August 16, 2022 \|title\=''Better Call Saul'' co\-creator on Jimmy's shocking move in the finale — and that Jimmy\-Kim reunion \|url\=https://ew.com/tv/better\-call\-saul\-showrunner\-peter\-gould\-on\-series\-finale/ \|url\-status\=live \|magazine\=\[\[Entertainment Weekly]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816132954/https://ew.com/tv/better\-call\-saul\-showrunner\-peter\-gould\-on\-series\-finale/ \|archive\-date\=August 16, 2022 \|access\-date\=August 16, 2022}} ### Filming {{Multiple image\|perrow\=1\|total\_width\=220 \| image1 \= Cottonwood Mall Albuquerque (cropped).jpg \| alt1 \= Cottonwood Mall, a shopping mall located at 10000 Coors Bypass NW in Albuquerque, New Mexico. \| image2 \= Old Bernalillo County Courthouse.jpg \| alt2 \= The Old Bernalillo County Courthouse in Albuquerque, New Mexico. \| footer \= The series is shot in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Shooting locations include \[\[Cottonwood Mall (Albuquerque, New Mexico)\|Cottonwood Mall]] ''(top)'' and the Old Bernalillo County Courthouse ''(bottom)''. }} [Principal photography](/wiki/Principal_photography "Principal photography") for *Better Call Saul*{{'}}s six seasons took place from June 2, 2014, to February 9, 2022\.{{Cite web \|last\=O'Neal, Sean \|date\=June 3, 2014 \|title\=It's time to begin overanalyzing the first ''Better Call Saul'' set photos \|url\=https://www.avclub.com/article/its\-time\-begin\-overanalyzing\-first\-better\-call\-sau\-205338 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150211101918/http://www.avclub.com/article/its\-time\-begin\-overanalyzing\-first\-better\-call\-sau\-205338 \|archive\-date\=February 11, 2015 \|access\-date\=June 4, 2014 \|website\=\[\[The A.V. Club]]}}{{Cite web \|last\=Walsh \|first\=Savannah \|date\=February 11, 2022 \|title\=Bob Odenkirk Says Goodbye to ''Better Call Saul'': "Honored to Have Been Part of It" \|url\=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2022/02/bob\-odenkirk\-says\-goodbye\-to\-better\-call\-saul\-honored\-to\-have\-been\-part\-of\-it \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211154444/https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2022/02/bob\-odenkirk\-says\-goodbye\-to\-better\-call\-saul\-honored\-to\-have\-been\-part\-of\-it \|archive\-date\=February 11, 2022 \|access\-date\=February 15, 2022 \|website\=\[\[Vanity Fair (magazine)\|Vanity Fair]]}}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\-features/how\-better\-call\-saul\-writer\-ep\-gordon\-smith\-brought\-a\-13\-year\-old\-breaking\-bad\-story\-to\-a\-close\-1235180005/ \|title\=How ''Better Call Saul'' Writer\-EP Gordon Smith Brought a 13\-Year\-Old ''Breaking Bad'' Story to a Close \|first\=Brian \|last\=Davids \|date\=July 13, 2022 \|access\-date\=July 15, 2022 \|work\=\[\[The Hollywood Reporter]] \|archive\-date\=July 16, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220716040826/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\-features/how\-better\-call\-saul\-writer\-ep\-gordon\-smith\-brought\-a\-13\-year\-old\-breaking\-bad\-story\-to\-a\-close\-1235180005/ \|url\-status\=live }} Like its predecessor, *Better Call Saul* is set in and around [Albuquerque, New Mexico](/wiki/Albuquerque%2C_New_Mexico "Albuquerque, New Mexico"), with filming primarily taking place at [Albuquerque Studios](/wiki/Albuquerque_Studios "Albuquerque Studios").{{Cite web \|last\=Christine \|date\=June 2, 2014 \|title\='Breaking Bad' prequel 'Better Call Saul' begins filming in Albuquerque, NM today! \|url\=http://www.onlocationvacations.com/2014/06/02/breaking\-bad\-prequel\-better\-call\-saul\-begins\-filming\-in\-albuquerque\-nm\-today/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701183932/http://www.onlocationvacations.com/2014/06/02/breaking\-bad\-prequel\-better\-call\-saul\-begins\-filming\-in\-albuquerque\-nm\-today/ \|archive\-date\=July 1, 2015 \|access\-date\=June 4, 2014 \|website\=On Location Vacations}}{{Cite web \|last\=Gomez \|first\=Adrian \|date\=April 8, 2019 \|title\='Better Call Saul' begins filming season 5 in ABQ \|url\=https://www.abqjournal.com/1300873/better\-call\-saul\-begins\-filming\-season\-5\-in\-abq.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20190414143824/https://www.abqjournal.com/1300873/better\-call\-saul\-begins\-filming\-season\-5\-in\-abq.html \|archive\-date\=April 14, 2019 \|access\-date\=November 16, 2019 \|website\=\[\[Albuquerque Journal]]}} Gilligan directed the pilot. Additional filming was done in March 2022, after principal photography for the series ended, for the opening teaser of the [season six](/wiki/Better_Call_Saul_season_6 "Better Call Saul season 6") episode "[Point and Shoot](/wiki/Point_and_Shoot_%28Better_Call_Saul%29 "Point and Shoot (Better Call Saul)")". With several crew members but no cast members on hand, the scene was filmed in [Leo Carrillo State Beach](/wiki/Leo_Carrillo_State_Beach "Leo Carrillo State Beach"), California. This was the only time the series was filmed outside of New Mexico.{{Cite podcast \|url\=http://movietouch.sony.com.edgesuite.net/podcasts/better\_call\_saul\_v1/608\_PODCAST\_FINAL.mp3 \|title\=608 ''Better Call Saul'' Insider \|publisher\=\[\[AMC (TV channel)\|AMC]] \|last2\=Dixon \|first2\=Kelley \|last3\=Gilligan \|first3\=Vince \|last4\=Dalton \|first4\=Tony \|last5\=Smith \|first5\=Gordon \|date\=July 12, 2022 \|access\-date\=July 15, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715042129/http://movietouch.sony.com.edgesuite.net/podcasts/better\_call\_saul\_v1/608\_PODCAST\_FINAL.mp3 \|archive\-date\=July 15, 2022 \|url\-status\=live \|first1\=Chris \|last1\=McCaleb \|author\-link1\=Chris McCaleb \|author\-link3\=Vince Gilligan \|author\-link4\=Tony Dalton \|author\-link5\=Gordon Smith (screenwriter) \|first6\=Dave \|last6\=Porter \|author\-link6\=Dave Porter (composer)}}{{rp\|p\=1:00:01–1:01:29}} Notable exterior locations include the Twisters restaurant used previously in *Breaking Bad* for Gus's Los Pollos Hermanos, a parking lot kiosk at the [Albuquerque Convention Center](/wiki/Albuquerque_Convention_Center "Albuquerque Convention Center") for where Mike worked in the first few seasons, the Old Bernalillo County Courthouse as the local courthouse, and two nearby office buildings in the North Valley, including [Northrop Grumman](/wiki/Northrop_Grumman "Northrop Grumman")'s, that collectively are used for the HHM office spaces.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Snierson \|first\=Dan \|date\=March 9, 2020 \|title\=Go behind the scenes of Better Call Saul's iconic Albuquerque locations \|url\=https://ew.com/tv/better\-call\-saul\-key\-locations\-albuquerque/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200311130311/https://ew.com/tv/better\-call\-saul\-key\-locations\-albuquerque/ \|archive\-date\=March 11, 2020 \|access\-date\=March 10, 2020 \|magazine\=\[\[Entertainment Weekly]]}} Jimmy's back office is located in an actual nail salon, which the producers accommodated by working with the owners. The Salamanca's restaurant is a real business in the South Valley that production modified slightly for the show, but which otherwise remained open. The scenes set in Omaha are filmed at [Cottonwood Mall](/wiki/Cottonwood_Mall_%28Albuquerque%2C_New_Mexico%29 "Cottonwood Mall (Albuquerque, New Mexico)") in Albuquerque; production worked with [Cinnabon](/wiki/Cinnabon "Cinnabon") to bring in the period\-specific equipment and service items for the segments, and the extras in the store during these scenes are Cinnabon employees. The New Mexico Film Office reported that the first four seasons of *Better Call Saul* brought over {{USD\|120 million}} into the state, and they have hired 1,600 crew for each season and a total of 11,300 extras.{{Cite web \|last\=Gomez \|first\=Adrian \|date\=February 22, 2020 \|title\=ABQ still stars in AMC's 'Better Call Saul' \|url\=https://www.abqjournal.com/1423575/abq\-still\-stars\-in\-amcs\-better\-call\-saul.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223213259/https://www.abqjournal.com/1423575/abq\-still\-stars\-in\-amcs\-better\-call\-saul.html \|archive\-date\=February 23, 2020 \|access\-date\=February 24, 2020 \|website\=\[\[Albuquerque Journal]]}} *Better Call Saul* employs *Breaking Bad*{{'}}s signature time jumps.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Snierson \|first\=Dan \|date\=December 31, 2013 \|title\='Breaking Bad' creator Vince Gilligan on the finale, 'Better Call Saul' and his acting debut on 'Community' \|url\=https://www.ew.com/article/2013/12/31/breaking\-bad\-vince\-gilligan\-better\-call\-saul\-community/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402102012/http://www.ew.com/article/2013/12/31/breaking\-bad\-vince\-gilligan\-better\-call\-saul\-community/ \|archive\-date\=April 2, 2015 \|access\-date\=April 4, 2014 \|magazine\=Entertainment Weekly \|quote\=We think, by and large, this show will be a prequel, but the wonderful thing about the fractured chronology we employed on ''Breaking Bad'' for many years is the audience will not be thrown by us jumping around in time. So it's possible that we may indeed do that, and we'll see the past and perhaps the future.}} Notably, the opening episode for the first five seasons started with a black and white flash\-forward to a period in the years after the finale of *Breaking Bad*. Here, Saul has been relocated to Omaha, Nebraska, as "Gene", a manager of a Cinnabon store, and remains paranoid about anyone discovering his past identity. This was foreshadowed in the penultimate episode of *Breaking Bad*, "[Granite State](/wiki/Granite_State_%28Breaking_Bad%29 "Granite State (Breaking Bad)")", in which Saul tells Walter: "If I'm lucky, a month from now, best\-case scenario, I'm managing a Cinnabon in Omaha."{{cite web \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/gallery/better\-call\-saul\-breaking\-bad\-773498/1\-omaha \|title\='Better Call Saul': See 'Breaking Bad' Easter Eggs You Missed \|website\=\[\[The Hollywood Reporter]] \|first\=Aaron \|last\=Couch \|date\=February 15, 2015 \|access\-date\=January 25, 2021 \|archive\-date\=November 8, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108101844/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/gallery/better\-call\-saul\-breaking\-bad\-773498/1\-omaha \|url\-status\=live}} The show's [director of photography](/wiki/Cinematographer "Cinematographer") was [Arthur Albert](/wiki/Arthur_Albert "Arthur Albert") for the first two seasons, and Marshall Adams starting with season 3\.{{Cite web \|last\=Galas \|first\=Marjorie \|date\=April 14, 2015 \|title\=Colorist Ted Brady Discusses His Work On "Better Call Saul" \|website\=Creative Content Wire \|url\=https://www.creativecontentwire.com/colorist\-ted\-brady\-discusses\-his\-work\-on\-better\-call\-saul/ \|access\-date\=May 7, 2022 \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=March 25, 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325050022/http://www.creativecontentwire.com/colorist\-ted\-brady\-discusses\-his\-work\-on\-better\-call\-saul/ \|url\-status\=dead }} Additionally, Paul Donachie served as a cinematographer on episodes "[Namaste](/wiki/Namaste_%28Better_Call_Saul%29 "Namaste (Better Call Saul)")" (2020\), "[Carrot and Stick](/wiki/Carrot_and_Stick "Carrot and Stick")" (2022\) and "[Hit and Run](/wiki/Hit_and_Run_%28Better_Call_Saul%29 "Hit and Run (Better Call Saul)")" (2022\).{{Cite web \|last\=Bryant \|first\=Adam \|date\=May 3, 2022 \|title\=Better Call Saul Q\&A – How Rhea Seehorn Found Characters' Vulnerabilities in Her TV Directorial Debut \|website\=AMC \|url\=https://www.amc.com/blogs/better\-call\-saul\-qa\-how\-rhea\-seehorn\-found\-characters\-vulnerabilities\-in\-her\-tv\-directorial\-debut\-\-1053746 \|access\-date\=May 8, 2022 \|language\=en\-US}} Seasons 1 and 2 were filmed mainly on [RED Dragon](/wiki/Red_Digital_Cinema "Red Digital Cinema") cameras.{{Cite web \|title\=Breaking The Law \|url\=https://hdv.hdvideopro.com/film\-and\-tv/tv/breaking\-the\-law/ \|date\=May 25, 2016 \|access\-date\=May 7, 2022 \|first\=Iain \|last\=Blair \|website\=HD Video Pro \|language\=en\-US \|archive\-date\=August 14, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814223213/https://hdv.hdvideopro.com/film\-and\-tv/tv/breaking\-the\-law/ \|url\-status\=dead }}{{Cite web \|title\=Better Call Saul (2015\) \|url\=https://shotonwhat.com/better\-call\-saul\-2\-2015 \|language\=en\-US \|website\=ShotOnWhat? \|date\=September 30, 2019 \|access\-date\=May 7, 2022}} Starting with season 3, [Panasonic VariCam Pure](/wiki/Varicam "Varicam") were incorporated due to their extra low\-light sensitivity.{{Cite web \|title\=Lighting The Night In Albuquerque \|url\=https://codex.online/casestudies/lighting\-the\-night\-in\-albuquerque \|access\-date\=May 7, 2022 \|website\=Codex \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|first\=Iain \|last\=Blair \|date\=May 30, 2019 \|title\=Showrunner and EP Peter Gould on AMC's Better Call Saul \|url\=https://postperspective.com/co\-showrunner\-peter\-gould\-on\-amcs\-better\-call\-saul/ \|access\-date\=May 7, 2022 \|website\=postPerspective \|language\=en\-US}} This allowed the crew to shoot extra wide exterior shots at night as well as during the day, and to shoot on sets in near total darkness, such as nighttime in Chuck's unelectrified house.{{cite web \|url\=https://ascmag.com/articles/better\-call\-saul\-darkness\-gains\-dimension \|title\=Better Call Saul: Darkness Gains Dimension \|author\=Rachael Bosley \|date\=June 26, 2017 \|website\=American Cinematographer \|access\-date\=May 30, 2022 \|quote\="Having the ability to shoot at ISO 5,000 opened a whole new world for us," says Gilligan.}} For scenes requiring to film from cramped spaces, a Panasonic [Lumix GH4](/wiki/Lumix "Lumix") camera was used.{{Cite video \|title\=Better Call Saul \- You Think You Know TV? \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=3C\_MOfkDuiQ\&t\=92s \|language\=en \|quote\=Director of Photography Arthur Albert would shoot with Panasonic.. \|website\=\[\[ScreenCrush]] \|via\=YouTube \|date\=May 20, 2015 \|access\-date\=May 7, 2022}} In season 4, three RED and two VariCam Pure cameras were used. For seasons 5 and 6, mostly [Arri](/wiki/Arri "Arri") [ALEXA LF](/wiki/Arri_Alexa "Arri Alexa") was used.{{Cite tweet \|user\=petergould \|last\=Gould \|first\=Peter \|author\-link\=Peter Gould \|date\=April 7, 2020 \|title\=We are an Arri LF show for season 5\. \|number\=1247527927668822016 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407141709/https://twitter.com/petergould/status/1247527927668822016 \|archive\-date\=April 7, 2020 \|access\-date\=May 7, 2022 \|via\=\[\[Twitter]]}}{{Cite video \|title\=Better Call Saul Insider Podcast 509 \- Bad Choice Road (5x09\) \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=SpO8ShY9Vfg \|language\=en \|publisher\=AMC \|via\=YouTube \|date\=April 14, 2020 \|access\-date\=May 7, 2022}}{{Cite web \|publisher\=BC Media Productions \|date\=March 10, 2020 \|title\=Better Call Saul Season 5 Cinematography (with Marshall Adams ASC) \|url\=https://gocreativeshow.com/better\-call\-saul\-season\-5\-cinematography\-with\-marshall\-adams\-asc/ \|access\-date\=June 2, 2022 \|website\=Go Creative Show \|at\=(at 35:22\) \|language\=en\-US}} ### Episode title sequences Each episode's title sequence features a different low\-quality image that recalls Saul Goodman's days on *Breaking Bad*. This includes the inflatable [Statue of Liberty](/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty "Statue of Liberty") balloon that sat atop Saul's office, a drawer of burner phones kept in his desk, and a bus stop bench that advertised his business. Gould and Gilligan were inspired by the poor quality of early [VHS tapes](/wiki/VHS_tapes "VHS tapes") and the notoriously low production values of 1980s [public\-access television](/wiki/Public-access_television "Public-access television"), and from the fact that Saul Goodman's ads on *Breaking Bad* were done in a similar style. They intended for the title sequences to appear "purposefully shitty" in order to stand out from its contemporaries, which generally had increased visual quality and production standards. Some of the title sequences were put together from unused footage from *Breaking Bad*, but others were filmed specifically to create new ones. The title sequences were put together by assistant editor Curtis Thurber, and scored by [Little Barrie](/wiki/Little_Barrie "Little Barrie") guitarist [Barrie Cadogan](/wiki/Barrie_Cadogan "Barrie Cadogan").{{Cite web \|last\=Sepinwall \|first\=Alan \|author\-link\=Alan Sepinwall \|date\=January 17, 2018 \|title\='Better Call Saul' creators on the 'purposely sh–ty' opening title sequence \|url\=https://uproxx.com/sepinwall/better\-call\-saul\-creators\-on\-the\-purposely\-sh\-ty\-opening\-title\-sequence/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430081901/https://uproxx.com/sepinwall/better\-call\-saul\-creators\-on\-the\-purposely\-sh\-ty\-opening\-title\-sequence/ \|archive\-date\=April 30, 2022 \|access\-date\=April 30, 2022 \|website\=\[\[Uproxx]]}}{{Cite web \|date\=April 28, 2022 \|title\=Better Call Saul Q\&A \- Barrie Cadogan (Main Title Theme Composer) \|url\=https://www.amc.com/blogs/better\-call\-saul\-qa\-barrie\-cadogan\-main\-title\-theme\-composer\-\-1009039 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503155747/https://www.amc.com/blogs/better\-call\-saul\-qa\-barrie\-cadogan\-main\-title\-theme\-composer\-\-1009039 \|archive\-date\=May 3, 2022 \|access\-date\=April 30, 2022 \|website\=AMC.com}} When Cadogan was putting the music together, he was told the producers wanted a piece of music that would be cut abruptly at 15 seconds. As every season except for the last has ten episodes each, the title credits for every season's corresponding episode number would reuse the same image. However, beginning with the second season, each of the episode's title sequences would continue to decline in picture quality by intermittently flashing black and white, and continue to lose color with each passing season. This caused many to theorize that this symbolized Jimmy McGill's storyline gradually transitioning to that of his post\-*Breaking Bad* [alter\-ego](/wiki/Alter-ego "Alter-ego") Gene Takavic, whose scenes were entirely in black and white.{{Cite web \|last1\=Adams \|first1\=Erik \|last2\=Teti \|first2\=John \|last3\=Murray \|first3\=Noel \|date\=February 22, 2016 \|title\=The new credits canon: 20 recent TV title sequences as brilliant as their shows \|url\=https://www.avclub.com/the\-new\-credits\-canon\-20\-recent\-tv\-title\-sequences\-as\-1798245221 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430083300/https://www.avclub.com/the\-new\-credits\-canon\-20\-recent\-tv\-title\-sequences\-as\-1798245221 \|archive\-date\=April 30, 2022 \|access\-date\=April 30, 2022 \|website\=\[\[The A.V. Club]]}}{{Cite web \|last\=Anderson \|first\=Lauren \|date\=July 18, 2021 \|title\='Better Call Saul' Fans Notice a Major Hint in the Show's Title Sequence \|url\=https://www.cheatsheet.com/entertainment/better\-call\-saul\-fans\-notice\-major\-hint\-shows\-title\-sequence.html/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430083303/https://www.cheatsheet.com/entertainment/better\-call\-saul\-fans\-notice\-major\-hint\-shows\-title\-sequence.html/ \|archive\-date\=April 30, 2022 \|access\-date\=April 30, 2022 \|website\=Showbiz Cheatsheet}} With the final season featuring thirteen episodes instead of the usual ten, the title sequences would take a new format. During "[Nippy](/wiki/Nippy_%28Better_Call_Saul%29 "Nippy (Better Call Saul)")", the title sequence features Saul Goodman's "World's Greatest Lawyer" mug falling off his desk and shattering on the floor, as was typical during a season's tenth episode. However, the title image and music prematurely stops and is replaced by a blue screen, recreating the effects of a home video recording on a [VCR](/wiki/VCR "VCR"), and then displayed the show's title and creator credits. This is also the first episode to take place entirely after the events of *Breaking Bad*.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Sepinwall \|first\=Alan \|author\-link\=Alan Sepinwall \|date\=July 25, 2022 \|title\=''Better Call Saul'' Recap: Gene Takovic and the Great Cinnabon Heist \|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\-movies/tv\-movie\-recaps/better\-call\-saul\-recap\-nippy\-black\-white\-1386524/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220726021956/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\-movies/tv\-movie\-recaps/better\-call\-saul\-recap\-nippy\-black\-white\-1386524/ \|archive\-date\=July 26, 2022 \|access\-date\=July 26, 2022 \|magazine\=\[\[Rolling Stone]]}} The remaining three title sequences retain the blue background, but briefly flash to an image previously unseen in the intro, with a distorted version of the theme song playing underneath. They then revert to the blue background again and display the title and creator credits. Before the show resumes, they again briefly flash to another new image that will be seen later on in the episodes.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Sepinwall \|first\=Alan \|author\-link\=Alan Sepinwall \|date\=August 8, 2022 \|title\='Better Call Saul' Recap: Better Call Kim \|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\-movies/tv\-movie\-recaps/better\-call\-saul\-recap\-waterworks\-1393640/ \|url\-status\=live \|magazine\=\[\[Rolling Stone]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809022925/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\-movies/tv\-movie\-recaps/better\-call\-saul\-recap\-waterworks\-1393640/ \|archive\-date\=August 9, 2022 \|access\-date\=August 9, 2022 \|url\-access\=limited}}
[ "Production\n----------", "### Conception", "[thumb\\|upright\\=0\\.8\\|right\\|*Better Call Saul* is a spin\\-off prequel series centered on [Saul Goodman](/wiki/Saul_Goodman \"Saul Goodman\"), a character created for *[Breaking Bad](/wiki/Breaking_Bad \"Breaking Bad\")*.](/wiki/File:Bob_Odenkirk_as_Saul_Goodman_during_shooting_Breaking_Bad.jpg \"Bob Odenkirk as Saul Goodman during shooting Breaking Bad.jpg\")\nThe character of [Saul Goodman](/wiki/Saul_Goodman \"Saul Goodman\") first appeared during *[Breaking Bad](/wiki/Breaking_Bad \"Breaking Bad\")*{{'}}s [second season](/wiki/Breaking_Bad_season_2 \"Breaking Bad season 2\"), in an episode that was also titled \"[Better Call Saul](/wiki/Better_Call_Saul_%28Breaking_Bad%29 \"Better Call Saul (Breaking Bad)\")\". The character was originally intended to appear in only four episodes, but soon became much more developed than the staff had planned. He would eventually stay on the series and become central to its narrative.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Saporito \\|first\\=Jeff \\|title\\=How has Bob Odenkirk interpreted and evolved his \"Better Call Saul\" character after \"Breaking Bad\"? \\|url\\=http://screenprism.com/insights/article/how\\-has\\-bob\\-odenkirk\\-interpreted\\-and\\-developed\\-his\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-charact \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419192640/http://screenprism.com/insights/article/how\\-has\\-bob\\-odenkirk\\-interpreted\\-and\\-developed\\-his\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-charact \\|archive\\-date\\=April 19, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=April 19, 2017 \\|website\\=screenprism.com}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Smith \\|first\\=Kyle \\|date\\=May 1, 2022 \\|title\\=Everybody Loves Bob \\|url\\=https://www.nationalreview.com/2022/05/everybody\\-loves\\-bob/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220501122237/https://www.nationalreview.com/2022/05/everybody\\-loves\\-bob/ \\|archive\\-date\\=May 1, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=May 1, 2022 \\|website\\=\\[\\[National Review]]}} As *Breaking Bad* continued its run, the character would grow in popularity with the audience. [Bob Odenkirk](/wiki/Bob_Odenkirk \"Bob Odenkirk\"), who portrayed Saul Goodman, speculated this was because he is \"the program's least hypocritical figure\", and \"is good at his job\".{{Cite episode \\|series\\=Talking Bad \\|network\\=AMC \\|number\\=3 \\|airdate\\=August 25, 2013}}", "[Vince Gilligan](/wiki/Vince_Gilligan \"Vince Gilligan\"), who created and developed *Breaking Bad*, and [Peter Gould](/wiki/Peter_Gould \"Peter Gould\"), who wrote the episode with Goodman's first appearance, considered a Saul Goodman spinoff as early as 2009\\.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Hiatt \\|first\\=Brian \\|date\\=March 16, 2015 \\|title\\=Bob Odenkirk on 'Saul' and 'Mr. Show'{{'}}s Non\\-Reunion \\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv\\-news/bob\\-odenkirk\\-on\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-and\\-the\\-mr\\-show\\-non\\-reunion\\-96299/ \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024022920/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv\\-news/bob\\-odenkirk\\-on\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-and\\-the\\-mr\\-show\\-non\\-reunion\\-96299/ \\|archive\\-date\\=October 24, 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=October 24, 2019 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Rolling Stone]]}} Gould noted that over the course of *Breaking Bad*, there were several \"what ifs” their team considered, such as if the show won a [Primetime Emmy Award](/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award \"Primetime Emmy Award\"), or if people would buy \"[Los Pollos Hermanos](/wiki/Los_Pollos_Hermanos \"Los Pollos Hermanos\")\" T\\-shirts. The staff did not expect these events to come to fruition, but after they did, they started considering a spin\\-off featuring Saul as a thought experiment. With the growth of Saul's character, the writers saw ways to explore the character further.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Potts \\|first\\=Kimberly \\|date\\=November 26, 2013 \\|title\\='Breaking Bad' Spinoff Scoop From the Man Who Created Saul Goodman \\|url\\=https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/blogs/tv\\-news/breaking\\-bad\\-\\-spinoff\\-scoop\\-from\\-the\\-man\\-who\\-created\\-saul\\-goodman\\-014449665\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180814232823/https://www.yahoo.com/entertainment/blogs/tv\\-news/breaking\\-bad\\-\\-spinoff\\-scoop\\-from\\-the\\-man\\-who\\-created\\-saul\\-goodman\\-014449665\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=August 14, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=August 14, 2018 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Yahoo! News]]}} While filming the *Breaking Bad* episode \"[Full Measure](/wiki/Full_Measure_%28Breaking_Bad%29 \"Full Measure (Breaking Bad)\")\", Gilligan asked Odenkirk his thoughts on a spinoff. In July 2012, Gilligan publicly hinted at the idea, stating that he liked \"the idea of a lawyer show in which the main lawyer will do anything it takes to stay out of court\", including settling on the courthouse steps.{{Cite web \\|date\\=July 15, 2012 \\|title\\=Comic\\-Con Q\\&A: Vince Gilligan on 'Breaking Bad' \\|url\\=https://www.deadline.com/2012/07/comic\\-con\\-qa\\-vince\\-gilligan\\-on\\-breaking\\-bad/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002050559/http://www.deadline.com/2012/07/comic\\-con\\-qa\\-vince\\-gilligan\\-on\\-breaking\\-bad/ \\|archive\\-date\\=October 2, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=July 19, 2012 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Deadline Hollywood]]}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Andreeva \\|first\\=Nellie \\|date\\=September 11, 2013 \\|title\\='Breaking Bad' Saul Goodman Spinoff A Go At AMC, Will Serve As Prequel To Original \\|url\\=https://www.deadline.com/2013/09/breaking\\-bad\\-saul\\-goodman\\-spinoff\\-amc\\-series \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810235809/http://www.deadline.com/2013/09/breaking\\-bad\\-saul\\-goodman\\-spinoff\\-amc\\-series/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 10, 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2013 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Deadline Hollywood]]}}", "### Development", "{{multiple image\\|perrow\\=2\\|align\\=left\\|total\\_width\\=300\n\\|image1\\=Vince Gilligan by Gage Skidmore 3\\.jpg\n\\|image2\\=Peter Gould by Gage Skidmore.jpg\n\\|footer\\=''Better Call Saul'' was developed and co\\-showrun by \\[\\[Vince Gilligan]] (left) and \\[\\[Peter Gould]] (right). Gould took over as sole showrunner after Gilligan left the writing staff during the third season.\n}}\nIn April 2013, *Better Call Saul* was confirmed to be in development by Gilligan and Gould.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Andreeva \\|first\\=Nellie \\|date\\=April 9, 2013 \\|title\\=AMC Eyes 'Breaking Bad' Spinoff Toplined By Bob Odenkirk \\|url\\=https://www.deadline.com/2013/04/breaking\\-bad\\-spinoff\\-series\\-bob\\-odenkirk\\-saul\\-goodman\\-amc/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140619103751/http://www.deadline.com/2013/04/breaking\\-bad\\-spinoff\\-series\\-bob\\-odenkirk\\-saul\\-goodman\\-amc/ \\|archive\\-date\\=June 19, 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=April 9, 2013 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Deadline Hollywood]]}} In July 2013, before the [second half of *Breaking Bad*{{'}}s final season](/wiki/Breaking_Bad_season_5 \"Breaking Bad season 5\") aired, Gilligan said he and Gould were still working out ideas for the spin\\-off, but a deal had not yet been made.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Molloy \\|first\\=Tim \\|date\\=July 2, 2013 \\|title\\=''Breaking Bad'' Creator Vince Gilligan: Saul Goodman Spinoff Moving 'Full Speed Ahead' \\|url\\=https://www.thewrap.com/tv/article/breaking\\-bad\\-creator\\-vince\\-gilligan\\-saul\\-goodman\\-spinoff\\-moving\\-full\\-speed\\-ahead\\-101091 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151209035421/http://www.thewrap.com/tv/article/breaking\\-bad\\-creator\\-vince\\-gilligan\\-saul\\-goodman\\-spinoff\\-moving\\-full\\-speed\\-ahead\\-101091/ \\|archive\\-date\\=December 9, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=September 13, 2013 \\|website\\=\\[\\[TheWrap]]}} [Netflix](/wiki/Netflix \"Netflix\") was one of many interested distributors, but ultimately a deal was made between AMC and the *Breaking Bad* production company [Sony Pictures Television](/wiki/Sony_Pictures_Television \"Sony Pictures Television\").{{Cite web \\|last1\\=Guthrie \\|first1\\=Melissa \\|last2\\=Rose \\|first2\\=Lacey \\|date\\=September 18, 2013 \\|title\\=How AMC Almost Lost ''Breaking Bad'' Spinoff ''Better Call Saul'' to Netflix \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/breaking\\-bad\\-spinoff\\-how\\-amc\\-630464 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150315112543/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/breaking\\-bad\\-spinoff\\-how\\-amc\\-630464 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 15, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=January 12, 2014 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Hollywood Reporter]] \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Prometheus Global Media]]}}", "As Sony and AMC began to commit to a spinoff, Gilligan and Gould worked on what it would be about. They initially considered making it a half\\-hour show where Saul would see various clients – celebrities in guest roles – in his strip mall office, similarly to *[Dr. Katz, Professional Therapist](/wiki/Dr._Katz%2C_Professional_Therapist \"Dr. Katz, Professional Therapist\")*, but they had no idea how to write for this type of format. They eventually fell back to planning for hour\\-long episodes. Gilligan described *Breaking Bad* as being \"25\\-percent humor, 75\\-percent drama\", and speculated that they would reverse that for *Better Call Saul*.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Sepinwall \\|first\\=Alan \\|author\\-link\\=Alan Sepinwall \\|date\\=August 3, 2018 \\|title\\=A Candid Conversation With Vince Gilligan on 'Better Call Saul' \\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv\\-features/vince\\-gilligan\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-interview\\-704094/ \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401233253/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv\\-features/vince\\-gilligan\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-interview\\-704094/ \\|archive\\-date\\=April 1, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=February 29, 2020 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Rolling Stone]]}} While the intent was to add more humor, the show remained heavy with dramatic elements, with Odenkirk calling the [first season](/wiki/Breaking_Bad_season_1 \"Breaking Bad season 1\") \"85 percent drama, 15 percent comedy.\"{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sandberg \\|first\\=Bryn Elise \\|date\\=October 27, 2014 \\|title\\=Bob Odenkirk on 'Better Call Saul': \"It's Total Drama\" \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\\-feed/bob\\-odenkirk\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-744069 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180118212350/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\\-feed/bob\\-odenkirk\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-744069 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 18, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=November 21, 2014 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Hollywood Reporter]]}}", "Gilligan and Gould initially believed that Saul Goodman was insufficient to carry the show by himself, with Gilligan thinking the character was \"great flavoring\" for a show but not the substance. Eventually they came to realize that Saul, in the *Breaking Bad* timeframe, was a man who had come to accept himself, and recognized the potential of telling the story of how Saul got to be that person. While several of the characters are lawyers in the show, Gilligan and Gould did not want to write a legal show, but instead a crime show, but one that would necessitate some legal elements. To help in these areas, the writers spoke to real lawyers and spent time observing cases at [Los Angeles Superior Court](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Superior_Court \"Los Angeles Superior Court\"), observing that the bulk of the activity in these cases was downtime while waiting for others to complete actions.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Todd vanDerWerff \\|first\\=Emily \\|date\\=February 3, 2015 \\|title\\=Better Call Saul's Vince Gilligan and Peter Gould on constructing the Breaking Bad spinoff \\|url\\=https://www.vox.com/2015/2/3/7968975/better\\-call\\-saul\\-vince\\-gilligan \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407151844/https://www.vox.com/2015/2/3/7968975/better\\-call\\-saul\\-vince\\-gilligan \\|archive\\-date\\=April 7, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=March 9, 2020 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Vox (website)\\|Vox]]}}", "### Writing", "Gilligan and Gould began as co\\-[showrunners](/wiki/Showrunner \"Showrunner\") for the series.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kondolojy \\|first\\=Amanda \\|date\\=June 19, 2014 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul' Renewed for Second Season by AMC; First Season Pushed Back to 2015 \\|url\\=http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2014/06/19/amc\\-releases\\-first\\-photo\\-from\\-better\\-call\\-saul/275154/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140622005705/http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2014/06/19/amc\\-releases\\-first\\-photo\\-from\\-better\\-call\\-saul/275154/ \\|archive\\-date\\=June 22, 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=June 19, 2014 \\|website\\=\\[\\[TV by the Numbers]]}} Former *Breaking Bad* writers [Thomas Schnauz](/wiki/Thomas_Schnauz \"Thomas Schnauz\") and [Gennifer Hutchison](/wiki/Gennifer_Hutchison \"Gennifer Hutchison\") joined the writing staff, with Schnauz serving as co\\-executive producer and Hutchison as supervising producer.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Littleton \\|first\\=Cynthia \\|date\\=December 20, 2013 \\|title\\='Breaking Bad' Writers Join 'Better Call Saul' Staff \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2013/tv/news/breaking\\-bad\\-writers\\-join\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-staff\\-1200981189/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403080458/https://variety.com/2013/tv/news/breaking\\-bad\\-writers\\-join\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-staff\\-1200981189/ \\|archive\\-date\\=April 3, 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=January 12, 2014 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}} Also joining the initial writing staff were [Bradley Paul](/wiki/Bradley_Paul \"Bradley Paul\") and former *Breaking Bad* writer's assistant [Gordon Smith](/wiki/Gordon_Smith_%28screenwriter%29 \"Gordon Smith (screenwriter)\").", "Having learned several lessons from *Breaking Bad* related to foreshadowing without writing the foresight, Gilligan and Gould gave themselves more flexibility in how *Better Call Saul*{{'}}s plot would develop over its run. From the beginning they had no firm idea where it would end up outside the connection to *Breaking Bad*.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sepinwall \\|first\\=Alan \\|author\\-link\\=Alan Sepinwall \\|date\\=January 17, 2018 \\|title\\=Vince Gilligan On The Toughest Jams The 'Breaking Bad' Writers Put Walter White Into \\|url\\=https://uproxx.com/sepinwall/breaking\\-bad\\-10th\\-anniversary\\-vince\\-gilligan/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229180044/https://uproxx.com/sepinwall/breaking\\-bad\\-10th\\-anniversary\\-vince\\-gilligan/ \\|archive\\-date\\=February 29, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=February 29, 2020 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Uproxx]]}} For example, Gilligan and Gould had already committed to the *Better Call Saul* title in the beginning, so that in following this route, they believed they had to quickly get from Jimmy McGill to Saul Goodman, or they would otherwise disappoint their audience. However, as they wrote the show, they realized \"we don't want to get to Saul Goodman … and that's the tragedy\". Another example includes [Rhea Seehorn](/wiki/Rhea_Seehorn \"Rhea Seehorn\")'s performance as [Kim Wexler](/wiki/Kim_Wexler \"Kim Wexler\") during the first season further slowing Jimmy's transition, and putting more focus on the Jimmy–Kim relationship for the remainder of the series. Gilligan compared this to the impact [Aaron Paul](/wiki/Aaron_Paul \"Aaron Paul\")'s acting had on *Breaking Bad*{{'}}s ultimate pacing.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Sepinwall \\|first\\=Alan \\|author\\-link\\=Alan Sepinwall \\|date\\=March 25, 2020 \\|title\\=How Rhea Seehorn Became the MVP of 'Better Call Saul' \\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv\\-features/better\\-call\\-saul\\-rhea\\-seehorn\\-interview\\-971200/ \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200325131344/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv\\-features/better\\-call\\-saul\\-rhea\\-seehorn\\-interview\\-971200/ \\|archive\\-date\\=March 25, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=April 11, 2020 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Rolling Stone]]}}", "In writing for *Better Call Saul*, Gilligan and Gould recognized they were including overlaps with *Breaking Bad*, and had ideas of characters that they would include, such as [Gus Fring](/wiki/Gus_Fring \"Gus Fring\"), though on no set timetable within the show's development. Gilligan described the writing approach as if developing two separate shows, one that centered on Jimmy/Saul, Kim, Chuck, and Howard, and a second on the more familiar *Breaking Bad* characters like Mike and Gus. Where possible, they had written in minor *Breaking Bad* characters in smaller parts or as [Easter eggs](/wiki/Easter_egg_%28media%29 \"Easter egg (media)\") to fans, but Gilligan preferred to include such major *Breaking Bad* characters as [Walter](/wiki/Walter_White_%28Breaking_Bad%29 \"Walter White (Breaking Bad)\") or [Jesse](/wiki/Jesse_Pinkman \"Jesse Pinkman\") only if this seemed unconstrained and satisfactory to both the production team and the audiences.", "Because of the closeness to the *Breaking Bad* storyline, a writer would be tasked at the start of each season to rewatch [all 62 episodes](/wiki/List_of_Breaking_Bad_episodes \"List of Breaking Bad episodes\") of the show and verify that the scripts for the *Better Call Saul* season introduced no conflicts.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Keveney \\|first\\=Bill \\|date\\=March 2, 2020 \\|title\\=Exclusive: Dean Norris on revisiting his 'Breaking Bad' character on 'Better Call Saul' \\|url\\=https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/tv/2020/03/02/dean\\-norris\\-breaking\\-bad\\-dea\\-agent\\-better\\-call\\-saul/4895744002/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303040859/https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/tv/2020/03/02/dean\\-norris\\-breaking\\-bad\\-dea\\-agent\\-better\\-call\\-saul/4895744002/ \\|archive\\-date\\=March 3, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=March 3, 2020 \\|website\\=\\[\\[USA Today]]}} As the show continued, the show's \"brain trust\" consisting of script coordinators Ariel Levine and Kathleen Williams\\-Foshee reviewed each script to help maintain the continuity with *Breaking Bad*, including tracking minor character traits and assuring small details from the previous show were kept correct if brought up again.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/18/arts/television/better\\-call\\-saul\\-ariel\\-levine\\-kathleen\\-williams\\-foshee.html \\|title\\=Meet the 'Better Call Saul' Staffers Who Kept Its Story Straight \\|first\\=Reggie \\|last\\=Uwgu \\|date\\=August 18, 2022 \\|accessdate\\=August 18, 2022 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]]}}", "Gilligan left the *Better Call Saul* writing staff early in the [third season](/wiki/Better_Call_Saul_season_3 \"Better Call Saul season 3\") to focus on other projects, resulting in Gould becoming sole showrunner. This transition had been planned since the show's debut. Upon his departure, Gilligan expressed his hopes to return to the writers room during the show's [final season](/wiki/Better_Call_Saul_season_6 \"Better Call Saul season 6\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Birnbaum \\|first\\=Debra \\|date\\=April 5, 2017 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul's' 'Breaking' Point: How It's Gearing Up for Gus Fring \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2017/tv/features/better\\-call\\-saul\\-breaking\\-bad\\-gus\\-fring\\-giancarlo\\-esposito\\-1202022793/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200722135831/https://variety.com/2017/tv/features/better\\-call\\-saul\\-breaking\\-bad\\-gus\\-fring\\-giancarlo\\-esposito\\-1202022793/ \\|archive\\-date\\=July 22, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2022 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}} He remained involved in the fourth and fifth seasons, but had little to do with developing the show's contents during this period. Instead, Gilligan reduced his role to being a \"director for hire\", having directed an episode during each season when he was not on the writing staff.{{cite web \\|last\\=Harding \\|first\\=Amanda \\|date\\=March 30, 2020 \\|title\\=Vince Gilligan Gets All the Credit for 'Better Call Saul' But Said He Has 'Very Little' to Do With the Show — It's All Peter Gould \\|url\\=https://www.cheatsheet.com/entertainment/vince\\-gilligan\\-gets\\-all\\-the\\-credit\\-for\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-but\\-said\\-he\\-has\\-very\\-little\\-to\\-do\\-with\\-the\\-show\\-its\\-all\\-peter\\-gould.html/ \\|work\\=Showbiz Cheatsheet \\|access\\-date\\=February 15, 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=February 15, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215192606/https://www.cheatsheet.com/entertainment/vince\\-gilligan\\-gets\\-all\\-the\\-credit\\-for\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-but\\-said\\-he\\-has\\-very\\-little\\-to\\-do\\-with\\-the\\-show\\-its\\-all\\-peter\\-gould.html/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web \\|last\\=Grant \\|first\\=Drew \\|date\\=October 4, 2018 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul' 4x9 Recap: So Long, Farewell, Auf Wiedersehen, Adieu \\|url\\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/drewgrant/2018/10/04/better\\-call\\-saul\\-4x9\\-recap\\-so\\-long\\-farewell\\-auf\\-wiedersehen\\-adieu/\\#632a8f3914f9 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Forbes]] \\|access\\-date\\=February 19, 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=February 19, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219001911/https://www.forbes.com/sites/drewgrant/2018/10/04/better\\-call\\-saul\\-4x9\\-recap\\-so\\-long\\-farewell\\-auf\\-wiedersehen\\-adieu/\\#632a8f3914f9 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Schneider \\|first\\=Michael \\|date\\=April 6, 2020 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul' Co\\-Creator Vince Gilligan on Directing the Most Challenging Episode of His Career \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2020/tv/news/better\\-call\\-saul\\-vince\\-gilligan\\-recap\\-episode\\-8\\-1234572360/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407032114/https://variety.com/2020/tv/news/better\\-call\\-saul\\-vince\\-gilligan\\-recap\\-episode\\-8\\-1234572360/ \\|archive\\-date\\=April 7, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=April 6, 2020 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}} Gilligan went on to credit Gould for maintaining the series' high quality. Gould would bring Gilligan back to the writers room for the sixth and final season, calling it \"wonderful to have him there, so we can finish this show that we started together.