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Literary works -------------- Guillén drew from his mixed African and Spanish ancestry and education to combine his knowledge of traditional literary form with firsthand experience of the speech, legends, songs, and songs of Afro\-Cubans in his first volume of poetry, Motivos de son. It was soon acclaimed as a masterpiece and widely imitated.{{cite web\\|title\=Nicolas Guillen\\|url\=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/248753/Nicolas\-Guillen\\|publisher\=Encyclopaedia Britannica\\|access\-date\=6 November 2012}} In the 1920s, when Afro\-Cuban sounds and instruments were changing the world of Cuban music, Afro\-Cuban culture began to be expressed in art and literature as well. Initially, Afro\-Cuban poetry, or "negrista" poetry, was mainly published by European Cubans such as Emilio Ballagas, [Alejo Carpentier](/wiki/Alejo_Carpentier "Alejo Carpentier"), and José Tallet. It was not until the 1930s that Guillén would appeal in literary terms by expressing a personal account of the struggles, dreams, and mannerisms of Afro\-Cubans.Benítez\-Rojo, Antonio. "The role of music in the emergence of Afro\-Cuban culture," Research in African Literatures 29\. (1998\) : 1\.179–189 Guillén became outspoken politically, and dissatisfied with picturesque portrayal of the daily life of the poor. He began to decry their oppression in his poetry volumes Sóngoro cosongo and West Indies Ltd. Guillen also wrote Cantos para soldados y sones para turistas, which reflected his growing political commitment. Guillén is probably the best\-known representative of the "[poesía negra](/wiki/Poes%C3%ADa_negra "Poesía negra")" ("[black poetry](/wiki/Black_poetry "Black poetry")"), which tried to create a synthesis between [black](/wiki/Afro-Cuban "Afro-Cuban") and white cultural elements, a "poetic [mestizaje](/wiki/Mestizo "Mestizo")".Duno Gottberg, Luis, Solventando las diferencias: la ideología del mestizaje en Cuba. Madrid: Iberoamericana – Frankfurt am Main: Vervuert, 2003\. Characteristic for his poems is the use of [onomatopoetic words](/wiki/Onomatopoeia "Onomatopoeia") ("Sóngoro Cosongo", "Mayombe\-bombe") that try to imitate the sound of [drums](/wiki/Drum_kit "Drum kit") or the [rhythm](/wiki/Rhythm "Rhythm") of the [son](/wiki/Son_%28music%29 "Son (music)"). [Silvestre Revueltas](/wiki/Silvestre_Revueltas "Silvestre Revueltas")'s symphonic composition [Sensemayá](/wiki/Sensemay%C3%A1 "Sensemayá") was based on Guillén's poem of the same name, and became that composer's best\-known work, followed by José Limantour's suite from his film score for [La noche de los mayas](/wiki/La_noche_de_los_mayas_%28suite%29 "La noche de los mayas (suite)"). Guillén later became acknowledged by many critics as the most influential of those Latin American poets who dealt with African themes and re\-created African song and dance rhythms in literary form. Guillen made an international mark with the publication of Motivos de son (1930\). The work was inspired by the living conditions of Afro\-Cubans and the popular son music. The work consists of eight short poems using the everyday language of the Afro Cubans. The collection stood out in the literary world because it emphasized and established the importance of Afro\-Cuban culture as a valid genre in Cuban literature.[Nicholas Guillén, Cuban Poet](http://www.nathanielturner.com/nicolasguillen.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120806203433/http://www.nathanielturner.com/nicolasguillen.htm \\|date\=2012\-08\-06 }}. Books on Cuba. 7 March 2010\. In Man\-Making Words: Selected Poems of Nicolás Guillén, Angel Aguier, in reference to Motivos de son, wrote that > "the 'son,' a passionate dance born of the Negro\-white encounter under Caribbean skies in which the words and music of the people culminate in song, is the basic substance of the elemental poetry which Guillen intuitively felt as the expression of the Cuban spirit.... He specifically chose the son as the mixed artistic creation of the two races that make up the Cuban population; for the son, in form and content, runs the full gamut of every aspect of our national character."[Aguier, Angel, and Joseph M. Bernstein. "The Cuban Poetry of Nicolas Guillen"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/272318), Phylon 12 (1951\): 1\. 29–36\. 5 March 2010\. This quote establishes how the son, such a profound musical genre of that time, initiated the fusion of black and white Cuban culture. Guillén's incorporation of the genre into his writings, symbolized and created a pathway for the same cultural fusion in Cuban literature. Guillén's unique approach of using the son in his poetry is expressed in his book Sóngoro consongo (1931\). In this work, he included poems that depicted the lives of Cubans and emphasized the importance of Afro\-Cuban culture in Cuban history. Sóngoro consongo captures the essence of the Afro\-Cuban culture and ways that the people deal with their personal situations. Guillén's poem, "Motivos de son", from Sóngoro consongo, is a fusion of West African and Hispanic literary styles, contributing to his unique literary vision. "La canción del bongó", like many poems in Sóngoro consongo, incorporates the rhythmic sounds of son. The poem has a rhythm that uses the marking of stressed and unstressed syllables in strong and weak beats, rather than simply the number of syllables. Dellita L. Martin says that "La canción del bongó" stands out as a poem because "it is the only one to indicate Guillén's painfully increasing awareness of racial conflicts in Cuba".Matin, Dellita L. "West African and Hispanic Elements in Nicolás Guillén's ‘La canción del bongó’", South Atlantic Bulletin. 45\.1 (1980\): 47–53\. JSTOR	[ "Literary works\n--------------", "Guillén drew from his mixed African and Spanish ancestry and education to combine his knowledge of traditional literary form with firsthand experience of the speech, legends, songs, and songs of Afro\\-Cubans in his first volume of poetry, Motivos de son. It was soon acclaimed as a masterpiece and widely imitated.{{cite web\\\|title\\=Nicolas Guillen\\\|url\\=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/248753/Nicolas\\-Guillen\\\|publisher\\=Encyclopaedia Britannica\\\|access\\-date\\=6 November 2012}} In the 1920s, when Afro\\-Cuban sounds and instruments were changing the world of Cuban music, Afro\\-Cuban culture began to be expressed in art and literature as well. Initially, Afro\\-Cuban poetry, or \"negrista\" poetry, was mainly published by European Cubans such as Emilio Ballagas, [Alejo Carpentier](/wiki/Alejo_Carpentier \"Alejo Carpentier\"), and José Tallet. It was not until the 1930s that Guillén would appeal in literary terms by expressing a personal account of the struggles, dreams, and mannerisms of Afro\\-Cubans.Benítez\\-Rojo, Antonio. \"The role of music in the emergence of Afro\\-Cuban culture,\" Research in African Literatures 29\\. (1998\\) : 1\\.179–189", "Guillén became outspoken politically, and dissatisfied with picturesque portrayal of the daily life of the poor. He began to decry their oppression in his poetry volumes Sóngoro cosongo and West Indies Ltd. Guillen also wrote Cantos para soldados y sones para turistas, which reflected his growing political commitment. Guillén is probably the best\\-known representative of the \"[poesía negra](/wiki/Poes%C3%ADa_negra \"Poesía negra\")\" (\"[black poetry](/wiki/Black_poetry \"Black poetry\")\"), which tried to create a synthesis between [black](/wiki/Afro-Cuban \"Afro-Cuban\") and white cultural elements, a \"poetic [mestizaje](/wiki/Mestizo \"Mestizo\")\".Duno Gottberg, Luis, Solventando las diferencias: la ideología del mestizaje en Cuba. Madrid: Iberoamericana – Frankfurt am Main: Vervuert, 2003\\. Characteristic for his poems is the use of [onomatopoetic words](/wiki/Onomatopoeia \"Onomatopoeia\") (\"Sóngoro Cosongo\", \"Mayombe\\-bombe\") that try to imitate the sound of [drums](/wiki/Drum_kit \"Drum kit\") or the [rhythm](/wiki/Rhythm \"Rhythm\") of the [son](/wiki/Son_%28music%29 \"Son (music)\"). [Silvestre Revueltas](/wiki/Silvestre_Revueltas \"Silvestre Revueltas\")'s symphonic composition [Sensemayá](/wiki/Sensemay%C3%A1 \"Sensemayá\") was based on Guillén's poem of the same name, and became that composer's best\\-known work, followed by José Limantour's suite from his film score for [La noche de los mayas](/wiki/La_noche_de_los_mayas_%28suite%29 \"La noche de los mayas (suite)\").", "Guillén later became acknowledged by many critics as the most influential of those Latin American poets who dealt with African themes and re\\-created African song and dance rhythms in literary form. Guillen made an international mark with the publication of Motivos de son (1930\\). The work was inspired by the living conditions of Afro\\-Cubans and the popular son music. The work consists of eight short poems using the everyday language of the Afro Cubans. The collection stood out in the literary world because it emphasized and established the importance of Afro\\-Cuban culture as a valid genre in Cuban literature.[Nicholas Guillén, Cuban Poet](http://www.nathanielturner.com/nicolasguillen.htm) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120806203433/http://www.nathanielturner.com/nicolasguillen.htm \\\|date\\=2012\\-08\\-06 }}. Books on Cuba. 7 March 2010\\.", "In Man\\-Making Words: Selected Poems of Nicolás Guillén, Angel Aguier, in reference to Motivos de son, wrote that", "> \"the 'son,' a passionate dance born of the Negro\\-white encounter under Caribbean skies in which the words and music of the people culminate in song, is the basic substance of the elemental poetry which Guillen intuitively felt as the expression of the Cuban spirit.... He specifically chose the son as the mixed artistic creation of the two races that make up the Cuban population; for the son, in form and content, runs the full gamut of every aspect of our national character.\"[Aguier, Angel, and Joseph M. Bernstein. \"The Cuban Poetry of Nicolas Guillen\"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/272318), Phylon 12 (1951\\): 1\\. 29–36\\. 5 March 2010\\.", "This quote establishes how the son, such a profound musical genre of that time, initiated the fusion of black and white Cuban culture. Guillén's incorporation of the genre into his writings, symbolized and created a pathway for the same cultural fusion in Cuban literature.", "Guillén's unique approach of using the son in his poetry is expressed in his book Sóngoro consongo (1931\\). In this work, he included poems that depicted the lives of Cubans and emphasized the importance of Afro\\-Cuban culture in Cuban history. Sóngoro consongo captures the essence of the Afro\\-Cuban culture and ways that the people deal with their personal situations.", "Guillén's poem, \"Motivos de son\", from Sóngoro consongo, is a fusion of West African and Hispanic literary styles, contributing to his unique literary vision.", "\"La canción del bongó\", like many poems in Sóngoro consongo, incorporates the rhythmic sounds of son. The poem has a rhythm that uses the marking of stressed and unstressed syllables in strong and weak beats, rather than simply the number of syllables. Dellita L. Martin says that \"La canción del bongó\" stands out as a poem because \"it is the only one to indicate Guillén's painfully increasing awareness of racial conflicts in Cuba\".Matin, Dellita L. \"West African and Hispanic Elements in Nicolás Guillén's ‘La canción del bongó’\", South Atlantic Bulletin. 45\\.1 (1980\\): 47–53\\. JSTOR", "" ]
Poetry and politics ------------------- Cuba's dictatorial [Gerardo Machado](/wiki/Gerardo_Machado "Gerardo Machado") regime was overthrown in 1933, but political repression in the following years intensified. In 1936, with other editors of [Mediodía](/wiki/Mediod%C3%ADa "Mediodía"), Guillén was arrested on trumped\-up charges, and spent some time in jail. In 1937 he joined the [Communist Party](/wiki/Popular_Socialist_Party_%28Cuba%29 "Popular Socialist Party (Cuba)") and made his first trip abroad in July 1937 to attend the Second International Writers' Congress, the purpose of which was to discuss the attitude of intellectuals to the war in Spain, held in [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia "Valencia"), [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona "Barcelona") and [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid "Madrid") and attended by many writers including [André Malraux](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Malraux "André Malraux"), [Ernest Hemingway](/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway "Ernest Hemingway"), [Stephen Spender](/wiki/Stephen_Spender "Stephen Spender") and [Pablo Neruda](/wiki/Pablo_Neruda "Pablo Neruda").{{cite book \\|last1\=Thomas \\|first1\=Hugh \\|title\=The Spanish Civil War \\|date\=2012 \\|publisher\=Penguin Books \\|location\=London \\|isbn\=978\-0\-141\-01161\-5 \\|page\=678 \\|edition\=50th Anniversary}} During his travels in the country, he covered [Spain's Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War "Spanish Civil War") as a magazine reporter. Guillén returned to Cuba via [Guadeloupe](/wiki/Guadeloupe "Guadeloupe"). He stood as a Communist in the local elections of 1940\. The following year he was refused a visa to enter the United States, but he travelled widely during the next two decades in South America, China and Europe. Guillén's poetry was increasingly becoming imbued with issues of cross\-cultural [Marxist](/wiki/Marxism "Marxism") dialectic.Tapscott, Stephen. Twentieth\-Century Latin American Poetry: A Bilingual Anthology. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 1996, p. 176\. {{ISBN\\|0\-292\-78140\-7}}, {{ISBN\\|978\-0\-292\-78140\-5}}. In 1953, he was prevented by the [Fulgencio Batista](/wiki/Fulgencio_Batista "Fulgencio Batista") government from re\-entering Cuba after a trip to Chile and had to spend five years in exile. After the [Cuban revolution](/wiki/Cuban_revolution "Cuban revolution") of 1959, Guillen was welcomed back by [Fidel Castro](/wiki/Fidel_Castro "Fidel Castro"), the new president. In 1961 he was appointed as president of the Unión Nacional de Escritores de Cuba, the National Cuban Writers' Union, serving for more than 25 years. He continued to write evocative and poignant poetry highlighting social conditions, such as "Problemas de Subdesarrollo" and "Dos Niños" (Two Children). He was considered the national poet of Cuba, who drew from its multicultural history and population for inspiration. Nicolás Guillén died in 1989, aged 87, of [Parkinson's disease](/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease "Parkinson's disease"). He was buried in the [Colon Cemetery](/wiki/Colon_Cemetery%2C_Havana "Colon Cemetery, Havana"), Havana.	[ "Poetry and politics\n-------------------", "Cuba's dictatorial [Gerardo Machado](/wiki/Gerardo_Machado \"Gerardo Machado\") regime was overthrown in 1933, but political repression in the following years intensified. In 1936, with other editors of [Mediodía](/wiki/Mediod%C3%ADa \"Mediodía\"), Guillén was arrested on trumped\\-up charges, and spent some time in jail. In 1937 he joined the [Communist Party](/wiki/Popular_Socialist_Party_%28Cuba%29 \"Popular Socialist Party (Cuba)\") and made his first trip abroad in July 1937 to attend the Second International Writers' Congress, the purpose of which was to discuss the attitude of intellectuals to the war in Spain, held in [Valencia](/wiki/Valencia \"Valencia\"), [Barcelona](/wiki/Barcelona \"Barcelona\") and [Madrid](/wiki/Madrid \"Madrid\") and attended by many writers including [André Malraux](/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Malraux \"André Malraux\"), [Ernest Hemingway](/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway \"Ernest Hemingway\"), [Stephen Spender](/wiki/Stephen_Spender \"Stephen Spender\") and [Pablo Neruda](/wiki/Pablo_Neruda \"Pablo Neruda\").{{cite book \\\|last1\\=Thomas \\\|first1\\=Hugh \\\|title\\=The Spanish Civil War \\\|date\\=2012 \\\|publisher\\=Penguin Books \\\|location\\=London \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-141\\-01161\\-5 \\\|page\\=678 \\\|edition\\=50th Anniversary}} During his travels in the country, he covered [Spain's Civil War](/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War \"Spanish Civil War\") as a magazine reporter.", "Guillén returned to Cuba via [Guadeloupe](/wiki/Guadeloupe \"Guadeloupe\"). He stood as a Communist in the local elections of 1940\\. The following year he was refused a visa to enter the United States, but he travelled widely during the next two decades in South America, China and Europe.", "Guillén's poetry was increasingly becoming imbued with issues of cross\\-cultural [Marxist](/wiki/Marxism \"Marxism\") dialectic.Tapscott, Stephen. Twentieth\\-Century Latin American Poetry: A Bilingual Anthology. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 1996, p. 176\\. {{ISBN\\\|0\\-292\\-78140\\-7}}, {{ISBN\\\|978\\-0\\-292\\-78140\\-5}}. In 1953, he was prevented by the [Fulgencio Batista](/wiki/Fulgencio_Batista \"Fulgencio Batista\") government from re\\-entering Cuba after a trip to Chile and had to spend five years in exile.", "After the [Cuban revolution](/wiki/Cuban_revolution \"Cuban revolution\") of 1959, Guillen was welcomed back by [Fidel Castro](/wiki/Fidel_Castro \"Fidel Castro\"), the new president. In 1961 he was appointed as president of the Unión Nacional de Escritores de Cuba, the National Cuban Writers' Union, serving for more than 25 years. He continued to write evocative and poignant poetry highlighting social conditions, such as \"Problemas de Subdesarrollo\" and \"Dos Niños\" (Two Children). He was considered the national poet of Cuba, who drew from its multicultural history and population for inspiration.", "Nicolás Guillén died in 1989, aged 87, of [Parkinson's disease](/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease \"Parkinson's disease\"). He was buried in the [Colon Cemetery](/wiki/Colon_Cemetery%2C_Havana \"Colon Cemetery, Havana\"), Havana.", "" ]
History ------- The division's lineage begins on 19 October 1933 when the [1st Alpini Regiment](/wiki/1st_Alpini_Regiment "1st Alpini Regiment") in [Mondovì](/wiki/Mondov%C3%AC "Mondovì") and [2nd Alpini Regiment](/wiki/2nd_Alpini_Regiment "2nd Alpini Regiment") in [Cuneo](/wiki/Cuneo "Cuneo") left the [1st Alpine Division "Taurinense"](/wiki/1st_Alpine_Division_%22Taurinense%22 "1st Alpine Division ") and entered the newly raised IV Alpine Brigade in Cuneo. On 1 January 1934 the newly formed [4th Mountain Artillery Regiment](/wiki/4th_Mountain_Artillery_Regiment_%28Italy%29 "4th Mountain Artillery Regiment (Italy)") in [Cuneo](/wiki/Cuneo "Cuneo") joined the brigade. On 27 October 1934 the brigade changed its name to IV Superior Alpine Command, which received the name Cuneense in December of the same year ({{lang\-it\\|IV Comando Superiore Alpino "Cuneense"}}). On 31 October 1935 the IV Superior Alpine Command "Cuneense" was reorganized as 4th Alpine Division "Cuneense" with the 1st and 2nd Alpini regiments and the 4th Alpine Artillery Regiment "Cuneense". On 25 December 1935 the Cuneense temporarily transferred its Alpini battalions "Pieve di Teco" and "Saluzzo" and its 11th Mountain Artillery Battery to the [5th Alpine Division "Pusteria"](/wiki/5th_Alpine_Division_%22Pusteria%22 "5th Alpine Division ") for the [Second Italo\-Ethiopian War](/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War "Second Italo-Ethiopian War").{{cite web \\|title\=4ª Divisione alpina "Cuneense" \\|url\=http://www.regioesercito.it/reparti/alpini/redivalp4\.htm \\|publisher\=Regio Esercito \\|access\-date\=18 October 2021}} ### World War II #### Invasion of France The division participated in the [Italian invasion of France](/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_France "Italian invasion of France") in June 1940\. On 22 June it entered French territory in the [Chabriere](/wiki/Chabriere "Chabriere") and Mary valleys.{{cite book \\|title\=Bollettino dell'Archivio dell'Ufficio Storico N.II\-3 e 4 2002 \\|via\=Issuu \\|date\=2002 \\|publisher\=Ministero della Difesa \- Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito \- Ufficio Storico \\|location\=Rome \\|page\=187 \\|url\=https://issuu.com/rivista.militare1/docs/bollettino\-ii\-n.3\-4\-2002\-testo \\|access\-date\=18 October 2021}} #### Greco\-Italian War In December 1940 the division was sent as reinforcements to [Albania](/wiki/Italian_protectorate_of_Albania_%281939%E2%80%931943%29 "Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)") for the [Greco\-Italian War](/wiki/Greco-Italian_War "Greco-Italian War"). Between 15\-17 December 1940 the division's units entered the front in the upper [Devoll](/wiki/Devoll_River "Devoll River") valley. On 18 March 1941 the division was taken out of the front and sent to [Berat](/wiki/Berat "Berat"). At the end of March the division deployed to the [Yugoslav](/wiki/Yugoslavia "Yugoslavia")\-Albanian border for the upcoming [Invasion of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia "Invasion of Yugoslavia"). On 10 April the division crossed the border and advanced to [Debar](/wiki/Debar "Debar") in [Macedonia](/wiki/North_Macedonia "North Macedonia"). After the war's conclusion the division returned to Italy in May 1941\. #### Soviet Union The Cuneense was one of the ten Italian divisions of the [Italian Army in Russia](/wiki/Italian_Army_in_Russia "Italian Army in Russia"), which fought on the [Eastern Front](/wiki/Eastern_Front_%28World_War_II%29 "Eastern Front (World War II)"). In July 1942 the division, together with the [2nd Alpine Division "Tridentina"](/wiki/2nd_Alpine_Division_%22Tridentina%22 "2nd Alpine Division ") and the [3rd Alpine Division "Julia"](/wiki/3rd_Alpine_Division_%22Julia%22 "3rd Alpine Division ") formed the [Alpine Army Corps](/wiki/COMALP "COMALP"), which was transferred to [Eastern Ukraine](/wiki/Eastern_Ukraine "Eastern Ukraine"). In July 1942 the division arrived in [Izium](/wiki/Izium "Izium") from where it marched eastwards to [Millerovo](/wiki/Millerovo "Millerovo") and then onward to the [Don](/wiki/Don_%28river%29 "Don (river)") river. The Italian units covered part of the left flank of the German [6th Army](/wiki/6th_Army_%28Wehrmacht%29 "6th Army (Wehrmacht)"), which spearheaded the German [summer offensive of 1942](/wiki/Operation_Blue "Operation Blue") into the city of [Stalingrad](/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad "Battle of Stalingrad"). On 12 December 1942 the Red Army's [Operation Little Saturn](/wiki/Operation_Little_Saturn "Operation Little Saturn") commenced, which in its first stage attacked and encircled the Italian Army in Russia's [II Army Corps](/wiki/II_Army_Corps_%28Italy%29 "II Army Corps (Italy)") and [XXXV Army Corps](/wiki/XXXV_Army_Corps_%28Italy%29 "XXXV Army Corps (Italy)"). On 13 January 1943, the Red Army launched the second stage of Operation Little Saturn: four armies of General [Filipp Golikov](/wiki/Filipp_Golikov "Filipp Golikov")'s [Voronezh Front](/wiki/Voronezh_Front "Voronezh Front") attacked, encircled, and destroyed the [Hungarian Second Army](/wiki/Hungarian_Second_Army "Hungarian Second Army") near [Svoboda](/wiki/Svoboda%2C_Voronezh_Oblast "Svoboda, Voronezh Oblast") on the Don to the northwest of the Alpine Army Corps and pushed back the remaining units of the German [XXIV Army Corps](/wiki/XXIV_Army_Corps_%28Wehrmacht%29 "XXIV Army Corps (Wehrmacht)") on the Alpine Army Corps' left flank, thus encircling the Alpine Army Corps.{{cite journal \\|title\=Gli indomabili soldati dei ghiacci \\|journal\=Italian Army \- Rivista Militare \\|date\=January–February 2003 \\|pages\=100–113 \\|url\=http://www.esercito.difesa.it/comunicazione/editoria/Rivista\-Militare/archivio/Documents/2003/Rivista%20Militare%202003%20\-%20Numero%201\.pdf \\|accessdate\=4 October 2020}} On the evening of 17 January, the Alpine Army Corps commander, General [Gabriele Nasci](/wiki/Gabriele_Nasci "Gabriele Nasci"), ordered a full retreat. At this point only the Tridentina division was still capable of conducting effective combat operations. The 40,000\-strong mass of stragglers — Alpini and Italians from other commands, plus German and Hungarian Hussars — formed two columns that followed the Tridentina division which, supported by a handful of German armored vehicles, led the way westwards to the Axis lines. As the Soviets had already occupied every village bitter battles had to be fought to clear the way. On the morning of 28 January the Cuneense had walked 200 km, fought 20 battles, lost 80% of its men and spent 11 nights camped out in the middle of the Russian [Steppe](/wiki/Steppe "Steppe"). Temperatures during the nights were between \-30 °C and \-40 °C. On 28 January the last remnants of the division were annihilated by Cossack forces. The last survivors of the 1st Alpini regiment burned the [regiment's flag](/wiki/Regimental_colours "Regimental colours") to prevent it from falling into enemy hands. The Cuneense then ceased to exist. #### Casualties On 11 February 1943 the count of the survivors gave the following result:{{cite web \\|title\=Campagna di Russia \- Caduti e Dispersi \\|url\=http://www.alpini\-cuneense.it/cadutiedispersi.htm \\|publisher\=4a Divisione Alpina Cuneense \\|access\-date\=18 October 2021}} * 1st Alpini Regiment out of 5,282 men: 722 survivors; none of the soldiers of the battalions Ceva, Pieve di Teco and Mondovì survived. * 2nd Alpini Regiment out of 5,229 men: 208 survivors; none of the soldiers of the battalions Borgo San Dalmazzo and Saluzzo survived. * 4th Alpine Artillery Regiment out of 3,616 men: 379 survivors; none of the soldiers of the Artillery Group "Mondovì" survived. * 4th Mixed Engineer Battalion out of 1,240 men: 139 survivors * Support units out of 1,313 men: 159 survivors In total 1,607 men of the division's total of 17,460 survived Operation Little Saturn. #### Return to Italy The remnants of the division were repatriated in March 1943 and the division was reformed on 1 May 1943 in [Bolzano](/wiki/Bolzano "Bolzano") with troops of the 1st Alpini "Valley" Group of the [6th Alpine Division "Alpi Graie"](/wiki/6th_Alpine_Division_%22Alpi_Graie%22 "6th Alpine Division ") and with the 104th Marching Alpini Regiment of the [8th Marching Division](/wiki/8th_Marching_Division_%28Italy%29 "8th Marching Division (Italy)"). After the announcement of the [Armistice of Cassibile](/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile "Armistice of Cassibile") on 8 September 1943 the [invading German forces](/wiki/Operation_Achse "Operation Achse") disbanded the division.	[ "History\n-------", "The division's lineage begins on 19 October 1933 when the [1st Alpini Regiment](/wiki/1st_Alpini_Regiment \"1st Alpini Regiment\") in [Mondovì](/wiki/Mondov%C3%AC \"Mondovì\") and [2nd Alpini Regiment](/wiki/2nd_Alpini_Regiment \"2nd Alpini Regiment\") in [Cuneo](/wiki/Cuneo \"Cuneo\") left the [1st Alpine Division \"Taurinense\"](/wiki/1st_Alpine_Division_%22Taurinense%22 \"1st Alpine Division \") and entered the newly raised IV Alpine Brigade in Cuneo. On 1 January 1934 the newly formed [4th Mountain Artillery Regiment](/wiki/4th_Mountain_Artillery_Regiment_%28Italy%29 \"4th Mountain Artillery Regiment (Italy)\") in [Cuneo](/wiki/Cuneo \"Cuneo\") joined the brigade. On 27 October 1934 the brigade changed its name to IV Superior Alpine Command, which received the name Cuneense in December of the same year ({{lang\\-it\\\|IV Comando Superiore Alpino \"Cuneense\"}}).", "On 31 October 1935 the IV Superior Alpine Command \"Cuneense\" was reorganized as 4th Alpine Division \"Cuneense\" with the 1st and 2nd Alpini regiments and the 4th Alpine Artillery Regiment \"Cuneense\". On 25 December 1935 the Cuneense temporarily transferred its Alpini battalions \"Pieve di Teco\" and \"Saluzzo\" and its 11th Mountain Artillery Battery to the [5th Alpine Division \"Pusteria\"](/wiki/5th_Alpine_Division_%22Pusteria%22 \"5th Alpine Division \") for the [Second Italo\\-Ethiopian War](/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War \"Second Italo-Ethiopian War\").{{cite web \\\|title\\=4ª Divisione alpina \"Cuneense\" \\\|url\\=http://www.regioesercito.it/reparti/alpini/redivalp4\\.htm \\\|publisher\\=Regio Esercito \\\|access\\-date\\=18 October 2021}}", "### World War II", "#### Invasion of France", "The division participated in the [Italian invasion of France](/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_France \"Italian invasion of France\") in June 1940\\. On 22 June it entered French territory in the [Chabriere](/wiki/Chabriere \"Chabriere\") and Mary valleys.{{cite book \\\|title\\=Bollettino dell'Archivio dell'Ufficio Storico N.II\\-3 e 4 2002 \\\|via\\=Issuu \\\|date\\=2002 \\\|publisher\\=Ministero della Difesa \\- Stato Maggiore dell’Esercito \\- Ufficio Storico \\\|location\\=Rome \\\|page\\=187 \\\|url\\=https://issuu.com/rivista.militare1/docs/bollettino\\-ii\\-n.3\\-4\\-2002\\-testo \\\|access\\-date\\=18 October 2021}}", "#### Greco\\-Italian War", "In December 1940 the division was sent as reinforcements to [Albania](/wiki/Italian_protectorate_of_Albania_%281939%E2%80%931943%29 \"Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)\") for the [Greco\\-Italian War](/wiki/Greco-Italian_War \"Greco-Italian War\"). Between 15\\-17 December 1940 the division's units entered the front in the upper [Devoll](/wiki/Devoll_River \"Devoll River\") valley. On 18 March 1941 the division was taken out of the front and sent to [Berat](/wiki/Berat \"Berat\"). At the end of March the division deployed to the [Yugoslav](/wiki/Yugoslavia \"Yugoslavia\")\\-Albanian border for the upcoming [Invasion of Yugoslavia](/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia \"Invasion of Yugoslavia\"). On 10 April the division crossed the border and advanced to [Debar](/wiki/Debar \"Debar\") in [Macedonia](/wiki/North_Macedonia \"North Macedonia\"). After the war's conclusion the division returned to Italy in May 1941\\.", "#### Soviet Union", "The Cuneense was one of the ten Italian divisions of the [Italian Army in Russia](/wiki/Italian_Army_in_Russia \"Italian Army in Russia\"), which fought on the [Eastern Front](/wiki/Eastern_Front_%28World_War_II%29 \"Eastern Front (World War II)\"). In July 1942 the division, together with the [2nd Alpine Division \"Tridentina\"](/wiki/2nd_Alpine_Division_%22Tridentina%22 \"2nd Alpine Division \") and the [3rd Alpine Division \"Julia\"](/wiki/3rd_Alpine_Division_%22Julia%22 \"3rd Alpine Division \") formed the [Alpine Army Corps](/wiki/COMALP \"COMALP\"), which was transferred to [Eastern Ukraine](/wiki/Eastern_Ukraine \"Eastern Ukraine\"). In July 1942 the division arrived in [Izium](/wiki/Izium \"Izium\") from where it marched eastwards to [Millerovo](/wiki/Millerovo \"Millerovo\") and then onward to the [Don](/wiki/Don_%28river%29 \"Don (river)\") river. The Italian units covered part of the left flank of the German [6th Army](/wiki/6th_Army_%28Wehrmacht%29 \"6th Army (Wehrmacht)\"), which spearheaded the German [summer offensive of 1942](/wiki/Operation_Blue \"Operation Blue\") into the city of [Stalingrad](/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad \"Battle of Stalingrad\").", "On 12 December 1942 the Red Army's [Operation Little Saturn](/wiki/Operation_Little_Saturn \"Operation Little Saturn\") commenced, which in its first stage attacked and encircled the Italian Army in Russia's [II Army Corps](/wiki/II_Army_Corps_%28Italy%29 \"II Army Corps (Italy)\") and [XXXV Army Corps](/wiki/XXXV_Army_Corps_%28Italy%29 \"XXXV Army Corps (Italy)\"). On 13 January 1943, the Red Army launched the second stage of Operation Little Saturn: four armies of General [Filipp Golikov](/wiki/Filipp_Golikov \"Filipp Golikov\")'s [Voronezh Front](/wiki/Voronezh_Front \"Voronezh Front\") attacked, encircled, and destroyed the [Hungarian Second Army](/wiki/Hungarian_Second_Army \"Hungarian Second Army\") near [Svoboda](/wiki/Svoboda%2C_Voronezh_Oblast \"Svoboda, Voronezh Oblast\") on the Don to the northwest of the Alpine Army Corps and pushed back the remaining units of the German [XXIV Army Corps](/wiki/XXIV_Army_Corps_%28Wehrmacht%29 \"XXIV Army Corps (Wehrmacht)\") on the Alpine Army Corps' left flank, thus encircling the Alpine Army Corps.{{cite journal \\\|title\\=Gli indomabili soldati dei ghiacci \\\|journal\\=Italian Army \\- Rivista Militare \\\|date\\=January–February 2003 \\\|pages\\=100–113 \\\|url\\=http://www.esercito.difesa.it/comunicazione/editoria/Rivista\\-Militare/archivio/Documents/2003/Rivista%20Militare%202003%20\\-%20Numero%201\\.pdf \\\|accessdate\\=4 October 2020}}", "On the evening of 17 January, the Alpine Army Corps commander, General [Gabriele Nasci](/wiki/Gabriele_Nasci \"Gabriele Nasci\"), ordered a full retreat. At this point only the Tridentina division was still capable of conducting effective combat operations. The 40,000\\-strong mass of stragglers — Alpini and Italians from other commands, plus German and Hungarian Hussars — formed two columns that followed the Tridentina division which, supported by a handful of German armored vehicles, led the way westwards to the Axis lines. As the Soviets had already occupied every village bitter battles had to be fought to clear the way. On the morning of 28 January the Cuneense had walked 200 km, fought 20 battles, lost 80% of its men and spent 11 nights camped out in the middle of the Russian [Steppe](/wiki/Steppe \"Steppe\"). Temperatures during the nights were between \\-30 °C and \\-40 °C. On 28 January the last remnants of the division were annihilated by Cossack forces. The last survivors of the 1st Alpini regiment burned the [regiment's flag](/wiki/Regimental_colours \"Regimental colours\") to prevent it from falling into enemy hands. The Cuneense then ceased to exist.", "#### Casualties", "On 11 February 1943 the count of the survivors gave the following result:{{cite web \\\|title\\=Campagna di Russia \\- Caduti e Dispersi \\\|url\\=http://www.alpini\\-cuneense.it/cadutiedispersi.htm \\\|publisher\\=4a Divisione Alpina Cuneense \\\|access\\-date\\=18 October 2021}}", "* 1st Alpini Regiment out of 5,282 men: 722 survivors; none of the soldiers of the battalions Ceva, Pieve di Teco and Mondovì survived.\n* 2nd Alpini Regiment out of 5,229 men: 208 survivors; none of the soldiers of the battalions Borgo San Dalmazzo and Saluzzo survived.\n* 4th Alpine Artillery Regiment out of 3,616 men: 379 survivors; none of the soldiers of the Artillery Group \"Mondovì\" survived.\n* 4th Mixed Engineer Battalion out of 1,240 men: 139 survivors\n* Support units out of 1,313 men: 159 survivors", "In total 1,607 men of the division's total of 17,460 survived Operation Little Saturn.", "#### Return to Italy", "The remnants of the division were repatriated in March 1943 and the division was reformed on 1 May 1943 in [Bolzano](/wiki/Bolzano \"Bolzano\") with troops of the 1st Alpini \"Valley\" Group of the [6th Alpine Division \"Alpi Graie\"](/wiki/6th_Alpine_Division_%22Alpi_Graie%22 \"6th Alpine Division \") and with the 104th Marching Alpini Regiment of the [8th Marching Division](/wiki/8th_Marching_Division_%28Italy%29 \"8th Marching Division (Italy)\"). After the announcement of the [Armistice of Cassibile](/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile \"Armistice of Cassibile\") on 8 September 1943 the [invading German forces](/wiki/Operation_Achse \"Operation Achse\") disbanded the division.", "" ]
Career ------ Blanco's first solo exhibition was in 1974, where he showed sculpture and drawings. A year later, he moved to Rome, Italy, where he continued to work in sculpture while making a living by doing freelance graphic design drawing cartoons for a variety of newspapers and magazines, including political cartoons for the newspaper [L'Opinione](/wiki/L%27Opinione "L'Opinione")."L'Opinione, December 1978 It was during this period that he first conceived the idea of a comic strip. In 1978, Blanco participated in the [Bordhigera Humor Salon](/wiki/Bordhigera_Humor_Salon "Bordhigera Humor Salon"), winning the [Dattero D'Argento](/wiki/Dattero_D%27Argento "Dattero D'Argento"), and in the [Monterotondo Sculpture Salon](/wiki/Monterotondo_Sculpture_Salon "Monterotondo Sculpture Salon"), where he was awarded the first prize for medium format sculpture. In 1979, Blanco returned to Caracas, Venezuela where he exhibited his sculptures and drawings at the [Sofía Imber Museum of Contemporary Art](/wiki/Sof%C3%ADa_Imber_Museum_of_Contemporary_Art "Sofía Imber Museum of Contemporary Art"). Here, he continued working in sculpture but he also designed and illustrated a children's newspaper [El Cohete](/wiki/El_Cohete "El Cohete"). In 1980, he was hired as the Art Director for the [Caracas Children's Museum](/wiki/Caracas_Children%27s_Museum "Caracas Children's Museum") (Art, Science and Technology, Museo de los Niños) [Maravillosarealidad.Com](http://www.maravillosarealidad.com) (1980–1998\). He worked there for 18 years. That same year, Blanco created the comic strip The Castaway/El Náufrago, which became an overnight success. It was published in major newspapers and magazines in Venezuela and lead to significant sales in merchandising and books. The Castaway even crossed over to television. Due to the comic's success, Blanco no longer had time to work on his sculpture alongside his work as freelance graphic designer, illustrator, and his job at the museum, and had to put sculpture aside. In 1989, Blanco returned to sculpture, and eventually left the Caracas Children's Museum to move to the United States, where he still lives today. Blanco began exhibiting again in both Venezuela and the United States as well as around the world. In 1996, Blanco installed four sculptures in [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo "Tokyo"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"), which launched his fascination with public art. Since 1999, Blanco has lived and worked on the West Coast of Florida, with a particular focus on [public art](/wiki/Public_art "Public art"). In 2005, Blanco became an American citizen. He currently resides in [Sarasota, Florida](/wiki/Sarasota%2C_Florida "Sarasota, Florida").{{cite news\\|url\=http://www.bradenton.com/entertainment/story/196469\.html\\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120529200630/http://www.bradenton.com/entertainment/story/196469\.html\\|url\-status\=dead\\|archive\-date\=May 29, 2012\\|title\=Sculptures brighten Sarasota skyline\\|date\=November 11, 2007\\|work\=\[\[Bradenton Herald]]\\|accessdate\=September 7, 2010}} In 2007, Blanco received the [John Ringling Visual Art Award](/wiki/John_Ringling_Visual_Art_Award "John Ringling Visual Art Award").	[ "Career\n------", "Blanco's first solo exhibition was in 1974, where he showed sculpture and drawings. A year later, he moved to Rome, Italy, where he continued to work in sculpture while making a living by doing freelance graphic design drawing cartoons for a variety of newspapers and magazines, including political cartoons for the newspaper [L'Opinione](/wiki/L%27Opinione \"L'Opinione\").\"L'Opinione, December 1978 It was during this period that he first conceived the idea of a comic strip.", "In 1978, Blanco participated in the [Bordhigera Humor Salon](/wiki/Bordhigera_Humor_Salon \"Bordhigera Humor Salon\"), winning the [Dattero D'Argento](/wiki/Dattero_D%27Argento \"Dattero D'Argento\"), and in the [Monterotondo Sculpture Salon](/wiki/Monterotondo_Sculpture_Salon \"Monterotondo Sculpture Salon\"), where he was awarded the first prize for medium format sculpture.", "In 1979, Blanco returned to Caracas, Venezuela where he exhibited his sculptures and drawings at the [Sofía Imber Museum of Contemporary Art](/wiki/Sof%C3%ADa_Imber_Museum_of_Contemporary_Art \"Sofía Imber Museum of Contemporary Art\"). Here, he continued working in sculpture but he also designed and illustrated a children's newspaper [El Cohete](/wiki/El_Cohete \"El Cohete\").", "In 1980, he was hired as the Art Director for the [Caracas Children's Museum](/wiki/Caracas_Children%27s_Museum \"Caracas Children's Museum\") (Art, Science and Technology, Museo de los Niños) [Maravillosarealidad.Com](http://www.maravillosarealidad.com) (1980–1998\\). He worked there for 18 years.", "That same year, Blanco created the comic strip The Castaway/El Náufrago, which became an overnight success. It was published in major newspapers and magazines in Venezuela and lead to significant sales in merchandising and books. The Castaway even crossed over to television. Due to the comic's success, Blanco no longer had time to work on his sculpture alongside his work as freelance graphic designer, illustrator, and his job at the museum, and had to put sculpture aside.", "In 1989, Blanco returned to sculpture, and eventually left the Caracas Children's Museum to move to the United States, where he still lives today. Blanco began exhibiting again in both Venezuela and the United States as well as around the world. In 1996, Blanco installed four sculptures in [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"), which launched his fascination with public art.", "Since 1999, Blanco has lived and worked on the West Coast of Florida, with a particular focus on [public art](/wiki/Public_art \"Public art\"). In 2005, Blanco became an American citizen. He currently resides in [Sarasota, Florida](/wiki/Sarasota%2C_Florida \"Sarasota, Florida\").{{cite news\\\|url\\=http://www.bradenton.com/entertainment/story/196469\\.html\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120529200630/http://www.bradenton.com/entertainment/story/196469\\.html\\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\\|archive\\-date\\=May 29, 2012\\\|title\\=Sculptures brighten Sarasota skyline\\\|date\\=November 11, 2007\\\|work\\=\\[\\[Bradenton Herald]]\\\|accessdate\\=September 7, 2010}}", "In 2007, Blanco received the [John Ringling Visual Art Award](/wiki/John_Ringling_Visual_Art_Award \"John Ringling Visual Art Award\").", "" ]
Biography --------- Born in New York City, Leonard attended the public schools. He moved with his parents to [Owego, New York](/wiki/Owego_%28village%29%2C_New_York "Owego (village), New York"), and learned the printer's trade. He engaged in newspaper work in [Albany, New York](/wiki/Albany%2C_New_York "Albany, New York").He moved to New York City and subsequently returned to Owego.He was publisher and editor of the Owego Gazette 1814–1835\.Trustee of the village of Owego.Supervisor and commissioner of excise. Trustee of Owego Academy for many years. He established the first stage route from Owego to Bath in 1816\. Postmaster of Owego 1816–1820\. ### Congress Leonard was elected as a Jacksonian to the [Twenty\-fourth](/wiki/24th_United_States_Congress "24th United States Congress") Congress (March 4, 1835 – March 3, 1837\). Leonard was elected as a [Democrat](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 "Democratic Party (United States)") to the [Twenty\-sixth](/wiki/26th_United_States_Congress "26th United States Congress") Congress (March 4, 1839 – March 3, 1841\). He served as chairman of the Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds (Twenty\-sixth Congress). He declined to be a candidate for reelection in 1840 to the [Twenty\-seventh](/wiki/27th_United_States_Congress "27th United States Congress") Congress. ### Later career and death He engaged in mercantile and agricultural pursuits.Supervisor of Owego 1854–1856\. Deputy United States marshal 1857–1861\. He died in [Owego, New York](/wiki/Owego%2C_New_York "Owego, New York"), May 8, 1876\. He was interred in the Presbyterian Church Burying Ground.	[ "Biography\n---------", "Born in New York City, Leonard attended the public schools.\nHe moved with his parents to [Owego, New York](/wiki/Owego_%28village%29%2C_New_York \"Owego (village), New York\"), and learned the printer's trade.\nHe engaged in newspaper work in [Albany, New York](/wiki/Albany%2C_New_York \"Albany, New York\").He moved to New York City and subsequently returned to Owego.He was publisher and editor of the Owego Gazette 1814–1835\\.Trustee of the village of Owego.Supervisor and commissioner of excise.\nTrustee of Owego Academy for many years.\nHe established the first stage route from Owego to Bath in 1816\\.\nPostmaster of Owego 1816–1820\\.", "### Congress", "Leonard was elected as a Jacksonian to the [Twenty\\-fourth](/wiki/24th_United_States_Congress \"24th United States Congress\") Congress (March 4, 1835 – March 3, 1837\\).", "Leonard was elected as a [Democrat](/wiki/Democratic_Party_%28United_States%29 \"Democratic Party (United States)\") to the [Twenty\\-sixth](/wiki/26th_United_States_Congress \"26th United States Congress\") Congress (March 4, 1839 – March 3, 1841\\).\nHe served as chairman of the Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds (Twenty\\-sixth Congress).\nHe declined to be a candidate for reelection in 1840 to the [Twenty\\-seventh](/wiki/27th_United_States_Congress \"27th United States Congress\") Congress.", "### Later career and death", "He engaged in mercantile and agricultural pursuits.Supervisor of Owego 1854–1856\\.\nDeputy United States marshal 1857–1861\\.", "He died in [Owego, New York](/wiki/Owego%2C_New_York \"Owego, New York\"), May 8, 1876\\.\nHe was interred in the Presbyterian Church Burying Ground.", "" ]