\"{{Cite web \\|last\\=Schneider \\|first\\=Michael \\|date\\=April 21, 2020 \\|title\\=''Better Call Saul'' Co\\-Creator Peter Gould on That Explosive Season Finale and How Kim May Be Breaking Bad \\|work\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]] \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2020/tv/news/better\\-call\\-saul\\-season\\-5\\-finale\\-recap\\-peter\\-gould\\-1234585484/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=April 22, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422080044/https://variety.com/2020/tv/news/better\\-call\\-saul\\-season\\-5\\-finale\\-recap\\-peter\\-gould\\-1234585484/ \\|archive\\-date\\=April 22, 2020}}", "### Casting", "#### Starring cast", "[thumb\\|right\\|*Better Call Saul* cast members [Bob Odenkirk](/wiki/Bob_Odenkirk \"Bob Odenkirk\"), [Rhea Seehorn](/wiki/Rhea_Seehorn \"Rhea Seehorn\"), [Patrick Fabian](/wiki/Patrick_Fabian \"Patrick Fabian\"), [Michael Mando](/wiki/Michael_Mando \"Michael Mando\") and [Giancarlo Esposito](/wiki/Giancarlo_Esposito \"Giancarlo Esposito\").](/wiki/File:Bob_Odenkirk%2C_Rhea_Seehorn%2C_Patrick_Fabian%2C_Michael_Mando_%26_Giancarlo_Epsosito_%2843602600451%29.jpg \"Bob Odenkirk, Rhea Seehorn, Patrick Fabian, Michael Mando & Giancarlo Epsosito (43602600451).jpg\")\n[Bob Odenkirk](/wiki/Bob_Odenkirk \"Bob Odenkirk\") confirmed he would reprise Saul Goodman in the starring role when the series was first announced, but his character would be introduced as lawyer [Jimmy McGill](/wiki/Jimmy_McGill \"Jimmy McGill\"). In January 2014, it was announced that [Jonathan Banks](/wiki/Jonathan_Banks \"Jonathan Banks\") would reprise his *Breaking Bad* role as [Mike Ehrmantraut](/wiki/Mike_Ehrmantraut \"Mike Ehrmantraut\") and be a series regular.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Kenneally \\|first\\=Tim \\|date\\=January 27, 2014 \\|title\\='Breaking Bad' Prequel 'Better Call Saul' Enlists Jonathan Banks \\|url\\=https://www.thewrap.com/breaking\\-bad\\-prequel\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-enlists\\-jonathan\\-banks/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161016150457/https://www.thewrap.com/breaking\\-bad\\-prequel\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-enlists\\-jonathan\\-banks/ \\|archive\\-date\\=October 16, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=January 27, 2014 \\|website\\=\\[\\[TheWrap]]}}", "New cast members included [Michael McKean](/wiki/Michael_McKean \"Michael McKean\") as McGill's elder brother Chuck. McKean previously guest\\-starred in an episode of Odenkirk's *[Mr. Show](/wiki/Mr._Show \"Mr. Show\")* and Gilligan's *[X\\-Files](/wiki/The_X-Files \"The X-Files\")* episode \"[Dreamland](/wiki/Dreamland_%28The_X-Files%29 \"Dreamland (The X-Files)\")\".{{Cite web \\|last\\=Friedlander \\|first\\=Whitney \\|date\\=April 30, 2014 \\|title\\=Michael McKean Joins 'Breaking Bad' Prequel 'Better Call Saul' \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2014/tv/news/michael\\-mckean\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-1201168991/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613184322/https://variety.com/2014/tv/news/michael\\-mckean\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-1201168991/ \\|archive\\-date\\=June 13, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=May 1, 2014 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Silman \\|first\\=Anna \\|date\\=April 6, 2015 \\|title\\=Michael McKean: \"Better Call Saul\" is about \"the American escape hatch instead of the American dream\" \\|url\\=http://www.salon.com/2015/04/06/michael\\_mckean\\_better\\_call\\_saul\\_is\\_about\\_the\\_american\\_escape\\_hatch\\_instead\\_of\\_the\\_american\\_dream/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229213747/https://www.salon.com/2015/04/06/michael\\_mckean\\_better\\_call\\_saul\\_is\\_about\\_the\\_american\\_escape\\_hatch\\_instead\\_of\\_the\\_american\\_dream/ \\|archive\\-date\\=February 29, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=April 3, 2016 \\|website\\=Salon}} [Rhea Seehorn](/wiki/Rhea_Seehorn \"Rhea Seehorn\") auditioned and got the role of [Kimberly \"Kim\" Wexler](/wiki/Kim_Wexler \"Kim Wexler\") in April 2014, her character being described as \"prestigious attorney ... whose hard life is complicated by her romantic entanglements with somebody else at the firm\". In May 2014, [Patrick Fabian](/wiki/Patrick_Fabian \"Patrick Fabian\") was cast on the show as [Howard Hamlin](/wiki/Howard_Hamlin \"Howard Hamlin\"), a \"[Kennedy](/wiki/Kennedy_family \"Kennedy family\")\\-esque lawyer who's winning at life\". After impressing Gilligan and Gould with his audition tape and screen test, [Michael Mando](/wiki/Michael_Mando \"Michael Mando\") was cast as the \"smart and calculating criminal\" [Ignacio \"Nacho\" Varga](/wiki/Nacho_Varga \"Nacho Varga\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Friedlander \\|first\\=Whitney \\|date\\=July 11, 2014 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul': Cast, Timeline Details and New Photos \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2014/tv/news/better\\-call\\-saul\\-cast\\-1201261529/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712051956/https://variety.com/2014/tv/news/better\\-call\\-saul\\-cast\\-1201261529/ \\|archive\\-date\\=July 12, 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2014 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Aguilera \\|first\\=Leanne \\|date\\=May 8, 2014 \\|title\\=Breaking Bad Spinoff Casts Key Roles—See Who! \\|url\\=https://www.eonline.com/news/540180/breaking\\-bad\\-spinoff\\-casts\\-orphan\\-black\\-alum\\-and\\-2\\-more\\-see\\-who \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916121025/http://www.eonline.com/news/540180/breaking\\-bad\\-spinoff\\-casts\\-orphan\\-black\\-alum\\-and\\-2\\-more\\-see\\-who \\|archive\\-date\\=September 16, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=July 8, 2020 \\|website\\=\\[\\[E! Online]]}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Gomez \\|first\\=Adrian \\|date\\=February 22, 2015 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul's bad guy looks forward to season two \\|work\\=\\[\\[Albuquerque Journal]] \\|url\\=https://www.abqjournal.com/544900/better\\-call\\-saul\\-star\\-delves\\-into\\-role.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=March 9, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410180943/https://www.abqjournal.com/544900/better\\-call\\-saul\\-star\\-delves\\-into\\-role.html \\|archive\\-date\\=April 10, 2019}} Mando's character had been previously mentioned but not seen in the *Breaking Bad* episode \"[Better Call Saul](/wiki/Better_Call_Saul_%28Breaking_Bad%29 \"Better Call Saul (Breaking Bad)\")\".{{Cite web \\|last\\=Real \\|first\\=Evan \\|date\\=June 20, 2018 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul' and 'Breaking Bad' Overlap to Get \"Bigger and Bigger\" With Season 4 \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\\-feed/better\\-call\\-saul\\-bosses\\-breaking\\-bad\\-crossover\\-season\\-4\\-1121993 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621021319/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\\-feed/better\\-call\\-saul\\-bosses\\-breaking\\-bad\\-crossover\\-season\\-4\\-1121993 \\|archive\\-date\\=June 21, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=June 21, 2018 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Hollywood Reporter]]}}", "Going into the third season, [Giancarlo Esposito](/wiki/Giancarlo_Esposito \"Giancarlo Esposito\") was added to the main cast as [Gus Fring](/wiki/Gus_Fring \"Gus Fring\"), a drug kingpin who previously served as one of *Breaking Bad*{{'}}s main antagonists. Esposito was previously a starring cast member in *Breaking Bad* for the same role.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Nemetz \\|first\\=Dave \\|date\\=January 14, 2017 \\|title\\=Better Call Saul Season 3: Yep, Giancarlo Esposito Will Be Breaking Bad \\|url\\=https://tvline.com/2017/01/14/giancarlo\\-esposito\\-cast\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-season\\-3\\-gus\\-fring/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622004945/https://tvline.com/2017/01/14/giancarlo\\-esposito\\-cast\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-season\\-3\\-gus\\-fring/ \\|archive\\-date\\=June 22, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=June 21, 2018 \\|website\\=\\[\\[TVLine]]}} McKean would leave the series at season's end due to his character being written out, but would make appearances in the next season and the series finale.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Dwilson \\|first\\=Stephanie Dube \\|date\\=June 20, 2017 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul': What Happened to Chuck in the Finale? \\[SPOILERS] \\|url\\=https://heavy.com/entertainment/2017/06/better\\-call\\-saul\\-did\\-chuck\\-die\\-or\\-commit\\-suicide\\-what\\-happened\\-in\\-the\\-finale\\-theories/ \\|access\\-date\\=March 29, 2021 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Heavy (website)\\|Heavy]] \\|archive\\-date\\=February 25, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225092323/https://heavy.com/entertainment/2017/06/better\\-call\\-saul\\-did\\-chuck\\-die\\-or\\-commit\\-suicide\\-what\\-happened\\-in\\-the\\-finale\\-theories/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}} [Tony Dalton](/wiki/Tony_Dalton \"Tony Dalton\") made his first appearance as [Lalo Salamanca](/wiki/Lalo_Salamanca \"Lalo Salamanca\") in the [fourth season](/wiki/Better_Call_Saul_season_4 \"Better Call Saul season 4\"), and would be promoted to the main cast for the fifth.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Ramos \\|first\\=Dino\\-Ray \\|date\\=April 8, 2019 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul' Adds Tony Dalton As Series Regular For Season 5 \\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2019/04/better\\-call\\-saul\\-tony\\-dalton\\-series\\-regular\\-season\\-5\\-1202591334/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190409061114/https://deadline.com/2019/04/better\\-call\\-saul\\-tony\\-dalton\\-series\\-regular\\-season\\-5\\-1202591334/ \\|archive\\-date\\=April 9, 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=April 8, 2019 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Deadline Hollywood]]}} Similar to Nacho, Lalo had been a character mentioned only by name in the same *Breaking Bad* episode \"Better Call Saul\".", "#### Return appearances from *Breaking Bad* cast members", "Before the second season, Gilligan confirmed that more *Breaking Bad* characters would appear on the spin\\-off, but remained vague on which ones were likely to be seen.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Bernardino, Shiena \\|date\\=May 20, 2015 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul' season 2 air date, spoilers, plot news: More 'Breaking Bad' appearances, major character to die next season? \\|url\\=http://www.christiantoday.com/article/better.call.saul.s2\\.more.breaking.bad.appearances.major.character.to.die/54130\\.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20150612191524/http://www.christiantoday.com/article/better.call.saul.s2\\.more.breaking.bad.appearances.major.character.to.die/54130\\.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=June 12, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=May 25, 2015}} By the next season, Gilligan said that the show had been on long enough that any reuse of *Breaking Bad* characters would require more than \"just a cameo or an [Alfred Hitchcock](/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock \"Alfred Hitchcock\") walkthrough\", and that their appearances would need to be essential to the story.", "*Breaking Bad* lead actors [Bryan Cranston](/wiki/Bryan_Cranston \"Bryan Cranston\") and [Aaron Paul](/wiki/Aaron_Paul \"Aaron Paul\") regularly said they would be open to reprising their respective roles as [Walter White](/wiki/Walter_White_%28Breaking_Bad%29 \"Walter White (Breaking Bad)\") and [Jesse Pinkman](/wiki/Jesse_Pinkman \"Jesse Pinkman\") on *Better Call Saul*. However, both maintained that they would appear only if Gilligan found a sufficiently good reason to bring them on the show.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Snierson \\|first\\=Dan \\|date\\=June 29, 2018 \\|title\\=Breaking Bad creator 'desperately' wants Walt and Jesse in Better Call Saul \\|url\\=https://ew.com/tv/2018/06/29/bryan\\-cranston\\-aaron\\-paul\\-walt\\-jesse\\-better\\-call\\-saul/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630032920/http://ew.com/tv/2018/06/29/bryan\\-cranston\\-aaron\\-paul\\-walt\\-jesse\\-better\\-call\\-saul/ \\|archive\\-date\\=June 30, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=June 29, 2018 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Entertainment Weekly]]}}{{cite web \\|last\\=Atkinson \\|first\\=John \\|date\\=May 8, 2020 \\|title\\=Bryan Cranston \\& Aaron Paul are Ready To Return For Better Call Saul \\|url\\=https://screenrant.com/better\\-call\\-saul\\-bryan\\-cranston\\-aaron\\-paul\\-role/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819210146/https://screenrant.com/better\\-call\\-saul\\-bryan\\-cranston\\-aaron\\-paul\\-role/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 19, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=June 14, 2021 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Screen Rant]] \\|location\\=Saint\\-Laurent, Quebec, Canada}} Paul mentioned the possibility of a cameo during the first season but this fell through.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Pearson \\|first\\=Ryan \\|date\\=March 9, 2014 \\|title\\=Aaron Paul wants in, Dean Norris out for 'Better Call Saul,' the 'Breaking Bad' spinoff \\|url\\=https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/tv/aaron\\-paul\\-wants\\-in\\-dean\\-norris\\-out\\-for\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-the\\-breaking\\-bad\\-spinoff/2014/03/06/e3c521c0\\-a4b8\\-11e3\\-a5fa\\-55f0c77bf39c\\_story.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822021706/https://www.washingtonpost.com/entertainment/tv/aaron\\-paul\\-wants\\-in\\-dean\\-norris\\-out\\-for\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-the\\-breaking\\-bad\\-spinoff/2014/03/06/e3c521c0\\-a4b8\\-11e3\\-a5fa\\-55f0c77bf39c\\_story.html \\|archive\\-date\\=August 22, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=May 1, 2014 \\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Washington Post]]}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Whitney, Erin \\|date\\=June 13, 2014 \\|title\\=Aaron Paul Offers Two Different 'Better Call Saul' Scenarios For Jesse Pinkman \\|url\\=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/06/13/aaron\\-paul\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\_n\\_5492079\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140614041818/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/06/13/aaron\\-paul\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\_n\\_5492079\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=June 14, 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=June 13, 2014 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Huffington Post]]}} Both Cranston and Paul would eventually appear in the final season.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2022/tv/news/bryan\\-cranston\\-aaron\\-paul\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-1235229217/ \\|title\\='Better Call Saul': Bryan Cranston and Aaron Paul Will Guest Star in Final Season \\|first\\=Ethan \\|last\\=Shanfeld \\|date\\=April 9, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=April 9, 2022 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}}", "[Dean Norris](/wiki/Dean_Norris \"Dean Norris\"), who was also a starring cast member on *Breaking Bad*, stated he could not be part of the earlier seasons, partly due to his involvement in the [CBS](/wiki/CBS \"CBS\") series *[Under the Dome](/wiki/Under_the_Dome_%28TV_series%29 \"Under the Dome (TV series)\")*.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Dekel, Jonathan \\|date\\=July 3, 2014 \\|title\\=Dean Norris says appearance on Better Call Saul unlikely: CBS, exec Les Moonves 'won't let me do it' \\|url\\=http://arts.nationalpost.com/2014/07/03/dean\\-norris\\-says\\-appearance\\-on\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-unlikely\\-cbs\\-exec\\-les\\-moonves\\-wont\\-let\\-me\\-do\\-it/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20140707075719/http://arts.nationalpost.com/2014/07/03/dean\\-norris\\-says\\-appearance\\-on\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-unlikely\\-cbs\\-exec\\-les\\-moonves\\-wont\\-let\\-me\\-do\\-it/ \\|archive\\-date\\=July 7, 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=July 3, 2014 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The National Post]]}} However, he reprised his role as [Hank Schrader](/wiki/Hank_Schrader \"Hank Schrader\") as a guest star in the fifth season.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Snierson \\|first\\=Dan \\|date\\=January 16, 2020 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul' season 5 to feature the late Robert Forster, Dean Norris \\|url\\=https://ew.com/tv/2020/01/16/better\\-call\\-saul\\-season\\-5\\-robert\\-forster\\-dean\\-norris/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117041936/https://ew.com/tv/2020/01/16/better\\-call\\-saul\\-season\\-5\\-robert\\-forster\\-dean\\-norris/ \\|archive\\-date\\=January 17, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=January 17, 2020 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Entertainment Weekly]]}} Plans were initially made for [Betsy Brandt](/wiki/Betsy_Brandt \"Betsy Brandt\") to reprise her role as Hank's wife [Marie Schrader](/wiki/Marie_Schrader \"Marie Schrader\") in a cameo in the second season, but the writer's room objected, considering the idea to be distracting for audiences.{{Cite magazine \\|title\\='Breaking Bad' alum Betsy Brandt talks nixed Marie cameo on 'Better Call Saul' \\|url\\=https://ew.com/article/2016/04/22/breaking\\-bad\\-betsy\\-brandt\\-marie\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-cameo/ \\|last\\=Snierson \\|first\\=Dan \\|date\\=April 22, 2016 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Entertainment Weekly]] \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200302221415/https://ew.com/article/2016/04/22/breaking\\-bad\\-betsy\\-brandt\\-marie\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-cameo/ \\|archive\\-date\\=March 2, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=June 12, 2021}} Brandt would eventually reprise the role in the final season.{{cite web \\|last\\=Osborne \\|first\\=James \\|date\\=August 19, 2022 \\|title\\=Actually, Marie had the most important cameo in ''Better Call Saul''{{'}}s s finale\\|url\\=https://www.avclub.com/why\\-marie\\-had\\-the\\-most\\-important\\-cameo\\-in\\-better\\-call\\-s\\-1849432070 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220821212016/https://www.avclub.com/why\\-marie\\-had\\-the\\-most\\-important\\-cameo\\-in\\-better\\-call\\-s\\-1849432070 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 21, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=August 21, 2022 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The A.V. Club]]}}", "Other *Breaking Bad* cast members spoke of the potential of being on *Better Call Saul*. Before the series began, [Anna Gunn](/wiki/Anna_Gunn \"Anna Gunn\") mentioned a \"talk\" with Gilligan over possible guest appearances as [Skyler White](/wiki/Skyler_White \"Skyler White\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Dos Santos \\|first\\=Kristin \\|date\\=May 13, 2014 \\|title\\=Anna Gunn Coming to ''Breaking Bad'' Spinoff? Star Reveals There's Been Talk—Plus, Why We're Dying Over ''Gracepoint''! \\|url\\=http://www.eonline.com/news/541399/anna\\-gunn\\-coming\\-to\\-breaking\\-bad\\-spinoff\\-star\\-reveals\\-there\\-s\\-been\\-talk\\-plus\\-why\\-we\\-re\\-dying\\-over\\-gracepoint \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151129005723/http://www.eonline.com/news/541399/anna\\-gunn\\-coming\\-to\\-breaking\\-bad\\-spinoff\\-star\\-reveals\\-there\\-s\\-been\\-talk\\-plus\\-why\\-we\\-re\\-dying\\-over\\-gracepoint \\|archive\\-date\\=November 29, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2014 \\|website\\=\\[\\[E! Online]]}} [Bill Burr](/wiki/Bill_Burr \"Bill Burr\") was set to return as [Patrick Kuby](/wiki/Patrick_Kuby \"Patrick Kuby\") in the [fifth season](/wiki/Better_Call_Saul_season_5 \"Better Call Saul season 5\"), but scheduling fell through due to him needing to attend to a personal matter.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Sepinwall \\|first\\=Alan \\|author\\-link\\=Alan Sepinwall \\|date\\=August 1, 2022 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul' Writer on Finally Entering the World of 'Breaking Bad' \\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\\-movies/tv\\-movie\\-features/better\\-call\\-saul\\-breaking\\-bad\\-episode\\-interview\\-writer\\-1389065/ \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802050426/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\\-movies/tv\\-movie\\-features/better\\-call\\-saul\\-breaking\\-bad\\-episode\\-interview\\-writer\\-1389065/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 2, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=August 2, 2022 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Rolling Stone]]}}{{cite web \\|last\\=Mullen \\|first\\=Amanda \\|url\\=https://www.cheatsheet.com/entertainment/better\\-call\\-saul\\-bill\\-burr\\-reprise\\-role\\-breaking\\-bad\\-prequel.html/ \\|title\\='Better Call Saul': Why Bill Burr Didn't Return for the 'Breaking Bad' Prequel \\|work\\=Showbiz Cheatsheet \\|date\\=September 27, 2021\\|access\\-date\\=October 23, 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=November 5, 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105165040/https://www.cheatsheet.com/entertainment/better\\-call\\-saul\\-bill\\-burr\\-reprise\\-role\\-breaking\\-bad\\-prequel.html/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} After the series ended, Gould mentioned his desire to bring back the remaining *Breaking Bad* characters for the finale, but he and the writing staff could not find a proper way to have them fit into the story.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Sepinwall \\|first\\=Alan \\|author\\-link\\=Alan Sepinwall \\|date\\=August 15, 2022 \\|title\\=''Better Call Saul'' Creator Explains the Series Finale \\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\\-movies/tv\\-movie\\-features/better\\-call\\-saul\\-series\\-finale\\-explained\\-creator\\-interview\\-1394766/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Rolling Stone]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816031239/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\\-movies/tv\\-movie\\-features/better\\-call\\-saul\\-series\\-finale\\-explained\\-creator\\-interview\\-1394766 \\|archive\\-date\\=August 16, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=August 16, 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=limited}}{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Snierson \\|first\\=Dan \\|date\\=August 16, 2022 \\|title\\=''Better Call Saul'' co\\-creator on Jimmy's shocking move in the finale — and that Jimmy\\-Kim reunion \\|url\\=https://ew.com/tv/better\\-call\\-saul\\-showrunner\\-peter\\-gould\\-on\\-series\\-finale/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Entertainment Weekly]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816132954/https://ew.com/tv/better\\-call\\-saul\\-showrunner\\-peter\\-gould\\-on\\-series\\-finale/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 16, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=August 16, 2022}}", "### Filming", "{{Multiple image\\|perrow\\=1\\|total\\_width\\=220\n\\| image1 \\= Cottonwood Mall Albuquerque (cropped).jpg\n\\| alt1 \\= Cottonwood Mall, a shopping mall located at 10000 Coors Bypass NW in Albuquerque, New Mexico.\n\\| image2 \\= Old Bernalillo County Courthouse.jpg\n\\| alt2 \\= The Old Bernalillo County Courthouse in Albuquerque, New Mexico.\n\\| footer \\= The series is shot in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Shooting locations include \\[\\[Cottonwood Mall (Albuquerque, New Mexico)\\|Cottonwood Mall]] ''(top)'' and the Old Bernalillo County Courthouse ''(bottom)''.\n}}\n[Principal photography](/wiki/Principal_photography \"Principal photography\") for *Better Call Saul*{{'}}s six seasons took place from June 2, 2014, to February 9, 2022\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=O'Neal, Sean \\|date\\=June 3, 2014 \\|title\\=It's time to begin overanalyzing the first ''Better Call Saul'' set photos \\|url\\=https://www.avclub.com/article/its\\-time\\-begin\\-overanalyzing\\-first\\-better\\-call\\-sau\\-205338 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150211101918/http://www.avclub.com/article/its\\-time\\-begin\\-overanalyzing\\-first\\-better\\-call\\-sau\\-205338 \\|archive\\-date\\=February 11, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2014 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The A.V. Club]]}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Walsh \\|first\\=Savannah \\|date\\=February 11, 2022 \\|title\\=Bob Odenkirk Says Goodbye to ''Better Call Saul'': \"Honored to Have Been Part of It\" \\|url\\=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2022/02/bob\\-odenkirk\\-says\\-goodbye\\-to\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-honored\\-to\\-have\\-been\\-part\\-of\\-it \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211154444/https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2022/02/bob\\-odenkirk\\-says\\-goodbye\\-to\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-honored\\-to\\-have\\-been\\-part\\-of\\-it \\|archive\\-date\\=February 11, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=February 15, 2022 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Vanity Fair (magazine)\\|Vanity Fair]]}}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\\-features/how\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-writer\\-ep\\-gordon\\-smith\\-brought\\-a\\-13\\-year\\-old\\-breaking\\-bad\\-story\\-to\\-a\\-close\\-1235180005/ \\|title\\=How ''Better Call Saul'' Writer\\-EP Gordon Smith Brought a 13\\-Year\\-Old ''Breaking Bad'' Story to a Close \\|first\\=Brian \\|last\\=Davids \\|date\\=July 13, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=July 15, 2022 \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Hollywood Reporter]] \\|archive\\-date\\=July 16, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220716040826/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\\-features/how\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-writer\\-ep\\-gordon\\-smith\\-brought\\-a\\-13\\-year\\-old\\-breaking\\-bad\\-story\\-to\\-a\\-close\\-1235180005/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Like its predecessor, *Better Call Saul* is set in and around [Albuquerque, New Mexico](/wiki/Albuquerque%2C_New_Mexico \"Albuquerque, New Mexico\"), with filming primarily taking place at [Albuquerque Studios](/wiki/Albuquerque_Studios \"Albuquerque Studios\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Christine \\|date\\=June 2, 2014 \\|title\\='Breaking Bad' prequel 'Better Call Saul' begins filming in Albuquerque, NM today! \\|url\\=http://www.onlocationvacations.com/2014/06/02/breaking\\-bad\\-prequel\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-begins\\-filming\\-in\\-albuquerque\\-nm\\-today/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701183932/http://www.onlocationvacations.com/2014/06/02/breaking\\-bad\\-prequel\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-begins\\-filming\\-in\\-albuquerque\\-nm\\-today/ \\|archive\\-date\\=July 1, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=June 4, 2014 \\|website\\=On Location Vacations}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Gomez \\|first\\=Adrian \\|date\\=April 8, 2019 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul' begins filming season 5 in ABQ \\|url\\=https://www.abqjournal.com/1300873/better\\-call\\-saul\\-begins\\-filming\\-season\\-5\\-in\\-abq.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20190414143824/https://www.abqjournal.com/1300873/better\\-call\\-saul\\-begins\\-filming\\-season\\-5\\-in\\-abq.html \\|archive\\-date\\=April 14, 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=November 16, 2019 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Albuquerque Journal]]}} Gilligan directed the pilot. Additional filming was done in March 2022, after principal photography for the series ended, for the opening teaser of the [season six](/wiki/Better_Call_Saul_season_6 \"Better Call Saul season 6\") episode \"[Point and Shoot](/wiki/Point_and_Shoot_%28Better_Call_Saul%29 \"Point and Shoot (Better Call Saul)\")\". With several crew members but no cast members on hand, the scene was filmed in [Leo Carrillo State Beach](/wiki/Leo_Carrillo_State_Beach \"Leo Carrillo State Beach\"), California. This was the only time the series was filmed outside of New Mexico.{{Cite podcast \\|url\\=http://movietouch.sony.com.edgesuite.net/podcasts/better\\_call\\_saul\\_v1/608\\_PODCAST\\_FINAL.mp3 \\|title\\=608 ''Better Call Saul'' Insider \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[AMC (TV channel)\\|AMC]] \\|last2\\=Dixon \\|first2\\=Kelley \\|last3\\=Gilligan \\|first3\\=Vince \\|last4\\=Dalton \\|first4\\=Tony \\|last5\\=Smith \\|first5\\=Gordon \\|date\\=July 12, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=July 15, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715042129/http://movietouch.sony.com.edgesuite.net/podcasts/better\\_call\\_saul\\_v1/608\\_PODCAST\\_FINAL.mp3 \\|archive\\-date\\=July 15, 2022 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|first1\\=Chris \\|last1\\=McCaleb \\|author\\-link1\\=Chris McCaleb \\|author\\-link3\\=Vince Gilligan \\|author\\-link4\\=Tony Dalton \\|author\\-link5\\=Gordon Smith (screenwriter) \\|first6\\=Dave \\|last6\\=Porter \\|author\\-link6\\=Dave Porter (composer)}}{{rp\\|p\\=1:00:01–1:01:29}}", "Notable exterior locations include the Twisters restaurant used previously in *Breaking Bad* for Gus's Los Pollos Hermanos, a parking lot kiosk at the [Albuquerque Convention Center](/wiki/Albuquerque_Convention_Center \"Albuquerque Convention Center\") for where Mike worked in the first few seasons, the Old Bernalillo County Courthouse as the local courthouse, and two nearby office buildings in the North Valley, including [Northrop Grumman](/wiki/Northrop_Grumman \"Northrop Grumman\")'s, that collectively are used for the HHM office spaces.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Snierson \\|first\\=Dan \\|date\\=March 9, 2020 \\|title\\=Go behind the scenes of Better Call Saul's iconic Albuquerque locations \\|url\\=https://ew.com/tv/better\\-call\\-saul\\-key\\-locations\\-albuquerque/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200311130311/https://ew.com/tv/better\\-call\\-saul\\-key\\-locations\\-albuquerque/ \\|archive\\-date\\=March 11, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=March 10, 2020 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Entertainment Weekly]]}} Jimmy's back office is located in an actual nail salon, which the producers accommodated by working with the owners. The Salamanca's restaurant is a real business in the South Valley that production modified slightly for the show, but which otherwise remained open. The scenes set in Omaha are filmed at [Cottonwood Mall](/wiki/Cottonwood_Mall_%28Albuquerque%2C_New_Mexico%29 \"Cottonwood Mall (Albuquerque, New Mexico)\") in Albuquerque; production worked with [Cinnabon](/wiki/Cinnabon \"Cinnabon\") to bring in the period\\-specific equipment and service items for the segments, and the extras in the store during these scenes are Cinnabon employees. The New Mexico Film Office reported that the first four seasons of *Better Call Saul* brought over {{USD\\|120 million}} into the state, and they have hired 1,600 crew for each season and a total of 11,300 extras.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Gomez \\|first\\=Adrian \\|date\\=February 22, 2020 \\|title\\=ABQ still stars in AMC's 'Better Call Saul' \\|url\\=https://www.abqjournal.com/1423575/abq\\-still\\-stars\\-in\\-amcs\\-better\\-call\\-saul.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223213259/https://www.abqjournal.com/1423575/abq\\-still\\-stars\\-in\\-amcs\\-better\\-call\\-saul.html \\|archive\\-date\\=February 23, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=February 24, 2020 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Albuquerque Journal]]}}", "*Better Call Saul* employs *Breaking Bad*{{'}}s signature time jumps.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Snierson \\|first\\=Dan \\|date\\=December 31, 2013 \\|title\\='Breaking Bad' creator Vince Gilligan on the finale, 'Better Call Saul' and his acting debut on 'Community' \\|url\\=https://www.ew.com/article/2013/12/31/breaking\\-bad\\-vince\\-gilligan\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-community/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402102012/http://www.ew.com/article/2013/12/31/breaking\\-bad\\-vince\\-gilligan\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-community/ \\|archive\\-date\\=April 2, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=April 4, 2014 \\|magazine\\=Entertainment Weekly \\|quote\\=We think, by and large, this show will be a prequel, but the wonderful thing about the fractured chronology we employed on ''Breaking Bad'' for many years is the audience will not be thrown by us jumping around in time. So it's possible that we may indeed do that, and we'll see the past and perhaps the future.}} Notably, the opening episode for the first five seasons started with a black and white flash\\-forward to a period in the years after the finale of *Breaking Bad*. Here, Saul has been relocated to Omaha, Nebraska, as \"Gene\", a manager of a Cinnabon store, and remains paranoid about anyone discovering his past identity. This was foreshadowed in the penultimate episode of *Breaking Bad*, \"[Granite State](/wiki/Granite_State_%28Breaking_Bad%29 \"Granite State (Breaking Bad)\")\", in which Saul tells Walter: \"If I'm lucky, a month from now, best\\-case scenario, I'm managing a Cinnabon in Omaha.\"{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/gallery/better\\-call\\-saul\\-breaking\\-bad\\-773498/1\\-omaha \\|title\\='Better Call Saul': See 'Breaking Bad' Easter Eggs You Missed \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Hollywood Reporter]] \\|first\\=Aaron \\|last\\=Couch \\|date\\=February 15, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=January 25, 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 8, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108101844/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/gallery/better\\-call\\-saul\\-breaking\\-bad\\-773498/1\\-omaha \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "The show's [director of photography](/wiki/Cinematographer \"Cinematographer\") was [Arthur Albert](/wiki/Arthur_Albert \"Arthur Albert\") for the first two seasons, and Marshall Adams starting with season 3\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Galas \\|first\\=Marjorie \\|date\\=April 14, 2015 \\|title\\=Colorist Ted Brady Discusses His Work On \"Better Call Saul\" \\|website\\=Creative Content Wire \\|url\\=https://www.creativecontentwire.com/colorist\\-ted\\-brady\\-discusses\\-his\\-work\\-on\\-better\\-call\\-saul/ \\|access\\-date\\=May 7, 2022 \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=March 25, 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325050022/http://www.creativecontentwire.com/colorist\\-ted\\-brady\\-discusses\\-his\\-work\\-on\\-better\\-call\\-saul/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Additionally, Paul Donachie served as a cinematographer on episodes \"[Namaste](/wiki/Namaste_%28Better_Call_Saul%29 \"Namaste (Better Call Saul)\")\" (2020\\), \"[Carrot and Stick](/wiki/Carrot_and_Stick \"Carrot and Stick\")\" (2022\\) and \"[Hit and Run](/wiki/Hit_and_Run_%28Better_Call_Saul%29 \"Hit and Run (Better Call Saul)\")\" (2022\\).{{Cite web \\|last\\=Bryant \\|first\\=Adam \\|date\\=May 3, 2022 \\|title\\=Better Call Saul Q\\&A – How Rhea Seehorn Found Characters' Vulnerabilities in Her TV Directorial Debut \\|website\\=AMC \\|url\\=https://www.amc.com/blogs/better\\-call\\-saul\\-qa\\-how\\-rhea\\-seehorn\\-found\\-characters\\-vulnerabilities\\-in\\-her\\-tv\\-directorial\\-debut\\-\\-1053746 \\|access\\-date\\=May 8, 2022 \\|language\\=en\\-US}} Seasons 1 and 2 were filmed mainly on [RED Dragon](/wiki/Red_Digital_Cinema \"Red Digital Cinema\") cameras.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Breaking The Law \\|url\\=https://hdv.hdvideopro.com/film\\-and\\-tv/tv/breaking\\-the\\-law/ \\|date\\=May 25, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=May 7, 2022 \\|first\\=Iain \\|last\\=Blair \\|website\\=HD Video Pro \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|archive\\-date\\=August 14, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814223213/https://hdv.hdvideopro.com/film\\-and\\-tv/tv/breaking\\-the\\-law/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Better Call Saul (2015\\) \\|url\\=https://shotonwhat.com/better\\-call\\-saul\\-2\\-2015 \\|language\\=en\\-US \\|website\\=ShotOnWhat? \\|date\\=September 30, 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=May 7, 2022}} Starting with season 3, [Panasonic VariCam Pure](/wiki/Varicam \"Varicam\") were incorporated due to their extra low\\-light sensitivity.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Lighting The Night In Albuquerque \\|url\\=https://codex.online/casestudies/lighting\\-the\\-night\\-in\\-albuquerque \\|access\\-date\\=May 7, 2022 \\|website\\=Codex \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|first\\=Iain \\|last\\=Blair \\|date\\=May 30, 2019 \\|title\\=Showrunner and EP Peter Gould on AMC's Better Call Saul \\|url\\=https://postperspective.com/co\\-showrunner\\-peter\\-gould\\-on\\-amcs\\-better\\-call\\-saul/ \\|access\\-date\\=May 7, 2022 \\|website\\=postPerspective \\|language\\=en\\-US}} This allowed the crew to shoot extra wide exterior shots at night as well as during the day, and to shoot on sets in near total darkness, such as nighttime in Chuck's unelectrified house.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://ascmag.com/articles/better\\-call\\-saul\\-darkness\\-gains\\-dimension \\|title\\=Better Call Saul: Darkness Gains Dimension \\|author\\=Rachael Bosley \\|date\\=June 26, 2017 \\|website\\=American Cinematographer \\|access\\-date\\=May 30, 2022 \\|quote\\=\"Having the ability to shoot at ISO 5,000 opened a whole new world for us,\" says Gilligan.}} For scenes requiring to film from cramped spaces, a Panasonic [Lumix GH4](/wiki/Lumix \"Lumix\") camera was used.{{Cite video \\|title\\=Better Call Saul \\- You Think You Know TV? \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=3C\\_MOfkDuiQ\\&t\\=92s \\|language\\=en \\|quote\\=Director of Photography Arthur Albert would shoot with Panasonic.. \\|website\\=\\[\\[ScreenCrush]] \\|via\\=YouTube \\|date\\=May 20, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=May 7, 2022}} In season 4, three RED and two VariCam Pure cameras were used. For seasons 5 and 6, mostly [Arri](/wiki/Arri \"Arri\") [ALEXA LF](/wiki/Arri_Alexa \"Arri Alexa\") was used.{{Cite tweet \\|user\\=petergould \\|last\\=Gould \\|first\\=Peter \\|author\\-link\\=Peter Gould \\|date\\=April 7, 2020 \\|title\\=We are an Arri LF show for season 5\\. \\|number\\=1247527927668822016 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407141709/https://twitter.com/petergould/status/1247527927668822016 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 7, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=May 7, 2022 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Twitter]]}}{{Cite video \\|title\\=Better Call Saul Insider Podcast 509 \\- Bad Choice Road (5x09\\) \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=SpO8ShY9Vfg \\|language\\=en \\|publisher\\=AMC \\|via\\=YouTube \\|date\\=April 14, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=May 7, 2022}}{{Cite web \\|publisher\\=BC Media Productions \\|date\\=March 10, 2020 \\|title\\=Better Call Saul Season 5 Cinematography (with Marshall Adams ASC) \\|url\\=https://gocreativeshow.com/better\\-call\\-saul\\-season\\-5\\-cinematography\\-with\\-marshall\\-adams\\-asc/ \\|access\\-date\\=June 2, 2022 \\|website\\=Go Creative Show \\|at\\=(at 35:22\\) \\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "### Episode title sequences", "Each episode's title sequence features a different low\\-quality image that recalls Saul Goodman's days on *Breaking Bad*. This includes the inflatable [Statue of Liberty](/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty \"Statue of Liberty\") balloon that sat atop Saul's office, a drawer of burner phones kept in his desk, and a bus stop bench that advertised his business. Gould and Gilligan were inspired by the poor quality of early [VHS tapes](/wiki/VHS_tapes \"VHS tapes\") and the notoriously low production values of 1980s [public\\-access television](/wiki/Public-access_television \"Public-access television\"), and from the fact that Saul Goodman's ads on *Breaking Bad* were done in a similar style. They intended for the title sequences to appear \"purposefully shitty\" in order to stand out from its contemporaries, which generally had increased visual quality and production standards. Some of the title sequences were put together from unused footage from *Breaking Bad*, but others were filmed specifically to create new ones. The title sequences were put together by assistant editor Curtis Thurber, and scored by [Little Barrie](/wiki/Little_Barrie \"Little Barrie\") guitarist [Barrie Cadogan](/wiki/Barrie_Cadogan \"Barrie Cadogan\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Sepinwall \\|first\\=Alan \\|author\\-link\\=Alan Sepinwall \\|date\\=January 17, 2018 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul' creators on the 'purposely sh–ty' opening title sequence \\|url\\=https://uproxx.com/sepinwall/better\\-call\\-saul\\-creators\\-on\\-the\\-purposely\\-sh\\-ty\\-opening\\-title\\-sequence/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430081901/https://uproxx.com/sepinwall/better\\-call\\-saul\\-creators\\-on\\-the\\-purposely\\-sh\\-ty\\-opening\\-title\\-sequence/ \\|archive\\-date\\=April 30, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=April 30, 2022 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Uproxx]]}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=April 28, 2022 \\|title\\=Better Call Saul Q\\&A \\- Barrie Cadogan (Main Title Theme Composer) \\|url\\=https://www.amc.com/blogs/better\\-call\\-saul\\-qa\\-barrie\\-cadogan\\-main\\-title\\-theme\\-composer\\-\\-1009039 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503155747/https://www.amc.com/blogs/better\\-call\\-saul\\-qa\\-barrie\\-cadogan\\-main\\-title\\-theme\\-composer\\-\\-1009039 \\|archive\\-date\\=May 3, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=April 30, 2022 \\|website\\=AMC.com}} When Cadogan was putting the music together, he was told the producers wanted a piece of music that would be cut abruptly at 15 seconds.", "As every season except for the last has ten episodes each, the title credits for every season's corresponding episode number would reuse the same image. However, beginning with the second season, each of the episode's title sequences would continue to decline in picture quality by intermittently flashing black and white, and continue to lose color with each passing season. This caused many to theorize that this symbolized Jimmy McGill's storyline gradually transitioning to that of his post\\-*Breaking Bad* [alter\\-ego](/wiki/Alter-ego \"Alter-ego\") Gene Takavic, whose scenes were entirely in black and white.{{Cite web \\|last1\\=Adams \\|first1\\=Erik \\|last2\\=Teti \\|first2\\=John \\|last3\\=Murray \\|first3\\=Noel \\|date\\=February 22, 2016 \\|title\\=The new credits canon: 20 recent TV title sequences as brilliant as their shows \\|url\\=https://www.avclub.com/the\\-new\\-credits\\-canon\\-20\\-recent\\-tv\\-title\\-sequences\\-as\\-1798245221 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430083300/https://www.avclub.com/the\\-new\\-credits\\-canon\\-20\\-recent\\-tv\\-title\\-sequences\\-as\\-1798245221 \\|archive\\-date\\=April 30, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=April 30, 2022 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The A.V. Club]]}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Anderson \\|first\\=Lauren \\|date\\=July 18, 2021 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul' Fans Notice a Major Hint in the Show's Title Sequence \\|url\\=https://www.cheatsheet.com/entertainment/better\\-call\\-saul\\-fans\\-notice\\-major\\-hint\\-shows\\-title\\-sequence.html/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430083303/https://www.cheatsheet.com/entertainment/better\\-call\\-saul\\-fans\\-notice\\-major\\-hint\\-shows\\-title\\-sequence.html/ \\|archive\\-date\\=April 30, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=April 30, 2022 \\|website\\=Showbiz Cheatsheet}}", "With the final season featuring thirteen episodes instead of the usual ten, the title sequences would take a new format. During \"[Nippy](/wiki/Nippy_%28Better_Call_Saul%29 \"Nippy (Better Call Saul)\")\", the title sequence features Saul Goodman's \"World's Greatest Lawyer\" mug falling off his desk and shattering on the floor, as was typical during a season's tenth episode. However, the title image and music prematurely stops and is replaced by a blue screen, recreating the effects of a home video recording on a [VCR](/wiki/VCR \"VCR\"), and then displayed the show's title and creator credits. This is also the first episode to take place entirely after the events of *Breaking Bad*.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Sepinwall \\|first\\=Alan \\|author\\-link\\=Alan Sepinwall \\|date\\=July 25, 2022 \\|title\\=''Better Call Saul'' Recap: Gene Takovic and the Great Cinnabon Heist \\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\\-movies/tv\\-movie\\-recaps/better\\-call\\-saul\\-recap\\-nippy\\-black\\-white\\-1386524/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220726021956/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\\-movies/tv\\-movie\\-recaps/better\\-call\\-saul\\-recap\\-nippy\\-black\\-white\\-1386524/ \\|archive\\-date\\=July 26, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=July 26, 2022 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Rolling Stone]]}} The remaining three title sequences retain the blue background, but briefly flash to an image previously unseen in the intro, with a distorted version of the theme song playing underneath. They then revert to the blue background again and display the title and creator credits. Before the show resumes, they again briefly flash to another new image that will be seen later on in the episodes.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Sepinwall \\|first\\=Alan \\|author\\-link\\=Alan Sepinwall \\|date\\=August 8, 2022 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul' Recap: Better Call Kim \\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\\-movies/tv\\-movie\\-recaps/better\\-call\\-saul\\-recap\\-waterworks\\-1393640/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Rolling Stone]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809022925/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\\-movies/tv\\-movie\\-recaps/better\\-call\\-saul\\-recap\\-waterworks\\-1393640/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 9, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=August 9, 2022 \\|url\\-access\\=limited}}", "" ]
Episodes -------- {{Main\|List of Better Call Saul episodes}} {{:List of Better Call Saul episodes}} The complete series was issued on [Blu\-ray](/wiki/Blu-ray "Blu-ray") and [DVD](/wiki/DVD "DVD") in region 1 on December 6, 2022\.{{cite web \|last\=Hullender \|first\=Tatiana \|date\=September 7, 2022 \|title\=Better Call Saul Season 6 Blu\-ray Release Date Revealed \|url\=https://screenrant.com/better\-call\-saul\-season\-6\-blu\-ray\-release\-date/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907211437/https://screenrant.com/better\-call\-saul\-season\-6\-blu\-ray\-release\-date/ \|archive\-date\=September 7, 2022 \|access\-date\=September 7, 2022 \|work\=\[\[Screen Rant]]}} The set spanned 19 discs and included 70 hours of bonus features.{{cite web \|date\=November 21, 2022 \|title\=Better Call Saul – The Complete Series Releasing On Blu\-ray With Over 70 Hours Of Special Features \|url\=https://hd\-report.com/2022/11/21/better\-call\-saul\-the\-complete\-series\-releasing\-on\-blu\-ray\-with\-over\-70\-hours\-of\-special\-features/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-date\=December 22, 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222100414/https://hd\-report.com/2022/11/21/better\-call\-saul\-the\-complete\-series\-releasing\-on\-blu\-ray\-with\-over\-70\-hours\-of\-special\-features/ \|access\-date\=March 12, 2023 \|website\=HD Report \|publisher\=LinksThat }} *Better Call Saul*{{'}}s episodes are split between two main timelines.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Nelson \|first\=Keith \|date\=August 8, 2022 \|title\=''Better Call Saul'' Season 6 Has Merged With The ''Breaking Bad'' Timeline \|url\=https://www.menshealth.com/entertainment/a39752629/better\-call\-saul\-season\-6\-walter\-white\-breaking\-bad\-timelines/ \|magazine\=\[\[Men's Health]] \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013165421/https://www.menshealth.com/entertainment/a39752629/better\-call\-saul\-season\-6\-walter\-white\-breaking\-bad\-timelines/ \|archive\-date\=October 13, 2022 \|access\-date\=February 14, 2023 }} The primary timeline begins in 2002, six years before the [first episode](/wiki/Pilot_%28Breaking_Bad%29 "Pilot (Breaking Bad)") of *[Breaking Bad](/wiki/Breaking_Bad "Breaking Bad")*.{{Cite web \|last\=Parkel \|first\=Inga \|date\=May 29, 2022 \|title\=Better Call Saul: How long before Breaking Bad is the prequel set? \|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts\-entertainment/tv/news/better\-call\-saul\-prequel\-breaking\-bad\-b2089908\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814201648/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts\-entertainment/tv/news/better\-call\-saul\-prequel\-breaking\-bad\-b2089908\.html \|archive\-date\=August 14, 2022 \|access\-date\=February 14, 2023 \|website\=\[\[The Independent]]}} During this period, where a majority of the series takes place, Saul Goodman mainly practices as a lawyer in [Albuquerque, New Mexico](/wiki/Albuquerque%2C_New_Mexico "Albuquerque, New Mexico") under his birthname Jimmy McGill. The secondary timeline takes place in 2010, following events of *Breaking Bad*{{'}}s [finale](/wiki/Felina_%28Breaking_Bad%29 "Felina (Breaking Bad)"), where Saul has fled Albuquerque and hides in [Omaha, Nebraska](/wiki/Omaha%2C_Nebraska "Omaha, Nebraska") under the alias Gene Takavic.{{Cite web \|last\=Bojalad \|first\=Alec \|date\=July 27, 2022 \|title\=Better Call Saul: How Nebraska Football Clarifies the Gene Timeline \|url\=https://www.denofgeek.com/tv/better\-call\-saul\-how\-nebraska\-football\-clarifies\-the\-gene\-timeline/ \|access\-date\=February 14, 2023 \|website\=\[\[Den of Geek]] \|archive\-date\=February 8, 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208002014/https://www.denofgeek.com/tv/better\-call\-saul\-how\-nebraska\-football\-clarifies\-the\-gene\-timeline/ \|url\-status\=live }} This later timeline would be shown only in the [cold open](/wiki/Cold_open "Cold open") in the first five season premieres, but would be fully explored in the last four episodes of the series.{{cite web \|last\=Nemetz \|first\=Dave \|date\=July 10, 2022 \|title\=''Better Call Saul'': A Close Look of Every 'Gene in Omaha' Flash\-Forward So Far \|url\=https://tvline.com/lists/better\-call\-saul\-gene\-omaha\-scenes\-explained\-video/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721002911/https://tvline.com/lists/better\-call\-saul\-gene\-omaha\-scenes\-explained\-video/ \|archive\-date\=July 21, 2022 \|access\-date\=February 14, 2023 \|website\=\[\[TVLine]]}}{{Cite magazine \|last\=Sepinwall \|first\=Alan \|author\-link\=Alan Sepinwall \|date\=August 1, 2022 \|title\=''Better Call Saul'' Recap: It's ''Breaking Bad'' Time \|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\-movies/tv\-movie\-recaps/better\-call\-saul\-recap\-breaking\-bad\-episode\-611\-1388970/ \|url\-status\=live \|magazine\=\[\[Rolling Stone]] \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802024035/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\-movies/tv\-movie\-recaps/better\-call\-saul\-recap\-breaking\-bad\-episode\-611\-1388970/ \|archive\-date\=August 2, 2022 \|access\-date\=February 14, 2023 \|url\-access\=limited}} ### Season 1 (2015\) {{Main\|Better Call Saul season 1\|l1\=''Better Call Saul'' season 1}} The first teaser trailer debuted on AMC on August 10, 2014, and confirmed its premiere date of February 2015\.{{Cite web \|last\=Hooton, Christopher \|date\=August 11, 2014 \|title\=Better Call Saul: First teaser trailer shows younger Saul, confirms release date \|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts\-entertainment/tv/news/better\-call\-saul\-first\-teaser\-trailer\-shows\-younger\-saul\-confirms\-release\-date\-9660693\.html \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171208181827/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts\-entertainment/tv/news/better\-call\-saul\-first\-teaser\-trailer\-shows\-younger\-saul\-confirms\-release\-date\-9660693\.html \|archive\-date\=December 8, 2017 \|access\-date\=August 11, 2014 \|website\=\[\[The Independent]]}} On November 20, 2014, AMC announced the series would have a two\-night premiere; the first episode aired on Sunday, February 8, 2015, at 10:00 pm (ET), and then moved into its regular time slot the following night, airing new episodes Mondays at 10:00 pm until the season concluded on April 6, 2015\.{{Cite web \|last\=Roots, Kimberly \|date\=November 20, 2014 \|title\=''Better Call Saul'' Gets Two\-Night February Premiere on AMC \|url\=http://tvline.com/2014/11/20/better\-call\-saul\-premiere\-date\-amc/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141123020442/http://tvline.com/2014/11/20/better\-call\-saul\-premiere\-date\-amc/ \|archive\-date\=November 23, 2014 \|access\-date\=November 20, 2014 \|website\=\[\[TVLine]]}} It was released on Blu\-ray and DVD in [region 1](/wiki/DVD_region_code%23Region_codes_and_countries "DVD region code#Region codes and countries") on November 10, 2015; bonus features include audio commentaries for every episode, uncensored episodes, deleted scenes, gag reel, and several behind\-the\-scenes featurettes. A limited edition Blu\-ray set was also released with 3D packaging and a postcard vinyl of the *Better Call Saul* theme song by [Junior Brown](/wiki/Junior_Brown "Junior Brown").{{Cite web \|last\=Lambert \|first\=David \|date\=September 22, 2015 \|title\=Better Call Saul – Sony's Official Press Release for 'Season 1' on DVD and Blu\-ray \|url\=http://www.tvshowsondvd.com/news/Better\-Saul\-Season\-1\-Press\-Release/21558 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923171953/http://www.tvshowsondvd.com/news/Better\-Saul\-Season\-1\-Press\-Release/21558 \|archive\-date\=September 23, 2015 \|access\-date\=September 23, 2015 \|website\=TVShowsOnDVD.com}} In 2002, Jimmy schemes to represent Craig Kettleman, accused of embezzlement, leading to encounters with psychotic drug lord Tuco Salamanca and his lieutenant Nacho. Jimmy also cares for his brother Chuck, who is housebound with [electromagnetic hypersensitivity](/wiki/Electromagnetic_hypersensitivity "Electromagnetic hypersensitivity"). While pursuing [elder law](/wiki/Elder_law "Elder law"), Jimmy learns of seniors being defrauded by the Sandpiper retirement community. As the [class action lawsuit](/wiki/Class_action_lawsuit "Class action lawsuit") against Sandpiper grows, Chuck suggests giving it to his law firm, Hamlin, Hamlin \& McGill. Jimmy receives a small [of counsel](/wiki/Of_counsel "Of counsel") fee and a share of any future settlement, but is blocked from participation. Jimmy learns Chuck sabotaged his legal career out of resentment. After the death of an old friend, Jimmy finds success when Davis \& Main, another firm HHM brought in to assist with the Sandpiper case, offers to hire him. In 2010, Gene manages a [Cinnabon](/wiki/Cinnabon "Cinnabon") by day, but in the evening reminisces about his life as Saul by watching a [VHS](/wiki/VHS "VHS") tape of his old television advertisements. ### Season 2 (2016\) {{Main\|Better Call Saul season 2\|l1\=''Better Call Saul'' season 2}} Prior to the series' launch, on June 19, 2014, AMC renewed the series for a second season of 13 episodes to premiere in early 2016, which was later reduced to 10 episodes.{{Cite web \|last\=Fitzpatrick \|first\=Kevin \|date\=November 17, 2015 \|title\='Better Call Saul' Season 2 Order Reduced from 13 Episodes \|url\=https://screencrush.com/better\-call\-saul\-season\-2\-episodes\-reduced/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504102803/http://screencrush.com/better\-call\-saul\-season\-2\-episodes\-reduced/ \|archive\-date\=May 4, 2017 \|access\-date\=February 16, 2016 \|website\=\[\[ScreenCrush]] \|publisher\=Townsquare Media, Inc.}} The season premiered on February 15, 2016, and concluded on April 18, 2016\.{{Cite web \|last\=Porter \|first\=Rick \|date\=November 16, 2015 \|title\='Better Call Saul' returns to AMC in February \|url\=http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2015/11/16/better\-call\-saul\-returns\-to\-amc\-in\-february \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117032359/http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2015/11/16/better\-call\-saul\-returns\-to\-amc\-in\-february/ \|archive\-date\=November 17, 2015 \|access\-date\=November 16, 2015 \|website\=\[\[TV by the Numbers]]}} It released on Blu\-ray and DVD in region 1 on November 15, 2016; bonus features include audio commentaries for every episode and several behind\-the\-scenes featurettes.{{Cite web \|last\=Lambert \|first\=David \|date\=September 20, 2016 \|title\=Better Call Saul – Blu\-rays, DVDs for 'Season 2': Date, Cost, Packaging, Extras! \|url\=http://www.tvshowsondvd.com/news/Better\-Saul\-Season\-2/22667 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116181910/http://www.tvshowsondvd.com/news/Better\-Saul\-Season\-2/22667 \|archive\-date\=January 16, 2017 \|access\-date\=January 15, 2017 \|website\=TVShowsOnDVD.com}} In 2002, Jimmy works as an [associate](/wiki/Associate_attorney "Associate attorney") at D\&M, but quits after his ostentatious legal style doesn't mesh with the firm's corporate demeanor. Kim is demoted by Chuck's partner, Howard Hamlin, because of Jimmy's actions. She secures banking firm Mesa Verde as an HHM client, although Howard denies her credit. Kim quits HHM and opens a shared private practice with Jimmy. Jimmy sabotages Chuck's work for Mesa Verde, which drops HHM and hires Kim, but Chuck discovers this and tricks Jimmy into confessing. Nacho wants to hire Mike Ehrmantraut to kill Tuco, but Mike instead removes him from the Salamanca organization by engineering his imprisonment. Hector Salamanca, cartel elder and Tuco's uncle, confronts Mike. Mike attempts to assassinate Hector, but is mysteriously interrupted. In 2010, Gene accidentally locks himself in the dumpster room when closing out the Cinnabon for the night. Instead of alerting police, he spends the night waiting for the janitor to open the door. ### Season 3 (2017\) {{Main\|Better Call Saul season 3\|l1\=''Better Call Saul'' season 3}} AMC announced on March 15, 2016, that *Better Call Saul* was renewed for a 10\-episode third season, which premiered April 10, 2017, and concluded on June 19, 2017\.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Snierson \|first\=Dan \|date\=March 15, 2016 \|title\=''Better Call Saul'' renewed for season 3 by AMC \|url\=https://www.ew.com/article/2016/03/15/better\-call\-saul\-renewed\-season\-3 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317185630/http://www.ew.com/article/2016/03/15/better\-call\-saul\-renewed\-season\-3 \|archive\-date\=March 17, 2016 \|access\-date\=March 15, 2016 \|magazine\=\[\[Entertainment Weekly]]}}{{Cite web \|last\=Schwindt \|first\=Oriana \|date\=January 14, 2017 \|title\=AMC Sets Premiere Dates for 'Better Call Saul,' 'Into the Badlands' \|work\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]] \|url\=https://variety.com/2017/tv/news/better\-call\-saul\-s3\-premiere\-date\-1201960755/ \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=January 14, 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170115085944/http://variety.com/2017/tv/news/better\-call\-saul\-s3\-premiere\-date\-1201960755/ \|archive\-date\=January 15, 2017}} It was released on Blu\-ray and DVD in region 1 on January 16, 2018; bonus features include audio commentaries for every episode and several behind\-the\-scenes featurettes.{{Cite web \|last\=Lambert \|first\=David \|date\=November 27, 2017 \|title\=Better Call Saul – 'Season 3' DVDs, Blu\-rays: Street Date Confirmed, Front and Rear Package Art \|url\=http://www.tvshowsondvd.com/news/Better\-Saul\-Season\-3/23831 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117011913/http://www.tvshowsondvd.com/news/Better\-Saul\-Season\-3/23831 \|archive\-date\=January 17, 2018 \|access\-date\=January 16, 2018 \|website\=TVShowsOnDVD.com}} In 2003, the results of the disciplinary hearing have Jimmy's law license suspended and Chuck's hypersensitivity condition is revealed to be psychosomatic. After Jimmy sabotages Chuck's insurance, Howard urges him to retire, but Chuck sues HHM in spite. Howard buys him out of the firm, leading Chuck to commit suicide. Gus prevents Hector's assassination, and Mike attacks Hector's trucks to steal $250,000 on Gus's orders. To launder the money, Gus arranges for Mike's hire as a contracted security consultant at Madrigal. Hector plans to take over the business of Nacho's father, so his son attempts to kill Hector by sabotaging his [angina](/wiki/Angina "Angina") medication. Hector suffers a stroke during a confrontation with cartel lieutenant Juan Bolsa, which renders him comatose. In 2010, Gene points mall security guards towards a shoplifter during his lunch break. Later, a stressed Gene suddenly collapses during his work. ### Season 4 (2018\) {{Main\|Better Call Saul season 4\|l1\=''Better Call Saul'' season 4}} Following the third season's end on June 27, 2017, AMC renewed the series for a 10\-episode fourth season, which premiered on August 6, 2018, and concluded on October 8, 2018\.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Snierson \|first\=Dan \|date\=June 27, 2017 \|title\=Better Call Saul renewed for season 4 \|url\=https://ew.com/tv/2017/06/27/better\-call\-saul\-renewed\-season\-4/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628180601/http://ew.com/tv/2017/06/27/better\-call\-saul\-renewed\-season\-4/ \|archive\-date\=June 28, 2017 \|access\-date\=June 27, 2017 \|magazine\=Entertainment Weekly}}{{Cite magazine \|last\=Snierson \|first\=Dan \|date\=May 31, 2018 \|title\=Better Call Saul: Here's your season 4 first look, premiere date \|url\=https://ew.com/tv/2018/05/31/better\-call\-saul\-season\-4\-premiere\-date\-first\-look/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602024055/http://ew.com/tv/2018/05/31/better\-call\-saul\-season\-4\-premiere\-date\-first\-look/ \|archive\-date\=June 2, 2018 \|access\-date\=May 31, 2018 \|magazine\=Entertainment Weekly}} It was released on Blu\-ray and DVD in region 1 on May 7, 2019; bonus features include audio commentary for every episode and several behind\-the\-scenes featurettes.{{cite magazine \|url\=https://ew.com/tv/2019/05/06/better\-call\-saul\-gag\-reel\-season\-4/ \|title\=Watch the ''Better Call Saul'' cast lose it in season 4 gag reel \|date\=May 6, 2019 \|first\=Dan \|last\=Snierson \|magazine\=\[\[Entertainment Weekly]]\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215181051/https://ew.com/tv/2019/05/06/better\-call\-saul\-gag\-reel\-season\-4/\|archive\-date\=December 15, 2020\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=April 19, 2021}} In 2003, Jimmy regains his outgoing demeanor after Howard shoulders the blame for Chuck's death. Jimmy manages a cell phone store but earns more by reselling prepaid phones to criminals. A year later, his law license reinstatement is denied over lack of remorse for Chuck. After faking mourning, he successfully appeals and practices as "Saul Goodman". Gus learns Nacho attempted to kill Hector and blackmails him into undermining the Salamancas. Mike escorts engineers who evaluate Gus's industrial laundry site as a potential underground meth lab. Gus hires Werner Ziegler to oversee construction, but Mike is ordered to kill Werner when he goes [AWOL](/wiki/AWOL "AWOL") to spend time with his wife. Hector recovers from his stroke, but is mute and can only move his right index finger. His nephew, Lalo Salamanca, arrives to run Hector's business, and learns some details of Gus's construction project. In 2010, Gene is hospitalized after his collapse and later discharged. He becomes uneasy when a taxi driver with an [Albuquerque Isotopes](/wiki/Albuquerque_Isotopes "Albuquerque Isotopes") air freshener seems to recognize him. ### Season 5 (2020\) {{Main\|Better Call Saul season 5\|l1\=''Better Call Saul'' season 5}} The series was renewed for a fifth season on July 28, 2018, just prior to the airing of the fourth season.{{Cite web \|last\=Otterson \|first\=Joe \|date\=July 28, 2018 \|title\='Better Call Saul,' 'Fear the Walking Dead,' 'McMafia' Renewed at AMC \|url\=https://variety.com/2018/tv/news/better\-call\-saul\-season\-5\-fear\-the\-walking\-dead\-season\-5\-mcmafia\-season\-2\-renewed\-amc\-1202889278/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815134454/https://variety.com/2018/tv/news/better\-call\-saul\-season\-5\-fear\-the\-walking\-dead\-season\-5\-mcmafia\-season\-2\-renewed\-amc\-1202889278/ \|archive\-date\=August 15, 2018 \|access\-date\=July 28, 2018 \|website\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}} The fifth season was not expected to air until 2020; according to AMC's Sarah Barnett, the delay was "driven by talent needs".{{Cite web \|last\=Adalian \|first\=Josef \|date\=April 5, 2019 \|title\=Why AMC Networks Is Betting So Heavily on ''Killing Eve'' \|url\=https://www.vulture.com/2019/04/killing\-eve\-amc\-networks\-bbc\-america\-strategy.html \|url\-access\=limited \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190409060215/https://www.vulture.com/2019/04/killing\-eve\-amc\-networks\-bbc\-america\-strategy.html \|archive\-date\=April 9, 2019 \|access\-date\=April 5, 2019 \|website\=\[\[Vulture (website)\|Vulture]]}} The 10\-episode fifth season would start airing with a special Sunday broadcast on February 23, 2020, with following episodes to air on Mondays until the season concluded on April 20, 2020\.{{Cite magazine \|last\=Blistein \|first\=Jon \|date\=November 20, 2019 \|title\='Better Call Saul' Cooks Up Clever Cinnabon Spot for Season Five Premiere \|url\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv\-news/better\-clal\-saul\-season\-five\-premiere\-date\-teaser\-915197/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402230824/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv\-news/better\-clal\-saul\-season\-five\-premiere\-date\-teaser\-915197/ \|archive\-date\=April 2, 2020 \|access\-date\=November 20, 2019 \|magazine\=\[\[Rolling Stone]]}} It was released on Blu\-ray and DVD in region 1 on November 24, 2020; bonus features include cast and crew audio commentaries on every episode, deleted scenes, and various behind\-the\-scenes featurettes.{{cite web \|last\=Foran\-McHale \|first\=Katie \|date\=November 19, 2020 \|title\=New on DVD Nov. 24: Look who's breaking bad in 'Better Call Saul: Season Five' \|url\=https://www.providencejournal.com/story/entertainment/2020/11/20/new\-dvd\-nov\-24\-better\-call\-saul/6314953002/ \|work\=\[\[The Providence Journal]] \|access\-date\=November 22, 2020 \|archive\-date\=November 22, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122203921/https://www.providencejournal.com/story/entertainment/2020/11/20/new\-dvd\-nov\-24\-better\-call\-saul/6314953002/ \|url\-status\=live}} In 2004, Jimmy's law practice as Saul Goodman draws him into Albuquerque's drug trade and he is conflicted when Howard offers him a position at HHM. Kim balances her Mesa Verde and *[pro bono](/wiki/Pro_bono "Pro bono")* work with her own feelings for Jimmy, and finds herself employing similar conman\-style tactics. Jimmy and Kim later devise a plan to ruin Howard to settle the Sandpiper case. Lalo's presence in Albuquerque forces Gus to suspend construction of his meth lab. Nacho and Mike become pawns in the feud between the Salamancas and Gus. After Lalo is arrested for murder, he hires Jimmy to represent him and arrange bail, which almost kills Jimmy. After an unsuccessful attempt on Lalo's life by Gus's hired assassins after his release, Lalo deduces that Nacho has betrayed him. In 2010, during another lunch break, Gene is approached by the taxi driver, Jeff, and his friend Buddy. Jeff reveals he recognized Gene as Saul Goodman from when he previously lived in Albuquerque. Gene admits he is living with a secret identity. ### Season 6 (2022\) {{Main\|Better Call Saul season 6\|l1\=''Better Call Saul'' season 6}} AMC renewed the series for a sixth season on January 16, 2020, with a scheduled premiere in 2021\.{{Cite web \|last\=Thorne \|first\=Will \|date\=January 16, 2020 \|title\='Better Call Saul' Renewed for 6th and Final Season at AMC \|url\=https://variety.com/2020/tv/news/better\-call\-saul\-renewed\-final\-season\-1203470181/\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804033625/https://variety.com/2020/tv/news/better\-call\-saul\-renewed\-final\-season\-1203470181/\|archive\-date\=August 4, 2020\|access\-date\=January 16, 2020 \|website\=\[\[Variety (magazine)\|Variety]]}} Showrunner Peter Gould confirmed it would be the show's final season and consist of 13 episodes rather than the usual 10\.{{Cite web \|last\=Porter \|first\=Rick \|date\=January 16, 2020 \|title\='Better Call Saul' Ending With Season 6 on AMC \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\-feed/better\-call\-saul\-ending\-season\-6\-amc\-1267357\|url\-status\=live\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117074621/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\-feed/better\-call\-saul\-ending\-season\-6\-amc\-1267357\|archive\-date\=January 17, 2020\|access\-date\=January 16, 2020 \|website\=\[\[The Hollywood Reporter]]}} Production experienced long delays due to [COVID\-19](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States "COVID-19 pandemic in the United States") and star Bob Odenkirk needing several weeks to fully recover from [a heart attack he experienced on set](/wiki/Better_Call_Saul_season_6%23Odenkirk%27s_on-set_heart_attack "Better Call Saul season 6#Odenkirk's on-set heart attack").{{Cite web \|last\=Goldsmith \|first\=Jill \|date\=February 26, 2021 \|title\=AMC Networks' ''Better Call Saul'' To Return In Q1 Of 2022 \|url\=https://deadline.com/2021/02/amc\-networks\-better\-call\-saul\-killing\-eve\-walking\-dead\-1234701802/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226153538/https://deadline.com/2021/02/amc\-networks\-better\-call\-saul\-killing\-eve\-walking\-dead\-1234701802/ \|archive\-date\=February 26, 2021 \|access\-date\=February 26, 2021 \|website\=\[\[Deadline Hollywood]]}}{{Cite web \|last\=Hipes \|first\=Patrick \|date\=September 8, 2021 \|title\=Bob Odenkirk Back At Work On 'Better Call Saul' After Heart Attack \|url\=https://deadline.com/2021/09/bob\-odenkirk\-back\-at\-work\-better\-call\-saul\-heart\-attack\-1234828765/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908152446/https://deadline.com/2021/09/bob\-odenkirk\-back\-at\-work\-better\-call\-saul\-heart\-attack\-1234828765/ \|archive\-date\=September 8, 2021 \|access\-date\=September 8, 2021 \|website\=\[\[Deadline Hollywood]]}} The sixth and final season was split into two halves, with the first half premiering on April 18, 2022 and concluding on May 23, 2022, and the last half premiering on July 11, 2022 and concluding on August 15, 2022\.{{Cite web \|last\=Porter \|first\=Rick \|date\=February 10, 2022 \|title\='Better Call Saul' Sets Final Season Premiere Date \|url\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\-news/better\-call\-saul\-final\-season\-premiere\-date\-1235090261/ \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211165557/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\-news/better\-call\-saul\-final\-season\-premiere\-date\-1235090261/ \|archive\-date\=February 11, 2022 \|access\-date\=February 10, 2022 \|website\=\[\[The Hollywood Reporter]]}} The complete season was released on Blu\-ray and DVD in region 1 on December 6, 2022, with bonus features including cast and crew audio commentaries on every episode, deleted scenes, outtakes, and various behind\-the\-scenes featurettes. In 2004, Nacho attempts to flee from the Salamancas after the attempt on Lalo's life, but after Gus falsely implicates him, Nacho sacrifices himself in exchange for his father's safety. Jimmy and Kim smear Howard's reputation, thereby forcing a settlement of the Sandpiper case. Howard confronts them, but is murdered by Lalo. After forcing Kim to act as a diversion, Lalo ambushes Gus and accesses the construction site of Gus's meth lab. Gus kills Lalo with a hidden gun. Mike makes Howard's death appear as a suicide, and oversees the burial of Howard and Lalo beneath the lab. A traumatized Kim quits the law and divorces Jimmy. Some time later, Jimmy has fully transformed into Saul Goodman, setting the groundwork for his appearance in *Breaking Bad*. In 2008, in another series of flashbacks that take place during the events of *Breaking Bad*, it is revealed during one of their earliest encounters that Saul had deduced that Walter White was the mysterious "Heisenberg" who is producing the high\-quality crystal meth in the New Mexico area. Armed with this knowledge, and despite Mike's warnings, Saul decides to recruit Walter and Jesse Pinkman as his full\-time clients, figuring it would be good for business. In 2010, Gene approaches Jeff and Buddy with an offer to rob a department store. After reaching out to Kim, who now lives in Florida, Gene devises a scheme to obtain financial identification of rich single men at bars he can sell for profit. When the scheme goes wrong, Buddy quits the operation, Jeff is arrested, and Gene is eventually caught. He is extradited to Albuquerque for the trial and feigns testimony implicating Kim so she can be summoned to court. Jimmy confesses to Kim and those at the trial about his crimes during the events of *Breaking Bad* and *Better Call Saul*, as well as his role in Chuck's death. He is subsequently sentenced to 86 years in prison. Jimmy is recognized as Saul in prison and gains popularity with the inmates. Kim visits him and they share a cigarette before parting again.
[ "Episodes\n--------", "{{Main\\|List of Better Call Saul episodes}}\n{{:List of Better Call Saul episodes}}\nThe complete series was issued on [Blu\\-ray](/wiki/Blu-ray \"Blu-ray\") and [DVD](/wiki/DVD \"DVD\") in region 1 on December 6, 2022\\.{{cite web \\|last\\=Hullender \\|first\\=Tatiana \\|date\\=September 7, 2022 \\|title\\=Better Call Saul Season 6 Blu\\-ray Release Date Revealed \\|url\\=https://screenrant.com/better\\-call\\-saul\\-season\\-6\\-blu\\-ray\\-release\\-date/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907211437/https://screenrant.com/better\\-call\\-saul\\-season\\-6\\-blu\\-ray\\-release\\-date/ \\|archive\\-date\\=September 7, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=September 7, 2022 \\|work\\=\\[\\[Screen Rant]]}} The set spanned 19 discs and included 70 hours of bonus features.{{cite web \\|date\\=November 21, 2022 \\|title\\=Better Call Saul – The Complete Series Releasing On Blu\\-ray With Over 70 Hours Of Special Features \\|url\\=https://hd\\-report.com/2022/11/21/better\\-call\\-saul\\-the\\-complete\\-series\\-releasing\\-on\\-blu\\-ray\\-with\\-over\\-70\\-hours\\-of\\-special\\-features/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-date\\=December 22, 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222100414/https://hd\\-report.com/2022/11/21/better\\-call\\-saul\\-the\\-complete\\-series\\-releasing\\-on\\-blu\\-ray\\-with\\-over\\-70\\-hours\\-of\\-special\\-features/ \\|access\\-date\\=March 12, 2023 \\|website\\=HD Report \\|publisher\\=LinksThat }}", "*Better Call Saul*{{'}}s episodes are split between two main timelines.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Nelson \\|first\\=Keith \\|date\\=August 8, 2022 \\|title\\=''Better Call Saul'' Season 6 Has Merged With The ''Breaking Bad'' Timeline \\|url\\=https://www.menshealth.com/entertainment/a39752629/better\\-call\\-saul\\-season\\-6\\-walter\\-white\\-breaking\\-bad\\-timelines/ \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Men's Health]] \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013165421/https://www.menshealth.com/entertainment/a39752629/better\\-call\\-saul\\-season\\-6\\-walter\\-white\\-breaking\\-bad\\-timelines/ \\|archive\\-date\\=October 13, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2023 }} The primary timeline begins in 2002, six years before the [first episode](/wiki/Pilot_%28Breaking_Bad%29 \"Pilot (Breaking Bad)\") of *[Breaking Bad](/wiki/Breaking_Bad \"Breaking Bad\")*.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Parkel \\|first\\=Inga \\|date\\=May 29, 2022 \\|title\\=Better Call Saul: How long before Breaking Bad is the prequel set? \\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts\\-entertainment/tv/news/better\\-call\\-saul\\-prequel\\-breaking\\-bad\\-b2089908\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814201648/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts\\-entertainment/tv/news/better\\-call\\-saul\\-prequel\\-breaking\\-bad\\-b2089908\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=August 14, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Independent]]}} During this period, where a majority of the series takes place, Saul Goodman mainly practices as a lawyer in [Albuquerque, New Mexico](/wiki/Albuquerque%2C_New_Mexico \"Albuquerque, New Mexico\") under his birthname Jimmy McGill.", "The secondary timeline takes place in 2010, following events of *Breaking Bad*{{'}}s [finale](/wiki/Felina_%28Breaking_Bad%29 \"Felina (Breaking Bad)\"), where Saul has fled Albuquerque and hides in [Omaha, Nebraska](/wiki/Omaha%2C_Nebraska \"Omaha, Nebraska\") under the alias Gene Takavic.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Bojalad \\|first\\=Alec \\|date\\=July 27, 2022 \\|title\\=Better Call Saul: How Nebraska Football Clarifies the Gene Timeline \\|url\\=https://www.denofgeek.com/tv/better\\-call\\-saul\\-how\\-nebraska\\-football\\-clarifies\\-the\\-gene\\-timeline/ \\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Den of Geek]] \\|archive\\-date\\=February 8, 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208002014/https://www.denofgeek.com/tv/better\\-call\\-saul\\-how\\-nebraska\\-football\\-clarifies\\-the\\-gene\\-timeline/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} This later timeline would be shown only in the [cold open](/wiki/Cold_open \"Cold open\") in the first five season premieres, but would be fully explored in the last four episodes of the series.{{cite web \\|last\\=Nemetz \\|first\\=Dave \\|date\\=July 10, 2022 \\|title\\=''Better Call Saul'': A Close Look of Every 'Gene in Omaha' Flash\\-Forward So Far \\|url\\=https://tvline.com/lists/better\\-call\\-saul\\-gene\\-omaha\\-scenes\\-explained\\-video/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721002911/https://tvline.com/lists/better\\-call\\-saul\\-gene\\-omaha\\-scenes\\-explained\\-video/ \\|archive\\-date\\=July 21, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2023 \\|website\\=\\[\\[TVLine]]}}{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Sepinwall \\|first\\=Alan \\|author\\-link\\=Alan Sepinwall \\|date\\=August 1, 2022 \\|title\\=''Better Call Saul'' Recap: It's ''Breaking Bad'' Time \\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\\-movies/tv\\-movie\\-recaps/better\\-call\\-saul\\-recap\\-breaking\\-bad\\-episode\\-611\\-1388970/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Rolling Stone]] \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802024035/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv\\-movies/tv\\-movie\\-recaps/better\\-call\\-saul\\-recap\\-breaking\\-bad\\-episode\\-611\\-1388970/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 2, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=February 14, 2023 \\|url\\-access\\=limited}}", "### Season 1 (2015\\)", "{{Main\\|Better Call Saul season 1\\|l1\\=''Better Call Saul'' season 1}}\nThe first teaser trailer debuted on AMC on August 10, 2014, and confirmed its premiere date of February 2015\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Hooton, Christopher \\|date\\=August 11, 2014 \\|title\\=Better Call Saul: First teaser trailer shows younger Saul, confirms release date \\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts\\-entertainment/tv/news/better\\-call\\-saul\\-first\\-teaser\\-trailer\\-shows\\-younger\\-saul\\-confirms\\-release\\-date\\-9660693\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171208181827/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts\\-entertainment/tv/news/better\\-call\\-saul\\-first\\-teaser\\-trailer\\-shows\\-younger\\-saul\\-confirms\\-release\\-date\\-9660693\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=December 8, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=August 11, 2014 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Independent]]}} On November 20, 2014, AMC announced the series would have a two\\-night premiere; the first episode aired on Sunday, February 8, 2015, at 10:00 pm (ET), and then moved into its regular time slot the following night, airing new episodes Mondays at 10:00 pm until the season concluded on April 6, 2015\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Roots, Kimberly \\|date\\=November 20, 2014 \\|title\\=''Better Call Saul'' Gets Two\\-Night February Premiere on AMC \\|url\\=http://tvline.com/2014/11/20/better\\-call\\-saul\\-premiere\\-date\\-amc/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141123020442/http://tvline.com/2014/11/20/better\\-call\\-saul\\-premiere\\-date\\-amc/ \\|archive\\-date\\=November 23, 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=November 20, 2014 \\|website\\=\\[\\[TVLine]]}} It was released on Blu\\-ray and DVD in [region 1](/wiki/DVD_region_code%23Region_codes_and_countries \"DVD region code#Region codes and countries\") on November 10, 2015; bonus features include audio commentaries for every episode, uncensored episodes, deleted scenes, gag reel, and several behind\\-the\\-scenes featurettes. A limited edition Blu\\-ray set was also released with 3D packaging and a postcard vinyl of the *Better Call Saul* theme song by [Junior Brown](/wiki/Junior_Brown \"Junior Brown\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Lambert \\|first\\=David \\|date\\=September 22, 2015 \\|title\\=Better Call Saul – Sony's Official Press Release for 'Season 1' on DVD and Blu\\-ray \\|url\\=http://www.tvshowsondvd.com/news/Better\\-Saul\\-Season\\-1\\-Press\\-Release/21558 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923171953/http://www.tvshowsondvd.com/news/Better\\-Saul\\-Season\\-1\\-Press\\-Release/21558 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 23, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=September 23, 2015 \\|website\\=TVShowsOnDVD.com}}", "In 2002, Jimmy schemes to represent Craig Kettleman, accused of embezzlement, leading to encounters with psychotic drug lord Tuco Salamanca and his lieutenant Nacho. Jimmy also cares for his brother Chuck, who is housebound with [electromagnetic hypersensitivity](/wiki/Electromagnetic_hypersensitivity \"Electromagnetic hypersensitivity\"). While pursuing [elder law](/wiki/Elder_law \"Elder law\"), Jimmy learns of seniors being defrauded by the Sandpiper retirement community. As the [class action lawsuit](/wiki/Class_action_lawsuit \"Class action lawsuit\") against Sandpiper grows, Chuck suggests giving it to his law firm, Hamlin, Hamlin \\& McGill. Jimmy receives a small [of counsel](/wiki/Of_counsel \"Of counsel\") fee and a share of any future settlement, but is blocked from participation. Jimmy learns Chuck sabotaged his legal career out of resentment. After the death of an old friend, Jimmy finds success when Davis \\& Main, another firm HHM brought in to assist with the Sandpiper case, offers to hire him.", "In 2010, Gene manages a [Cinnabon](/wiki/Cinnabon \"Cinnabon\") by day, but in the evening reminisces about his life as Saul by watching a [VHS](/wiki/VHS \"VHS\") tape of his old television advertisements.", "### Season 2 (2016\\)", "{{Main\\|Better Call Saul season 2\\|l1\\=''Better Call Saul'' season 2}}\nPrior to the series' launch, on June 19, 2014, AMC renewed the series for a second season of 13 episodes to premiere in early 2016, which was later reduced to 10 episodes.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Fitzpatrick \\|first\\=Kevin \\|date\\=November 17, 2015 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul' Season 2 Order Reduced from 13 Episodes \\|url\\=https://screencrush.com/better\\-call\\-saul\\-season\\-2\\-episodes\\-reduced/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504102803/http://screencrush.com/better\\-call\\-saul\\-season\\-2\\-episodes\\-reduced/ \\|archive\\-date\\=May 4, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=February 16, 2016 \\|website\\=\\[\\[ScreenCrush]] \\|publisher\\=Townsquare Media, Inc.}} The season premiered on February 15, 2016, and concluded on April 18, 2016\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Porter \\|first\\=Rick \\|date\\=November 16, 2015 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul' returns to AMC in February \\|url\\=http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2015/11/16/better\\-call\\-saul\\-returns\\-to\\-amc\\-in\\-february \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117032359/http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2015/11/16/better\\-call\\-saul\\-returns\\-to\\-amc\\-in\\-february/ \\|archive\\-date\\=November 17, 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=November 16, 2015 \\|website\\=\\[\\[TV by the Numbers]]}} It released on Blu\\-ray and DVD in region 1 on November 15, 2016; bonus features include audio commentaries for every episode and several behind\\-the\\-scenes featurettes.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Lambert \\|first\\=David \\|date\\=September 20, 2016 \\|title\\=Better Call Saul – Blu\\-rays, DVDs for 'Season 2': Date, Cost, Packaging, Extras! \\|url\\=http://www.tvshowsondvd.com/news/Better\\-Saul\\-Season\\-2/22667 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116181910/http://www.tvshowsondvd.com/news/Better\\-Saul\\-Season\\-2/22667 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 16, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=January 15, 2017 \\|website\\=TVShowsOnDVD.com}}", "In 2002, Jimmy works as an [associate](/wiki/Associate_attorney \"Associate attorney\") at D\\&M, but quits after his ostentatious legal style doesn't mesh with the firm's corporate demeanor. Kim is demoted by Chuck's partner, Howard Hamlin, because of Jimmy's actions. She secures banking firm Mesa Verde as an HHM client, although Howard denies her credit. Kim quits HHM and opens a shared private practice with Jimmy. Jimmy sabotages Chuck's work for Mesa Verde, which drops HHM and hires Kim, but Chuck discovers this and tricks Jimmy into confessing. Nacho wants to hire Mike Ehrmantraut to kill Tuco, but Mike instead removes him from the Salamanca organization by engineering his imprisonment. Hector Salamanca, cartel elder and Tuco's uncle, confronts Mike. Mike attempts to assassinate Hector, but is mysteriously interrupted.", "In 2010, Gene accidentally locks himself in the dumpster room when closing out the Cinnabon for the night. Instead of alerting police, he spends the night waiting for the janitor to open the door.", "### Season 3 (2017\\)", "{{Main\\|Better Call Saul season 3\\|l1\\=''Better Call Saul'' season 3}}\nAMC announced on March 15, 2016, that *Better Call Saul* was renewed for a 10\\-episode third season, which premiered April 10, 2017, and concluded on June 19, 2017\\.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Snierson \\|first\\=Dan \\|date\\=March 15, 2016 \\|title\\=''Better Call Saul'' renewed for season 3 by AMC \\|url\\=https://www.ew.com/article/2016/03/15/better\\-call\\-saul\\-renewed\\-season\\-3 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317185630/http://www.ew.com/article/2016/03/15/better\\-call\\-saul\\-renewed\\-season\\-3 \\|archive\\-date\\=March 17, 2016 \\|access\\-date\\=March 15, 2016 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Entertainment Weekly]]}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Schwindt \\|first\\=Oriana \\|date\\=January 14, 2017 \\|title\\=AMC Sets Premiere Dates for 'Better Call Saul,' 'Into the Badlands' \\|work\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]] \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2017/tv/news/better\\-call\\-saul\\-s3\\-premiere\\-date\\-1201960755/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=January 14, 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170115085944/http://variety.com/2017/tv/news/better\\-call\\-saul\\-s3\\-premiere\\-date\\-1201960755/ \\|archive\\-date\\=January 15, 2017}} It was released on Blu\\-ray and DVD in region 1 on January 16, 2018; bonus features include audio commentaries for every episode and several behind\\-the\\-scenes featurettes.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Lambert \\|first\\=David \\|date\\=November 27, 2017 \\|title\\=Better Call Saul – 'Season 3' DVDs, Blu\\-rays: Street Date Confirmed, Front and Rear Package Art \\|url\\=http://www.tvshowsondvd.com/news/Better\\-Saul\\-Season\\-3/23831 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117011913/http://www.tvshowsondvd.com/news/Better\\-Saul\\-Season\\-3/23831 \\|archive\\-date\\=January 17, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=January 16, 2018 \\|website\\=TVShowsOnDVD.com}}", "In 2003, the results of the disciplinary hearing have Jimmy's law license suspended and Chuck's hypersensitivity condition is revealed to be psychosomatic. After Jimmy sabotages Chuck's insurance, Howard urges him to retire, but Chuck sues HHM in spite. Howard buys him out of the firm, leading Chuck to commit suicide. Gus prevents Hector's assassination, and Mike attacks Hector's trucks to steal $250,000 on Gus's orders. To launder the money, Gus arranges for Mike's hire as a contracted security consultant at Madrigal. Hector plans to take over the business of Nacho's father, so his son attempts to kill Hector by sabotaging his [angina](/wiki/Angina \"Angina\") medication. Hector suffers a stroke during a confrontation with cartel lieutenant Juan Bolsa, which renders him comatose.", "In 2010, Gene points mall security guards towards a shoplifter during his lunch break. Later, a stressed Gene suddenly collapses during his work.", "### Season 4 (2018\\)", "{{Main\\|Better Call Saul season 4\\|l1\\=''Better Call Saul'' season 4}}\nFollowing the third season's end on June 27, 2017, AMC renewed the series for a 10\\-episode fourth season, which premiered on August 6, 2018, and concluded on October 8, 2018\\.