Career ------ Troy was given his first guitar for Christmas when he was 13 years old, and was playing in Austin nightclubs by age 16\. His first tour was in 1985 at the age of 18 with Dino Lee. He then co\-founded BAND FROM HELL, an underground punk rock band that achieved much acclaim, but never signed a record deal. In 1992, he co\-founded Del Dragons, a roots rock band reminiscent of the [Rolling Stones](/wiki/Rolling_Stones "Rolling Stones") and [Faces](/wiki/Faces_%28band%29 "Faces (band)"). The band broke up shortly after its first full\-length release in 1997 and toured the US and Europe as "Troy Dillinger \& Del Dragons" through 1999\. In late 1999, he began performing as Troy Dillinger with a rotating lineup of band members which included [Hunt Sales](/wiki/Hunt_Sales "Hunt Sales"), [Ian McLagan](/wiki/Ian_McLagan "Ian McLagan"), and others. In 1998, he began acting and landed small roles on movies such as [American Outlaws](/wiki/American_Outlaws_%282001_film%29 "American Outlaws (2001 film)"), [The New Guy](/wiki/The_New_Guy "The New Guy"), and [Miss Congeniality](/wiki/Miss_Congeniality_%28film%29 "Miss Congeniality (film)").{{Cite web\\|url\=http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0996767/\\|title\=Troy Dillinger\\|website\=IMDb\\|accessdate\=22 December 2020}} In 2005, he released the award\-winning Dirty \& Harry CD/DVD full\-length recording and film festival, which won awards from the Austin Music Network and [The Austin Chronicle](/wiki/The_Austin_Chronicle "The Austin Chronicle").{{cite news\\|url\=http://www.austinchronicle.com/austin\-music\-awards/year:2004/category:related\-categories/262757/\\|title\='Best Video: The Troy Dillinger Dirty \& Hairy Film Festival DVD \\|newspaper\=\[\[The Austin Chronicle]]\\|date\=2004\\|accessdate\=2016\-02\-11}} The same year, he created Austin Swim, an [adult swim](/wiki/Adult_swim "Adult swim") viewing party which led to the creation of Adult Swim Presents. In 2008, Dillinger severed his ties with Adult Swim and created The Austin Variety Show, a local television show which features Austin music, comedy, burlesque, and a live game show with members of the audience. The show aired on [KBVO (TV)](/wiki/KBVO_%28TV%29 "KBVO (TV)") from 2010 to 2013 before moving to the internet. In January 2017, Troy moved to Los Angeles, California, where he continued performing as a standup comic, while shopping Austin Variety Show's Game Show component as "LOSER: The Game Show". He resumed acting and has been successful since, appearing in scores of movies, series, videos and commercials.	[ "Career\n------", "Troy was given his first guitar for Christmas when he was 13 years old, and was playing in Austin nightclubs by age 16\\. His first tour was in 1985 at the age of 18 with Dino Lee. He then co\\-founded BAND FROM HELL, an underground punk rock band that achieved much acclaim, but never signed a record deal.", "In 1992, he co\\-founded Del Dragons, a roots rock band reminiscent of the [Rolling Stones](/wiki/Rolling_Stones \"Rolling Stones\") and [Faces](/wiki/Faces_%28band%29 \"Faces (band)\"). The band broke up shortly after its first full\\-length release in 1997 and toured the US and Europe as \"Troy Dillinger \\& Del Dragons\" through 1999\\. In late 1999, he began performing as Troy Dillinger with a rotating lineup of band members which included [Hunt Sales](/wiki/Hunt_Sales \"Hunt Sales\"), [Ian McLagan](/wiki/Ian_McLagan \"Ian McLagan\"), and others.", "In 1998, he began acting and landed small roles on movies such as [American Outlaws](/wiki/American_Outlaws_%282001_film%29 \"American Outlaws (2001 film)\"), [The New Guy](/wiki/The_New_Guy \"The New Guy\"), and [Miss Congeniality](/wiki/Miss_Congeniality_%28film%29 \"Miss Congeniality (film)\").{{Cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0996767/\\\|title\\=Troy Dillinger\\\|website\\=IMDb\\\|accessdate\\=22 December 2020}}", "In 2005, he released the award\\-winning Dirty \\& Harry CD/DVD full\\-length recording and film festival, which won awards from the Austin Music Network and [The Austin Chronicle](/wiki/The_Austin_Chronicle \"The Austin Chronicle\").{{cite news\\\|url\\=http://www.austinchronicle.com/austin\\-music\\-awards/year:2004/category:related\\-categories/262757/\\\|title\\='Best Video: The Troy Dillinger Dirty \\& Hairy Film Festival DVD \\\|newspaper\\=\\[\\[The Austin Chronicle]]\\\|date\\=2004\\\|accessdate\\=2016\\-02\\-11}} The same year, he created Austin Swim, an [adult swim](/wiki/Adult_swim \"Adult swim\") viewing party which led to the creation of Adult Swim Presents.", "In 2008, Dillinger severed his ties with Adult Swim and created The Austin Variety Show, a local television show which features Austin music, comedy, burlesque, and a live game show with members of the audience. The show aired on [KBVO (TV)](/wiki/KBVO_%28TV%29 \"KBVO (TV)\") from 2010 to 2013 before moving to the internet.", "In January 2017, Troy moved to Los Angeles, California, where he continued performing as a standup comic, while shopping Austin Variety Show's Game Show component as \"LOSER: The Game Show\". He resumed acting and has been successful since, appearing in scores of movies, series, videos and commercials.", "" ]
Liberal government ------------------ [thumb\\|left\\|200px\\|[Rafael del Riego](/wiki/Rafael_del_Riego "Rafael del Riego") (1784–1823\), the leader of the [Cortes Generales](/wiki/Cortes_Generales "Cortes Generales"), which sought to restore the 1812 constitution.](/wiki/Image:Rafael_Riego.jpg "Rafael Riego.jpg"){{See also\\|July 1822 Spanish coup d'état}} Despite the rebels' relative weakness, Ferdinand accepted the constitution on 9 March 1820, granting power to liberal ministers and ushering in the so\-called Liberal Triennium (el Trienio Liberal), a period of liberal rule. However, political conspiracies of both right and left proliferated in Spain, as was the case across much of the rest of Europe. Liberal revolutionaries stormed the King's palace and seized Ferdinand VII, who was a prisoner of the Cortes in all but name for the next three years and retired to [Aranjuez](/wiki/Aranjuez "Aranjuez"). The elections to the [Cortes Generales](/wiki/Cortes_Generales "Cortes Generales") in 1822 were won by [Rafael del Riego](/wiki/Rafael_del_Riego "Rafael del Riego"). Ferdinand's supporters set themselves up at [Urgell](/wiki/Urgell "Urgell"), took up arms and put in place an absolutist regency, the [Urgel Regency](/wiki/Urgel_Regency "Urgel Regency"). Ferdinand's supporters, accompanied by the Royal Guard, staged an uprising in Madrid that was subdued by forces supporting the new government and its constitution. Despite the defeat of Ferdinand's supporters at Madrid, civil war erupted in the regions of [Castile](/wiki/Castile_%28historical_region%29 "Castile (historical region)"), [Toledo](/wiki/Toledo%2C_Spain "Toledo, Spain"), and [Andalusia](/wiki/Andalusia "Andalusia"). Three years of liberal rule (the Trienio Liberal) followed. The Progresista government reorganized Spain into 52 provinces, and it intended to reduce the regional autonomy that had been a hallmark of Spanish bureaucracy since Habsburg rule in the 16th and 17th centuries. Opposition of the affected regions, in particular, Aragon, Navarre, and Catalonia, shared in the king's antipathy for the liberal government. The anticlerical policies of the Progresista government led to friction with the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Spain "Catholic Church in Spain"), and attempts to bring about industrialisation alienated old [trade guilds](/wiki/Trade_guild "Trade guild"). The [Spanish Inquisition](/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition "Spanish Inquisition"), which had been abolished by both [Joseph Bonaparte](/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte "Joseph Bonaparte") and the [Cortes of Cádiz](/wiki/Cortes_of_C%C3%A1diz "Cortes of Cádiz") during the French occupation, was ended again by the government, which led to accusations of it being nothing more than [afrancesados](/wiki/Afrancesados "Afrancesados") (francophiles), who, only six years earlier, had been forced out of the country. More radical liberals attempted to revolt against the entire idea of a monarchy, regardless of how little power it had. In 1821, they were suppressed, but the incident served to illustrate the frail coalition that bound the government together.[thumb\\|175px\\|[Ferdinand VII of Spain](/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain "Ferdinand VII of Spain"), who abolished the Spanish Constitution of 1812 in 1814\. Portrait by [Francisco Goya](/wiki/Francisco_Goya "Francisco Goya"), 1814\.The](/wiki/Image:Francisco_Goya_-_Portrait_of_Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain_in_his_robes_of_state_%281815%29_-_Prado.jpg "Francisco Goya - Portrait of Ferdinand VII of Spain in his robes of state (1815) - Prado.jpg") election of a radical liberal government in 1823 further destabilized Spain. The army, whose liberal leanings had brought the government to power, began to waver when the Spanish economy failed to improve, and in 1823, a mutiny in Madrid had to be suppressed. The [Jesuits](/wiki/Jesuits "Jesuits"), who had been banned by [Charles III](/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain "Charles III of Spain") in the 18th century, only to be rehabilitated by Ferdinand VII after his restoration, were banned again by the government. For the duration of liberal rule, Ferdinand (still technically head of state) lived under virtual house arrest in Madrid. The [Congress of Vienna](/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna "Congress of Vienna"), ending the Napoleonic Wars, had inaugurated the "Congress system" as an instrument of international stability in Europe. Rebuffed by the [Holy Alliance](/wiki/Holy_Alliance "Holy Alliance") of [Russia](/wiki/Russian_Empire "Russian Empire"), [Austria](/wiki/Austrian_Empire "Austrian Empire"), and [Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia "Kingdom of Prussia") in his request for help against the liberal revolutionaries in 1820, by 1822, the "Concert of Europe" was so concerned by Spain's liberal government and its surprising hardiness that it was prepared to intervene on Ferdinand's behalf. In 1822, the [Congress of Verona](/wiki/Congress_of_Verona "Congress of Verona") authorized France to intervene. [Louis XVIII of France](/wiki/Louis_XVIII_of_France "Louis XVIII of France") was only too happy to put an end to Spain's liberal experiment, and a massive army, the [100,000 Sons of Saint Louis](/wiki/Hundred_Thousand_Sons_of_Saint_Louis "Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis"), was dispatched across the Pyrenees in April 1823\. The Spanish army, fraught by internal divisions, offered little resistance to the well organised French force, who seized Madrid and reinstalled Ferdinand as absolute monarch. The liberals' hopes for a new Spanish War of Independence were dashed. Regarding the policy for America in the absolutist period, the new government changed political repression into negotiation. Sending troops was replaced by commissioners to attract pro\-independence leaders, who were invited to submit to royal authority in exchange for recognition by Spain. With that in mind, the government announced a ceasefire for negotiations with the rebels until the 1812 Constitution, which ironically, had been superseded by Ferdinand's actions, was accepted. According to the ceasefire, Spain would end the persecution and would issue a blanket amnesty for the insurgents; otherwise, the war would continue. The 11 commissioners failed, since the patriots demanded recognition of their independence from Spain.	[ "Liberal government\n------------------", "[thumb\\\|left\\\|200px\\\|[Rafael del Riego](/wiki/Rafael_del_Riego \"Rafael del Riego\") (1784–1823\\), the leader of the [Cortes Generales](/wiki/Cortes_Generales \"Cortes Generales\"), which sought to restore the 1812 constitution.](/wiki/Image:Rafael_Riego.jpg \"Rafael Riego.jpg\"){{See also\\\|July 1822 Spanish coup d'état}}\nDespite the rebels' relative weakness, Ferdinand accepted the constitution on 9 March 1820, granting power to liberal ministers and ushering in the so\\-called Liberal Triennium (el Trienio Liberal), a period of liberal rule. However, political conspiracies of both right and left proliferated in Spain, as was the case across much of the rest of Europe. Liberal revolutionaries stormed the King's palace and seized Ferdinand VII, who was a prisoner of the Cortes in all but name for the next three years and retired to [Aranjuez](/wiki/Aranjuez \"Aranjuez\"). The elections to the [Cortes Generales](/wiki/Cortes_Generales \"Cortes Generales\") in 1822 were won by [Rafael del Riego](/wiki/Rafael_del_Riego \"Rafael del Riego\"). Ferdinand's supporters set themselves up at [Urgell](/wiki/Urgell \"Urgell\"), took up arms and put in place an absolutist regency, the [Urgel Regency](/wiki/Urgel_Regency \"Urgel Regency\").", "Ferdinand's supporters, accompanied by the Royal Guard, staged an uprising in Madrid that was subdued by forces supporting the new government and its constitution. Despite the defeat of Ferdinand's supporters at Madrid, civil war erupted in the regions of [Castile](/wiki/Castile_%28historical_region%29 \"Castile (historical region)\"), [Toledo](/wiki/Toledo%2C_Spain \"Toledo, Spain\"), and [Andalusia](/wiki/Andalusia \"Andalusia\").", "Three years of liberal rule (the Trienio Liberal) followed. The Progresista government reorganized Spain into 52 provinces, and it intended to reduce the regional autonomy that had been a hallmark of Spanish bureaucracy since Habsburg rule in the 16th and 17th centuries. Opposition of the affected regions, in particular, Aragon, Navarre, and Catalonia, shared in the king's antipathy for the liberal government. The anticlerical policies of the Progresista government led to friction with the [Catholic Church](/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Spain \"Catholic Church in Spain\"), and attempts to bring about industrialisation alienated old [trade guilds](/wiki/Trade_guild \"Trade guild\"). The [Spanish Inquisition](/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition \"Spanish Inquisition\"), which had been abolished by both [Joseph Bonaparte](/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte \"Joseph Bonaparte\") and the [Cortes of Cádiz](/wiki/Cortes_of_C%C3%A1diz \"Cortes of Cádiz\") during the French occupation, was ended again by the government, which led to accusations of it being nothing more than [afrancesados](/wiki/Afrancesados \"Afrancesados\") (francophiles), who, only six years earlier, had been forced out of the country.", "More radical liberals attempted to revolt against the entire idea of a monarchy, regardless of how little power it had. In 1821, they were suppressed, but the incident served to illustrate the frail coalition that bound the government together.[thumb\\\|175px\\\|[Ferdinand VII of Spain](/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain \"Ferdinand VII of Spain\"), who abolished the Spanish Constitution of 1812 in 1814\\. Portrait by [Francisco Goya](/wiki/Francisco_Goya \"Francisco Goya\"), 1814\\.The](/wiki/Image:Francisco_Goya_-_Portrait_of_Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain_in_his_robes_of_state_%281815%29_-_Prado.jpg \"Francisco Goya - Portrait of Ferdinand VII of Spain in his robes of state (1815) - Prado.jpg\") election of a radical liberal government in 1823 further destabilized Spain. The army, whose liberal leanings had brought the government to power, began to waver when the Spanish economy failed to improve, and in 1823, a mutiny in Madrid had to be suppressed. The [Jesuits](/wiki/Jesuits \"Jesuits\"), who had been banned by [Charles III](/wiki/Charles_III_of_Spain \"Charles III of Spain\") in the 18th century, only to be rehabilitated by Ferdinand VII after his restoration, were banned again by the government. For the duration of liberal rule, Ferdinand (still technically head of state) lived under virtual house arrest in Madrid. The [Congress of Vienna](/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna \"Congress of Vienna\"), ending the Napoleonic Wars, had inaugurated the \"Congress system\" as an instrument of international stability in Europe. Rebuffed by the [Holy Alliance](/wiki/Holy_Alliance \"Holy Alliance\") of [Russia](/wiki/Russian_Empire \"Russian Empire\"), [Austria](/wiki/Austrian_Empire \"Austrian Empire\"), and [Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia \"Kingdom of Prussia\") in his request for help against the liberal revolutionaries in 1820, by 1822, the \"Concert of Europe\" was so concerned by Spain's liberal government and its surprising hardiness that it was prepared to intervene on Ferdinand's behalf.", "In 1822, the [Congress of Verona](/wiki/Congress_of_Verona \"Congress of Verona\") authorized France to intervene. [Louis XVIII of France](/wiki/Louis_XVIII_of_France \"Louis XVIII of France\") was only too happy to put an end to Spain's liberal experiment, and a massive army, the [100,000 Sons of Saint Louis](/wiki/Hundred_Thousand_Sons_of_Saint_Louis \"Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis\"), was dispatched across the Pyrenees in April 1823\\. The Spanish army, fraught by internal divisions, offered little resistance to the well organised French force, who seized Madrid and reinstalled Ferdinand as absolute monarch. The liberals' hopes for a new Spanish War of Independence were dashed.", "Regarding the policy for America in the absolutist period, the new government changed political repression into negotiation. Sending troops was replaced by commissioners to attract pro\\-independence leaders, who were invited to submit to royal authority in exchange for recognition by Spain. With that in mind, the government announced a ceasefire for negotiations with the rebels until the 1812 Constitution, which ironically, had been superseded by Ferdinand's actions, was accepted.", "According to the ceasefire, Spain would end the persecution and would issue a blanket amnesty for the insurgents; otherwise, the war would continue. The 11 commissioners failed, since the patriots demanded recognition of their independence from Spain.", "" ]
History and Discography ----------------------- The improvisational groove rock band Ten Ton Chicken has performed generously throughout the west coast since being hatched in 1998\. Their inception coincided with the revitalization of the Bay Area's jam music scene at the turn of the new century. The Chicken is mostly known for their energy packed live shows featuring quirky, original songs influenced by diverse selection of music genres. The band's original line\-up of; Gary Morrell (Guitar, Vocals), Rich Di Benedetto (Drums), Nick Peck (Keys, Vocals) and Eric "Doc" Kampman (Bass, Vocals), recorded the bands, seldom heard and very limited released, first LP, "De Cocksdorp" (1999\). A change in the make up of Ten Ton Chicken occurred in 2001 when "Doc" left to pursue other aspects of life. With the addition of Tom Fejes (Bass, Vocals) and Jamison Smeltz (Sax, Vocals), the band's progressive roots took on a more groovy, jam rock sound. Demand for Ten Ton Chicken on Jam radio shows and on MP3 increased greatly after the release of their first two EP albums, "Just Like in the Old Country" (2002\), and "In Search Of" (2003\) both on the Home Grown Music Network's label, Harmonized Records. "Just Like in the Old Country" is a studio \& live mix, highlighting the band's eclectic array of improvised jams. New keyboardist, Greg Sankovich, took over for Peck prior to the recording of the commercially successful, "In Search Of", which is a diverse selection of funky, bluesy, jazzy, witty, progressive rock songs. In 2006, after a short hiatus, Ten Ton Chicken reemerged on the San Francisco scene for some live performances as a newly formed quartet, with Morrell, Di Benedetto, Fejes and Smeltz carrying the feathery torch. With a new stable of originals songs, Ten Ton Chicken entered the studio to produce their, long\-awaited, fourth CD, "Efitol". 2010 saw the release of Efitol. Tackling issues such as the right to say midget, the taboo love of one's second cousin, the right to elect a dope, as well as the right to be the pope, Efitol is a diverse CD of eleven wacky original songs. In 2022, with a new lineup, TTC released, Our Green World. New members are Fred Callaway (Keys, Vocals), Garrett Frisch (Drums), Mark Francis (Guitar, Vocals), and Jamison switch to Bass Guitar, and Gary Morrell remains on lead guitar and vocals. 2024 will see the release of Blue Earth Moon on 2/29/24\. They have released five CDs: * De Cocksdorp (1999\) (difficult to find) * Just Like In The Old Country (2001\) * In Search Of (2003\) * Efitol (2010\) * Our Green World (2022\)	[ "History and Discography\n-----------------------", "The improvisational groove rock band Ten Ton Chicken has performed generously throughout the west coast since being hatched in 1998\\. Their inception coincided with the revitalization of the Bay Area's jam music scene at the turn of the new century.", "The Chicken is mostly known for their energy packed live shows featuring quirky, original songs influenced by diverse selection of music genres. The band's original line\\-up of; Gary Morrell (Guitar, Vocals), Rich Di Benedetto (Drums), Nick Peck (Keys, Vocals) and Eric \"Doc\" Kampman (Bass, Vocals), recorded the bands, seldom heard and very limited released, first LP, \"De Cocksdorp\" (1999\\).", "A change in the make up of Ten Ton Chicken occurred in 2001 when \"Doc\" left to pursue other aspects of life. With the addition of Tom Fejes (Bass, Vocals) and Jamison Smeltz (Sax, Vocals), the band's progressive roots took on a more groovy, jam rock sound. Demand for Ten Ton Chicken on Jam radio shows and on MP3 increased greatly after the release of their first two EP albums, \"Just Like in the Old Country\" (2002\\), and \"In Search Of\" (2003\\) both on the Home Grown Music Network's label, Harmonized Records.", "\"Just Like in the Old Country\" is a studio \\& live mix, highlighting the band's eclectic array of improvised jams. New keyboardist, Greg Sankovich, took over for Peck prior to the recording of the commercially successful, \"In Search Of\", which is a diverse selection of funky, bluesy, jazzy, witty, progressive rock songs.", "In 2006, after a short hiatus, Ten Ton Chicken reemerged on the San Francisco scene for some live performances as a newly formed quartet, with Morrell, Di Benedetto, Fejes and Smeltz carrying the feathery torch. With a new stable of originals songs, Ten Ton Chicken entered the studio to produce their, long\\-awaited, fourth CD, \"Efitol\".", "2010 saw the release of Efitol. Tackling issues such as the right to say midget, the taboo love of one's second cousin, the right to elect a dope, as well as the right to be the pope, Efitol is a diverse CD of eleven wacky original songs.", "In 2022, with a new lineup, TTC released, Our Green World. New members are Fred Callaway (Keys, Vocals), Garrett Frisch (Drums), Mark Francis (Guitar, Vocals), and Jamison switch to Bass Guitar, and Gary Morrell remains on lead guitar and vocals.", "2024 will see the release of Blue Earth Moon on 2/29/24\\.", "They have released five CDs: \n* De Cocksdorp (1999\\) (difficult to find)\n* Just Like In The Old Country (2001\\)\n* In Search Of (2003\\)\n* Efitol (2010\\)\n* Our Green World (2022\\)", "" ]
Host interaction ---------------- The main host plant of the beetle is the [tropical soda apple](/wiki/Solanum_viarum "Solanum viarum") (Solanum viarum), a prickly [shrub](/wiki/Shrub "Shrub") in the [nightshade family](/wiki/Solanaceae "Solanaceae"). Like the beetle, it is native to South America. It was first discovered in the United States in 1988 in Florida. It has since spread as far north as [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania "Pennsylvania")Medal, J. C., et al. (2002\). [Gratiana boliviana, a potential biocontrol agent of Solanum viarum: Quarantine host\-specificity testing in Florida and field surveys in South America.](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1015662911903#page-1) BioControl 47(4\) 445\-61\. and as far west as [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona "Arizona").Diaz, R., et al. (2008\). [Temperature\-dependent development, cold tolerance, and potential distribution of Gratiana boliviana (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a biological control agent of tropical soda apple, Solanum viarum (Solanaceae).](http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09583150701861543?journalCode=cbst20#preview) Biocontrol Science and Technology 18(2\) 193\-207\. As of 2011, over one million acres are infested in the United States. The tropical soda apple has been nicknamed "the plant from hell".Coile, N. C. [Tropical Soda Apple, Solanum viarum Dunal: The Plant from Hell.](http://freshfromflorida.net/pi/enpp/botany/botcirc/TSA-circ27-1996.pdf) Botany Circular No. 27\. May/June 1993\. Division of Plant Industry. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. The plant is a [noxious weed](/wiki/Noxious_weed "Noxious weed") producing large, dense, prickly thickets that outcompete native plants and disturb wildlife [habitat](/wiki/Habitat "Habitat"). It reduces the [cattle](/wiki/Cattle "Cattle") [carrying capacity](/wiki/Carrying_capacity "Carrying capacity") of [pasture](/wiki/Pasture "Pasture") land, costing ranchers millions of dollars in Florida alone. It is an alternate host for several [viruses](/wiki/Plant_virus "Plant virus") of crop plants, including [cucumber mosaic virus](/wiki/Cucumber_mosaic_virus "Cucumber mosaic virus"), [potato leafroll virus](/wiki/Potato_leafroll_virus "Potato leafroll virus"), [potato virus Y](/wiki/Potato_virus_Y "Potato virus Y"), [tobacco etch virus](/wiki/Tobacco_etch_virus "Tobacco etch virus"), and [tomato mosaic virus](/wiki/Tomato_mosaic_virus "Tomato mosaic virus"). It hosts [pest insects](/wiki/Pest_%28organism%29 "Pest (organism)") such as the [silverleaf whitefly](/wiki/Silverleaf_whitefly "Silverleaf whitefly"), [Colorado potato beetle](/wiki/Colorado_potato_beetle "Colorado potato beetle"), [tomato hornworm](/wiki/Manduca_quinquemaculata "Manduca quinquemaculata"), [tobacco hornworm](/wiki/Manduca_sexta "Manduca sexta"), and [southern green stinkbug](/wiki/Nezara_viridula "Nezara viridula"). The beetle is [host\-specific](/wiki/Host_%28biology%29 "Host (biology)"). Studies have shown that it can only complete its life cycle on tropical soda apple. When offered over 120 other species of plants, the beetle fed lightly on only one of them and barely sampled three others, all Solanum species. It rarely laid eggs on any other plants, either. [Eggplant](/wiki/Eggplant "Eggplant"), a Solanum crop, is not attacked by the beetle in its home range. Larvae always die when limited to native US Solanum species. The only other known natural host is the South American plant [Solanum palinacanthum](/wiki/Solanum_palinacanthum "Solanum palinacanthum").Horner, T. A. (2003\). [Field release of a nonindigenous beetle, Gratiana boliviana (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), for biological control of tropical soda apple, Solanum viarum (Solanaceae).](http://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/plant_pest_info/weeds/downloads/envirodocs/gratianaboliviana.pdf) USDA APHIS. Its host specificity made the beetle a relatively safe choice for introduction. The larva of the beetle feeds on the upper third of the plant, damaging its leaves. The adult also feeds on the foliage. Feeding damage takes the form of holes in the leaves. The injury facilitates the entry of pathogens and causes stress to the plant, reducing its growth and fruit production.Diaz, R., et al. [Gratiana boliviana.](http://www.biocontrol.entomology.cornell.edu/weedfeed/Gratiana.html) In: Shelton, A. (ed.) Biological Control: A Guide to Natural Enemies in North America. Cornell University. Accessed 21 July 2013\. Larvae kept free of natural enemies can almost completely defoliate a plant. The beetle was released in Florida in 2003\. As of 2010 it had become established in many areas there, and stands of tropical soda apple in these areas have been well defoliated, lower in fruit yield, thinned and replaced by other plants. No beetle damage has been noted on any other plant species.Medal, J. C. and J. P. Cuda. (2010\). [Establishment and initial impact of the leaf\-beetle Gratiana boliviana (Chrysomelidae), first biocontrol agent released against tropical soda apple in Florida.](http://journals.fcla.edu/flaent/article/view/76149/73807) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180520230732/http://journals.fcla.edu/flaent/article/view/76149/73807 \\|date\=2018\-05\-20 }} Florida Entomologist 93(4\) 493\-500\. This tropical beetle cannot develop where cold temperatures occur, so its establishment farther north will be limited.	[ "Host interaction\n----------------", "The main host plant of the beetle is the [tropical soda apple](/wiki/Solanum_viarum \"Solanum viarum\") (Solanum viarum), a prickly [shrub](/wiki/Shrub \"Shrub\") in the [nightshade family](/wiki/Solanaceae \"Solanaceae\"). Like the beetle, it is native to South America. It was first discovered in the United States in 1988 in Florida. It has since spread as far north as [Pennsylvania](/wiki/Pennsylvania \"Pennsylvania\")Medal, J. C., et al. (2002\\). [Gratiana boliviana, a potential biocontrol agent of Solanum viarum: Quarantine host\\-specificity testing in Florida and field surveys in South America.](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1015662911903#page-1) BioControl 47(4\\) 445\\-61\\. and as far west as [Arizona](/wiki/Arizona \"Arizona\").Diaz, R., et al. (2008\\). [Temperature\\-dependent development, cold tolerance, and potential distribution of Gratiana boliviana (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a biological control agent of tropical soda apple, Solanum viarum (Solanaceae).](http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09583150701861543?journalCode=cbst20#preview) Biocontrol Science and Technology 18(2\\) 193\\-207\\. As of 2011, over one million acres are infested in the United States. The tropical soda apple has been nicknamed \"the plant from hell\".Coile, N. C. [Tropical Soda Apple, Solanum viarum Dunal: The Plant from Hell.](http://freshfromflorida.net/pi/enpp/botany/botcirc/TSA-circ27-1996.pdf) Botany Circular No. 27\\. May/June 1993\\. Division of Plant Industry. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services.", "The plant is a [noxious weed](/wiki/Noxious_weed \"Noxious weed\") producing large, dense, prickly thickets that outcompete native plants and disturb wildlife [habitat](/wiki/Habitat \"Habitat\"). It reduces the [cattle](/wiki/Cattle \"Cattle\") [carrying capacity](/wiki/Carrying_capacity \"Carrying capacity\") of [pasture](/wiki/Pasture \"Pasture\") land, costing ranchers millions of dollars in Florida alone. It is an alternate host for several [viruses](/wiki/Plant_virus \"Plant virus\") of crop plants, including [cucumber mosaic virus](/wiki/Cucumber_mosaic_virus \"Cucumber mosaic virus\"), [potato leafroll virus](/wiki/Potato_leafroll_virus \"Potato leafroll virus\"), [potato virus Y](/wiki/Potato_virus_Y \"Potato virus Y\"), [tobacco etch virus](/wiki/Tobacco_etch_virus \"Tobacco etch virus\"), and [tomato mosaic virus](/wiki/Tomato_mosaic_virus \"Tomato mosaic virus\"). It hosts [pest insects](/wiki/Pest_%28organism%29 \"Pest (organism)\") such as the [silverleaf whitefly](/wiki/Silverleaf_whitefly \"Silverleaf whitefly\"), [Colorado potato beetle](/wiki/Colorado_potato_beetle \"Colorado potato beetle\"), [tomato hornworm](/wiki/Manduca_quinquemaculata \"Manduca quinquemaculata\"), [tobacco hornworm](/wiki/Manduca_sexta \"Manduca sexta\"), and [southern green stinkbug](/wiki/Nezara_viridula \"Nezara viridula\").", "The beetle is [host\\-specific](/wiki/Host_%28biology%29 \"Host (biology)\"). Studies have shown that it can only complete its life cycle on tropical soda apple. When offered over 120 other species of plants, the beetle fed lightly on only one of them and barely sampled three others, all Solanum species. It rarely laid eggs on any other plants, either. [Eggplant](/wiki/Eggplant \"Eggplant\"), a Solanum crop, is not attacked by the beetle in its home range. Larvae always die when limited to native US Solanum species. The only other known natural host is the South American plant [Solanum palinacanthum](/wiki/Solanum_palinacanthum \"Solanum palinacanthum\").Horner, T. A. (2003\\). [Field release of a nonindigenous beetle, Gratiana boliviana (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), for biological control of tropical soda apple, Solanum viarum (Solanaceae).](http://www.aphis.usda.gov/plant_health/plant_pest_info/weeds/downloads/envirodocs/gratianaboliviana.pdf) USDA APHIS. Its host specificity made the beetle a relatively safe choice for introduction.", "The larva of the beetle feeds on the upper third of the plant, damaging its leaves. The adult also feeds on the foliage. Feeding damage takes the form of holes in the leaves. The injury facilitates the entry of pathogens and causes stress to the plant, reducing its growth and fruit production.Diaz, R., et al. [Gratiana boliviana.](http://www.biocontrol.entomology.cornell.edu/weedfeed/Gratiana.html) In: Shelton, A. (ed.) Biological Control: A Guide to Natural Enemies in North America. Cornell University. Accessed 21 July 2013\\. Larvae kept free of natural enemies can almost completely defoliate a plant.", "The beetle was released in Florida in 2003\\. As of 2010 it had become established in many areas there, and stands of tropical soda apple in these areas have been well defoliated, lower in fruit yield, thinned and replaced by other plants. No beetle damage has been noted on any other plant species.Medal, J. C. and J. P. Cuda. (2010\\). [Establishment and initial impact of the leaf\\-beetle Gratiana boliviana (Chrysomelidae), first biocontrol agent released against tropical soda apple in Florida.](http://journals.fcla.edu/flaent/article/view/76149/73807) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180520230732/http://journals.fcla.edu/flaent/article/view/76149/73807 \\\|date\\=2018\\-05\\-20 }} Florida Entomologist 93(4\\) 493\\-500\\. This tropical beetle cannot develop where cold temperatures occur, so its establishment farther north will be limited.", "" ]
Court's judgment ---------------- ### Article 1 (respecting rights) The first issue the Court faced was whether the Autonomous Republic of Adjaria was within the jurisdiction of Georgia for the purposes of the European Convention on Human Rights.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[92] Adjara ([Batumi](/wiki/Batumi "Batumi")) has been included in international agreements dating back to 1829 and is currently contained within Georgia's borders.[Treaty of Adrianople (1829\)](/wiki/Treaty_of_Adrianople_%281829%29 "Treaty of Adrianople (1829)"), Article IV; Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[100]\-\[107] On 24 August 1995 Georgia adopted a new constitution following the dissolution of the USSR.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[108] The Court interpreted the wording of Article 2 § 3 of the Constitution and found that Georgia held "jurisdiction" over the Autonomous Republic of Adjara for the purposes of the European Convention on Human Rights.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[137]\-\[140], \[150]Gentilhomme and Others v. France, nos. 48205/99, 48207/99 and 48209/99, § 20, 14 May 2002Banković and Others v. Belgium and Others (dec.) \[GC], no. 52207/99, §§ 59\-61, ECHR 2001\-XII Further, Georgia had ratified the European Convention on Human Rights without making specific mention of the Ajarian Autonomous Republic or any challenges that would prohibit the [State](/wiki/Sovereign_state "Sovereign state") upholding the treaty across its territories.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[140] Lastly, the Court observed that the Ajarian Autonomous Republic had no "separatist aspirations" that may impact on Georgia's sovereign control over the region.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[140]; Ilaşcu and Others v. Moldova and Russia (dec.) \[GC], no. 48787/99, 4 July 2001; Loizidou v. Turkey \[1995] ECHR 10 ### Article 5 (liberty and security) #### Section 1 Citing Article 35, § 4, of the European Convention on Human Rights, the Court deemed it necessary to declare that evidence regarding Assanidze's detention up until 11 December 1999 to be inadmissible.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[160]Kadikis v. Latvia (no. 2\) (dec.), no. 62393/00, 25 September 2003 The Article requires applications be made "within a period of six months from the date on which the final \[domestic] decision was taken".Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[159] Noting that the applicant had exhausted all "domestic remedies" to no avail, it was decided that the court would consider only the detention from 29 January 2001, the date that the Supreme Court of Georgia ordered the release of the applicant .Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[159], \[172] Despite his release being ordered by the Supreme Court of Georgia, the applicant remained incarcerated in an Ajarian Ministry of Security prison even though no further charges or order had been laid before the local Court to warrant his detainment.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[172] The [Grand Chamber](/wiki/European_Court_of_Human_Rights%23Jurisdiction "European Court of Human Rights#Jurisdiction") ruled unanimously that the applicant had been deprived of his right to liberty and security afforded to him by Article 5 § 1 and was being detained without legal authority or certainty of release.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[176]Mutatis Mutandis, Jėčius v. Lithuania, no. 34578/97, § 62, ECHR 2000\-IX The Court could find no exception in common or treaty law that would justify the applicant's deprivation of liberty despite examining a number of cases and Article 5 § 1 in depth.Weeks v. the United Kingdom, judgment of 2 March 1987, Series A no. 114, p. 22, § 40; Labita v. Italy \[GC], no. 26772/95, § 170, ECHR 2000\-IV; Quinn v. France’, judgment of 22 March 1995, Series A no. 311, p. 17, § 42; Engel and Others v. the Netherlands, judgment of 8 June 1976, Series A no. 22, p. 25, § 58; and Amuur v. France, judgment of 25 June 1996, Reports 1996\-III, p. 848, § 42Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[170] It was held that a breach of National law in the light of Article 5 was to be considered a breach of the convention.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[171]Chahal v. the United Kingdom, judgment of 15 November 1996, Reports 1996\-V, p. 1864, § 118 The judgment text goes on to say that "it is inconceivable that in a State subject to the rule of law a person should continue to be deprived of his liberty despite the existence of a court order for his release".Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[173] In finding a breach regarding the arbitrary imprisonment the court found it unnecessary to examine the applicant 's complaint regarding the place of detention as it added nothing to the violation.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[177] Further, the issue of isolation was not examined by the court as it fell outside the scope of the case.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[178]Peltier v. France, no. 32872/96, § 20, 21 May 2002; Craxi v. Italy (no. 1\), no. 34896/97, § 55, 5 December 2002; and Göç v. Turkey \[GC], no. 36590/97, § 36, ECHR 2002\-V. #### Section 3 The complaint regarding the time of proceeding fell outside of the six\-month time limit set out in Article 35 § 1 of the convention.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[188] It was stated that the opportunity for an application regarding section 3 ended on 2 October 2000\.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[190] As a result, the Court had no choice but to dismiss the complaint. #### Section 4 and article 13 (effective remedy) The Applicant raised the issue that failure to follow the order for his release amounted to a breach of his rights under Article 5 § 4 and Article 13\.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[185] This operational complaint was brushed over by the court (fourteen votes to three) as it was seen to raise the same issue with the same material facts as the complaint concerning Article 6 § 1\.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[187] As a result, the Court did not investigate this complaint. ### Article 6 (fair trial) The judgment made on 29 January 2001 ordering the applicant's release was not followed and therefore "deprived the provisions of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention of all useful effect". Further, the Court said that Article 6 would be 'illusory" should a final judicial decision to acquit not be followed causing measurable harm to the defendant.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[182]Barberà, Messegué and Jabardo v. Spain, judgment of 6 December 1988, Series A no. 146, pp. 33\-34, § 78 For this reason the Court held by fourteen votes to three that there had been a failure to comply with a legally enforceable and final decision and therefore amounted to a breach of the convention. ### Article 10 (freedom of expression) The Court found no reason to sustain a submission that there had been a breach of the applicant's freedom of expression.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[192] Neither party added any further argument to prove or disprove a breach beyond the initial application.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[191] ### Article 2 of Protocol no. 4 (right to move freely) The applicant's argument for finding a breach of his right to "liberty of movement" protected under Article 2 of Protocol No. 4 was deemed not to be relevant by the Court.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[194] The restriction of this right was due to the applicant's incarceration and not any other restriction.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[193] The Court was therefore of the opinion that an examination of Article 5 would sufficiently satisfy any claim of this nature and deemed it unnecessary to investigate the alleged violation Article 2 of Protocol No. 4 any further. ### Article 41 (just satisfaction) Using the powers afforded by Article 41 the Court, noting the extreme circumstances of the applicant's detainment, ordered that Assanidze be released at "the earliest possible" date.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at \[202] In addition, they ordered the State to pay €150,000 plus [value\-added tax](/wiki/Value-added_tax "Value-added tax") in damages.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\) at \[201] The applicant originally demanded €3 million but the Government argued successfully that this figure was "grossly exaggerated" to restore the applicant to his situation prior to the breach ([restitutio ad integrum](/wiki/Restitutio_ad_integrum "Restitutio ad integrum")).Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\) at \[197] In addition to the sum awarded for damages the Court followed, [inter alia](/wiki/Inter_alia "Inter alia"), the previous decision in Maestri v. Italy that held should a violation be found, the Government must consider adopting domestic legislation to prevent any future breaches of similar nature from occurring.Maestri v. Italy \[GC], no. 39748/98, § 47, ECHR 2004\-IAssanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\), at 198 Despite that, the Court went on to say that given the facts of the case there are no obvious solutions that would have prevented this violation from occurring as the underlying issue of judicial authority had not been tested by the Autonomous Republic of Adjara nor was there any prior indication of transgressive behaviour by Adjara until this case.	[ "Court's judgment\n----------------", "### Article 1 (respecting rights)", "The first issue the Court faced was whether the Autonomous Republic of Adjaria was within the jurisdiction of Georgia for the purposes of the European Convention on Human Rights.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[92] Adjara ([Batumi](/wiki/Batumi \"Batumi\")) has been included in international agreements dating back to 1829 and is currently contained within Georgia's borders.[Treaty of Adrianople (1829\\)](/wiki/Treaty_of_Adrianople_%281829%29 \"Treaty of Adrianople (1829)\"), Article IV; Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[100]\\-\\[107] On 24 August 1995 Georgia adopted a new constitution following the dissolution of the USSR.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[108] The Court interpreted the wording of Article 2 § 3 of the Constitution and found that Georgia held \"jurisdiction\" over the Autonomous Republic of Adjara for the purposes of the European Convention on Human Rights.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[137]\\-\\[140], \\[150]Gentilhomme and Others v. France, nos. 48205/99, 48207/99 and 48209/99, § 20, 14 May 2002Banković and Others v. Belgium and Others (dec.) \\[GC], no. 52207/99, §§ 59\\-61, ECHR 2001\\-XII Further, Georgia had ratified the European Convention on Human Rights without making specific mention of the Ajarian Autonomous Republic or any challenges that would prohibit the [State](/wiki/Sovereign_state \"Sovereign state\") upholding the treaty across its territories.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[140] Lastly, the Court observed that the Ajarian Autonomous Republic had no \"separatist aspirations\" that may impact on Georgia's sovereign control over the region.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[140]; Ilaşcu and Others v. Moldova and Russia (dec.) \\[GC], no. 48787/99, 4 July 2001; Loizidou v. Turkey \\[1995] ECHR 10", "### Article 5 (liberty and security)", "#### Section 1", "Citing Article 35, § 4, of the European Convention on Human Rights, the Court deemed it necessary to declare that evidence regarding Assanidze's detention up until 11 December 1999 to be inadmissible.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[160]Kadikis v. Latvia (no. 2\\) (dec.), no. 62393/00, 25 September 2003 The Article requires applications be made \"within a period of six months from the date on which the final \\[domestic] decision was taken\".Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[159] Noting that the applicant had exhausted all \"domestic remedies\" to no avail, it was decided that the court would consider only the detention from 29 January 2001, the date that the Supreme Court of Georgia ordered the release of the applicant .Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[159], \\[172] Despite his release being ordered by the Supreme Court of Georgia, the applicant remained incarcerated in an Ajarian Ministry of Security prison even though no further charges or order had been laid before the local Court to warrant his detainment.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[172] The [Grand Chamber](/wiki/European_Court_of_Human_Rights%23Jurisdiction \"European Court of Human Rights#Jurisdiction\") ruled unanimously that the applicant had been deprived of his right to liberty and security afforded to him by Article 5 § 1 and was being detained without legal authority or certainty of release.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[176]Mutatis Mutandis, Jėčius v. Lithuania, no. 34578/97, § 62, ECHR 2000\\-IX The Court could find no exception in common or treaty law that would justify the applicant's deprivation of liberty despite examining a number of cases and Article 5 § 1 in depth.Weeks v. the United Kingdom, judgment of 2 March 1987, Series A no. 114, p. 22, § 40; Labita v. Italy \\[GC], no. 26772/95, § 170, ECHR 2000\\-IV; Quinn v. France’, judgment of 22 March 1995, Series A no. 311, p. 17, § 42; Engel and Others v. the Netherlands, judgment of 8 June 1976, Series A no. 22, p. 25, § 58; and Amuur v. France, judgment of 25 June 1996, Reports 1996\\-III, p. 848, § 42Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[170] It was held that a breach of National law in the light of Article 5 was to be considered a breach of the convention.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[171]Chahal v. the United Kingdom, judgment of 15 November 1996, Reports 1996\\-V, p. 1864, § 118 The judgment text goes on to say that \"it is inconceivable that in a State subject to the rule of law a person should continue to be deprived of his liberty despite the existence of a court order for his release\".Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[173]", "In finding a breach regarding the arbitrary imprisonment the court found it unnecessary to examine the applicant 's complaint regarding the place of detention as it added nothing to the violation.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[177] Further, the issue of isolation was not examined by the court as it fell outside the scope of the case.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[178]Peltier v. France, no. 32872/96, § 20, 21 May 2002; Craxi v. Italy (no. 1\\), no. 34896/97, § 55, 5 December 2002; and Göç v. Turkey \\[GC], no. 36590/97, § 36, ECHR 2002\\-V.", "#### Section 3", "The complaint regarding the time of proceeding fell outside of the six\\-month time limit set out in Article 35 § 1 of the convention.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[188] It was stated that the opportunity for an application regarding section 3 ended on 2 October 2000\\.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[190] As a result, the Court had no choice but to dismiss the complaint.", "#### Section 4 and article 13 (effective remedy)", "The Applicant raised the issue that failure to follow the order for his release amounted to a breach of his rights under Article 5 § 4 and Article 13\\.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[185] This operational complaint was brushed over by the court (fourteen votes to three) as it was seen to raise the same issue with the same material facts as the complaint concerning Article 6 § 1\\.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[187] As a result, the Court did not investigate this complaint.", "### Article 6 (fair trial)", "The judgment made on 29 January 2001 ordering the applicant's release was not followed and therefore \"deprived the provisions of Article 6 § 1 of the Convention of all useful effect\". Further, the Court said that Article 6 would be 'illusory\" should a final judicial decision to acquit not be followed causing measurable harm to the defendant.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[182]Barberà, Messegué and Jabardo v. Spain, judgment of 6 December 1988, Series A no. 146, pp. 33\\-34, § 78 For this reason the Court held by fourteen votes to three that there had been a failure to comply with a legally enforceable and final decision and therefore amounted to a breach of the convention.", "### Article 10 (freedom of expression)", "The Court found no reason to sustain a submission that there had been a breach of the applicant's freedom of expression.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[192] Neither party added any further argument to prove or disprove a breach beyond the initial application.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[191]", "### Article 2 of Protocol no. 4 (right to move freely)", "The applicant's argument for finding a breach of his right to \"liberty of movement\" protected under Article 2 of Protocol No. 4 was deemed not to be relevant by the Court.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[194] The restriction of this right was due to the applicant's incarceration and not any other restriction.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[193] The Court was therefore of the opinion that an examination of Article 5 would sufficiently satisfy any claim of this nature and deemed it unnecessary to investigate the alleged violation Article 2 of Protocol No. 4 any further.", "### Article 41 (just satisfaction)", "Using the powers afforded by Article 41 the Court, noting the extreme circumstances of the applicant's detainment, ordered that Assanidze be released at \"the earliest possible\" date.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at \\[202] In addition, they ordered the State to pay €150,000 plus [value\\-added tax](/wiki/Value-added_tax \"Value-added tax\") in damages.Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\) at \\[201] The applicant originally demanded €3 million but the Government argued successfully that this figure was \"grossly exaggerated\" to restore the applicant to his situation prior to the breach ([restitutio ad integrum](/wiki/Restitutio_ad_integrum \"Restitutio ad integrum\")).Assanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\) at \\[197] In addition to the sum awarded for damages the Court followed, [inter alia](/wiki/Inter_alia \"Inter alia\"), the previous decision in Maestri v. Italy that held should a violation be found, the Government must consider adopting domestic legislation to prevent any future breaches of similar nature from occurring.Maestri v. Italy \\[GC], no. 39748/98, § 47, ECHR 2004\\-IAssanidze v. Georgia, App. No. 71503/01 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 8, 2004\\), at 198 Despite that, the Court went on to say that given the facts of the case there are no obvious solutions that would have prevented this violation from occurring as the underlying issue of judicial authority had not been tested by the Autonomous Republic of Adjara nor was there any prior indication of transgressive behaviour by Adjara until this case.", "" ]