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Snierson \\|first\\=Dan \\|date\\=June 27, 2017 \\|title\\=Better Call Saul renewed for season 4 \\|url\\=https://ew.com/tv/2017/06/27/better\\-call\\-saul\\-renewed\\-season\\-4/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628180601/http://ew.com/tv/2017/06/27/better\\-call\\-saul\\-renewed\\-season\\-4/ \\|archive\\-date\\=June 28, 2017 \\|access\\-date\\=June 27, 2017 \\|magazine\\=Entertainment Weekly}}{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Snierson \\|first\\=Dan \\|date\\=May 31, 2018 \\|title\\=Better Call Saul: Here's your season 4 first look, premiere date \\|url\\=https://ew.com/tv/2018/05/31/better\\-call\\-saul\\-season\\-4\\-premiere\\-date\\-first\\-look/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602024055/http://ew.com/tv/2018/05/31/better\\-call\\-saul\\-season\\-4\\-premiere\\-date\\-first\\-look/ \\|archive\\-date\\=June 2, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=May 31, 2018 \\|magazine\\=Entertainment Weekly}} It was released on Blu\\-ray and DVD in region 1 on May 7, 2019; bonus features include audio commentary for every episode and several behind\\-the\\-scenes featurettes.{{cite magazine \\|url\\=https://ew.com/tv/2019/05/06/better\\-call\\-saul\\-gag\\-reel\\-season\\-4/ \\|title\\=Watch the ''Better Call Saul'' cast lose it in season 4 gag reel \\|date\\=May 6, 2019 \\|first\\=Dan \\|last\\=Snierson \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Entertainment Weekly]]\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215181051/https://ew.com/tv/2019/05/06/better\\-call\\-saul\\-gag\\-reel\\-season\\-4/\\|archive\\-date\\=December 15, 2020\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=April 19, 2021}}", "In 2003, Jimmy regains his outgoing demeanor after Howard shoulders the blame for Chuck's death. Jimmy manages a cell phone store but earns more by reselling prepaid phones to criminals. A year later, his law license reinstatement is denied over lack of remorse for Chuck. After faking mourning, he successfully appeals and practices as \"Saul Goodman\". Gus learns Nacho attempted to kill Hector and blackmails him into undermining the Salamancas. Mike escorts engineers who evaluate Gus's industrial laundry site as a potential underground meth lab. Gus hires Werner Ziegler to oversee construction, but Mike is ordered to kill Werner when he goes [AWOL](/wiki/AWOL \"AWOL\") to spend time with his wife. Hector recovers from his stroke, but is mute and can only move his right index finger. His nephew, Lalo Salamanca, arrives to run Hector's business, and learns some details of Gus's construction project.", "In 2010, Gene is hospitalized after his collapse and later discharged. He becomes uneasy when a taxi driver with an [Albuquerque Isotopes](/wiki/Albuquerque_Isotopes \"Albuquerque Isotopes\") air freshener seems to recognize him.", "### Season 5 (2020\\)", "{{Main\\|Better Call Saul season 5\\|l1\\=''Better Call Saul'' season 5}}\nThe series was renewed for a fifth season on July 28, 2018, just prior to the airing of the fourth season.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Otterson \\|first\\=Joe \\|date\\=July 28, 2018 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul,' 'Fear the Walking Dead,' 'McMafia' Renewed at AMC \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2018/tv/news/better\\-call\\-saul\\-season\\-5\\-fear\\-the\\-walking\\-dead\\-season\\-5\\-mcmafia\\-season\\-2\\-renewed\\-amc\\-1202889278/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180815134454/https://variety.com/2018/tv/news/better\\-call\\-saul\\-season\\-5\\-fear\\-the\\-walking\\-dead\\-season\\-5\\-mcmafia\\-season\\-2\\-renewed\\-amc\\-1202889278/ \\|archive\\-date\\=August 15, 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=July 28, 2018 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}} The fifth season was not expected to air until 2020; according to AMC's Sarah Barnett, the delay was \"driven by talent needs\".{{Cite web \\|last\\=Adalian \\|first\\=Josef \\|date\\=April 5, 2019 \\|title\\=Why AMC Networks Is Betting So Heavily on ''Killing Eve'' \\|url\\=https://www.vulture.com/2019/04/killing\\-eve\\-amc\\-networks\\-bbc\\-america\\-strategy.html \\|url\\-access\\=limited \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190409060215/https://www.vulture.com/2019/04/killing\\-eve\\-amc\\-networks\\-bbc\\-america\\-strategy.html \\|archive\\-date\\=April 9, 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=April 5, 2019 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Vulture (website)\\|Vulture]]}} The 10\\-episode fifth season would start airing with a special Sunday broadcast on February 23, 2020, with following episodes to air on Mondays until the season concluded on April 20, 2020\\.{{Cite magazine \\|last\\=Blistein \\|first\\=Jon \\|date\\=November 20, 2019 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul' Cooks Up Clever Cinnabon Spot for Season Five Premiere \\|url\\=https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv\\-news/better\\-clal\\-saul\\-season\\-five\\-premiere\\-date\\-teaser\\-915197/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402230824/https://www.rollingstone.com/tv/tv\\-news/better\\-clal\\-saul\\-season\\-five\\-premiere\\-date\\-teaser\\-915197/ \\|archive\\-date\\=April 2, 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=November 20, 2019 \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Rolling Stone]]}} It was released on Blu\\-ray and DVD in region 1 on November 24, 2020; bonus features include cast and crew audio commentaries on every episode, deleted scenes, and various behind\\-the\\-scenes featurettes.{{cite web \\|last\\=Foran\\-McHale \\|first\\=Katie \\|date\\=November 19, 2020 \\|title\\=New on DVD Nov. 24: Look who's breaking bad in 'Better Call Saul: Season Five' \\|url\\=https://www.providencejournal.com/story/entertainment/2020/11/20/new\\-dvd\\-nov\\-24\\-better\\-call\\-saul/6314953002/ \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Providence Journal]] \\|access\\-date\\=November 22, 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=November 22, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122203921/https://www.providencejournal.com/story/entertainment/2020/11/20/new\\-dvd\\-nov\\-24\\-better\\-call\\-saul/6314953002/ \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In 2004, Jimmy's law practice as Saul Goodman draws him into Albuquerque's drug trade and he is conflicted when Howard offers him a position at HHM. Kim balances her Mesa Verde and *[pro bono](/wiki/Pro_bono \"Pro bono\")* work with her own feelings for Jimmy, and finds herself employing similar conman\\-style tactics. Jimmy and Kim later devise a plan to ruin Howard to settle the Sandpiper case. Lalo's presence in Albuquerque forces Gus to suspend construction of his meth lab. Nacho and Mike become pawns in the feud between the Salamancas and Gus. After Lalo is arrested for murder, he hires Jimmy to represent him and arrange bail, which almost kills Jimmy. After an unsuccessful attempt on Lalo's life by Gus's hired assassins after his release, Lalo deduces that Nacho has betrayed him.", "In 2010, during another lunch break, Gene is approached by the taxi driver, Jeff, and his friend Buddy. Jeff reveals he recognized Gene as Saul Goodman from when he previously lived in Albuquerque. Gene admits he is living with a secret identity.", "### Season 6 (2022\\)", "{{Main\\|Better Call Saul season 6\\|l1\\=''Better Call Saul'' season 6}}\nAMC renewed the series for a sixth season on January 16, 2020, with a scheduled premiere in 2021\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Thorne \\|first\\=Will \\|date\\=January 16, 2020 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul' Renewed for 6th and Final Season at AMC \\|url\\=https://variety.com/2020/tv/news/better\\-call\\-saul\\-renewed\\-final\\-season\\-1203470181/\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804033625/https://variety.com/2020/tv/news/better\\-call\\-saul\\-renewed\\-final\\-season\\-1203470181/\\|archive\\-date\\=August 4, 2020\\|access\\-date\\=January 16, 2020 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Variety (magazine)\\|Variety]]}} Showrunner Peter Gould confirmed it would be the show's final season and consist of 13 episodes rather than the usual 10\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Porter \\|first\\=Rick \\|date\\=January 16, 2020 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul' Ending With Season 6 on AMC \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\\-feed/better\\-call\\-saul\\-ending\\-season\\-6\\-amc\\-1267357\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117074621/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live\\-feed/better\\-call\\-saul\\-ending\\-season\\-6\\-amc\\-1267357\\|archive\\-date\\=January 17, 2020\\|access\\-date\\=January 16, 2020 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Hollywood Reporter]]}} Production experienced long delays due to [COVID\\-19](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States \"COVID-19 pandemic in the United States\") and star Bob Odenkirk needing several weeks to fully recover from [a heart attack he experienced on set](/wiki/Better_Call_Saul_season_6%23Odenkirk%27s_on-set_heart_attack \"Better Call Saul season 6#Odenkirk's on-set heart attack\").{{Cite web \\|last\\=Goldsmith \\|first\\=Jill \\|date\\=February 26, 2021 \\|title\\=AMC Networks' ''Better Call Saul'' To Return In Q1 Of 2022 \\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2021/02/amc\\-networks\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-killing\\-eve\\-walking\\-dead\\-1234701802/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226153538/https://deadline.com/2021/02/amc\\-networks\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-killing\\-eve\\-walking\\-dead\\-1234701802/ \\|archive\\-date\\=February 26, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=February 26, 2021 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Deadline Hollywood]]}}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Hipes \\|first\\=Patrick \\|date\\=September 8, 2021 \\|title\\=Bob Odenkirk Back At Work On 'Better Call Saul' After Heart Attack \\|url\\=https://deadline.com/2021/09/bob\\-odenkirk\\-back\\-at\\-work\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-heart\\-attack\\-1234828765/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908152446/https://deadline.com/2021/09/bob\\-odenkirk\\-back\\-at\\-work\\-better\\-call\\-saul\\-heart\\-attack\\-1234828765/ \\|archive\\-date\\=September 8, 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=September 8, 2021 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Deadline Hollywood]]}} The sixth and final season was split into two halves, with the first half premiering on April 18, 2022 and concluding on May 23, 2022, and the last half premiering on July 11, 2022 and concluding on August 15, 2022\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=Porter \\|first\\=Rick \\|date\\=February 10, 2022 \\|title\\='Better Call Saul' Sets Final Season Premiere Date \\|url\\=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\\-news/better\\-call\\-saul\\-final\\-season\\-premiere\\-date\\-1235090261/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211165557/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/tv/tv\\-news/better\\-call\\-saul\\-final\\-season\\-premiere\\-date\\-1235090261/ \\|archive\\-date\\=February 11, 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=February 10, 2022 \\|website\\=\\[\\[The Hollywood Reporter]]}} The complete season was released on Blu\\-ray and DVD in region 1 on December 6, 2022, with bonus features including cast and crew audio commentaries on every episode, deleted scenes, outtakes, and various behind\\-the\\-scenes featurettes.", "In 2004, Nacho attempts to flee from the Salamancas after the attempt on Lalo's life, but after Gus falsely implicates him, Nacho sacrifices himself in exchange for his father's safety. Jimmy and Kim smear Howard's reputation, thereby forcing a settlement of the Sandpiper case. Howard confronts them, but is murdered by Lalo. After forcing Kim to act as a diversion, Lalo ambushes Gus and accesses the construction site of Gus's meth lab. Gus kills Lalo with a hidden gun. Mike makes Howard's death appear as a suicide, and oversees the burial of Howard and Lalo beneath the lab. A traumatized Kim quits the law and divorces Jimmy. Some time later, Jimmy has fully transformed into Saul Goodman, setting the groundwork for his appearance in *Breaking Bad*.", "In 2008, in another series of flashbacks that take place during the events of *Breaking Bad*, it is revealed during one of their earliest encounters that Saul had deduced that Walter White was the mysterious \"Heisenberg\" who is producing the high\\-quality crystal meth in the New Mexico area. Armed with this knowledge, and despite Mike's warnings, Saul decides to recruit Walter and Jesse Pinkman as his full\\-time clients, figuring it would be good for business.", "In 2010, Gene approaches Jeff and Buddy with an offer to rob a department store. After reaching out to Kim, who now lives in Florida, Gene devises a scheme to obtain financial identification of rich single men at bars he can sell for profit. When the scheme goes wrong, Buddy quits the operation, Jeff is arrested, and Gene is eventually caught. He is extradited to Albuquerque for the trial and feigns testimony implicating Kim so she can be summoned to court. Jimmy confesses to Kim and those at the trial about his crimes during the events of *Breaking Bad* and *Better Call Saul*, as well as his role in Chuck's death. He is subsequently sentenced to 86 years in prison. Jimmy is recognized as Saul in prison and gains popularity with the inmates. Kim visits him and they share a cigarette before parting again.", "" ]
Plot ---- John LeTour, a 40\-year\-old New Yorker, is one of two delivery men for Ann, who supplies an exclusive clientele in the banking and financing sector with drugs. While Ann contemplates switching to the cosmetics business, LeTour, who suffers from [insomnia](/wiki/Insomnia "Insomnia"), has lost his perspective in life. One night LeTour meets his ex\-wife Marianne, with whom he once shared an intense but destructive relationship due to drug abuse. Although they stopped taking drugs, Marianne refuses his offer for a new start. After spending one night together, she tells him that this was her way of saying goodbye. Unbeknown to Marianne, her mother died at the hospital while she was with LeTour. The next time she meets LeTour, she attacks him, demanding that he get out of her life once and for all. Meanwhile, the police start observing LeTour because one of his clients, Tis, is connected to the drug\-induced death of a young woman. On his next delivery, LeTour witnesses a heavily drugged Marianne in Tis' apartment. Only minutes after his departure, she falls several stories to her death. LeTour gives the police a lead to Marianne's last whereabouts. At the wake, Marianne's sister Randi tells him not to feel guilty for what happened. When Tis orders a new supply and insists that LeTour deliver it, he senses that Tis wants to dispose of him. Ann accompanies him to Tis's hotel but, when it becomes clear that a confrontation with Tis cannot be avoided, LeTour tells her to wait for him downstairs. Ann leaves, but raises an alarm in the outer hallway, distracting Tis's henchmen and allowing John to take the initiative. LeTour kills Tis and both of his henchmen in the subsequent shootout, and is superficially wounded. He lies down on the hotel bed, showing no anger or pain, only a profound weariness, as police sirens can be heard in the distance. Ann visits LeTour in jail, where he expresses his hopes for a better future. The film hints at the possibility that Ann will wait for him.
[ "Plot\n----", "John LeTour, a 40\\-year\\-old New Yorker, is one of two delivery men for Ann, who supplies an exclusive clientele in the banking and financing sector with drugs. While Ann contemplates switching to the cosmetics business, LeTour, who suffers from [insomnia](/wiki/Insomnia \"Insomnia\"), has lost his perspective in life.", "One night LeTour meets his ex\\-wife Marianne, with whom he once shared an intense but destructive relationship due to drug abuse. Although they stopped taking drugs, Marianne refuses his offer for a new start. After spending one night together, she tells him that this was her way of saying goodbye. Unbeknown to Marianne, her mother died at the hospital while she was with LeTour. The next time she meets LeTour, she attacks him, demanding that he get out of her life once and for all.", "Meanwhile, the police start observing LeTour because one of his clients, Tis, is connected to the drug\\-induced death of a young woman. On his next delivery, LeTour witnesses a heavily drugged Marianne in Tis' apartment. Only minutes after his departure, she falls several stories to her death. LeTour gives the police a lead to Marianne's last whereabouts. At the wake, Marianne's sister Randi tells him not to feel guilty for what happened.", "When Tis orders a new supply and insists that LeTour deliver it, he senses that Tis wants to dispose of him. Ann accompanies him to Tis's hotel but, when it becomes clear that a confrontation with Tis cannot be avoided, LeTour tells her to wait for him downstairs. Ann leaves, but raises an alarm in the outer hallway, distracting Tis's henchmen and allowing John to take the initiative. LeTour kills Tis and both of his henchmen in the subsequent shootout, and is superficially wounded. He lies down on the hotel bed, showing no anger or pain, only a profound weariness, as police sirens can be heard in the distance.", "Ann visits LeTour in jail, where he expresses his hopes for a better future. The film hints at the possibility that Ann will wait for him.", "" ]
Considerations and process -------------------------- {{More citations needed section\|date\=July 2024}} The boundary commissions, which are required to report every eight years, must apply a set series of rules when devising [constituencies](/wiki/Electoral_division "Electoral division"). These rules are set out in the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986](/wiki/Parliamentary_Constituencies_Act_1986 "Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986"), as amended by the [Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011](/wiki/Parliamentary_Voting_System_and_Constituencies_Act_2011 "Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011") and subsequently by the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 2020](/wiki/2023_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies%23Legislation "2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies#Legislation"). Firstly, each proposed constituency has to comply with two numerical limits: * the electorate (number of registered voters) of each constituency must be within 5% of the United Kingdom electoral quota. The electoral quota is the average number of electors per constituency, defined as the total mainland electorate divided by the number of mainland constituencies, where "mainland" excludes five island constituencies: [Orkney and Shetland](/wiki/Orkney_and_Shetland_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Orkney and Shetland (UK Parliament constituency)"), [{{lang\|gd\|Na h\-Eileanan an Iar\|nocat\=y\|italic\=no}}](/wiki/Na_h-Eileanan_an_Iar_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Na h-Eileanan an Iar (UK Parliament constituency)") (Western Isles), [Ynys Môn](/wiki/Ynys_M%C3%B4n_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 "Ynys Môn (UK Parliament constituency)") (Isle of Anglesey) and two on the [Isle of Wight](/wiki/Isle_of_Wight "Isle of Wight"). The total number of constituencies is fixed at 650\. * the area of a constituency must be no more than {{convert\|13000\|km2\|\-1}}. There are a small number of exceptions to the numerical limit on electorate which are specified in the legislation: * the five island constituencies are permitted to have a smaller electorate than the usual limit; * a constituency with an area of more than {{convert\|12000\|km2\|\-1}} may have a smaller electorate than the usual limit; and * constituencies in Northern Ireland may be subject to slightly different limits under certain circumstances. Having satisfied the electorate and area requirements, each commission can also take into account a number of other factors: * "special geographical considerations" including the size, shape and accessibility of a constituency; * [local government](/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_Kingdom "Local government in the United Kingdom") boundaries; * boundaries of existing constituencies; * local [ties](/wiki/Allegiance "Allegiance") which would be broken by changes to constituencies; * inconveniences resulting from changes to constituencies. As these factors can to an extent be mutually conflicting, each commission has discretion on how it applies them. In so doing, each commission aims for a consistent approach within a review. When a commission publishes its proposals for [public consultation](/wiki/Public_consultation "Public consultation"), the consultation periods are specified in the legislation: * an eight\-week initial written consultation period following the publication of Initial Proposals; * a six\-week secondary consultation period allowing scrutiny of all comments submitted during the initial consultation and including a number of public hearings which offer an opportunity to give views orally; * a four\-week consultation period following publication of Revised Proposals. It has been normal practice for local government electoral wards to be used as building blocks for constituencies, although there is no legislative requirement to do so. In some [metropolitan boroughs](/wiki/Metropolitan_borough "Metropolitan borough") in England, and in Scotland, following the [introduction of multi\-member wards](/wiki/Local_Governance_%28Scotland%29_Act_2004 "Local Governance (Scotland) Act 2004") in 2007, it is often difficult to do so due to the large electorates in these wards, and therefore a collection of complete wards may not give an electorate that is within the required electoral range. The law specifies that the electorate used during a review is the [registered electorate](/wiki/Electoral_roll "Electoral roll") at the time of the start of the review, and not the electorate at the end of a review, or the total population. Boundary changes can have a significant effect on the results of elections,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.epolitix.com/latestnews/article\-detail/newsarticle/boundary\-changes\-favour\-tories/ \|title\=June 2006: Boundary changes favour Tories \|publisher\=Epolitix.com \|date\=25 June 2006 \|access\-date\=31 December 2011 }} but boundary commissions do not take any account of [voting patterns](/wiki/Voting_behaviour "Voting behaviour") in their deliberations, or consider what the effect of their recommendations on the outcome of an [election](/wiki/Election "Election") may be. ### Implementation of recommendations Once a commission has completed its review, it submits a report to the appropriate [Secretary of State](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Secretary of State (United Kingdom)") who lays it before [Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom "Parliament of the United Kingdom"). Once all four reports have been submitted, an [Order in Council](/wiki/Order_in_Council "Order in Council") which gives effect to the recommendations must be submitted within four months to the [Privy Council](/wiki/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom "Privy Council of the United Kingdom"). The Government may not modify any of the commissions' recommendations unless specifically requested to do so by the relevant commission. On approval by the Privy Council, the new constituencies come into effect for the next [general election](/wiki/General_election "General election"). Any [by\-elections](/wiki/By-election "By-election") before then use the pre\-existing boundaries. These provisions were brought in by the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 2020](/wiki/2023_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies "2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies"). Previously, Parliament voted on the recommendations and, although it could not make any alterations to them, it could reject them in their entirety. In addition, although this power was never exercised, for many years the legislation gave the Secretary of State the power to modify a commission's recommendations. The new procedures further strengthen the separation of the creation of constituency boundaries from those elected for the resulting electoral areas, with the aim of eliminating any scope for [gerrymandering](/wiki/Gerrymandering "Gerrymandering").
[ "Considerations and process\n--------------------------", "{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=July 2024}}\nThe boundary commissions, which are required to report every eight years, must apply a set series of rules when devising [constituencies](/wiki/Electoral_division \"Electoral division\"). These rules are set out in the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986](/wiki/Parliamentary_Constituencies_Act_1986 \"Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986\"), as amended by the [Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011](/wiki/Parliamentary_Voting_System_and_Constituencies_Act_2011 \"Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011\") and subsequently by the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 2020](/wiki/2023_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies%23Legislation \"2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies#Legislation\").", "Firstly, each proposed constituency has to comply with two numerical limits:\n* the electorate (number of registered voters) of each constituency must be within 5% of the United Kingdom electoral quota. The electoral quota is the average number of electors per constituency, defined as the total mainland electorate divided by the number of mainland constituencies, where \"mainland\" excludes five island constituencies: [Orkney and Shetland](/wiki/Orkney_and_Shetland_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Orkney and Shetland (UK Parliament constituency)\"), [{{lang\\|gd\\|Na h\\-Eileanan an Iar\\|nocat\\=y\\|italic\\=no}}](/wiki/Na_h-Eileanan_an_Iar_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Na h-Eileanan an Iar (UK Parliament constituency)\") (Western Isles), [Ynys Môn](/wiki/Ynys_M%C3%B4n_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29 \"Ynys Môn (UK Parliament constituency)\") (Isle of Anglesey) and two on the [Isle of Wight](/wiki/Isle_of_Wight \"Isle of Wight\"). The total number of constituencies is fixed at 650\\.\n* the area of a constituency must be no more than {{convert\\|13000\\|km2\\|\\-1}}.", "There are a small number of exceptions to the numerical limit on electorate which are specified in the legislation:\n* the five island constituencies are permitted to have a smaller electorate than the usual limit;\n* a constituency with an area of more than {{convert\\|12000\\|km2\\|\\-1}} may have a smaller electorate than the usual limit; and\n* constituencies in Northern Ireland may be subject to slightly different limits under certain circumstances.", "Having satisfied the electorate and area requirements, each commission can also take into account a number of other factors:\n* \"special geographical considerations\" including the size, shape and accessibility of a constituency;\n* [local government](/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_Kingdom \"Local government in the United Kingdom\") boundaries;\n* boundaries of existing constituencies;\n* local [ties](/wiki/Allegiance \"Allegiance\") which would be broken by changes to constituencies;\n* inconveniences resulting from changes to constituencies.", "As these factors can to an extent be mutually conflicting, each commission has discretion on how it applies them. In so doing, each commission aims for a consistent approach within a review.", "When a commission publishes its proposals for [public consultation](/wiki/Public_consultation \"Public consultation\"), the consultation periods are specified in the legislation:\n* an eight\\-week initial written consultation period following the publication of Initial Proposals;\n* a six\\-week secondary consultation period allowing scrutiny of all comments submitted during the initial consultation and including a number of public hearings which offer an opportunity to give views orally;\n* a four\\-week consultation period following publication of Revised Proposals.", "It has been normal practice for local government electoral wards to be used as building blocks for constituencies, although there is no legislative requirement to do so. In some [metropolitan boroughs](/wiki/Metropolitan_borough \"Metropolitan borough\") in England, and in Scotland, following the [introduction of multi\\-member wards](/wiki/Local_Governance_%28Scotland%29_Act_2004 \"Local Governance (Scotland) Act 2004\") in 2007, it is often difficult to do so due to the large electorates in these wards, and therefore a collection of complete wards may not give an electorate that is within the required electoral range.", "The law specifies that the electorate used during a review is the [registered electorate](/wiki/Electoral_roll \"Electoral roll\") at the time of the start of the review, and not the electorate at the end of a review, or the total population.", "Boundary changes can have a significant effect on the results of elections,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.epolitix.com/latestnews/article\\-detail/newsarticle/boundary\\-changes\\-favour\\-tories/ \\|title\\=June 2006: Boundary changes favour Tories \\|publisher\\=Epolitix.com \\|date\\=25 June 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2011 }} but boundary commissions do not take any account of [voting patterns](/wiki/Voting_behaviour \"Voting behaviour\") in their deliberations, or consider what the effect of their recommendations on the outcome of an [election](/wiki/Election \"Election\") may be.", "### Implementation of recommendations", "Once a commission has completed its review, it submits a report to the appropriate [Secretary of State](/wiki/Secretary_of_State_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Secretary of State (United Kingdom)\") who lays it before [Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Parliament of the United Kingdom\"). Once all four reports have been submitted, an [Order in Council](/wiki/Order_in_Council \"Order in Council\") which gives effect to the recommendations must be submitted within four months to the [Privy Council](/wiki/Privy_Council_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Privy Council of the United Kingdom\"). The Government may not modify any of the commissions' recommendations unless specifically requested to do so by the relevant commission. On approval by the Privy Council, the new constituencies come into effect for the next [general election](/wiki/General_election \"General election\"). Any [by\\-elections](/wiki/By-election \"By-election\") before then use the pre\\-existing boundaries.", "These provisions were brought in by the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 2020](/wiki/2023_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies \"2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies\"). Previously, Parliament voted on the recommendations and, although it could not make any alterations to them, it could reject them in their entirety. In addition, although this power was never exercised, for many years the legislation gave the Secretary of State the power to modify a commission's recommendations. The new procedures further strengthen the separation of the creation of constituency boundaries from those elected for the resulting electoral areas, with the aim of eliminating any scope for [gerrymandering](/wiki/Gerrymandering \"Gerrymandering\").", "" ]
History ------- {{More citations needed section\|date\=July 2024}} ### Legislation The commissions are currently established under the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986](/wiki/Parliamentary_Constituencies_Act_1986 "Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986"), most recently amended by the [Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011](/wiki/Parliamentary_Voting_System_and_Constituencies_Act_2011 "Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011"). They were first established as permanent bodies under the [House of Commons (Redistribution of Seats) Act 1944](/wiki/House_of_Commons_%28Redistribution_of_Seats%29_Act_1944 "House of Commons (Redistribution of Seats) Act 1944"). The 1944 Act was amended in 1947 and then replaced by the [House of Commons (Redistribution of Seats) Act 1949](/wiki/House_of_Commons_%28Redistribution_of_Seats%29_Act_1949 "House of Commons (Redistribution of Seats) Act 1949"). The 1949 Act was amended in 1958 and 1979 and replaced by the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986](/wiki/Parliamentary_Constituencies_Act_1986 "Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986"); changes in [legislation](/wiki/Legislation "Legislation") from 1944 to 1986 were generally incremental in nature. The [Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000](/wiki/Political_Parties%2C_Elections_and_Referendums_Act_2000 "Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000") under [PM Tony Blair's government](/wiki/First_Blair_ministry "First Blair ministry") envisaged that the functions of the boundary commissioners would be transferred to the [United Kingdom Electoral Commission](/wiki/Electoral_Commission_%28United_Kingdom%29 "Electoral Commission (United Kingdom)"), but this never transpired: the [Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009](/wiki/Local_Democracy%2C_Economic_Development_and_Construction_Act_2009 "Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009") repealed the [Act of Parliament](/wiki/Act_of_Parliament "Act of Parliament") (of 2000\) effective from 1 April 2010\. The [Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011](/wiki/Parliamentary_Voting_System_and_Constituencies_Act_2011 "Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011") passed under the [Con\-Lib Dem coalition government](/wiki/Cameron%E2%80%93Clegg_coalition "Cameron–Clegg coalition") made substantial changes to the legislation governing constituency boundary reviews; this was further amended by the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 2020](/wiki/2023_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies "2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies"). ### Past reviews of UK Parliament constituencies Customarily, each commission conducted a complete review of all constituencies in its part of the United Kingdom every eight to twelve years. In between these general reviews, the commissions were able to conduct interim reviews of part of their area of responsibility. The interim reviews usually did not yield drastic changes in boundaries, while the general reviews generally did. Under the rules in force before 2011, the number of constituencies in Great Britain (England, Wales, and Scotland) had to "not be substantially greater or less than 613", of which at least 35 had to be in Wales. The [City of London](/wiki/City_of_London "City of London") was not to be partitioned and was to be included in a seat that referred to it by name. The [Orkney](/wiki/Orkney "Orkney") and [Shetland](/wiki/Shetland "Shetland") Islands were not to be combined with any other areas. Northern Ireland had to have between 16 and 18 constituencies.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.boundarycommission.org.uk/rules.html \|title\=Extract from the Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986 \|publisher\=Boundarycommission.org.uk \|date\=14 September 2011 \|access\-date\=31 December 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306112044/http://www.boundarycommission.org.uk/rules.html \|archive\-date\=6 March 2012}} Under the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986](/wiki/Parliamentary_Constituencies_Act_1986 "Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986"), the terms of review were significantly different: * the total number of constituencies was not fixed (*see above*): each commission had limited discretion to specify the number in its part of the United Kingdom; * the size of the electorates was just one of several rules, rather than being subject to a numerical limit which overrides other factors; * there was not previously a limit on the area of a constituency, but in practice, no constituency has ever exceeded the 13,000 square kilometre limit introduced by the 2011 Act; * the consultation mechanism was significantly different: consultation periods only lasted four weeks, and could be followed by local inquiries; * reviews were only carried out every eight to twelve years instead of every five years. [thumb\|The current constituencies showing the results of the [2019 general election.](/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election "2019 United Kingdom general election")](/wiki/File:Results_of_the_2019_General_Election_in_the_UK.png "Results of the 2019 General Election in the UK.png") The review that gave rise to most of the constituency boundaries currently in force is the [Fifth Periodic Review](/wiki/Fifth_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies "Fifth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies"), which was given effect in Wales by an Order made in 2006,{{cite web\|title\=The Parliamentary Constituencies and Assembly Electoral Regions (Wales) Order 2006\|url\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2006/1041/contents/made\|access\-date\=31 December 2011\|publisher\=Legislation.gov.uk}} in England by an Order from 2007{{cite web\|title\=The Parliamentary Constituencies (England) Order 2007\|url\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2007/1681/contents/made\|access\-date\=31 December 2011\|publisher\=Legislation.gov.uk}} and in Northern Ireland by an Order from 2008,{{cite web\|title\=The Parliamentary Constituencies (Northern Ireland) Order 2008\|url\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2008/1486/contents/made\|access\-date\=31 December 2011\|publisher\=Legislation.gov.uk}} with the new boundaries used for the [May 2010 general election](/wiki/2010_United_Kingdom_general_election "2010 United Kingdom general election"). The most recent general review in Scotland was given effect in 2005,{{cite web\|title\=The Parliamentary Constituencies (Scotland) Order 2005\|url\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2005/250/contents/made\|access\-date\=31 December 2011\|publisher\=Legislation.gov.uk}} and the resulting constituencies were used in the [May 2005 general election](/wiki/2005_United_Kingdom_general_election "2005 United Kingdom general election"). There are currently 533 constituencies in England, 40 constituencies in Wales, 59 constituencies in Scotland and 18 constituencies in Northern Ireland, providing a total of 650\. #### Sixth Periodic Review The [Sixth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies](/wiki/Sixth_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies "Sixth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies") was launched on 4 March 2011 by the Boundary Commission for England,[News](http://www.boundarycommissionforengland.org.uk/news/news.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110128205624/http://www.boundarycommissionforengland.org.uk/news/news.htm \|date\=28 January 2011 }} Boundary Commission for England the Boundary Commission for Scotland,[Sixth Review](http://www.bcomm-scotland.independent.gov.uk/6th_westminster/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908082439/http://www.bcomm\-scotland.independent.gov.uk/6th\_westminster/ \|date\=8 September 2012 }} Boundary Commission for Scotland the Boundary Commission for Wales[Sixth Review (English language)](http://www.bcomm-wales.gov.uk/sixth_review_e.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721194551/http://www.bcomm\-wales.gov.uk/sixth\_review\_e.htm \|date\=21 July 2011 }} Boundary Commission for Wales and the Boundary Commission for Northern Ireland.[Sixth Review](http://www.boundarycommission.org.uk/) Boundary Commission for Northern Ireland The Sixth Review would have resulted in 600 constituencies for the [United Kingdom Parliament](/wiki/United_Kingdom_Parliament "United Kingdom Parliament"): a reduction from the 650 constituencies in existence at the [2010 general election](/wiki/2010_United_Kingdom_general_election "2010 United Kingdom general election"). In January 2013, parliamentary opposition to proposed legislative amendments because of a lack of consensus in the coalition resulted in the review being suspended. Following the [Conservative](/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 "Conservative Party (UK)") victory at the [2015 general election](/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_general_election "2015 United Kingdom general election"), the review was recommenced in 2016 and final recommendations were submitted by the four commissions in September 2018 and laid before Parliament. However the revised proposals were never brought forward by the Government for approval and, further to the passing of the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 2020](/wiki/2023_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies "2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies"), the Sixth Review was formally abandoned. ### 2023 review Following the passing of the 2020 Act, which reinstated the number of constituencies to 650, a new review, known as the [2023 Review](/wiki/2023_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies "2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies"), was launched by the four commissions on 5 January 2021\.{{Cite web\|title\=2023 Review launched\|url\=https://boundarycommissionforengland.independent.gov.uk/2023\-review\-launched/\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-07\|website\=Boundary Commission for England\|language\=en\-GB}}{{Cite web\|title\=2023 Review of UK Parliament Constituencies\|url\=https://www.bcomm\-scotland.independent.gov.uk/?q\=reviews/2023\-review\-uk\-parliament\-constituencies\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-07\|website\=Boundary Commission for Scotland}}{{Cite web\|title\=2023 Review\|url\=https://bcomm\-wales.gov.uk/reviews/01\-21/2023\-review\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-07\|website\=Boundary Commission for Wales}}{{Cite web\|date\=2021\-01\-05\|title\=2023 Review: Electoral Quota and Allocation of Constituencies Announced\|url\=https://www.boundarycommission.org.uk/news/2023\-review\-electoral\-quota\-and\-allocation\-constituencies\-announced\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-07\|website\=Boundary Commission for Northern Ireland\|language\=en}} Under the new rules governing the number of constituencies in each nation, England would have 543 constituencies (\+10\), Wales 32 (\-8\), Scotland 57 (\-2\) and Northern Ireland 18 (unchanged).{{Cite web\|title\=2023 Review\|url\=https://boundarycommissionforengland.independent.gov.uk/home/2023\-review/\|access\-date\=2021\-01\-08\|website\=Boundary Commission for England\|language\=en\-GB}} The final consultation for England began on 8 November 2022 with the publication of the Revised Proposals and lasted for four weeks, ending on 5 December.{{cite web \| url \= https://boundarycommissionforengland.independent.gov.uk/wp\-content/uploads/2022/10/2022\-10\-04\-Press\-release\-Boundary\-Commission\-for\-England\-third\-campaign\-date\-announcement\-v2\.pdf \| title \= Boundary Commission for England announces publication date for revised constituency proposals and launch of final public consultation \| date \= 2022\-10\-04 \| website \= Boundary Commission for England \| access\-date \= 2022\-11\-01 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20221101090905/https://boundarycommissionforengland.independent.gov.uk/wp\-content/uploads/2022/10/2022\-10\-04\-Press\-release\-Boundary\-Commission\-for\-England\-third\-campaign\-date\-announcement\-v2\.pdf \| archive\-date \= 2022\-11\-01}} All four Commissions submitted their Final Recommendations Reports to the Speaker of the House of Commons on 27 June 2023\.{{Cite web \|title\=Boundary Commission for England publishes final recommendations for new Parliamentary constituencies {{!}} Boundary Commission for England \|url\=https://boundarycommissionforengland.independent.gov.uk/boundary\-commission\-for\-england\-publishes\-final\-recommendations\-for\-new\-parliamentary\-constituencies/ \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-05 \|website\=boundarycommissionforengland.independent.gov.uk}}{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-06\-28 \|title\=Boundary Commission for Northern Ireland Publishes Final Recommendations Report of the 2023 Review of Parliamentary Constituencies \|url\=https://www.boundarycommission.org.uk/news/boundary\-commission\-northern\-ireland\-publishes\-final\-recommendations\-report\-2023\-review \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-05 \|website\=Boundary Commission for Northern Ireland \|language\=en}}{{Cite web \|title\=28 June 2023 \- 2023 Review Report laid before Parliament {{!}} The Boundary Commission for Scotland \|url\=https://www.bcomm\-scotland.independent.gov.uk/?q\=resources/news/28\-june\-2023\-2023\-review\-report\-laid\-parliament \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-05 \|website\=www.bcomm\-scotland.independent.gov.uk}}{{Cite web \|title\=Wales’ new parliamentary constituencies published {{!}} BComm Wales \|url\=https://bcomm\-wales.gov.uk/news/06\-23/wales\-new\-parliamentary\-constituencies\-published \|access\-date\=2023\-07\-05 \|website\=bcomm\-wales.gov.uk}} An [order in council](/wiki/Order_in_Council "Order in Council") adopting the recommendations, *The Parliamentary Constituencies Order 2023* (No. 1230 of 2023\), was made on 15 November 2023 and came into force on 29 November 2023\.[*The Parliamentary Constituencies Order 2023*](https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2023/1230/made), [legislation.gov.uk](/wiki/Legislation.gov.uk "Legislation.gov.uk"). Retrieved 29 November 2023\.