Club career ----------- ### Torquay United Sharpe, who was born in [Halesowen](/wiki/Halesowen "Halesowen"), [Worcestershire](/wiki/Worcestershire "Worcestershire"), was an [Aston Villa](/wiki/Aston_Villa_F.C. "Aston Villa F.C.") supporter, but began his career at [Torquay United](/wiki/Torquay_United_F.C. "Torquay United F.C."). He played 14 times for the Gulls in the [1987\-88 season](/wiki/1987-88_in_English_football "1987-88 in English football") as they achieved a secure finish in the [Football League Fourth Division](/wiki/Football_League_Fourth_Division "Football League Fourth Division"), and didn't turn 17 until just after the season's end. He was soon on the radar of First and Second Division clubs and was sold to [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. "Manchester United F.C.") in June 1988 for £200,000, a record fee at the time for a [YTS](/wiki/Youth_Training_Scheme "Youth Training Scheme") player. ### Manchester United Sharpe made his debut for Manchester United on 24 September 1988 in a 2–0 win over [West Ham United](/wiki/West_Ham_United_F.C. "West Ham United F.C.") in the [Football League First Division](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division "Football League First Division"), aged 17\. His first team chances increased in November with the departure of the club's first choice left winger [Jesper Olsen](/wiki/Jesper_Olsen "Jesper Olsen"), and were further enhanced when new signing [Ralph Milne](/wiki/Ralph_Milne "Ralph Milne") performed inconsistently. Sharpe ended the [1988–89 season](/wiki/1988%E2%80%9389_in_English_football "1988–89 in English football") with 22 league appearances to his name, although he failed to score and United finished a disappointing 11th in the league a year after finishing second. He played 30 games in all competitions that season, and was on the shortlist for the [PFA Young Player of the Year](/wiki/PFA_Young_Player_of_the_Year "PFA Young Player of the Year") award, which was won by [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. "Arsenal F.C.") winger [Paul Merson](/wiki/Paul_Merson "Paul Merson").{{Cite web\\|url\=http://www.sporting\-heroes.net/football/\\|title\=Football photographic encyclopedia, footballer, world cup, champions league, football championship, olympic games \& hero images by sporting\-heroes.net\\|website\=www.sporting\-heroes.net\\|access\-date\=2019\-10\-10}} The following season, Sharpe found the net for the first time in a United shirt, scoring in the 5–1 home win over [Millwall](/wiki/Millwall_F.C. "Millwall F.C.") on 16 September 1989\. He managed 18 appearances in the league that season (and 20 in all competitions), but failed to make the squad for the [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup "FA Cup") final which United won 1–0 against [Crystal Palace](/wiki/Crystal_Palace_F.C. "Crystal Palace F.C.") in a replay after drawing 3–3 in the first match. [Alex Ferguson](/wiki/Alex_Ferguson "Alex Ferguson") had chosen new signing [Danny Wallace](/wiki/Danny_Wallace_%28footballer%29 "Danny Wallace (footballer)") as his first choice left winger for the [1989–90 season](/wiki/1989%E2%80%9390_in_English_football "1989–90 in English football"). He played a key part in United's success in the [European Cup Winners' Cup](/wiki/Cup_Winners%27_Cup "Cup Winners' Cup") in [1990–91](/wiki/1990%E2%80%9391_in_English_football "1990–91 in English football") scoring with a left\-foot shot into the top corner in the home leg of the semi\-final against Legia Warsaw (1–1\). He also famously scored a [hat\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick "Hat-trick") against Arsenal at Highbury in the [League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup "Football League Cup") fourth round on 28 November 1990, a match which United won 6–2\. Sharpe himself cites this as one of the best memories in his footballing career.{{Citation needed\\|date\=August 2009}} He was now United's first choice left winger ahead of Danny Wallace, although a new rival for the left wing position was emerging in the shape of highly promising 17\-year\-old [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs "Ryan Giggs").{{cite news\\| url\=http://sport.guardian.co.uk/smalltalk/story/0,,1311163,00\.html \\| work\=The Guardian \\| location\=London \\| title\=Lee Sharpe \\| first\=Rob \\| last\=Smyth \\| date\=24 September 2004 \\| access\-date\=7 May 2010}} Having established himself as a left winger, Sharpe earned a call up to the [England squad](/wiki/England_national_football_team "England national football team") just before his 20th birthday, although he was unable to replace [John Barnes](/wiki/John_Barnes_%28footballer%29 "John Barnes (footballer)") as first choice left winger. He was then out of the game for long periods of time through injury and illness (he suffered from viral meningitis in the autumn of 1992\) and when his fitness recovered, the form of [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs "Ryan Giggs") meant he had normally to play out of position at left back (by now the preferred position for [Denis Irwin](/wiki/Denis_Irwin "Denis Irwin")) or on the right wing, competing for a place with [Andrei Kanchelskis](/wiki/Andrei_Kanchelskis "Andrei Kanchelskis") who had arrived in March 1991\. His first team opportunities were limited by injury and by the form of Giggs in the [1991\-92 season](/wiki/1991-92_in_English_football "1991-92 in English football"), although he did appear as a substitute in the [Football League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup "Football League Cup") final victory over [Nottingham Forest](/wiki/Nottingham_Forest_F.C. "Nottingham Forest F.C."). He did play in enough games to collect a [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League "Premier League") title medal for the 1992–93 season, and added another in 1993–94 with 30 appearances (four as a substitute), and scoring nine league goals (11 in all competitions). He scored both of United's goals in their fourth league game of the season on 23 August 1993 as they beat [Aston Villa](/wiki/Aston_Villa_F.C. "Aston Villa F.C.") 2–1 at [Villa Park](/wiki/Villa_Park "Villa Park"), following with an early goal in the 3–1 win at [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton_F.C. "Southampton F.C.") in the next game. He managed another double on 22 March 1994 in a 2–2 league draw at [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. "Arsenal F.C."), and came on as a substitute in the FA Cup final against [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea_F.C. "Chelsea F.C."). United won [the double](/wiki/Double_%28association_football%29 "Double (association football)") of the Premier League title and FA Cup that season. Sharpe is well remembered for his memorable goal against [Barcelona](/wiki/FC_Barcelona "FC Barcelona") during the 2–2 draw in the [1994–1995 Champions League](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_UEFA_Champions_League "1994–95 UEFA Champions League") season's group stage, when he spectacularly back\-heeled a cross from [Roy Keane](/wiki/Roy_Keane "Roy Keane") into the corner of the net. He also got an assist in this game, crossing for Mark Hughes, who headed the first goal of the game.{{cite news\\| url\=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/columns/story?id\=644224\&cc\=5739 \\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023111747/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/columns/story?id\=644224\&cc\=5739 \\| url\-status\=dead \\| archive\-date\=23 October 2012 \\| work\=\[\[ESPN Soccernet]] \\| title\=From Robbo v Diego to Ronaldo v Messi \\| first\=John \\| last\=Brewin \\| date\=8 May 2009 \\| access\-date\=26 August 2010}} 1994–95 was a difficult season for United, with many players out for significant periods due to injury. Sharpe was one of them, as he missed a string of mid season games due to a fractured ankle, though he had more opportunities to play on the left wing as [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs "Ryan Giggs") missed a quarter of the campaign due to injuries. He also made a number of appearances as left\-back as the regular player in that position, [Denis Irwin](/wiki/Denis_Irwin "Denis Irwin"), spent most of the campaign playing on the right side of defence left vacant by a long absence by [Paul Parker](/wiki/Paul_Parker_%28footballer%29 "Paul Parker (footballer)"), though Irwin was back at left\-back towards the end of the season following the emergence of right\-back [Gary Neville](/wiki/Gary_Neville "Gary Neville"). United ended the season without a major trophy, finishing second to [Blackburn Rovers](/wiki/Blackburn_Rovers_F.C. "Blackburn Rovers F.C.") in the Premier League as they failed to manage anything better than a 1–1 draw at [West Ham](/wiki/West_Ham_United_F.C. "West Ham United F.C.") on the final day of the season, and losing 1–0 to Everton in the FA Cup final. By the start of the [1995–96](/wiki/1995%E2%80%9396_in_English_football "1995–96 in English football"), [Andrei Kanchelskis](/wiki/Andrei_Kanchelskis "Andrei Kanchelskis") had been sold to [Everton](/wiki/Everton_F.C. "Everton F.C.") and it seemed possible that Sharpe could establish himself as United's right winger – particularly when he scored twice for United in their 3–2 win over Everton on 9 September 1995\. With [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs "Ryan Giggs") returning to fitness on the left wing, and Denis Irwin returning to left back following the emergence of [Gary Neville](/wiki/Gary_Neville "Gary Neville") as the club's regular right back, the right hand side of midfield seemed Sharpe's best opportunity of regular first team action. However, 20\-year\-old [David Beckham](/wiki/David_Beckham "David Beckham") made the first team breakthrough that season and left Sharpe facing a fresh battle for a regular place in the first team, though he was selected in the squad for all but eight competitive games that season, during which United became the first English team to win the double twice. He still took to the field in 31 out of 38 Premier League games, scoring four goals. His first goal of the season came at Blackburn Rovers on 28 August, as a relatively strong United side recorded their third successive league win after being beaten by [Aston Villa](/wiki/Aston_Villa_F.C. "Aston Villa F.C.") on the opening day. In their next game at Everton on 9 September, Sharpe scored twice as United achieved an impressive 3–2 win. His next (and final) league goal for United came on 10 February 1996 when he scored the only goal of the game against Blackburn Rovers, as United kept up the pressure on leaders [Newcastle](/wiki/Newcastle_United_F.C. "Newcastle United F.C.") who had been 10 points ahead at Christmas. Sharpe also managed two FA Cup goals that season, the winner against [Manchester City](/wiki/Manchester_City_F.C. "Manchester City F.C.") in the fifth round at [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford "Old Trafford") on 18 February, and the second in the last minute of a 2–0 home win over [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton_F.C. "Southampton F.C.") in the quarter finals on 11 March. He was selected as a substitute in the 1–0 [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup "FA Cup") final win over [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool_F.C. "Liverpool F.C.") on 11 May, but did not come onto the pitch, though he still picked up his second FA Cup winner's medal, which was ultimately the last major trophy of his career just before his 25th birthday. In total he played 265 games for Manchester United over eight years, scoring 36 goals and winning a total of seven major trophies. ### Leeds United After eight years at [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford "Old Trafford"), he became Leeds United's joint record signing on 10 August 1996 when they paid £4\.5million for his services, making him the last signing by manager [Howard Wilkinson](/wiki/Howard_Wilkinson "Howard Wilkinson"), who was sacked the following month to be succeeded by [George Graham](/wiki/George_Graham_%28footballer%2C_born_1944%29 "George Graham (footballer, born 1944)"). Again his time at Leeds was beset by further injuries. He made 26 Premiership appearances in [1996–97](/wiki/1996%E2%80%9397_in_English_football "1996–97 in English football"), scoring five goals, but a pre\-season knee injury ruled him out for the entire [1997–98](/wiki/1997%E2%80%9398_in_English_football "1997–98 in English football") season and he was unable to regain his place in the team on recovery. In the autumn of 1998, Graham's successor [David O'Leary](/wiki/David_O%27Leary "David O'Leary") loaned Sharpe to Italian [Serie A](/wiki/Serie_A "Serie A") strugglers [Sampdoria](/wiki/U.C._Sampdoria "U.C. Sampdoria"), where he played under English head coach [David Platt](/wiki/David_Platt_%28footballer%29 "David Platt (footballer)"), but soon fell out of favour and in the New Year he returned to England. ### Bradford City He signed on loan for [Bradford City](/wiki/Bradford_City_A.F.C. "Bradford City A.F.C.") in March 1999 and he helped in securing the club's promotion to the Premiership after 77 years outside the top division. He joined Bradford in a £250,000 deal during the summer and helped preserve the club's Premiership status in [1999–2000](/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000_in_English_football "1999–2000 in English football"). ### Portsmouth In [2000–01](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_in_English_football "2000–01 in English football"), Sharpe lost his place in the Bradford team and just before Christmas went on loan to Division One [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth_F.C. "Portsmouth F.C."). He played 17 matches. He returned to Bradford during the [2001–02](/wiki/2001%E2%80%9302_in_English_football "2001–02 in English football") season but when his contract expired at the end of the season he was given a free transfer. ### Exeter City Following a brief trial stay with [Grimsby Town](/wiki/Grimsby_Town_F.C. "Grimsby Town F.C.") in the summer of 2002 he was snubbed a contract with the Mariners and he eventually signed for [Exeter City](/wiki/Exeter_City_F.C. "Exeter City F.C."). During his time at Exeter he scored once against Hull City. This would prove to be Sharpe's final spell in English senior football at the age of 31\.{{cite news \\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\_div\_3/2195560\.stm\\|title\=Exeter 3–1 Hull\\|publisher\=BBC\\|access\-date\=4 December 2011}} ### Grindavik He then moved to [Grindavík](/wiki/Knattspyrnudeild_UMFG "Knattspyrnudeild UMFG") in Iceland. In June 2003 he announced his retirement from professional football at the age of 32\. Just before this, he was rumoured to be on the verge of taking over as player\-manager at [Bury](/wiki/Bury_F.C. "Bury F.C.") in Division Three.{{Cite web\\|url\=https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/all\-about/manchester\-united\-fc\\|title\=Manchester United FC \- latest news, fixtures, transfers \- Manchester Evening News\\|website\=www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk\\|access\-date\=2019\-10\-10}} ### Garforth Town In February 2004, Sharpe made a brief return to football in the Kidderminster Sunday League with Hoobrook Crown before signing for Northern Counties East Premier League side [Garforth Town](/wiki/Garforth_Town_A.F.C. "Garforth Town A.F.C.") the following summer.	[ "Club career\n-----------", "### Torquay United", "Sharpe, who was born in [Halesowen](/wiki/Halesowen \"Halesowen\"), [Worcestershire](/wiki/Worcestershire \"Worcestershire\"), was an [Aston Villa](/wiki/Aston_Villa_F.C. \"Aston Villa F.C.\") supporter, but began his career at [Torquay United](/wiki/Torquay_United_F.C. \"Torquay United F.C.\"). He played 14 times for the Gulls in the [1987\\-88 season](/wiki/1987-88_in_English_football \"1987-88 in English football\") as they achieved a secure finish in the [Football League Fourth Division](/wiki/Football_League_Fourth_Division \"Football League Fourth Division\"), and didn't turn 17 until just after the season's end. He was soon on the radar of First and Second Division clubs and was sold to [Manchester United](/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C. \"Manchester United F.C.\") in June 1988 for £200,000, a record fee at the time for a [YTS](/wiki/Youth_Training_Scheme \"Youth Training Scheme\") player.", "### Manchester United", "Sharpe made his debut for Manchester United on 24 September 1988 in a 2–0 win over [West Ham United](/wiki/West_Ham_United_F.C. \"West Ham United F.C.\") in the [Football League First Division](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division \"Football League First Division\"), aged 17\\. His first team chances increased in November with the departure of the club's first choice left winger [Jesper Olsen](/wiki/Jesper_Olsen \"Jesper Olsen\"), and were further enhanced when new signing [Ralph Milne](/wiki/Ralph_Milne \"Ralph Milne\") performed inconsistently. Sharpe ended the [1988–89 season](/wiki/1988%E2%80%9389_in_English_football \"1988–89 in English football\") with 22 league appearances to his name, although he failed to score and United finished a disappointing 11th in the league a year after finishing second. He played 30 games in all competitions that season, and was on the shortlist for the [PFA Young Player of the Year](/wiki/PFA_Young_Player_of_the_Year \"PFA Young Player of the Year\") award, which was won by [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. \"Arsenal F.C.\") winger [Paul Merson](/wiki/Paul_Merson \"Paul Merson\").{{Cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.sporting\\-heroes.net/football/\\\|title\\=Football photographic encyclopedia, footballer, world cup, champions league, football championship, olympic games \\& hero images by sporting\\-heroes.net\\\|website\\=www.sporting\\-heroes.net\\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-10}}", "The following season, Sharpe found the net for the first time in a United shirt, scoring in the 5–1 home win over [Millwall](/wiki/Millwall_F.C. \"Millwall F.C.\") on 16 September 1989\\. He managed 18 appearances in the league that season (and 20 in all competitions), but failed to make the squad for the [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup \"FA Cup\") final which United won 1–0 against [Crystal Palace](/wiki/Crystal_Palace_F.C. \"Crystal Palace F.C.\") in a replay after drawing 3–3 in the first match. [Alex Ferguson](/wiki/Alex_Ferguson \"Alex Ferguson\") had chosen new signing [Danny Wallace](/wiki/Danny_Wallace_%28footballer%29 \"Danny Wallace (footballer)\") as his first choice left winger for the [1989–90 season](/wiki/1989%E2%80%9390_in_English_football \"1989–90 in English football\").", "He played a key part in United's success in the [European Cup Winners' Cup](/wiki/Cup_Winners%27_Cup \"Cup Winners' Cup\") in [1990–91](/wiki/1990%E2%80%9391_in_English_football \"1990–91 in English football\") scoring with a left\\-foot shot into the top corner in the home leg of the semi\\-final against Legia Warsaw (1–1\\). He also famously scored a [hat\\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick \"Hat-trick\") against Arsenal at Highbury in the [League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup \"Football League Cup\") fourth round on 28 November 1990, a match which United won 6–2\\. Sharpe himself cites this as one of the best memories in his footballing career.{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=August 2009}} He was now United's first choice left winger ahead of Danny Wallace, although a new rival for the left wing position was emerging in the shape of highly promising 17\\-year\\-old [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs \"Ryan Giggs\").{{cite news\\\| url\\=http://sport.guardian.co.uk/smalltalk/story/0,,1311163,00\\.html \\\| work\\=The Guardian \\\| location\\=London \\\| title\\=Lee Sharpe \\\| first\\=Rob \\\| last\\=Smyth \\\| date\\=24 September 2004 \\\| access\\-date\\=7 May 2010}}", "Having established himself as a left winger, Sharpe earned a call up to the [England squad](/wiki/England_national_football_team \"England national football team\") just before his 20th birthday, although he was unable to replace [John Barnes](/wiki/John_Barnes_%28footballer%29 \"John Barnes (footballer)\") as first choice left winger. He was then out of the game for long periods of time through injury and illness (he suffered from viral meningitis in the autumn of 1992\\) and when his fitness recovered, the form of [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs \"Ryan Giggs\") meant he had normally to play out of position at left back (by now the preferred position for [Denis Irwin](/wiki/Denis_Irwin \"Denis Irwin\")) or on the right wing, competing for a place with [Andrei Kanchelskis](/wiki/Andrei_Kanchelskis \"Andrei Kanchelskis\") who had arrived in March 1991\\.", "His first team opportunities were limited by injury and by the form of Giggs in the [1991\\-92 season](/wiki/1991-92_in_English_football \"1991-92 in English football\"), although he did appear as a substitute in the [Football League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup \"Football League Cup\") final victory over [Nottingham Forest](/wiki/Nottingham_Forest_F.C. \"Nottingham Forest F.C.\").", "He did play in enough games to collect a [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League \"Premier League\") title medal for the 1992–93 season, and added another in 1993–94 with 30 appearances (four as a substitute), and scoring nine league goals (11 in all competitions). He scored both of United's goals in their fourth league game of the season on 23 August 1993 as they beat [Aston Villa](/wiki/Aston_Villa_F.C. \"Aston Villa F.C.\") 2–1 at [Villa Park](/wiki/Villa_Park \"Villa Park\"), following with an early goal in the 3–1 win at [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton_F.C. \"Southampton F.C.\") in the next game. He managed another double on 22 March 1994 in a 2–2 league draw at [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. \"Arsenal F.C.\"), and came on as a substitute in the FA Cup final against [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea_F.C. \"Chelsea F.C.\"). United won [the double](/wiki/Double_%28association_football%29 \"Double (association football)\") of the Premier League title and FA Cup that season.", "Sharpe is well remembered for his memorable goal against [Barcelona](/wiki/FC_Barcelona \"FC Barcelona\") during the 2–2 draw in the [1994–1995 Champions League](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_UEFA_Champions_League \"1994–95 UEFA Champions League\") season's group stage, when he spectacularly back\\-heeled a cross from [Roy Keane](/wiki/Roy_Keane \"Roy Keane\") into the corner of the net. He also got an assist in this game, crossing for Mark Hughes, who headed the first goal of the game.{{cite news\\\| url\\=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/columns/story?id\\=644224\\&cc\\=5739 \\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023111747/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/columns/story?id\\=644224\\&cc\\=5739 \\\| url\\-status\\=dead \\\| archive\\-date\\=23 October 2012 \\\| work\\=\\[\\[ESPN Soccernet]] \\\| title\\=From Robbo v Diego to Ronaldo v Messi \\\| first\\=John \\\| last\\=Brewin \\\| date\\=8 May 2009 \\\| access\\-date\\=26 August 2010}}", "1994–95 was a difficult season for United, with many players out for significant periods due to injury. Sharpe was one of them, as he missed a string of mid season games due to a fractured ankle, though he had more opportunities to play on the left wing as [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs \"Ryan Giggs\") missed a quarter of the campaign due to injuries. He also made a number of appearances as left\\-back as the regular player in that position, [Denis Irwin](/wiki/Denis_Irwin \"Denis Irwin\"), spent most of the campaign playing on the right side of defence left vacant by a long absence by [Paul Parker](/wiki/Paul_Parker_%28footballer%29 \"Paul Parker (footballer)\"), though Irwin was back at left\\-back towards the end of the season following the emergence of right\\-back [Gary Neville](/wiki/Gary_Neville \"Gary Neville\").", "United ended the season without a major trophy, finishing second to [Blackburn Rovers](/wiki/Blackburn_Rovers_F.C. \"Blackburn Rovers F.C.\") in the Premier League as they failed to manage anything better than a 1–1 draw at [West Ham](/wiki/West_Ham_United_F.C. \"West Ham United F.C.\") on the final day of the season, and losing 1–0 to Everton in the FA Cup final.", "By the start of the [1995–96](/wiki/1995%E2%80%9396_in_English_football \"1995–96 in English football\"), [Andrei Kanchelskis](/wiki/Andrei_Kanchelskis \"Andrei Kanchelskis\") had been sold to [Everton](/wiki/Everton_F.C. \"Everton F.C.\") and it seemed possible that Sharpe could establish himself as United's right winger – particularly when he scored twice for United in their 3–2 win over Everton on 9 September 1995\\.", "With [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs \"Ryan Giggs\") returning to fitness on the left wing, and Denis Irwin returning to left back following the emergence of [Gary Neville](/wiki/Gary_Neville \"Gary Neville\") as the club's regular right back, the right hand side of midfield seemed Sharpe's best opportunity of regular first team action. However, 20\\-year\\-old [David Beckham](/wiki/David_Beckham \"David Beckham\") made the first team breakthrough that season and left Sharpe facing a fresh battle for a regular place in the first team, though he was selected in the squad for all but eight competitive games that season, during which United became the first English team to win the double twice. He still took to the field in 31 out of 38 Premier League games, scoring four goals. His first goal of the season came at Blackburn Rovers on 28 August, as a relatively strong United side recorded their third successive league win after being beaten by [Aston Villa](/wiki/Aston_Villa_F.C. \"Aston Villa F.C.\") on the opening day. In their next game at Everton on 9 September, Sharpe scored twice as United achieved an impressive 3–2 win. His next (and final) league goal for United came on 10 February 1996 when he scored the only goal of the game against Blackburn Rovers, as United kept up the pressure on leaders [Newcastle](/wiki/Newcastle_United_F.C. \"Newcastle United F.C.\") who had been 10 points ahead at Christmas. Sharpe also managed two FA Cup goals that season, the winner against [Manchester City](/wiki/Manchester_City_F.C. \"Manchester City F.C.\") in the fifth round at [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford \"Old Trafford\") on 18 February, and the second in the last minute of a 2–0 home win over [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton_F.C. \"Southampton F.C.\") in the quarter finals on 11 March. He was selected as a substitute in the 1–0 [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup \"FA Cup\") final win over [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool_F.C. \"Liverpool F.C.\") on 11 May, but did not come onto the pitch, though he still picked up his second FA Cup winner's medal, which was ultimately the last major trophy of his career just before his 25th birthday. In total he played 265 games for Manchester United over eight years, scoring 36 goals and winning a total of seven major trophies.", "### Leeds United", "After eight years at [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford \"Old Trafford\"), he became Leeds United's joint record signing on 10 August 1996 when they paid £4\\.5million for his services, making him the last signing by manager [Howard Wilkinson](/wiki/Howard_Wilkinson \"Howard Wilkinson\"), who was sacked the following month to be succeeded by [George Graham](/wiki/George_Graham_%28footballer%2C_born_1944%29 \"George Graham (footballer, born 1944)\"). Again his time at Leeds was beset by further injuries. He made 26 Premiership appearances in [1996–97](/wiki/1996%E2%80%9397_in_English_football \"1996–97 in English football\"), scoring five goals, but a pre\\-season knee injury ruled him out for the entire [1997–98](/wiki/1997%E2%80%9398_in_English_football \"1997–98 in English football\") season and he was unable to regain his place in the team on recovery. In the autumn of 1998, Graham's successor [David O'Leary](/wiki/David_O%27Leary \"David O'Leary\") loaned Sharpe to Italian [Serie A](/wiki/Serie_A \"Serie A\") strugglers [Sampdoria](/wiki/U.C._Sampdoria \"U.C. Sampdoria\"), where he played under English head coach [David Platt](/wiki/David_Platt_%28footballer%29 \"David Platt (footballer)\"), but soon fell out of favour and in the New Year he returned to England.", "### Bradford City", "He signed on loan for [Bradford City](/wiki/Bradford_City_A.F.C. \"Bradford City A.F.C.\") in March 1999 and he helped in securing the club's promotion to the Premiership after 77 years outside the top division. He joined Bradford in a £250,000 deal during the summer and helped preserve the club's Premiership status in [1999–2000](/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000_in_English_football \"1999–2000 in English football\").", "### Portsmouth", "In [2000–01](/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_in_English_football \"2000–01 in English football\"), Sharpe lost his place in the Bradford team and just before Christmas went on loan to Division One [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth_F.C. \"Portsmouth F.C.\"). He played 17 matches. He returned to Bradford during the [2001–02](/wiki/2001%E2%80%9302_in_English_football \"2001–02 in English football\") season but when his contract expired at the end of the season he was given a free transfer.", "### Exeter City", "Following a brief trial stay with [Grimsby Town](/wiki/Grimsby_Town_F.C. \"Grimsby Town F.C.\") in the summer of 2002 he was snubbed a contract with the Mariners and he eventually signed for [Exeter City](/wiki/Exeter_City_F.C. \"Exeter City F.C.\"). During his time at Exeter he scored once against Hull City. This would prove to be Sharpe's final spell in English senior football at the age of 31\\.{{cite news \\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng\\_div\\_3/2195560\\.stm\\\|title\\=Exeter 3–1 Hull\\\|publisher\\=BBC\\\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2011}}", "### Grindavik", "He then moved to [Grindavík](/wiki/Knattspyrnudeild_UMFG \"Knattspyrnudeild UMFG\") in Iceland. In June 2003 he announced his retirement from professional football at the age of 32\\. Just before this, he was rumoured to be on the verge of taking over as player\\-manager at [Bury](/wiki/Bury_F.C. \"Bury F.C.\") in Division Three.{{Cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/all\\-about/manchester\\-united\\-fc\\\|title\\=Manchester United FC \\- latest news, fixtures, transfers \\- Manchester Evening News\\\|website\\=www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk\\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-10}}", "### Garforth Town", "In February 2004, Sharpe made a brief return to football in the Kidderminster Sunday League with Hoobrook Crown before signing for Northern Counties East Premier League side [Garforth Town](/wiki/Garforth_Town_A.F.C. \"Garforth Town A.F.C.\") the following summer.", "" ]
### Manchester United Sharpe made his debut for Manchester United on 24 September 1988 in a 2–0 win over [West Ham United](/wiki/West_Ham_United_F.C. "West Ham United F.C.") in the [Football League First Division](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division "Football League First Division"), aged 17\. His first team chances increased in November with the departure of the club's first choice left winger [Jesper Olsen](/wiki/Jesper_Olsen "Jesper Olsen"), and were further enhanced when new signing [Ralph Milne](/wiki/Ralph_Milne "Ralph Milne") performed inconsistently. Sharpe ended the [1988–89 season](/wiki/1988%E2%80%9389_in_English_football "1988–89 in English football") with 22 league appearances to his name, although he failed to score and United finished a disappointing 11th in the league a year after finishing second. He played 30 games in all competitions that season, and was on the shortlist for the [PFA Young Player of the Year](/wiki/PFA_Young_Player_of_the_Year "PFA Young Player of the Year") award, which was won by [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. "Arsenal F.C.") winger [Paul Merson](/wiki/Paul_Merson "Paul Merson").{{Cite web\\|url\=http://www.sporting\-heroes.net/football/\\|title\=Football photographic encyclopedia, footballer, world cup, champions league, football championship, olympic games \& hero images by sporting\-heroes.net\\|website\=www.sporting\-heroes.net\\|access\-date\=2019\-10\-10}} The following season, Sharpe found the net for the first time in a United shirt, scoring in the 5–1 home win over [Millwall](/wiki/Millwall_F.C. "Millwall F.C.") on 16 September 1989\. He managed 18 appearances in the league that season (and 20 in all competitions), but failed to make the squad for the [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup "FA Cup") final which United won 1–0 against [Crystal Palace](/wiki/Crystal_Palace_F.C. "Crystal Palace F.C.") in a replay after drawing 3–3 in the first match. [Alex Ferguson](/wiki/Alex_Ferguson "Alex Ferguson") had chosen new signing [Danny Wallace](/wiki/Danny_Wallace_%28footballer%29 "Danny Wallace (footballer)") as his first choice left winger for the [1989–90 season](/wiki/1989%E2%80%9390_in_English_football "1989–90 in English football"). He played a key part in United's success in the [European Cup Winners' Cup](/wiki/Cup_Winners%27_Cup "Cup Winners' Cup") in [1990–91](/wiki/1990%E2%80%9391_in_English_football "1990–91 in English football") scoring with a left\-foot shot into the top corner in the home leg of the semi\-final against Legia Warsaw (1–1\). He also famously scored a [hat\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick "Hat-trick") against Arsenal at Highbury in the [League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup "Football League Cup") fourth round on 28 November 1990, a match which United won 6–2\. Sharpe himself cites this as one of the best memories in his footballing career.{{Citation needed\\|date\=August 2009}} He was now United's first choice left winger ahead of Danny Wallace, although a new rival for the left wing position was emerging in the shape of highly promising 17\-year\-old [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs "Ryan Giggs").{{cite news\\| url\=http://sport.guardian.co.uk/smalltalk/story/0,,1311163,00\.html \\| work\=The Guardian \\| location\=London \\| title\=Lee Sharpe \\| first\=Rob \\| last\=Smyth \\| date\=24 September 2004 \\| access\-date\=7 May 2010}} Having established himself as a left winger, Sharpe earned a call up to the [England squad](/wiki/England_national_football_team "England national football team") just before his 20th birthday, although he was unable to replace [John Barnes](/wiki/John_Barnes_%28footballer%29 "John Barnes (footballer)") as first choice left winger. He was then out of the game for long periods of time through injury and illness (he suffered from viral meningitis in the autumn of 1992\) and when his fitness recovered, the form of [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs "Ryan Giggs") meant he had normally to play out of position at left back (by now the preferred position for [Denis Irwin](/wiki/Denis_Irwin "Denis Irwin")) or on the right wing, competing for a place with [Andrei Kanchelskis](/wiki/Andrei_Kanchelskis "Andrei Kanchelskis") who had arrived in March 1991\. His first team opportunities were limited by injury and by the form of Giggs in the [1991\-92 season](/wiki/1991-92_in_English_football "1991-92 in English football"), although he did appear as a substitute in the [Football League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup "Football League Cup") final victory over [Nottingham Forest](/wiki/Nottingham_Forest_F.C. "Nottingham Forest F.C."). He did play in enough games to collect a [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League "Premier League") title medal for the 1992–93 season, and added another in 1993–94 with 30 appearances (four as a substitute), and scoring nine league goals (11 in all competitions). He scored both of United's goals in their fourth league game of the season on 23 August 1993 as they beat [Aston Villa](/wiki/Aston_Villa_F.C. "Aston Villa F.C.") 2–1 at [Villa Park](/wiki/Villa_Park "Villa Park"), following with an early goal in the 3–1 win at [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton_F.C. "Southampton F.C.") in the next game. He managed another double on 22 March 1994 in a 2–2 league draw at [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. "Arsenal F.C."), and came on as a substitute in the FA Cup final against [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea_F.C. "Chelsea F.C."). United won [the double](/wiki/Double_%28association_football%29 "Double (association football)") of the Premier League title and FA Cup that season. Sharpe is well remembered for his memorable goal against [Barcelona](/wiki/FC_Barcelona "FC Barcelona") during the 2–2 draw in the [1994–1995 Champions League](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_UEFA_Champions_League "1994–95 UEFA Champions League") season's group stage, when he spectacularly back\-heeled a cross from [Roy Keane](/wiki/Roy_Keane "Roy Keane") into the corner of the net. He also got an assist in this game, crossing for Mark Hughes, who headed the first goal of the game.{{cite news\\| url\=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/columns/story?id\=644224\&cc\=5739 \\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023111747/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/columns/story?id\=644224\&cc\=5739 \\| url\-status\=dead \\| archive\-date\=23 October 2012 \\| work\=\[\[ESPN Soccernet]] \\| title\=From Robbo v Diego to Ronaldo v Messi \\| first\=John \\| last\=Brewin \\| date\=8 May 2009 \\| access\-date\=26 August 2010}} 1994–95 was a difficult season for United, with many players out for significant periods due to injury. Sharpe was one of them, as he missed a string of mid season games due to a fractured ankle, though he had more opportunities to play on the left wing as [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs "Ryan Giggs") missed a quarter of the campaign due to injuries. He also made a number of appearances as left\-back as the regular player in that position, [Denis Irwin](/wiki/Denis_Irwin "Denis Irwin"), spent most of the campaign playing on the right side of defence left vacant by a long absence by [Paul Parker](/wiki/Paul_Parker_%28footballer%29 "Paul Parker (footballer)"), though Irwin was back at left\-back towards the end of the season following the emergence of right\-back [Gary Neville](/wiki/Gary_Neville "Gary Neville"). United ended the season without a major trophy, finishing second to [Blackburn Rovers](/wiki/Blackburn_Rovers_F.C. "Blackburn Rovers F.C.") in the Premier League as they failed to manage anything better than a 1–1 draw at [West Ham](/wiki/West_Ham_United_F.C. "West Ham United F.C.") on the final day of the season, and losing 1–0 to Everton in the FA Cup final. By the start of the [1995–96](/wiki/1995%E2%80%9396_in_English_football "1995–96 in English football"), [Andrei Kanchelskis](/wiki/Andrei_Kanchelskis "Andrei Kanchelskis") had been sold to [Everton](/wiki/Everton_F.C. "Everton F.C.") and it seemed possible that Sharpe could establish himself as United's right winger – particularly when he scored twice for United in their 3–2 win over Everton on 9 September 1995\. With [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs "Ryan Giggs") returning to fitness on the left wing, and Denis Irwin returning to left back following the emergence of [Gary Neville](/wiki/Gary_Neville "Gary Neville") as the club's regular right back, the right hand side of midfield seemed Sharpe's best opportunity of regular first team action. However, 20\-year\-old [David Beckham](/wiki/David_Beckham "David Beckham") made the first team breakthrough that season and left Sharpe facing a fresh battle for a regular place in the first team, though he was selected in the squad for all but eight competitive games that season, during which United became the first English team to win the double twice. He still took to the field in 31 out of 38 Premier League games, scoring four goals. His first goal of the season came at Blackburn Rovers on 28 August, as a relatively strong United side recorded their third successive league win after being beaten by [Aston Villa](/wiki/Aston_Villa_F.C. "Aston Villa F.C.") on the opening day. In their next game at Everton on 9 September, Sharpe scored twice as United achieved an impressive 3–2 win. His next (and final) league goal for United came on 10 February 1996 when he scored the only goal of the game against Blackburn Rovers, as United kept up the pressure on leaders [Newcastle](/wiki/Newcastle_United_F.C. "Newcastle United F.C.") who had been 10 points ahead at Christmas. Sharpe also managed two FA Cup goals that season, the winner against [Manchester City](/wiki/Manchester_City_F.C. "Manchester City F.C.") in the fifth round at [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford "Old Trafford") on 18 February, and the second in the last minute of a 2–0 home win over [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton_F.C. "Southampton F.C.") in the quarter finals on 11 March. He was selected as a substitute in the 1–0 [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup "FA Cup") final win over [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool_F.C. "Liverpool F.C.") on 11 May, but did not come onto the pitch, though he still picked up his second FA Cup winner's medal, which was ultimately the last major trophy of his career just before his 25th birthday. In total he played 265 games for Manchester United over eight years, scoring 36 goals and winning a total of seven major trophies.	