[ "History\n-------", "{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=July 2024}} \n### Legislation", "The commissions are currently established under the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986](/wiki/Parliamentary_Constituencies_Act_1986 \"Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986\"), most recently amended by the [Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011](/wiki/Parliamentary_Voting_System_and_Constituencies_Act_2011 \"Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011\"). They were first established as permanent bodies under the [House of Commons (Redistribution of Seats) Act 1944](/wiki/House_of_Commons_%28Redistribution_of_Seats%29_Act_1944 \"House of Commons (Redistribution of Seats) Act 1944\"). The 1944 Act was amended in 1947 and then replaced by the [House of Commons (Redistribution of Seats) Act 1949](/wiki/House_of_Commons_%28Redistribution_of_Seats%29_Act_1949 \"House of Commons (Redistribution of Seats) Act 1949\"). The 1949 Act was amended in 1958 and 1979 and replaced by the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986](/wiki/Parliamentary_Constituencies_Act_1986 \"Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986\"); changes in [legislation](/wiki/Legislation \"Legislation\") from 1944 to 1986 were generally incremental in nature.", "The [Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000](/wiki/Political_Parties%2C_Elections_and_Referendums_Act_2000 \"Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000\") under [PM Tony Blair's government](/wiki/First_Blair_ministry \"First Blair ministry\") envisaged that the functions of the boundary commissioners would be transferred to the [United Kingdom Electoral Commission](/wiki/Electoral_Commission_%28United_Kingdom%29 \"Electoral Commission (United Kingdom)\"), but this never transpired: the [Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009](/wiki/Local_Democracy%2C_Economic_Development_and_Construction_Act_2009 \"Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009\") repealed the [Act of Parliament](/wiki/Act_of_Parliament \"Act of Parliament\") (of 2000\\) effective from 1 April 2010\\.", "The [Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011](/wiki/Parliamentary_Voting_System_and_Constituencies_Act_2011 \"Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011\") passed under the [Con\\-Lib Dem coalition government](/wiki/Cameron%E2%80%93Clegg_coalition \"Cameron–Clegg coalition\") made substantial changes to the legislation governing constituency boundary reviews; this was further amended by the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 2020](/wiki/2023_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies \"2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies\").", "### Past reviews of UK Parliament constituencies", "Customarily, each commission conducted a complete review of all constituencies in its part of the United Kingdom every eight to twelve years. In between these general reviews, the commissions were able to conduct interim reviews of part of their area of responsibility. The interim reviews usually did not yield drastic changes in boundaries, while the general reviews generally did.", "Under the rules in force before 2011, the number of constituencies in Great Britain (England, Wales, and Scotland) had to \"not be substantially greater or less than 613\", of which at least 35 had to be in Wales. The [City of London](/wiki/City_of_London \"City of London\") was not to be partitioned and was to be included in a seat that referred to it by name. The [Orkney](/wiki/Orkney \"Orkney\") and [Shetland](/wiki/Shetland \"Shetland\") Islands were not to be combined with any other areas. Northern Ireland had to have between 16 and 18 constituencies.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.boundarycommission.org.uk/rules.html \\|title\\=Extract from the Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986 \\|publisher\\=Boundarycommission.org.uk \\|date\\=14 September 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306112044/http://www.boundarycommission.org.uk/rules.html \\|archive\\-date\\=6 March 2012}}", "Under the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986](/wiki/Parliamentary_Constituencies_Act_1986 \"Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986\"), the terms of review were significantly different:\n* the total number of constituencies was not fixed (*see above*): each commission had limited discretion to specify the number in its part of the United Kingdom;\n* the size of the electorates was just one of several rules, rather than being subject to a numerical limit which overrides other factors;\n* there was not previously a limit on the area of a constituency, but in practice, no constituency has ever exceeded the 13,000 square kilometre limit introduced by the 2011 Act;\n* the consultation mechanism was significantly different: consultation periods only lasted four weeks, and could be followed by local inquiries;\n* reviews were only carried out every eight to twelve years instead of every five years.\n[thumb\\|The current constituencies showing the results of the [2019 general election.](/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election \"2019 United Kingdom general election\")](/wiki/File:Results_of_the_2019_General_Election_in_the_UK.png \"Results of the 2019 General Election in the UK.png\")\nThe review that gave rise to most of the constituency boundaries currently in force is the [Fifth Periodic Review](/wiki/Fifth_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies \"Fifth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies\"), which was given effect in Wales by an Order made in 2006,{{cite web\\|title\\=The Parliamentary Constituencies and Assembly Electoral Regions (Wales) Order 2006\\|url\\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2006/1041/contents/made\\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2011\\|publisher\\=Legislation.gov.uk}} in England by an Order from 2007{{cite web\\|title\\=The Parliamentary Constituencies (England) Order 2007\\|url\\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2007/1681/contents/made\\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2011\\|publisher\\=Legislation.gov.uk}} and in Northern Ireland by an Order from 2008,{{cite web\\|title\\=The Parliamentary Constituencies (Northern Ireland) Order 2008\\|url\\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2008/1486/contents/made\\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2011\\|publisher\\=Legislation.gov.uk}} with the new boundaries used for the [May 2010 general election](/wiki/2010_United_Kingdom_general_election \"2010 United Kingdom general election\"). The most recent general review in Scotland was given effect in 2005,{{cite web\\|title\\=The Parliamentary Constituencies (Scotland) Order 2005\\|url\\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2005/250/contents/made\\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2011\\|publisher\\=Legislation.gov.uk}} and the resulting constituencies were used in the [May 2005 general election](/wiki/2005_United_Kingdom_general_election \"2005 United Kingdom general election\").", "There are currently 533 constituencies in England, 40 constituencies in Wales, 59 constituencies in Scotland and 18 constituencies in Northern Ireland, providing a total of 650\\.", "#### Sixth Periodic Review", "The [Sixth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies](/wiki/Sixth_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies \"Sixth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies\") was launched on 4 March 2011 by the Boundary Commission for England,[News](http://www.boundarycommissionforengland.org.uk/news/news.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110128205624/http://www.boundarycommissionforengland.org.uk/news/news.htm \\|date\\=28 January 2011 }} Boundary Commission for England the Boundary Commission for Scotland,[Sixth Review](http://www.bcomm-scotland.independent.gov.uk/6th_westminster/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908082439/http://www.bcomm\\-scotland.independent.gov.uk/6th\\_westminster/ \\|date\\=8 September 2012 }} Boundary Commission for Scotland the Boundary Commission for Wales[Sixth Review (English language)](http://www.bcomm-wales.gov.uk/sixth_review_e.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721194551/http://www.bcomm\\-wales.gov.uk/sixth\\_review\\_e.htm \\|date\\=21 July 2011 }} Boundary Commission for Wales and the Boundary Commission for Northern Ireland.[Sixth Review](http://www.boundarycommission.org.uk/) Boundary Commission for Northern Ireland The Sixth Review would have resulted in 600 constituencies for the [United Kingdom Parliament](/wiki/United_Kingdom_Parliament \"United Kingdom Parliament\"): a reduction from the 650 constituencies in existence at the [2010 general election](/wiki/2010_United_Kingdom_general_election \"2010 United Kingdom general election\"). In January 2013, parliamentary opposition to proposed legislative amendments because of a lack of consensus in the coalition resulted in the review being suspended.", "Following the [Conservative](/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 \"Conservative Party (UK)\") victory at the [2015 general election](/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_general_election \"2015 United Kingdom general election\"), the review was recommenced in 2016 and final recommendations were submitted by the four commissions in September 2018 and laid before Parliament. However the revised proposals were never brought forward by the Government for approval and, further to the passing of the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 2020](/wiki/2023_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies \"2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies\"), the Sixth Review was formally abandoned.", "### 2023 review", "Following the passing of the 2020 Act, which reinstated the number of constituencies to 650, a new review, known as the [2023 Review](/wiki/2023_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies \"2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies\"), was launched by the four commissions on 5 January 2021\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=2023 Review launched\\|url\\=https://boundarycommissionforengland.independent.gov.uk/2023\\-review\\-launched/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-07\\|website\\=Boundary Commission for England\\|language\\=en\\-GB}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=2023 Review of UK Parliament Constituencies\\|url\\=https://www.bcomm\\-scotland.independent.gov.uk/?q\\=reviews/2023\\-review\\-uk\\-parliament\\-constituencies\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-07\\|website\\=Boundary Commission for Scotland}}{{Cite web\\|title\\=2023 Review\\|url\\=https://bcomm\\-wales.gov.uk/reviews/01\\-21/2023\\-review\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-07\\|website\\=Boundary Commission for Wales}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=2021\\-01\\-05\\|title\\=2023 Review: Electoral Quota and Allocation of Constituencies Announced\\|url\\=https://www.boundarycommission.org.uk/news/2023\\-review\\-electoral\\-quota\\-and\\-allocation\\-constituencies\\-announced\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-07\\|website\\=Boundary Commission for Northern Ireland\\|language\\=en}} Under the new rules governing the number of constituencies in each nation, England would have 543 constituencies (\\+10\\), Wales 32 (\\-8\\), Scotland 57 (\\-2\\) and Northern Ireland 18 (unchanged).{{Cite web\\|title\\=2023 Review\\|url\\=https://boundarycommissionforengland.independent.gov.uk/home/2023\\-review/\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-08\\|website\\=Boundary Commission for England\\|language\\=en\\-GB}}", "The final consultation for England began on 8 November 2022 with the publication of the Revised Proposals and lasted for four weeks, ending on 5 December.{{cite web \\| url \\= https://boundarycommissionforengland.independent.gov.uk/wp\\-content/uploads/2022/10/2022\\-10\\-04\\-Press\\-release\\-Boundary\\-Commission\\-for\\-England\\-third\\-campaign\\-date\\-announcement\\-v2\\.pdf \\| title \\= Boundary Commission for England announces publication date for revised constituency proposals and launch of final public consultation \\| date \\= 2022\\-10\\-04 \\| website \\= Boundary Commission for England \\| access\\-date \\= 2022\\-11\\-01 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20221101090905/https://boundarycommissionforengland.independent.gov.uk/wp\\-content/uploads/2022/10/2022\\-10\\-04\\-Press\\-release\\-Boundary\\-Commission\\-for\\-England\\-third\\-campaign\\-date\\-announcement\\-v2\\.pdf \\| archive\\-date \\= 2022\\-11\\-01}}", "All four Commissions submitted their Final Recommendations Reports to the Speaker of the House of Commons on 27 June 2023\\.{{Cite web \\|title\\=Boundary Commission for England publishes final recommendations for new Parliamentary constituencies {{!}} Boundary Commission for England \\|url\\=https://boundarycommissionforengland.independent.gov.uk/boundary\\-commission\\-for\\-england\\-publishes\\-final\\-recommendations\\-for\\-new\\-parliamentary\\-constituencies/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-05 \\|website\\=boundarycommissionforengland.independent.gov.uk}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-06\\-28 \\|title\\=Boundary Commission for Northern Ireland Publishes Final Recommendations Report of the 2023 Review of Parliamentary Constituencies \\|url\\=https://www.boundarycommission.org.uk/news/boundary\\-commission\\-northern\\-ireland\\-publishes\\-final\\-recommendations\\-report\\-2023\\-review \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-05 \\|website\\=Boundary Commission for Northern Ireland \\|language\\=en}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=28 June 2023 \\- 2023 Review Report laid before Parliament {{!}} The Boundary Commission for Scotland \\|url\\=https://www.bcomm\\-scotland.independent.gov.uk/?q\\=resources/news/28\\-june\\-2023\\-2023\\-review\\-report\\-laid\\-parliament \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-05 \\|website\\=www.bcomm\\-scotland.independent.gov.uk}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Wales’ new parliamentary constituencies published {{!}} BComm Wales \\|url\\=https://bcomm\\-wales.gov.uk/news/06\\-23/wales\\-new\\-parliamentary\\-constituencies\\-published \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-07\\-05 \\|website\\=bcomm\\-wales.gov.uk}} An [order in council](/wiki/Order_in_Council \"Order in Council\") adopting the recommendations, *The Parliamentary Constituencies Order 2023* (No. 1230 of 2023\\), was made on 15 November 2023 and came into force on 29 November 2023\\.[*The Parliamentary Constituencies Order 2023*](https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2023/1230/made), [legislation.gov.uk](/wiki/Legislation.gov.uk \"Legislation.gov.uk\"). Retrieved 29 November 2023\\.", "" ]
### Past reviews of UK Parliament constituencies Customarily, each commission conducted a complete review of all constituencies in its part of the United Kingdom every eight to twelve years. In between these general reviews, the commissions were able to conduct interim reviews of part of their area of responsibility. The interim reviews usually did not yield drastic changes in boundaries, while the general reviews generally did. Under the rules in force before 2011, the number of constituencies in Great Britain (England, Wales, and Scotland) had to "not be substantially greater or less than 613", of which at least 35 had to be in Wales. The [City of London](/wiki/City_of_London "City of London") was not to be partitioned and was to be included in a seat that referred to it by name. The [Orkney](/wiki/Orkney "Orkney") and [Shetland](/wiki/Shetland "Shetland") Islands were not to be combined with any other areas. Northern Ireland had to have between 16 and 18 constituencies.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.boundarycommission.org.uk/rules.html \|title\=Extract from the Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986 \|publisher\=Boundarycommission.org.uk \|date\=14 September 2011 \|access\-date\=31 December 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306112044/http://www.boundarycommission.org.uk/rules.html \|archive\-date\=6 March 2012}} Under the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986](/wiki/Parliamentary_Constituencies_Act_1986 "Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986"), the terms of review were significantly different: * the total number of constituencies was not fixed (*see above*): each commission had limited discretion to specify the number in its part of the United Kingdom; * the size of the electorates was just one of several rules, rather than being subject to a numerical limit which overrides other factors; * there was not previously a limit on the area of a constituency, but in practice, no constituency has ever exceeded the 13,000 square kilometre limit introduced by the 2011 Act; * the consultation mechanism was significantly different: consultation periods only lasted four weeks, and could be followed by local inquiries; * reviews were only carried out every eight to twelve years instead of every five years. [thumb\|The current constituencies showing the results of the [2019 general election.](/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election "2019 United Kingdom general election")](/wiki/File:Results_of_the_2019_General_Election_in_the_UK.png "Results of the 2019 General Election in the UK.png") The review that gave rise to most of the constituency boundaries currently in force is the [Fifth Periodic Review](/wiki/Fifth_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies "Fifth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies"), which was given effect in Wales by an Order made in 2006,{{cite web\|title\=The Parliamentary Constituencies and Assembly Electoral Regions (Wales) Order 2006\|url\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2006/1041/contents/made\|access\-date\=31 December 2011\|publisher\=Legislation.gov.uk}} in England by an Order from 2007{{cite web\|title\=The Parliamentary Constituencies (England) Order 2007\|url\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2007/1681/contents/made\|access\-date\=31 December 2011\|publisher\=Legislation.gov.uk}} and in Northern Ireland by an Order from 2008,{{cite web\|title\=The Parliamentary Constituencies (Northern Ireland) Order 2008\|url\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2008/1486/contents/made\|access\-date\=31 December 2011\|publisher\=Legislation.gov.uk}} with the new boundaries used for the [May 2010 general election](/wiki/2010_United_Kingdom_general_election "2010 United Kingdom general election"). The most recent general review in Scotland was given effect in 2005,{{cite web\|title\=The Parliamentary Constituencies (Scotland) Order 2005\|url\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2005/250/contents/made\|access\-date\=31 December 2011\|publisher\=Legislation.gov.uk}} and the resulting constituencies were used in the [May 2005 general election](/wiki/2005_United_Kingdom_general_election "2005 United Kingdom general election"). There are currently 533 constituencies in England, 40 constituencies in Wales, 59 constituencies in Scotland and 18 constituencies in Northern Ireland, providing a total of 650\. #### Sixth Periodic Review The [Sixth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies](/wiki/Sixth_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies "Sixth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies") was launched on 4 March 2011 by the Boundary Commission for England,[News](http://www.boundarycommissionforengland.org.uk/news/news.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110128205624/http://www.boundarycommissionforengland.org.uk/news/news.htm \|date\=28 January 2011 }} Boundary Commission for England the Boundary Commission for Scotland,[Sixth Review](http://www.bcomm-scotland.independent.gov.uk/6th_westminster/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908082439/http://www.bcomm\-scotland.independent.gov.uk/6th\_westminster/ \|date\=8 September 2012 }} Boundary Commission for Scotland the Boundary Commission for Wales[Sixth Review (English language)](http://www.bcomm-wales.gov.uk/sixth_review_e.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721194551/http://www.bcomm\-wales.gov.uk/sixth\_review\_e.htm \|date\=21 July 2011 }} Boundary Commission for Wales and the Boundary Commission for Northern Ireland.[Sixth Review](http://www.boundarycommission.org.uk/) Boundary Commission for Northern Ireland The Sixth Review would have resulted in 600 constituencies for the [United Kingdom Parliament](/wiki/United_Kingdom_Parliament "United Kingdom Parliament"): a reduction from the 650 constituencies in existence at the [2010 general election](/wiki/2010_United_Kingdom_general_election "2010 United Kingdom general election"). In January 2013, parliamentary opposition to proposed legislative amendments because of a lack of consensus in the coalition resulted in the review being suspended. Following the [Conservative](/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 "Conservative Party (UK)") victory at the [2015 general election](/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_general_election "2015 United Kingdom general election"), the review was recommenced in 2016 and final recommendations were submitted by the four commissions in September 2018 and laid before Parliament. However the revised proposals were never brought forward by the Government for approval and, further to the passing of the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 2020](/wiki/2023_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies "2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies"), the Sixth Review was formally abandoned.
[ "### Past reviews of UK Parliament constituencies", "Customarily, each commission conducted a complete review of all constituencies in its part of the United Kingdom every eight to twelve years. In between these general reviews, the commissions were able to conduct interim reviews of part of their area of responsibility. The interim reviews usually did not yield drastic changes in boundaries, while the general reviews generally did.", "Under the rules in force before 2011, the number of constituencies in Great Britain (England, Wales, and Scotland) had to \"not be substantially greater or less than 613\", of which at least 35 had to be in Wales. The [City of London](/wiki/City_of_London \"City of London\") was not to be partitioned and was to be included in a seat that referred to it by name. The [Orkney](/wiki/Orkney \"Orkney\") and [Shetland](/wiki/Shetland \"Shetland\") Islands were not to be combined with any other areas. Northern Ireland had to have between 16 and 18 constituencies.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.boundarycommission.org.uk/rules.html \\|title\\=Extract from the Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986 \\|publisher\\=Boundarycommission.org.uk \\|date\\=14 September 2011 \\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306112044/http://www.boundarycommission.org.uk/rules.html \\|archive\\-date\\=6 March 2012}}", "Under the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986](/wiki/Parliamentary_Constituencies_Act_1986 \"Parliamentary Constituencies Act 1986\"), the terms of review were significantly different:\n* the total number of constituencies was not fixed (*see above*): each commission had limited discretion to specify the number in its part of the United Kingdom;\n* the size of the electorates was just one of several rules, rather than being subject to a numerical limit which overrides other factors;\n* there was not previously a limit on the area of a constituency, but in practice, no constituency has ever exceeded the 13,000 square kilometre limit introduced by the 2011 Act;\n* the consultation mechanism was significantly different: consultation periods only lasted four weeks, and could be followed by local inquiries;\n* reviews were only carried out every eight to twelve years instead of every five years.\n[thumb\\|The current constituencies showing the results of the [2019 general election.](/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election \"2019 United Kingdom general election\")](/wiki/File:Results_of_the_2019_General_Election_in_the_UK.png \"Results of the 2019 General Election in the UK.png\")\nThe review that gave rise to most of the constituency boundaries currently in force is the [Fifth Periodic Review](/wiki/Fifth_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies \"Fifth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies\"), which was given effect in Wales by an Order made in 2006,{{cite web\\|title\\=The Parliamentary Constituencies and Assembly Electoral Regions (Wales) Order 2006\\|url\\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2006/1041/contents/made\\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2011\\|publisher\\=Legislation.gov.uk}} in England by an Order from 2007{{cite web\\|title\\=The Parliamentary Constituencies (England) Order 2007\\|url\\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2007/1681/contents/made\\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2011\\|publisher\\=Legislation.gov.uk}} and in Northern Ireland by an Order from 2008,{{cite web\\|title\\=The Parliamentary Constituencies (Northern Ireland) Order 2008\\|url\\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2008/1486/contents/made\\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2011\\|publisher\\=Legislation.gov.uk}} with the new boundaries used for the [May 2010 general election](/wiki/2010_United_Kingdom_general_election \"2010 United Kingdom general election\"). The most recent general review in Scotland was given effect in 2005,{{cite web\\|title\\=The Parliamentary Constituencies (Scotland) Order 2005\\|url\\=http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2005/250/contents/made\\|access\\-date\\=31 December 2011\\|publisher\\=Legislation.gov.uk}} and the resulting constituencies were used in the [May 2005 general election](/wiki/2005_United_Kingdom_general_election \"2005 United Kingdom general election\").", "There are currently 533 constituencies in England, 40 constituencies in Wales, 59 constituencies in Scotland and 18 constituencies in Northern Ireland, providing a total of 650\\.", "#### Sixth Periodic Review", "The [Sixth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies](/wiki/Sixth_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies \"Sixth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies\") was launched on 4 March 2011 by the Boundary Commission for England,[News](http://www.boundarycommissionforengland.org.uk/news/news.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110128205624/http://www.boundarycommissionforengland.org.uk/news/news.htm \\|date\\=28 January 2011 }} Boundary Commission for England the Boundary Commission for Scotland,[Sixth Review](http://www.bcomm-scotland.independent.gov.uk/6th_westminster/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908082439/http://www.bcomm\\-scotland.independent.gov.uk/6th\\_westminster/ \\|date\\=8 September 2012 }} Boundary Commission for Scotland the Boundary Commission for Wales[Sixth Review (English language)](http://www.bcomm-wales.gov.uk/sixth_review_e.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721194551/http://www.bcomm\\-wales.gov.uk/sixth\\_review\\_e.htm \\|date\\=21 July 2011 }} Boundary Commission for Wales and the Boundary Commission for Northern Ireland.[Sixth Review](http://www.boundarycommission.org.uk/) Boundary Commission for Northern Ireland The Sixth Review would have resulted in 600 constituencies for the [United Kingdom Parliament](/wiki/United_Kingdom_Parliament \"United Kingdom Parliament\"): a reduction from the 650 constituencies in existence at the [2010 general election](/wiki/2010_United_Kingdom_general_election \"2010 United Kingdom general election\"). In January 2013, parliamentary opposition to proposed legislative amendments because of a lack of consensus in the coalition resulted in the review being suspended.", "Following the [Conservative](/wiki/Conservative_Party_%28UK%29 \"Conservative Party (UK)\") victory at the [2015 general election](/wiki/2015_United_Kingdom_general_election \"2015 United Kingdom general election\"), the review was recommenced in 2016 and final recommendations were submitted by the four commissions in September 2018 and laid before Parliament. However the revised proposals were never brought forward by the Government for approval and, further to the passing of the [Parliamentary Constituencies Act 2020](/wiki/2023_Periodic_Review_of_Westminster_constituencies \"2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies\"), the Sixth Review was formally abandoned.", "" ]
Trials ------ In January 1946, an American military court sentenced SS officers [Heinrich Andergassen](/wiki/Heinrich_Andergassen "Heinrich Andergassen"), August Schiffer, and Albert Storz to death by hanging for the murders of five American POWs, including [OSS](/wiki/Office_of_Strategic_Services "Office of Strategic Services") agent [Roderick Stephen Hall](/wiki/Roderick_Stephen_Hall "Roderick Stephen Hall"), and two British POWs. A fourth man, [Gendarmeriewachtmeister](/wiki/Ordnungspolizei "Ordnungspolizei") Hans Butz, was sentenced to life in prison specifically for his involvement in the murder of Hall. Andergassen, Schiffer, and Storz were executed at an American military stockade in [Livorno](/wiki/Livorno "Livorno") on 26 July 1946\. In November 2000, the military court of [Verona](/wiki/Verona "Verona") sentenced [Michael Seifert](/wiki/Michael_Seifert_%28SS_guard%29 "Michael Seifert (SS guard)"), a Ukrainian SS known in the camp as "Misha", to life in prison in absentia for the atrocities he committed against deportees, particularly those held in the jail block. The relative recency of this trial is because the case had remained hidden for decades and resurfaced with the discovery of the so\-called *[armadio della vergogna](/wiki/Armadio_della_vergogna "Armadio della vergogna")* (lit., "cabinet of shame") in 1994\. Among the prisoners that Seifert and his accomplice Otto Sein tortured was a young [Mike Bongiorno](/wiki/Mike_Bongiorno "Mike Bongiorno"), an American [POW](/wiki/Prisoner_of_War "Prisoner of War") who would go on to become one of Italy's most beloved TV figures after war. Seifert, who had emigrated to [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada") after the war, had to face 18 counts of [murder](/wiki/Murder "Murder") and 15 additional counts of misconduct. He was tracked down in [Vancouver](/wiki/Vancouver "Vancouver"), only days before the trial was to begin, by a reporter working for the *[Vancouver Sun](/wiki/Vancouver_Sun "Vancouver Sun")*, who acted upon information provided by the *Associazione nazionale ex deportati politici nei campi nazisti (ANED)* (National Association of former political deportees to Nazi internment camps). Seifert was extradited to Italy in 2008, where he died in prison in 2010\. His story was reconstructed by the Italian historians [Giorgio Mezzalira](/wiki/Giorgio_Mezzalira "Giorgio Mezzalira") and Carlo Romeo in the book entitled *Mischa, jailer of the Bolzano lager*. A separate trial of the camp directors, Titho and Haage, had taken place in 1999, with a different outcome: Titho was absolved for lack of evidence,{{cite news \|last\=Schwarzer \|first\=Marianne \|date\=17 February 2016\|title\=Dem "Henker von Fossoli" blieb ein Prozess auf deutschem Boden erspart \|trans\-title\=The „Executor of Fossoli“ is spared from a trial on German soil \|url\=https://www.lz.de/lippe/kreis\_lippe/20711476\_Dem\-Henker\-von\-Fossoli\-blieb\-ein\-Prozess\-auf\-deutschem\-Boden\-erspart.html \|language\=de \|work\=\[\[Lippische Landes\-Zeitung]] \|access\-date\=9 September 2018 }} while Haage was sentenced posthumously.{{citation needed\|date\=March 2013}}
[ "Trials\n------", "In January 1946, an American military court sentenced SS officers [Heinrich Andergassen](/wiki/Heinrich_Andergassen \"Heinrich Andergassen\"), August Schiffer, and Albert Storz to death by hanging for the murders of five American POWs, including [OSS](/wiki/Office_of_Strategic_Services \"Office of Strategic Services\") agent [Roderick Stephen Hall](/wiki/Roderick_Stephen_Hall \"Roderick Stephen Hall\"), and two British POWs. A fourth man, [Gendarmeriewachtmeister](/wiki/Ordnungspolizei \"Ordnungspolizei\") Hans Butz, was sentenced to life in prison specifically for his involvement in the murder of Hall. Andergassen, Schiffer, and Storz were executed at an American military stockade in [Livorno](/wiki/Livorno \"Livorno\") on 26 July 1946\\.", "In November 2000, the military court of [Verona](/wiki/Verona \"Verona\") sentenced [Michael Seifert](/wiki/Michael_Seifert_%28SS_guard%29 \"Michael Seifert (SS guard)\"), a Ukrainian SS known in the camp as \"Misha\", to life in prison in absentia for the atrocities he committed against deportees, particularly those held in the jail block.", "The relative recency of this trial is because the case had remained hidden for decades and resurfaced with the discovery of the so\\-called *[armadio della vergogna](/wiki/Armadio_della_vergogna \"Armadio della vergogna\")* (lit., \"cabinet of shame\") in 1994\\. Among the prisoners that Seifert and his accomplice Otto Sein tortured was a young [Mike Bongiorno](/wiki/Mike_Bongiorno \"Mike Bongiorno\"), an American [POW](/wiki/Prisoner_of_War \"Prisoner of War\") who would go on to become one of Italy's most beloved TV figures after war.", "Seifert, who had emigrated to [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\") after the war, had to face 18 counts of [murder](/wiki/Murder \"Murder\") and 15 additional counts of misconduct. He was tracked down in [Vancouver](/wiki/Vancouver \"Vancouver\"), only days before the trial was to begin, by a reporter working for the *[Vancouver Sun](/wiki/Vancouver_Sun \"Vancouver Sun\")*, who acted upon information provided by the *Associazione nazionale ex deportati politici nei campi nazisti (ANED)* (National Association of former political deportees to Nazi internment camps). Seifert was extradited to Italy in 2008, where he died in prison in 2010\\.", "His story was reconstructed by the Italian historians [Giorgio Mezzalira](/wiki/Giorgio_Mezzalira \"Giorgio Mezzalira\") and Carlo Romeo in the book entitled *Mischa, jailer of the Bolzano lager*.", "A separate trial of the camp directors, Titho and Haage, had taken place in 1999, with a different outcome: Titho was absolved for lack of evidence,{{cite news \\|last\\=Schwarzer \\|first\\=Marianne \\|date\\=17 February 2016\\|title\\=Dem \"Henker von Fossoli\" blieb ein Prozess auf deutschem Boden erspart \\|trans\\-title\\=The „Executor of Fossoli“ is spared from a trial on German soil \\|url\\=https://www.lz.de/lippe/kreis\\_lippe/20711476\\_Dem\\-Henker\\-von\\-Fossoli\\-blieb\\-ein\\-Prozess\\-auf\\-deutschem\\-Boden\\-erspart.html \\|language\\=de \\|work\\=\\[\\[Lippische Landes\\-Zeitung]] \\|access\\-date\\=9 September 2018 }} while Haage was sentenced posthumously.{{citation needed\\|date\\=March 2013}}", "" ]
Rules ----- ### Declaring the dealer First, the 32\-card [Piquet pack](/wiki/Piquet_pack "Piquet pack") is [shuffled](/wiki/Shuffled "Shuffled") by the [dealer](/wiki/Dealer_%28card_player%29 "Dealer (card player)") and then [cut](/wiki/Cut_%28cards%29 "Cut (cards)") by the player to the left. The cutter is assigned hearts ♥ and moving on anticlockwise the players are assigned a suit in the order: ♥ \> ♦ \> ♣ \> ♠. If the suit which made the cut is hearts, for example, then the player who shuffled and cut the deck will be the dealer. If it was spades, then the person on the left of the shuffler is the dealer. At the end of each turn, the player on dealer's left becomes the new dealer. ### Deal The cards are dealt anticlockwise; first, 3 cards are given to each player, starting with [eldest hand](/wiki/Eldest_hand "Eldest hand") (on the dealer's right) and ending with the dealer himself. Then, another 2 cards are dealt, and then another 3\. ### Bidding Starting with eldest hand, players [bid](/wiki/Bid_%28cards%29 "Bid (cards)") on the score they expect to gain. The player with the highest bid is eligible to decide the trumps for the game. Bidding is typically performed in increments of 10, with the lowest opening bid being 80\. There is a more recent variation to the game known as Pilotta Palaristi, which reintroduces a point\-based bidding system. ### Playing The player who bids first in the bidding round is the one who leads. The leader may play any card. The next player has to [follow suit](/wiki/Follow_suit "Follow suit") if possible. If the player cannot follow suit, a trump card must be played. If s/he hasn't any trump card, any other card can be played. If a trump card is played the other 3 players are required to play a higher trump if they have any. Each player plays a card and the one with the highest rank wins them all. Every trump wins any non\-trump. The rank of trumps from highest to lowest is given by J 9 A 10 K Q 8 7 while the rank of non\-trumps is given by A 10 K Q J 9 8 7\. ### Scoring Usually the score ends when the first team reaches 351 points. In some cases, the limit can go up to 400 points if the players want to pursue a "lengthy" game, or correspondingly lowered to 251 and even 151 points if they are in a hurry, or just want to finish quickly. Usually one of the four players is responsible to keep the score for the whole game for the two teams.
[ "Rules\n-----", "### Declaring the dealer", "First, the 32\\-card [Piquet pack](/wiki/Piquet_pack \"Piquet pack\") is [shuffled](/wiki/Shuffled \"Shuffled\") by the [dealer](/wiki/Dealer_%28card_player%29 \"Dealer (card player)\") and then [cut](/wiki/Cut_%28cards%29 \"Cut (cards)\") by the player to the left. The cutter is assigned hearts ♥ and moving on anticlockwise the players are assigned a suit in the order: ♥ \\> ♦ \\> ♣ \\> ♠. If the suit which made the cut is hearts, for example, then the player who shuffled and cut the deck will be the dealer. If it was spades, then the person on the left of the shuffler is the dealer.", "At the end of each turn, the player on dealer's left becomes the new dealer.", "### Deal", "The cards are dealt anticlockwise; first, 3 cards are given to each player, starting with [eldest hand](/wiki/Eldest_hand \"Eldest hand\") (on the dealer's right) and ending with the dealer himself. Then, another 2 cards are dealt, and then another 3\\.", "### Bidding", "Starting with eldest hand, players [bid](/wiki/Bid_%28cards%29 \"Bid (cards)\") on the score they expect to gain. The player with the highest bid is eligible to decide the trumps for the game. Bidding is typically performed in increments of 10, with the lowest opening bid being 80\\.", "There is a more recent variation to the game known as Pilotta Palaristi, which reintroduces a point\\-based bidding system.", "### Playing", "The player who bids first in the bidding round is the one who leads. The leader may play any card. The next player has to [follow suit](/wiki/Follow_suit \"Follow suit\") if possible. If the player cannot follow suit, a trump card must be played. If s/he hasn't any trump card, any other card can be played. If a trump card is played the other 3 players are required to play a higher trump if they have any.", "Each player plays a card and the one with the highest rank wins them all. Every trump wins any non\\-trump. The rank of trumps from highest to lowest is given by J 9 A 10 K Q 8 7 while the rank of non\\-trumps is given by A 10 K Q J 9 8 7\\.", "### Scoring", "Usually the score ends when the first team reaches 351 points. In some cases, the limit can go up to 400 points if the players want to pursue a \"lengthy\" game, or correspondingly lowered to 251 and even 151 points if they are in a hurry, or just want to finish quickly.", "Usually one of the four players is responsible to keep the score for the whole game for the two teams.", "" ]
Professional wrestling career ----------------------------- Lacey made her ring debut in August, 2000 as The Lovely Lacey in Minnesota in a handicap match that also featured [Shawn Daivari](/wiki/Shawn_Daivari "Shawn Daivari"). From then until late 2003 she regularly feuded with [Rain](/wiki/Bonnie_Maxon "Bonnie Maxon") all across the Midwest wrestling circuit in promotions such as Steel Domain Wrestling and Mid American Wrestling (MAW). This includes a Falls Count Anywhere match held in MAW on September 28, 2002\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/profiles/l/lacey.php\|title\=Lacey\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-05\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On January 14, 2007, she participated in the seventh [ChickFight](/wiki/ChickFight "ChickFight") tournament, losing in the first round to [Eden Black](/wiki/Eden_Black "Eden Black"). ### IWA Mid\-South Lacey made her IWA Mid\-South debut on November 2, 2002, in a three\-way dance that featured Rain but was won by [Hailey Hatred](/wiki/Hailey_Hatred "Hailey Hatred"). In late 2003 Lacey and Rain put their [kayfabe](/wiki/Kayfabe "Kayfabe") differences aside and formed a tag team known as [The Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew](/wiki/The_International_Home_Wrecking_Crew "The International Home Wrecking Crew"). The team proceed to have matches against the team of [Daizee Haze](/wiki/Daizee_Haze "Daizee Haze") and [Mickie Knuckles](/wiki/Mickie_Knuckles "Mickie Knuckles"), losing to them on December 20, 2003, but defeating them on May 7, 2004\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/profiles/m/minnesota\-home\-wrecking\-crew.php\|title\=Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} In singles competition Lacey had greater success. On February 13, 2004, Lacey defeated Daizee Haze. On March 6, she emerged the victor in a 6\-way dance which featured Rain, Haze, MsChif, Mickie Knuckles and [ODB](/wiki/ODB_%28wrestler%29 "ODB (wrestler)"). Lacey defeated [Mercedes Martinez](/wiki/Mercedes_Martinez "Mercedes Martinez") and Haze in a 3\-way dance to win a 1\-night Tournament on May 30 to become the first NWA Midwest Women's Champion. On September 17, she lost the title to Martinez, ending her 110\-day reign as champion. The following night, September 18 she was unsuccessful in winning the title back in a 6\-way elimination match which was won by MsChif and featured Rain, Mickie Knuckles, Daizee Haze and Martinez. ### Ring of Honor #### Special K Lacey made her [Ring of Honor](/wiki/Ring_of_Honor "Ring of Honor") (ROH) debut as part of the Special K faction as a girlfriend in mid\-2004\. During September up until November Lacey would become involved in arguments and then catfights with fellow Special K valet [Becky Bayless](/wiki/Becky_Bayless "Becky Bayless"), sparked by the factions frequent tag\-team losses. On December 4, after the group lost an 8\-man tag to a team of ROH students Special K finally broke up as Izzy, Deranged and Lacey turned on Dixie, AngelDust and Bayless.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/041204\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- All\-Star Extravaganza II\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On December 26 Deranged and Lacey defeated AngelDust and Becky Bayless when Lacey pinned Bayless. #### Lacey's Angels In 2005, as well as wrestling Lacey began a [manager and valet](/wiki/Manager_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Manager (professional wrestling)") role, leading Lacey's Angels of Izzy and Deranged, and now featuring [Cheech and Cloudy](/wiki/The_Miracle_Ultraviolence_Connection "The Miracle Ultraviolence Connection"). On October 1, Lacey announced that after her men had failed to get the wins she wanted a new Lacey's Angels would debut the following night.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/051001\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Joe vs. Kobashi\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On October 2, after BJ Whitmer and [Jimmy Jacobs](/wiki/Jimmy_Jacobs "Jimmy Jacobs") defeated Izzy \& Deranged, she fired them and hired Whitmer and Jacobs as her new angels.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/051002\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Unforgettable\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} Lacey accompanied Jacobs and Whitmer to the ring for their tag and singles matches. As part of making the new Lacey's Angels into a dominant force, Lacey in particular made continued efforts to turn Jacobs into a serious wrestler away from his previous comical gimmick. This including giving him a 'flashy' ring robe, refusing him to wear furry boots or shout 'Huss' and wear proper ring gear. However, in doing so she had unwittingly made Jacobs fall in love with her, to the point where he was more concerned with winning her heart rather than matches. Jacobs' antics began to aggravate BJ Whitmer when it cost them both matches. Whitmer finally turned on Jacobs in January 2006 after losing an [ROH Tag Team Championship](/wiki/ROH_Tag_Team_Championship "ROH Tag Team Championship") match against [Austin Aries](/wiki/Austin_Aries "Austin Aries") and [Roderick Strong](/wiki/Roderick_Strong "Roderick Strong") when Jacobs paid more attention to Lacey at ringside than the match.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060128\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Dissension\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} Lacey and Jacobs then entered into a feud with Whitmer, based on Lacey ordering Jacobs to put Whitmer out of wrestling. Lacey went as far as offering advice to [Christopher Daniels](/wiki/Christopher_Daniels "Christopher Daniels") on how to beat Whitmer in a match.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060225\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- 4th Anniversary Show\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On April 22, Jacobs made one last attempt to win Lacey's heart in a match with [Colt Cabana](/wiki/Colt_Cabana "Colt Cabana"). Pre\-match, Lacey gave Jacobs a final ultimatum, demanding that he win or he would never be allowed to talk to her again. Jacobs subsequently lost the match.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060428\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Weekend of Champions (Night 1\)\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} But the following night Lacey gave the same ultimatum to Jacobs before his 6\-way match. Jacobs won the match.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060429\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Weekend of Champions (Night 2\)\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} From June onward, ROH began placing teases and hints that there was a 'romantic' relationship going on between Lacey and [Colt Cabana](/wiki/Colt_Cabana "Colt Cabana"). On August 25, Jacobs confronted Lacey about the rumors and later that night lost his match.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060825\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Epic Encounter II\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On September 15 Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his 4\-way match against Cabana, [Jack Evans](/wiki/Jack_Evans_%28wrestler%29 "Jack Evans (wrestler)"), and [Ricky Reyes](/wiki/Ricky_Reyes "Ricky Reyes"). Cabana made jokes about making it to third base with Lacey in the bushes before the match. During the match, Lacey kept encouraging Jacobs and Cabana to work together, a tease that Lacey was looking to start a new Lacey's Angels with Cabana and Jacobs.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060915\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Glory By Honor V: Night 1\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The next night, September 16, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his three\-way match against Cabana and [Christopher Daniels](/wiki/Christopher_Daniels "Christopher Daniels"). During the match, Jacobs low\-blowed Cabana and pinned him to win the match. However, Lacey was concerned with Cabana being injured and berated Jacobs.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060916\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Glory By Honor V: Night 2\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On October 6, Lacey accompanied Jacobs and Cabana to the ring for their ROH Tag Team Championship match against champions [Chris Hero](/wiki/Chris_Hero "Chris Hero") and [Claudio Castagnoli](/wiki/Antonio_Cesaro "Antonio Cesaro"). Jacobs and Cabana lost when Jacobs accidentally speared Cabana, resulting in Cabana getting pinned to lose the match. On October 28, Lacey accompanied Cabana and Jacobs for their match against [Jimmy Rave](/wiki/Jimmy_Rave "Jimmy Rave") and Salvatore Rinauro which they won (their first win as a team). She then offered Cabana a contract to officially join Lacey's Angels. Cabana refused. He then attacked Cabana, gouging his eyes with Lacey's high heel shoe before BJ Whitmer ran out to make the save and Lacey and Jacobs fled the scene.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061028\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Irresistible Forces\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On November 3, the start of what would be a long\-running feud between [Daizee Haze](/wiki/Daizee_Haze "Daizee Haze") and Lacey began when Lacey slapped her after her match.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061103\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Honor Reclaims Boston\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On November 24, Lacey was victorious in a four\-way match which involved Haze, [Allison Danger](/wiki/Allison_Danger "Allison Danger"), and [Nikki Roxx](/wiki/Nikki_Roxx "Nikki Roxx"). Later on she accompanied Jacobs as he participated in a gauntlet match, using a low blow to defeat BJ Whitmer before being eliminated by [Nigel McGuiness](/wiki/Nigel_McGuiness "Nigel McGuiness").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061124\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Black Friday Fallout\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The following night, November 25, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his match against Whitmer. Lacey eventually interfered, attacking a weakened Whitmer which brought out Haze to stop Lacey from interfering and the two brawled.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061125\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Dethroned\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On December 8, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his match against Colt Cabana. Lacey threw a handful of powder in Cabana's face when he had Jacobs in a submission causing a disqualification. Daizee Haze fought with Lacey until Jacobs speared Haze hard. [Brent Albright](/wiki/Brent_Albright "Brent Albright") ran down to the ring and, he held Cabana down while Lacey stomped him the groin. Whitmer then ran down to make the save.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061208\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- The Chicago Spectacular: Night 1\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The next night, December 9, Lacey accompanied Jacobs to the ring as part the main event, pitting Delirious, Whitmer (accompanied by Haze), Cabana, and McGuinness against Bryan Danielson, Jacobs, Rave and Shingo. During the match, Whitmer inadvertently hit Lacey with a railroad spike.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061209\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- The Chicago Spectacular: Night 2\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On January 27, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his Last Man Standing Match against Whitmer which Jacobs won thanks to Albright. Later in the evening, Albright and Lacey lost to Cabana and Sara Del Rey who substituted for an injured Haze. But post\-match, Haze attacked Lacey.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/070127\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On February 23, Lacey accompanied Jacobs and Albright to the ring for their losing effort against Nigel McGuinness and Cabana. Later in the evening Lacey defeated Haze after Jacobs interfered and speared Haze.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/070223\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- \|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The following night, February 24, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his "Windy City Death match" against Cabana. Early on Lacey tried to interfere, but Haze ran out and brawled with her to the back. Later in the match Lacey returned to attack Cabana again, only to be taken out before he laid out Jacobs and put Lacey face down on top of him as he pinned him.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/070224\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- \|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On March 30, Lacey and Jacobs defeated Whitmer and Haze. Post\-match Lacey said Jacobs finally won her over and she gave him a hug to reward him for a job well done.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/070330\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- All\-Star Extravaganza III\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The following night, March 31, Lacey accompanied Jacobs to the ring for his Steel Cage Match against Whitmer (accompanied by Haze). During the match Lacey tried to interfere but was taken out by a tombstone pile\-driver from Whitmer. Jacobs won the match, winning their feud despite injuring himself in the match. On April 27, The Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew (accompanied by Jacobs on crutches) defeated [Sara Del Rey](/wiki/Sara_Del_Rey "Sara Del Rey") and Allison Danger.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070427\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- The Battle Of St. Paul\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World of Wrestling}} The following night, April 28, Jacobs revealed in a backstage promo that Lacey had promised her one night of ecstasy for taking out Whitmer. Even though he really wanted to do it, he did not do it. Jacobs said he loves Lacey and she is close to loving him too, adding that he and Lacey will be together, not because of lust, but because of love.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070428\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Good Times, Great Memories\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World of Wrestling}} Following these events, ROH released a four\-part video series on [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube "YouTube") entitled "Jimmy Loves Lacey", documenting Jacobs' attempts to win Lacey over an extended date of four days. Jacobs had mixed results, doing some good things but screwing up at other points. On the final day Lacey took Jacobs into her hotel room, the camera returning to the room 'later' and showing Lacey cuddling Jacobs (who looked conflicted), implying the two had had sex. The roles had now reversed between the two, with Jacobs seemingly taking control of himself and Lacey now being infatuated with Jacobs. On June 8, Daizee Haze called out Lacey to get some revenge on her. Jacobs came out instead and insulted Haze's challenge which resulted in her attacking him with his own walking cane. Lacey then destroyed Haze and helped Jacobs walk backstage.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070608\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- A Fight At The Roxbury\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World of Wrestling}} The following night, June 9, Lacey (accompanied by Jacobs) fought Haze to a 10\-minute time limit draw.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070609\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Domination\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World of Wrestling}} On August 10, Lacey (accompanied by Jacobs) defeated Haze to earn a [Shimmer Championship](/wiki/Shimmer_Championship "Shimmer Championship") match on the next show.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070810\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Death Before Dishonor V: Night 1\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} The following night, August 11, Sara Del Rey defeated Lacey to retain the Shimmer Championship.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070811\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Death Before Dishonor V: Night 2\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} #### The Age of the Fall {{main\|The Age of the Fall}} On September 15, Lacey accompanied Jacobs, the returning [Necro Butcher](/wiki/Necro_Butcher "Necro Butcher") and the debuting [Tyler Black](/wiki/Seth_Rollins "Seth Rollins") as they violently attacked [The Briscoe Brothers](/wiki/The_Briscoe_Brothers "The Briscoe Brothers") at the end of the [Man Up](/wiki/ROH_Man_Up "ROH Man Up") Pay Per View taping. They revealed themselves as a new stable called The Age of the Fall. Later on in a dark match, Lacey teamed with Sara Del Rey in a losing effort to Haze and [Amazing Kong](/wiki/Kia_Stevens "Kia Stevens").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070915\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Man Up\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} Lacey assumed a manager role of the group, accompanying all AotF members to their matches and interfering when she could to help them win. As a result, Daizee Haze assumed a counter role to accompany wrestlers fighting AotF so she could stop Lacey from interfering. On November 2, Lacey accompanied Jacobs, Butcher, and Black for their victory over [Jack Evans](/wiki/Jack_Evans_%28wrestler%29 "Jack Evans (wrestler)"), [Ruckus](/wiki/Ruckus_%28wrestler%29 "Ruckus (wrestler)"), and [Jigsaw](/wiki/Jigsaw_%28wrestler%29 "Jigsaw (wrestler)") (accompanied by Julius Smokes). Post match Lacey and Haze brawled once more as part of a mass brawl between factions.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/071102\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Glory By Honor VI Night 1\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} The following night, November 3, Lacey accompanied Butcher and Jacobs to the ring for their Street Fight against The Briscoes (accompanied by Haze). Haze and Lacey immediately started brawling and disappeared to the back.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/071103\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Glory By Honor VI Night 1\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On December 30, Lacey accompanied Black and Jacobs to their victory for the ROH Tag Team Championship against The Briscoes (accompanied by Haze).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/071230\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Final Battle 2007\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On January 12, 2008, the team of Mark Briscoe, Haze, Jack Evans, and Jigsaw beat Butcher, Black, Jacobs, and Lacey in a Street Fight.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080112\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Transform\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On January 25, Haze defeated Lacey who was accompanied by Jacobs, Black, and Wonderland. Post match the AotF members threatened Daizee Haze until The Briscoes hit the ring to save her, when new AotF member [Joey Matthews](/wiki/Adam_Birch "Adam Birch") attacked The Briscoes from behind.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080125\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Breakout\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On March 14, Lacey accompanied Butcher for his match against Delirious (accompanied by Haze). Later she accompanied Black and Matthews to the ring for their match over The Briscoes.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080314\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Double Feature (Night 1\)\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On March 16, Lacey brawled with Haze during a Street Fight between The Briscoes and Butcher and Matthews.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080316\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Take No Prisoners \|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} In the months leading up to ROH's April events, Jacobs had made an open invitation to Austin Aries to join AotF both at ROH events and through YouTube videos and blog.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080328\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Dragon Gate Challenge II\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On March 29, 2008, Lacey along with Rain accompanied Jacobs and Black against The Briscoes in a Relaxed Rules Match. Later in the show, AotF approached Aries after his match, again making the offer for him to join them. Lacey stepped in, offering to convince Aries who left the ring with her, a decision which did not sit well Jacobs. After the event, Jacobs posted a YouTube video asking for Lacey to call him as he had not heard from her in a while.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080329\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Super Card of Honor III\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On April 18, Lacey appeared after Aries' match, making out with him in the middle of the ring before leaving with him.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080418\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Tag Wars 2008\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On April 19, Lacey revealed she was leaving AotF, siding with Aries romantically. After the main event Jacobs called out Aries and the two brawled, before Aries was jumped by AotF. Jacobs went to attack Aries with his spike, but he stopped when Lacey begged him not to. Jacobs then contemplated hitting Lacey with the spike, but again broke down and cried, leaving the ring.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080419\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Return Engagement\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} Following the April events, Jacobs posted a YouTube video telling Lacey that she had a week to call him. A week followed and a video was posted that showed Jacobs confronting Lacey outside an exercise business. The two seemed to argue with Lacey backing off. Then Jacobs produced his spike from his cane before the video cut off. Afterward, Lacey was absent from ROH. The *[Wrestling Observer Newsletter](/wiki/Wrestling_Observer_Newsletter "Wrestling Observer Newsletter")* later confirmed Lacey had quit wrestling to return to school.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/l/lacey.html\|title\=WOMEN'S WRESTLER PROFILES \- LACEY\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On November 22, 2008, Lacey made an appearance during its Pay Per View taping. She came out during the I Quit match between Aries and Jacobs, revealing herself to be the second Aries had selected for the match. Lacey acted as if she was going to throw in the towel to save Aries but became conflicted when Aries told her not to. Jacobs brought her into the ring, intending to hit her with his spike weapon but she slapped him. Later in the match she prevented Tyler Black (the second for Jacobs) from throwing in the towel. ### Shimmer Women Athletes Lacey became a mainstay of the [Shimmer Women Athletes](/wiki/Shimmer_Women_Athletes "Shimmer Women Athletes") promotion, participating in every taping bar one (Volumes 3 and 4\) since its first event until her retirement. On November 6, 2005, as part of Volume 1 she lost to Daizee Haze in the main event. Later on, as part of Volume 2, Lacey lost in a four\-way that involved Mercedes Martinez, Haze, and winner Sara Del Rey.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/shimmer/\|title\=Shimmer Women Athletes\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World of Wrestling}} On May 21, 2006, as part of Volume 5, Lacey lost to [Nikita](/wiki/Katarina_Waters "Katarina Waters"). Later on, as part of Volume 6, The Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew defeated the team of Sara Del Rey and [Mercedes Martinez](/wiki/Mercedes_Martinez "Mercedes Martinez"), a match created after a backstage confrontation between Lacey, Del Rey, and Martinez on Volume 5\. On June 1, Lacey took part in the [Shimmer Title Tournament](/wiki/Shimmer_Championship%23Shimmer_Title_Tournament "Shimmer Championship#Shimmer Title Tournament"). She ultimately lost to Sara Del Rey in the finals. During the match Rain unsuccessfully tried to interfere to help Lacey win, and was run off by Roxx and Allison Danger. Later on as part of Volume 13 The Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew suffered their first loss as a team in Shimmer, losing to Sara Del Rey and [Nikki Roxx](/wiki/Nicole_Raczynski "Nicole Raczynski") in the main event. On October 13, The Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew defeated the team of ["The Portuguese Princess" Ariel](/wiki/Ana_Rocha "Ana Rocha") and [Josie](/wiki/Josette_Bynum "Josette Bynum") on Volume 15\. Later in the evening on Volume 16 they teamed with 'honorary home wrecker' [Jetta](/wiki/Jetta_%28wrestler%29 "Jetta (wrestler)") in a six\-woman tag\-team match to take on Daizee Haze, Eden Black, and MsChif. Jetta lost the match for her team, [taking the pin](/wiki/Job_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Job (professional wrestling)") from Haze.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.visuex.com/shimmer/modules.php?name\=Events\&file\=shows/vol15and16\|title\=SHIMMER Results Vol 15 \& 16\|accessdate\=2008\-06\-08\|publisher\=Visuex}} After the taping the trio made it known that they now were [The International Home Wrecking Crew](/wiki/The_International_Home_Wrecking_Crew "The International Home Wrecking Crew") but Lacey and Rain would still go by the Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew name when they teamed together. As part of Volume 18 The Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew suffered a loss to the team of [Ashley Lane and Nevaeh](/wiki/Ashley_and_Nevaeh "Ashley and Nevaeh"). This also marked the end of The Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew as a team, as after the event Lacey retired from wrestling, making this Lacey's final match in wrestling.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.visuex.com/shimmer/modules.php?name\=Events\&file\=shows/vol17and18\|title\=SHIMMER Results Vol 17 \& 18\|accessdate\=2008\-07\-17\|publisher\=Visuex}} On May 2, 2009, at the tapings of Volume 23 Lacey was announced as the new manager of Rain and Jetta. On October 11, 2015, Lacey made a one\-night return to wrestling during Shimmer's tenth anniversary weekend, when she took part in [Portia Perez](/wiki/Portia_Perez "Portia Perez")'s retirement match, where she, Perez, [Kimber Lee](/wiki/Kimber_Lee "Kimber Lee") and [Nicole Matthews](/wiki/Nicole_Matthews "Nicole Matthews") were defeated by Daizee Haze, [Kellie Skater](/wiki/Kellie_Skater "Kellie Skater"), [Lexie Fyfe](/wiki/Lexie_Fyfe "Lexie Fyfe") and [Madison Eagles](/wiki/Madison_Eagles "Madison Eagles").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.wrestleview.com/roh\-indy\-wrestling\-news/56518\-results\-from\-the\-10th\-anniversary\-weekend\-of\-shimmer\|title\=Results from the 10th Anniversary weekend of Shimmer\|last\=Namako\|first\=Jason\|date\=October 12, 2015\|accessdate\=October 12, 2015\|work\=Wrestleview}} ### Other promotions In [Full Impact Pro](/wiki/Full_Impact_Pro "Full Impact Pro"), Lacey debuted in a loss to Allison Danger on September 8, 2006\. She instantly started in an association The Heartbreak Express tag\-team and [SoCal Val](/wiki/SoCal_Val "SoCal Val"), assuming a managerial role. The following night Lacey teamed with Heartbreak Express to defeat Black Market and Danger, winning Express the [FIP Tag Team Championship](/wiki/FIP_Tag_Team_Championship "FIP Tag Team Championship").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fip/\|title\=Full Impact Pro\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World of Wrestling}} On May 25, 2007, when she turned on The Express and joined The YRR (Young, Rich, and Ready for action) stable. She then served a managerial role to the male members alongside Rain, Becky Bayless, and SoCal Val. On February 16, 2008, at FIP's Redefined event, Lacey and Rain (wrestling as The YRR as opposed to using the Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew name) defeated Allison Danger and [Trenesha](/wiki/Trenesha_Biggers "Trenesha Biggers"). Later in the night as part of storyline merging between ROH and FIP, Lacey turned on The YRR and remained loyal to Age of the Fall when lured by [Tyler Black](/wiki/Seth_Rollins "Seth Rollins"). Lacey then convinced Rain to also leave The YRR and join AotF, which she did. The two then accompanied Black and AotF members to the ring for their match, and accompanied them at future FIP events until Lacey's retirement where Rain remained in the same role. Lacey was part of the short\-lived [MTV](/wiki/MTV "MTV") series [Wrestling Society X](/wiki/Wrestling_Society_X "Wrestling Society X"). She was both a backstage correspondent and co\-hosted WSX's Internet show called *WSXtra* alongside [Fabian Kaelen](/wiki/Ryan_Katz "Ryan Katz"). Lacey made appearances in Women's Extreme Wrestling. On April 6, 2006, Lacey lost to [Jazz](/wiki/Carlene_Begnaud "Carlene Begnaud"). Later in the evening Lacey and Rain, wrestling as The Hot Home Wreckers defeated [Shantelle Taylor](/wiki/Shantelle_Malawski "Shantelle Malawski") and Pussy Willow. On May 5, 2007, Lacey and Rain lost to Annie Social and [Sumie Sakai](/wiki/Sumie_Sakai "Sumie Sakai") in a match to crown new WEW Tag Team Champions.