[ "### Manchester United", "Sharpe made his debut for Manchester United on 24 September 1988 in a 2–0 win over [West Ham United](/wiki/West_Ham_United_F.C. \"West Ham United F.C.\") in the [Football League First Division](/wiki/Football_League_First_Division \"Football League First Division\"), aged 17\\. His first team chances increased in November with the departure of the club's first choice left winger [Jesper Olsen](/wiki/Jesper_Olsen \"Jesper Olsen\"), and were further enhanced when new signing [Ralph Milne](/wiki/Ralph_Milne \"Ralph Milne\") performed inconsistently. Sharpe ended the [1988–89 season](/wiki/1988%E2%80%9389_in_English_football \"1988–89 in English football\") with 22 league appearances to his name, although he failed to score and United finished a disappointing 11th in the league a year after finishing second. He played 30 games in all competitions that season, and was on the shortlist for the [PFA Young Player of the Year](/wiki/PFA_Young_Player_of_the_Year \"PFA Young Player of the Year\") award, which was won by [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. \"Arsenal F.C.\") winger [Paul Merson](/wiki/Paul_Merson \"Paul Merson\").{{Cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.sporting\\-heroes.net/football/\\\|title\\=Football photographic encyclopedia, footballer, world cup, champions league, football championship, olympic games \\& hero images by sporting\\-heroes.net\\\|website\\=www.sporting\\-heroes.net\\\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-10\\-10}}", "The following season, Sharpe found the net for the first time in a United shirt, scoring in the 5–1 home win over [Millwall](/wiki/Millwall_F.C. \"Millwall F.C.\") on 16 September 1989\\. He managed 18 appearances in the league that season (and 20 in all competitions), but failed to make the squad for the [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup \"FA Cup\") final which United won 1–0 against [Crystal Palace](/wiki/Crystal_Palace_F.C. \"Crystal Palace F.C.\") in a replay after drawing 3–3 in the first match. [Alex Ferguson](/wiki/Alex_Ferguson \"Alex Ferguson\") had chosen new signing [Danny Wallace](/wiki/Danny_Wallace_%28footballer%29 \"Danny Wallace (footballer)\") as his first choice left winger for the [1989–90 season](/wiki/1989%E2%80%9390_in_English_football \"1989–90 in English football\").", "He played a key part in United's success in the [European Cup Winners' Cup](/wiki/Cup_Winners%27_Cup \"Cup Winners' Cup\") in [1990–91](/wiki/1990%E2%80%9391_in_English_football \"1990–91 in English football\") scoring with a left\\-foot shot into the top corner in the home leg of the semi\\-final against Legia Warsaw (1–1\\). He also famously scored a [hat\\-trick](/wiki/Hat-trick \"Hat-trick\") against Arsenal at Highbury in the [League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup \"Football League Cup\") fourth round on 28 November 1990, a match which United won 6–2\\. Sharpe himself cites this as one of the best memories in his footballing career.{{Citation needed\\\|date\\=August 2009}} He was now United's first choice left winger ahead of Danny Wallace, although a new rival for the left wing position was emerging in the shape of highly promising 17\\-year\\-old [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs \"Ryan Giggs\").{{cite news\\\| url\\=http://sport.guardian.co.uk/smalltalk/story/0,,1311163,00\\.html \\\| work\\=The Guardian \\\| location\\=London \\\| title\\=Lee Sharpe \\\| first\\=Rob \\\| last\\=Smyth \\\| date\\=24 September 2004 \\\| access\\-date\\=7 May 2010}}", "Having established himself as a left winger, Sharpe earned a call up to the [England squad](/wiki/England_national_football_team \"England national football team\") just before his 20th birthday, although he was unable to replace [John Barnes](/wiki/John_Barnes_%28footballer%29 \"John Barnes (footballer)\") as first choice left winger. He was then out of the game for long periods of time through injury and illness (he suffered from viral meningitis in the autumn of 1992\\) and when his fitness recovered, the form of [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs \"Ryan Giggs\") meant he had normally to play out of position at left back (by now the preferred position for [Denis Irwin](/wiki/Denis_Irwin \"Denis Irwin\")) or on the right wing, competing for a place with [Andrei Kanchelskis](/wiki/Andrei_Kanchelskis \"Andrei Kanchelskis\") who had arrived in March 1991\\.", "His first team opportunities were limited by injury and by the form of Giggs in the [1991\\-92 season](/wiki/1991-92_in_English_football \"1991-92 in English football\"), although he did appear as a substitute in the [Football League Cup](/wiki/Football_League_Cup \"Football League Cup\") final victory over [Nottingham Forest](/wiki/Nottingham_Forest_F.C. \"Nottingham Forest F.C.\").", "He did play in enough games to collect a [Premier League](/wiki/Premier_League \"Premier League\") title medal for the 1992–93 season, and added another in 1993–94 with 30 appearances (four as a substitute), and scoring nine league goals (11 in all competitions). He scored both of United's goals in their fourth league game of the season on 23 August 1993 as they beat [Aston Villa](/wiki/Aston_Villa_F.C. \"Aston Villa F.C.\") 2–1 at [Villa Park](/wiki/Villa_Park \"Villa Park\"), following with an early goal in the 3–1 win at [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton_F.C. \"Southampton F.C.\") in the next game. He managed another double on 22 March 1994 in a 2–2 league draw at [Arsenal](/wiki/Arsenal_F.C. \"Arsenal F.C.\"), and came on as a substitute in the FA Cup final against [Chelsea](/wiki/Chelsea_F.C. \"Chelsea F.C.\"). United won [the double](/wiki/Double_%28association_football%29 \"Double (association football)\") of the Premier League title and FA Cup that season.", "Sharpe is well remembered for his memorable goal against [Barcelona](/wiki/FC_Barcelona \"FC Barcelona\") during the 2–2 draw in the [1994–1995 Champions League](/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_UEFA_Champions_League \"1994–95 UEFA Champions League\") season's group stage, when he spectacularly back\\-heeled a cross from [Roy Keane](/wiki/Roy_Keane \"Roy Keane\") into the corner of the net. He also got an assist in this game, crossing for Mark Hughes, who headed the first goal of the game.{{cite news\\\| url\\=http://soccernet.espn.go.com/columns/story?id\\=644224\\&cc\\=5739 \\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023111747/http://soccernet.espn.go.com/columns/story?id\\=644224\\&cc\\=5739 \\\| url\\-status\\=dead \\\| archive\\-date\\=23 October 2012 \\\| work\\=\\[\\[ESPN Soccernet]] \\\| title\\=From Robbo v Diego to Ronaldo v Messi \\\| first\\=John \\\| last\\=Brewin \\\| date\\=8 May 2009 \\\| access\\-date\\=26 August 2010}}", "1994–95 was a difficult season for United, with many players out for significant periods due to injury. Sharpe was one of them, as he missed a string of mid season games due to a fractured ankle, though he had more opportunities to play on the left wing as [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs \"Ryan Giggs\") missed a quarter of the campaign due to injuries. He also made a number of appearances as left\\-back as the regular player in that position, [Denis Irwin](/wiki/Denis_Irwin \"Denis Irwin\"), spent most of the campaign playing on the right side of defence left vacant by a long absence by [Paul Parker](/wiki/Paul_Parker_%28footballer%29 \"Paul Parker (footballer)\"), though Irwin was back at left\\-back towards the end of the season following the emergence of right\\-back [Gary Neville](/wiki/Gary_Neville \"Gary Neville\").", "United ended the season without a major trophy, finishing second to [Blackburn Rovers](/wiki/Blackburn_Rovers_F.C. \"Blackburn Rovers F.C.\") in the Premier League as they failed to manage anything better than a 1–1 draw at [West Ham](/wiki/West_Ham_United_F.C. \"West Ham United F.C.\") on the final day of the season, and losing 1–0 to Everton in the FA Cup final.", "By the start of the [1995–96](/wiki/1995%E2%80%9396_in_English_football \"1995–96 in English football\"), [Andrei Kanchelskis](/wiki/Andrei_Kanchelskis \"Andrei Kanchelskis\") had been sold to [Everton](/wiki/Everton_F.C. \"Everton F.C.\") and it seemed possible that Sharpe could establish himself as United's right winger – particularly when he scored twice for United in their 3–2 win over Everton on 9 September 1995\\.", "With [Ryan Giggs](/wiki/Ryan_Giggs \"Ryan Giggs\") returning to fitness on the left wing, and Denis Irwin returning to left back following the emergence of [Gary Neville](/wiki/Gary_Neville \"Gary Neville\") as the club's regular right back, the right hand side of midfield seemed Sharpe's best opportunity of regular first team action. However, 20\\-year\\-old [David Beckham](/wiki/David_Beckham \"David Beckham\") made the first team breakthrough that season and left Sharpe facing a fresh battle for a regular place in the first team, though he was selected in the squad for all but eight competitive games that season, during which United became the first English team to win the double twice. He still took to the field in 31 out of 38 Premier League games, scoring four goals. His first goal of the season came at Blackburn Rovers on 28 August, as a relatively strong United side recorded their third successive league win after being beaten by [Aston Villa](/wiki/Aston_Villa_F.C. \"Aston Villa F.C.\") on the opening day. In their next game at Everton on 9 September, Sharpe scored twice as United achieved an impressive 3–2 win. His next (and final) league goal for United came on 10 February 1996 when he scored the only goal of the game against Blackburn Rovers, as United kept up the pressure on leaders [Newcastle](/wiki/Newcastle_United_F.C. \"Newcastle United F.C.\") who had been 10 points ahead at Christmas. Sharpe also managed two FA Cup goals that season, the winner against [Manchester City](/wiki/Manchester_City_F.C. \"Manchester City F.C.\") in the fifth round at [Old Trafford](/wiki/Old_Trafford \"Old Trafford\") on 18 February, and the second in the last minute of a 2–0 home win over [Southampton](/wiki/Southampton_F.C. \"Southampton F.C.\") in the quarter finals on 11 March. He was selected as a substitute in the 1–0 [FA Cup](/wiki/FA_Cup \"FA Cup\") final win over [Liverpool](/wiki/Liverpool_F.C. \"Liverpool F.C.\") on 11 May, but did not come onto the pitch, though he still picked up his second FA Cup winner's medal, which was ultimately the last major trophy of his career just before his 25th birthday. In total he played 265 games for Manchester United over eight years, scoring 36 goals and winning a total of seven major trophies.", "" ]
Career ------ Jananiy started her career at age of 5 by performing in her first stage show in [Cuddalore](/wiki/Cuddalore "Cuddalore"). Over the years, Jananiy has performed in more than 1000 stage shows of Carnatic Classical Vocal, [Fusion](/wiki/Fusion_music "Fusion music"), [Bhajan](/wiki/Bhajan "Bhajan"), [Devotional](/wiki/Devotional_music "Devotional music") and [Light Music](/wiki/Light_Music "Light Music") and also gave more than 100 [Carnatic Classical](/wiki/Carnatic_music "Carnatic music") [keyboard](/wiki/Music_keyboard "Music keyboard") concerts.[ஜனனி...ஜனனி...புதிய இசையமைப்பாளர்](http://kungumam.co.in/ThArticalinnerdetail.aspx?id=3671&id1=84&issue=20170116) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422143252/http://kungumam.co.in/ThArticalinnerdetail.aspx?id\=3671\&id1\=84\&issue\=20170116 \\|date\=22 April 2021 }} [Kungumam](/wiki/Kungumam_%28magazine%29 "Kungumam (magazine)") 16 January 2017 Retrieved 12 November 2017 At age of 8, she was recognized as Saadhanai Naayaki (achiever) by [Tamil language](/wiki/Tamil_language "Tamil language") weekly magazine, [Ananda Vikatan](/wiki/Ananda_Vikatan "Ananda Vikatan"). [Dinamani](/wiki/Dinamani "Dinamani"), a [Tamil](/wiki/Tamil_language "Tamil language") daily newspaper, named her Eazhu vayadhu Isai kuyil (seven years old [cuckoo](/wiki/Cuckoo "Cuckoo")) and [Vairamuthu](/wiki/Vairamuthu "Vairamuthu"), a prominent Tamil poet and lyricist titled her Nee En Magal (my daughter from then) in an interview to a Tamil weekly [Kumudam](/wiki/Kumudam "Kumudam"). Jananiy's debut album, Natha Oli, was released in 1999\. Natha Oli was fusion of [Carnatic Classical Vocal](/wiki/Carnatic_music "Carnatic music") and keyboard. The music director of the album was Kumardeva and it was released by JSJ Audio. After the release of her first album, she regularly participated in the Thiruvaiyyaru Thyagabrahma Utsavam and performed at Thiruvaiyaru Tamil Isai Mandram. Jananiy also performed at Kodai Vizha Festival organized by [Government of Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Government_of_Tamil_Nadu "Government of Tamil Nadu").[Cuddalore S.J. Jananiy stayed true to the style of her guru M. Balamuralikrishna at a concert in Palakkad](http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/concert-by-cuddalore-s-j-jananiy/article8360838.ece) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317062234/http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday\-review/music/concert\-by\-cuddalore\-s\-j\-jananiy/article8360838\.ece \\|date\=17 March 2016 }} K. Ganapathi [The Hindu](/wiki/The_Hindu "The Hindu") 17 March 2016 Retrieved on 11 November 2017 In 2001, Jananiy was awarded with [National Child Award for Exceptional Achievement](/wiki/National_Child_Award_for_Exceptional_Achievement "National Child Award for Exceptional Achievement") in the field of Classical Music (vocal), by then [Vice\-President of India](/wiki/Vice-President_of_India "Vice-President of India"), [Krishan Kant](/wiki/Krishan_Kant "Krishan Kant"). In 2002, her second album Poongatru was released in collaboration with [S. P. Balasubrahmanyam](/wiki/S._P._Balasubrahmanyam "S. P. Balasubrahmanyam"). [L. Vaidyanathan](/wiki/L._Vaidyanathan "L. Vaidyanathan") directed the music and lyrics were written by [Kaviperarasu Vairamuthu](/wiki/Vairamuthu "Vairamuthu"). On 14 November 2002, Jananiy participated in Children's Day Function at [Rashtrapati Bhavan](/wiki/Rashtrapati_Bhavan "Rashtrapati Bhavan"), New Delhi and performed [Endaro Mahanubhavulu](/wiki/Endaro_Mahanubhavulu "Endaro Mahanubhavulu") for [A. P. J. Abdul Kalam](/wiki/A._P._J._Abdul_Kalam "A. P. J. Abdul Kalam"), then [President of India](/wiki/President_of_India "President of India"). In 2003, Jananiy was bestowed with Kalai Ilamani Award from [Government of Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Government_of_Tamil_Nadu "Government of Tamil Nadu") for her excellence in classical music. The same year, she did [playback singing](/wiki/Playback_singer "Playback singer") under the direction of [Karthik Raja](/wiki/Karthik_Raja "Karthik Raja"), for a Tamil film, [Album](/wiki/Album_%282002_film%29 "Album (2002 film)"). In 2007, Jananiy's third album, Sri Venkatesa Suprabhatam \& Kandha Sashti Kavacham, was released. The album was collection of devotional songs with [Carnatic](/wiki/Carnatic_music "Carnatic music") music. The album was released by [M. Balamuralikrishna](/wiki/M._Balamuralikrishna "M. Balamuralikrishna") and [Neyveli Santhanagopalan](/wiki/Neyveli_Santhanagopalan "Neyveli Santhanagopalan"). After release of the album, Jananiy became disciple of Balamuralikrishna.["பாலமுரளி கிருஷ்ணா சாருக்கு பீச் வாக்னா ரொம்பப் பிடிக்கும்" நெகிழும் சிஷ்யை எஸ்.ஜே.ஜனனி \#Balamuralikrishna](http://www.vikatan.com/news/tamilnadu/94401-balamuralikrishna-likes-to-walk-in-beach-says-his-assistant-sj-janani.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118223319/https://www.vikatan.com/news/tamilnadu/94401\-balamuralikrishna\-likes\-to\-walk\-in\-beach\-says\-his\-assistant\-sj\-janani.html \\|date\=18 November 2017 }} [Ananda Vikatan](/wiki/Ananda_Vikatan "Ananda Vikatan") 5 July 2017 Retrieved on 12 November 2017 In 2007, Jananiy collaborated with her uncle and released the concept\-series Classic Waves. The music for this series was [conducted](/wiki/Music_conductor "Music conductor"), arranged and produced by Jananiy herself. Classic Waves 2 and 3 were released in 2010 and 2011 respectively while 4 volumes of Classic Marvel series were released in 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2012 respectively. Jananiy received Yuvakala Bharathi from Bharat Kalachar in 2011\.[Celebrating 25 years of patronising arts](http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/celebrating-25-years-of-patronising-arts/article2665033.ece) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117175924/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/celebrating\-25\-years\-of\-patronising\-arts/article2665033\.ece \\|date\=17 November 2017 }} [The Hindu](/wiki/The_Hindu "The Hindu") 27 November 2011 Retrieved on 12 November 2017 Later in 2011, Jananiy participated with [Pandit Hariprasad Chaurasia](/wiki/Pandit_Hariprasad_Chaurasia "Pandit Hariprasad Chaurasia") in a [Jugalbandi](/wiki/Jugalbandi "Jugalbandi") concert for the Music festival Au Fil des Voix at [Alhambra Concert Hall](/wiki/Alhambra_%28Paris%29 "Alhambra (Paris)") in Paris, France.[Look who’s getting a musical makeover](http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/look-whos-getting-a-musical-makeover/article5933883.ece) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226102835/https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/look\-whos\-getting\-a\-musical\-makeover/article5933883\.ece \\|date\=26 February 2021 }} Srinivasa Ramanujam [The Hindu](/wiki/The_Hindu "The Hindu") 21 April 2014 Retrieved on 12 November 2017 In 2012, Jananiy [composed](/wiki/Music_composer "Music composer") and produced music for [S. P. Balasubrahmanyam](/wiki/S._P._Balasubrahmanyam "S. P. Balasubrahmanyam")'s contemporary album, Kandar Shashti Kavacham and Subrahmanya Bhujangam. The album was released by [EMI Virgin](/wiki/EMI_Virgin "EMI Virgin"). Later in December that year, Jananiy collaborated again with Balasubrahmanyam along with [Hariharan](/wiki/Hariharan_%28singer%29 "Hariharan (singer)") and [P. Unnikrishnan](/wiki/P._Unnikrishnan "P. Unnikrishnan") for Mahakavi Bharathiar's Vande Mataram. She was also the composer, arranger and conductor of music for this album.[Album with Bharathiyar songs released](http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/chen-downtown/Album-with-Bharathiyar-songs-released/article12468000.ece) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026205945/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/chen\-downtown/Album\-with\-Bharathiyar\-songs\-released/article12468000\.ece \\|date\=26 October 2021 }} [The Hindu](/wiki/The_Hindu "The Hindu") 29 December 2012 Retrieved on 12 November 2017 Jananiy made the musical arrangements and produced music for Carnatic Symphony\-Cleveland Thyagaraja Aradhana Festival that was held in [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland "Cleveland"), Ohio, in 2014 as well as in 2017\. She was awarded with Sangitha Kovidha from Gayathri Fine Arts \& Lakshmi Kuppuswamy Trust, New Delhi in 2015\. She also received Bharathi Award from Vidiyal Charitable Trust \& The Dawn Cultural \& Social Association later that year. Jananiy composed music for the Tamil Movie Prabha that got launched in 2015\.[“இது குழந்தைக்கான ஆசிர்வாதம்!” பாலமுரளிகிருஷ்ணா பாடிய கடைசி தமிழ்ப் பாடலின் இசையமைப்பாளர் ஜனனி நெகிழ்ச்சி!](http://lankasee.com/2016/11/23/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81-%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9-%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5/) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117174611/http://lankasee.com/2016/11/23/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81\-%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9\-%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5/ \\|date\=17 November 2017 }} Lankasee Retrieved 12 November 2017 As of 2024, she has released 90 albums in various genres apart from [jingles](/wiki/Jingles "Jingles") and private songs. S. J. Jananiy has scored the music and five original soundtracks for the Indian Tamil Feature Film [Rail](/wiki/Rail_%282024_film%29 "Rail (2024 film)") that was released on 21 June 2024\.[https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment\-news/reviews/tamil/rail\-review\-a\-meaningful\-film\-that\-manages\-to\-make\-a\-pertinent\-point\-review\-111065404](https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/reviews/tamil/rail-review-a-meaningful-film-that-manages-to-make-a-pertinent-point-review-111065404) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240618133750/https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment\-news/reviews/tamil/rail\-review\-a\-meaningful\-film\-that\-manages\-to\-make\-a\-pertinent\-point\-review\-111065404 \\|date\=18 June 2024 }} Times Now Retrieved 18 June 2024 This Movie was directed by the award\-winning Bhaskar Sakthi, and this movie is based on the South Indian Nativity\-based story. S. J. Jananiy has collaborated with the [Bulgarian National Radio Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Bulgarian_National_Radio_Symphony_Orchestra "Bulgarian National Radio Symphony Orchestra") to record the Strings Ensemble for the soundtracks and for the background score for this Movie. The five soundtracks are in five various genres such as a Tamil folklore melody, an Indian Classical melody, an emotional philosophical song that is sung by “Thenisai Thendral” [Deva (composer)](/wiki/Deva_%28composer%29 "Deva (composer)") who is an iconic Music Director and Singer, a folk\-based philosophical peppy song that is sung by [Anthony Daasan](/wiki/Anthony_Daasan "Anthony Daasan"). Jananiy has sung three songs. The Oppaari Song (a folk song that is performed during the death ceremony) in Strings Ensemble is a highlighting song of the Movie. The cameraman for this Movie is Theni Eswar, and the Editor is Nagooran Ramachandran. Rameshvaidya has phenomenally written the lyrics for the five soundtracks. This beautiful message conveying Rail Movie is produced by M.Vediyappan of Discovery Cinemas.	[ "Career\n------", "Jananiy started her career at age of 5 by performing in her first stage show in [Cuddalore](/wiki/Cuddalore \"Cuddalore\"). Over the years, Jananiy has performed in more than 1000 stage shows of Carnatic Classical Vocal, [Fusion](/wiki/Fusion_music \"Fusion music\"), [Bhajan](/wiki/Bhajan \"Bhajan\"), [Devotional](/wiki/Devotional_music \"Devotional music\") and [Light Music](/wiki/Light_Music \"Light Music\") and also gave more than 100 [Carnatic Classical](/wiki/Carnatic_music \"Carnatic music\") [keyboard](/wiki/Music_keyboard \"Music keyboard\") concerts.[ஜனனி...ஜனனி...புதிய இசையமைப்பாளர்](http://kungumam.co.in/ThArticalinnerdetail.aspx?id=3671&id1=84&issue=20170116) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422143252/http://kungumam.co.in/ThArticalinnerdetail.aspx?id\\=3671\\&id1\\=84\\&issue\\=20170116 \\\|date\\=22 April 2021 }} [Kungumam](/wiki/Kungumam_%28magazine%29 \"Kungumam (magazine)\") 16 January 2017 Retrieved 12 November 2017 At age of 8, she was recognized as Saadhanai Naayaki (achiever) by [Tamil language](/wiki/Tamil_language \"Tamil language\") weekly magazine, [Ananda Vikatan](/wiki/Ananda_Vikatan \"Ananda Vikatan\"). [Dinamani](/wiki/Dinamani \"Dinamani\"), a [Tamil](/wiki/Tamil_language \"Tamil language\") daily newspaper, named her Eazhu vayadhu Isai kuyil (seven years old [cuckoo](/wiki/Cuckoo \"Cuckoo\")) and [Vairamuthu](/wiki/Vairamuthu \"Vairamuthu\"), a prominent Tamil poet and lyricist titled her Nee En Magal (my daughter from then) in an interview to a Tamil weekly [Kumudam](/wiki/Kumudam \"Kumudam\").", "Jananiy's debut album, Natha Oli, was released in 1999\\. Natha Oli was fusion of [Carnatic Classical Vocal](/wiki/Carnatic_music \"Carnatic music\") and keyboard. The music director of the album was Kumardeva and it was released by JSJ Audio. After the release of her first album, she regularly participated in the Thiruvaiyyaru Thyagabrahma Utsavam and performed at Thiruvaiyaru Tamil Isai Mandram. Jananiy also performed at Kodai Vizha Festival organized by [Government of Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Government_of_Tamil_Nadu \"Government of Tamil Nadu\").[Cuddalore S.J. Jananiy stayed true to the style of her guru M. Balamuralikrishna at a concert in Palakkad](http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/music/concert-by-cuddalore-s-j-jananiy/article8360838.ece) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317062234/http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday\\-review/music/concert\\-by\\-cuddalore\\-s\\-j\\-jananiy/article8360838\\.ece \\\|date\\=17 March 2016 }} K. Ganapathi [The Hindu](/wiki/The_Hindu \"The Hindu\") 17 March 2016 Retrieved on 11 November 2017", "In 2001, Jananiy was awarded with [National Child Award for Exceptional Achievement](/wiki/National_Child_Award_for_Exceptional_Achievement \"National Child Award for Exceptional Achievement\") in the field of Classical Music (vocal), by then [Vice\\-President of India](/wiki/Vice-President_of_India \"Vice-President of India\"), [Krishan Kant](/wiki/Krishan_Kant \"Krishan Kant\"). In 2002, her second album Poongatru was released in collaboration with [S. P. Balasubrahmanyam](/wiki/S._P._Balasubrahmanyam \"S. P. Balasubrahmanyam\"). [L. Vaidyanathan](/wiki/L._Vaidyanathan \"L. Vaidyanathan\") directed the music and lyrics were written by [Kaviperarasu Vairamuthu](/wiki/Vairamuthu \"Vairamuthu\").", "On 14 November 2002, Jananiy participated in Children's Day Function at [Rashtrapati Bhavan](/wiki/Rashtrapati_Bhavan \"Rashtrapati Bhavan\"), New Delhi and performed [Endaro Mahanubhavulu](/wiki/Endaro_Mahanubhavulu \"Endaro Mahanubhavulu\") for [A. P. J. Abdul Kalam](/wiki/A._P._J._Abdul_Kalam \"A. P. J. Abdul Kalam\"), then [President of India](/wiki/President_of_India \"President of India\"). In 2003, Jananiy was bestowed with Kalai Ilamani Award from [Government of Tamil Nadu](/wiki/Government_of_Tamil_Nadu \"Government of Tamil Nadu\") for her excellence in classical music. The same year, she did [playback singing](/wiki/Playback_singer \"Playback singer\") under the direction of [Karthik Raja](/wiki/Karthik_Raja \"Karthik Raja\"), for a Tamil film, [Album](/wiki/Album_%282002_film%29 \"Album (2002 film)\").", "In 2007, Jananiy's third album, Sri Venkatesa Suprabhatam \\& Kandha Sashti Kavacham, was released. The album was collection of devotional songs with [Carnatic](/wiki/Carnatic_music \"Carnatic music\") music. The album was released by [M. Balamuralikrishna](/wiki/M._Balamuralikrishna \"M. Balamuralikrishna\") and [Neyveli Santhanagopalan](/wiki/Neyveli_Santhanagopalan \"Neyveli Santhanagopalan\"). After release of the album, Jananiy became disciple of Balamuralikrishna.[\"பாலமுரளி கிருஷ்ணா சாருக்கு பீச் வாக்னா ரொம்பப் பிடிக்கும்\" நெகிழும் சிஷ்யை எஸ்.ஜே.ஜனனி \\#Balamuralikrishna](http://www.vikatan.com/news/tamilnadu/94401-balamuralikrishna-likes-to-walk-in-beach-says-his-assistant-sj-janani.html) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118223319/https://www.vikatan.com/news/tamilnadu/94401\\-balamuralikrishna\\-likes\\-to\\-walk\\-in\\-beach\\-says\\-his\\-assistant\\-sj\\-janani.html \\\|date\\=18 November 2017 }} [Ananda Vikatan](/wiki/Ananda_Vikatan \"Ananda Vikatan\") 5 July 2017 Retrieved on 12 November 2017", "In 2007, Jananiy collaborated with her uncle and released the concept\\-series Classic Waves. The music for this series was [conducted](/wiki/Music_conductor \"Music conductor\"), arranged and produced by Jananiy herself. Classic Waves 2 and 3 were released in 2010 and 2011 respectively while 4 volumes of Classic Marvel series were released in 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2012 respectively. Jananiy received Yuvakala Bharathi from Bharat Kalachar in 2011\\.[Celebrating 25 years of patronising arts](http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/celebrating-25-years-of-patronising-arts/article2665033.ece) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117175924/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/celebrating\\-25\\-years\\-of\\-patronising\\-arts/article2665033\\.ece \\\|date\\=17 November 2017 }} [The Hindu](/wiki/The_Hindu \"The Hindu\") 27 November 2011 Retrieved on 12 November 2017 Later in 2011, Jananiy participated with [Pandit Hariprasad Chaurasia](/wiki/Pandit_Hariprasad_Chaurasia \"Pandit Hariprasad Chaurasia\") in a [Jugalbandi](/wiki/Jugalbandi \"Jugalbandi\") concert for the Music festival Au Fil des Voix at [Alhambra Concert Hall](/wiki/Alhambra_%28Paris%29 \"Alhambra (Paris)\") in Paris, France.[Look who’s getting a musical makeover](http://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/look-whos-getting-a-musical-makeover/article5933883.ece) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226102835/https://www.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/look\\-whos\\-getting\\-a\\-musical\\-makeover/article5933883\\.ece \\\|date\\=26 February 2021 }} Srinivasa Ramanujam [The Hindu](/wiki/The_Hindu \"The Hindu\") 21 April 2014 Retrieved on 12 November 2017", "In 2012, Jananiy [composed](/wiki/Music_composer \"Music composer\") and produced music for [S. P. Balasubrahmanyam](/wiki/S._P._Balasubrahmanyam \"S. P. Balasubrahmanyam\")'s contemporary album, Kandar Shashti Kavacham and Subrahmanya Bhujangam. The album was released by [EMI Virgin](/wiki/EMI_Virgin \"EMI Virgin\"). Later in December that year, Jananiy collaborated again with Balasubrahmanyam along with [Hariharan](/wiki/Hariharan_%28singer%29 \"Hariharan (singer)\") and [P. Unnikrishnan](/wiki/P._Unnikrishnan \"P. Unnikrishnan\") for Mahakavi Bharathiar's Vande Mataram. She was also the composer, arranger and conductor of music for this album.[Album with Bharathiyar songs released](http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/chen-downtown/Album-with-Bharathiyar-songs-released/article12468000.ece) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026205945/https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/chennai/chen\\-downtown/Album\\-with\\-Bharathiyar\\-songs\\-released/article12468000\\.ece \\\|date\\=26 October 2021 }} [The Hindu](/wiki/The_Hindu \"The Hindu\") 29 December 2012 Retrieved on 12 November 2017", "Jananiy made the musical arrangements and produced music for Carnatic Symphony\\-Cleveland Thyagaraja Aradhana Festival that was held in [Cleveland](/wiki/Cleveland \"Cleveland\"), Ohio, in 2014 as well as in 2017\\. She was awarded with Sangitha Kovidha from Gayathri Fine Arts \\& Lakshmi Kuppuswamy Trust, New Delhi in 2015\\. She also received Bharathi Award from Vidiyal Charitable Trust \\& The Dawn Cultural \\& Social Association later that year. Jananiy composed music for the Tamil Movie Prabha that got launched in 2015\\.[“இது குழந்தைக்கான ஆசிர்வாதம்!” பாலமுரளிகிருஷ்ணா பாடிய கடைசி தமிழ்ப் பாடலின் இசையமைப்பாளர் ஜனனி நெகிழ்ச்சி!](http://lankasee.com/2016/11/23/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81-%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9-%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5/) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117174611/http://lankasee.com/2016/11/23/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81\\-%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9\\-%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5/ \\\|date\\=17 November 2017 }} Lankasee Retrieved 12 November 2017 As of 2024, she has released 90 albums in various genres apart from [jingles](/wiki/Jingles \"Jingles\") and private songs.", "S. J. Jananiy has scored the music and five original soundtracks for the Indian Tamil Feature Film [Rail](/wiki/Rail_%282024_film%29 \"Rail (2024 film)\") that was released on 21 June 2024\\.[https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment\\-news/reviews/tamil/rail\\-review\\-a\\-meaningful\\-film\\-that\\-manages\\-to\\-make\\-a\\-pertinent\\-point\\-review\\-111065404](https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment-news/reviews/tamil/rail-review-a-meaningful-film-that-manages-to-make-a-pertinent-point-review-111065404) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20240618133750/https://www.timesnownews.com/entertainment\\-news/reviews/tamil/rail\\-review\\-a\\-meaningful\\-film\\-that\\-manages\\-to\\-make\\-a\\-pertinent\\-point\\-review\\-111065404 \\\|date\\=18 June 2024 }} Times Now Retrieved 18 June 2024", "This Movie was directed by the award\\-winning Bhaskar Sakthi, and this movie is based on the South Indian Nativity\\-based story. S. J. Jananiy has collaborated with the [Bulgarian National Radio Symphony Orchestra](/wiki/Bulgarian_National_Radio_Symphony_Orchestra \"Bulgarian National Radio Symphony Orchestra\") to record the Strings Ensemble for the soundtracks and for the background score for this Movie. The five soundtracks are in five various genres such as a Tamil folklore melody, an Indian Classical melody, an emotional philosophical song that is sung by “Thenisai Thendral” [Deva (composer)](/wiki/Deva_%28composer%29 \"Deva (composer)\") who is an iconic Music Director and Singer, a folk\\-based philosophical peppy song that is sung by [Anthony Daasan](/wiki/Anthony_Daasan \"Anthony Daasan\"). Jananiy has sung three songs. The Oppaari Song (a folk song that is performed during the death ceremony) in Strings Ensemble is a highlighting song of the Movie. The cameraman for this Movie is Theni Eswar, and the Editor is Nagooran Ramachandran. Rameshvaidya has phenomenally written the lyrics for the five soundtracks. This beautiful message conveying Rail Movie is produced by M.Vediyappan of Discovery Cinemas.", "" ]
History ------- The ten companies of the 27th Massachusetts Volunteers were recruited in the western part of the State in the late summer and fall of 1861\. The original recruits were officially mustered in for 3 years at [Springfield](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Massachusetts "Springfield, Massachusetts") between Sept. 19 and 27\. The original recruitment of each of the 10 companies were centered in the following communities: Company A ([Northampton](/wiki/Northampton%2C_Massachusetts "Northampton, Massachusetts")), Company B ([Athol](/wiki/Athol%2C_Massachusetts "Athol, Massachusetts")), Company C (large variety of Western Mass. towns), Company D ([Amherst](/wiki/Amherst%2C_Massachusetts "Amherst, Massachusetts"), [Hadley](/wiki/Hadley%2C_Massachusetts "Hadley, Massachusetts")), Company E ([Great Barrington](/wiki/Great_Barrington%2C_Massachusetts "Great Barrington, Massachusetts"), [Lee](/wiki/Lee%2C_Massachusetts "Lee, Massachusetts"), [Pittsfield](/wiki/Pittsfield "Pittsfield")), Company F ([Westfield](/wiki/Westfield%2C_Massachusetts "Westfield, Massachusetts"), [Granville](/wiki/Granville%2C_Massachusetts "Granville, Massachusetts"), [Southwick](/wiki/Southwick%2C_Massachusetts "Southwick, Massachusetts"), [Tolland](/wiki/Tolland%2C_Massachusetts "Tolland, Massachusetts")), Company G ([Chicopee](/wiki/Chicopee%2C_Massachusetts "Chicopee, Massachusetts"), [Northampton](/wiki/Northampton%2C_Massachusetts "Northampton, Massachusetts"), [Holyoke](/wiki/Holyoke "Holyoke")), Company H ([Adams](/wiki/Adams%2C_Massachusetts "Adams, Massachusetts"), [Williamstown](/wiki/Williamstown%2C_Massachusetts "Williamstown, Massachusetts")), Company I ([Ludlow](/wiki/Ludlow%2C_Massachusetts "Ludlow, Massachusetts"), [Wilbraham](/wiki/Wilbraham%2C_Massachusetts "Wilbraham, Massachusetts"), [Brimfield](/wiki/Brimfield%2C_Massachusetts "Brimfield, Massachusetts"), [Palmer](/wiki/Palmer%2C_Massachusetts "Palmer, Massachusetts")) and Company K ([Springfield](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Massachusetts "Springfield, Massachusetts")). Once fully outfitted, they were sent south to [Annapolis, Maryland](/wiki/Annapolis%2C_Maryland "Annapolis, Maryland"). in November and remained there undergoing instructions and drill for two months. In January, 1862, the regiment was shipped to North Carolina and assigned to Foster's (1st) Brigade. The regiment's first battles were fought at [Roanoke Island](/wiki/Battle_of_Roanoke_Island "Battle of Roanoke Island") and [New Bern](/wiki/Battle_of_New_Bern_%281862%29 "Battle of New Bern (1862)"). [thumb\\|General Luke Lyman](/wiki/File:LukeLyman.jpg "LukeLyman.jpg") The regiment remained in [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina "North Carolina") during the next two years. Because [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel_%28United_States%29 "Colonel (United States)") [Horace Clark Lee](/wiki/Horace_C._Lee "Horace C. Lee") was in command of the brigade most of the time, the regiment was mostly under the direct command of [Lieutenant Colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_%28United_States%29 "Lieutenant colonel (United States)") Luke Lyman. During its stay in [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina "North Carolina") it was engaged with credit in numerous minor battles and skirmishes. In April, 1863, it aided in the [siege of Washington, North Carolina](/wiki/Battle_of_Washington "Battle of Washington"). After the return to New Bern an expedition to Gum swamp was undertaken and in an engagement there a number of prisoners were captured. New Bern was the regiment's headquarters until Oct. 10, 1863, when it was ordered to [Newport News](/wiki/Newport_News%2C_Virginia "Newport News, Virginia") and was for a time occupied with routine duties at [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia "Norfolk, Virginia") and [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth%2C_Virginia "Portsmouth, Virginia"). In April 1864, the 27th Massachusetts was assigned to the [Army of the James](/wiki/Army_of_the_James "Army of the James"). It embarked for [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia "Virginia"), docking at [Yorktown](/wiki/Yorktown%2C_Virginia "Yorktown, Virginia"), thence to [Williamsburg](/wiki/Williamsburg%2C_Virginia "Williamsburg, Virginia"), [Fortress Monroe](/wiki/Fortress_Monroe "Fortress Monroe") and [Bermuda Hundred](/wiki/Bermuda_Hundred "Bermuda Hundred"), where it landed and marched to Cobb's hill. Soon afterward, the 27th was sent into action. The battles of [Dunn's farm](/wiki/Dunn%27s_farm "Dunn's farm") and [Port Walthall Junction](/wiki/Port_Walthall_Junction "Port Walthall Junction") followed and during one day the regiment had 5 wounded, while 50 were disabled by sunstroke. At [Arrowfield Church](/wiki/Arrowfield_Church "Arrowfield Church") the 27th was engaged as well. On May 16, the regiment was engaged at the [Battle of Proctor's Creek](/wiki/Battle_of_Proctor%27s_Creek "Battle of Proctor's Creek") (alternately Drewry's Bluff or Fort Darling). After a brave defense of their position, much of the regiment was surrounded while fighting in a dense fog, losing in addition to its killed and wounded, 252 of its number taken prisoners. Among the captured were the colonel, lieutenant colonel, and General Heckman; some 120 would later die in prison suffering appalling conditions at [Andersonville](/wiki/Andersonville%2C_Georgia "Andersonville, Georgia"). On May 26, the regiment was transferred to the [Army of the Potomac](/wiki/Army_of_the_Potomac "Army of the Potomac"). Within a week, [Major](/wiki/Major_%28United_States%29 "Major (United States)") [William A. Walker](/wiki/William_A._Walker "William A. Walker") was killed leading the regiment in the bloody assault on Confederate positions at the [Battle of Cold Harbor](/wiki/Battle_of_Cold_Harbor "Battle of Cold Harbor") on June 3\. In this battle, an additional 22 were killed, 68 wounded, and 4 missing. The remnants of the regiment were ordered to [Petersburg](/wiki/Petersburg%2C_Virginia "Petersburg, Virginia") to join in on the assault this city. The heaviest losses sustained by the regiment on the assault on Petersburg occurred on June 18th, 1864, when 11 were killed or mortally wounded, and 29 wounded. Altogether, the regiment sustained a total of 19 killed or mortally wounded, and 53 wounded during its service in and around Petersburg between June 14th and August 19th. The reenlisted men and recruits of the regiment were sent south to [Beaufort, North Carolina](/wiki/Beaufort%2C_North_Carolina "Beaufort, North Carolina"), encamped at [Carolina City](/wiki/Carolina_City "Carolina City"), then moved to [Beaufort](/wiki/Beaufort%2C_North_Carolina "Beaufort, North Carolina"), [Plymouth](/wiki/Plymouth%2C_North_Carolina "Plymouth, North Carolina") and [Jamestown](/wiki/Jamestown%2C_North_Carolina "Jamestown, North Carolina"), where the enemy's skirmishers were encountered. The Confederates disputed the possession of the bridge at Foster's mills, but after the 27th crossed, retreated and the regiment pushed forward and captured a Confederate force at Butler's bridge. [thumb\\|27th Massachusetts Drum Corps](/wiki/File:DrumCorps27thMass.jpg "DrumCorps27thMass.jpg") It returned in January 1865 to New Bern. On March 8, it was attacked at Southwest Creek (Wise's Forks), where the whole brigade, with a few exceptions, was captured, after resisting for an hour in an engagement with Confederate General Hoke's entire division of 8,000 men. In its last engagement of the war, 11 men were killed or mortally wounded, 24 wounded, and a total of 170 captured. The national and state colors barely escaped capture. Color Sergeant John McCleary (national) and Color\-Corporal William W. Cummings were both wounded and the colors taken over by Corporal Lafayette Babb and Private Leverett Clarke. When capture became certain, these two men wrapped the colors around the staffs, hid them under a rotten log, and covered it with leaves and grass. When the prisoners were exchanged in April they told other members of the regiment at New Bern where to find the flags and they were recovered. The captives were taken to Richmond, paroled and then furloughed. The few who escaped, reinforced by recruits and convalescents, were assigned to guard duty at New Bern until mustered out. During the course of the Civil War, there were three regiments that were recruited from towns located in the four westernmost counties of Massachusetts (Berkshire, Franklin, Hampden, and Hampshire). These included the 10th, 27th, and 46th Volunteers. In the 27th Massachusetts, the towns that supplied at least 10 men to the regiment include: [Springfield](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Massachusetts "Springfield, Massachusetts") (124\) [Northampton](/wiki/Northampton%2C_Massachusetts "Northampton, Massachusetts") (86\) [Amherst](/wiki/Amherst%2C_Massachusetts "Amherst, Massachusetts") (72\) [Chicopee](/wiki/Chicopee%2C_Massachusetts "Chicopee, Massachusetts") (61\) [Adams](/wiki/Adams%2C_Massachusetts "Adams, Massachusetts") (60\) [Athol](/wiki/Athol%2C_Massachusetts "Athol, Massachusetts") (56\) [Westfield](/wiki/Westfield%2C_Massachusetts "Westfield, Massachusetts") (54\) [Granville](/wiki/Granville%2C_Massachusetts "Granville, Massachusetts") (35\) [Hadley](/wiki/Hadley%2C_Massachusetts "Hadley, Massachusetts") (34\) [Ludlow](/wiki/Ludlow%2C_Massachusetts "Ludlow, Massachusetts") (34\) [Great Barrington](/wiki/Great_Barrington%2C_Massachusetts "Great Barrington, Massachusetts") (31\) [Lee](/wiki/Lee%2C_Massachusetts "Lee, Massachusetts") (29\) [Pittsfield](/wiki/Pittsfield "Pittsfield") (29\) [Wilbraham](/wiki/Wilbraham%2C_Massachusetts "Wilbraham, Massachusetts") (28\) [Montague](/wiki/Montague%2C_Massachusetts "Montague, Massachusetts") (24\) [Brimfield](/wiki/Brimfield%2C_Massachusetts "Brimfield, Massachusetts") (20\) [Easthampton](/wiki/Easthampton%2C_Massachusetts "Easthampton, Massachusetts") (20\) [New Salem](/wiki/New_Salem%2C_Massachusetts "New Salem, Massachusetts") (19\) [Williamsburg](/wiki/Williamsburg%2C_Massachusetts "Williamsburg, Massachusetts") (19\) [Belchertown](/wiki/Belchertown "Belchertown") (19\) [Williamstown](/wiki/Williamstown%2C_Massachusetts "Williamstown, Massachusetts") (18\) [Holyoke](/wiki/Holyoke "Holyoke") (18\) [Southwick](/wiki/Southwick%2C_Massachusetts "Southwick, Massachusetts") (17\) [Greenfield](/wiki/Greenfield%2C_Massachusetts "Greenfield, Massachusetts") (16\) [Leverett](/wiki/Leverett%2C_Massachusetts "Leverett, Massachusetts") (16\) [Palmer](/wiki/Palmer%2C_Massachusetts "Palmer, Massachusetts") (16\) [Worthington](/wiki/Worthington%2C_Massachusetts "Worthington, Massachusetts") (16\) [Blandford](/wiki/Blandford%2C_Massachusetts "Blandford, Massachusetts") (15\) [Tolland](/wiki/Tolland%2C_Massachusetts "Tolland, Massachusetts") (14\) [Wendell](/wiki/Wendell%2C_Massachusetts "Wendell, Massachusetts") (14\) [Deerfield](/wiki/Deerfield%2C_Massachusetts "Deerfield, Massachusetts") (13\) [Ware](/wiki/Ware%2C_Massachusetts "Ware, Massachusetts") (13\) [Charlemont](/wiki/Charlemont%2C_Massachusetts "Charlemont, Massachusetts") (12\) [Erving](/wiki/Erving%2C_Massachusetts "Erving, Massachusetts") (12\) [Granby](/wiki/Granby%2C_Massachusetts "Granby, Massachusetts") (12\) [Northfield](/wiki/Northfield%2C_Massachusetts "Northfield, Massachusetts") (12\) [Huntington](/wiki/Huntington%2C_Massachusetts "Huntington, Massachusetts") (11\) [Shelburne](/wiki/Shelburne%2C_Massachusetts "Shelburne, Massachusetts") (11\) [Shutesbury](/wiki/Shutesbury "Shutesbury") (11\) [Enfield, MA](/wiki/Enfield%2C_MA "Enfield, MA") (10\) [Monterey](/wiki/Monterey%2C_Massachusetts "Monterey, Massachusetts") (10\) [Pelham](/wiki/Pelham%2C_Massachusetts "Pelham, Massachusetts") (10\) [South Hadley](/wiki/South_Hadley "South Hadley") (10\) [Orange](/wiki/Orange%2C_Massachusetts "Orange, Massachusetts") (10\)	[ "History\n-------", "The ten companies of the 27th Massachusetts Volunteers were recruited in the western part of the State in the late summer and fall of 1861\\. The original recruits were officially mustered in for 3 years at [Springfield](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Massachusetts \"Springfield, Massachusetts\") between Sept. 19 and 27\\. The original recruitment of each of the 10 companies were centered in the following communities: Company A ([Northampton](/wiki/Northampton%2C_Massachusetts \"Northampton, Massachusetts\")), Company B ([Athol](/wiki/Athol%2C_Massachusetts \"Athol, Massachusetts\")), Company C (large variety of Western Mass. towns), Company D ([Amherst](/wiki/Amherst%2C_Massachusetts \"Amherst, Massachusetts\"), [Hadley](/wiki/Hadley%2C_Massachusetts \"Hadley, Massachusetts\")), Company E ([Great Barrington](/wiki/Great_Barrington%2C_Massachusetts \"Great Barrington, Massachusetts\"), [Lee](/wiki/Lee%2C_Massachusetts \"Lee, Massachusetts\"), [Pittsfield](/wiki/Pittsfield \"Pittsfield\")), Company F ([Westfield](/wiki/Westfield%2C_Massachusetts \"Westfield, Massachusetts\"), [Granville](/wiki/Granville%2C_Massachusetts \"Granville, Massachusetts\"), [Southwick](/wiki/Southwick%2C_Massachusetts \"Southwick, Massachusetts\"), [Tolland](/wiki/Tolland%2C_Massachusetts \"Tolland, Massachusetts\")), Company G ([Chicopee](/wiki/Chicopee%2C_Massachusetts \"Chicopee, Massachusetts\"), [Northampton](/wiki/Northampton%2C_Massachusetts \"Northampton, Massachusetts\"), [Holyoke](/wiki/Holyoke \"Holyoke\")), Company H ([Adams](/wiki/Adams%2C_Massachusetts \"Adams, Massachusetts\"), [Williamstown](/wiki/Williamstown%2C_Massachusetts \"Williamstown, Massachusetts\")), Company I ([Ludlow](/wiki/Ludlow%2C_Massachusetts \"Ludlow, Massachusetts\"), [Wilbraham](/wiki/Wilbraham%2C_Massachusetts \"Wilbraham, Massachusetts\"), [Brimfield](/wiki/Brimfield%2C_Massachusetts \"Brimfield, Massachusetts\"), [Palmer](/wiki/Palmer%2C_Massachusetts \"Palmer, Massachusetts\")) and Company K ([Springfield](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Massachusetts \"Springfield, Massachusetts\")).", "Once fully outfitted, they were sent south to [Annapolis, Maryland](/wiki/Annapolis%2C_Maryland \"Annapolis, Maryland\"). in November and remained there undergoing instructions and drill for two months. In January, 1862, the regiment was shipped to North Carolina and assigned to Foster's (1st) Brigade. The regiment's first battles were fought at [Roanoke Island](/wiki/Battle_of_Roanoke_Island \"Battle of Roanoke Island\") and [New Bern](/wiki/Battle_of_New_Bern_%281862%29 \"Battle of New Bern (1862)\").", "[thumb\\\|General Luke Lyman](/wiki/File:LukeLyman.jpg \"LukeLyman.jpg\") The regiment remained in [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina \"North Carolina\") during the next two years. Because [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel_%28United_States%29 \"Colonel (United States)\") [Horace Clark Lee](/wiki/Horace_C._Lee \"Horace C. Lee\") was in command of the brigade most of the time, the regiment was mostly under the direct command of [Lieutenant Colonel](/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_%28United_States%29 \"Lieutenant colonel (United States)\") Luke Lyman. During its stay in [North Carolina](/wiki/North_Carolina \"North Carolina\") it was engaged with credit in numerous minor battles and skirmishes. In April, 1863, it aided in the [siege of Washington, North Carolina](/wiki/Battle_of_Washington \"Battle of Washington\"). After the return to New Bern an expedition to Gum swamp was undertaken and in an engagement there a number of prisoners were captured. New Bern was the regiment's headquarters until Oct. 10, 1863, when it was ordered to [Newport News](/wiki/Newport_News%2C_Virginia \"Newport News, Virginia\") and was for a time occupied with routine duties at [Norfolk](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia \"Norfolk, Virginia\") and [Portsmouth](/wiki/Portsmouth%2C_Virginia \"Portsmouth, Virginia\").", "In April 1864, the 27th Massachusetts was assigned to the [Army of the James](/wiki/Army_of_the_James \"Army of the James\"). It embarked for [Virginia](/wiki/Virginia \"Virginia\"), docking at [Yorktown](/wiki/Yorktown%2C_Virginia \"Yorktown, Virginia\"), thence to [Williamsburg](/wiki/Williamsburg%2C_Virginia \"Williamsburg, Virginia\"), [Fortress Monroe](/wiki/Fortress_Monroe \"Fortress Monroe\") and [Bermuda Hundred](/wiki/Bermuda_Hundred \"Bermuda Hundred\"), where it landed and marched to Cobb's hill. Soon afterward, the 27th was sent into action. The battles of [Dunn's farm](/wiki/Dunn%27s_farm \"Dunn's farm\") and [Port Walthall Junction](/wiki/Port_Walthall_Junction \"Port Walthall Junction\") followed and during one day the regiment had 5 wounded, while 50 were disabled by sunstroke. At [Arrowfield Church](/wiki/Arrowfield_Church \"Arrowfield Church\") the 27th was engaged as well.", "On May 16, the regiment was engaged at the [Battle of Proctor's Creek](/wiki/Battle_of_Proctor%27s_Creek \"Battle of Proctor's Creek\") (alternately Drewry's Bluff or Fort Darling). After a brave defense of their position, much of the regiment was surrounded while fighting in a dense fog, losing in addition to its killed and wounded, 252 of its number taken prisoners. Among the captured were the colonel, lieutenant colonel, and General Heckman; some 120 would later die in prison suffering appalling conditions at [Andersonville](/wiki/Andersonville%2C_Georgia \"Andersonville, Georgia\").", "On May 26, the regiment was transferred to the [Army of the Potomac](/wiki/Army_of_the_Potomac \"Army of the Potomac\"). Within a week, [Major](/wiki/Major_%28United_States%29 \"Major (United States)\") [William A. Walker](/wiki/William_A._Walker \"William A. Walker\") was killed leading the regiment in the bloody assault on Confederate positions at the [Battle of Cold Harbor](/wiki/Battle_of_Cold_Harbor \"Battle of Cold Harbor\") on June 3\\. In this battle, an additional 22 were killed, 68 wounded, and 4 missing.", "The remnants of the regiment were ordered to [Petersburg](/wiki/Petersburg%2C_Virginia \"Petersburg, Virginia\") to join in on the assault this city. The heaviest losses sustained by the regiment on the assault on Petersburg occurred on June 18th, 1864, when 11 were killed or mortally wounded, and 29 wounded. Altogether, the regiment sustained a total of 19 killed or mortally wounded, and 53 wounded during its service in and around Petersburg between June 14th and August 19th.", "The reenlisted men and recruits of the regiment were sent south to [Beaufort, North Carolina](/wiki/Beaufort%2C_North_Carolina \"Beaufort, North Carolina\"), encamped at [Carolina City](/wiki/Carolina_City \"Carolina City\"), then moved to [Beaufort](/wiki/Beaufort%2C_North_Carolina \"Beaufort, North Carolina\"), [Plymouth](/wiki/Plymouth%2C_North_Carolina \"Plymouth, North Carolina\") and [Jamestown](/wiki/Jamestown%2C_North_Carolina \"Jamestown, North Carolina\"), where the enemy's skirmishers were encountered. The Confederates disputed the possession of the bridge at Foster's mills, but after the 27th crossed, retreated and the regiment pushed forward and captured a Confederate force at Butler's bridge.", "[thumb\\\|27th Massachusetts Drum Corps](/wiki/File:DrumCorps27thMass.jpg \"DrumCorps27thMass.jpg\") It returned in January 1865 to New Bern. On March 8, it was attacked at Southwest Creek (Wise's Forks), where the whole brigade, with a few exceptions, was captured, after resisting for an hour in an engagement with Confederate General Hoke's entire division of 8,000 men. In its last engagement of the war, 11 men were killed or mortally wounded, 24 wounded, and a total of 170 captured. The national and state colors barely escaped capture. Color Sergeant John McCleary (national) and Color\\-Corporal William W. Cummings were both wounded and the colors taken over by Corporal Lafayette Babb and Private Leverett Clarke. When capture became certain, these two men wrapped the colors around the staffs, hid them under a rotten log, and covered it with leaves and grass. When the prisoners were exchanged in April they told other members of the regiment at New Bern where to find the flags and they were recovered. The captives were taken to Richmond, paroled and then furloughed. The few who escaped, reinforced by recruits and convalescents, were assigned to guard duty at New Bern until mustered out.", "During the course of the Civil War, there were three regiments that were recruited from towns located in the four westernmost counties of Massachusetts (Berkshire, Franklin, Hampden, and Hampshire). These included the 10th, 27th, and 46th Volunteers. In the 27th Massachusetts, the towns that supplied at least 10 men to the regiment include:", "[Springfield](/wiki/Springfield%2C_Massachusetts \"Springfield, Massachusetts\") (124\\)\n[Northampton](/wiki/Northampton%2C_Massachusetts \"Northampton, Massachusetts\") (86\\)\n[Amherst](/wiki/Amherst%2C_Massachusetts \"Amherst, Massachusetts\") (72\\)\n[Chicopee](/wiki/Chicopee%2C_Massachusetts \"Chicopee, Massachusetts\") (61\\)\n[Adams](/wiki/Adams%2C_Massachusetts \"Adams, Massachusetts\") (60\\)\n[Athol](/wiki/Athol%2C_Massachusetts \"Athol, Massachusetts\") (56\\)\n[Westfield](/wiki/Westfield%2C_Massachusetts \"Westfield, Massachusetts\") (54\\)\n[Granville](/wiki/Granville%2C_Massachusetts \"Granville, Massachusetts\") (35\\)\n[Hadley](/wiki/Hadley%2C_Massachusetts \"Hadley, Massachusetts\") (34\\)\n[Ludlow](/wiki/Ludlow%2C_Massachusetts \"Ludlow, Massachusetts\") (34\\)\n[Great Barrington](/wiki/Great_Barrington%2C_Massachusetts \"Great Barrington, Massachusetts\") (31\\)\n[Lee](/wiki/Lee%2C_Massachusetts \"Lee, Massachusetts\") (29\\)\n[Pittsfield](/wiki/Pittsfield \"Pittsfield\") (29\\)\n[Wilbraham](/wiki/Wilbraham%2C_Massachusetts \"Wilbraham, Massachusetts\") (28\\)\n[Montague](/wiki/Montague%2C_Massachusetts \"Montague, Massachusetts\") (24\\)\n[Brimfield](/wiki/Brimfield%2C_Massachusetts \"Brimfield, Massachusetts\") (20\\)\n[Easthampton](/wiki/Easthampton%2C_Massachusetts \"Easthampton, Massachusetts\") (20\\)\n[New Salem](/wiki/New_Salem%2C_Massachusetts \"New Salem, Massachusetts\") (19\\)\n[Williamsburg](/wiki/Williamsburg%2C_Massachusetts \"Williamsburg, Massachusetts\") (19\\)\n[Belchertown](/wiki/Belchertown \"Belchertown\") (19\\)\n[Williamstown](/wiki/Williamstown%2C_Massachusetts \"Williamstown, Massachusetts\") (18\\)\n[Holyoke](/wiki/Holyoke \"Holyoke\") (18\\)\n[Southwick](/wiki/Southwick%2C_Massachusetts \"Southwick, Massachusetts\") (17\\)\n[Greenfield](/wiki/Greenfield%2C_Massachusetts \"Greenfield, Massachusetts\") (16\\)\n[Leverett](/wiki/Leverett%2C_Massachusetts \"Leverett, Massachusetts\") (16\\)\n[Palmer](/wiki/Palmer%2C_Massachusetts \"Palmer, Massachusetts\") (16\\)\n[Worthington](/wiki/Worthington%2C_Massachusetts \"Worthington, Massachusetts\") (16\\)\n[Blandford](/wiki/Blandford%2C_Massachusetts \"Blandford, Massachusetts\") (15\\)\n[Tolland](/wiki/Tolland%2C_Massachusetts \"Tolland, Massachusetts\") (14\\)\n[Wendell](/wiki/Wendell%2C_Massachusetts \"Wendell, Massachusetts\") (14\\)\n[Deerfield](/wiki/Deerfield%2C_Massachusetts \"Deerfield, Massachusetts\") (13\\)\n[Ware](/wiki/Ware%2C_Massachusetts \"Ware, Massachusetts\") (13\\)\n[Charlemont](/wiki/Charlemont%2C_Massachusetts \"Charlemont, Massachusetts\") (12\\)\n[Erving](/wiki/Erving%2C_Massachusetts \"Erving, Massachusetts\") (12\\)\n[Granby](/wiki/Granby%2C_Massachusetts \"Granby, Massachusetts\") (12\\)\n[Northfield](/wiki/Northfield%2C_Massachusetts \"Northfield, Massachusetts\") (12\\)\n[Huntington](/wiki/Huntington%2C_Massachusetts \"Huntington, Massachusetts\") (11\\)\n[Shelburne](/wiki/Shelburne%2C_Massachusetts \"Shelburne, Massachusetts\") (11\\)\n[Shutesbury](/wiki/Shutesbury \"Shutesbury\") (11\\)\n[Enfield, MA](/wiki/Enfield%2C_MA \"Enfield, MA\") (10\\)\n[Monterey](/wiki/Monterey%2C_Massachusetts \"Monterey, Massachusetts\") (10\\)\n[Pelham](/wiki/Pelham%2C_Massachusetts \"Pelham, Massachusetts\") (10\\)\n[South Hadley](/wiki/South_Hadley \"South Hadley\") (10\\)\n[Orange](/wiki/Orange%2C_Massachusetts \"Orange, Massachusetts\") (10\\)", "" ]
Diagnosis --------- Diagnosis often can be made through clinical examination and urine tests (excess mucopolysaccharides are excreted in the urine). Enzyme assays (testing a variety of cells or body fluids in culture for enzyme deficiency) are also used to provide definitive diagnosis of one of the mucopolysaccharidoses. Prenatal diagnosis using [amniocentesis](/wiki/Amniocentesis "Amniocentesis") and [chorionic villus sampling](/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling "Chorionic villus sampling") can verify if a fetus either carries a copy of the defective gene or is affected with the disorder. Genetic counseling can help parents who have a family history of the mucopolysaccharidoses determine if they are carrying the mutated gene that causes the disorders. ### Types Seven distinct clinical types and numerous subtypes of the mucopolysaccharidoses have been identified. Although each mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS) differs clinically, most patients generally experience a period of normal development followed by a decline in physical and/or mental function. (Note: MPS\-V and MPS\-VIII are no longer in use as designations for any disease.) ### Overview table \| \+ Main mucopolysaccharidoses \| Type{{cite book \\| vauthors \= Marks DB, Swanson T, Kim SI, Glucksman M \\|title\=Biochemistry and molecular biology \\|publisher\=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams \& Wilkins \\|location\=Philadelphia \\|year\=2007 \\|isbn\=978\-0\-7817\-8624\-9 \\|url\-access\=registration \\|url\=https://archive.org/details/biochemistrymole0000swan\_f9p0 }} \| Common nameOther names \| [OMIM](/wiki/OMIM "OMIM") \| [Gene](/wiki/Gene "Gene") \| [Locus](/wiki/Locus_%28genetics%29 "Locus (genetics)") \| Deficient enzyme \| Accumulated products \| Symptoms \| Incidence \| \| MPS IH \| [Hurler syndrome](/wiki/Hurler_syndrome "Hurler syndrome") \| {{OMIM\\|607014\\|\\|none}} \| [IDUA](/wiki/IDUA "IDUA") \| 4p16\.3 \| [α\-L\-iduronidase](/wiki/%CE%91-L-iduronidase "Α-L-iduronidase") \| [Heparan sulfate](/wiki/Heparan_sulfate "Heparan sulfate")[Dermatan sulfate](/wiki/Dermatan_sulfate "Dermatan sulfate") \| [Intellectual disability](/wiki/Intellectual_disability "Intellectual disability"), [micrognathia](/wiki/Micrognathia "Micrognathia"), [coarse facial features](/wiki/Coarse_facial_features "Coarse facial features"), [macroglossia](/wiki/Macroglossia "Macroglossia"), [retinal degeneration](/wiki/Retinopathy "Retinopathy"), [corneal](/wiki/Cornea "Cornea") clouding, [cardiomyopathy](/wiki/Cardiomyopathy "Cardiomyopathy"), [hepatosplenomegaly](/wiki/Hepatosplenomegaly "Hepatosplenomegaly") \| 1:100,000[eMedicine Specialties \> Mucopolysaccharidosis Type I](http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1599374-overview) Author: Maryam Banikazemi. Updated: Apr 14, 2009 \| \| MPS IH/S \| [Hurler–Scheie syndrome](/wiki/Hurler%E2%80%93Scheie_syndrome "Hurler–Scheie syndrome") \| {{OMIM\\|607015\\|\\|none}} \| \| MPS IS \| [Scheie syndrome](/wiki/Scheie_syndrome "Scheie syndrome")Formerly: Mucopolysaccharidosis type V \| {{OMIM\\|607016\\|\\|none}} \| \| MPS II \| [Hunter syndrome](/wiki/Hunter_syndrome "Hunter syndrome") \| {{OMIM\\|309900\\|\\|none}} \| [IDS](/wiki/IDS_%28gene%29 "IDS (gene)") \| Xq28 \| [Iduronate sulfatase](/wiki/Iduronate_sulfatase "Iduronate sulfatase") \| [Heparan sulfate](/wiki/Heparan_sulfate "Heparan sulfate")[Dermatan sulfate](/wiki/Dermatan_sulfate "Dermatan sulfate") \| [Intellectual disability](/wiki/Intellectual_disability "Intellectual disability") (similar, but milder, symptoms to MPS I). This type exceptionally has [X\-linked recessive](/wiki/X-linked_recessive "X-linked recessive") inheritance \| 1:100,000\-1:150,000 males \| \| MPS IIIA \| [Sanfilippo syndrome](/wiki/Sanfilippo_syndrome "Sanfilippo syndrome") ASulfamidase deficiency \| {{OMIM\\|252900\\|\\|none}} \| [SGSH](/wiki/SGSH "SGSH") \| 17q25\.3 \| [Heparan sulfamidase](/wiki/Heparan_sulfamidase "Heparan sulfamidase") \| [Heparan sulfate](/wiki/Heparan_sulfate "Heparan sulfate") [Developmental delay](/wiki/Developmental_disability "Developmental disability"), severe [hyperactivity](/wiki/Hyperactivity "Hyperactivity"), spasticity, [motor dysfunction](/wiki/Motor_dysfunction "Motor dysfunction"), death by the second decade 1:280,000{{cite journal \\| vauthors \= Nelson J \\| title \= Incidence of the mucopolysaccharidoses in Northern Ireland \\| journal \= Human Genetics \\| volume \= 101 \\| issue \= 3 \\| pages \= 355–8 \\| date \= December 1997 \\| pmid \= 9439667 \\| doi \= 10\.1007/s004390050641 \\| s2cid \= 23099247 }} – 1:50,000{{cite journal \\| vauthors \= Poorthuis BJ, Wevers RA, Kleijer WJ, Groener JE, de Jong JG, van Weely S, Niezen\-Koning KE, van Diggelen OP \\| display\-authors \= 6 \\| title \= The frequency of lysosomal storage diseases in The Netherlands \\| journal \= Human Genetics \\| volume \= 105 \\| issue \= 1–2 \\| pages \= 151–6 \\| year \= 1999 \\| pmid \= 10480370 \\| doi \= 10\.1007/s004390051078 }} \| MPS IIIB \| [Sanfilippo syndrome](/wiki/Sanfilippo_syndrome "Sanfilippo syndrome") BNAGLU deficiency \| {{OMIM\\|252920\\|\\|none}} \| [NAGLU](/wiki/NAGLU "NAGLU") \| 17q21\.2 \| [N\-acetylglucosaminidase](/wiki/N-acetylglucosaminidase "N-acetylglucosaminidase") \| \| MPS IIIC \| [Sanfilippo syndrome](/wiki/Sanfilippo_syndrome "Sanfilippo syndrome") C \| {{OMIM\\|252930\\|\\|none}} \| [HGSNAT](/wiki/HGSNAT "HGSNAT") \| 8p11\.21 \| [Heparan\-α\-glucosaminide N\-acetyltransferase](/wiki/Heparan-%CE%B1-glucosaminide_N-acetyltransferase "Heparan-α-glucosaminide N-acetyltransferase") \| \| MPS IIID \| [Sanfilippo syndrome](/wiki/Sanfilippo_syndrome "Sanfilippo syndrome") D \| {{OMIM\\|252940\\|\\|none}} \| [GNS](/wiki/GNS_%28gene%29 "GNS (gene)") \| 12q14\.3 \| [N\-acetylglucosamine 6\-sulfatase](/wiki/N-acetylglucosamine_6-sulfatase "N-acetylglucosamine 6-sulfatase") \| \| MPS IVA \| [Morquio syndrome](/wiki/Morquio_syndrome "Morquio syndrome") A \| {{OMIM\\|253000\\|\\|none}} \| [GALNS](/wiki/GALNS "GALNS") \| 16q24\.3 \| [Galactose\-6\-sulfate sulfatase](/wiki/Galactose-6-sulfate_sulfatase "Galactose-6-sulfate sulfatase") \| [Keratan sulfate](/wiki/Keratan_sulfate "Keratan sulfate")[Chondroitin 6\-sulfate](/wiki/Chondroitin_6-sulfate "Chondroitin 6-sulfate") \| Severe [skeletal dysplasia](/wiki/Skeletal_dysplasia "Skeletal dysplasia"), short stature, motor dysfunction \| 1 in 75,000 \| \| MPS IVB \| [Morquio syndrome](/wiki/Morquio_syndrome "Morquio syndrome") B \| {{OMIM\\|253010\\|\\|none}} \| [GLB1](/wiki/GLB1 "GLB1") \| 3p22\.3 \| [β\-galactosidase](/wiki/%CE%92-galactosidase "Β-galactosidase") \| [Keratan sulfate](/wiki/Keratan_sulfate "Keratan sulfate") \| \| MPS V \| See MPS IS (Scheie syndrome) above \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| MPS VI \| [Maroteaux–Lamy syndrome](/wiki/Maroteaux%E2%80%93Lamy_syndrome "Maroteaux–Lamy syndrome")ARSB deficiency \| {{OMIM\\|253200\\|\\|none}} \| [ARSB](/wiki/ARSB "ARSB") \| 5q14\.1 \| [N\-acetylgalactosamine\-4\-sulfatase](/wiki/N-acetylgalactosamine-4-sulfatase "N-acetylgalactosamine-4-sulfatase") \| [Dermatan sulfate](/wiki/Dermatan_sulfate "Dermatan sulfate") \| Severe [skeletal dysplasia](/wiki/Skeletal_dysplasia "Skeletal dysplasia"), short stature, motor dysfunction, [kyphosis](/wiki/Kyphosis "Kyphosis"), heart defects \| \| \| MPS VII \| [Sly syndrome](/wiki/Sly_syndrome "Sly syndrome")GUSB deficiency \| {{OMIM\\|253220\\|\\|none}} \| [GUSB](/wiki/GUSB "GUSB") \| 7q11\.21 \| [β\-glucuronidase](/wiki/%CE%92-glucuronidase "Β-glucuronidase") \| [Heparan sulfate](/wiki/Heparan_sulfate "Heparan sulfate")[Dermatan sulfate](/wiki/Dermatan_sulfate "Dermatan sulfate")[Chondroitin 4,6\-sulfate](/wiki/Chondroitin_4%2C6-sulfate "Chondroitin 4,6-sulfate") \| [Hepatomegaly](/wiki/Hepatomegaly "Hepatomegaly"), skeletal dysplasia, short stature, corneal clouding, developmental delay \| \<1:250,000 \| \| MPS IX \| [Natowicz syndrome](/wiki/Hyaluronidase_deficiency "Hyaluronidase deficiency")Hyaluronidase deficiency \| {{OMIM\\|601492\\|\\|none}} \| [HYAL1](/wiki/HYAL1 "HYAL1") \| 3p21\.31 \| [Hyaluronidase](/wiki/Hyaluronidase "Hyaluronidase") \| [Hyaluronic acid](/wiki/Hyaluronic_acid "Hyaluronic acid") \| Nodular soft\-tissue masses around joints, episodes of painful swelling of the masses, short\-term pain, mild facial changes, short stature, normal joint movement, normal intelligence \| \| ### MPS I [MPS I](/wiki/Mucopolysaccharidosis_type_I "Mucopolysaccharidosis type I") is divided into three subtypes based on severity of symptoms. All three types result from an absence of, or insufficient levels of, the [enzyme](/wiki/Enzyme "Enzyme") [alpha\-L\-iduronidase](/wiki/Alpha-L-iduronidase "Alpha-L-iduronidase"). Children born to an MPS I parent carry the defective [gene](/wiki/Gene "Gene"). * MPS I H (also called [Hurler syndrome](/wiki/Hurler_syndrome "Hurler syndrome") or α\-L\-iduronidase deficiency), is the most severe of the MPS I subtypes. Developmental delay is evident by the end of the first year, and patients usually stop developing between ages 2 and 4\. This is followed by progressive mental decline and loss of physical skills. Language may be limited due to hearing loss and an enlarged tongue. In time, the clear layers of the cornea become clouded and retinas may begin to degenerate. Carpal tunnel syndrome (or similar compression of nerves elsewhere in the body) and restricted joint movement are common. Affected children may be quite large at birth and appear normal but may have [inguinal](/wiki/Inguinal_hernia "Inguinal hernia") (in the groin) or [umbilical](/wiki/Umbilical_hernia "Umbilical hernia") (where the umbilical cord passes through the abdomen) hernias. Growth in height may be faster than normal but begins to slow before the end of the first year and often ends around age 3\. Many children develop a short body trunk and a maximum stature of less than 4 feet. Distinct facial features (including flat face, depressed nasal bridge, and bulging forehead) become more evident in the second year. By age 2, the ribs have widened and are oar\-shaped. The [liver](/wiki/Liver "Liver"), [spleen](/wiki/Spleen "Spleen"), and [heart](/wiki/Heart "Heart") are often enlarged. Children may experience noisy breathing and recurring upper respiratory tract and ear infections. Feeding may be difficult for some children, and many experience periodic bowel problems. Children with Hurler syndrome often die before age 10 from obstructive airway disease, respiratory infections, and cardiac complications. * MPS I S, [Scheie syndrome](/wiki/Scheie_syndrome "Scheie syndrome"), is the mildest form of MPS I. Symptoms generally begin to appear after age 5, with diagnosis most commonly made after age 10\. Children with Scheie syndrome have normal intelligence or may have mild learning disabilities; some may have psychiatric problems. [Glaucoma](/wiki/Glaucoma "Glaucoma"), retinal degeneration, and clouded corneas may significantly impair vision. Other problems include carpal tunnel syndrome or other nerve compression, stiff joints, claw hands and deformed feet, a short neck, and aortic valve disease. Some affected individuals also have obstructive airway disease and sleep apnea. Persons with Scheie syndrome can live into adulthood. * MPS I H\-S, [Hurler–Scheie syndrome](/wiki/Hurler%E2%80%93Scheie_syndrome "Hurler–Scheie syndrome"), is less severe than Hurler syndrome alone. Symptoms generally begin between ages 3 and 8\. Children may have moderate intellectual disability and learning difficulties. Skeletal and systemic irregularities include short stature, marked smallness in the jaws, progressive joint stiffness, compressed spinal cord, clouded corneas, hearing loss, heart disease, coarse facial features, and umbilical hernia. Respiratory problems, sleep apnea, and heart disease may develop in adolescence. Some persons with MPS I H\-S need continuous positive airway pressure during sleep to ease breathing. Life expectancy is generally into the late teens or early twenties. Although no studies have been done to determine the frequency of MPS I in the United States, studies in [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia "British Columbia") estimate that 1 in 100,000 babies born has Hurler syndrome. The estimate for Scheie syndrome is one in 500,000 births and for Hurler\-Scheie syndrome it is one in 115,000 births. ### MPS II MPS II, [Hunter syndrome](/wiki/Hunter_syndrome "Hunter syndrome") or iduronate sulfatase deficiency, is caused by lack of the enzyme [iduronate sulfatase](/wiki/Iduronate_sulfatase "Iduronate sulfatase"). Hunter syndrome has two clinical subtypes and (since it shows X\-linked recessive inheritance) is the only one of the mucopolysaccharidoses in which the mother alone can pass the defective gene to a son. The incidence of Hunter syndrome is estimated to be 1 in 100,000 to 150,000 male births. ### MPS III MPS III, [Sanfilippo syndrome](/wiki/Sanfilippo_syndrome "Sanfilippo syndrome"), is marked by severe [neurological](/wiki/Neurological "Neurological") symptoms. These include progressive [dementia](/wiki/Dementia "Dementia"), aggressive behavior, hyperactivity, [seizures](/wiki/Seizures "Seizures"), some deafness and loss of [vision](/wiki/Visual_perception "Visual perception"), and an inability to sleep for more than a few hours at a time. This disorder tends to have three main stages. During the first stage, early mental and motor skill development may be somewhat delayed. Affected children show a marked decline in learning between ages 2 and 6, followed by eventual loss of language skills and loss of some or all hearing. Some children may never learn to speak. In the syndrome's second stage, aggressive behavior, hyperactivity, profound dementia, and irregular sleep may make children difficult to manage, particularly those who retain normal physical strength. In the syndrome's last stage, children become increasingly unsteady on their feet and most are unable to walk by age 10\. Thickened skin and mild changes in facial features, bone, and skeletal structures become noticeable with age. Growth in height usually stops by age 10\. Other problems may include narrowing of the airway passage in the throat and enlargement of the [tonsils](/wiki/Tonsils "Tonsils") and [adenoids](/wiki/Adenoids "Adenoids"), making it difficult to eat or swallow. Recurring respiratory infections are common. There are four distinct types of Sanfilippo syndrome, each caused by alteration of a different enzyme needed to completely break down the [heparan sulfate](/wiki/Heparan_sulfate "Heparan sulfate") sugar chain. Little clinical difference exists between these four types but symptoms appear most severe and seem to progress more quickly in children with type A. The average duration of Sanfilippo syndrome is 8 to 10 years following onset of symptoms. Most persons with MPS III live into their teenage years, and some live longer. * Sanfilippo A is the most severe of the MPS III disorders and is caused by the missing or altered enzyme heparan N\-sulfatase. Children with Sanfilippo A have the shortest survival rate among those with the MPS III disorders. * Sanfilippo B is caused by the missing or deficient enzyme alpha\-N\-acetylglucosaminidase. * Sanfilippo C results from the missing or altered enzyme acetyl\-CoAlpha\-glucosaminide acetyltransferase. * Sanfilippo D is caused by the missing or deficient enzyme N\-acetylglucosamine 6\-sulfatase. The incidence of Sanfilippo syndrome (for all four types combined) is about one in 70,000 births. ### MPS IV MPS IV, [Morquio syndrome](/wiki/Morquio_syndrome "Morquio syndrome"), is estimated to occur in 1 in 700,000 births. Its two subtypes result from the missing or deficient enzymes N\-acetylgalactosamine\-6\-sulfatase (GALNS) (Type A) or beta\-galactosidase (Type B) needed to break down the keratan sulfate sugar chain. Clinical features are similar in both types but appear milder in Morquio Type B. Onset is between ages 1 and 3\. Neurological complications include spinal nerve and nerve root compression resulting from extreme, progressive skeletal changes, particularly in the ribs and chest; conductive and/or neurosensitive loss of hearing and clouded corneas. Intelligence is normal unless [hydrocephalus](/wiki/Hydrocephalus "Hydrocephalus") develops and is not treated. Physical growth slows generally around the age of 18 months, and stops completely by the age of 8\. Skeletal abnormalities include a bell\-shaped chest, a flattening or curvature of the spine, shortened long bones, and [dysplasia](/wiki/Dysplasia "Dysplasia") of the hips, knees, ankles, and wrists. The bones that stabilize the connection between the head and neck can be malformed (odontoid hypoplasia); in these cases, a surgical procedure called spinal cervical bone fusion can be lifesaving. Restricted breathing, joint stiffness, and heart disease are also common. Children with the more severe form of Morquio syndrome may not live beyond their twenties or thirties. ### MPS VI Children with MPS VI, [Maroteaux–Lamy syndrome](/wiki/Maroteaux%E2%80%93Lamy_syndrome "Maroteaux–Lamy syndrome"), usually have normal intellectual development but share many of the physical symptoms found in [Hurler syndrome](/wiki/Hurler_syndrome "Hurler syndrome"). Caused by the deficient enzyme N\-acetylgalactosamine 4\-sulfatase, Maroteaux\-Lamy syndrome has a variable spectrum of severe symptoms. Neurological complications include clouded corneas, deafness, thickening of the dura (the membrane that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord), and pain caused by compressed or traumatized nerves and nerve roots. Growth is normal at first but stops suddenly around age 8\. By age 10 children have developed a shortened trunk, crouched stance, and restricted joint movement. In more severe cases, children also develop a protruding abdomen and forward\-curving spine. Skeletal changes (particularly in the pelvic region) are progressive and limit movement. Many children also have umbilical or inguinal hernias. Nearly all children have some form of heart disease. An enzyme replacement therapy was tested on patients with MPS VI and was successful in that it improved growth and joint movement. An experiment was then carried out to see whether an injection of the missing enzyme into the hips would help the range of motion and pain. ### MPS VII MPS VII, [Sly syndrome](/wiki/Sly_syndrome "Sly syndrome"), one of the least common forms of the mucopolysaccharidoses, is estimated to occur in fewer than one in 250,000 births. The disorder is caused by deficiency of the enzyme beta\-glucuronidase. In its rarest form, Sly syndrome causes children to be born with [hydrops fetalis](/wiki/Hydrops_fetalis "Hydrops fetalis"), in which extreme amounts of fluid are retained in the body. Survival is usually a few months or less. Most children with Sly syndrome are less severely affected. Neurological symptoms may include mild to moderate intellectual disability by age 3, communicating hydrocephalus, nerve entrapment, corneal clouding, and some loss of peripheral and night vision. Other symptoms include short stature, some skeletal irregularities, joint stiffness and restricted movement, and umbilical and/or inguinal hernias. Some patients may have repeated bouts of pneumonia during their first years of life. Most children with Sly syndrome live into the teenage or young adult years. ### MPS IX As of 2001, only one case of [MPS IX](/wiki/MPS_IX "MPS IX") ({{OMIM\\|601492}}) had been reported. The disorder results from [hyaluronidase](/wiki/Hyaluronidase "Hyaluronidase") deficiency. Symptoms included nodular soft\-tissue masses located around joints, with episodes of painful swelling of the masses and pain that ended spontaneously within 3 days. Pelvic radiography showed multiple soft\-tissue masses and some bone erosion. Other traits included mild facial changes, acquired short stature as seen in other MPS disorders, and normal joint movement and intelligence.	[ "Diagnosis\n---------", "Diagnosis often can be made through clinical examination and urine tests (excess mucopolysaccharides are excreted in the urine). Enzyme assays (testing a variety of cells or body fluids in culture for enzyme deficiency) are also used to provide definitive diagnosis of one of the mucopolysaccharidoses. Prenatal diagnosis using [amniocentesis](/wiki/Amniocentesis \"Amniocentesis\") and [chorionic villus sampling](/wiki/Chorionic_villus_sampling \"Chorionic villus sampling\") can verify if a fetus either carries a copy of the defective gene or is affected with the disorder. Genetic counseling can help parents who have a family history of the mucopolysaccharidoses determine if they are carrying the mutated gene that causes the disorders.", "### Types", "Seven distinct clinical types and numerous subtypes of the mucopolysaccharidoses have been identified. Although each mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS) differs clinically, most patients generally experience a period of normal development followed by a decline in physical and/or mental function. (Note: MPS\\-V and MPS\\-VIII are no longer in use as designations for any disease.)", "### Overview table", "", "\| \\+ Main mucopolysaccharidoses \| Type{{cite book \\\| vauthors \\= Marks DB, Swanson T, Kim SI, Glucksman M \\\|title\\=Biochemistry and molecular biology \\\|publisher\\=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams \\& Wilkins \\\|location\\=Philadelphia \\\|year\\=2007 \\\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-7817\\-8624\\-9 \\\|url\\-access\\=registration \\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/biochemistrymole0000swan\\_f9p0 }} \| Common nameOther names \| [OMIM](/wiki/OMIM \"OMIM\") \| [Gene](/wiki/Gene \"Gene\") \| [Locus](/wiki/Locus_%28genetics%29 \"Locus (genetics)\") \| Deficient enzyme \| Accumulated products \| Symptoms \| Incidence \|", "\| MPS IH \| [Hurler syndrome](/wiki/Hurler_syndrome \"Hurler syndrome\") \| {{OMIM\\\|607014\\\|\\\|none}} \| [IDUA](/wiki/IDUA \"IDUA\") \| 4p16\\.3 \| [α\\-L\\-iduronidase](/wiki/%CE%91-L-iduronidase \"Α-L-iduronidase\") \| [Heparan sulfate](/wiki/Heparan_sulfate \"Heparan sulfate\")[Dermatan sulfate](/wiki/Dermatan_sulfate \"Dermatan sulfate\") \| [Intellectual disability](/wiki/Intellectual_disability \"Intellectual disability\"), [micrognathia](/wiki/Micrognathia \"Micrognathia\"), [coarse facial features](/wiki/Coarse_facial_features \"Coarse facial features\"), [macroglossia](/wiki/Macroglossia \"Macroglossia\"), [retinal degeneration](/wiki/Retinopathy \"Retinopathy\"), [corneal](/wiki/Cornea \"Cornea\") clouding, [cardiomyopathy](/wiki/Cardiomyopathy \"Cardiomyopathy\"), [hepatosplenomegaly](/wiki/Hepatosplenomegaly \"Hepatosplenomegaly\") \| 1:100,000[eMedicine Specialties \\> Mucopolysaccharidosis Type I](http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1599374-overview) Author: Maryam Banikazemi. Updated: Apr 14, 2009 \|\n\| MPS IH/S \| [Hurler–Scheie syndrome](/wiki/Hurler%E2%80%93Scheie_syndrome \"Hurler–Scheie syndrome\") \| {{OMIM\\\|607015\\\|\\\|none}} \|\n\| MPS IS \| [Scheie syndrome](/wiki/Scheie_syndrome \"Scheie syndrome\")Formerly: Mucopolysaccharidosis type V \| {{OMIM\\\|607016\\\|\\\|none}} \|\n\| MPS II \| [Hunter syndrome](/wiki/Hunter_syndrome \"Hunter syndrome\") \| {{OMIM\\\|309900\\\|\\\|none}} \| [IDS](/wiki/IDS_%28gene%29 \"IDS (gene)\") \| Xq28 \| [Iduronate sulfatase](/wiki/Iduronate_sulfatase \"Iduronate sulfatase\") \| [Heparan sulfate](/wiki/Heparan_sulfate \"Heparan sulfate\")[Dermatan sulfate](/wiki/Dermatan_sulfate \"Dermatan sulfate\") \| [Intellectual disability](/wiki/Intellectual_disability \"Intellectual disability\") (similar, but milder, symptoms to MPS I). This type exceptionally has [X\\-linked recessive](/wiki/X-linked_recessive \"X-linked recessive\") inheritance \| 1:100,000\\-1:150,000 males \|\n\| MPS IIIA \| [Sanfilippo syndrome](/wiki/Sanfilippo_syndrome \"Sanfilippo syndrome\") ASulfamidase deficiency \| {{OMIM\\\|252900\\\|\\\|none}} \| [SGSH](/wiki/SGSH \"SGSH\") \| 17q25\\.3 \| [Heparan sulfamidase](/wiki/Heparan_sulfamidase \"Heparan sulfamidase\") \| [Heparan sulfate](/wiki/Heparan_sulfate \"Heparan sulfate\")", "[Developmental delay](/wiki/Developmental_disability \"Developmental disability\"), severe [hyperactivity](/wiki/Hyperactivity \"Hyperactivity\"), spasticity, [motor dysfunction](/wiki/Motor_dysfunction \"Motor dysfunction\"), death by the second decade", "1:280,000{{cite journal \\\| vauthors \\= Nelson J \\\| title \\= Incidence of the mucopolysaccharidoses in Northern Ireland \\\| journal \\= Human Genetics \\\| volume \\= 101 \\\| issue \\= 3 \\\| pages \\= 355–8 \\\| date \\= December 1997 \\\| pmid \\= 9439667 \\\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/s004390050641 \\\| s2cid \\= 23099247 }} – 1:50,000{{cite journal \\\| vauthors \\= Poorthuis BJ, Wevers RA, Kleijer WJ, Groener JE, de Jong JG, van Weely S, Niezen\\-Koning KE, van Diggelen OP \\\| display\\-authors \\= 6 \\\| title \\= The frequency of lysosomal storage diseases in The Netherlands \\\| journal \\= Human Genetics \\\| volume \\= 105 \\\| issue \\= 1–2 \\\| pages \\= 151–6 \\\| year \\= 1999 \\\| pmid \\= 10480370 \\\| doi \\= 10\\.1007/s004390051078 }}", "\| MPS IIIB \| [Sanfilippo syndrome](/wiki/Sanfilippo_syndrome \"Sanfilippo syndrome\") BNAGLU deficiency \| {{OMIM\\\|252920\\\|\\\|none}} \| [NAGLU](/wiki/NAGLU \"NAGLU\") \| 17q21\\.2 \| [N\\-acetylglucosaminidase](/wiki/N-acetylglucosaminidase \"N-acetylglucosaminidase\") \|\n\| MPS IIIC \| [Sanfilippo syndrome](/wiki/Sanfilippo_syndrome \"Sanfilippo syndrome\") C \| {{OMIM\\\|252930\\\|\\\|none}} \| [HGSNAT](/wiki/HGSNAT \"HGSNAT\") \| 8p11\\.21 \| [Heparan\\-α\\-glucosaminide N\\-acetyltransferase](/wiki/Heparan-%CE%B1-glucosaminide_N-acetyltransferase \"Heparan-α-glucosaminide N-acetyltransferase\") \|\n\| MPS IIID \| [Sanfilippo syndrome](/wiki/Sanfilippo_syndrome \"Sanfilippo syndrome\") D \| {{OMIM\\\|252940\\\|\\\|none}} \| [GNS](/wiki/GNS_%28gene%29 \"GNS (gene)\") \| 12q14\\.3 \| [N\\-acetylglucosamine 6\\-sulfatase](/wiki/N-acetylglucosamine_6-sulfatase \"N-acetylglucosamine 6-sulfatase\") \|\n\| MPS IVA \| [Morquio syndrome](/wiki/Morquio_syndrome \"Morquio syndrome\") A \| {{OMIM\\\|253000\\\|\\\|none}} \| [GALNS](/wiki/GALNS \"GALNS\") \| 16q24\\.3 \| [Galactose\\-6\\-sulfate sulfatase](/wiki/Galactose-6-sulfate_sulfatase \"Galactose-6-sulfate sulfatase\") \| [Keratan sulfate](/wiki/Keratan_sulfate \"Keratan sulfate\")[Chondroitin 6\\-sulfate](/wiki/Chondroitin_6-sulfate \"Chondroitin 6-sulfate\") \| Severe [skeletal dysplasia](/wiki/Skeletal_dysplasia \"Skeletal dysplasia\"), short stature, motor dysfunction \| 1 in 75,000 \|\n\| MPS IVB \| [Morquio syndrome](/wiki/Morquio_syndrome \"Morquio syndrome\") B \| {{OMIM\\\|253010\\\|\\\|none}} \| [GLB1](/wiki/GLB1 \"GLB1\") \| 3p22\\.3 \| [β\\-galactosidase](/wiki/%CE%92-galactosidase \"Β-galactosidase\") \| [Keratan sulfate](/wiki/Keratan_sulfate \"Keratan sulfate\") \|\n\| MPS V \| See MPS IS (Scheie syndrome) above \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|\n\| MPS VI \| [Maroteaux–Lamy syndrome](/wiki/Maroteaux%E2%80%93Lamy_syndrome \"Maroteaux–Lamy syndrome\")ARSB deficiency \| {{OMIM\\\|253200\\\|\\\|none}} \| [ARSB](/wiki/ARSB \"ARSB\") \| 5q14\\.1 \| [N\\-acetylgalactosamine\\-4\\-sulfatase](/wiki/N-acetylgalactosamine-4-sulfatase \"N-acetylgalactosamine-4-sulfatase\") \| [Dermatan sulfate](/wiki/Dermatan_sulfate \"Dermatan sulfate\") \| Severe [skeletal dysplasia](/wiki/Skeletal_dysplasia \"Skeletal dysplasia\"), short stature, motor dysfunction, [kyphosis](/wiki/Kyphosis \"Kyphosis\"), heart defects \| \|\n\| MPS VII \| [Sly syndrome](/wiki/Sly_syndrome \"Sly syndrome\")GUSB deficiency \| {{OMIM\\\|253220\\\|\\\|none}} \| [GUSB](/wiki/GUSB \"GUSB\") \| 7q11\\.21 \| [β\\-glucuronidase](/wiki/%CE%92-glucuronidase \"Β-glucuronidase\") \| [Heparan sulfate](/wiki/Heparan_sulfate \"Heparan sulfate\")[Dermatan sulfate](/wiki/Dermatan_sulfate \"Dermatan sulfate\")[Chondroitin 4,6\\-sulfate](/wiki/Chondroitin_4%2C6-sulfate \"Chondroitin 4,6-sulfate\") \| [Hepatomegaly](/wiki/Hepatomegaly \"Hepatomegaly\"), skeletal dysplasia, short stature, corneal clouding, developmental delay \| \\<1:250,000 \|\n\| MPS IX \| [Natowicz syndrome](/wiki/Hyaluronidase_deficiency \"Hyaluronidase deficiency\")Hyaluronidase deficiency \| {{OMIM\\\|601492\\\|\\\|none}} \| [HYAL1](/wiki/HYAL1 \"HYAL1\") \| 3p21\\.31 \| [Hyaluronidase](/wiki/Hyaluronidase \"Hyaluronidase\") \| [Hyaluronic acid](/wiki/Hyaluronic_acid \"Hyaluronic acid\") \| Nodular soft\\-tissue masses around joints, episodes of painful swelling of the masses, short\\-term pain, mild facial changes, short stature, normal joint movement, normal intelligence \| \|", "### MPS I", "[MPS I](/wiki/Mucopolysaccharidosis_type_I \"Mucopolysaccharidosis type I\") is divided into three subtypes based on severity of symptoms. All three types result from an absence of, or insufficient levels of, the [enzyme](/wiki/Enzyme \"Enzyme\") [alpha\\-L\\-iduronidase](/wiki/Alpha-L-iduronidase \"Alpha-L-iduronidase\"). Children born to an MPS I parent carry the defective [gene](/wiki/Gene \"Gene\").\n* MPS I H (also called [Hurler syndrome](/wiki/Hurler_syndrome \"Hurler syndrome\") or α\\-L\\-iduronidase deficiency), is the most severe of the MPS I subtypes. Developmental delay is evident by the end of the first year, and patients usually stop developing between ages 2 and 4\\. This is followed by progressive mental decline and loss of physical skills. Language may be limited due to hearing loss and an enlarged tongue. In time, the clear layers of the cornea become clouded and retinas may begin to degenerate. Carpal tunnel syndrome (or similar compression of nerves elsewhere in the body) and restricted joint movement are common.", "Affected children may be quite large at birth and appear normal but may have [inguinal](/wiki/Inguinal_hernia \"Inguinal hernia\") (in the groin) or [umbilical](/wiki/Umbilical_hernia \"Umbilical hernia\") (where the umbilical cord passes through the abdomen) hernias. Growth in height may be faster than normal but begins to slow before the end of the first year and often ends around age 3\\. Many children develop a short body trunk and a maximum stature of less than 4 feet. Distinct facial features (including flat face, depressed nasal bridge, and bulging forehead) become more evident in the second year. By age 2, the ribs have widened and are oar\\-shaped. The [liver](/wiki/Liver \"Liver\"), [spleen](/wiki/Spleen \"Spleen\"), and [heart](/wiki/Heart \"Heart\") are often enlarged. Children may experience noisy breathing and recurring upper respiratory tract and ear infections. Feeding may be difficult for some children, and many experience periodic bowel problems. Children with Hurler syndrome often die before age 10 from obstructive airway disease, respiratory infections, and cardiac complications.\n* MPS I S, [Scheie syndrome](/wiki/Scheie_syndrome \"Scheie syndrome\"), is the mildest form of MPS I. Symptoms generally begin to appear after age 5, with diagnosis most commonly made after age 10\\. Children with Scheie syndrome have normal intelligence or may have mild learning disabilities; some may have psychiatric problems. [Glaucoma](/wiki/Glaucoma \"Glaucoma\"), retinal degeneration, and clouded corneas may significantly impair vision. Other problems include carpal tunnel syndrome or other nerve compression, stiff joints, claw hands and deformed feet, a short neck, and aortic valve disease. Some affected individuals also have obstructive airway disease and sleep apnea. Persons with Scheie syndrome can live into adulthood.\n* MPS I H\\-S, [Hurler–Scheie syndrome](/wiki/Hurler%E2%80%93Scheie_syndrome \"Hurler–Scheie syndrome\"), is less severe than Hurler syndrome alone. Symptoms generally begin between ages 3 and 8\\. Children may have moderate intellectual disability and learning difficulties. Skeletal and systemic irregularities include short stature, marked smallness in the jaws, progressive joint stiffness, compressed spinal cord, clouded corneas, hearing loss, heart disease, coarse facial features, and umbilical hernia. Respiratory problems, sleep apnea, and heart disease may develop in adolescence. Some persons with MPS I H\\-S need continuous positive airway pressure during sleep to ease breathing. Life expectancy is generally into the late teens or early twenties.", "Although no studies have been done to determine the frequency of MPS I in the United States, studies in [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia \"British Columbia\") estimate that 1 in 100,000 babies born has Hurler syndrome. The estimate for Scheie syndrome is one in 500,000 births and for Hurler\\-Scheie syndrome it is one in 115,000 births.", "### MPS II", "MPS II, [Hunter syndrome](/wiki/Hunter_syndrome \"Hunter syndrome\") or iduronate sulfatase deficiency, is caused by lack of the enzyme [iduronate sulfatase](/wiki/Iduronate_sulfatase \"Iduronate sulfatase\"). Hunter syndrome has two clinical subtypes and (since it shows X\\-linked recessive inheritance) is the only one of the mucopolysaccharidoses in which the mother alone can pass the defective gene to a son. The incidence of Hunter syndrome is estimated to be 1 in 100,000 to 150,000 male births.", "### MPS III", "MPS III, [Sanfilippo syndrome](/wiki/Sanfilippo_syndrome \"Sanfilippo syndrome\"), is marked by severe [neurological](/wiki/Neurological \"Neurological\") symptoms. These include progressive [dementia](/wiki/Dementia \"Dementia\"), aggressive behavior, hyperactivity, [seizures](/wiki/Seizures \"Seizures\"), some deafness and loss of [vision](/wiki/Visual_perception \"Visual perception\"), and an inability to sleep for more than a few hours at a time. This disorder tends to have three main stages. During the first stage, early mental and motor skill development may be somewhat delayed. Affected children show a marked decline in learning between ages 2 and 6, followed by eventual loss of language skills and loss of some or all hearing. Some children may never learn to speak. In the syndrome's second stage, aggressive behavior, hyperactivity, profound dementia, and irregular sleep may make children difficult to manage, particularly those who retain normal physical strength. In the syndrome's last stage, children become increasingly unsteady on their feet and most are unable to walk by age 10\\.", "Thickened skin and mild changes in facial features, bone, and skeletal structures become noticeable with age. Growth in height usually stops by age 10\\. Other problems may include narrowing of the airway passage in the throat and enlargement of the [tonsils](/wiki/Tonsils \"Tonsils\") and [adenoids](/wiki/Adenoids \"Adenoids\"), making it difficult to eat or swallow. Recurring respiratory infections are common.", "There are four distinct types of Sanfilippo syndrome, each caused by alteration of a different enzyme needed to completely break down the [heparan sulfate](/wiki/Heparan_sulfate \"Heparan sulfate\") sugar chain. Little clinical difference exists between these four types but symptoms appear most severe and seem to progress more quickly in children with type A. The average duration of Sanfilippo syndrome is 8 to 10 years following onset of symptoms. Most persons with MPS III live into their teenage years, and some live longer.\n* Sanfilippo A is the most severe of the MPS III disorders and is caused by the missing or altered enzyme heparan N\\-sulfatase. Children with Sanfilippo A have the shortest survival rate among those with the MPS III disorders.\n* Sanfilippo B is caused by the missing or deficient enzyme alpha\\-N\\-acetylglucosaminidase.\n* Sanfilippo C results from the missing or altered enzyme acetyl\\-CoAlpha\\-glucosaminide acetyltransferase.\n* Sanfilippo D is caused by the missing or deficient enzyme N\\-acetylglucosamine 6\\-sulfatase.", "The incidence of Sanfilippo syndrome (for all four types combined) is about one in 70,000 births.", "### MPS IV", "MPS IV, [Morquio syndrome](/wiki/Morquio_syndrome \"Morquio syndrome\"), is estimated to occur in 1 in 700,000 births. Its two subtypes result from the missing or deficient enzymes N\\-acetylgalactosamine\\-6\\-sulfatase (GALNS) (Type A) or beta\\-galactosidase (Type B) needed to break down the keratan sulfate sugar chain. Clinical features are similar in both types but appear milder in Morquio Type B. Onset is between ages 1 and 3\\. Neurological complications include spinal nerve and nerve root compression resulting from extreme, progressive skeletal changes, particularly in the ribs and chest; conductive and/or neurosensitive loss of hearing and clouded corneas. Intelligence is normal unless [hydrocephalus](/wiki/Hydrocephalus \"Hydrocephalus\") develops and is not treated.", "Physical growth slows generally around the age of 18 months, and stops completely by the age of 8\\. Skeletal abnormalities include a bell\\-shaped chest, a flattening or curvature of the spine, shortened long bones, and [dysplasia](/wiki/Dysplasia \"Dysplasia\") of the hips, knees, ankles, and wrists. The bones that stabilize the connection between the head and neck can be malformed (odontoid hypoplasia); in these cases, a surgical procedure called spinal cervical bone fusion can be lifesaving. Restricted breathing, joint stiffness, and heart disease are also common. Children with the more severe form of Morquio syndrome may not live beyond their twenties or thirties.", "### MPS VI", "Children with MPS VI, [Maroteaux–Lamy syndrome](/wiki/Maroteaux%E2%80%93Lamy_syndrome \"Maroteaux–Lamy syndrome\"), usually have normal intellectual development but share many of the physical symptoms found in [Hurler syndrome](/wiki/Hurler_syndrome \"Hurler syndrome\"). Caused by the deficient enzyme N\\-acetylgalactosamine 4\\-sulfatase, Maroteaux\\-Lamy syndrome has a variable spectrum of severe symptoms. Neurological complications include clouded corneas, deafness, thickening of the dura (the membrane that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord), and pain caused by compressed or traumatized nerves and nerve roots.", "Growth is normal at first but stops suddenly around age 8\\. By age 10 children have developed a shortened trunk, crouched stance, and restricted joint movement. In more severe cases, children also develop a protruding abdomen and forward\\-curving spine. Skeletal changes (particularly in the pelvic region) are progressive and limit movement. Many children also have umbilical or inguinal hernias. Nearly all children have some form of heart disease.", "An enzyme replacement therapy was tested on patients with MPS VI and was successful in that it improved growth and joint movement. An experiment was then carried out to see whether an injection of the missing enzyme into the hips would help the range of motion and pain.", "### MPS VII", "MPS VII, [Sly syndrome](/wiki/Sly_syndrome \"Sly syndrome\"), one of the least common forms of the mucopolysaccharidoses, is estimated to occur in fewer than one in 250,000 births. The disorder is caused by deficiency of the enzyme beta\\-glucuronidase. In its rarest form, Sly syndrome causes children to be born with [hydrops fetalis](/wiki/Hydrops_fetalis \"Hydrops fetalis\"), in which extreme amounts of fluid are retained in the body. Survival is usually a few months or less. Most children with Sly syndrome are less severely affected. Neurological symptoms may include mild to moderate intellectual disability by age 3, communicating hydrocephalus, nerve entrapment, corneal clouding, and some loss of peripheral and night vision. Other symptoms include short stature, some skeletal irregularities, joint stiffness and restricted movement, and umbilical and/or inguinal hernias. Some patients may have repeated bouts of pneumonia during their first years of life. Most children with Sly syndrome live into the teenage or young adult years.", "### MPS IX", "As of 2001, only one case of [MPS IX](/wiki/MPS_IX \"MPS IX\") ({{OMIM\\\|601492}}) had been reported. The disorder results from [hyaluronidase](/wiki/Hyaluronidase \"Hyaluronidase\") deficiency. Symptoms included nodular soft\\-tissue masses located around joints, with episodes of painful swelling of the masses and pain that ended spontaneously within 3 days. Pelvic radiography showed multiple soft\\-tissue masses and some bone erosion. Other traits included mild facial changes, acquired short stature as seen in other MPS disorders, and normal joint movement and intelligence.", "" ]
Debate on the application of the five points -------------------------------------------- A great debate has emerged about these points have been respected or not. [Silvio Berlusconi](/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi "Silvio Berlusconi") has repeatedly publicly affirmed that four of the five have been respected. The first point, namely the lowering of the rates would not have been implemented because of resistance within the center\-right coalition. According to [sociologist](/wiki/Sociologist "Sociologist") [Luca Ricolfi](/wiki/Luca_Ricolfi "Luca Ricolfi"), when asked if Berlusconi had honored the contract with the Italians, he replied: "No. He did not have to stand for election if he was a man of honor. He had only a promise kept completely out of five, that of pensions. On average, the promises of Berlusconi were kept only 60%. " Journalists [Marco Travaglio](/wiki/Marco_Travaglio "Marco Travaglio") and [Peter Gomez](/wiki/Peter_Gomez_%28writer%29 "Peter Gomez (writer)"), in their book Le mille balle blu, have stated that none of the five points was complied and concluded ironically: "Although missed all five goals, Silvio Berlusconi is re\-nominated. So does not maintain even the sixth and final commitment" ### Reduction of tax burden Berlusconi agreed to move to a system of two rates, a 23% (for incomes up to about 100,000 euros) and a 33% (for incomes over 100,000 euros), with the addition of the exemption from fees for incomes less than 11,000 per year, also provided for the total abolition of taxes on inheritance and donations. The economic measures led to a change of tax brackets. The two aliquots have not been introduced, while taxes on inheritance and donations have been effectively abolished for incomes over 350 million Lire (€180759\.91\). According to [ISTAT](/wiki/National_Institute_of_Statistics_%28Italy%29 "National Institute of Statistics (Italy)") data the tax burden from 2001 to 2004 decreased by 0\.1%, from 40\.7% to 40\.6%, while according to estimates by the Berlusconi government, the tax burden from 2001 to 2004 would have fall by 0\.4%, from 42\.2% to 41\.8% of [GDP](/wiki/GDP "GDP").Governo Berlusconi, Documento di programmazione economica e finanziaria per il 2006\-2009\. From the estimates of Marco Travaglio and Peter Gomez, however, the tax burden during the legislature has increased overall, taking into account the increase of local taxes and tariffs.Peter Gomez e Marco Travaglio, Le mille balle blu, pp. 397\-404 (2006, [Rizzoli](/wiki/RCS_MediaGroup "RCS MediaGroup"), {{ISBN\\|88\-17\-00943\-1}}). ### Decrease in crime The district police have been introduced gradually and according to estimates by the Ministry of the Interior in August 2005, arrived about 2200, covering about 500 districts or areas of 10,000 inhabitants (approximately 9% of Italian population). This has not positively impacted on the number of offenses, which increased during the term: in the first two years, from 2001 to 2003, the increase amounted to 6\.7% annually.Rapporto del [Censis](/wiki/Censis "Censis") pubblicato il 3 dicembre 2004 From 2003 to 2004, allegations of crime that have led to prosecution increased by 3\.7%.Francesco Favara, procuratore generale, Inaugurazione dell'anno giudiziario 2005\. Also in 2001, according to accounts by [ISTAT](/wiki/National_Institute_of_Statistics_%28Italy%29 "National Institute of Statistics (Italy)"), the number of crimes reported to the police was not 3 million, but 2,163,826\. ### Increase of minimum pensions In 2001, the [Italian Labour Union](/wiki/Italian_Labour_Union "Italian Labour Union") (UIL) has calculated that the elders who received less than one million lire a month pension was 5,901,244, at the end of 2002 rose to about 8 million, according to statistics of the economist [Tito Boeri](/wiki/Tito_Boeri "Tito Boeri"). Those who have actually cashed the increase to one million lire (€516\) were 1\.8 million, about 25%, while about 6 million continue to receive a pension lower. To keep the promise, would have served from 11 to 17 billion EUR (about 1 and a half points of [GDP](/wiki/GDP "GDP")). Therefore, Berlusconi decided to increase them only to those who was older than 70 years and couples with incomes not exceeding cumulative €6,800 per year (clause not mentioned in the Contract). ### Halving of unemployment The goal of halving unemployment has not been reached. According to [Eurostat](/wiki/Eurostat "Eurostat") in January 2001 the unemployment rate was 9\.9% (a halving would require to go down to 4\.95%), five years later, in 2006 had fallen to 7\.1%, a record low in Italy, but still above the 4\.95%. The objective of the creation of 1 million and a half new employment, according to data published by [Il Sole 24 Ore](/wiki/Il_Sole_24_Ore "Il Sole 24 Ore") has not been achieved. In fact, although in 2006 has been reached a historic high of employed amounted to 22\.5 million, the total increase in employment was 1,074,000 units, which should be deducted 343\.000 regularized workers, then coming down to about 700\.000 employment. ### Opening of the sites The fifth point involved "The opening of the sites for at least 40% of the investment scheduled in the Ten Year Plan for Great Works." Infrastructure Minister [Pietro Lunardi](/wiki/Pietro_Lunardi "Pietro Lunardi") claimed that adding up the works under construction and those entrusted, could be reached in June 2006 the 45% of investments. Considering only the actual opening of the construction sites, the data showed that the [Ministry of Infrastructure](/wiki/Ministry_of_Infrastructure "Ministry of Infrastructure") in January 2006 has achieved 21\.4% of the planned investments. If the forecasts come true the Ministry of Infrastructure, reported in the budget document known as the Law on goal four years after its approval, could be reached by June 2006 to cover a maximum of 25\.4%. It is considered that the time that elapses from reliance, not counted in the Contract with the Italians, until the opening of its site can be significant.[Il Sole 24 Ore](/wiki/Il_Sole_24_Ore "Il Sole 24 Ore"), [6 gennaio](/wiki/6_gennaio "6 gennaio") 2006	[ "Debate on the application of the five points\n--------------------------------------------", "A great debate has emerged about these points have been respected or not.", "[Silvio Berlusconi](/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi \"Silvio Berlusconi\") has repeatedly publicly affirmed that four of the five have been respected. The first point, namely the lowering of the rates would not have been implemented because of resistance within the center\\-right coalition.", "According to [sociologist](/wiki/Sociologist \"Sociologist\") [Luca Ricolfi](/wiki/Luca_Ricolfi \"Luca Ricolfi\"), when asked if Berlusconi had honored the contract with the Italians, he replied: \"No. He did not have to stand for election if he was a man of honor. He had only a promise kept completely out of five, that of pensions. On average, the promises of Berlusconi were kept only 60%. \"", "Journalists [Marco Travaglio](/wiki/Marco_Travaglio \"Marco Travaglio\") and [Peter Gomez](/wiki/Peter_Gomez_%28writer%29 \"Peter Gomez (writer)\"), in their book Le mille balle blu, have stated that none of the five points was complied and concluded ironically: \"Although missed all five goals, Silvio Berlusconi is re\\-nominated. So does not maintain even the sixth and final commitment\"", "### Reduction of tax burden", "Berlusconi agreed to move to a system of two rates, a 23% (for incomes up to about 100,000 euros) and a 33% (for incomes over 100,000 euros), with the addition of the exemption from fees for incomes less than 11,000 per year, also provided for the total abolition of taxes on inheritance and donations.\nThe economic measures led to a change of tax brackets. The two aliquots have not been introduced, while taxes on inheritance and donations have been effectively abolished for incomes over 350 million Lire (€180759\\.91\\).\nAccording to [ISTAT](/wiki/National_Institute_of_Statistics_%28Italy%29 \"National Institute of Statistics (Italy)\") data the tax burden from 2001 to 2004 decreased by 0\\.1%, from 40\\.7% to 40\\.6%, while according to estimates by the Berlusconi government, the tax burden from 2001 to 2004 would have fall by 0\\.4%, from 42\\.2% to 41\\.8% of [GDP](/wiki/GDP \"GDP\").Governo Berlusconi, Documento di programmazione economica e finanziaria per il 2006\\-2009\\.\nFrom the estimates of Marco Travaglio and Peter Gomez, however, the tax burden during the legislature has increased overall, taking into account the increase of local taxes and tariffs.Peter Gomez e Marco Travaglio, Le mille balle blu, pp. 397\\-404 (2006, [Rizzoli](/wiki/RCS_MediaGroup \"RCS MediaGroup\"), {{ISBN\\\|88\\-17\\-00943\\-1}}).", "### Decrease in crime", "The district police have been introduced gradually and according to estimates by the Ministry of the Interior in August 2005, arrived about 2200, covering about 500 districts or areas of 10,000 inhabitants (approximately 9% of Italian population). This has not positively impacted on the number of offenses, which increased during the term: in the first two years, from 2001 to 2003, the increase amounted to 6\\.7% annually.Rapporto del [Censis](/wiki/Censis \"Censis\") pubblicato il 3 dicembre 2004 From 2003 to 2004, allegations of crime that have led to prosecution increased by 3\\.7%.Francesco Favara, procuratore generale, Inaugurazione dell'anno giudiziario 2005\\.", "Also in 2001, according to accounts by [ISTAT](/wiki/National_Institute_of_Statistics_%28Italy%29 \"National Institute of Statistics (Italy)\"), the number of crimes reported to the police was not 3 million, but 2,163,826\\.", "### Increase of minimum pensions", "In 2001, the [Italian Labour Union](/wiki/Italian_Labour_Union \"Italian Labour Union\") (UIL) has calculated that the elders who received less than one million lire a month pension was 5,901,244, at the end of 2002 rose to about 8 million, according to statistics of the economist [Tito Boeri](/wiki/Tito_Boeri \"Tito Boeri\").\nThose who have actually cashed the increase to one million lire (€516\\) were 1\\.8 million, about 25%, while about 6 million continue to receive a pension lower. To keep the promise, would have served from 11 to 17 billion EUR (about 1 and a half points of [GDP](/wiki/GDP \"GDP\")). Therefore, Berlusconi decided to increase them only to those who was older than 70 years and couples with incomes not exceeding cumulative €6,800 per year (clause not mentioned in the Contract).", "### Halving of unemployment", "The goal of halving unemployment has not been reached. According to [Eurostat](/wiki/Eurostat \"Eurostat\") in January 2001 the unemployment rate was 9\\.9% (a halving would require to go down to 4\\.95%), five years later, in 2006 had fallen to 7\\.1%, a record low in Italy, but still above the 4\\.95%.\nThe objective of the creation of 1 million and a half new employment, according to data published by [Il Sole 24 Ore](/wiki/Il_Sole_24_Ore \"Il Sole 24 Ore\") has not been achieved. In fact, although in 2006 has been reached a historic high of employed amounted to 22\\.5 million, the total increase in employment was 1,074,000 units, which should be deducted 343\\.000 regularized workers, then coming down to about 700\\.000 employment.", "### Opening of the sites", "The fifth point involved \"The opening of the sites for at least 40% of the investment scheduled in the Ten Year Plan for Great Works.\"\nInfrastructure Minister [Pietro Lunardi](/wiki/Pietro_Lunardi \"Pietro Lunardi\") claimed that adding up the works under construction and those entrusted, could be reached in June 2006 the 45% of investments.\nConsidering only the actual opening of the construction sites, the data showed that the [Ministry of Infrastructure](/wiki/Ministry_of_Infrastructure \"Ministry of Infrastructure\") in January 2006 has achieved 21\\.4% of the planned investments. If the forecasts come true the Ministry of Infrastructure, reported in the budget document known as the Law on goal four years after its approval, could be reached by June 2006 to cover a maximum of 25\\.4%. It is considered that the time that elapses from reliance, not counted in the Contract with the Italians, until the opening of its site can be significant.[Il Sole 24 Ore](/wiki/Il_Sole_24_Ore \"Il Sole 24 Ore\"), [6 gennaio](/wiki/6_gennaio \"6 gennaio\") 2006", "" ]
Lead detectives --------------- ### Joseph Greco {{BLP sources section\\|date\=April 2022}} Detective Joseph Greco of the [Perris](/wiki/Perris%2C_California "Perris, California") Police Department led the investigations into the murders of Norma Davis and June Roberts. He graduated from the Riverside County Sheriff's Academy as a pre\-service student and ranked among his graduating class's top ten (\#7\). Greco received numerous awards, including the Medal of Valor, for running into a plane to save victims of an accident at [Perris Valley Airport](/wiki/Perris_Valley_Airport "Perris Valley Airport") on April 22, 1992\.{{citation needed\\|date\=April 2022}} Greco was promoted to Corporal in 1992 and assigned as an investigator on all major crimes against persons. The first victim, 87\-year\-old Norma Davis case, in 1994, was only Greco's second homicide investigation. Because of the seriousness of the crimes and his lack of experience, Greco initially questioned his ability to do an adequate investigation but would eventually solve the case. Greco suspected that the Roberts and Davis cases were connected due to evidence collected in the case and ultimately discovered it was the work of one female killer. He identified Dana Sue Gray as a potential suspect and wrote a search warrant for her residence in Lake Elsinore, California. The search of Gray's home revealed vital information belonging not only to Roberts but also Beebe and a surprise third victim, Dorinda Hawkins (1936–2003\), the only woman who was not attacked at home and who later positively identified Gray through a photo line\-up. Faced with a mountain of strong circumstantial evidence in the case against her, along with the threat of the death penalty, Gray would eventually plead to life without the possibility of parole and waive all of her appellate rights. She made one condition, that the State not prosecute her for the murder of Norma Davis.{{citation needed\\|date\=April 2022}} Greco worked for the Riverside County Sheriff's Department's Lake Elsinore Station, specializing in [elder abuse](/wiki/Elder_abuse "Elder abuse"), [sexual assault](/wiki/Sexual_assault "Sexual assault"), and [child abuse](/wiki/Child_abuse "Child abuse") cases from 1998 to 2010\. He was later promoted to the rank of Sergeant in March 2010\. Television documentaries involving Detective Greco include: The "Discovery Channel" for the following shows: "[The New Detectives](/wiki/The_New_Detectives "The New Detectives")", Season 7, Episode 1, (New Dominion Pictures 2000\), "[Deadly Women](/wiki/Deadly_Women "Deadly Women")" (Beyond Productions 2009\)", [Unusual Suspects](/wiki/Unusual_Suspects_%28TV_program%29 "Unusual Suspects (TV program)")" (LMNO Productions 2009\) and "Forensic Factor 2" (Exploration Productions 2009\). ### Chris Antoniadas Detective Chris Antoniadas was the lead detective on the Dora Beebe case. After Detective Greco finished interviewing her, Antoniadas interviewed Gray. Antoniadas knew how to relate to people to gain their trust and have the person open up to him. Antoniadas also learned how to play someone's religion or insecurities against them. While interrogating Gray, Antoniadas had no clue how to approach her. Gray seemed cold and was unresponsive to any of Antoniadas's approaches. Antoniadas finally decided he needed to take some of Dana's control away from her. He then interrogated her roughly, yelling at her to confess, but was unsuccessful. Seeing that did not work, Antoniadas charged her with the murder of Dora Bebee based upon the discovery of Beebe's credit cards found in Gray's sock drawer during Detective Greco's search warrant.Braidhill, pp. 171–173\.	[ "Lead detectives\n---------------", "### Joseph Greco", "{{BLP sources section\\\|date\\=April 2022}}\nDetective Joseph Greco of the [Perris](/wiki/Perris%2C_California \"Perris, California\") Police Department led the investigations into the murders of Norma Davis and June Roberts. He graduated from the Riverside County Sheriff's Academy as a pre\\-service student and ranked among his graduating class's top ten (\\#7\\). Greco received numerous awards, including the Medal of Valor, for running into a plane to save victims of an accident at [Perris Valley Airport](/wiki/Perris_Valley_Airport \"Perris Valley Airport\") on April 22, 1992\\.{{citation needed\\\|date\\=April 2022}}", "Greco was promoted to Corporal in 1992 and assigned as an investigator on all major crimes against persons. The first victim, 87\\-year\\-old Norma Davis case, in 1994, was only Greco's second homicide investigation. Because of the seriousness of the crimes and his lack of experience, Greco initially questioned his ability to do an adequate investigation but would eventually solve the case.", "Greco suspected that the Roberts and Davis cases were connected due to evidence collected in the case and ultimately discovered it was the work of one female killer. He identified Dana Sue Gray as a potential suspect and wrote a search warrant for her residence in Lake Elsinore, California.", "The search of Gray's home revealed vital information belonging not only to Roberts but also Beebe and a surprise third victim, Dorinda Hawkins (1936–2003\\), the only woman who was not attacked at home and who later positively identified Gray through a photo line\\-up. Faced with a mountain of strong circumstantial evidence in the case against her, along with the threat of the death penalty, Gray would eventually plead to life without the possibility of parole and waive all of her appellate rights. She made one condition, that the State not prosecute her for the murder of Norma Davis.{{citation needed\\\|date\\=April 2022}}", "Greco worked for the Riverside County Sheriff's Department's Lake Elsinore Station, specializing in [elder abuse](/wiki/Elder_abuse \"Elder abuse\"), [sexual assault](/wiki/Sexual_assault \"Sexual assault\"), and [child abuse](/wiki/Child_abuse \"Child abuse\") cases from 1998 to 2010\\. He was later promoted to the rank of Sergeant in March 2010\\. Television documentaries involving Detective Greco include: The \"Discovery Channel\" for the following shows: \"[The New Detectives](/wiki/The_New_Detectives \"The New Detectives\")\", Season 7, Episode 1, (New Dominion Pictures 2000\\), \"[Deadly Women](/wiki/Deadly_Women \"Deadly Women\")\" (Beyond Productions 2009\\)\", [Unusual Suspects](/wiki/Unusual_Suspects_%28TV_program%29 \"Unusual Suspects (TV program)\")\" (LMNO Productions 2009\\) and \"Forensic Factor 2\" (Exploration Productions 2009\\).", "### Chris Antoniadas", "Detective Chris Antoniadas was the lead detective on the Dora Beebe case. After Detective Greco finished interviewing her, Antoniadas interviewed Gray.", "Antoniadas knew how to relate to people to gain their trust and have the person open up to him. Antoniadas also learned how to play someone's religion or insecurities against them. While interrogating Gray, Antoniadas had no clue how to approach her. Gray seemed cold and was unresponsive to any of Antoniadas's approaches. Antoniadas finally decided he needed to take some of Dana's control away from her. He then interrogated her roughly, yelling at her to confess, but was unsuccessful.", "Seeing that did not work, Antoniadas charged her with the murder of Dora Bebee based upon the discovery of Beebe's credit cards found in Gray's sock drawer during Detective Greco's search warrant.Braidhill, pp. 171–173\\.", "" ]
Inverse problem --------------- The inverse problem for earth sections is: given two points, P\_1 and P\_2 on the surface of the reference ellipsoid, find the length, s\_{12}, of the short arc of a spheroid section from P\_1 to P\_2 and also find the departure and arrival azimuths (angle from true north) of that curve, \\alpha\_1 and \\alpha\_2. The figure to the right illustrates the notation used here. Let P\_k have geodetic latitude \\phi\_k and longitude \\lambda\_k (k\=1,2\). This problem is best solved using [analytic geometry](/wiki/Analytic_geometry "Analytic geometry") in earth\-centered, earth\-fixed (ECEF) Cartesian coordinates. Let R\_1 \= \\mathrm{ECEF}(P\_1\) and R\_2 \= \\mathrm{ECEF}(P\_2\) be the ECEF coordinates of the two points, computed using the geodetic to ECEF transformation discussed [here](/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_conversion%23From_geodetic_to_ECEF_coordinates "Geographic coordinate conversion#From geodetic to ECEF coordinates"). [thumb\\|This illustrates the notation used for the geodetic problems discussed here.](/wiki/File:Geodetic_problem_on_an_ellipsoid.svg "Geodetic problem on an ellipsoid.svg") ### Section plane To define the section plane select any third point R\_0 not on the line from R\_1 to R\_2. Choosing R\_0 to be on the surface normal at P\_1 will define the normal section at P\_1. If R\_0 is the origin then the earth section is the great ellipse. (The origin would be co\-linear with 2 antipodal points so a different point must be used in that case). Since there are infinitely many choices for R\_0, the above problem is really a class of problems (one for each plane). Let R\_0 be given. To put the equation of the plane into the standard form, lx \+ my \+ nz \= d, where l^2 \+ m^2 \+ n^2 \= 1, requires the components of a [unit vector](/wiki/Unit_vector "Unit vector"), \\mathbf{\\hat N} \= (l, m, n), normal to the section plane. These components may be computed as follows: The vector from R\_0 to R\_1 is \\mathbf{V\_0} \= \\mathbf{R\_1} \- \\mathbf{R\_0}, and the vector from R\_1 to R\_2 is \\mathbf{V\_1} \= \\mathbf{R\_2} \- \\mathbf{R\_1}. Therefore, \\mathbf{\\hat N} \= \\mathrm{unit}(\\mathbf{V\_0}\\times\\mathbf{V\_1})), where \\mathrm{unit}(\\mathbf{V}) is the unit vector in the direction of \\mathbf{V}. The orientation convention used here is that \\mathbf{\\hat N} points to the left of the path. If this is not the case then redefine \\mathbf{V\_0} \= \-\\mathbf{V\_0}. Finally, the parameter d for the plane may be computed using the [dot product](/wiki/Dot_product "Dot product") of \\mathbf{\\hat N} with a vector from the origin to any point on the plane, such as R\_1, i.e. d \= \\mathbf{\\hat N}\\cdot\\mathbf{R\_1}. The equation of the plane (in vector form) is thus \\mathbf{\\hat N}\\cdot\\mathbf{R} \= d, where \\mathbf{R} is the [position vector](/wiki/Position_vector "Position vector") of (x, y, z). ### Azimuth Examination of the [ENU to ECEF transformation](/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_conversion%23From_ENU_to_ECEF "Geographic coordinate conversion#From ENU to ECEF") reveals that the ECEF coordinates of a unit vector pointing east at any point on the ellipsoid is: \\mathbf\\hat e \= (\-\\sin\\lambda,\\cos\\lambda,0\), a unit vector pointing north is \\mathbf\\hat n\=(\-\\sin\\phi\\cos\\lambda,\-\\sin\\phi\\sin\\lambda,\\cos\\phi), and a unit vector pointing up is \\mathbf\\hat u \= (\\cos\\phi\\cos\\lambda,\\cos\\phi\\sin\\lambda,\\sin\\phi). A vector tangent to the path is: \\mathbf{t} \= \\mathbf\\hat N \\times \\mathbf{\\hat u} so the east component of \\mathbf{t} is \\mathbf{t}\\cdot\\mathbf{\\hat e}, and the north component is \\mathbf{t}\\cdot\\mathbf{\\hat n}. Therefore, the azimuth may be obtained from a [two\-argument arctangent function](/wiki/Atan2 "Atan2"), \\alpha\=\\operatorname{atan2}(\\mathbf{t}\\cdot\\mathbf{\\hat e},\\mathbf{t}\\cdot\\mathbf{\\hat n}). Use this method at both P\_1 and P\_2 to get \\alpha\_1 and \\alpha\_2. ### Section ellipse The (non\-trivial) intersection of a plane and ellipsoid is an ellipse. Therefore, the arc length, s\_{12}, on the section path from P\_1 to P\_2 is an [elliptic integral](/wiki/Elliptic_integral "Elliptic integral") that may be computed to any desired accuracy using a truncated series or numerical integration. Before this can be done the ellipse must be defined and the limits of integration computed. Let the ellipsoid given by \\frac{x^2}{a^2}\+\\frac{y^2}{a^2}\+\\frac{z^2}{b^2} \= 1, and let p\=\\sqrt{l^2\+m^2}. If p\=0 then the section is a horizontal circle of radius a\\sqrt{1\-\\frac{d^2}{b^2}}, which has no solution if \\|d\\|\>b. If p\>0 then Gilbertson{{cite journal\\|last1\=Gilbertson\\|first1\=Charles\\|title\=Earth Section Paths\\| journal\=Navigation\\| date\=Spring 2012\\|volume\=59\\|issue\=1\\|pages\=1–7\\|doi\=10\.1002/navi.2}} showed that the ECEF coordinates of the center of the ellipse is {R\_c}\=\\frac{d}{C}(la^2, ma^2, nb^2\), where C \= a^2 p^2 \+ b^2 n^2, the semi\-major axis is a^\\=a\\sqrt{1\-\\frac{d^2}{C}}, in the direction \\mathbf{\\hat i^\} \= \\left(\\frac{m}{p}, \\frac{\-l}{p}, 0\\right), and the semi\-minor axis is b^\\=\\frac{b}{\\sqrt{C}}a^\, in the direction \\mathbf{\\hat j^\} \= \\left(\\frac{ln}{p}, \\frac{mn}{p}, \-p\\right), which has no solution if \\|d\\|\>\\sqrt{C}. ### Arc Length The above referenced paper provides a derivation for an arc length formula involving the central angle and powers of e^2 to compute the arc length to millimeter accuracy, where e^2 \= 1 \- \\left(\\frac{b^\}{a^\}\\right)^2. That arc length formula may be rearranged and put into the form: s\_{12} \= s(\\theta\_2\) \- s(\\theta\_1\), where s(\\theta) \= b^\({C\_0}\\theta \+ {C\_2} \\sin(2\\theta) \+ {C\_4}\\sin(4\\theta) \+ {C\_6}\\sin(6\\theta)) and the coefficients are C\_0 \= 1\.0 \+ e^2 (1/4 \+ 13 e^2/64 \+ 45 e^4/256 \+ 2577 e^6/16384\) C\_2 \= e^2 (1/8 \+ 3 e^2/32 \+ 95 e^4/1024 \+ 385 e^6/4096\) C\_4 \= \-e^4 (1/256 \+ 5 e^2/1024 \+ 19 e^4/16384\) C\_6 \= \-e^6 (15/3072 \+ 35 e^2/4096\) To compute the central angle, let P be any point on the section ellipse and R \= \\mathrm{ECEF}(P). Then \\mathbf{V} \= \\mathbf{R} \- \\mathbf{R\_c} is a vector from the center of the ellipse to the point. The central angle \\theta is the angle from the semi\-major axis to \\mathbf{V}. Letting \\mathbf{\\hat V} \= \\mathrm{unit}(\\mathbf{V}), we have \\theta \= \\operatorname{atan2}(\\mathbf{\\hat V} \\cdot \\mathbf{\\hat j^\}, \\mathbf{\\hat V} \\cdot \\mathbf{\\hat i^\}). In this way we obtain \\theta\_1 and \\theta\_2. On the other hand it's possible to use Meridian arc formulas in the more general case provided that the section ellipse parameters are used rather than the spheroid parameters. One such rapidly convergent series is given in [Series in terms of the parametric latitude](/wiki/Meridian_arc%23Series_in_terms_of_the_parametric_latitude "Meridian arc#Series in terms of the parametric latitude"). If we use \\varepsilon to denote the spheroid eccentricity, i.e. \\varepsilon^2 \= 1 \- \\left(\\frac{b}{a}\\right)^2, then e^8 ≤ \\varepsilon^8 ≅ {{val\\|1\.8e\-9}}. Similarly the third flattening of the section ellipse is bounded by the corresponding value for the spheroid, and for the spheroid we have n^3 ≅ {{val\\|4\.4e\-9}}, and n^4 ≅ {{val\\|7\.3e\-12}}. Therefore it may suffice to ignore terms beyond B\_6 in the parametric latitude series. To apply s(\\beta)\=\\frac{a^\\+b^\}2(B\_0\\beta\+B\_2\\sin 2\\beta\+B\_4\\sin4\\beta\+B\_6\\sin6\\beta) in the current context requires converting the central angle to the parametric angle using \\beta \= \\tan^{\-1}\\left(\\tan\\theta/((1 \- f)\\right), and using the section ellipse third flattening. Whichever method is used, care must be taken when using \\theta\_1 \& \\theta\_2 or \\beta\_1 \& \\beta\_2 to ensure that the shorter arc connecting the 2 points is used.	[ "Inverse problem\n---------------", "The inverse problem for earth sections is: given two points, P\\_1 and P\\_2 on the surface of the reference ellipsoid, find the length, s\\_{12}, of the short arc of a spheroid section from P\\_1 to P\\_2 and also find the departure and arrival azimuths (angle from true north) of that curve, \\\\alpha\\_1 and \\\\alpha\\_2. The figure to the right illustrates the notation used here. Let P\\_k have geodetic latitude \\\\phi\\_k and longitude \\\\lambda\\_k (k\\=1,2\\). This problem is best solved using [analytic geometry](/wiki/Analytic_geometry \"Analytic geometry\") in earth\\-centered, earth\\-fixed (ECEF) Cartesian coordinates.\nLet R\\_1 \\= \\\\mathrm{ECEF}(P\\_1\\) and R\\_2 \\= \\\\mathrm{ECEF}(P\\_2\\) be the ECEF coordinates of the two points, computed using the geodetic to ECEF transformation discussed [here](/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_conversion%23From_geodetic_to_ECEF_coordinates \"Geographic coordinate conversion#From geodetic to ECEF coordinates\").\n[thumb\\\|This illustrates the notation used for the geodetic problems discussed here.](/wiki/File:Geodetic_problem_on_an_ellipsoid.svg \"Geodetic problem on an ellipsoid.svg\")", "### Section plane", "To define the section plane select any third point R\\_0 not on the line from R\\_1 to R\\_2. Choosing R\\_0 to be on the surface normal at P\\_1 will define the normal section at P\\_1. If R\\_0 is the origin then the earth section is the great ellipse. (The origin would be co\\-linear with 2 antipodal points so a different point must be used in that case). Since there are infinitely many choices for R\\_0, the above problem is really a class of problems (one for each plane). Let R\\_0 be given. To put the equation of the plane into the standard form, lx \\+ my \\+ nz \\= d, where l^2 \\+ m^2 \\+ n^2 \\= 1, requires the components of a [unit vector](/wiki/Unit_vector \"Unit vector\"), \\\\mathbf{\\\\hat N} \\= (l, m, n), normal to the section plane. These components may be computed as follows: The vector from R\\_0 to R\\_1 is \\\\mathbf{V\\_0} \\= \\\\mathbf{R\\_1} \\- \\\\mathbf{R\\_0}, and the vector from R\\_1 to R\\_2 is \\\\mathbf{V\\_1} \\= \\\\mathbf{R\\_2} \\- \\\\mathbf{R\\_1}. Therefore, \\\\mathbf{\\\\hat N} \\= \\\\mathrm{unit}(\\\\mathbf{V\\_0}\\\\times\\\\mathbf{V\\_1})), where \\\\mathrm{unit}(\\\\mathbf{V}) is the unit vector in the direction of \\\\mathbf{V}. The orientation convention used here is that \\\\mathbf{\\\\hat N} points to the left of the path. If this is not the case then redefine \\\\mathbf{V\\_0} \\= \\-\\\\mathbf{V\\_0}. Finally, the parameter d for the plane may be computed using the [dot product](/wiki/Dot_product \"Dot product\") of \\\\mathbf{\\\\hat N} with a vector from the origin to any point on the plane, such as R\\_1, i.e. d \\= \\\\mathbf{\\\\hat N}\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf{R\\_1}. The equation of the plane (in vector form) is thus \\\\mathbf{\\\\hat N}\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf{R} \\= d, where \\\\mathbf{R} is the [position vector](/wiki/Position_vector \"Position vector\") of (x, y, z).", "### Azimuth", "Examination of the [ENU to ECEF transformation](/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_conversion%23From_ENU_to_ECEF \"Geographic coordinate conversion#From ENU to ECEF\") reveals that the ECEF coordinates of a unit vector pointing east at any point on the ellipsoid is: \\\\mathbf\\\\hat e \\= (\\-\\\\sin\\\\lambda,\\\\cos\\\\lambda,0\\), a unit vector pointing north is \\\\mathbf\\\\hat n\\=(\\-\\\\sin\\\\phi\\\\cos\\\\lambda,\\-\\\\sin\\\\phi\\\\sin\\\\lambda,\\\\cos\\\\phi), and a unit vector pointing up is \\\\mathbf\\\\hat u \\= (\\\\cos\\\\phi\\\\cos\\\\lambda,\\\\cos\\\\phi\\\\sin\\\\lambda,\\\\sin\\\\phi). A vector tangent to the path is:\n\\\\mathbf{t} \\= \\\\mathbf\\\\hat N \\\\times \\\\mathbf{\\\\hat u} so the east component of \\\\mathbf{t} is \\\\mathbf{t}\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf{\\\\hat e}, and the north component is \\\\mathbf{t}\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf{\\\\hat n}. Therefore, the azimuth may be obtained from a [two\\-argument arctangent function](/wiki/Atan2 \"Atan2\"), \\\\alpha\\=\\\\operatorname{atan2}(\\\\mathbf{t}\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf{\\\\hat e},\\\\mathbf{t}\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf{\\\\hat n}). Use this method at both P\\_1 and P\\_2 to get \\\\alpha\\_1 and \\\\alpha\\_2.", "### Section ellipse", "The (non\\-trivial) intersection of a plane and ellipsoid is an ellipse. Therefore, the arc length, s\\_{12}, on the section path from P\\_1 to P\\_2 is an [elliptic integral](/wiki/Elliptic_integral \"Elliptic integral\") that may be computed to any desired accuracy using a truncated series or numerical integration. Before this can be done the ellipse must be defined and the limits of integration computed.\nLet the ellipsoid given by \\\\frac{x^2}{a^2}\\+\\\\frac{y^2}{a^2}\\+\\\\frac{z^2}{b^2} \\= 1, and let p\\=\\\\sqrt{l^2\\+m^2}. \nIf p\\=0 then the section is a horizontal circle of radius a\\\\sqrt{1\\-\\\\frac{d^2}{b^2}}, which has no solution if \\\|d\\\|\\>b.", "If p\\>0 then Gilbertson{{cite journal\\\|last1\\=Gilbertson\\\|first1\\=Charles\\\|title\\=Earth Section Paths\\\| journal\\=Navigation\\\| date\\=Spring 2012\\\|volume\\=59\\\|issue\\=1\\\|pages\\=1–7\\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/navi.2}} showed that the ECEF coordinates of the center of the ellipse is {R\\_c}\\=\\\\frac{d}{C}(la^2, ma^2, nb^2\\), where C \\= a^2 p^2 \\+ b^2 n^2,", "the semi\\-major axis is a^\\\\=a\\\\sqrt{1\\-\\\\frac{d^2}{C}}, in the direction \\\\mathbf{\\\\hat i^\\} \\= \\\\left(\\\\frac{m}{p}, \\\\frac{\\-l}{p}, 0\\\\right), and the semi\\-minor axis is b^\\\\=\\\\frac{b}{\\\\sqrt{C}}a^\\, in the direction \\\\mathbf{\\\\hat j^\\} \\= \\\\left(\\\\frac{ln}{p}, \\\\frac{mn}{p}, \\-p\\\\right), which has no solution if \\\|d\\\|\\>\\\\sqrt{C}.", "### Arc Length", "The above referenced paper provides a derivation for an arc length formula involving the central angle and powers of e^2 to compute the arc length to millimeter accuracy, where e^2 \\= 1 \\- \\\\left(\\\\frac{b^\\}{a^\\}\\\\right)^2. \nThat arc length formula may be rearranged and put into the form:\n s\\_{12} \\= s(\\\\theta\\_2\\) \\- s(\\\\theta\\_1\\), where\n s(\\\\theta) \\= b^\\({C\\_0}\\\\theta \\+ {C\\_2} \\\\sin(2\\\\theta) \\+ {C\\_4}\\\\sin(4\\\\theta) \\+ {C\\_6}\\\\sin(6\\\\theta)) and the coefficients are\n C\\_0 \\= 1\\.0 \\+ e^2 (1/4 \\+ 13 e^2/64 \\+ 45 e^4/256 \\+ 2577 e^6/16384\\) \n C\\_2 \\= e^2 (1/8 \\+ 3 e^2/32 \\+ 95 e^4/1024 \\+ 385 e^6/4096\\) \n C\\_4 \\= \\-e^4 (1/256 \\+ 5 e^2/1024 \\+ 19 e^4/16384\\) \n C\\_6 \\= \\-e^6 (15/3072 \\+ 35 e^2/4096\\) \nTo compute the central angle, let P be any point on the section ellipse and R \\= \\\\mathrm{ECEF}(P). Then \\\\mathbf{V} \\= \\\\mathbf{R} \\- \\\\mathbf{R\\_c} is a vector from the center of the ellipse to the point. The central angle \\\\theta is the angle from the semi\\-major axis to \\\\mathbf{V}. Letting \\\\mathbf{\\\\hat V} \\= \\\\mathrm{unit}(\\\\mathbf{V}), we have \\\\theta \\= \\\\operatorname{atan2}(\\\\mathbf{\\\\hat V} \\\\cdot \\\\mathbf{\\\\hat j^\\}, \\\\mathbf{\\\\hat V} \\\\cdot \\\\mathbf{\\\\hat i^\\}).\nIn this way we obtain \\\\theta\\_1 and \\\\theta\\_2.", "On the other hand it's possible to use Meridian arc formulas in the more general case provided that the section ellipse parameters are used rather than the spheroid parameters. One such rapidly convergent series is given in [Series in terms of the parametric latitude](/wiki/Meridian_arc%23Series_in_terms_of_the_parametric_latitude \"Meridian arc#Series in terms of the parametric latitude\"). If we use \\\\varepsilon to denote the spheroid eccentricity, i.e. \\\\varepsilon^2 \\= 1 \\- \\\\left(\\\\frac{b}{a}\\\\right)^2, then e^8 ≤ \\\\varepsilon^8 ≅ {{val\\\|1\\.8e\\-9}}. Similarly the third flattening of the section ellipse is bounded by the corresponding value for the spheroid, and for the spheroid we have n^3 ≅ {{val\\\|4\\.4e\\-9}}, and n^4 ≅ {{val\\\|7\\.3e\\-12}}. Therefore it may suffice to ignore terms beyond B\\_6 in the parametric latitude series.\nTo apply s(\\\\beta)\\=\\\\frac{a^\\\\+b^\\}2(B\\_0\\\\beta\\+B\\_2\\\\sin 2\\\\beta\\+B\\_4\\\\sin4\\\\beta\\+B\\_6\\\\sin6\\\\beta) in the current context requires converting the central angle to the parametric angle using \\\\beta \\= \\\\tan^{\\-1}\\\\left(\\\\tan\\\\theta/((1 \\- f)\\\\right), and using the section ellipse third flattening. Whichever method is used, care must be taken when using \\\\theta\\_1 \\& \\\\theta\\_2 or \\\\beta\\_1 \\& \\\\beta\\_2 to ensure that the shorter arc connecting the 2 points is used.", "" ]