[ "Professional wrestling career\n-----------------------------", "Lacey made her ring debut in August, 2000 as The Lovely Lacey in Minnesota in a handicap match that also featured [Shawn Daivari](/wiki/Shawn_Daivari \"Shawn Daivari\"). From then until late 2003 she regularly feuded with [Rain](/wiki/Bonnie_Maxon \"Bonnie Maxon\") all across the Midwest wrestling circuit in promotions such as Steel Domain Wrestling and Mid American Wrestling (MAW). This includes a Falls Count Anywhere match held in MAW on September 28, 2002\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/profiles/l/lacey.php\\|title\\=Lacey\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-05\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On January 14, 2007, she participated in the seventh [ChickFight](/wiki/ChickFight \"ChickFight\") tournament, losing in the first round to [Eden Black](/wiki/Eden_Black \"Eden Black\").", "### IWA Mid\\-South", "Lacey made her IWA Mid\\-South debut on November 2, 2002, in a three\\-way dance that featured Rain but was won by [Hailey Hatred](/wiki/Hailey_Hatred \"Hailey Hatred\"). In late 2003 Lacey and Rain put their [kayfabe](/wiki/Kayfabe \"Kayfabe\") differences aside and formed a tag team known as [The Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew](/wiki/The_International_Home_Wrecking_Crew \"The International Home Wrecking Crew\"). The team proceed to have matches against the team of [Daizee Haze](/wiki/Daizee_Haze \"Daizee Haze\") and [Mickie Knuckles](/wiki/Mickie_Knuckles \"Mickie Knuckles\"), losing to them on December 20, 2003, but defeating them on May 7, 2004\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/profiles/m/minnesota\\-home\\-wrecking\\-crew.php\\|title\\=Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}}", "In singles competition Lacey had greater success. On February 13, 2004, Lacey defeated Daizee Haze. On March 6, she emerged the victor in a 6\\-way dance which featured Rain, Haze, MsChif, Mickie Knuckles and [ODB](/wiki/ODB_%28wrestler%29 \"ODB (wrestler)\"). Lacey defeated [Mercedes Martinez](/wiki/Mercedes_Martinez \"Mercedes Martinez\") and Haze in a 3\\-way dance to win a 1\\-night Tournament on May 30 to become the first NWA Midwest Women's Champion. On September 17, she lost the title to Martinez, ending her 110\\-day reign as champion. The following night, September 18 she was unsuccessful in winning the title back in a 6\\-way elimination match which was won by MsChif and featured Rain, Mickie Knuckles, Daizee Haze and Martinez.", "### Ring of Honor", "#### Special K", "Lacey made her [Ring of Honor](/wiki/Ring_of_Honor \"Ring of Honor\") (ROH) debut as part of the Special K faction as a girlfriend in mid\\-2004\\. During September up until November Lacey would become involved in arguments and then catfights with fellow Special K valet [Becky Bayless](/wiki/Becky_Bayless \"Becky Bayless\"), sparked by the factions frequent tag\\-team losses. On December 4, after the group lost an 8\\-man tag to a team of ROH students Special K finally broke up as Izzy, Deranged and Lacey turned on Dixie, AngelDust and Bayless.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/041204\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- All\\-Star Extravaganza II\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On December 26 Deranged and Lacey defeated AngelDust and Becky Bayless when Lacey pinned Bayless.", "#### Lacey's Angels", "In 2005, as well as wrestling Lacey began a [manager and valet](/wiki/Manager_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Manager (professional wrestling)\") role, leading Lacey's Angels of Izzy and Deranged, and now featuring [Cheech and Cloudy](/wiki/The_Miracle_Ultraviolence_Connection \"The Miracle Ultraviolence Connection\"). On October 1, Lacey announced that after her men had failed to get the wins she wanted a new Lacey's Angels would debut the following night.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/051001\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Joe vs. Kobashi\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On October 2, after BJ Whitmer and [Jimmy Jacobs](/wiki/Jimmy_Jacobs \"Jimmy Jacobs\") defeated Izzy \\& Deranged, she fired them and hired Whitmer and Jacobs as her new angels.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/051002\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Unforgettable\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} Lacey accompanied Jacobs and Whitmer to the ring for their tag and singles matches.", "As part of making the new Lacey's Angels into a dominant force, Lacey in particular made continued efforts to turn Jacobs into a serious wrestler away from his previous comical gimmick. This including giving him a 'flashy' ring robe, refusing him to wear furry boots or shout 'Huss' and wear proper ring gear. However, in doing so she had unwittingly made Jacobs fall in love with her, to the point where he was more concerned with winning her heart rather than matches. Jacobs' antics began to aggravate BJ Whitmer when it cost them both matches. Whitmer finally turned on Jacobs in January 2006 after losing an [ROH Tag Team Championship](/wiki/ROH_Tag_Team_Championship \"ROH Tag Team Championship\") match against [Austin Aries](/wiki/Austin_Aries \"Austin Aries\") and [Roderick Strong](/wiki/Roderick_Strong \"Roderick Strong\") when Jacobs paid more attention to Lacey at ringside than the match.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060128\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Dissension\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} Lacey and Jacobs then entered into a feud with Whitmer, based on Lacey ordering Jacobs to put Whitmer out of wrestling. Lacey went as far as offering advice to [Christopher Daniels](/wiki/Christopher_Daniels \"Christopher Daniels\") on how to beat Whitmer in a match.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060225\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- 4th Anniversary Show\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On April 22, Jacobs made one last attempt to win Lacey's heart in a match with [Colt Cabana](/wiki/Colt_Cabana \"Colt Cabana\"). Pre\\-match, Lacey gave Jacobs a final ultimatum, demanding that he win or he would never be allowed to talk to her again. Jacobs subsequently lost the match.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060428\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Weekend of Champions (Night 1\\)\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} But the following night Lacey gave the same ultimatum to Jacobs before his 6\\-way match. Jacobs won the match.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060429\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Weekend of Champions (Night 2\\)\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}}", "From June onward, ROH began placing teases and hints that there was a 'romantic' relationship going on between Lacey and [Colt Cabana](/wiki/Colt_Cabana \"Colt Cabana\"). On August 25, Jacobs confronted Lacey about the rumors and later that night lost his match.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060825\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Epic Encounter II\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On September 15 Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his 4\\-way match against Cabana, [Jack Evans](/wiki/Jack_Evans_%28wrestler%29 \"Jack Evans (wrestler)\"), and [Ricky Reyes](/wiki/Ricky_Reyes \"Ricky Reyes\"). Cabana made jokes about making it to third base with Lacey in the bushes before the match. During the match, Lacey kept encouraging Jacobs and Cabana to work together, a tease that Lacey was looking to start a new Lacey's Angels with Cabana and Jacobs.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060915\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Glory By Honor V: Night 1\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The next night, September 16, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his three\\-way match against Cabana and [Christopher Daniels](/wiki/Christopher_Daniels \"Christopher Daniels\"). During the match, Jacobs low\\-blowed Cabana and pinned him to win the match. However, Lacey was concerned with Cabana being injured and berated Jacobs.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060916\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Glory By Honor V: Night 2\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On October 6, Lacey accompanied Jacobs and Cabana to the ring for their ROH Tag Team Championship match against champions [Chris Hero](/wiki/Chris_Hero \"Chris Hero\") and [Claudio Castagnoli](/wiki/Antonio_Cesaro \"Antonio Cesaro\"). Jacobs and Cabana lost when Jacobs accidentally speared Cabana, resulting in Cabana getting pinned to lose the match. On October 28, Lacey accompanied Cabana and Jacobs for their match against [Jimmy Rave](/wiki/Jimmy_Rave \"Jimmy Rave\") and Salvatore Rinauro which they won (their first win as a team). She then offered Cabana a contract to officially join Lacey's Angels. Cabana refused. He then attacked Cabana, gouging his eyes with Lacey's high heel shoe before BJ Whitmer ran out to make the save and Lacey and Jacobs fled the scene.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061028\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Irresistible Forces\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}}", "On November 3, the start of what would be a long\\-running feud between [Daizee Haze](/wiki/Daizee_Haze \"Daizee Haze\") and Lacey began when Lacey slapped her after her match.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061103\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Honor Reclaims Boston\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On November 24, Lacey was victorious in a four\\-way match which involved Haze, [Allison Danger](/wiki/Allison_Danger \"Allison Danger\"), and [Nikki Roxx](/wiki/Nikki_Roxx \"Nikki Roxx\"). Later on she accompanied Jacobs as he participated in a gauntlet match, using a low blow to defeat BJ Whitmer before being eliminated by [Nigel McGuiness](/wiki/Nigel_McGuiness \"Nigel McGuiness\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061124\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Black Friday Fallout\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The following night, November 25, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his match against Whitmer. Lacey eventually interfered, attacking a weakened Whitmer which brought out Haze to stop Lacey from interfering and the two brawled.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061125\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Dethroned\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}}", "On December 8, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his match against Colt Cabana. Lacey threw a handful of powder in Cabana's face when he had Jacobs in a submission causing a disqualification. Daizee Haze fought with Lacey until Jacobs speared Haze hard. [Brent Albright](/wiki/Brent_Albright \"Brent Albright\") ran down to the ring and, he held Cabana down while Lacey stomped him the groin. Whitmer then ran down to make the save.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061208\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- The Chicago Spectacular: Night 1\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The next night, December 9, Lacey accompanied Jacobs to the ring as part the main event, pitting Delirious, Whitmer (accompanied by Haze), Cabana, and McGuinness against Bryan Danielson, Jacobs, Rave and Shingo. During the match, Whitmer inadvertently hit Lacey with a railroad spike.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061209\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- The Chicago Spectacular: Night 2\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On January 27, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his Last Man Standing Match against Whitmer which Jacobs won thanks to Albright. Later in the evening, Albright and Lacey lost to Cabana and Sara Del Rey who substituted for an injured Haze. But post\\-match, Haze attacked Lacey.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/070127\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On February 23, Lacey accompanied Jacobs and Albright to the ring for their losing effort against Nigel McGuinness and Cabana. Later in the evening Lacey defeated Haze after Jacobs interfered and speared Haze.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/070223\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- \\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The following night, February 24, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his \"Windy City Death match\" against Cabana. Early on Lacey tried to interfere, but Haze ran out and brawled with her to the back. Later in the match Lacey returned to attack Cabana again, only to be taken out before he laid out Jacobs and put Lacey face down on top of him as he pinned him.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/070224\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- \\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On March 30, Lacey and Jacobs defeated Whitmer and Haze. Post\\-match Lacey said Jacobs finally won her over and she gave him a hug to reward him for a job well done.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/070330\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- All\\-Star Extravaganza III\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The following night, March 31, Lacey accompanied Jacobs to the ring for his Steel Cage Match against Whitmer (accompanied by Haze). During the match Lacey tried to interfere but was taken out by a tombstone pile\\-driver from Whitmer. Jacobs won the match, winning their feud despite injuring himself in the match.", "On April 27, The Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew (accompanied by Jacobs on crutches) defeated [Sara Del Rey](/wiki/Sara_Del_Rey \"Sara Del Rey\") and Allison Danger.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070427\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- The Battle Of St. Paul\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World of Wrestling}} The following night, April 28, Jacobs revealed in a backstage promo that Lacey had promised her one night of ecstasy for taking out Whitmer. Even though he really wanted to do it, he did not do it. Jacobs said he loves Lacey and she is close to loving him too, adding that he and Lacey will be together, not because of lust, but because of love.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070428\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Good Times, Great Memories\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World of Wrestling}} Following these events, ROH released a four\\-part video series on [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube \"YouTube\") entitled \"Jimmy Loves Lacey\", documenting Jacobs' attempts to win Lacey over an extended date of four days. Jacobs had mixed results, doing some good things but screwing up at other points. On the final day Lacey took Jacobs into her hotel room, the camera returning to the room 'later' and showing Lacey cuddling Jacobs (who looked conflicted), implying the two had had sex. The roles had now reversed between the two, with Jacobs seemingly taking control of himself and Lacey now being infatuated with Jacobs.", "On June 8, Daizee Haze called out Lacey to get some revenge on her. Jacobs came out instead and insulted Haze's challenge which resulted in her attacking him with his own walking cane. Lacey then destroyed Haze and helped Jacobs walk backstage.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070608\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- A Fight At The Roxbury\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World of Wrestling}} The following night, June 9, Lacey (accompanied by Jacobs) fought Haze to a 10\\-minute time limit draw.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070609\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Domination\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World of Wrestling}} On August 10, Lacey (accompanied by Jacobs) defeated Haze to earn a [Shimmer Championship](/wiki/Shimmer_Championship \"Shimmer Championship\") match on the next show.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070810\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Death Before Dishonor V: Night 1\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} The following night, August 11, Sara Del Rey defeated Lacey to retain the Shimmer Championship.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070811\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Death Before Dishonor V: Night 2\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}}", "#### The Age of the Fall", "{{main\\|The Age of the Fall}}\nOn September 15, Lacey accompanied Jacobs, the returning [Necro Butcher](/wiki/Necro_Butcher \"Necro Butcher\") and the debuting [Tyler Black](/wiki/Seth_Rollins \"Seth Rollins\") as they violently attacked [The Briscoe Brothers](/wiki/The_Briscoe_Brothers \"The Briscoe Brothers\") at the end of the [Man Up](/wiki/ROH_Man_Up \"ROH Man Up\") Pay Per View taping. They revealed themselves as a new stable called The Age of the Fall. Later on in a dark match, Lacey teamed with Sara Del Rey in a losing effort to Haze and [Amazing Kong](/wiki/Kia_Stevens \"Kia Stevens\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070915\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Man Up\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} Lacey assumed a manager role of the group, accompanying all AotF members to their matches and interfering when she could to help them win. As a result, Daizee Haze assumed a counter role to accompany wrestlers fighting AotF so she could stop Lacey from interfering. On November 2, Lacey accompanied Jacobs, Butcher, and Black for their victory over [Jack Evans](/wiki/Jack_Evans_%28wrestler%29 \"Jack Evans (wrestler)\"), [Ruckus](/wiki/Ruckus_%28wrestler%29 \"Ruckus (wrestler)\"), and [Jigsaw](/wiki/Jigsaw_%28wrestler%29 \"Jigsaw (wrestler)\") (accompanied by Julius Smokes). Post match Lacey and Haze brawled once more as part of a mass brawl between factions.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/071102\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Glory By Honor VI Night 1\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} The following night, November 3, Lacey accompanied Butcher and Jacobs to the ring for their Street Fight against The Briscoes (accompanied by Haze). Haze and Lacey immediately started brawling and disappeared to the back.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/071103\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Glory By Honor VI Night 1\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}}", "On December 30, Lacey accompanied Black and Jacobs to their victory for the ROH Tag Team Championship against The Briscoes (accompanied by Haze).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/071230\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Final Battle 2007\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On January 12, 2008, the team of Mark Briscoe, Haze, Jack Evans, and Jigsaw beat Butcher, Black, Jacobs, and Lacey in a Street Fight.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080112\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Transform\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On January 25, Haze defeated Lacey who was accompanied by Jacobs, Black, and Wonderland. Post match the AotF members threatened Daizee Haze until The Briscoes hit the ring to save her, when new AotF member [Joey Matthews](/wiki/Adam_Birch \"Adam Birch\") attacked The Briscoes from behind.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080125\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Breakout\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On March 14, Lacey accompanied Butcher for his match against Delirious (accompanied by Haze). Later she accompanied Black and Matthews to the ring for their match over The Briscoes.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080314\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Double Feature (Night 1\\)\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On March 16, Lacey brawled with Haze during a Street Fight between The Briscoes and Butcher and Matthews.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080316\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Take No Prisoners \\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}}", "In the months leading up to ROH's April events, Jacobs had made an open invitation to Austin Aries to join AotF both at ROH events and through YouTube videos and blog.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080328\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Dragon Gate Challenge II\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On March 29, 2008, Lacey along with Rain accompanied Jacobs and Black against The Briscoes in a Relaxed Rules Match. Later in the show, AotF approached Aries after his match, again making the offer for him to join them. Lacey stepped in, offering to convince Aries who left the ring with her, a decision which did not sit well Jacobs. After the event, Jacobs posted a YouTube video asking for Lacey to call him as he had not heard from her in a while.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080329\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Super Card of Honor III\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On April 18, Lacey appeared after Aries' match, making out with him in the middle of the ring before leaving with him.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080418\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Tag Wars 2008\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On April 19, Lacey revealed she was leaving AotF, siding with Aries romantically. After the main event Jacobs called out Aries and the two brawled, before Aries was jumped by AotF. Jacobs went to attack Aries with his spike, but he stopped when Lacey begged him not to. Jacobs then contemplated hitting Lacey with the spike, but again broke down and cried, leaving the ring.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080419\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Return Engagement\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}}", "Following the April events, Jacobs posted a YouTube video telling Lacey that she had a week to call him. A week followed and a video was posted that showed Jacobs confronting Lacey outside an exercise business. The two seemed to argue with Lacey backing off. Then Jacobs produced his spike from his cane before the video cut off. Afterward, Lacey was absent from ROH. The *[Wrestling Observer Newsletter](/wiki/Wrestling_Observer_Newsletter \"Wrestling Observer Newsletter\")* later confirmed Lacey had quit wrestling to return to school.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/l/lacey.html\\|title\\=WOMEN'S WRESTLER PROFILES \\- LACEY\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}}", "On November 22, 2008, Lacey made an appearance during its Pay Per View taping. She came out during the I Quit match between Aries and Jacobs, revealing herself to be the second Aries had selected for the match. Lacey acted as if she was going to throw in the towel to save Aries but became conflicted when Aries told her not to. Jacobs brought her into the ring, intending to hit her with his spike weapon but she slapped him. Later in the match she prevented Tyler Black (the second for Jacobs) from throwing in the towel.", "### Shimmer Women Athletes", "Lacey became a mainstay of the [Shimmer Women Athletes](/wiki/Shimmer_Women_Athletes \"Shimmer Women Athletes\") promotion, participating in every taping bar one (Volumes 3 and 4\\) since its first event until her retirement. On November 6, 2005, as part of Volume 1 she lost to Daizee Haze in the main event. Later on, as part of Volume 2, Lacey lost in a four\\-way that involved Mercedes Martinez, Haze, and winner Sara Del Rey.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/shimmer/\\|title\\=Shimmer Women Athletes\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World of Wrestling}} On May 21, 2006, as part of Volume 5, Lacey lost to [Nikita](/wiki/Katarina_Waters \"Katarina Waters\"). Later on, as part of Volume 6, The Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew defeated the team of Sara Del Rey and [Mercedes Martinez](/wiki/Mercedes_Martinez \"Mercedes Martinez\"), a match created after a backstage confrontation between Lacey, Del Rey, and Martinez on Volume 5\\.", "On June 1, Lacey took part in the [Shimmer Title Tournament](/wiki/Shimmer_Championship%23Shimmer_Title_Tournament \"Shimmer Championship#Shimmer Title Tournament\"). She ultimately lost to Sara Del Rey in the finals. During the match Rain unsuccessfully tried to interfere to help Lacey win, and was run off by Roxx and Allison Danger. Later on as part of Volume 13 The Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew suffered their first loss as a team in Shimmer, losing to Sara Del Rey and [Nikki Roxx](/wiki/Nicole_Raczynski \"Nicole Raczynski\") in the main event. On October 13, The Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew defeated the team of [\"The Portuguese Princess\" Ariel](/wiki/Ana_Rocha \"Ana Rocha\") and [Josie](/wiki/Josette_Bynum \"Josette Bynum\") on Volume 15\\. Later in the evening on Volume 16 they teamed with 'honorary home wrecker' [Jetta](/wiki/Jetta_%28wrestler%29 \"Jetta (wrestler)\") in a six\\-woman tag\\-team match to take on Daizee Haze, Eden Black, and MsChif. Jetta lost the match for her team, [taking the pin](/wiki/Job_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Job (professional wrestling)\") from Haze.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.visuex.com/shimmer/modules.php?name\\=Events\\&file\\=shows/vol15and16\\|title\\=SHIMMER Results Vol 15 \\& 16\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-06\\-08\\|publisher\\=Visuex}} After the taping the trio made it known that they now were [The International Home Wrecking Crew](/wiki/The_International_Home_Wrecking_Crew \"The International Home Wrecking Crew\") but Lacey and Rain would still go by the Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew name when they teamed together. As part of Volume 18 The Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew suffered a loss to the team of [Ashley Lane and Nevaeh](/wiki/Ashley_and_Nevaeh \"Ashley and Nevaeh\"). This also marked the end of The Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew as a team, as after the event Lacey retired from wrestling, making this Lacey's final match in wrestling.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.visuex.com/shimmer/modules.php?name\\=Events\\&file\\=shows/vol17and18\\|title\\=SHIMMER Results Vol 17 \\& 18\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-07\\-17\\|publisher\\=Visuex}} On May 2, 2009, at the tapings of Volume 23 Lacey was announced as the new manager of Rain and Jetta.", "On October 11, 2015, Lacey made a one\\-night return to wrestling during Shimmer's tenth anniversary weekend, when she took part in [Portia Perez](/wiki/Portia_Perez \"Portia Perez\")'s retirement match, where she, Perez, [Kimber Lee](/wiki/Kimber_Lee \"Kimber Lee\") and [Nicole Matthews](/wiki/Nicole_Matthews \"Nicole Matthews\") were defeated by Daizee Haze, [Kellie Skater](/wiki/Kellie_Skater \"Kellie Skater\"), [Lexie Fyfe](/wiki/Lexie_Fyfe \"Lexie Fyfe\") and [Madison Eagles](/wiki/Madison_Eagles \"Madison Eagles\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.wrestleview.com/roh\\-indy\\-wrestling\\-news/56518\\-results\\-from\\-the\\-10th\\-anniversary\\-weekend\\-of\\-shimmer\\|title\\=Results from the 10th Anniversary weekend of Shimmer\\|last\\=Namako\\|first\\=Jason\\|date\\=October 12, 2015\\|accessdate\\=October 12, 2015\\|work\\=Wrestleview}}", "### Other promotions", "In [Full Impact Pro](/wiki/Full_Impact_Pro \"Full Impact Pro\"), Lacey debuted in a loss to Allison Danger on September 8, 2006\\. She instantly started in an association The Heartbreak Express tag\\-team and [SoCal Val](/wiki/SoCal_Val \"SoCal Val\"), assuming a managerial role. The following night Lacey teamed with Heartbreak Express to defeat Black Market and Danger, winning Express the [FIP Tag Team Championship](/wiki/FIP_Tag_Team_Championship \"FIP Tag Team Championship\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/fip/\\|title\\=Full Impact Pro\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World of Wrestling}} On May 25, 2007, when she turned on The Express and joined The YRR (Young, Rich, and Ready for action) stable. She then served a managerial role to the male members alongside Rain, Becky Bayless, and SoCal Val. On February 16, 2008, at FIP's Redefined event, Lacey and Rain (wrestling as The YRR as opposed to using the Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew name) defeated Allison Danger and [Trenesha](/wiki/Trenesha_Biggers \"Trenesha Biggers\"). Later in the night as part of storyline merging between ROH and FIP, Lacey turned on The YRR and remained loyal to Age of the Fall when lured by [Tyler Black](/wiki/Seth_Rollins \"Seth Rollins\"). Lacey then convinced Rain to also leave The YRR and join AotF, which she did. The two then accompanied Black and AotF members to the ring for their match, and accompanied them at future FIP events until Lacey's retirement where Rain remained in the same role.", "Lacey was part of the short\\-lived [MTV](/wiki/MTV \"MTV\") series [Wrestling Society X](/wiki/Wrestling_Society_X \"Wrestling Society X\"). She was both a backstage correspondent and co\\-hosted WSX's Internet show called *WSXtra* alongside [Fabian Kaelen](/wiki/Ryan_Katz \"Ryan Katz\").", "Lacey made appearances in Women's Extreme Wrestling. On April 6, 2006, Lacey lost to [Jazz](/wiki/Carlene_Begnaud \"Carlene Begnaud\"). Later in the evening Lacey and Rain, wrestling as The Hot Home Wreckers defeated [Shantelle Taylor](/wiki/Shantelle_Malawski \"Shantelle Malawski\") and Pussy Willow. On May 5, 2007, Lacey and Rain lost to Annie Social and [Sumie Sakai](/wiki/Sumie_Sakai \"Sumie Sakai\") in a match to crown new WEW Tag Team Champions.", "" ]
### Ring of Honor #### Special K Lacey made her [Ring of Honor](/wiki/Ring_of_Honor "Ring of Honor") (ROH) debut as part of the Special K faction as a girlfriend in mid\-2004\. During September up until November Lacey would become involved in arguments and then catfights with fellow Special K valet [Becky Bayless](/wiki/Becky_Bayless "Becky Bayless"), sparked by the factions frequent tag\-team losses. On December 4, after the group lost an 8\-man tag to a team of ROH students Special K finally broke up as Izzy, Deranged and Lacey turned on Dixie, AngelDust and Bayless.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/041204\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- All\-Star Extravaganza II\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On December 26 Deranged and Lacey defeated AngelDust and Becky Bayless when Lacey pinned Bayless. #### Lacey's Angels In 2005, as well as wrestling Lacey began a [manager and valet](/wiki/Manager_%28professional_wrestling%29 "Manager (professional wrestling)") role, leading Lacey's Angels of Izzy and Deranged, and now featuring [Cheech and Cloudy](/wiki/The_Miracle_Ultraviolence_Connection "The Miracle Ultraviolence Connection"). On October 1, Lacey announced that after her men had failed to get the wins she wanted a new Lacey's Angels would debut the following night.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/051001\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Joe vs. Kobashi\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On October 2, after BJ Whitmer and [Jimmy Jacobs](/wiki/Jimmy_Jacobs "Jimmy Jacobs") defeated Izzy \& Deranged, she fired them and hired Whitmer and Jacobs as her new angels.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/051002\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Unforgettable\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} Lacey accompanied Jacobs and Whitmer to the ring for their tag and singles matches. As part of making the new Lacey's Angels into a dominant force, Lacey in particular made continued efforts to turn Jacobs into a serious wrestler away from his previous comical gimmick. This including giving him a 'flashy' ring robe, refusing him to wear furry boots or shout 'Huss' and wear proper ring gear. However, in doing so she had unwittingly made Jacobs fall in love with her, to the point where he was more concerned with winning her heart rather than matches. Jacobs' antics began to aggravate BJ Whitmer when it cost them both matches. Whitmer finally turned on Jacobs in January 2006 after losing an [ROH Tag Team Championship](/wiki/ROH_Tag_Team_Championship "ROH Tag Team Championship") match against [Austin Aries](/wiki/Austin_Aries "Austin Aries") and [Roderick Strong](/wiki/Roderick_Strong "Roderick Strong") when Jacobs paid more attention to Lacey at ringside than the match.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060128\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Dissension\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} Lacey and Jacobs then entered into a feud with Whitmer, based on Lacey ordering Jacobs to put Whitmer out of wrestling. Lacey went as far as offering advice to [Christopher Daniels](/wiki/Christopher_Daniels "Christopher Daniels") on how to beat Whitmer in a match.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060225\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- 4th Anniversary Show\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On April 22, Jacobs made one last attempt to win Lacey's heart in a match with [Colt Cabana](/wiki/Colt_Cabana "Colt Cabana"). Pre\-match, Lacey gave Jacobs a final ultimatum, demanding that he win or he would never be allowed to talk to her again. Jacobs subsequently lost the match.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060428\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Weekend of Champions (Night 1\)\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} But the following night Lacey gave the same ultimatum to Jacobs before his 6\-way match. Jacobs won the match.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060429\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Weekend of Champions (Night 2\)\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} From June onward, ROH began placing teases and hints that there was a 'romantic' relationship going on between Lacey and [Colt Cabana](/wiki/Colt_Cabana "Colt Cabana"). On August 25, Jacobs confronted Lacey about the rumors and later that night lost his match.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060825\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Epic Encounter II\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On September 15 Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his 4\-way match against Cabana, [Jack Evans](/wiki/Jack_Evans_%28wrestler%29 "Jack Evans (wrestler)"), and [Ricky Reyes](/wiki/Ricky_Reyes "Ricky Reyes"). Cabana made jokes about making it to third base with Lacey in the bushes before the match. During the match, Lacey kept encouraging Jacobs and Cabana to work together, a tease that Lacey was looking to start a new Lacey's Angels with Cabana and Jacobs.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060915\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Glory By Honor V: Night 1\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The next night, September 16, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his three\-way match against Cabana and [Christopher Daniels](/wiki/Christopher_Daniels "Christopher Daniels"). During the match, Jacobs low\-blowed Cabana and pinned him to win the match. However, Lacey was concerned with Cabana being injured and berated Jacobs.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060916\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Glory By Honor V: Night 2\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On October 6, Lacey accompanied Jacobs and Cabana to the ring for their ROH Tag Team Championship match against champions [Chris Hero](/wiki/Chris_Hero "Chris Hero") and [Claudio Castagnoli](/wiki/Antonio_Cesaro "Antonio Cesaro"). Jacobs and Cabana lost when Jacobs accidentally speared Cabana, resulting in Cabana getting pinned to lose the match. On October 28, Lacey accompanied Cabana and Jacobs for their match against [Jimmy Rave](/wiki/Jimmy_Rave "Jimmy Rave") and Salvatore Rinauro which they won (their first win as a team). She then offered Cabana a contract to officially join Lacey's Angels. Cabana refused. He then attacked Cabana, gouging his eyes with Lacey's high heel shoe before BJ Whitmer ran out to make the save and Lacey and Jacobs fled the scene.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061028\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Irresistible Forces\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On November 3, the start of what would be a long\-running feud between [Daizee Haze](/wiki/Daizee_Haze "Daizee Haze") and Lacey began when Lacey slapped her after her match.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061103\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Honor Reclaims Boston\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On November 24, Lacey was victorious in a four\-way match which involved Haze, [Allison Danger](/wiki/Allison_Danger "Allison Danger"), and [Nikki Roxx](/wiki/Nikki_Roxx "Nikki Roxx"). Later on she accompanied Jacobs as he participated in a gauntlet match, using a low blow to defeat BJ Whitmer before being eliminated by [Nigel McGuiness](/wiki/Nigel_McGuiness "Nigel McGuiness").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061124\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Black Friday Fallout\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The following night, November 25, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his match against Whitmer. Lacey eventually interfered, attacking a weakened Whitmer which brought out Haze to stop Lacey from interfering and the two brawled.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061125\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Dethroned\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On December 8, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his match against Colt Cabana. Lacey threw a handful of powder in Cabana's face when he had Jacobs in a submission causing a disqualification. Daizee Haze fought with Lacey until Jacobs speared Haze hard. [Brent Albright](/wiki/Brent_Albright "Brent Albright") ran down to the ring and, he held Cabana down while Lacey stomped him the groin. Whitmer then ran down to make the save.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061208\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- The Chicago Spectacular: Night 1\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The next night, December 9, Lacey accompanied Jacobs to the ring as part the main event, pitting Delirious, Whitmer (accompanied by Haze), Cabana, and McGuinness against Bryan Danielson, Jacobs, Rave and Shingo. During the match, Whitmer inadvertently hit Lacey with a railroad spike.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061209\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- The Chicago Spectacular: Night 2\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On January 27, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his Last Man Standing Match against Whitmer which Jacobs won thanks to Albright. Later in the evening, Albright and Lacey lost to Cabana and Sara Del Rey who substituted for an injured Haze. But post\-match, Haze attacked Lacey.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/070127\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On February 23, Lacey accompanied Jacobs and Albright to the ring for their losing effort against Nigel McGuinness and Cabana. Later in the evening Lacey defeated Haze after Jacobs interfered and speared Haze.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/070223\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- \|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The following night, February 24, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his "Windy City Death match" against Cabana. Early on Lacey tried to interfere, but Haze ran out and brawled with her to the back. Later in the match Lacey returned to attack Cabana again, only to be taken out before he laid out Jacobs and put Lacey face down on top of him as he pinned him.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/070224\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- \|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On March 30, Lacey and Jacobs defeated Whitmer and Haze. Post\-match Lacey said Jacobs finally won her over and she gave him a hug to reward him for a job well done.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/070330\.php\|title\=Ring of Honor \- All\-Star Extravaganza III\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The following night, March 31, Lacey accompanied Jacobs to the ring for his Steel Cage Match against Whitmer (accompanied by Haze). During the match Lacey tried to interfere but was taken out by a tombstone pile\-driver from Whitmer. Jacobs won the match, winning their feud despite injuring himself in the match. On April 27, The Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew (accompanied by Jacobs on crutches) defeated [Sara Del Rey](/wiki/Sara_Del_Rey "Sara Del Rey") and Allison Danger.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070427\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- The Battle Of St. Paul\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World of Wrestling}} The following night, April 28, Jacobs revealed in a backstage promo that Lacey had promised her one night of ecstasy for taking out Whitmer. Even though he really wanted to do it, he did not do it. Jacobs said he loves Lacey and she is close to loving him too, adding that he and Lacey will be together, not because of lust, but because of love.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070428\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Good Times, Great Memories\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World of Wrestling}} Following these events, ROH released a four\-part video series on [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube "YouTube") entitled "Jimmy Loves Lacey", documenting Jacobs' attempts to win Lacey over an extended date of four days. Jacobs had mixed results, doing some good things but screwing up at other points. On the final day Lacey took Jacobs into her hotel room, the camera returning to the room 'later' and showing Lacey cuddling Jacobs (who looked conflicted), implying the two had had sex. The roles had now reversed between the two, with Jacobs seemingly taking control of himself and Lacey now being infatuated with Jacobs. On June 8, Daizee Haze called out Lacey to get some revenge on her. Jacobs came out instead and insulted Haze's challenge which resulted in her attacking him with his own walking cane. Lacey then destroyed Haze and helped Jacobs walk backstage.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070608\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- A Fight At The Roxbury\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World of Wrestling}} The following night, June 9, Lacey (accompanied by Jacobs) fought Haze to a 10\-minute time limit draw.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070609\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Domination\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World of Wrestling}} On August 10, Lacey (accompanied by Jacobs) defeated Haze to earn a [Shimmer Championship](/wiki/Shimmer_Championship "Shimmer Championship") match on the next show.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070810\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Death Before Dishonor V: Night 1\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} The following night, August 11, Sara Del Rey defeated Lacey to retain the Shimmer Championship.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070811\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Death Before Dishonor V: Night 2\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} #### The Age of the Fall {{main\|The Age of the Fall}} On September 15, Lacey accompanied Jacobs, the returning [Necro Butcher](/wiki/Necro_Butcher "Necro Butcher") and the debuting [Tyler Black](/wiki/Seth_Rollins "Seth Rollins") as they violently attacked [The Briscoe Brothers](/wiki/The_Briscoe_Brothers "The Briscoe Brothers") at the end of the [Man Up](/wiki/ROH_Man_Up "ROH Man Up") Pay Per View taping. They revealed themselves as a new stable called The Age of the Fall. Later on in a dark match, Lacey teamed with Sara Del Rey in a losing effort to Haze and [Amazing Kong](/wiki/Kia_Stevens "Kia Stevens").{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070915\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Man Up\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} Lacey assumed a manager role of the group, accompanying all AotF members to their matches and interfering when she could to help them win. As a result, Daizee Haze assumed a counter role to accompany wrestlers fighting AotF so she could stop Lacey from interfering. On November 2, Lacey accompanied Jacobs, Butcher, and Black for their victory over [Jack Evans](/wiki/Jack_Evans_%28wrestler%29 "Jack Evans (wrestler)"), [Ruckus](/wiki/Ruckus_%28wrestler%29 "Ruckus (wrestler)"), and [Jigsaw](/wiki/Jigsaw_%28wrestler%29 "Jigsaw (wrestler)") (accompanied by Julius Smokes). Post match Lacey and Haze brawled once more as part of a mass brawl between factions.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/071102\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Glory By Honor VI Night 1\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} The following night, November 3, Lacey accompanied Butcher and Jacobs to the ring for their Street Fight against The Briscoes (accompanied by Haze). Haze and Lacey immediately started brawling and disappeared to the back.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/071103\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Glory By Honor VI Night 1\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On December 30, Lacey accompanied Black and Jacobs to their victory for the ROH Tag Team Championship against The Briscoes (accompanied by Haze).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/071230\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Final Battle 2007\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On January 12, 2008, the team of Mark Briscoe, Haze, Jack Evans, and Jigsaw beat Butcher, Black, Jacobs, and Lacey in a Street Fight.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080112\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Transform\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On January 25, Haze defeated Lacey who was accompanied by Jacobs, Black, and Wonderland. Post match the AotF members threatened Daizee Haze until The Briscoes hit the ring to save her, when new AotF member [Joey Matthews](/wiki/Adam_Birch "Adam Birch") attacked The Briscoes from behind.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080125\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Breakout\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On March 14, Lacey accompanied Butcher for his match against Delirious (accompanied by Haze). Later she accompanied Black and Matthews to the ring for their match over The Briscoes.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080314\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Double Feature (Night 1\)\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On March 16, Lacey brawled with Haze during a Street Fight between The Briscoes and Butcher and Matthews.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080316\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Take No Prisoners \|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} In the months leading up to ROH's April events, Jacobs had made an open invitation to Austin Aries to join AotF both at ROH events and through YouTube videos and blog.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080328\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Dragon Gate Challenge II\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On March 29, 2008, Lacey along with Rain accompanied Jacobs and Black against The Briscoes in a Relaxed Rules Match. Later in the show, AotF approached Aries after his match, again making the offer for him to join them. Lacey stepped in, offering to convince Aries who left the ring with her, a decision which did not sit well Jacobs. After the event, Jacobs posted a YouTube video asking for Lacey to call him as he had not heard from her in a while.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080329\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Super Card of Honor III\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On April 18, Lacey appeared after Aries' match, making out with him in the middle of the ring before leaving with him.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080418\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Tag Wars 2008\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On April 19, Lacey revealed she was leaving AotF, siding with Aries romantically. After the main event Jacobs called out Aries and the two brawled, before Aries was jumped by AotF. Jacobs went to attack Aries with his spike, but he stopped when Lacey begged him not to. Jacobs then contemplated hitting Lacey with the spike, but again broke down and cried, leaving the ring.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080419\.html\|title\=Ring of Honor \- Return Engagement\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} Following the April events, Jacobs posted a YouTube video telling Lacey that she had a week to call him. A week followed and a video was posted that showed Jacobs confronting Lacey outside an exercise business. The two seemed to argue with Lacey backing off. Then Jacobs produced his spike from his cane before the video cut off. Afterward, Lacey was absent from ROH. The *[Wrestling Observer Newsletter](/wiki/Wrestling_Observer_Newsletter "Wrestling Observer Newsletter")* later confirmed Lacey had quit wrestling to return to school.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/l/lacey.html\|title\=WOMEN'S WRESTLER PROFILES \- LACEY\|accessdate\=2008\-10\-03\|publisher\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On November 22, 2008, Lacey made an appearance during its Pay Per View taping. She came out during the I Quit match between Aries and Jacobs, revealing herself to be the second Aries had selected for the match. Lacey acted as if she was going to throw in the towel to save Aries but became conflicted when Aries told her not to. Jacobs brought her into the ring, intending to hit her with his spike weapon but she slapped him. Later in the match she prevented Tyler Black (the second for Jacobs) from throwing in the towel.