Examples -------- [thumb\\|Shows the geodesic deviation for various sections connecting New York to Paris](/wiki/File:Shows_the_geodesic_deviation_for_various_sections_connecting_New_York_and_Paris.svg "Shows the geodesic deviation for various sections connecting New York and Paris.svg") ### The great ellipse {{main\\|Great ellipse}} The great ellipse is the curve formed by intersecting the ellipsoid with a plane through its center. Therefore, to use the method above, just let R\_0 be the origin, so that \\mathbf{V\_0} \= \\mathbf{R\_1} (the position vector of R\_1). This method avoids the esoteric and sometimes ambiguous formulas of spherical trigonometry, and provides an alternative to the formulas of Bowring.{{cite journal\\|last1\=Bowring\\|first1\=B.R.\\|title\=The Direct and Inverse Solutions for the Great Elliptic Line on the Reference Ellipsoid\\|journal\=Bulletin Géodésique\\|date\=1984\\|volume\=58\\|issue\=1\\|pages\=101–108\\|doi\=10\.1007/BF02521760\\|bibcode\=1984BGeod..58\..101B\\|s2cid\=123161737 }} The shortest path between two points on a spheroid is known as a geodesic. Such paths are developed using differential geometry. The equator and meridians are great ellipses that are also geodesics{{efn\\|Equatorial paths are geodesics up to a point. For example the geodesic connecting two points that are 180° apart on the equator is a meridian path over a pole, whereas the equator is still a great ellipse. In fact there are infinitely many great ellipses in this case, only two of which are geodesics. For short arcs the geodesic and great ellipse coincide. So at what point does it change? Rapp calculates the answer to be 179° 23' 38\.18182".Rapp, R. H. (1993\), Geometric geodesy, part II, Ohio State Univ., {{hdl\\|1811/24409}} At that point the geodesic starts to move off of the equator, and by 180° it is all the way to a pole. }}. The maximum difference in length between a great ellipse and the corresponding geodesic of length 5,000 nautical miles is about 10\.5 meters. The lateral deviation between them may be as large as 3\.7 nautical miles. A normal section connecting the two points will be closer to the geodesic than the great ellipse, unless the path touches the equator. On the [WGS84](/wiki/WGS84 "WGS84") ellipsoid, the results for the great elliptic arc from New York, \\phi\_1 \= 40\.64130°, \\lambda\_1 \= \-73\.77810° to Paris, \\phi\_2 \= 49\.00970°, \\lambda\_2 \= 2\.54800° are: \\alpha\_1 \= 53\.596810°, \\alpha\_2 \= 111\.537138° and s\_{12} \= 5849159\.753 (m) \= 3158\.293603 (nm). The corresponding numbers for the geodesic are: \\alpha\_1 \= 53\.511007°, \\alpha\_2 \= 111\.626714° and s\_{12} \= 5849157\.543 (m) \= 3158\.292410 (nm). To illustrate the dependence on section type for the direct problem, let the departure azimuth and trip distance be those of the geodesic above, and use the great ellipse to define the direct problem. In this case the arrival point is \\phi\_2 \= 49\.073057°, \\lambda\_2 \= 2\.586154°, which is about 4\.1 nm from the arrival point in Paris defined above. Of course using the departure azimuth and distance from the great ellipse indirect problem will properly locate the destination, \\phi\_2 \= 49\.00970°, \\lambda\_2 \= 2\.54800°, and the arrival azimuth \\alpha\_2 \= 111\.537138°. [thumb\\|Shows the geodesic deviation for various sections connecting Sydney to Bangkok](/wiki/File:SYD_to_BKK.svg "SYD to BKK.svg") ### Normal sections A normal section at P\_1 is determined by letting \\mathbf{V\_0} \= \\mathbf\\hat u\_1 (the surface normal at P\_1). Another normal section, known as the reciprocal normal section, results from using the surface normal at P\_2. Unless the two points are both on the same parallel or the same meridian, the reciprocal normal section will be a different path than the normal section. The above approach provides an alternative to that of others, such as Bowring.{{cite journal\\|last1\=Bowring\\|first1\=B.R.\\|title\=The normal section \-\- forward and inverse formulae at any distance\\|journal\=Survey Review\\|date\=1971\\|volume\=XXI\\|issue\=161\\|pages\=131–136\\|doi\=10\.1179/sre.1971\.21\.161\.131\\|bibcode\=1971SurRv..21\..131B }} The importance of normal sections in surveying as well as a discussion of the meaning of the term line in such a context is given in the paper by Deakin, Sheppard and Ross.{{cite web \\|author1\=Deakin, R. E. \\|author2\=Sheppard, S. W. \\|author3\=Ross, R. \\|title\=The Black\-Allan Line Revisited \\|url\=http://user.gs.rmit.edu.au/rod/files/publications/Black\-Allan%20Line%20Revisited.pdf \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105082949/http://user.gs.rmit.edu.au/rod/files/publications/Black\-Allan%20Line%20Revisited.pdf \\|url\-status\=dead\\|archive\-date\=5 January 2012 \\|work\=24th Victorian Regional Survey Conference, Shepparton, 1–3 April 2011 \\|year\=2011 \\|access\-date\=3 February 2012 }} On the WGS84 ellipsoid, the results for the normal section from New York, \\phi\_1 \= 40\.64130°, \\lambda\_1 \= \-73\.77810° to Paris, \\phi\_2 \= 49\.00970°, \\lambda\_2 \= 2\.54800° are: \\alpha\_1 \= 53\.521396°, \\alpha\_2 \= 111\.612516° and s\_{12} \= 5849157\.595 (m) \= 3158\.292438 (nm). The results for the reciprocal normal section from New York to Paris are: \\alpha\_1 \= 53\.509422°, \\alpha\_2 \= 111\.624483° and s\_{12} \= 5849157\.545 (m) \= 3158\.292411 (nm). The maximum difference in length between a normal section and the corresponding geodesic of length 5,000 nautical miles is about 6\.0 meters. The lateral deviation between them may be as large as 2\.8 nautical miles. To illustrate the dependence on section type for the direct problem, let the departure azimuth and trip distance be those of the geodesic above, and use the surface normal at NY to define the direct problem. In this case the arrival point is \\phi\_2 \= 49\.017378°, \\lambda\_2 \= 2\.552626°, which is about 1/2 nm from the arrival point defined above. Of course, using the departure azimuth and distance from the normal section indirect problem will properly locate the destination in Paris. Presumably the direct problem is used when the arrival point is unknown, yet it is possible to use whatever vector \\mathbf{V\_0} one pleases. For example, using the surface normal at Paris, \\mathbf\\hat u\_2, results in an arrival point of \\phi\_2 \= 49\.007778°, \\lambda\_2 \= 2\.546842°, which is about 1/8 nm from the arrival point defined above. Using the surface normal at Reykjavik (while still using the departure azimuth and trip distance of the geodesic to Paris) will have you arriving about 347 nm from Paris, while the normal at Zürich brings you to within 5\.5 nm. The search for a section that's closer to the geodesic led to the next two examples. [thumb\\|Shows how the geodesic deviation varies with azimuth for sections originating at 20° latitude.](/wiki/File:NS_5000nm_Study.svg "NS 5000nm Study.svg") ### The mean normal section The mean normal section from P\_1 to P\_2 is determined by letting \\mathbf{V\_0} \= 0\.5(\\mathbf\\hat u\_1\+\\mathbf\\hat u\_2\). This is a good approximation to the geodesic from P\_1 to P\_2 for aviation or sailing.The maximum difference in length between the mean normal section and the corresponding geodesic of length 5,000 nautical miles is about 0\.5 meters. The lateral deviation between them is no more than about 0\.8 nautical miles. For paths of length 1000 nautical miles the length error is less than a millimeter, and the worst case lateral deviation is about 4\.4 meters. Continuing the example from New York to Paris on WGS84 gives the following results for the mean normal section: \\alpha\_1 \= 53\.515409°, \\alpha\_2 \= 111\.618500° and s\_{12} \= 5849157\.560 (m) \= 3158\.292419 (nm). [thumb\\|Shows the geodesic deviation for various 5000nm normal sections from the equator.](/wiki/File:NS_5000nm_Eq.svg "NS 5000nm Eq.svg") ### The midpoint normal section The midpoint normal section from P\_1 to P\_2 is determined by letting \\mathbf{V\_0} \= the surface normal at the midpoint of the geodesic from P\_1 to P\_2. This path is only slightly closer to the geodesic that the mean normal section. The maximum difference in length between a midpoint normal section and the corresponding geodesic of length 5,000 nautical miles is about 0\.3 meters. The worst case lateral deviation between them is about 0\.3 nautical miles. Finishing the example from New York to Paris on WGS84 gives the following results for the geodesic midpoint normal section: \\alpha\_1 \= 53\.506207°, \\alpha\_2 \= 111\.627697° and s\_{12} \= 5849157\.545 (m) \= 3158\.292411 (nm). ### Discussion All of the section paths used in the charts to the right were defined using the indirect method above. In the third and fourth charts the terminal point was defined using the direct algorithm for the geodesic with the given distance and initial azimuth. On each of the geodesics some points were selected, the nearest point on the section plane was located by vector projection, and the distance between the two points computed. This distance is described as the lateral deviation from the geodesic, or briefly geodesic deviation, and is displayed in the charts on the right. The alternative of finding the corresponding point on the section path and computing geodesic distances would produce slightly different results. The first chart is typical of mid\-latitude cases where the great ellipse is the outlier. The normal section associated with the point farthest from the equator is a good choice for these cases. The second example is longer and is typical of equator crossing cases, where the great ellipse beats the normal sections. However, the two normal sections deviate on opposite sides of the geodesic, making the mean normal section a good choice here. The third chart shows how the geodesic deviations vary with initial geodesic azimuth originating from 20 degrees north latitude. The worst case deviation for normal sections of 5000 nautical miles length is about 2\.8 nm and occurs at initial geodesic azimuth of 132° from 18° north latitude (48° azimuth for south latitude). The fourth chart is what the third chart looks like when departing from the equator. On the equator there are more symmetries since sections at 90° and 270° azimuths are also geodesics. Consequently the fourth chart shows only 7 distinct lines out of the 24 with 15 degree spacing. Specifically, the lines at azimuths 15, 75, 195 and 255 coincide, as do the lines at 105, 165, 285, and 345 on the other side as the inner most (other than the geodesics). Next farthest coincident lines from the four geodesic lines are at azimuths 30, 60, 210, and 240 on one side and 120, 150, 300, and 330 on the other side. The outer most lines are at azimuths 45, and 225 on one side and 135 and 315 on the other. As the departure point moves north the lines at azimuths 90 and 270 are no longer geodesics, and other coincident lines separate and fan out until 18° latitude where the maximum deviation is attained. Beyond this point the deviations contract like a Japanese fan as the initial point proceeds north. So that by 84° latitude the maximum deviation for normal sections is about 0\.25 nm. The midpoint normal section is (almost) always a good choice.	[ "Examples\n--------", "[thumb\\\|Shows the geodesic deviation for various sections connecting New York to Paris](/wiki/File:Shows_the_geodesic_deviation_for_various_sections_connecting_New_York_and_Paris.svg \"Shows the geodesic deviation for various sections connecting New York and Paris.svg\")\n### The great ellipse", "{{main\\\|Great ellipse}}\nThe great ellipse is the curve formed by intersecting the ellipsoid with a plane through its center. Therefore, to use the method above, just let R\\_0 be the origin, so that \\\\mathbf{V\\_0} \\= \\\\mathbf{R\\_1} (the position vector of R\\_1). This method avoids the esoteric and sometimes ambiguous formulas of spherical trigonometry, and provides an alternative to the formulas of Bowring.{{cite journal\\\|last1\\=Bowring\\\|first1\\=B.R.\\\|title\\=The Direct and Inverse Solutions for the Great Elliptic Line on the Reference Ellipsoid\\\|journal\\=Bulletin Géodésique\\\|date\\=1984\\\|volume\\=58\\\|issue\\=1\\\|pages\\=101–108\\\|doi\\=10\\.1007/BF02521760\\\|bibcode\\=1984BGeod..58\\..101B\\\|s2cid\\=123161737 }} The shortest path between two points on a spheroid is known as a geodesic. Such paths are developed using differential geometry. The equator and meridians are great ellipses that are also geodesics{{efn\\\|Equatorial paths are geodesics up to a point. For example the geodesic connecting two points that are 180° apart on the equator is a meridian path over a pole, whereas the equator is still a great ellipse. In fact there are infinitely many great ellipses in this case, only two of which are geodesics. For short arcs the geodesic and great ellipse coincide. So at what point does it change? Rapp calculates the answer to be 179° 23' 38\\.18182\".Rapp, R. H. (1993\\), Geometric geodesy, part II, Ohio State Univ., {{hdl\\\|1811/24409}} At that point the geodesic starts to move off of the equator, and by 180° it is all the way to a pole.\n}}. The maximum difference in length between a great ellipse and the corresponding geodesic of length 5,000 nautical miles is about 10\\.5 meters. The lateral deviation between them may be as large as 3\\.7 nautical miles. A normal section connecting the two points will be closer to the geodesic than the great ellipse, unless the path touches the equator.", "On the [WGS84](/wiki/WGS84 \"WGS84\") ellipsoid, the results for the great elliptic arc from New York, \\\\phi\\_1 \\= 40\\.64130°, \\\\lambda\\_1 \\= \\-73\\.77810°\nto Paris, \\\\phi\\_2 \\= 49\\.00970°, \\\\lambda\\_2 \\= 2\\.54800° are:", "\\\\alpha\\_1 \\= 53\\.596810°, \\\\alpha\\_2 \\= 111\\.537138° and s\\_{12} \\= 5849159\\.753 (m) \\= 3158\\.293603 (nm). The corresponding numbers for the geodesic are:", "\\\\alpha\\_1 \\= 53\\.511007°, \\\\alpha\\_2 \\= 111\\.626714° and s\\_{12} \\= 5849157\\.543 (m) \\= 3158\\.292410 (nm).", "To illustrate the dependence on section type for the direct problem, let the departure azimuth and trip distance be those of the geodesic above, and use the great ellipse to define the direct problem. In this case the arrival point is \n\\\\phi\\_2 \\= 49\\.073057°, \\\\lambda\\_2 \\= 2\\.586154°, which is about 4\\.1 nm from the arrival point in Paris defined above. Of course using the departure azimuth and distance from the great ellipse indirect problem will properly locate the destination, \\\\phi\\_2 \\= 49\\.00970°, \\\\lambda\\_2 \\= 2\\.54800°, and the arrival azimuth \\\\alpha\\_2 \\= 111\\.537138°.\n[thumb\\\|Shows the geodesic deviation for various sections connecting Sydney to Bangkok](/wiki/File:SYD_to_BKK.svg \"SYD to BKK.svg\")", "### Normal sections", "A normal section at P\\_1 is determined by letting \\\\mathbf{V\\_0} \\= \\\\mathbf\\\\hat u\\_1 (the surface normal at P\\_1). Another normal section, known as the reciprocal normal section, results from using the surface normal at P\\_2. Unless the two points are both on the same parallel or the same meridian, the reciprocal normal section will be a different path than the normal section. The above approach provides an alternative to that of others, such as Bowring.{{cite journal\\\|last1\\=Bowring\\\|first1\\=B.R.\\\|title\\=The normal section \\-\\- forward and inverse formulae at any distance\\\|journal\\=Survey Review\\\|date\\=1971\\\|volume\\=XXI\\\|issue\\=161\\\|pages\\=131–136\\\|doi\\=10\\.1179/sre.1971\\.21\\.161\\.131\\\|bibcode\\=1971SurRv..21\\..131B }} The importance of normal sections in surveying as well as a discussion of the meaning of the term line in such a context is given in the paper by Deakin, Sheppard and Ross.{{cite web \\\|author1\\=Deakin, R. E. \\\|author2\\=Sheppard, S. W. \\\|author3\\=Ross, R. \\\|title\\=The Black\\-Allan Line Revisited \\\|url\\=http://user.gs.rmit.edu.au/rod/files/publications/Black\\-Allan%20Line%20Revisited.pdf \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105082949/http://user.gs.rmit.edu.au/rod/files/publications/Black\\-Allan%20Line%20Revisited.pdf \\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\\|archive\\-date\\=5 January 2012 \\\|work\\=24th Victorian Regional Survey Conference, Shepparton, 1–3 April 2011 \\\|year\\=2011 \\\|access\\-date\\=3 February 2012 }}", "On the WGS84 ellipsoid, the results for the normal section from New York, \\\\phi\\_1 \\= 40\\.64130°, \\\\lambda\\_1 \\= \\-73\\.77810°\nto Paris, \\\\phi\\_2 \\= 49\\.00970°, \\\\lambda\\_2 \\= 2\\.54800° are:", "\\\\alpha\\_1 \\= 53\\.521396°, \\\\alpha\\_2 \\= 111\\.612516° and s\\_{12} \\= 5849157\\.595 (m) \\= 3158\\.292438 (nm).\nThe results for the reciprocal normal section from New York to Paris are:", "\\\\alpha\\_1 \\= 53\\.509422°, \\\\alpha\\_2 \\= 111\\.624483° and s\\_{12} \\= 5849157\\.545 (m) \\= 3158\\.292411 (nm).", "The maximum difference in length between a normal section and the corresponding geodesic of length 5,000 nautical miles is about 6\\.0 meters. The lateral deviation between them may be as large as 2\\.8 nautical miles.", "To illustrate the dependence on section type for the direct problem, let the departure azimuth and trip distance be those of the geodesic above, and use the surface normal at NY to define the direct problem. In this case the arrival point is \n\\\\phi\\_2 \\= 49\\.017378°, \\\\lambda\\_2 \\= 2\\.552626°, which is about 1/2 nm from the arrival point defined above. Of course, using the departure azimuth and distance from the normal section indirect problem will properly locate the destination in Paris. \nPresumably the direct problem is used when the arrival point is unknown, yet it is possible to use whatever vector \\\\mathbf{V\\_0} one pleases. For example, using the surface normal at Paris, \\\\mathbf\\\\hat u\\_2, results in an arrival point of \\\\phi\\_2 \\= 49\\.007778°, \\\\lambda\\_2 \\= 2\\.546842°, which is about 1/8 nm from the arrival point defined above. Using the surface normal at Reykjavik (while still using the departure azimuth and trip distance of the geodesic to Paris) will have you arriving about 347 nm from Paris, while the normal at Zürich brings you to within 5\\.5 nm.", "The search for a section that's closer to the geodesic led to the next two examples.\n[thumb\\\|Shows how the geodesic deviation varies with azimuth for sections originating at 20° latitude.](/wiki/File:NS_5000nm_Study.svg \"NS 5000nm Study.svg\")", "### The mean normal section", "The mean normal section from P\\_1 to P\\_2 is determined by letting \\\\mathbf{V\\_0} \\= 0\\.5(\\\\mathbf\\\\hat u\\_1\\+\\\\mathbf\\\\hat u\\_2\\). This is a good approximation to the geodesic from P\\_1 to P\\_2 for aviation or sailing.The maximum difference in length between the mean normal section and the corresponding geodesic of length 5,000 nautical miles is about 0\\.5 meters. The lateral deviation between them is no more than about 0\\.8 nautical miles. For paths of length 1000 nautical miles the length error is less than a millimeter, and the worst case lateral deviation is about 4\\.4 meters.\nContinuing the example from New York to Paris on WGS84 gives the following results for the mean normal section:", "\\\\alpha\\_1 \\= 53\\.515409°, \\\\alpha\\_2 \\= 111\\.618500° and s\\_{12} \\= 5849157\\.560 (m) \\= 3158\\.292419 (nm).", "[thumb\\\|Shows the geodesic deviation for various 5000nm normal sections from the equator.](/wiki/File:NS_5000nm_Eq.svg \"NS 5000nm Eq.svg\")", "### The midpoint normal section", "The midpoint normal section from P\\_1 to P\\_2 is determined by letting \\\\mathbf{V\\_0} \\= the surface normal at the midpoint of the geodesic from P\\_1 to P\\_2. This path is only slightly closer to the geodesic that the mean normal section. The maximum difference in length between a midpoint normal section and the corresponding geodesic of length 5,000 nautical miles is about 0\\.3 meters. The worst case lateral deviation between them is about 0\\.3 nautical miles.", "Finishing the example from New York to Paris on WGS84 gives the following results for the geodesic midpoint normal section:\n\\\\alpha\\_1 \\= 53\\.506207°, \\\\alpha\\_2 \\= 111\\.627697° and s\\_{12} \\= 5849157\\.545 (m) \\= 3158\\.292411 (nm).", "### Discussion", "All of the section paths used in the charts to the right were defined using the indirect method above. In the third and fourth charts the terminal point was defined using the direct algorithm for the geodesic with the given distance and initial azimuth. On each of the geodesics some points were selected, the nearest point on the section plane was located by vector projection, and the distance between the two points computed. This distance is described as the lateral deviation from the geodesic, or briefly geodesic deviation, and is displayed in the charts on the right. The alternative of finding the corresponding point on the section path and computing geodesic distances would produce slightly different results.", "The first chart is typical of mid\\-latitude cases where the great ellipse is the outlier. The normal section associated with the point farthest from the equator is a good choice for these cases.", "The second example is longer and is typical of equator crossing cases, where the great ellipse beats the normal sections. However, the two normal sections deviate on opposite sides of the geodesic, making the mean normal section a good choice here.", "The third chart shows how the geodesic deviations vary with initial geodesic azimuth originating from 20 degrees north latitude. The worst case deviation for normal sections of 5000 nautical miles length is about 2\\.8 nm and occurs at initial geodesic azimuth of 132° from 18° north latitude (48° azimuth for south latitude).", "The fourth chart is what the third chart looks like when departing from the equator. On the equator there are more symmetries since sections at 90° and 270° azimuths are also geodesics. Consequently the fourth chart shows only 7 distinct lines out of the 24 with 15 degree spacing. Specifically, the lines at azimuths 15, 75, 195 and 255 coincide, as do the lines at 105, 165, 285, and 345 on the other side as the inner most (other than the geodesics). Next farthest coincident lines from the four geodesic lines are at azimuths 30, 60, 210, and 240 on one side and 120, 150, 300, and 330 on the other side. The outer most lines are at azimuths 45, and 225 on one side and 135 and 315 on the other. As the departure point moves north the lines at azimuths 90 and 270 are no longer geodesics, and other coincident lines separate and fan out until 18° latitude where the maximum deviation is attained. Beyond this point the deviations contract like a Japanese fan as the initial point proceeds north. So that by 84° latitude the maximum deviation for normal sections is about 0\\.25 nm.", "The midpoint normal section is (almost) always a good choice.", "" ]
### Discussion All of the section paths used in the charts to the right were defined using the indirect method above. In the third and fourth charts the terminal point was defined using the direct algorithm for the geodesic with the given distance and initial azimuth. On each of the geodesics some points were selected, the nearest point on the section plane was located by vector projection, and the distance between the two points computed. This distance is described as the lateral deviation from the geodesic, or briefly geodesic deviation, and is displayed in the charts on the right. The alternative of finding the corresponding point on the section path and computing geodesic distances would produce slightly different results. The first chart is typical of mid\-latitude cases where the great ellipse is the outlier. The normal section associated with the point farthest from the equator is a good choice for these cases. The second example is longer and is typical of equator crossing cases, where the great ellipse beats the normal sections. However, the two normal sections deviate on opposite sides of the geodesic, making the mean normal section a good choice here. The third chart shows how the geodesic deviations vary with initial geodesic azimuth originating from 20 degrees north latitude. The worst case deviation for normal sections of 5000 nautical miles length is about 2\.8 nm and occurs at initial geodesic azimuth of 132° from 18° north latitude (48° azimuth for south latitude). The fourth chart is what the third chart looks like when departing from the equator. On the equator there are more symmetries since sections at 90° and 270° azimuths are also geodesics. Consequently the fourth chart shows only 7 distinct lines out of the 24 with 15 degree spacing. Specifically, the lines at azimuths 15, 75, 195 and 255 coincide, as do the lines at 105, 165, 285, and 345 on the other side as the inner most (other than the geodesics). Next farthest coincident lines from the four geodesic lines are at azimuths 30, 60, 210, and 240 on one side and 120, 150, 300, and 330 on the other side. The outer most lines are at azimuths 45, and 225 on one side and 135 and 315 on the other. As the departure point moves north the lines at azimuths 90 and 270 are no longer geodesics, and other coincident lines separate and fan out until 18° latitude where the maximum deviation is attained. Beyond this point the deviations contract like a Japanese fan as the initial point proceeds north. So that by 84° latitude the maximum deviation for normal sections is about 0\.25 nm. The midpoint normal section is (almost) always a good choice.	[ "### Discussion", "All of the section paths used in the charts to the right were defined using the indirect method above. In the third and fourth charts the terminal point was defined using the direct algorithm for the geodesic with the given distance and initial azimuth. On each of the geodesics some points were selected, the nearest point on the section plane was located by vector projection, and the distance between the two points computed. This distance is described as the lateral deviation from the geodesic, or briefly geodesic deviation, and is displayed in the charts on the right. The alternative of finding the corresponding point on the section path and computing geodesic distances would produce slightly different results.", "The first chart is typical of mid\\-latitude cases where the great ellipse is the outlier. The normal section associated with the point farthest from the equator is a good choice for these cases.", "The second example is longer and is typical of equator crossing cases, where the great ellipse beats the normal sections. However, the two normal sections deviate on opposite sides of the geodesic, making the mean normal section a good choice here.", "The third chart shows how the geodesic deviations vary with initial geodesic azimuth originating from 20 degrees north latitude. The worst case deviation for normal sections of 5000 nautical miles length is about 2\\.8 nm and occurs at initial geodesic azimuth of 132° from 18° north latitude (48° azimuth for south latitude).", "The fourth chart is what the third chart looks like when departing from the equator. On the equator there are more symmetries since sections at 90° and 270° azimuths are also geodesics. Consequently the fourth chart shows only 7 distinct lines out of the 24 with 15 degree spacing. Specifically, the lines at azimuths 15, 75, 195 and 255 coincide, as do the lines at 105, 165, 285, and 345 on the other side as the inner most (other than the geodesics). Next farthest coincident lines from the four geodesic lines are at azimuths 30, 60, 210, and 240 on one side and 120, 150, 300, and 330 on the other side. The outer most lines are at azimuths 45, and 225 on one side and 135 and 315 on the other. As the departure point moves north the lines at azimuths 90 and 270 are no longer geodesics, and other coincident lines separate and fan out until 18° latitude where the maximum deviation is attained. Beyond this point the deviations contract like a Japanese fan as the initial point proceeds north. So that by 84° latitude the maximum deviation for normal sections is about 0\\.25 nm.", "The midpoint normal section is (almost) always a good choice.", "" ]
Intersections ------------- Let two section planes be given: \\mathbf\\hat N\_1\\cdot\\mathbf{R} \= d\_1, and \\mathbf\\hat N\_2\\cdot\\mathbf{R} \= d\_2. Assuming that the two planes are not parallel, the line of intersection is on both planes. Hence orthogonal to both normals, i.e. in the direction of \\mathbf{N\_3} \= \\mathbf\\hat N\_1 \\times \\mathbf\\hat N\_2 (there is no reason to normalize \\mathbf{N\_3}). Since \\mathbf\\hat N\_1 and \\mathbf\\hat N\_2 are not collinear \\mathbf\\hat N\_1, \\mathbf\\hat N\_2, \\mathbf{N\_3} is a basis for \\mathbb{R}^3. Therefore, there exist constants C\_1 and C\_2 such that the line of intersection of the 2 planes is given by R \= C\_1\\mathbf\\hat N\_1 \+ C\_2\\mathbf\\hat N\_2 \+ t\\mathbf{N\_3}, where t is an independent parameter. Since this line is on both section planes, it satisfies both: C\_1 \+ C\_2(\\mathbf\\hat N\_1\\cdot\\mathbf\\hat N\_2\) \= d\_1, and C\_1(\\mathbf\\hat N\_1\\cdot\\mathbf\\hat N\_2\) \+ C\_2 \= d\_2. Solving these equations for {C\_1} and {C\_2} gives C\_1 \[1 \- (\\mathbf\\hat N\_1\\cdot\\mathbf\\hat N\_2\)^2] \= d\_1 \- d\_2(\\mathbf\\hat N\_1\\cdot\\mathbf\\hat N\_2\), and C\_2 \[1 \- (\\mathbf\\hat N\_1\\cdot\\mathbf\\hat N\_2\)^2] \= d\_2 \- d\_1(\\mathbf\\hat N\_1\\cdot\\mathbf\\hat N\_2\). Define the "dihedral angle", \\nu, by \\cos\\nu \= {\\mathbf\\hat N\_1}\\cdot{\\mathbf\\hat N\_2}. Then C\_1 \= \\frac{(d\_1\- d\_2 \\cos\\nu)}{\\sin^2\\nu} , and C\_2 \= \\frac{(d\_2\- d\_1 \\cos\\nu)}{\\sin^2 \\nu}. On the intersection line we have \\mathbf{R} \=\\mathbf{R\_0} \+ t\\mathbf{N\_3}, where \\mathbf{R\_0} \= C\_1\\mathbf\\hat N\_1 \+ C\_2\\mathbf\\hat N\_2. Hence: x \= x\_0 \+ tl\_3, y \= y\_0 \+ tm\_3, and z \= z\_0 \+ tn\_3, where x\_0\= C\_1l\_1 \+ C\_2l\_2, y\_0 \= C\_1m\_1 \+ C\_2m\_2, and z\_0 \= C\_1n\_1 \+ C\_2n\_2, \\mathbf\\hat N\_i \= (l\_i,m\_i,n\_i), for i\=1,2, and \\mathbf{N\_3} \= (l\_3,m\_3,n\_3\). To find the intersection of this line with the earth, plug the line equations into \\frac{x^2}{a^2} \+ \\frac{y^2}{a^2}\+\\frac{z^2}{b^2} \= 1, to get At^2 \+ 2Bt \+ C \= 0, where A \= l\_3^2 \+ m\_3^2 \+ \\frac{a^2}{b^2}n\_3^2, B \= x\_0l\_3 \+ y\_0m\_3 \+ \\frac{a^2}{b^2}z\_0n\_3, C \= x\_0^2 \+ y\_0^2 \+ \\frac{a^2}{b^2}z\_0^2 \- a^2. Therefore, the line intersects the earth at t \= \\frac{\-B \\pm \\sqrt{{B}^2\-AC}}{A}. If B^2 \< AC, then there is no intersection. If B^2 \= AC, then the line is tangent to the earth at t \= \-B/A (i.e. the sections intersect at that single point). Observe that A\\ne0 since \\mathbf\\hat N\_1 and \\mathbf\\hat N\_2 are not collinear. Plugging t into \\mathbf{R} \= \\mathbf{R\_0} \+ t\\mathbf{N\_3}, gives the points of intersection of the earth sections. ### Example Find where a section from New York to Paris, intersects the Greenwich meridian. The plane of the prime meridian may be described by \\mathbf\\hat N \= (0, 1, 0\) and d \= 0. The results are as follows: \| \+Intersections \| \| --- \| \| Section \| Latitude \| \| Great Ellipse \| 49\.634970° \| \| Normal \| 49\.637377° \| \| Mean Normal \| 49\.637568° \| \| Reciprocal \| 49\.637759° \| \| Midpoint \| 49\.637862° \| ### Extreme latitudes and longitudes The maximum (or minimum) latitude is where the section ellipse intersections a parallel at a single point. To set up the problem, let \\mathbf{\\hat N\_1} \= (l, m, n), d\_1 \= d be the given section plane. The parallel is \\mathbf{\\hat N\_2} \= (0, 0, 1\), d\_2 \= z\_0, where z\_0 is to be determined so that there is only one intersection point. Applying the intersection method above results in \\mathbf{N\_3} \= \\mathbf\\hat N\_1 \\times \\mathbf\\hat N\_2 \= (m, \-l, 0\), {\\mathbf\\hat N\_1}\\cdot{\\mathbf\\hat N\_2} \= n, C\_1 \= \\frac{1}{p^2}(d\- nz\_0\), and C\_2 \= \\frac{1}{p^2}(z\_0\- nd), since 1 \- n^2 \= l^2 \+ m^2 \= p^2. The resulting linear equations become x \= x\_0 \+ tm, y \= y\_0 \- tl, and z \= z\_0, where x\_0\= C\_1l, y\_0 \= C\_1m, and z\_0 is to be determined. The resulting quadratic coefficients are A \= m^2 \+ l^2 \= p^2, B \= mx\_0 \- ly\_0 \= lmC\_1 \- lmC\_1 \= 0, C \= x\_0^2 \+ y\_0^2 \+ \\frac{a^2}{b^2}z\_0^2 \- a^2 \= p^2C\_1^2 \+ \\frac{a^2}{b^2}z\_0^2 \- a^2 \= \\frac{1}{p^2}(d\- nz\_0\)^2 \+ \\frac{a^2}{b^2}z\_0^2 \- a^2. Therefore the intersection will result in only one solution if B^2 \= AC, but since B \= 0 and A \> 0{{efn\\|Otherwise the section is a parallel, so there is nothing to solve, since all latitudes are the same.}}, the critical equation becomes C \= 0. This equation may be rearranged and put into the form Ez\_0^2 \- 2Fz\_0 \+ G \= 0, where E \= \\frac{a^2}{b^2}p^2 \+ n^2, F \= nd, and G \= d^2 \- a^2p^2. Therefore, z\_0 \= \\frac{F \\pm \\sqrt{{F}^2\-EG}}{E} provides the distance from the origin of the desired parallel planes. Plugging z\_0 into C\_1 gives the values for x\_0 and y\_0. Recall that t \= \-B/A \= 0 so x \= x\_0, y \= y\_0 are the remaining coordinates of the intersections. The geographic coordinates may then be computed using the ECEF\_to\_Geo conversion. The same method may be applied to meridians to find extreme longitudes, but the results are not easy to interpret due to the modular nature of longitude. However, the results can always be verified using the following approach. The simpler approach is to compute the end points of the minor and major axes of the section ellipse using \\mathbf{R} \= \\mathbf{R\_c} \\pm b^\\\mathbf\\hat j^\, and \\mathbf{R} \= \\mathbf{R\_c} \\pm a^\\\mathbf\\hat i^\, and then converting to geographic coordinates. It may be worth mentioning here that the line of intersection of two planes consists of the set of fixed points, hence the rotation axis, of a coordinate rotation that maps one plane onto the other. For the New York to Paris example the results are: \| Section \| Minor Axis Point 1 \| Minor Axis Point 2 \| Major Axis Point 1 \| Major Axis Point 2 \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| Great Ellipse \| \\phi\_1 \= 52\.418061°, \\lambda\_1 \= \-25\.123079° \| \\phi\_2 \= \-52\.418061°, \\lambda\_2 \= 154\.876921° \| \\phi\_1 \= 0\.000000°, \\lambda\_1 \= 64\.876921° \| \\phi\_2 \= 0\.000000°, \\lambda\_2 \= \-115\.123079° \| \| Normal \| \\phi\_1 \= 52\.433790°, \\lambda\_1 \= \-25\.154863° \| \\phi\_2 \= \-52\.739188°, \\lambda\_2 \= 154\.845137° \| \\phi\_1 \= \-0\.093365°, \\lambda\_1 \= 64\.723898° \| \\phi\_2 \= \-0\.093365°, \\lambda\_2 \= \-115\.033623° \| \| Mean Normal \| \\phi\_1 \= 52\.435039°, \\lambda\_1 \= \-25\.157380° \| \\phi\_2 \= \-52\.764681°, \\lambda\_2 \= 154\.842620° \| \\phi\_1 \= \-0\.100746°, \\lambda\_1 \= 64\.711732° \| \\phi\_2 \= \-0\.100746°, \\lambda\_2 \= \-115\.026491° \| \| Reciprocal \| \\phi\_1 \= 52\.436288°, \\lambda\_1 \= \-25\.159896° \| \\phi\_2 \= \-52\.790172°, \\lambda\_2 \= 154\.840104° \| \\phi\_1 \= \-0\.108122°, \\lambda\_1 \= 64\.699565° \| \\phi\_2 \= \-0\.108122°, \\lambda\_2 \= \-115\.019357° \| \| Midpoint \| \\phi\_1 \= 52\.436959°, \\lambda\_1 \= \-25\.161247° \| \\phi\_2 \= \-52\.803863°, \\lambda\_2 \= 154\.838753° \| \\phi\_1 \= \-0\.112082°, \\lambda\_1 \= 64\.693029° \| \\phi\_2 \= \-0\.112082°, \\lambda\_2 \= \-115\.015522° \|	[ "Intersections\n-------------", "Let two section planes be given: \\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_1\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf{R} \\= d\\_1, and \\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_2\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf{R} \\= d\\_2. Assuming that the two planes are not parallel, the line of intersection is on both planes. Hence orthogonal to both normals, i.e. in the direction of \\\\mathbf{N\\_3} \\= \\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_1 \\\\times \\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_2 (there is no reason to normalize \\\\mathbf{N\\_3}).", "Since \\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_1 and \\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_2 are not collinear \\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_1, \\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_2, \\\\mathbf{N\\_3} is a basis for \\\\mathbb{R}^3. Therefore, there exist constants C\\_1 and C\\_2 such that the line of intersection of the 2 planes is given by R \\= C\\_1\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_1 \\+ C\\_2\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_2 \\+ t\\\\mathbf{N\\_3}, where t is an independent parameter.", "Since this line is on both section planes, it satisfies both: \nC\\_1 \\+ C\\_2(\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_1\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_2\\) \\= d\\_1, and \nC\\_1(\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_1\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_2\\) \\+ C\\_2 \\= d\\_2.", "Solving these equations for {C\\_1} and {C\\_2} gives \nC\\_1 \\[1 \\- (\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_1\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_2\\)^2] \\= d\\_1 \\- d\\_2(\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_1\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_2\\), and \nC\\_2 \\[1 \\- (\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_1\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_2\\)^2] \\= d\\_2 \\- d\\_1(\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_1\\\\cdot\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_2\\).", "Define the \"dihedral angle\", \\\\nu, by \\\\cos\\\\nu \\= {\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_1}\\\\cdot{\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_2}.\nThen C\\_1 \\= \\\\frac{(d\\_1\\- d\\_2 \\\\cos\\\\nu)}{\\\\sin^2\\\\nu} , and C\\_2 \\= \\\\frac{(d\\_2\\- d\\_1 \\\\cos\\\\nu)}{\\\\sin^2 \\\\nu}.", "On the intersection line we have \\\\mathbf{R} \\=\\\\mathbf{R\\_0} \\+ t\\\\mathbf{N\\_3}, where \\\\mathbf{R\\_0} \\= C\\_1\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_1 \\+ C\\_2\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_2.\nHence: x \\= x\\_0 \\+ tl\\_3, y \\= y\\_0 \\+ tm\\_3, and z \\= z\\_0 \\+ tn\\_3, where\nx\\_0\\= C\\_1l\\_1 \\+ C\\_2l\\_2, y\\_0 \\= C\\_1m\\_1 \\+ C\\_2m\\_2, and z\\_0 \\= C\\_1n\\_1 \\+ C\\_2n\\_2,\n\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_i \\= (l\\_i,m\\_i,n\\_i), for i\\=1,2, and \\\\mathbf{N\\_3} \\= (l\\_3,m\\_3,n\\_3\\).", "To find the intersection of this line with the earth, plug the line equations into \\\\frac{x^2}{a^2} \\+ \\\\frac{y^2}{a^2}\\+\\\\frac{z^2}{b^2} \\= 1, to get\nAt^2 \\+ 2Bt \\+ C \\= 0, where A \\= l\\_3^2 \\+ m\\_3^2 \\+ \\\\frac{a^2}{b^2}n\\_3^2, \nB \\= x\\_0l\\_3 \\+ y\\_0m\\_3 \\+ \\\\frac{a^2}{b^2}z\\_0n\\_3,\nC \\= x\\_0^2 \\+ y\\_0^2 \\+ \\\\frac{a^2}{b^2}z\\_0^2 \\- a^2.", "Therefore, the line intersects the earth at t \\= \\\\frac{\\-B \\\\pm \\\\sqrt{{B}^2\\-AC}}{A}. If B^2 \\< AC, then there is no intersection. If B^2 \\= AC, then the line is tangent to the earth at t \\= \\-B/A (i.e. the sections intersect at that single point).", "Observe that A\\\\ne0 since \\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_1 and \\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_2 are not collinear. Plugging t into\n\\\\mathbf{R} \\= \\\\mathbf{R\\_0} \\+ t\\\\mathbf{N\\_3}, gives the points of intersection of the earth sections.", "### Example", "Find where a section from New York to Paris, intersects the Greenwich meridian. The plane of the prime meridian may be described by \\\\mathbf\\\\hat N \\= (0, 1, 0\\) and d \\= 0. The results are as follows:", "", "\| \\+Intersections \|\n\| --- \|\n\| Section \| Latitude \|\n\| Great Ellipse \| 49\\.634970° \|\n\| Normal \| 49\\.637377° \|\n\| Mean Normal \| 49\\.637568° \|\n\| Reciprocal \| 49\\.637759° \|\n\| Midpoint \| 49\\.637862° \|", "", "", "### Extreme latitudes and longitudes", "The maximum (or minimum) latitude is where the section ellipse intersections a parallel at a single point. To set up the problem, let \n\\\\mathbf{\\\\hat N\\_1} \\= (l, m, n), d\\_1 \\= d \nbe the given section plane. The parallel is \n\\\\mathbf{\\\\hat N\\_2} \\= (0, 0, 1\\), d\\_2 \\= z\\_0, where z\\_0 is to be determined so that there is only one intersection point.\nApplying the intersection method above results in \\\\mathbf{N\\_3} \\= \\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_1 \\\\times \\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_2 \\= (m, \\-l, 0\\), {\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_1}\\\\cdot{\\\\mathbf\\\\hat N\\_2} \\= n, \nC\\_1 \\= \\\\frac{1}{p^2}(d\\- nz\\_0\\), and C\\_2 \\= \\\\frac{1}{p^2}(z\\_0\\- nd), since 1 \\- n^2 \\= l^2 \\+ m^2 \\= p^2.\nThe resulting linear equations become x \\= x\\_0 \\+ tm, y \\= y\\_0 \\- tl, and z \\= z\\_0, where \nx\\_0\\= C\\_1l, y\\_0 \\= C\\_1m, and z\\_0 is to be determined. The resulting quadratic coefficients are \nA \\= m^2 \\+ l^2 \\= p^2, \nB \\= mx\\_0 \\- ly\\_0 \\= lmC\\_1 \\- lmC\\_1 \\= 0,\nC \\= x\\_0^2 \\+ y\\_0^2 \\+ \\\\frac{a^2}{b^2}z\\_0^2 \\- a^2 \\= p^2C\\_1^2 \\+ \\\\frac{a^2}{b^2}z\\_0^2 \\- a^2 \\= \\\\frac{1}{p^2}(d\\- nz\\_0\\)^2 \\+ \\\\frac{a^2}{b^2}z\\_0^2 \\- a^2.\nTherefore the intersection will result in only one solution if B^2 \\= AC, but since B \\= 0 and A \\> 0{{efn\\\|Otherwise the section is a parallel, so there is nothing to solve, since all latitudes are the same.}}, the critical equation becomes C \\= 0. This equation may be rearranged and put into the form Ez\\_0^2 \\- 2Fz\\_0 \\+ G \\= 0, where \nE \\= \\\\frac{a^2}{b^2}p^2 \\+ n^2, \nF \\= nd, and \nG \\= d^2 \\- a^2p^2.\nTherefore, z\\_0 \\= \\\\frac{F \\\\pm \\\\sqrt{{F}^2\\-EG}}{E} provides the distance from the origin of the desired parallel planes. Plugging z\\_0 into C\\_1 gives the values for x\\_0 and y\\_0. Recall that t \\= \\-B/A \\= 0 so x \\= x\\_0, y \\= y\\_0 are the remaining coordinates of the intersections. The geographic coordinates may then be computed using the ECEF\\_to\\_Geo conversion.", "The same method may be applied to meridians to find extreme longitudes, but the results are not easy to interpret due to the modular nature of longitude. However, the results can always be verified using the following approach.", "The simpler approach is to compute the end points of the minor and major axes of the section ellipse using \\\\mathbf{R} \\= \\\\mathbf{R\\_c} \\\\pm b^\\\\\\mathbf\\\\hat j^\\, and \\\\mathbf{R} \\= \\\\mathbf{R\\_c} \\\\pm a^\\\\\\mathbf\\\\hat i^\\, and then converting to geographic coordinates. It may be worth mentioning here that the line of intersection of two planes consists of the set of fixed points, hence the rotation axis, of a coordinate rotation that maps one plane onto the other.", "For the New York to Paris example the results are:", "\| Section \| Minor Axis Point 1 \| Minor Axis Point 2 \| Major Axis Point 1 \| Major Axis Point 2 \|\n\| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \|\n\| Great Ellipse \| \\\\phi\\_1 \\= 52\\.418061°, \\\\lambda\\_1 \\= \\-25\\.123079° \| \\\\phi\\_2 \\= \\-52\\.418061°, \\\\lambda\\_2 \\= 154\\.876921° \| \\\\phi\\_1 \\= 0\\.000000°, \\\\lambda\\_1 \\= 64\\.876921° \| \\\\phi\\_2 \\= 0\\.000000°, \\\\lambda\\_2 \\= \\-115\\.123079° \|\n\| Normal \| \\\\phi\\_1 \\= 52\\.433790°, \\\\lambda\\_1 \\= \\-25\\.154863° \| \\\\phi\\_2 \\= \\-52\\.739188°, \\\\lambda\\_2 \\= 154\\.845137° \| \\\\phi\\_1 \\= \\-0\\.093365°, \\\\lambda\\_1 \\= 64\\.723898° \| \\\\phi\\_2 \\= \\-0\\.093365°, \\\\lambda\\_2 \\= \\-115\\.033623° \|\n\| Mean Normal \| \\\\phi\\_1 \\= 52\\.435039°, \\\\lambda\\_1 \\= \\-25\\.157380° \| \\\\phi\\_2 \\= \\-52\\.764681°, \\\\lambda\\_2 \\= 154\\.842620° \| \\\\phi\\_1 \\= \\-0\\.100746°, \\\\lambda\\_1 \\= 64\\.711732° \| \\\\phi\\_2 \\= \\-0\\.100746°, \\\\lambda\\_2 \\= \\-115\\.026491° \|\n\| Reciprocal \| \\\\phi\\_1 \\= 52\\.436288°, \\\\lambda\\_1 \\= \\-25\\.159896° \| \\\\phi\\_2 \\= \\-52\\.790172°, \\\\lambda\\_2 \\= 154\\.840104° \| \\\\phi\\_1 \\= \\-0\\.108122°, \\\\lambda\\_1 \\= 64\\.699565° \| \\\\phi\\_2 \\= \\-0\\.108122°, \\\\lambda\\_2 \\= \\-115\\.019357° \|\n\| Midpoint \| \\\\phi\\_1 \\= 52\\.436959°, \\\\lambda\\_1 \\= \\-25\\.161247° \| \\\\phi\\_2 \\= \\-52\\.803863°, \\\\lambda\\_2 \\= 154\\.838753° \| \\\\phi\\_1 \\= \\-0\\.112082°, \\\\lambda\\_1 \\= 64\\.693029° \| \\\\phi\\_2 \\= \\-0\\.112082°, \\\\lambda\\_2 \\= \\-115\\.015522° \|", "", "" ]