[ "### Ring of Honor", "#### Special K", "Lacey made her [Ring of Honor](/wiki/Ring_of_Honor \"Ring of Honor\") (ROH) debut as part of the Special K faction as a girlfriend in mid\\-2004\\. During September up until November Lacey would become involved in arguments and then catfights with fellow Special K valet [Becky Bayless](/wiki/Becky_Bayless \"Becky Bayless\"), sparked by the factions frequent tag\\-team losses. On December 4, after the group lost an 8\\-man tag to a team of ROH students Special K finally broke up as Izzy, Deranged and Lacey turned on Dixie, AngelDust and Bayless.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/041204\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- All\\-Star Extravaganza II\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On December 26 Deranged and Lacey defeated AngelDust and Becky Bayless when Lacey pinned Bayless.", "#### Lacey's Angels", "In 2005, as well as wrestling Lacey began a [manager and valet](/wiki/Manager_%28professional_wrestling%29 \"Manager (professional wrestling)\") role, leading Lacey's Angels of Izzy and Deranged, and now featuring [Cheech and Cloudy](/wiki/The_Miracle_Ultraviolence_Connection \"The Miracle Ultraviolence Connection\"). On October 1, Lacey announced that after her men had failed to get the wins she wanted a new Lacey's Angels would debut the following night.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/051001\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Joe vs. Kobashi\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On October 2, after BJ Whitmer and [Jimmy Jacobs](/wiki/Jimmy_Jacobs \"Jimmy Jacobs\") defeated Izzy \\& Deranged, she fired them and hired Whitmer and Jacobs as her new angels.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/051002\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Unforgettable\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} Lacey accompanied Jacobs and Whitmer to the ring for their tag and singles matches.", "As part of making the new Lacey's Angels into a dominant force, Lacey in particular made continued efforts to turn Jacobs into a serious wrestler away from his previous comical gimmick. This including giving him a 'flashy' ring robe, refusing him to wear furry boots or shout 'Huss' and wear proper ring gear. However, in doing so she had unwittingly made Jacobs fall in love with her, to the point where he was more concerned with winning her heart rather than matches. Jacobs' antics began to aggravate BJ Whitmer when it cost them both matches. Whitmer finally turned on Jacobs in January 2006 after losing an [ROH Tag Team Championship](/wiki/ROH_Tag_Team_Championship \"ROH Tag Team Championship\") match against [Austin Aries](/wiki/Austin_Aries \"Austin Aries\") and [Roderick Strong](/wiki/Roderick_Strong \"Roderick Strong\") when Jacobs paid more attention to Lacey at ringside than the match.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060128\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Dissension\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} Lacey and Jacobs then entered into a feud with Whitmer, based on Lacey ordering Jacobs to put Whitmer out of wrestling. Lacey went as far as offering advice to [Christopher Daniels](/wiki/Christopher_Daniels \"Christopher Daniels\") on how to beat Whitmer in a match.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060225\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- 4th Anniversary Show\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On April 22, Jacobs made one last attempt to win Lacey's heart in a match with [Colt Cabana](/wiki/Colt_Cabana \"Colt Cabana\"). Pre\\-match, Lacey gave Jacobs a final ultimatum, demanding that he win or he would never be allowed to talk to her again. Jacobs subsequently lost the match.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060428\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Weekend of Champions (Night 1\\)\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} But the following night Lacey gave the same ultimatum to Jacobs before his 6\\-way match. Jacobs won the match.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060429\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Weekend of Champions (Night 2\\)\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}}", "From June onward, ROH began placing teases and hints that there was a 'romantic' relationship going on between Lacey and [Colt Cabana](/wiki/Colt_Cabana \"Colt Cabana\"). On August 25, Jacobs confronted Lacey about the rumors and later that night lost his match.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060825\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Epic Encounter II\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On September 15 Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his 4\\-way match against Cabana, [Jack Evans](/wiki/Jack_Evans_%28wrestler%29 \"Jack Evans (wrestler)\"), and [Ricky Reyes](/wiki/Ricky_Reyes \"Ricky Reyes\"). Cabana made jokes about making it to third base with Lacey in the bushes before the match. During the match, Lacey kept encouraging Jacobs and Cabana to work together, a tease that Lacey was looking to start a new Lacey's Angels with Cabana and Jacobs.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060915\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Glory By Honor V: Night 1\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The next night, September 16, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his three\\-way match against Cabana and [Christopher Daniels](/wiki/Christopher_Daniels \"Christopher Daniels\"). During the match, Jacobs low\\-blowed Cabana and pinned him to win the match. However, Lacey was concerned with Cabana being injured and berated Jacobs.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/060916\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Glory By Honor V: Night 2\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On October 6, Lacey accompanied Jacobs and Cabana to the ring for their ROH Tag Team Championship match against champions [Chris Hero](/wiki/Chris_Hero \"Chris Hero\") and [Claudio Castagnoli](/wiki/Antonio_Cesaro \"Antonio Cesaro\"). Jacobs and Cabana lost when Jacobs accidentally speared Cabana, resulting in Cabana getting pinned to lose the match. On October 28, Lacey accompanied Cabana and Jacobs for their match against [Jimmy Rave](/wiki/Jimmy_Rave \"Jimmy Rave\") and Salvatore Rinauro which they won (their first win as a team). She then offered Cabana a contract to officially join Lacey's Angels. Cabana refused. He then attacked Cabana, gouging his eyes with Lacey's high heel shoe before BJ Whitmer ran out to make the save and Lacey and Jacobs fled the scene.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061028\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Irresistible Forces\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}}", "On November 3, the start of what would be a long\\-running feud between [Daizee Haze](/wiki/Daizee_Haze \"Daizee Haze\") and Lacey began when Lacey slapped her after her match.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061103\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Honor Reclaims Boston\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On November 24, Lacey was victorious in a four\\-way match which involved Haze, [Allison Danger](/wiki/Allison_Danger \"Allison Danger\"), and [Nikki Roxx](/wiki/Nikki_Roxx \"Nikki Roxx\"). Later on she accompanied Jacobs as he participated in a gauntlet match, using a low blow to defeat BJ Whitmer before being eliminated by [Nigel McGuiness](/wiki/Nigel_McGuiness \"Nigel McGuiness\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061124\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Black Friday Fallout\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The following night, November 25, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his match against Whitmer. Lacey eventually interfered, attacking a weakened Whitmer which brought out Haze to stop Lacey from interfering and the two brawled.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061125\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Dethroned\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}}", "On December 8, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his match against Colt Cabana. Lacey threw a handful of powder in Cabana's face when he had Jacobs in a submission causing a disqualification. Daizee Haze fought with Lacey until Jacobs speared Haze hard. [Brent Albright](/wiki/Brent_Albright \"Brent Albright\") ran down to the ring and, he held Cabana down while Lacey stomped him the groin. Whitmer then ran down to make the save.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061208\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- The Chicago Spectacular: Night 1\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The next night, December 9, Lacey accompanied Jacobs to the ring as part the main event, pitting Delirious, Whitmer (accompanied by Haze), Cabana, and McGuinness against Bryan Danielson, Jacobs, Rave and Shingo. During the match, Whitmer inadvertently hit Lacey with a railroad spike.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/061209\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- The Chicago Spectacular: Night 2\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On January 27, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his Last Man Standing Match against Whitmer which Jacobs won thanks to Albright. Later in the evening, Albright and Lacey lost to Cabana and Sara Del Rey who substituted for an injured Haze. But post\\-match, Haze attacked Lacey.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/070127\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On February 23, Lacey accompanied Jacobs and Albright to the ring for their losing effort against Nigel McGuinness and Cabana. Later in the evening Lacey defeated Haze after Jacobs interfered and speared Haze.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/070223\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- \\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The following night, February 24, Lacey accompanied Jacobs for his \"Windy City Death match\" against Cabana. Early on Lacey tried to interfere, but Haze ran out and brawled with her to the back. Later in the match Lacey returned to attack Cabana again, only to be taken out before he laid out Jacobs and put Lacey face down on top of him as he pinned him.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/070224\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- \\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} On March 30, Lacey and Jacobs defeated Whitmer and Haze. Post\\-match Lacey said Jacobs finally won her over and she gave him a hug to reward him for a job well done.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.obsessedwithwrestling.com/results/roh/070330\\.php\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- All\\-Star Extravaganza III\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Obsessed With Wrestling}} The following night, March 31, Lacey accompanied Jacobs to the ring for his Steel Cage Match against Whitmer (accompanied by Haze). During the match Lacey tried to interfere but was taken out by a tombstone pile\\-driver from Whitmer. Jacobs won the match, winning their feud despite injuring himself in the match.", "On April 27, The Minnesota Home Wrecking Crew (accompanied by Jacobs on crutches) defeated [Sara Del Rey](/wiki/Sara_Del_Rey \"Sara Del Rey\") and Allison Danger.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070427\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- The Battle Of St. Paul\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World of Wrestling}} The following night, April 28, Jacobs revealed in a backstage promo that Lacey had promised her one night of ecstasy for taking out Whitmer. Even though he really wanted to do it, he did not do it. Jacobs said he loves Lacey and she is close to loving him too, adding that he and Lacey will be together, not because of lust, but because of love.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070428\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Good Times, Great Memories\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World of Wrestling}} Following these events, ROH released a four\\-part video series on [YouTube](/wiki/YouTube \"YouTube\") entitled \"Jimmy Loves Lacey\", documenting Jacobs' attempts to win Lacey over an extended date of four days. Jacobs had mixed results, doing some good things but screwing up at other points. On the final day Lacey took Jacobs into her hotel room, the camera returning to the room 'later' and showing Lacey cuddling Jacobs (who looked conflicted), implying the two had had sex. The roles had now reversed between the two, with Jacobs seemingly taking control of himself and Lacey now being infatuated with Jacobs.", "On June 8, Daizee Haze called out Lacey to get some revenge on her. Jacobs came out instead and insulted Haze's challenge which resulted in her attacking him with his own walking cane. Lacey then destroyed Haze and helped Jacobs walk backstage.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070608\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- A Fight At The Roxbury\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World of Wrestling}} The following night, June 9, Lacey (accompanied by Jacobs) fought Haze to a 10\\-minute time limit draw.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070609\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Domination\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World of Wrestling}} On August 10, Lacey (accompanied by Jacobs) defeated Haze to earn a [Shimmer Championship](/wiki/Shimmer_Championship \"Shimmer Championship\") match on the next show.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070810\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Death Before Dishonor V: Night 1\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} The following night, August 11, Sara Del Rey defeated Lacey to retain the Shimmer Championship.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070811\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Death Before Dishonor V: Night 2\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}}", "#### The Age of the Fall", "{{main\\|The Age of the Fall}}\nOn September 15, Lacey accompanied Jacobs, the returning [Necro Butcher](/wiki/Necro_Butcher \"Necro Butcher\") and the debuting [Tyler Black](/wiki/Seth_Rollins \"Seth Rollins\") as they violently attacked [The Briscoe Brothers](/wiki/The_Briscoe_Brothers \"The Briscoe Brothers\") at the end of the [Man Up](/wiki/ROH_Man_Up \"ROH Man Up\") Pay Per View taping. They revealed themselves as a new stable called The Age of the Fall. Later on in a dark match, Lacey teamed with Sara Del Rey in a losing effort to Haze and [Amazing Kong](/wiki/Kia_Stevens \"Kia Stevens\").{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/070915\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Man Up\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} Lacey assumed a manager role of the group, accompanying all AotF members to their matches and interfering when she could to help them win. As a result, Daizee Haze assumed a counter role to accompany wrestlers fighting AotF so she could stop Lacey from interfering. On November 2, Lacey accompanied Jacobs, Butcher, and Black for their victory over [Jack Evans](/wiki/Jack_Evans_%28wrestler%29 \"Jack Evans (wrestler)\"), [Ruckus](/wiki/Ruckus_%28wrestler%29 \"Ruckus (wrestler)\"), and [Jigsaw](/wiki/Jigsaw_%28wrestler%29 \"Jigsaw (wrestler)\") (accompanied by Julius Smokes). Post match Lacey and Haze brawled once more as part of a mass brawl between factions.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/071102\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Glory By Honor VI Night 1\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} The following night, November 3, Lacey accompanied Butcher and Jacobs to the ring for their Street Fight against The Briscoes (accompanied by Haze). Haze and Lacey immediately started brawling and disappeared to the back.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/071103\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Glory By Honor VI Night 1\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}}", "On December 30, Lacey accompanied Black and Jacobs to their victory for the ROH Tag Team Championship against The Briscoes (accompanied by Haze).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/071230\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Final Battle 2007\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On January 12, 2008, the team of Mark Briscoe, Haze, Jack Evans, and Jigsaw beat Butcher, Black, Jacobs, and Lacey in a Street Fight.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080112\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Transform\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On January 25, Haze defeated Lacey who was accompanied by Jacobs, Black, and Wonderland. Post match the AotF members threatened Daizee Haze until The Briscoes hit the ring to save her, when new AotF member [Joey Matthews](/wiki/Adam_Birch \"Adam Birch\") attacked The Briscoes from behind.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080125\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Breakout\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On March 14, Lacey accompanied Butcher for his match against Delirious (accompanied by Haze). Later she accompanied Black and Matthews to the ring for their match over The Briscoes.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080314\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Double Feature (Night 1\\)\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On March 16, Lacey brawled with Haze during a Street Fight between The Briscoes and Butcher and Matthews.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080316\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Take No Prisoners \\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}}", "In the months leading up to ROH's April events, Jacobs had made an open invitation to Austin Aries to join AotF both at ROH events and through YouTube videos and blog.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080328\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Dragon Gate Challenge II\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On March 29, 2008, Lacey along with Rain accompanied Jacobs and Black against The Briscoes in a Relaxed Rules Match. Later in the show, AotF approached Aries after his match, again making the offer for him to join them. Lacey stepped in, offering to convince Aries who left the ring with her, a decision which did not sit well Jacobs. After the event, Jacobs posted a YouTube video asking for Lacey to call him as he had not heard from her in a while.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080329\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Super Card of Honor III\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On April 18, Lacey appeared after Aries' match, making out with him in the middle of the ring before leaving with him.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080418\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Tag Wars 2008\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}} On April 19, Lacey revealed she was leaving AotF, siding with Aries romantically. After the main event Jacobs called out Aries and the two brawled, before Aries was jumped by AotF. Jacobs went to attack Aries with his spike, but he stopped when Lacey begged him not to. Jacobs then contemplated hitting Lacey with the spike, but again broke down and cried, leaving the ring.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/results/roh/080419\\.html\\|title\\=Ring of Honor \\- Return Engagement\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}}", "Following the April events, Jacobs posted a YouTube video telling Lacey that she had a week to call him. A week followed and a video was posted that showed Jacobs confronting Lacey outside an exercise business. The two seemed to argue with Lacey backing off. Then Jacobs produced his spike from his cane before the video cut off. Afterward, Lacey was absent from ROH. The *[Wrestling Observer Newsletter](/wiki/Wrestling_Observer_Newsletter \"Wrestling Observer Newsletter\")* later confirmed Lacey had quit wrestling to return to school.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.onlineworldofwrestling.com/profiles/l/lacey.html\\|title\\=WOMEN'S WRESTLER PROFILES \\- LACEY\\|accessdate\\=2008\\-10\\-03\\|publisher\\=Online World Of Wrestling}}", "On November 22, 2008, Lacey made an appearance during its Pay Per View taping. She came out during the I Quit match between Aries and Jacobs, revealing herself to be the second Aries had selected for the match. Lacey acted as if she was going to throw in the towel to save Aries but became conflicted when Aries told her not to. Jacobs brought her into the ring, intending to hit her with his spike weapon but she slapped him. Later in the match she prevented Tyler Black (the second for Jacobs) from throwing in the towel.", "" ]
History ------- ### Development The Browning Hi\-Power was designed in response to a French military requirement for a new service pistol, the "Grand Rendement" (French for "high efficiency"), or alternatively *Grande Puissance* (literally "high power"). The French military required that: * The gun must be compact. * The magazine have a capacity of at least 10 rounds. * The gun have a magazine disconnect device, an external hammer, and a positive{{clarify\|date\=December 2016}} [safety](/wiki/Safety_%28firearms%29 "Safety (firearms)"). * The gun be robust and simple to disassemble and reassemble. * The gun be capable of killing a man at {{convert\|50\|m\|yd\|abbr\=on}}. This last criterion was seen to demand a [caliber](/wiki/Caliber "Caliber") of {{convert\|9\|mm\|in\|abbr\=on}} or larger, a bullet mass of around {{convert\|8\|g\|gr\|abbr\=on}}, and a muzzle velocity of {{convert\|350\|m/s\|ft/s\|abbr\=on}}. It was to accomplish all of this at a weight not exceeding {{convert\|1\|kg\|lb\|abbr\=on}}. FN commissioned John Browning to design a new military sidearm conforming to this specification. Browning had previously sold the rights to his successful [M1911 U.S. Army automatic pistol](/wiki/M1911_pistol "M1911 pistol") to Colt's Patent Firearms, and was therefore forced to design an entirely new pistol while working around the M1911 patents. Browning built two different prototypes for the project in Utah and filed the patent for this pistol in the United States on 28 June 1923, granted on 22 February 1927\.Gangarosa, Gene Jr. (1999\). *FN...Browning: Armorer to the World*. Stoeger Publishing, New Jersey. pp. 63–65\.{{US Patent\|1618510}} One was a simple [blowback](/wiki/Blowback_%28arms%29 "Blowback (arms)") design, while the other was operated with a [locked\-breech](/wiki/Semi-automatic_pistol%23Actions:Blowback_versus_locked_breech "Blowback versus locked breech") recoil system. Both prototypes utilised the new staggered magazine design (by designer [Dieudonné Saive](/wiki/Dieudonn%C3%A9_Saive "Dieudonné Saive")) to increase capacity without unduly increasing the pistol's grip size or magazine length. The locked breech design was selected for further development and testing. This model was [striker\-fired](/wiki/Firing_pin%23striker "Firing pin#striker"), and featured a double\-stack magazine that held 16 rounds. The design was refined through several trials held by the Versailles Trial Commission. In 1928, when the patents for the Colt Model 1911 had expired, Dieudonné Saive integrated many of the Colt's previously patented features into the Saive\-Browning Model of that same year. This version featured the removable barrel bushing and take down sequence of the Colt 1911\. In 1929, as an effort to find an alternative solution to the long\-ongoing French trials, and with a pistol that they considered by then to be good enough to stand on its own to find other potential clients, FN decided to announce the "Grand Rendement", incorporating a shortened 13\-round magazine, for sale in their commercial catalogue. They hoped to find a military contract which would in turn help them finance a production line, essentially through the same process as their previous [FN M1900](/wiki/FN_M1900 "FN M1900") pistol. By 1931, the Browning Hi\-Power design incorporated the same 13\-round magazine, a curved rear grip strap, and a barrel bushing that was integral to the slide assembly. The Belgian Army showed a definite interest and bought 1,000 pistols based on this prototype for field trials. By 1934, the Hi\-Power design was complete and ready to be produced. Ultimately, France decided not to adopt the pistol, instead selecting the conceptually similar but lower\-capacity [Modèle 1935 pistol](/wiki/Pistolet_automatique_mod%C3%A8le_1935A "Pistolet automatique modèle 1935A"). However, it was good enough to stand on its own as a service pistol for the Belgian Army and other clients. These would become the Grande Puissance, known as the High Power, in Belgium for military service in 1935 as the Browning P\-35\.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.forgottenweapons.com/before\-the\-high\-power\-was\-the\-fn\-grand\-rendement/ \| title\=Before the High Power was the FN Grand Rendement \| date\=8 August 2022 }} ### Military service and widespread use Browning Hi\-Power pistols were used during World War II by both [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II "Allies of World War II") and [Axis](/wiki/Axis_powers "Axis powers") forces.{{sfnp\|Thompson\|2020\|p\=33}} After occupying Belgium in 1940, German forces took over the FN plant. German troops subsequently used the Hi\-Power, having assigned it the designation *Pistole* 640(b) ("b" for *belgisch*, "Belgian"). Examples produced by FN in Belgium under German occupation bear German inspection and acceptance marks, or *[Waffenamts](/wiki/Waffenamt "Waffenamt")*, such as *WaA613*. In German service, it was used mainly by [Waffen\-SS](/wiki/Waffen-SS "Waffen-SS") and {{lang\|de\|\[\[Fallschirmjäger (Nazi Germany)\|Fallschirmjäger]]}} personnel. High\-Power pistols were also produced in Canada for Allied use, by [John Inglis and Company](/wiki/John_Inglis_and_Company "John Inglis and Company") in Toronto. The plans were sent from the FN factory to the UK when it became clear the Belgian plant would fall into German hands, enabling the Inglis factory to be tooled up for Hi\-Power production for Allied use. Inglis produced two versions of the Hi\-Power, one with an adjustable rear sight and detachable shoulder stock (primarily for a [Nationalist Chinese](/wiki/Kuomintang "Kuomintang") contract) and one with a fixed rear sight. Production began in late 1944 and they were on issue by the March 1945 [Operation Varsity](/wiki/Operation_Varsity "Operation Varsity") airborne crossing of the Rhine into Germany. The pistol was popular with the British airborne forces as well as covert operations and commando groups such as the [Special Operations Executive](/wiki/Special_Operations_Executive "Special Operations Executive") (SOE), the U.S. [Office of Strategic Services](/wiki/Office_of_Strategic_Services "Office of Strategic Services") (OSS), and the British [Special Air Service](/wiki/Special_Air_Service "Special Air Service") (SAS) Regiment. Inglis High\-Powers made for [Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations "Commonwealth of Nations") forces have the British designation 'Mk 1' or 'Mk 1\*' and the manufacturer's details on the left of the slide. They were known in British and Commonwealth service as the 'Pistol No 2 Mk 1', or 'Pistol No 2 Mk 1\*' where applicable. Serial numbers were 6 characters, the second being the letter 'T', e.g. 1T2345\. Serial numbers on pistols for the Chinese contract instead used the letters 'CH', but otherwise followed the same format. When the Chinese contract was cancelled, all undelivered Chinese\-style pistols were accepted by the Canadian military with designations of 'Pistol No 1 Mk 1' and 'Pistol No 1 Mk 1\*'.{{cite book \|title\=Inglis Diamond \- The Canadian High Power Pistol \|last\=Law \|first\=Clive M. \|year\=2001 \|publisher\=Collector Grade Publications \|isbn\=978\-0889352650 }} In the postwar period, Hi\-Power production continued at the FN factory and as part of FN's product range, which included the [FN FAL](/wiki/FN_FAL "FN FAL") rifle and [FN MAG](/wiki/FN_MAG "FN MAG") general\-purpose machine gun. It has been adopted as the standard service pistol by over 50 armies in 93 countries. At one time most NATO nations used it, and it was standard issue to forces throughout the British Commonwealth. It was manufactured under licence, or in some cases cloned, on several continents. Former Iraqi ruler [Saddam Hussein](/wiki/Saddam_Hussein "Saddam Hussein") often carried a Browning Hi\-Power. Former Libyan ruler [Muammar Gaddafi](/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi "Muammar Gaddafi") carried a gold\-plated Hi\-Power with his own face design on the left side of the grip which was waved around in the air by Libyan rebels after his death.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/top\-stories/2011/10/20/confirmed\-gaddafi\-dead\-new\-york\-yankees\-baseball\-fan\-captured\-tyrant\-115875\-23503068/ \|title\=Confirmed Gaddafi dead: New York Yankees baseball fan 'captured' tyrant \- Mirror Online \|publisher\=Mirror.co.uk \|date\=2011\-10\-20 \|access\-date\=2012\-11\-03 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121081052/http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/top\-stories/2011/10/20/confirmed\-gaddafi\-dead\-new\-york\-yankees\-baseball\-fan\-captured\-tyrant\-115875\-23503068/ \|archive\-date\=2012\-01\-21 \|url\-status\=live }} A Hi\-Power was used by [Mehmet Ali Agca](/wiki/Mehmet_Ali_Agca "Mehmet Ali Agca") during the assassination attempt of [Pope John Paul II](/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II "Pope John Paul II") in 1981\. ### Decline and resurgence While the Hi\-Power remains an excellent and iconic design, since the early 1990s it has been eclipsed somewhat by more modern designs which are often double\-action with aluminum alloy frames and are manufactured using more modern methods. However, even to this day, the Hi\-Power remains in service throughout the world. As of 2017, the MK1 version remained the standard service pistol of the [Canadian Armed Forces](/wiki/Canadian_Armed_Forces "Canadian Armed Forces"), with the [SIG Sauer P226](/wiki/SIG_Sauer_P226 "SIG Sauer P226") being issued to specialised units along with the [SIG Sauer P225](/wiki/SIG_Sauer_P220%23P225.2FP6 "SIG Sauer P220#P225.2FP6"). The weapon is the standard sidearm of the [Belgian Army](/wiki/Belgian_Land_Component "Belgian Land Component"), [Indian Army](/wiki/Indian_Army "Indian Army"), [Indonesian Armed Forces](/wiki/Indonesian_Armed_Forces "Indonesian Armed Forces"), [Australian Defence Force](/wiki/Australian_Defence_Force "Australian Defence Force"), [Argentine Army](/wiki/Argentine_Army "Argentine Army"), [Luxembourg Armed Forces](/wiki/Luxembourg_Armed_Forces "Luxembourg Armed Forces"), [Israel Police](/wiki/Israel_Police "Israel Police"), and [Venezuelan Army](/wiki/Venezuelan_Army "Venezuelan Army"), among others. The [Irish Army](/wiki/Irish_Army "Irish Army") replaced its Browning Pistols (known popularly as BAPs, or Browning Automatic Pistols) with the [Heckler \& Koch USP](/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch_USP "Heckler & Koch USP") in 2007\. From 2013 the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army "British Army") is replacing the Browning with the [polymer](/wiki/Polymer "Polymer")\-framed [Glock 17 Gen 4](/wiki/Glock_17 "Glock 17") pistol, due to concerns about weight and the external safety of the pistol.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2013/01/11/browning\_9mm\_finally\_replaced/ \|title\=British armed forces get first new pistol since World War II \|work\=\[\[The Register]] \|date\=2013\-01\-11 \|access\-date\=2013\-01\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117080615/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2013/01/11/browning\_9mm\_finally\_replaced/ \|archive\-date\=2013\-01\-17 \|url\-status\=live}} In 2018, FN announced they would end production of the Mark III Hi\-Power, which was expensive to produce and had been assembled in Portugal to cut costs. Early in that year, Browning officially ceased production of the Belgian Hi\-Power for the first time since 1935\. An unlicensed clone called the "Regent BR9" was produced in Turkey by [TİSAŞ](/wiki/T%C4%B0SA%C5%9E "TİSAŞ") in 2019 and had gained some popularity now that authentic Hi\-Powers were no longer being made and surplus Hi\-Powers from other countries like Hungary and Argentina had dried up. The Regent BR9 design was more of a copy of the Mark I design, but did offer some modern design features, like a Cerakote or stainless steel finish and Novak\-style sights. The BR9 was soon discontinued, but, in 2021, another Turkish company called [GİRSAN](/wiki/G%C4%B0RSAN "GİRSAN") began producing their own Hi\-Power clone called the MCP35, imported by [EAA](/wiki/European_American_Armory "European American Armory"). In 2021, American firearms company [Springfield Armory](/wiki/Springfield_Armory "Springfield Armory") announced their own Hi\-Power clone, the SA\-35\. GİRSAN and Springfield Armory's clones began competing with each other by offering new design improvements that would help them compete in the oversaturated defensive handgun market. GİRSAN's MCP35 attempted to replicate the Mark III design as closely as possible, including the Belgian\-style ambidextrous thumb safety, Mark III\-style sights with a windage drift adjustable rear sight and dovetailed front sight, and Mark III\-style black polymer grips. The MCP35 also retained the Belgian magazine disconnect safety. However, the MCP35 incorporated the original ring hammer design instead of the claw hammer design of the Mark III and also incorporated some design elements to appeal to the modern shooter, such as a 15\-round Mec\-Gar magazine and Cerakote finish.{{Cite web\|url\=https://eaacorp.com/product/girsan\-mc\-p35/\|title\=Girsan MCP35\|date\=8 November 2023 }} [left\|thumb\|FN Browning High Power M46](/wiki/File:FN_Browning_High_Power_%28right_side%29.png "FN Browning High Power (right side).png") The steady competition between the MCP35 and the SA\-35 to make the original Hi\-Power relevant to the market stirred up a great interest among both Hi\-Power fans and new shooters. On 18 January 2022, after a four\-year hiatus, FN announced they would resume production of the Browning Hi\-Power, albeit with a number of upgraded features. FN named the 2022 redesign the "FN High Power" and incorporated a number of features to help it compete with the improved Hi\-Power clones being made by GİRSAN and Springfield Armory. FN incorporated a number of changes that would make the classic Hi\-Power design more modern and ergonomic. The most significant changes included opening up the top of the slide to increase the size of the ejection port to ensure reliable feeding and ejection, incorporating an ambidextrous slide lock and reversible magazine release, a completely different takedown that is faster and simpler, and redesigning the barrel and recoil spring. Other changes FN made include removing the magazine disconnect safety, adding an extended beavertail and redesigned hammer to eliminate the issue of hammer bite, several sets of redesigned grips, new sights compatible with the [FN 509](/wiki/FN_509 "FN 509") dovetail pattern, wider slide serrations, different colored [PVD](/wiki/Physical_vapor_deposition "Physical vapor deposition") or stainless steel finish offerings and 17\-round magazines. The new FN High Powers will be made at FN's Columbia, South Carolina factory in the United States.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2022/01/18/fn\-hi\-power\-reborn/\|title\=\[SHOT 2022] the FN Hi\-Power is Reborn \-\|date\=18 January 2022}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.americanrifleman.org/content/new\-for\-2022\-fn\-high\-power/\|title \= An Official Journal of the NRA \| New for 2022: FN High Power}} At SHOT show 2022, GİRSAN announced new color offerings for the MCP35, including two\-tone and gold, as well as the MCP35 "Match", which incorporated a number of designs intended to cater to target shooters, such as an integrated 1913 [Picatinny rail](/wiki/Picatinny_rail "Picatinny rail") for accessories, ergonomic grips, a shorter hammer throw, beveled and flared magwell, a flat target trigger and raised target sights with a fiber optic front sight.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2022/01/19/shot\-2022\-2022\-year\-hi\-power\-girsan\-mcp35\-new\-pistols\-eaa/\|title\=\[SHOT 2022] is 2022 the Year of the Hi\-Power? Girsan MCP35 and Other new Pistols from EAA \-\|date\=19 January 2022}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2022/01/19/shot\-2022\-eaa\-girsan\-mc\-p35\-year\-hi\-power/\|title \= \[SHOT 2022] the Modern Hi\-Power, the EAA/Girsan MC P35 Match \-\|date \= 19 January 2022}} At SHOT Show in 2024, Tennessee\-based company SDS Imports announced that they were reviving the [John Inglis line](/wiki/John_Inglis_and_Company "John Inglis and Company") of military\-spec, parkerized Inglis Browning Hi\-Power clones. SDS CEO Tim Mulverhill stated: "The market demand has not been met for historically accurate Hi\-Powers. We’re planning for the L9A1 to influence the Hi\-Power market the way the Tisas US Army did in the 1911 market".{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.guns.com/news/2024/01/08/inglis\-reborn\-to\-market\-period\-correct\-hi\-powers\|title \= INGLIS REBORN, TO MARKET PERIOD CORRECT HI\-POWERS\|date \= 8 January 2024}} The new Inglis Hi\-Powers are available in black chromate, black Cerakote, satin [nickel](/wiki/Nickel "Nickel") and color [case\-hardened](/wiki/Case-hardened "Case-hardened") finishes. The SDS Inglis line is essentially a more military accurate version of the now\-discontinued Regent BR9, and it is a fully interchangeable Mark III design. In August 2024, another Browning Hi\-Power clone, the Centurion 14, was announced by [Century Arms](/wiki/Century_Arms "Century Arms"). The Centurion 14 is built in Turkey by Alpharms Savunma Sanayi, and imported by Century Arms.{{cite web \| url\=https://gundigest.com/handguns/centurion\-14\-review \| title\=First Look: Century Arms Centurion 14 \| date\=15 August 2024 }}
[ "History\n-------", "### Development", "The Browning Hi\\-Power was designed in response to a French military requirement for a new service pistol, the \"Grand Rendement\" (French for \"high efficiency\"), or alternatively *Grande Puissance* (literally \"high power\"). The French military required that:\n* The gun must be compact.\n* The magazine have a capacity of at least 10 rounds.\n* The gun have a magazine disconnect device, an external hammer, and a positive{{clarify\\|date\\=December 2016}} [safety](/wiki/Safety_%28firearms%29 \"Safety (firearms)\").\n* The gun be robust and simple to disassemble and reassemble.\n* The gun be capable of killing a man at {{convert\\|50\\|m\\|yd\\|abbr\\=on}}.", "This last criterion was seen to demand a [caliber](/wiki/Caliber \"Caliber\") of {{convert\\|9\\|mm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}} or larger, a bullet mass of around {{convert\\|8\\|g\\|gr\\|abbr\\=on}}, and a muzzle velocity of {{convert\\|350\\|m/s\\|ft/s\\|abbr\\=on}}. It was to accomplish all of this at a weight not exceeding {{convert\\|1\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}}.", "FN commissioned John Browning to design a new military sidearm conforming to this specification. Browning had previously sold the rights to his successful [M1911 U.S. Army automatic pistol](/wiki/M1911_pistol \"M1911 pistol\") to Colt's Patent Firearms, and was therefore forced to design an entirely new pistol while working around the M1911 patents. Browning built two different prototypes for the project in Utah and filed the patent for this pistol in the United States on 28 June 1923, granted on 22 February 1927\\.Gangarosa, Gene Jr. (1999\\). *FN...Browning: Armorer to the World*. Stoeger Publishing, New Jersey. pp. 63–65\\.{{US Patent\\|1618510}} One was a simple [blowback](/wiki/Blowback_%28arms%29 \"Blowback (arms)\") design, while the other was operated with a [locked\\-breech](/wiki/Semi-automatic_pistol%23Actions:Blowback_versus_locked_breech \"Blowback versus locked breech\") recoil system. Both prototypes utilised the new staggered magazine design (by designer [Dieudonné Saive](/wiki/Dieudonn%C3%A9_Saive \"Dieudonné Saive\")) to increase capacity without unduly increasing the pistol's grip size or magazine length.", "The locked breech design was selected for further development and testing. This model was [striker\\-fired](/wiki/Firing_pin%23striker \"Firing pin#striker\"), and featured a double\\-stack magazine that held 16 rounds. The design was refined through several trials held by the Versailles Trial Commission.", "In 1928, when the patents for the Colt Model 1911 had expired, Dieudonné Saive integrated many of the Colt's previously patented features into the Saive\\-Browning Model of that same year. This version featured the removable barrel bushing and take down sequence of the Colt 1911\\.", "In 1929, as an effort to find an alternative solution to the long\\-ongoing French trials, and with a pistol that they considered by then to be good enough to stand on its own to find other potential clients, FN decided to announce the \"Grand Rendement\", incorporating a shortened 13\\-round magazine, for sale in their commercial catalogue. They hoped to find a military contract which would in turn help them finance a production line, essentially through the same process as their previous [FN M1900](/wiki/FN_M1900 \"FN M1900\") pistol.", "By 1931, the Browning Hi\\-Power design incorporated the same 13\\-round magazine, a curved rear grip strap, and a barrel bushing that was integral to the slide assembly. The Belgian Army showed a definite interest and bought 1,000 pistols based on this prototype for field trials.", "By 1934, the Hi\\-Power design was complete and ready to be produced. Ultimately, France decided not to adopt the pistol, instead selecting the conceptually similar but lower\\-capacity [Modèle 1935 pistol](/wiki/Pistolet_automatique_mod%C3%A8le_1935A \"Pistolet automatique modèle 1935A\"). However, it was good enough to stand on its own as a service pistol for the Belgian Army and other clients. These would become the Grande Puissance, known as the High Power, in Belgium for military service in 1935 as the Browning P\\-35\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.forgottenweapons.com/before\\-the\\-high\\-power\\-was\\-the\\-fn\\-grand\\-rendement/ \\| title\\=Before the High Power was the FN Grand Rendement \\| date\\=8 August 2022 }}", "### Military service and widespread use", "Browning Hi\\-Power pistols were used during World War II by both [Allied](/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II \"Allies of World War II\") and [Axis](/wiki/Axis_powers \"Axis powers\") forces.{{sfnp\\|Thompson\\|2020\\|p\\=33}} After occupying Belgium in 1940, German forces took over the FN plant. German troops subsequently used the Hi\\-Power, having assigned it the designation *Pistole* 640(b) (\"b\" for *belgisch*, \"Belgian\"). Examples produced by FN in Belgium under German occupation bear German inspection and acceptance marks, or *[Waffenamts](/wiki/Waffenamt \"Waffenamt\")*, such as *WaA613*. In German service, it was used mainly by [Waffen\\-SS](/wiki/Waffen-SS \"Waffen-SS\") and {{lang\\|de\\|\\[\\[Fallschirmjäger (Nazi Germany)\\|Fallschirmjäger]]}} personnel.", "High\\-Power pistols were also produced in Canada for Allied use, by [John Inglis and Company](/wiki/John_Inglis_and_Company \"John Inglis and Company\") in Toronto. The plans were sent from the FN factory to the UK when it became clear the Belgian plant would fall into German hands, enabling the Inglis factory to be tooled up for Hi\\-Power production for Allied use. Inglis produced two versions of the Hi\\-Power, one with an adjustable rear sight and detachable shoulder stock (primarily for a [Nationalist Chinese](/wiki/Kuomintang \"Kuomintang\") contract) and one with a fixed rear sight. Production began in late 1944 and they were on issue by the March 1945 [Operation Varsity](/wiki/Operation_Varsity \"Operation Varsity\") airborne crossing of the Rhine into Germany. The pistol was popular with the British airborne forces as well as covert operations and commando groups such as the [Special Operations Executive](/wiki/Special_Operations_Executive \"Special Operations Executive\") (SOE), the U.S. [Office of Strategic Services](/wiki/Office_of_Strategic_Services \"Office of Strategic Services\") (OSS), and the British [Special Air Service](/wiki/Special_Air_Service \"Special Air Service\") (SAS) Regiment.", "Inglis High\\-Powers made for [Commonwealth](/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations \"Commonwealth of Nations\") forces have the British designation 'Mk 1' or 'Mk 1\\*' and the manufacturer's details on the left of the slide. They were known in British and Commonwealth service as the 'Pistol No 2 Mk 1', or 'Pistol No 2 Mk 1\\*' where applicable. Serial numbers were 6 characters, the second being the letter 'T', e.g. 1T2345\\. Serial numbers on pistols for the Chinese contract instead used the letters 'CH', but otherwise followed the same format. When the Chinese contract was cancelled, all undelivered Chinese\\-style pistols were accepted by the Canadian military with designations of 'Pistol No 1 Mk 1' and 'Pistol No 1 Mk 1\\*'.{{cite book \\|title\\=Inglis Diamond \\- The Canadian High Power Pistol \\|last\\=Law \\|first\\=Clive M. \\|year\\=2001 \\|publisher\\=Collector Grade Publications \\|isbn\\=978\\-0889352650 }}", "In the postwar period, Hi\\-Power production continued at the FN factory and as part of FN's product range, which included the [FN FAL](/wiki/FN_FAL \"FN FAL\") rifle and [FN MAG](/wiki/FN_MAG \"FN MAG\") general\\-purpose machine gun. It has been adopted as the standard service pistol by over 50 armies in 93 countries. At one time most NATO nations used it, and it was standard issue to forces throughout the British Commonwealth. It was manufactured under licence, or in some cases cloned, on several continents. Former Iraqi ruler [Saddam Hussein](/wiki/Saddam_Hussein \"Saddam Hussein\") often carried a Browning Hi\\-Power. Former Libyan ruler [Muammar Gaddafi](/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi \"Muammar Gaddafi\") carried a gold\\-plated Hi\\-Power with his own face design on the left side of the grip which was waved around in the air by Libyan rebels after his death.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/top\\-stories/2011/10/20/confirmed\\-gaddafi\\-dead\\-new\\-york\\-yankees\\-baseball\\-fan\\-captured\\-tyrant\\-115875\\-23503068/ \\|title\\=Confirmed Gaddafi dead: New York Yankees baseball fan 'captured' tyrant \\- Mirror Online \\|publisher\\=Mirror.co.uk \\|date\\=2011\\-10\\-20 \\|access\\-date\\=2012\\-11\\-03 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121081052/http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/top\\-stories/2011/10/20/confirmed\\-gaddafi\\-dead\\-new\\-york\\-yankees\\-baseball\\-fan\\-captured\\-tyrant\\-115875\\-23503068/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-01\\-21 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} A Hi\\-Power was used by [Mehmet Ali Agca](/wiki/Mehmet_Ali_Agca \"Mehmet Ali Agca\") during the assassination attempt of [Pope John Paul II](/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II \"Pope John Paul II\") in 1981\\.", "### Decline and resurgence", "While the Hi\\-Power remains an excellent and iconic design, since the early 1990s it has been eclipsed somewhat by more modern designs which are often double\\-action with aluminum alloy frames and are manufactured using more modern methods. However, even to this day, the Hi\\-Power remains in service throughout the world. As of 2017, the MK1 version remained the standard service pistol of the [Canadian Armed Forces](/wiki/Canadian_Armed_Forces \"Canadian Armed Forces\"), with the [SIG Sauer P226](/wiki/SIG_Sauer_P226 \"SIG Sauer P226\") being issued to specialised units along with the [SIG Sauer P225](/wiki/SIG_Sauer_P220%23P225.2FP6 \"SIG Sauer P220#P225.2FP6\"). The weapon is the standard sidearm of the [Belgian Army](/wiki/Belgian_Land_Component \"Belgian Land Component\"), [Indian Army](/wiki/Indian_Army \"Indian Army\"), [Indonesian Armed Forces](/wiki/Indonesian_Armed_Forces \"Indonesian Armed Forces\"), [Australian Defence Force](/wiki/Australian_Defence_Force \"Australian Defence Force\"), [Argentine Army](/wiki/Argentine_Army \"Argentine Army\"), [Luxembourg Armed Forces](/wiki/Luxembourg_Armed_Forces \"Luxembourg Armed Forces\"), [Israel Police](/wiki/Israel_Police \"Israel Police\"), and [Venezuelan Army](/wiki/Venezuelan_Army \"Venezuelan Army\"), among others. The [Irish Army](/wiki/Irish_Army \"Irish Army\") replaced its Browning Pistols (known popularly as BAPs, or Browning Automatic Pistols) with the [Heckler \\& Koch USP](/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch_USP \"Heckler & Koch USP\") in 2007\\. From 2013 the [British Army](/wiki/British_Army \"British Army\") is replacing the Browning with the [polymer](/wiki/Polymer \"Polymer\")\\-framed [Glock 17 Gen 4](/wiki/Glock_17 \"Glock 17\") pistol, due to concerns about weight and the external safety of the pistol.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2013/01/11/browning\\_9mm\\_finally\\_replaced/ \\|title\\=British armed forces get first new pistol since World War II \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Register]] \\|date\\=2013\\-01\\-11 \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-01\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117080615/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2013/01/11/browning\\_9mm\\_finally\\_replaced/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-01\\-17 \\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In 2018, FN announced they would end production of the Mark III Hi\\-Power, which was expensive to produce and had been assembled in Portugal to cut costs. Early in that year, Browning officially ceased production of the Belgian Hi\\-Power for the first time since 1935\\. An unlicensed clone called the \"Regent BR9\" was produced in Turkey by [TİSAŞ](/wiki/T%C4%B0SA%C5%9E \"TİSAŞ\") in 2019 and had gained some popularity now that authentic Hi\\-Powers were no longer being made and surplus Hi\\-Powers from other countries like Hungary and Argentina had dried up. The Regent BR9 design was more of a copy of the Mark I design, but did offer some modern design features, like a Cerakote or stainless steel finish and Novak\\-style sights. The BR9 was soon discontinued, but, in 2021, another Turkish company called [GİRSAN](/wiki/G%C4%B0RSAN \"GİRSAN\") began producing their own Hi\\-Power clone called the MCP35, imported by [EAA](/wiki/European_American_Armory \"European American Armory\"). In 2021, American firearms company [Springfield Armory](/wiki/Springfield_Armory \"Springfield Armory\") announced their own Hi\\-Power clone, the SA\\-35\\. GİRSAN and Springfield Armory's clones began competing with each other by offering new design improvements that would help them compete in the oversaturated defensive handgun market. GİRSAN's MCP35 attempted to replicate the Mark III design as closely as possible, including the Belgian\\-style ambidextrous thumb safety, Mark III\\-style sights with a windage drift adjustable rear sight and dovetailed front sight, and Mark III\\-style black polymer grips. The MCP35 also retained the Belgian magazine disconnect safety. However, the MCP35 incorporated the original ring hammer design instead of the claw hammer design of the Mark III and also incorporated some design elements to appeal to the modern shooter, such as a 15\\-round Mec\\-Gar magazine and Cerakote finish.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://eaacorp.com/product/girsan\\-mc\\-p35/\\|title\\=Girsan MCP35\\|date\\=8 November 2023 }}", "[left\\|thumb\\|FN Browning High Power M46](/wiki/File:FN_Browning_High_Power_%28right_side%29.png \"FN Browning High Power (right side).png\")\nThe steady competition between the MCP35 and the SA\\-35 to make the original Hi\\-Power relevant to the market stirred up a great interest among both Hi\\-Power fans and new shooters. On 18 January 2022, after a four\\-year hiatus, FN announced they would resume production of the Browning Hi\\-Power, albeit with a number of upgraded features. FN named the 2022 redesign the \"FN High Power\" and incorporated a number of features to help it compete with the improved Hi\\-Power clones being made by GİRSAN and Springfield Armory. FN incorporated a number of changes that would make the classic Hi\\-Power design more modern and ergonomic. The most significant changes included opening up the top of the slide to increase the size of the ejection port to ensure reliable feeding and ejection, incorporating an ambidextrous slide lock and reversible magazine release, a completely different takedown that is faster and simpler, and redesigning the barrel and recoil spring. Other changes FN made include removing the magazine disconnect safety, adding an extended beavertail and redesigned hammer to eliminate the issue of hammer bite, several sets of redesigned grips, new sights compatible with the [FN 509](/wiki/FN_509 \"FN 509\") dovetail pattern, wider slide serrations, different colored [PVD](/wiki/Physical_vapor_deposition \"Physical vapor deposition\") or stainless steel finish offerings and 17\\-round magazines. The new FN High Powers will be made at FN's Columbia, South Carolina factory in the United States.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2022/01/18/fn\\-hi\\-power\\-reborn/\\|title\\=\\[SHOT 2022] the FN Hi\\-Power is Reborn \\-\\|date\\=18 January 2022}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.americanrifleman.org/content/new\\-for\\-2022\\-fn\\-high\\-power/\\|title \\= An Official Journal of the NRA \\| New for 2022: FN High Power}}", "At SHOT show 2022, GİRSAN announced new color offerings for the MCP35, including two\\-tone and gold, as well as the MCP35 \"Match\", which incorporated a number of designs intended to cater to target shooters, such as an integrated 1913 [Picatinny rail](/wiki/Picatinny_rail \"Picatinny rail\") for accessories, ergonomic grips, a shorter hammer throw, beveled and flared magwell, a flat target trigger and raised target sights with a fiber optic front sight.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2022/01/19/shot\\-2022\\-2022\\-year\\-hi\\-power\\-girsan\\-mcp35\\-new\\-pistols\\-eaa/\\|title\\=\\[SHOT 2022] is 2022 the Year of the Hi\\-Power? Girsan MCP35 and Other new Pistols from EAA \\-\\|date\\=19 January 2022}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2022/01/19/shot\\-2022\\-eaa\\-girsan\\-mc\\-p35\\-year\\-hi\\-power/\\|title \\= \\[SHOT 2022] the Modern Hi\\-Power, the EAA/Girsan MC P35 Match \\-\\|date \\= 19 January 2022}}", "At SHOT Show in 2024, Tennessee\\-based company SDS Imports announced that they were reviving the [John Inglis line](/wiki/John_Inglis_and_Company \"John Inglis and Company\") of military\\-spec, parkerized Inglis Browning Hi\\-Power clones. SDS CEO Tim Mulverhill stated: \"The market demand has not been met for historically accurate Hi\\-Powers. We’re planning for the L9A1 to influence the Hi\\-Power market the way the Tisas US Army did in the 1911 market\".{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.guns.com/news/2024/01/08/inglis\\-reborn\\-to\\-market\\-period\\-correct\\-hi\\-powers\\|title \\= INGLIS REBORN, TO MARKET PERIOD CORRECT HI\\-POWERS\\|date \\= 8 January 2024}} The new Inglis Hi\\-Powers are available in black chromate, black Cerakote, satin [nickel](/wiki/Nickel \"Nickel\") and color [case\\-hardened](/wiki/Case-hardened \"Case-hardened\") finishes. The SDS Inglis line is essentially a more military accurate version of the now\\-discontinued Regent BR9, and it is a fully interchangeable Mark III design.", "In August 2024, another Browning Hi\\-Power clone, the Centurion 14, was announced by [Century Arms](/wiki/Century_Arms \"Century Arms\"). The Centurion 14 is built in Turkey by Alpharms Savunma Sanayi, and imported by Century Arms.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://gundigest.com/handguns/centurion\\-14\\-review \\| title\\=First Look: Century Arms Centurion 14 \\| date\\=15 August 2024 }}", "" ]
### Development The Browning Hi\-Power was designed in response to a French military requirement for a new service pistol, the "Grand Rendement" (French for "high efficiency"), or alternatively *Grande Puissance* (literally "high power"). The French military required that: * The gun must be compact. * The magazine have a capacity of at least 10 rounds. * The gun have a magazine disconnect device, an external hammer, and a positive{{clarify\|date\=December 2016}} [safety](/wiki/Safety_%28firearms%29 "Safety (firearms)"). * The gun be robust and simple to disassemble and reassemble. * The gun be capable of killing a man at {{convert\|50\|m\|yd\|abbr\=on}}. This last criterion was seen to demand a [caliber](/wiki/Caliber "Caliber") of {{convert\|9\|mm\|in\|abbr\=on}} or larger, a bullet mass of around {{convert\|8\|g\|gr\|abbr\=on}}, and a muzzle velocity of {{convert\|350\|m/s\|ft/s\|abbr\=on}}. It was to accomplish all of this at a weight not exceeding {{convert\|1\|kg\|lb\|abbr\=on}}. FN commissioned John Browning to design a new military sidearm conforming to this specification. Browning had previously sold the rights to his successful [M1911 U.S. Army automatic pistol](/wiki/M1911_pistol "M1911 pistol") to Colt's Patent Firearms, and was therefore forced to design an entirely new pistol while working around the M1911 patents. Browning built two different prototypes for the project in Utah and filed the patent for this pistol in the United States on 28 June 1923, granted on 22 February 1927\.Gangarosa, Gene Jr. (1999\). *FN...Browning: Armorer to the World*. Stoeger Publishing, New Jersey. pp. 63–65\.{{US Patent\|1618510}} One was a simple [blowback](/wiki/Blowback_%28arms%29 "Blowback (arms)") design, while the other was operated with a [locked\-breech](/wiki/Semi-automatic_pistol%23Actions:Blowback_versus_locked_breech "Blowback versus locked breech") recoil system. Both prototypes utilised the new staggered magazine design (by designer [Dieudonné Saive](/wiki/Dieudonn%C3%A9_Saive "Dieudonné Saive")) to increase capacity without unduly increasing the pistol's grip size or magazine length. The locked breech design was selected for further development and testing. This model was [striker\-fired](/wiki/Firing_pin%23striker "Firing pin#striker"), and featured a double\-stack magazine that held 16 rounds. The design was refined through several trials held by the Versailles Trial Commission. In 1928, when the patents for the Colt Model 1911 had expired, Dieudonné Saive integrated many of the Colt's previously patented features into the Saive\-Browning Model of that same year. This version featured the removable barrel bushing and take down sequence of the Colt 1911\. In 1929, as an effort to find an alternative solution to the long\-ongoing French trials, and with a pistol that they considered by then to be good enough to stand on its own to find other potential clients, FN decided to announce the "Grand Rendement", incorporating a shortened 13\-round magazine, for sale in their commercial catalogue. They hoped to find a military contract which would in turn help them finance a production line, essentially through the same process as their previous [FN M1900](/wiki/FN_M1900 "FN M1900") pistol. By 1931, the Browning Hi\-Power design incorporated the same 13\-round magazine, a curved rear grip strap, and a barrel bushing that was integral to the slide assembly. The Belgian Army showed a definite interest and bought 1,000 pistols based on this prototype for field trials. By 1934, the Hi\-Power design was complete and ready to be produced. Ultimately, France decided not to adopt the pistol, instead selecting the conceptually similar but lower\-capacity [Modèle 1935 pistol](/wiki/Pistolet_automatique_mod%C3%A8le_1935A "Pistolet automatique modèle 1935A"). However, it was good enough to stand on its own as a service pistol for the Belgian Army and other clients. These would become the Grande Puissance, known as the High Power, in Belgium for military service in 1935 as the Browning P\-35\.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.forgottenweapons.com/before\-the\-high\-power\-was\-the\-fn\-grand\-rendement/ \| title\=Before the High Power was the FN Grand Rendement \| date\=8 August 2022 }}
[ "### Development", "The Browning Hi\\-Power was designed in response to a French military requirement for a new service pistol, the \"Grand Rendement\" (French for \"high efficiency\"), or alternatively *Grande Puissance* (literally \"high power\"). The French military required that:\n* The gun must be compact.\n* The magazine have a capacity of at least 10 rounds.\n* The gun have a magazine disconnect device, an external hammer, and a positive{{clarify\\|date\\=December 2016}} [safety](/wiki/Safety_%28firearms%29 \"Safety (firearms)\").\n* The gun be robust and simple to disassemble and reassemble.\n* The gun be capable of killing a man at {{convert\\|50\\|m\\|yd\\|abbr\\=on}}.", "This last criterion was seen to demand a [caliber](/wiki/Caliber \"Caliber\") of {{convert\\|9\\|mm\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}} or larger, a bullet mass of around {{convert\\|8\\|g\\|gr\\|abbr\\=on}}, and a muzzle velocity of {{convert\\|350\\|m/s\\|ft/s\\|abbr\\=on}}. It was to accomplish all of this at a weight not exceeding {{convert\\|1\\|kg\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on}}.", "FN commissioned John Browning to design a new military sidearm conforming to this specification. Browning had previously sold the rights to his successful [M1911 U.S. Army automatic pistol](/wiki/M1911_pistol \"M1911 pistol\") to Colt's Patent Firearms, and was therefore forced to design an entirely new pistol while working around the M1911 patents. Browning built two different prototypes for the project in Utah and filed the patent for this pistol in the United States on 28 June 1923, granted on 22 February 1927\\.Gangarosa, Gene Jr. (1999\\). *FN...Browning: Armorer to the World*. Stoeger Publishing, New Jersey. pp. 63–65\\.{{US Patent\\|1618510}} One was a simple [blowback](/wiki/Blowback_%28arms%29 \"Blowback (arms)\") design, while the other was operated with a [locked\\-breech](/wiki/Semi-automatic_pistol%23Actions:Blowback_versus_locked_breech \"Blowback versus locked breech\") recoil system. Both prototypes utilised the new staggered magazine design (by designer [Dieudonné Saive](/wiki/Dieudonn%C3%A9_Saive \"Dieudonné Saive\")) to increase capacity without unduly increasing the pistol's grip size or magazine length.", "The locked breech design was selected for further development and testing. This model was [striker\\-fired](/wiki/Firing_pin%23striker \"Firing pin#striker\"), and featured a double\\-stack magazine that held 16 rounds. The design was refined through several trials held by the Versailles Trial Commission.", "In 1928, when the patents for the Colt Model 1911 had expired, Dieudonné Saive integrated many of the Colt's previously patented features into the Saive\\-Browning Model of that same year. This version featured the removable barrel bushing and take down sequence of the Colt 1911\\.", "In 1929, as an effort to find an alternative solution to the long\\-ongoing French trials, and with a pistol that they considered by then to be good enough to stand on its own to find other potential clients, FN decided to announce the \"Grand Rendement\", incorporating a shortened 13\\-round magazine, for sale in their commercial catalogue. They hoped to find a military contract which would in turn help them finance a production line, essentially through the same process as their previous [FN M1900](/wiki/FN_M1900 \"FN M1900\") pistol.", "By 1931, the Browning Hi\\-Power design incorporated the same 13\\-round magazine, a curved rear grip strap, and a barrel bushing that was integral to the slide assembly. The Belgian Army showed a definite interest and bought 1,000 pistols based on this prototype for field trials.", "By 1934, the Hi\\-Power design was complete and ready to be produced. Ultimately, France decided not to adopt the pistol, instead selecting the conceptually similar but lower\\-capacity [Modèle 1935 pistol](/wiki/Pistolet_automatique_mod%C3%A8le_1935A \"Pistolet automatique modèle 1935A\"). However, it was good enough to stand on its own as a service pistol for the Belgian Army and other clients. These would become the Grande Puissance, known as the High Power, in Belgium for military service in 1935 as the Browning P\\-35\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.forgottenweapons.com/before\\-the\\-high\\-power\\-was\\-the\\-fn\\-grand\\-rendement/ \\| title\\=Before the High Power was the FN Grand Rendement \\| date\\=8 August 2022 }}", "" ]
Variants -------- ### Belgium The original **P35**, as noted earlier, featured an internal extractor. During World War II, it was manufactured by Inglis of Canada for Allied use, and by FN in occupied Belgium for German use. The P35s made under Nazi occupation were designated as the Pistole 640b. Most Canadian P35s were manufactured with a Parkerized finish, while most P35s manufactured in occupied Belgium had a blued finish. In 1962 the internal extractor was replaced with a more durable and reliable external extractor alongside other modifications, including a 2\-piece barrel and modifications to the locking system for improved durability. Later barrels and frames are not interchangeable with earlier ones. The **Mark I** is among the best\-known models of the P35 developed over the last 50 years. P35s were first imported into the US in 1954 – the US civilian market P35s had the 'Browning Arms Company' stamp on the left side of the slide (to meet the import requirement for US sales under ATF Section 478\.112\). These P35s lack the provision of the lanyard ring – the left side pistol grip for a Mark I is fully covered unlike those produced for military and law enforcement use. A wide variety of options and features are available on the P35 models. Recently, Hi\-Power pistols have become available in [.40 S\&W](/wiki/.40_S%26W ".40 S&W") and [.357 SIG](/wiki/.357_SIG ".357 SIG") loadings. The use of these calibres in guns designed and built for [9×19mm Parabellum](/wiki/9%C3%9719mm_Parabellum "9×19mm Parabellum") has created cases of broken or warped frames. Only Hi\-Powers specifically built for these rounds should be used to fire them. The pistols manufactured for these two rounds are easily identified by examining the left side of the slide – a groove is machined into the side of the heavier slide to allow clearance for the slide release. Genuine FN\-produced P35s (either FN (Europe/international) or Browning (USA) for the civilian market will have a 245\-prefix serial number. Some Hi\-Power variants (Type 65, Type 73\) incorporate production changes e.g. spur hammers (commonly seen for 1971–present civilian market P35s) and/or 2\-piece barrels (1965–present). The 'Type 73' variant (with an elongated barrel bushing) of the Mark I was produced until 1987 by FM Argentina, when the Mark II production commenced in the early\-mid\-1980s (Belgium). The **Mark II** is an upgraded model of the original Hi\-Power introduced in 1982\.{{sfnp\|Thompson\|2020\|p\=23}} Some of the upgrades were ambidextrous thumb safeties, nylon grips, 3\-dot low profile sights, and a throated barrel.{{sfnp\|Thompson\|2020\|p\=23}} The **Mark III** was another advancement over the Mark II released in 1989,{{sfnp\|Thompson\|2020\|p\=24}} which featured a firing pin safety and a black epoxy finish. The main distinguishing (visual) feature of the Mark III is the absence of the water drain hole below the muzzle on the forward face of the slide. * + **Standard** is the name given to the Mark III variant with walnut grips, gloss finish, and choice of sights. A Standard is a Mark III model, but a Mark III is not necessarily a Standard. + The **Silver Chrome** featured a silver\-chrome frame and slide, and Pachmayr rubber grips. The magazines for the silver chrome BHP had a dull finish and a black rubber Pachmayr basepad. + The **Capitan** is a Mark III variant that features adjustable tangent rear sights, a "ring hammer" like the early model HP35, checkered walnut grips, and a blued finish. It was reintroduced in 1993\.Michalowski, Kevin (ed.) *The Gun Digest Book of Guns for Personal Defense: Arms \& Accessories for Self\-Defense* *Handguns \- Browning*, p. 48\. KP Books: Iola, Wisconsin (2004\) + The **Practical** is a Mark III variant featuring a slide finished in black polymer with a contrasting silver\-chrome frame. In addition, this model has wraparound Pachmayr rubber grips and a "ring hammer". The Practical has fixed or adjustable sights, and is available in either 9×19mm Parabellum or .40 S\&W. Magazines for all Practical models sport Pachmayr base pads; magazines feature a cartridge capacity of 13 rounds in 9×19mm Parabellum and a cartridge capacity of 10 rounds in .40 S\&W.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.myaflb.com.ar/ \|title\=Fabrica Militar Fray Luis Beltrán (FMFLB) \|publisher\=Myaflb.com.ar \|access\-date\=2008\-09\-08 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907224941/http://www.myaflb.com.ar/ \|archive\-date\=2008\-09\-07 }} + The **HP\-SFS** (Safe\-Fast\-Shooting) is the latest Hi\-Power Mark III variant with a modified firing mechanism. After the weapon is loaded, the hammer is pushed forward, which automatically activates the safety catch. When the shooter is prepared to fire, the safety is pressed down with the thumb, releasing the hammer to spring backwards into the usual, single\-action position. A similar system is available for modifying Colt M1911A1s. Magazines are interchangeable with the Mark III and others. The **[BDA and BDAO](/wiki/FN_HP-DA "FN HP-DA")** models were first produced in the 1980s by FN. The BDA model is double\-action, and the BDAO model is "double\-action only", both versions differing from the usual single\-action operation of the P35\. These designs have also been marketed as the **FN HP\-DA** and **Browning BDA**. The DA and DAO models retain many features of the P35, and both are available in full\-sized and compact versions. The performance of these models is consistent with FN's high standards. These models resemble the P35, but the most distinguishing feature is the extended SIG Sauer\-style trigger guard. Many parts are interchangeable with the P35, but the magazines (although similar) are not. The compact versions also utilise shorter magazines. Both the DA/DAO models and the BDM model borrow features from the **[SIG P220](/wiki/SIG_P220 "SIG P220")** pistols, marketed under the name Browning Double Action (BDA) in 1977\.[https://web.archive.org/web/20210202180228/https://www.guns.com/news/2021/02/02/browning\-bda\-the\-og\-sig\-sauer\-p220](https://web.archive.org/web/20210202180228/https://www.guns.com/news/2021/02/02/browning-bda-the-og-sig-sauer-p220) The [Beretta Cheetah](/wiki/Beretta_Cheetah "Beretta Cheetah") has also been marketed by Browning under the name BDA 380\.{{cite web \| url\=https://special\-ops.org/browning\-bda\-380\-auto\-pistol \| title\=Browning BDA .380 Auto Pistol \| date\=17 April 2020 }} ### Canada The **Pistol, Browning FN 9mm, HP No. 2 MK.1/1 Canadian Lightweight Pattern** was a series of experimental aluminum/aluminum alloy framed Browning Hi\-Power pistols by the Canadian [Inglis Company](/wiki/John_Inglis_and_Company "John Inglis and Company") that reduced the weight by as much as 25% from {{convert\|8\.5\|to\|25\.5\|oz\|g\|abbr\=on}}.{{cite web \|last1\=F \|first1\=Nathaniel \|title\=The Hi Power of the Future (in 1948\): Canada's Lightweight Aluminum\-Framed Browning \- \|url\=https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2016/12/19/hi\-power\-future\-1948\-canadas\-lightweight\-aluminum\-framed\-browning/ \|website\=The Firearm Blog \|access\-date\=17 December 2018 \|date\=19 December 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217062739/https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2016/12/19/hi\-power\-future\-1948\-canadas\-lightweight\-aluminum\-framed\-browning/ \|archive\-date\=17 December 2018 \|url\-status\=live }} Two scalloped cuts were made on both sides of the steel slide as well as in front of the rear sight. The reception to this was positive and so six prototype frames were machined from solid aluminum and two were sent to each of the Canadian, American, and British governments for testing. The Canadian and British governments concluded that sand and dirt caught between the steel slide and aluminum frame substantially increased wear. The steel locking block also wore the holes in its aluminum frame. [right\|thumb\|An experimental lightweight Inglis Hi\-Power](/wiki/File:Canadian_HP_experimental_1948_2.jpg "Canadian HP experimental 1948 2.jpg") After testing, Inglis cast 29 frames, assembled 21 pistols, and tested them, which were met with various problems. The lightweight program ended in Canada in 1951\. In 1952, a US Major General Kessels requested one and took it with him in the Korean War.Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/HNBNKqz9bko){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20170503192646/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HNBNKqz9bko&gl=US&hl=en){{cbignore}}: {{cite web \|last1\=McCollum \|first1\=Ian \|title\=Experimental Lightweight Browning High Power \|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=HNBNKqz9bko \|website\=Youtube \|date\=3 May 2017 \|publisher\=Forgotten Weapons \|access\-date\=17 December 2018}}{{cbignore}} The **Mark I Lightweight** is a very rare variant of the Mark I made with a lightweight alloy frame originally intended for [paratroop](/wiki/Paratrooper "Paratrooper") use. According to [Massad Ayoob](/wiki/Massad_Ayoob "Massad Ayoob"), these were introduced commercially in the 1950s but never caught on. The Lightweights are marked only with Fabrique Nationale's rollmarks, not Browning's. Hi\-Powers made with a rear sight instead of a tangent sight with known as **No. 2** while those with a tangent sight are known as **No. 1**{{sfnp\|Thompson\|2020\|p\=36}} ### UK The **L9A1** was the British designation for the military version of the Hi\-Power and is marked 'Pistol Automatic L9A1' on the left side of the slide.{{sfnp\|Thompson\|2020\|p\=47}} It started to replace Inglis variants in British service from the late 1960s, and the two types remained in service together until the Inglis variants were finally retired in the late 1980s. The L9A1 was upgraded with the more ergonomic Mk2 ambidextrous safety and grips. The L9A1 was also widely used by other Commonwealth armed forces.{{sfnp\|Stevens\|1996\|p\=202}} The Hi\-Power was the pistol issued to all British Armed Forces throughout the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War") era and up to Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts.{{cite news \| url\=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2013/jan/11/british\-forces\-afghanistan\-glock\-pistols \| title\=British forces to be equipped with Glock pistols for protection in Afghanistan \| newspaper\=The Guardian \| date\=11 January 2013 \| last1\=Norton\-Taylor \| first1\=Richard }} It was phased out in 2013 and replaced with the [Glock 17](/wiki/Glock "Glock").{{cite news \|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\-20978842 \|title\=Glock 17 9mm pistols replace Browning for UK forces \|work\=BBC News \|date\=2013\-01\-11 \|access\-date\=2013\-01\-11 \|last1\=Wyatt \|first1\=Caroline \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111084435/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\-20978842 \|archive\-date\=2013\-01\-11 \|url\-status\=live }} ### USA {{main\|Browning BDM}} On 18 January 2022, [FN America](/wiki/FN_America "FN America") re\-introduced a new model of Hi\-Power called the **FN High Power**. The new pistol features a 17\+1 magazine capacity and various ergonomic changes to improve user handling. ### Argentina [FM](/wiki/Fabricaciones_Militares "Fabricaciones Militares") manufactures the Hi\-Power under license from 1968\.{{cite web \| url\=http://www.cruffler.com/review\-February\-01\.html \| title\=Firearm Review, February 2001 }} The license expired in 1989\. FM made a machine pistol of the FM Hi\-Power known as the **PB a Rafaga**, which was used by Argentine special forces in anti\-Montoneros opearations.{{sfnp\|Stevens\|1996\|p\=269}} The fire selector (semi or full auto) is on the right side, located above the trigger.{{sfnp\|Stevens\|1996\|p\=270}} They either use 13 or 20\-round magazines.{{sfnp\|Stevens\|1996\|p\=269}} One Rafaga was made to fire 7\.63x21mm Mannlicher.{{sfnp\|Stevens\|1996\|p\=271}} ### India {{main\|Pistol Auto 9mm 1A}} ### Nigeria Hi\-Powers were made by DICON under license.{{sfnp\|Thompson\|2020\|p\=71}} ### Indonesia [Pindad](/wiki/Pindad "Pindad") made a licensed version of the High\-Power known as the **P1**.[http://web.archive.org/web/20240406200813/https://www.guns.com/news/2024/01/29/license\-made\-fnc\-bm\-59\-and\-pm12\-headed\-to\-us\-from\-pindad\-of\-indonesia](http://web.archive.org/web/20240406200813/https://www.guns.com/news/2024/01/29/license-made-fnc-bm-59-and-pm12-headed-to-us-from-pindad-of-indonesia) Production reportedly started in the 1960s.{{sfnp\|Stevens\|1996\|p\=264}}
[ "Variants\n--------", "### Belgium", "The original **P35**, as noted earlier, featured an internal extractor. During World War II, it was manufactured by Inglis of Canada for Allied use, and by FN in occupied Belgium for German use. The P35s made under Nazi occupation were designated as the Pistole 640b. Most Canadian P35s were manufactured with a Parkerized finish, while most P35s manufactured in occupied Belgium had a blued finish. In 1962 the internal extractor was replaced with a more durable and reliable external extractor alongside other modifications, including a 2\\-piece barrel and modifications to the locking system for improved durability. Later barrels and frames are not interchangeable with earlier ones.", "The **Mark I** is among the best\\-known models of the P35 developed over the last 50 years. P35s were first imported into the US in 1954 – the US civilian market P35s had the 'Browning Arms Company' stamp on the left side of the slide (to meet the import requirement for US sales under ATF Section 478\\.112\\). These P35s lack the provision of the lanyard ring – the left side pistol grip for a Mark I is fully covered unlike those produced for military and law enforcement use. A wide variety of options and features are available on the P35 models. Recently, Hi\\-Power pistols have become available in [.40 S\\&W](/wiki/.40_S%26W \".40 S&W\") and [.357 SIG](/wiki/.357_SIG \".357 SIG\") loadings. The use of these calibres in guns designed and built for [9×19mm Parabellum](/wiki/9%C3%9719mm_Parabellum \"9×19mm Parabellum\") has created cases of broken or warped frames. Only Hi\\-Powers specifically built for these rounds should be used to fire them. The pistols manufactured for these two rounds are easily identified by examining the left side of the slide – a groove is machined into the side of the heavier slide to allow clearance for the slide release. Genuine FN\\-produced P35s (either FN (Europe/international) or Browning (USA) for the civilian market will have a 245\\-prefix serial number. Some Hi\\-Power variants (Type 65, Type 73\\) incorporate production changes e.g. spur hammers (commonly seen for 1971–present civilian market P35s) and/or 2\\-piece barrels (1965–present). The 'Type 73' variant (with an elongated barrel bushing) of the Mark I was produced until 1987 by FM Argentina, when the Mark II production commenced in the early\\-mid\\-1980s (Belgium).", "The **Mark II** is an upgraded model of the original Hi\\-Power introduced in 1982\\.{{sfnp\\|Thompson\\|2020\\|p\\=23}} Some of the upgrades were ambidextrous thumb safeties, nylon grips, 3\\-dot low profile sights, and a throated barrel.{{sfnp\\|Thompson\\|2020\\|p\\=23}}", "The **Mark III** was another advancement over the Mark II released in 1989,{{sfnp\\|Thompson\\|2020\\|p\\=24}} which featured a firing pin safety and a black epoxy finish. The main distinguishing (visual) feature of the Mark III is the absence of the water drain hole below the muzzle on the forward face of the slide.", "* + **Standard** is the name given to the Mark III variant with walnut grips, gloss finish, and choice of sights. A Standard is a Mark III model, but a Mark III is not necessarily a Standard.\n\t+ The **Silver Chrome** featured a silver\\-chrome frame and slide, and Pachmayr rubber grips. The magazines for the silver chrome BHP had a dull finish and a black rubber Pachmayr basepad.\n\t+ The **Capitan** is a Mark III variant that features adjustable tangent rear sights, a \"ring hammer\" like the early model HP35, checkered walnut grips, and a blued finish. It was reintroduced in 1993\\.Michalowski, Kevin (ed.) *The Gun Digest Book of Guns for Personal Defense: Arms \\& Accessories for Self\\-Defense* *Handguns \\- Browning*, p. 48\\. KP Books: Iola, Wisconsin (2004\\)\n\t+ The **Practical** is a Mark III variant featuring a slide finished in black polymer with a contrasting silver\\-chrome frame. In addition, this model has wraparound Pachmayr rubber grips and a \"ring hammer\". The Practical has fixed or adjustable sights, and is available in either 9×19mm Parabellum or .40 S\\&W. Magazines for all Practical models sport Pachmayr base pads; magazines feature a cartridge capacity of 13 rounds in 9×19mm Parabellum and a cartridge capacity of 10 rounds in .40 S\\&W.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.myaflb.com.ar/ \\|title\\=Fabrica Militar Fray Luis Beltrán (FMFLB) \\|publisher\\=Myaflb.com.ar \\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-09\\-08 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907224941/http://www.myaflb.com.ar/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2008\\-09\\-07 }}\n\t+ The **HP\\-SFS** (Safe\\-Fast\\-Shooting) is the latest Hi\\-Power Mark III variant with a modified firing mechanism. After the weapon is loaded, the hammer is pushed forward, which automatically activates the safety catch. When the shooter is prepared to fire, the safety is pressed down with the thumb, releasing the hammer to spring backwards into the usual, single\\-action position. A similar system is available for modifying Colt M1911A1s. Magazines are interchangeable with the Mark III and others.", "The **[BDA and BDAO](/wiki/FN_HP-DA \"FN HP-DA\")** models were first produced in the 1980s by FN. The BDA model is double\\-action, and the BDAO model is \"double\\-action only\", both versions differing from the usual single\\-action operation of the P35\\. These designs have also been marketed as the **FN HP\\-DA** and **Browning BDA**. The DA and DAO models retain many features of the P35, and both are available in full\\-sized and compact versions. The performance of these models is consistent with FN's high standards. These models resemble the P35, but the most distinguishing feature is the extended SIG Sauer\\-style trigger guard. Many parts are interchangeable with the P35, but the magazines (although similar) are not. The compact versions also utilise shorter magazines.", "Both the DA/DAO models and the BDM model borrow features from the **[SIG P220](/wiki/SIG_P220 \"SIG P220\")** pistols, marketed under the name Browning Double Action (BDA) in 1977\\.[https://web.archive.org/web/20210202180228/https://www.guns.com/news/2021/02/02/browning\\-bda\\-the\\-og\\-sig\\-sauer\\-p220](https://web.archive.org/web/20210202180228/https://www.guns.com/news/2021/02/02/browning-bda-the-og-sig-sauer-p220)", "The [Beretta Cheetah](/wiki/Beretta_Cheetah \"Beretta Cheetah\") has also been marketed by Browning under the name BDA 380\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://special\\-ops.org/browning\\-bda\\-380\\-auto\\-pistol \\| title\\=Browning BDA .380 Auto Pistol \\| date\\=17 April 2020 }}", "### Canada", "The **Pistol, Browning FN 9mm, HP No. 2 MK.1/1 Canadian Lightweight Pattern** was a series of experimental aluminum/aluminum alloy framed Browning Hi\\-Power pistols by the Canadian [Inglis Company](/wiki/John_Inglis_and_Company \"John Inglis and Company\") that reduced the weight by as much as 25% from {{convert\\|8\\.5\\|to\\|25\\.5\\|oz\\|g\\|abbr\\=on}}.{{cite web \\|last1\\=F \\|first1\\=Nathaniel \\|title\\=The Hi Power of the Future (in 1948\\): Canada's Lightweight Aluminum\\-Framed Browning \\- \\|url\\=https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2016/12/19/hi\\-power\\-future\\-1948\\-canadas\\-lightweight\\-aluminum\\-framed\\-browning/ \\|website\\=The Firearm Blog \\|access\\-date\\=17 December 2018 \\|date\\=19 December 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217062739/https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2016/12/19/hi\\-power\\-future\\-1948\\-canadas\\-lightweight\\-aluminum\\-framed\\-browning/ \\|archive\\-date\\=17 December 2018 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Two scalloped cuts were made on both sides of the steel slide as well as in front of the rear sight. The reception to this was positive and so six prototype frames were machined from solid aluminum and two were sent to each of the Canadian, American, and British governments for testing. The Canadian and British governments concluded that sand and dirt caught between the steel slide and aluminum frame substantially increased wear. The steel locking block also wore the holes in its aluminum frame.", "[right\\|thumb\\|An experimental lightweight Inglis Hi\\-Power](/wiki/File:Canadian_HP_experimental_1948_2.jpg \"Canadian HP experimental 1948 2.jpg\")", "After testing, Inglis cast 29 frames, assembled 21 pistols, and tested them, which were met with various problems. The lightweight program ended in Canada in 1951\\. In 1952, a US Major General Kessels requested one and took it with him in the Korean War.Archived at [Ghostarchive](https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/HNBNKqz9bko){{cbignore}} and the [Wayback Machine](https://web.archive.org/web/20170503192646/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HNBNKqz9bko&gl=US&hl=en){{cbignore}}: {{cite web \\|last1\\=McCollum \\|first1\\=Ian \\|title\\=Experimental Lightweight Browning High Power \\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=HNBNKqz9bko \\|website\\=Youtube \\|date\\=3 May 2017 \\|publisher\\=Forgotten Weapons \\|access\\-date\\=17 December 2018}}{{cbignore}}", "The **Mark I Lightweight** is a very rare variant of the Mark I made with a lightweight alloy frame originally intended for [paratroop](/wiki/Paratrooper \"Paratrooper\") use. According to [Massad Ayoob](/wiki/Massad_Ayoob \"Massad Ayoob\"), these were introduced commercially in the 1950s but never caught on. The Lightweights are marked only with Fabrique Nationale's rollmarks, not Browning's.", "Hi\\-Powers made with a rear sight instead of a tangent sight with known as **No. 2** while those with a tangent sight are known as **No. 1**{{sfnp\\|Thompson\\|2020\\|p\\=36}}", "### UK", "The **L9A1** was the British designation for the military version of the Hi\\-Power and is marked 'Pistol Automatic L9A1' on the left side of the slide.{{sfnp\\|Thompson\\|2020\\|p\\=47}} It started to replace Inglis variants in British service from the late 1960s, and the two types remained in service together until the Inglis variants were finally retired in the late 1980s. The L9A1 was upgraded with the more ergonomic Mk2 ambidextrous safety and grips.", "The L9A1 was also widely used by other Commonwealth armed forces.{{sfnp\\|Stevens\\|1996\\|p\\=202}} The Hi\\-Power was the pistol issued to all British Armed Forces throughout the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\") era and up to Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2013/jan/11/british\\-forces\\-afghanistan\\-glock\\-pistols \\| title\\=British forces to be equipped with Glock pistols for protection in Afghanistan \\| newspaper\\=The Guardian \\| date\\=11 January 2013 \\| last1\\=Norton\\-Taylor \\| first1\\=Richard }}", "It was phased out in 2013 and replaced with the [Glock 17](/wiki/Glock \"Glock\").{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\\-20978842 \\|title\\=Glock 17 9mm pistols replace Browning for UK forces \\|work\\=BBC News \\|date\\=2013\\-01\\-11 \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-01\\-11 \\|last1\\=Wyatt \\|first1\\=Caroline \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111084435/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk\\-20978842 \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-01\\-11 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "### USA", "{{main\\|Browning BDM}}", "On 18 January 2022, [FN America](/wiki/FN_America \"FN America\") re\\-introduced a new model of Hi\\-Power called the **FN High Power**. The new pistol features a 17\\+1 magazine capacity and various ergonomic changes to improve user handling.", "### Argentina", "[FM](/wiki/Fabricaciones_Militares \"Fabricaciones Militares\") manufactures the Hi\\-Power under license from 1968\\.{{cite web \\| url\\=http://www.cruffler.com/review\\-February\\-01\\.html \\| title\\=Firearm Review, February 2001 }} The license expired in 1989\\.", "FM made a machine pistol of the FM Hi\\-Power known as the **PB a Rafaga**, which was used by Argentine special forces in anti\\-Montoneros opearations.{{sfnp\\|Stevens\\|1996\\|p\\=269}} The fire selector (semi or full auto) is on the right side, located above the trigger.{{sfnp\\|Stevens\\|1996\\|p\\=270}} They either use 13 or 20\\-round magazines.{{sfnp\\|Stevens\\|1996\\|p\\=269}}", "One Rafaga was made to fire 7\\.63x21mm Mannlicher.{{sfnp\\|Stevens\\|1996\\|p\\=271}}", "### India", "{{main\\|Pistol Auto 9mm 1A}}", "### Nigeria", "Hi\\-Powers were made by DICON under license.{{sfnp\\|Thompson\\|2020\\|p\\=71}}", "### Indonesia", "[Pindad](/wiki/Pindad \"Pindad\") made a licensed version of the High\\-Power known as the **P1**.[http://web.archive.org/web/20240406200813/https://www.guns.com/news/2024/01/29/license\\-made\\-fnc\\-bm\\-59\\-and\\-pm12\\-headed\\-to\\-us\\-from\\-pindad\\-of\\-indonesia](http://web.archive.org/web/20240406200813/https://www.guns.com/news/2024/01/29/license-made-fnc-bm-59-and-pm12-headed-to-us-from-pindad-of-indonesia) Production reportedly started in the 1960s.{{sfnp\\|Stevens\\|1996\\|p\\=264}}", "" ]