Biography --------- ### Family and marriages Széchenyi was the descendant of the [Széchenyi](/wiki/Sz%C3%A9chenyi "Széchenyi") family of the [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic "Roman Catholic") nobility, Szárvár\-Hinterland. His father, Count Viktor Széchenyi of Sárvár\-Felsővidék (1871–1945\), was the chief lord of [Fejér County](/wiki/Fej%C3%A9r_County "Fejér County") and the free royal city of [Székesfehérvár](/wiki/Sz%C3%A9kesfeh%C3%A9rv%C3%A1r "Székesfehérvár"). His mother was Countess Karolina Ledebur Wicheln (1875–1956\). His paternal grandparents were Count Dénes Széchenyi (1828–1892\), a member of the Main House, Member of Parliament, and Count Mária Hoyos (1838–1926\), an imperial and royal palace lady. His maternal grandparents were Count János Ledebur Wicheln (1842–1903\), imperial and royal chamberlain, ministerial councilor, grand landowner of [Mosschau](/wiki/Monschau "Monschau"), and Count Czernin von und zu Chudenitz Karonia (1847–1907\), imperial and royal palace lady. His brothers: Count László Esterházy and Mrs. Countess Sarolta Antónia Széchenyi ("Sarah"), Count Irma Széchenyi, Count Czernin von und Zu Chudenitz Count Márta Széchenyi, and Count Széchenyi. Count Zsigmond Széchenyi was the great\-grandson of the founder of the [Hungarian National Museum](/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum "Hungarian National Museum"), Count Ferenc Széchényi. His great\-grandfather was Count [Lajos Széchényi](/wiki/Lajos_Sz%C3%A9ch%C3%A9nyi "Lajos Széchényi"), who was the brother of Count [István Széchenyi](/wiki/Istv%C3%A1n_Sz%C3%A9chenyi "István Széchenyi"), the "greatest Hungarian". His first marriage was with Stella Crowther ([Wimbledon, London](/wiki/Wimbledon%2C_London "Wimbledon, London"), [England](/wiki/England "England"), July 24, 1913 – † [Henfield](/wiki/Henfield "Henfield"), [West Sussex](/wiki/West_Sussex "West Sussex"), England, December 27, 1990\); on June 2, 1936, which happened in the [Sigismund Chapel](/wiki/Sigismund%27s_Chapel "Sigismund's Chapel") in [Buda](/wiki/Buda "Buda"), [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest "Budapest").{{Cite web\\|title\=Széchenyi 7\\|url\=http://genealogy.euweb.cz/hung/szechenyi7\.html\\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-16\\|website\=genealogy.euweb.cz}} The swearing\-in ceremony was performed by Lajos Shvoy, [Bishop](/wiki/Bishop "Bishop") of Székesfehérvár. In afternoon, after the wedding, the wedding crowd had lunch at the Park Club, then the young couple traveled to the village. Their son, Count Péter Széchenyi, was born in London on February 4, 1939, and three of them lived in Hungary. Stella Crowther and his son Péter Széchenyi moved back to their homeland at [the beginning of the war.](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") During [the siege of Budapest](/wiki/Siege_of_Budapest "Siege of Budapest"), together with the values of their villa in the name of his wife, their home was burned to the ground, Zsigmond Széchenyi lived in his father's house in Budavár until his deportation. On March 13, 1945, he was taken by the [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") authorities, held in a camp in Tisza Kálmán \- Republic Square, and then in [Csömör](/wiki/Cs%C3%B6m%C3%B6r "Csömör") until April 19, 1945\. Meanwhile, during one of his interrogations at the Mosonyi prison, he coincidentally met with his father, who had died two days before his release from abuse in captivity. He divorced his wife in 1945\. From 1947 he became a hunting supervisor and then a specialist [museologist](/wiki/Museologist "Museologist") until 1950, he was however still the hunting supervisor of the National Forest Center. In 1951 he was deported to Tiszapolgár in a [henhouse](/wiki/Henhouse "Henhouse") \- even the [hens](/wiki/Chicken "Chicken") were in it when he arrived. After five months, he was able to move to another forced residence, [Balatongyörök](/wiki/Balatongy%C3%B6r%C3%B6k "Balatongyörök"), where his acquaintances made an acceptance statement. In November 1952, he was deported by the police to [Keszthely](/wiki/Keszthely "Keszthely"), then to [Veszprém](/wiki/Veszpr%C3%A9m "Veszprém"), and to the Budapest tolonhouse in early December. At the beginning of April, he was transferred to the [Sopronkőhida](/wiki/Sopronk%C5%91hida "Sopronkőhida") prison for two months, then returned to the tolonha, from where he was released on 13 June. He had to move back to Balatongyörök, where he lived until the spring of 1959, there he met his second wife, Margit Hertelendy. Under the [communist regime](/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic "Hungarian People's Republic"), he got a job with help from a friend at the Keszthely Helikon Library, where he could hunt again. His second wife, Margaret Hertelendy ([Pacsa](/wiki/Pacsa "Pacsa"), [Zala County](/wiki/Zala_County "Zala County"), March 26, 1925\) was from a divorced family from Hertelend and [Vindornyalak](/wiki/Vindornyalak "Vindornyalak") of ancient [Transdanubian](/wiki/Transdanubia "Transdanubia") origin. The couple married on 5 May 1959 in [Keszthely](/wiki/Keszthely "Keszthely"). Margaret worked in the Keszthely Helikon Library along with Zsigmond; her first husband, Miklós Birck, was an agricultural engineer whom Margaret had a daughter, Eszter Birck. Margaret Hertelendy's father, József Hertelendy (1889–1933\) from Hertelend and Vindornyalak, was a [judge](/wiki/Judge "Judge") in Perlak, a member of the county committee, a landowner from [Pacsa](/wiki/Pacsa "Pacsa"), and her mother was Margit Szentmihályi (1894–1977\) from Révfalva.{{Cite web\\|title\=MAGYAR CSALÁDTÖRTÉNETI ADATTÁR\\|url\=https://macse.hu/gudenus/mcsat/fam.aspx?id\=16018\\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-16\\|website\=macse.hu}} The paternal grandparents of Margaret Hertelendy; József Hertelendy (1855–1907\) from Hertelend and Vindornyalak, was a member of the [Zala County](/wiki/Zala_County "Zala County") [Legislature](/wiki/Legislature "Legislature"), a [landowner](/wiki/Landowner "Landowner"), and a [knight](/wiki/Knight "Knight"), her grandmother was Elvira Kucinic (1859– 1880\). Margaret's maternal grandparents were Dezső Szentmihályi (1863–1935\), a landowner, member of the [Upper House](/wiki/Upper_house "Upper house") AND vice\-president of the "Zalavármegyei Economic Association", and Ilona Koller (1871–1934\). Margaret Hertelendy's ancestor was György Hertelendy (1764\-1831\), an alias of Zala, who was the guardian of [Ferenc Deák](/wiki/Ferenc_De%C3%A1k_%28politician%29 "Ferenc Deák (politician)") and his brothers when they were orphaned. No child was born from the marriage of Count Zsigmond Széchenyi and Margaret Hertelendy. ### Education He spent his childhood in Sárpentele, [Fejér County](/wiki/Fej%C3%A9r_County "Fejér County") (now Sárszentmihály), and in his Austrian and Czech relatives' homes in [Gutenstein](/wiki/Gutenstein%2C_Austria "Gutenstein, Austria"), Milleschau and [Niemes](/wiki/Niemes "Niemes"). He completed his secondary schools at the State High School in Székesfehérvár, and then at the Ferenc József High School in Budapest. He graduated in 1915, then was immediately enlisted and served in the [World War I](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") from 1916 to 1918\. He then began his legal studies, but stopped in 1919 because his life was considered to be the study of nature and fauna. He completed his higher education in [Munich](/wiki/Munich "Munich") and [Stuttgart](/wiki/Stuttgart "Stuttgart") between 1920 and 1921, and in 1922 and 1923, in Oxford and Cambridge, he expanded his language and zoological knowledge. ### World War II and afterwards Between 1924 and 1932, he farmed on [Kőröshegy](/wiki/K%C5%91r%C3%B6shegy "Kőröshegy") in [Somogy County](/wiki/Somogy_County "Somogy County"), at which time his first African animal gathering and hunting expedition fell. In the spring of 1927, he hunted with [László Almásy](/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Alm%C3%A1sy "László Almásy") in [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan "Sudan"), then hunted in [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt "Egypt"), [Libya](/wiki/Libya "Libya"), [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya "Kenya"), [Tanganyika](/wiki/Tanganyika_%28territory%29 "Tanganyika (territory)") and [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda "Uganda"). [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska "Alaska") followed in 1935, [India](/wiki/India "India") in 1937–38, and [Africa](/wiki/Africa "Africa") again in 1938\. He suffered great losses during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). His villa on Istenhegyi út in Budapest burned down and his trophy collection was destroyed. From 1947; he worked as a hunting supervisor at the National Forestry Center. In 1950 at the Agricultural Museum, he was a specialist museologist, but in 1951 he was relocated to a farm next to [Polgár](/wiki/Polg%C3%A1r%2C_Hungary "Polgár, Hungary") in [Hajdú County](/wiki/Hajd%C3%BA_County "Hajdú County"). He suffered a lot of injustice in the [Rákosi](/wiki/M%C3%A1ty%C3%A1s_R%C3%A1kosi "Mátyás Rákosi") era, but then in the 1950s he entered the Keszthely Helikon Library, where he worked on a professional bibliography on hunting literature in four languages. In 1955, the Fiction Publishing House published "Csui! ..." which had not been published for a quarter of a century. His wife Margit Hertelendy encouraged him to write again. In 1960 he went on an official state expedition to [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa "East Africa") (with István Dénes, János Szunyoghy, Imre Schuller and Kornél Böröczky). He arrived in Africa for the ninth but also last time in 1964\. In the last years of his life he was given to have his work recognized under socialist regime as well. [János Kádár](/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_K%C3%A1d%C3%A1r "János Kádár") also hunted with him. He died on April 24, 1967, in Budapest. His specialist library miraculously survived World War II, counting more than 4,000 volumes at the time of his death. Zsigmond Széchenyi's hunting library is the most significant collection of hunting books in Hungary, which was purchased by the [Ministry of Agriculture](/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_%28Hungary%29 "Ministry of Agriculture (Hungary)") in 1969 for the Natural History Museum.	[ "Biography\n---------", "### Family and marriages", "Széchenyi was the descendant of the [Széchenyi](/wiki/Sz%C3%A9chenyi \"Széchenyi\") family of the [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic \"Roman Catholic\") nobility, Szárvár\\-Hinterland. His father, Count Viktor Széchenyi of Sárvár\\-Felsővidék (1871–1945\\), was the chief lord of [Fejér County](/wiki/Fej%C3%A9r_County \"Fejér County\") and the free royal city of [Székesfehérvár](/wiki/Sz%C3%A9kesfeh%C3%A9rv%C3%A1r \"Székesfehérvár\"). His mother was Countess Karolina Ledebur Wicheln (1875–1956\\). His paternal grandparents were Count Dénes Széchenyi (1828–1892\\), a member of the Main House, Member of Parliament, and Count Mária Hoyos (1838–1926\\), an imperial and royal palace lady. His maternal grandparents were Count János Ledebur Wicheln (1842–1903\\), imperial and royal chamberlain, ministerial councilor, grand landowner of [Mosschau](/wiki/Monschau \"Monschau\"), and Count Czernin von und zu Chudenitz Karonia (1847–1907\\), imperial and royal palace lady. His brothers: Count László Esterházy and Mrs. Countess Sarolta Antónia Széchenyi (\"Sarah\"), Count Irma Széchenyi, Count Czernin von und Zu Chudenitz Count Márta Széchenyi, and Count Széchenyi.", "Count Zsigmond Széchenyi was the great\\-grandson of the founder of the [Hungarian National Museum](/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum \"Hungarian National Museum\"), Count Ferenc Széchényi. His great\\-grandfather was Count [Lajos Széchényi](/wiki/Lajos_Sz%C3%A9ch%C3%A9nyi \"Lajos Széchényi\"), who was the brother of Count [István Széchenyi](/wiki/Istv%C3%A1n_Sz%C3%A9chenyi \"István Széchenyi\"), the \"greatest Hungarian\".", "His first marriage was with Stella Crowther ([Wimbledon, London](/wiki/Wimbledon%2C_London \"Wimbledon, London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\"), July 24, 1913 – † [Henfield](/wiki/Henfield \"Henfield\"), [West Sussex](/wiki/West_Sussex \"West Sussex\"), England, December 27, 1990\\); on June 2, 1936, which happened in the [Sigismund Chapel](/wiki/Sigismund%27s_Chapel \"Sigismund's Chapel\") in [Buda](/wiki/Buda \"Buda\"), [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest \"Budapest\").{{Cite web\\\|title\\=Széchenyi 7\\\|url\\=http://genealogy.euweb.cz/hung/szechenyi7\\.html\\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-16\\\|website\\=genealogy.euweb.cz}} The swearing\\-in ceremony was performed by Lajos Shvoy, [Bishop](/wiki/Bishop \"Bishop\") of Székesfehérvár. In afternoon, after the wedding, the wedding crowd had lunch at the Park Club, then the young couple traveled to the village. Their son, Count Péter Széchenyi, was born in London on February 4, 1939, and three of them lived in Hungary. Stella Crowther and his son Péter Széchenyi moved back to their homeland at [the beginning of the war.](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") During [the siege of Budapest](/wiki/Siege_of_Budapest \"Siege of Budapest\"), together with the values of their villa in the name of his wife, their home was burned to the ground, Zsigmond Széchenyi lived in his father's house in Budavár until his deportation. On March 13, 1945, he was taken by the [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") authorities, held in a camp in Tisza Kálmán \\- Republic Square, and then in [Csömör](/wiki/Cs%C3%B6m%C3%B6r \"Csömör\") until April 19, 1945\\.", "Meanwhile, during one of his interrogations at the Mosonyi prison, he coincidentally met with his father, who had died two days before his release from abuse in captivity. He divorced his wife in 1945\\. From 1947 he became a hunting supervisor and then a specialist [museologist](/wiki/Museologist \"Museologist\") until 1950, he was however still the hunting supervisor of the National Forest Center. In 1951 he was deported to Tiszapolgár in a [henhouse](/wiki/Henhouse \"Henhouse\") \\- even the [hens](/wiki/Chicken \"Chicken\") were in it when he arrived. After five months, he was able to move to another forced residence, [Balatongyörök](/wiki/Balatongy%C3%B6r%C3%B6k \"Balatongyörök\"), where his acquaintances made an acceptance statement. In November 1952, he was deported by the police to [Keszthely](/wiki/Keszthely \"Keszthely\"), then to [Veszprém](/wiki/Veszpr%C3%A9m \"Veszprém\"), and to the Budapest tolonhouse in early December. At the beginning of April, he was transferred to the [Sopronkőhida](/wiki/Sopronk%C5%91hida \"Sopronkőhida\") prison for two months, then returned to the tolonha, from where he was released on 13 June. He had to move back to Balatongyörök, where he lived until the spring of 1959, there he met his second wife, Margit Hertelendy.", "Under the [communist regime](/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic \"Hungarian People's Republic\"), he got a job with help from a friend at the Keszthely Helikon Library, where he could hunt again. His second wife, Margaret Hertelendy ([Pacsa](/wiki/Pacsa \"Pacsa\"), [Zala County](/wiki/Zala_County \"Zala County\"), March 26, 1925\\) was from a divorced family from Hertelend and [Vindornyalak](/wiki/Vindornyalak \"Vindornyalak\") of ancient [Transdanubian](/wiki/Transdanubia \"Transdanubia\") origin. The couple married on 5 May 1959 in [Keszthely](/wiki/Keszthely \"Keszthely\"). Margaret worked in the Keszthely Helikon Library along with Zsigmond; her first husband, Miklós Birck, was an agricultural engineer whom Margaret had a daughter, Eszter Birck. Margaret Hertelendy's father, József Hertelendy (1889–1933\\) from Hertelend and Vindornyalak, was a [judge](/wiki/Judge \"Judge\") in Perlak, a member of the county committee, a landowner from [Pacsa](/wiki/Pacsa \"Pacsa\"), and her mother was Margit Szentmihályi (1894–1977\\) from Révfalva.{{Cite web\\\|title\\=MAGYAR CSALÁDTÖRTÉNETI ADATTÁR\\\|url\\=https://macse.hu/gudenus/mcsat/fam.aspx?id\\=16018\\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-16\\\|website\\=macse.hu}} The paternal grandparents of Margaret Hertelendy; József Hertelendy (1855–1907\\) from Hertelend and Vindornyalak, was a member of the [Zala County](/wiki/Zala_County \"Zala County\") [Legislature](/wiki/Legislature \"Legislature\"), a [landowner](/wiki/Landowner \"Landowner\"), and a [knight](/wiki/Knight \"Knight\"), her grandmother was Elvira Kucinic (1859– 1880\\). Margaret's maternal grandparents were Dezső Szentmihályi (1863–1935\\), a landowner, member of the [Upper House](/wiki/Upper_house \"Upper house\") AND vice\\-president of the \"Zalavármegyei Economic Association\", and Ilona Koller (1871–1934\\).", "Margaret Hertelendy's ancestor was György Hertelendy (1764\\-1831\\), an alias of Zala, who was the guardian of [Ferenc Deák](/wiki/Ferenc_De%C3%A1k_%28politician%29 \"Ferenc Deák (politician)\") and his brothers when they were orphaned. No child was born from the marriage of Count Zsigmond Széchenyi and Margaret Hertelendy.", "### Education", "He spent his childhood in Sárpentele, [Fejér County](/wiki/Fej%C3%A9r_County \"Fejér County\") (now Sárszentmihály), and in his Austrian and Czech relatives' homes in [Gutenstein](/wiki/Gutenstein%2C_Austria \"Gutenstein, Austria\"), Milleschau and [Niemes](/wiki/Niemes \"Niemes\"). He completed his secondary schools at the State High School in Székesfehérvár, and then at the Ferenc József High School in Budapest.", "He graduated in 1915, then was immediately enlisted and served in the [World War I](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") from 1916 to 1918\\. He then began his legal studies, but stopped in 1919 because his life was considered to be the study of nature and fauna. He completed his higher education in [Munich](/wiki/Munich \"Munich\") and [Stuttgart](/wiki/Stuttgart \"Stuttgart\") between 1920 and 1921, and in 1922 and 1923, in Oxford and Cambridge, he expanded his language and zoological knowledge.", "### World War II and afterwards", "Between 1924 and 1932, he farmed on [Kőröshegy](/wiki/K%C5%91r%C3%B6shegy \"Kőröshegy\") in [Somogy County](/wiki/Somogy_County \"Somogy County\"), at which time his first African animal gathering and hunting expedition fell. In the spring of 1927, he hunted with [László Almásy](/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Alm%C3%A1sy \"László Almásy\") in [Sudan](/wiki/Sudan \"Sudan\"), then hunted in [Egypt](/wiki/Egypt \"Egypt\"), [Libya](/wiki/Libya \"Libya\"), [Kenya](/wiki/Kenya \"Kenya\"), [Tanganyika](/wiki/Tanganyika_%28territory%29 \"Tanganyika (territory)\") and [Uganda](/wiki/Uganda \"Uganda\"). [Alaska](/wiki/Alaska \"Alaska\") followed in 1935, [India](/wiki/India \"India\") in 1937–38, and [Africa](/wiki/Africa \"Africa\") again in 1938\\. He suffered great losses during [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). His villa on Istenhegyi út in Budapest burned down and his trophy collection was destroyed. From 1947; he worked as a hunting supervisor at the National Forestry Center. In 1950 at the Agricultural Museum, he was a specialist museologist, but in 1951 he was relocated to a farm next to [Polgár](/wiki/Polg%C3%A1r%2C_Hungary \"Polgár, Hungary\") in [Hajdú County](/wiki/Hajd%C3%BA_County \"Hajdú County\"). He suffered a lot of injustice in the [Rákosi](/wiki/M%C3%A1ty%C3%A1s_R%C3%A1kosi \"Mátyás Rákosi\") era, but then in the 1950s he entered the Keszthely Helikon Library, where he worked on a professional bibliography on hunting literature in four languages. In 1955, the Fiction Publishing House published \"Csui! ...\" which had not been published for a quarter of a century. His wife Margit Hertelendy encouraged him to write again.", "In 1960 he went on an official state expedition to [East Africa](/wiki/East_Africa \"East Africa\") (with István Dénes, János Szunyoghy, Imre Schuller and Kornél Böröczky). He arrived in Africa for the ninth but also last time in 1964\\. In the last years of his life he was given to have his work recognized under socialist regime as well. [János Kádár](/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_K%C3%A1d%C3%A1r \"János Kádár\") also hunted with him. He died on April 24, 1967, in Budapest. His specialist library miraculously survived World War II, counting more than 4,000 volumes at the time of his death. Zsigmond Széchenyi's hunting library is the most significant collection of hunting books in Hungary, which was purchased by the [Ministry of Agriculture](/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_%28Hungary%29 \"Ministry of Agriculture (Hungary)\") in 1969 for the Natural History Museum.", "" ]
### Family and marriages Széchenyi was the descendant of the [Széchenyi](/wiki/Sz%C3%A9chenyi "Széchenyi") family of the [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic "Roman Catholic") nobility, Szárvár\-Hinterland. His father, Count Viktor Széchenyi of Sárvár\-Felsővidék (1871–1945\), was the chief lord of [Fejér County](/wiki/Fej%C3%A9r_County "Fejér County") and the free royal city of [Székesfehérvár](/wiki/Sz%C3%A9kesfeh%C3%A9rv%C3%A1r "Székesfehérvár"). His mother was Countess Karolina Ledebur Wicheln (1875–1956\). His paternal grandparents were Count Dénes Széchenyi (1828–1892\), a member of the Main House, Member of Parliament, and Count Mária Hoyos (1838–1926\), an imperial and royal palace lady. His maternal grandparents were Count János Ledebur Wicheln (1842–1903\), imperial and royal chamberlain, ministerial councilor, grand landowner of [Mosschau](/wiki/Monschau "Monschau"), and Count Czernin von und zu Chudenitz Karonia (1847–1907\), imperial and royal palace lady. His brothers: Count László Esterházy and Mrs. Countess Sarolta Antónia Széchenyi ("Sarah"), Count Irma Széchenyi, Count Czernin von und Zu Chudenitz Count Márta Széchenyi, and Count Széchenyi. Count Zsigmond Széchenyi was the great\-grandson of the founder of the [Hungarian National Museum](/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum "Hungarian National Museum"), Count Ferenc Széchényi. His great\-grandfather was Count [Lajos Széchényi](/wiki/Lajos_Sz%C3%A9ch%C3%A9nyi "Lajos Széchényi"), who was the brother of Count [István Széchenyi](/wiki/Istv%C3%A1n_Sz%C3%A9chenyi "István Széchenyi"), the "greatest Hungarian". His first marriage was with Stella Crowther ([Wimbledon, London](/wiki/Wimbledon%2C_London "Wimbledon, London"), [England](/wiki/England "England"), July 24, 1913 – † [Henfield](/wiki/Henfield "Henfield"), [West Sussex](/wiki/West_Sussex "West Sussex"), England, December 27, 1990\); on June 2, 1936, which happened in the [Sigismund Chapel](/wiki/Sigismund%27s_Chapel "Sigismund's Chapel") in [Buda](/wiki/Buda "Buda"), [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest "Budapest").{{Cite web\\|title\=Széchenyi 7\\|url\=http://genealogy.euweb.cz/hung/szechenyi7\.html\\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-16\\|website\=genealogy.euweb.cz}} The swearing\-in ceremony was performed by Lajos Shvoy, [Bishop](/wiki/Bishop "Bishop") of Székesfehérvár. In afternoon, after the wedding, the wedding crowd had lunch at the Park Club, then the young couple traveled to the village. Their son, Count Péter Széchenyi, was born in London on February 4, 1939, and three of them lived in Hungary. Stella Crowther and his son Péter Széchenyi moved back to their homeland at [the beginning of the war.](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II") During [the siege of Budapest](/wiki/Siege_of_Budapest "Siege of Budapest"), together with the values of their villa in the name of his wife, their home was burned to the ground, Zsigmond Széchenyi lived in his father's house in Budavár until his deportation. On March 13, 1945, he was taken by the [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") authorities, held in a camp in Tisza Kálmán \- Republic Square, and then in [Csömör](/wiki/Cs%C3%B6m%C3%B6r "Csömör") until April 19, 1945\. Meanwhile, during one of his interrogations at the Mosonyi prison, he coincidentally met with his father, who had died two days before his release from abuse in captivity. He divorced his wife in 1945\. From 1947 he became a hunting supervisor and then a specialist [museologist](/wiki/Museologist "Museologist") until 1950, he was however still the hunting supervisor of the National Forest Center. In 1951 he was deported to Tiszapolgár in a [henhouse](/wiki/Henhouse "Henhouse") \- even the [hens](/wiki/Chicken "Chicken") were in it when he arrived. After five months, he was able to move to another forced residence, [Balatongyörök](/wiki/Balatongy%C3%B6r%C3%B6k "Balatongyörök"), where his acquaintances made an acceptance statement. In November 1952, he was deported by the police to [Keszthely](/wiki/Keszthely "Keszthely"), then to [Veszprém](/wiki/Veszpr%C3%A9m "Veszprém"), and to the Budapest tolonhouse in early December. At the beginning of April, he was transferred to the [Sopronkőhida](/wiki/Sopronk%C5%91hida "Sopronkőhida") prison for two months, then returned to the tolonha, from where he was released on 13 June. He had to move back to Balatongyörök, where he lived until the spring of 1959, there he met his second wife, Margit Hertelendy. Under the [communist regime](/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic "Hungarian People's Republic"), he got a job with help from a friend at the Keszthely Helikon Library, where he could hunt again. His second wife, Margaret Hertelendy ([Pacsa](/wiki/Pacsa "Pacsa"), [Zala County](/wiki/Zala_County "Zala County"), March 26, 1925\) was from a divorced family from Hertelend and [Vindornyalak](/wiki/Vindornyalak "Vindornyalak") of ancient [Transdanubian](/wiki/Transdanubia "Transdanubia") origin. The couple married on 5 May 1959 in [Keszthely](/wiki/Keszthely "Keszthely"). Margaret worked in the Keszthely Helikon Library along with Zsigmond; her first husband, Miklós Birck, was an agricultural engineer whom Margaret had a daughter, Eszter Birck. Margaret Hertelendy's father, József Hertelendy (1889–1933\) from Hertelend and Vindornyalak, was a [judge](/wiki/Judge "Judge") in Perlak, a member of the county committee, a landowner from [Pacsa](/wiki/Pacsa "Pacsa"), and her mother was Margit Szentmihályi (1894–1977\) from Révfalva.{{Cite web\\|title\=MAGYAR CSALÁDTÖRTÉNETI ADATTÁR\\|url\=https://macse.hu/gudenus/mcsat/fam.aspx?id\=16018\\|access\-date\=2021\-06\-16\\|website\=macse.hu}} The paternal grandparents of Margaret Hertelendy; József Hertelendy (1855–1907\) from Hertelend and Vindornyalak, was a member of the [Zala County](/wiki/Zala_County "Zala County") [Legislature](/wiki/Legislature "Legislature"), a [landowner](/wiki/Landowner "Landowner"), and a [knight](/wiki/Knight "Knight"), her grandmother was Elvira Kucinic (1859– 1880\). Margaret's maternal grandparents were Dezső Szentmihályi (1863–1935\), a landowner, member of the [Upper House](/wiki/Upper_house "Upper house") AND vice\-president of the "Zalavármegyei Economic Association", and Ilona Koller (1871–1934\). Margaret Hertelendy's ancestor was György Hertelendy (1764\-1831\), an alias of Zala, who was the guardian of [Ferenc Deák](/wiki/Ferenc_De%C3%A1k_%28politician%29 "Ferenc Deák (politician)") and his brothers when they were orphaned. No child was born from the marriage of Count Zsigmond Széchenyi and Margaret Hertelendy.	[ "### Family and marriages", "Széchenyi was the descendant of the [Széchenyi](/wiki/Sz%C3%A9chenyi \"Széchenyi\") family of the [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic \"Roman Catholic\") nobility, Szárvár\\-Hinterland. His father, Count Viktor Széchenyi of Sárvár\\-Felsővidék (1871–1945\\), was the chief lord of [Fejér County](/wiki/Fej%C3%A9r_County \"Fejér County\") and the free royal city of [Székesfehérvár](/wiki/Sz%C3%A9kesfeh%C3%A9rv%C3%A1r \"Székesfehérvár\"). His mother was Countess Karolina Ledebur Wicheln (1875–1956\\). His paternal grandparents were Count Dénes Széchenyi (1828–1892\\), a member of the Main House, Member of Parliament, and Count Mária Hoyos (1838–1926\\), an imperial and royal palace lady. His maternal grandparents were Count János Ledebur Wicheln (1842–1903\\), imperial and royal chamberlain, ministerial councilor, grand landowner of [Mosschau](/wiki/Monschau \"Monschau\"), and Count Czernin von und zu Chudenitz Karonia (1847–1907\\), imperial and royal palace lady. His brothers: Count László Esterházy and Mrs. Countess Sarolta Antónia Széchenyi (\"Sarah\"), Count Irma Széchenyi, Count Czernin von und Zu Chudenitz Count Márta Széchenyi, and Count Széchenyi.", "Count Zsigmond Széchenyi was the great\\-grandson of the founder of the [Hungarian National Museum](/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum \"Hungarian National Museum\"), Count Ferenc Széchényi. His great\\-grandfather was Count [Lajos Széchényi](/wiki/Lajos_Sz%C3%A9ch%C3%A9nyi \"Lajos Széchényi\"), who was the brother of Count [István Széchenyi](/wiki/Istv%C3%A1n_Sz%C3%A9chenyi \"István Széchenyi\"), the \"greatest Hungarian\".", "His first marriage was with Stella Crowther ([Wimbledon, London](/wiki/Wimbledon%2C_London \"Wimbledon, London\"), [England](/wiki/England \"England\"), July 24, 1913 – † [Henfield](/wiki/Henfield \"Henfield\"), [West Sussex](/wiki/West_Sussex \"West Sussex\"), England, December 27, 1990\\); on June 2, 1936, which happened in the [Sigismund Chapel](/wiki/Sigismund%27s_Chapel \"Sigismund's Chapel\") in [Buda](/wiki/Buda \"Buda\"), [Budapest](/wiki/Budapest \"Budapest\").{{Cite web\\\|title\\=Széchenyi 7\\\|url\\=http://genealogy.euweb.cz/hung/szechenyi7\\.html\\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-16\\\|website\\=genealogy.euweb.cz}} The swearing\\-in ceremony was performed by Lajos Shvoy, [Bishop](/wiki/Bishop \"Bishop\") of Székesfehérvár. In afternoon, after the wedding, the wedding crowd had lunch at the Park Club, then the young couple traveled to the village. Their son, Count Péter Széchenyi, was born in London on February 4, 1939, and three of them lived in Hungary. Stella Crowther and his son Péter Széchenyi moved back to their homeland at [the beginning of the war.](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\") During [the siege of Budapest](/wiki/Siege_of_Budapest \"Siege of Budapest\"), together with the values of their villa in the name of his wife, their home was burned to the ground, Zsigmond Széchenyi lived in his father's house in Budavár until his deportation. On March 13, 1945, he was taken by the [Soviet](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") authorities, held in a camp in Tisza Kálmán \\- Republic Square, and then in [Csömör](/wiki/Cs%C3%B6m%C3%B6r \"Csömör\") until April 19, 1945\\.", "Meanwhile, during one of his interrogations at the Mosonyi prison, he coincidentally met with his father, who had died two days before his release from abuse in captivity. He divorced his wife in 1945\\. From 1947 he became a hunting supervisor and then a specialist [museologist](/wiki/Museologist \"Museologist\") until 1950, he was however still the hunting supervisor of the National Forest Center. In 1951 he was deported to Tiszapolgár in a [henhouse](/wiki/Henhouse \"Henhouse\") \\- even the [hens](/wiki/Chicken \"Chicken\") were in it when he arrived. After five months, he was able to move to another forced residence, [Balatongyörök](/wiki/Balatongy%C3%B6r%C3%B6k \"Balatongyörök\"), where his acquaintances made an acceptance statement. In November 1952, he was deported by the police to [Keszthely](/wiki/Keszthely \"Keszthely\"), then to [Veszprém](/wiki/Veszpr%C3%A9m \"Veszprém\"), and to the Budapest tolonhouse in early December. At the beginning of April, he was transferred to the [Sopronkőhida](/wiki/Sopronk%C5%91hida \"Sopronkőhida\") prison for two months, then returned to the tolonha, from where he was released on 13 June. He had to move back to Balatongyörök, where he lived until the spring of 1959, there he met his second wife, Margit Hertelendy.", "Under the [communist regime](/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic \"Hungarian People's Republic\"), he got a job with help from a friend at the Keszthely Helikon Library, where he could hunt again. His second wife, Margaret Hertelendy ([Pacsa](/wiki/Pacsa \"Pacsa\"), [Zala County](/wiki/Zala_County \"Zala County\"), March 26, 1925\\) was from a divorced family from Hertelend and [Vindornyalak](/wiki/Vindornyalak \"Vindornyalak\") of ancient [Transdanubian](/wiki/Transdanubia \"Transdanubia\") origin. The couple married on 5 May 1959 in [Keszthely](/wiki/Keszthely \"Keszthely\"). Margaret worked in the Keszthely Helikon Library along with Zsigmond; her first husband, Miklós Birck, was an agricultural engineer whom Margaret had a daughter, Eszter Birck. Margaret Hertelendy's father, József Hertelendy (1889–1933\\) from Hertelend and Vindornyalak, was a [judge](/wiki/Judge \"Judge\") in Perlak, a member of the county committee, a landowner from [Pacsa](/wiki/Pacsa \"Pacsa\"), and her mother was Margit Szentmihályi (1894–1977\\) from Révfalva.{{Cite web\\\|title\\=MAGYAR CSALÁDTÖRTÉNETI ADATTÁR\\\|url\\=https://macse.hu/gudenus/mcsat/fam.aspx?id\\=16018\\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-06\\-16\\\|website\\=macse.hu}} The paternal grandparents of Margaret Hertelendy; József Hertelendy (1855–1907\\) from Hertelend and Vindornyalak, was a member of the [Zala County](/wiki/Zala_County \"Zala County\") [Legislature](/wiki/Legislature \"Legislature\"), a [landowner](/wiki/Landowner \"Landowner\"), and a [knight](/wiki/Knight \"Knight\"), her grandmother was Elvira Kucinic (1859– 1880\\). Margaret's maternal grandparents were Dezső Szentmihályi (1863–1935\\), a landowner, member of the [Upper House](/wiki/Upper_house \"Upper house\") AND vice\\-president of the \"Zalavármegyei Economic Association\", and Ilona Koller (1871–1934\\).", "Margaret Hertelendy's ancestor was György Hertelendy (1764\\-1831\\), an alias of Zala, who was the guardian of [Ferenc Deák](/wiki/Ferenc_De%C3%A1k_%28politician%29 \"Ferenc Deák (politician)\") and his brothers when they were orphaned. No child was born from the marriage of Count Zsigmond Széchenyi and Margaret Hertelendy.", "" ]
Overview -------- {{Politics of the Caribbean Community}} The CCJ is intended to be a hybrid institution: a municipal court of last resort and an [international court](/wiki/International_court "International court") vested with original, compulsory and exclusive jurisdiction in respect of the interpretation and application of the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas. In the exercise of this original jurisdiction, the CCJ discharges the functions of an international tribunal, applying rules of international law in respect of the interpretation and application of the treaty. The CCJ thus performs similarly to the [European Court of Justice](/wiki/European_Court_of_Justice "European Court of Justice"), [EFTA Court](/wiki/EFTA_Court "EFTA Court"), [East African Court of Justice](/wiki/East_African_Court_of_Justice "East African Court of Justice"), the [ECOWAS](/wiki/ECOWAS "ECOWAS") Community Court of Justice, the [Andean Court of Justice](/wiki/Andean_Court_of_Justice "Andean Court of Justice") and the [International Court of Justice](/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice "International Court of Justice"). In contrast to many general international tribunals or courts, the original jurisdiction of the CCJ is compulsory, requiring no pre\-existing agreement. As a municipal court of last resort, it exercises an appellate jurisdiction, as a final court of appeal for CARICOM member states, replacing the [Judicial Committee of the Privy Council](/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council "Judicial Committee of the Privy Council") (JCPC) for Anglophone member states. In the exercise of its appellate jurisdiction, the CCJ hears appeals from common law courts within the jurisdictions of parties to the Agreement Establishing the CCJ, and is the highest municipal court in the region. While the CCJ has jurisdiction in all member states of the Agreement Establishing The Caribbean Court of Justice, the Agreement itself provides for the CCJ's jurisdiction to also be available to any other state within the Caribbean that CARICOM should choose invite to become a party to the Agreement.{{Cite web \\|url\=http://www.lawschool.cornell.edu/research/ILJ/upload/Maharaijh\-final.pdf \\|title\=The Caribbean Court of Justice: A Horizontally and Vertically Comparative Study of the Caribbean's First Independent and Interdependent Court by Andrew N. Maharajh \\|access\-date\=8 May 2015 \\|archive\-date\=18 May 2015 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518090039/http://www.lawschool.cornell.edu/research/ILJ/upload/Maharaijh\-final.pdf \\|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \\|url\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\-content/uploads/2011/09/ccj\_agreement.pdf \\|title\=Agreement Establishing the Caribbean Court of Justice \\|access\-date\=6 May 2015 \\|archive\-date\=23 September 2015 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200508/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\-content/uploads/2011/09/ccj\_agreement.pdf \\|url\-status\=live }} Thus the appellate jurisdiction of the Court, in particular, could be available to a non\-CARICOM Caribbean state or to CARICOM's associate member states. Unlike some international courts (but similar to others such as the ECJ and EFTA Court), cases between member states, between CARICOM nationals, or between nationals and the state are all justiciable under the CCJ. Appellate decisions of the court are delivered with signed majority opinions, concurrences and dissenting opinions, as well as a record of which judges voted for the ruling and which voted against it.{{cite book\\|last\=Romano\\|first\=Cesare\\|title\=The Oxford Handbook of International Adjudication\\|year\=2014\\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\\|isbn\=978\-019\-96\-6068\-1\\|page\=270\\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=SklYAgAAQBAJ\&q\=caribbean\+court\+of\+justice\+oxford\+handbook\&pg\=PA268\\|access\-date\=15 October 2020\\|archive\-date\=1 September 2022\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901045629/https://books.google.com/books?id\=SklYAgAAQBAJ\&q\=caribbean\+court\+of\+justice\+oxford\+handbook\&pg\=PA268\\|url\-status\=live}} As a result, CCJ appellate opinions do not shield judges behind a singular and collective "voice of the court" as the ECJ and the CCJ's original opinions do, and the practice is in keeping with the normal procedures of municipal courts. This may actually aid in providing transparency to the regional court operating in an environment where many of its citizens are distrustful of their local judiciaries. By contrast, judgments or advisory opinions under the original jurisdiction of the Court are published in a single judgment of the court once the majority of judges have reached a conclusion after final deliberation. No other judgments or opinions are permitted to be given or delivered.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/court\-instruments/rules\-of\-the\-court\\|title\=The Caribbean Court of Justice » Rules of the Court\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=11 July 2017\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711020732/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/court\-instruments/rules\-of\-the\-court\\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web \\|url\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\-content/uploads/2011/06/FINAL\-ORIG\-INAL\-RULES\-AS\-SIGNED\-MARCH\-24\-O6\.pdf \\|title\=The Caribbean Court of Justice (Original Jurisdiction) Rules, 2006 \\|access\-date\=8 May 2015 \\|archive\-date\=23 September 2015 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200507/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\-content/uploads/2011/06/FINAL\-ORIG\-INAL\-RULES\-AS\-SIGNED\-MARCH\-24\-O6\.pdf \\|url\-status\=live }} This is in keeping with the practice of the ECJ and EFTA Court as international courts. Although there is no ratio or quota for judges based on sex or nationality, most CCJ judges previously sat at a national level or previously taught law for 15 years or more. At least one member of the panel is required to be an expert in international law and one judge is also required to be from the civil law tradition, reflecting the presence of civil law jurisdictions such as Suriname and Haiti.{{cite web\\|url\=https://www.theguardian.com/law/2010/sep/10/caribbean\-court\-judges\-selection\\|title\=Caribbean court of justice: a model for international courts?\\|date\=10 September 2010\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|work\=The Guardian\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129151156/https://www.theguardian.com/law/2010/sep/10/caribbean\-court\-judges\-selection\\|url\-status\=live}} ### Comparison with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council Initially being created as a replacement for the Privy Council or JCPC, and later being tasked with the original jurisdiction over the interpretation of the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas, the CCJ replicates certain aspects of the British justice system while being divergent in other ways. Both the CCJ and JCPC have a president of the Court and have a smaller panel of judges being called up for any one particular case from a larger pool of eligible judges. For the JCPC, five judges normally sit on appeals from Commonwealth countries, while three to five judges normally sit on the CCJ for cases, although at times all the eligible judges have sat for a case. A major difference though is in the pool of eligible justices from which the deciding panel is called. For the JCPC has no explicit limit on the number of eligible jurists, while for the CCJ the initial limit is nine judges other than the president (though this limit may be increased by the agreement of all the member states). The actual number of judges eligible for JCPC at any given time is actually difficult to determine with one 2009 estimate having ninety\-five jurists, of which only three were Caribbean judges. The primary decision makers in the JCPC's pool are the privy councillors who also serve as judges on the [Supreme Court of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom "Supreme Court of the United Kingdom") and tend to be the only ones listed on the JCPC's website. No Caribbean judges, however, have sat on the JCPC since 2009 when the JCPC was co\-located with the new UK Supreme Court.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/business/Leaving\-the\-Privy\-Council\-could\-hit\-foreign\-direct\-investment\_18418081\\|title\=Leaving the Privy Council could hit foreign direct investment – Business\\|first\=Jamaica Observer\\|last\=Limited\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055728/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/business/Leaving\-the\-Privy\-Council\-could\-hit\-foreign\-direct\-investment\_18418081\\|url\-status\=live}} As a result of the JCPC's employment of a large pool of jurists but usage of only a fraction of them, the JCPC has been criticized for the fact that decisions for any one case often depends on the judges called. The possible combinations of judges available means that different decisions can be rendered for very similar fact patterns in cases. This issue becomes particularly relevant when an appeal comes from a Caribbean country as it may be difficult for judgments to be handed down based on the nuances of Caribbean society when it is unlikely that a majority of judges on the panel for a case would come from the Caribbean. As one Caribbean lawyer lobbyist (initially an opponent of the CCJ) noted: "What is the "reasonable man" test in the Caribbean? Acts of provocation in England and the Caribbean may not be the same....... In the Caribbean, even express words may have different connotations. These are the types of questions that need to be discussed by an indigenous tribunal..." #### Cost comparisons for litigants and states As comparable appellate courts, the CCJ and JCPC as outlined above have similar procedures, but there are major differences in both the time and money that would need to be spent by individual litigants and states in pursuing cases to either court. Individual litigants are expected to almost always face reductions in the costs associated with pursuing their cases whenever a switch to the CCJ is made. For instance the cost of filing an appeal with the JCPC is more than five times greater than filing an appeal with the CCJ. For the JCPC, the filing of an application for permission to appeal along with the actual notice of appeal would have cost £220, or roughly US$350 in 2013, while the CCJ requires no payment for filing an application for permission to appeal and the cost for filing a notice of appeal was US$60\. In 2015, the new filing fees for the JCPC were noted as ranging from £400 to £5,000 or roughly US$600 to US$7,500 while the comparable fees for the CCJ remained at US$60{{cite web\\|url\=http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/article/lead\-stories/20151017/jamaicans\-get\-legal\-aid\-ccj\\|title\=Jamaicans to get legal aid to CCJ\\|date\=17 October 2015\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129175116/http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/article/lead\-stories/20151017/jamaicans\-get\-legal\-aid\-ccj\\|url\-status\=live}} thus making the cost of filing an appeal with the JCPC at least ten times greater than filing an appeal with the CCJ. Although both courts do allow appeals [in forma pauperis](/wiki/In_forma_pauperis "In forma pauperis"), waiving filing fees when they are deemed too burdensome on the individual litigant, the JCPC does so on a more limited basis. Some of the highest costs for litigants however arise when litigation of the case actually begins. In most cases, litigants will have to travel to the United Kingdom (UK) to pursue their cases before the JCPC. This may involve purchasing plane tickets and/or finding and hiring lawyers licensed in the UK. Additionally, [Jamaican and Guyanese citizens are required to obtain visas before travelling to the UK](/wiki/Visa_policy_of_the_United_Kingdom "Visa policy of the United Kingdom"), and for these citizens the cost of a UK visa would range from £85 to £737 (or US$131 to US$1,138\) depending on the type of visitor visa applied for.{{Cite web \\|url\=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\_data/file/419449/fees\_table\_for\_website\_2015\_03\_30\.pdf \\|title\=Home Office: Immigration and Nationality Fees, 6 April 2015 \\|access\-date\=9 May 2015 \\|archive\-date\=18 May 2015 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518091341/https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\_data/file/419449/fees\_table\_for\_website\_2015\_03\_30\.pdf \\|url\-status\=live }} Regardless of whether or not a visa is required, all litigants would also have to pay for accommodation and any other necessary expenses in the UK for the duration of the litigation.{{cite web\\|url\=http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120109/cleisure/cleisure3\.html\\|title\=Privy Council does cost something\\|date\=9 January 2012\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129182131/http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120109/cleisure/cleisure3\.html\\|url\-status\=live}} All of this adds up as a very expensive appeals process; one estimate placed the average total cost between US$57,000{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.lexpress.mu/article/privy\-council\-should\-hold\-sittings\-mauritius\-next\-september\\|title\=The Privy Council should hold sittings in Mauritius as from next September\\|date\=13 September 2007\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129083012/http://www.lexpress.mu/article/privy\-council\-should\-hold\-sittings\-mauritius\-next\-september\\|url\-status\=live}} and US$87,500\.{{cite web\\|url\=http://old.jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/19991214/f4\.html\\|title\='We cannot wait until everything is state of the art...' – Dec 14, 1999 – Jamaica Gleaner\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=11 October 2017\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011001649/http://old.jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/19991214/f4\.html\\|url\-status\=live}} Given the generally low number of appeals coming from the smaller CARICOM states and sometimes from larger CARICOM states such as Jamaica,{{cite web\\|url\=http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20140518/lead/lead3\.html\\|title\=Too little from London law lords\\|date\=18 May 2014\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129152042/http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20140518/lead/lead3\.html\\|url\-status\=live}} in effect the local courts of appeal are the courts of last resort for the majority of CARICOM litigants who cannot afford to take their appeals to the JCPC and must therefore be satisfied with the judgments of the local courts of appeal. As a result, the JCPC has only really been accessible to either the very wealthy from the Caribbean or to certain inmates on death row who are able to secure pro bono legal service from British barristers. In the case of those nationals, such as Jamaicans, who also require visas in order to travel to the UK to pursue cases before the JCPC, there is the risk that the denial of the visa could negatively impact on the ability for their cases to be heard, thus further reducing potential accessibility (especially if the work load is not sufficient to justify the JCPC travelling to their jurisdiction instead).{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/columns/How\-many\-of\-us\-could\-really\-go\-to\-the\-Privy\-Council\-\-Holness\-\_18974604\\|title\=How many of us could really go to the Privy Council, Holness? – Columns\\|first\=Jamaica Observer\\|last\=Limited\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064842/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/columns/How\-many\-of\-us\-could\-really\-go\-to\-the\-Privy\-Council\-\-Holness\-\_18974604\\|url\-status\=live}} By contrast, the CCJ, in most cases, is a much less expensive option for litigants in all comparative costs (filing, airfare, accommodations, other expenses, etc.). As the CARICOM has successfully pushed for visa free access by CARICOM nationals (except Haitians for now) to other member states, no citizen of any country that currently has the JCPC as its final court would need to apply for and exhaust financial resources obtaining a visa to travel to the seat of the CCJ or to any other state where the CCJ may sit. And by virtue of distance, travel to the seat of the CCJ in Trinidad, is much cheaper than travel to the UK. In fact physical travel to the seat of the CCJ itself in some cases is not necessary as the court itself (like the JCPC) is itinerant and (unlike the JCPC), the CCJ makes extensive use of electronic and teleconferencing facilities to reduce the cost to litigants. The CCJ has an e\-filing system (which has been hailed as "impressive") that makes provision for all court filing to be carried out electronically specifically in order to reduce to the cost to litigants of filing documents with the court and to keep its commitment of access to justice for all.{{cite web\\|url\=http://supremecourt.gov.jm/content/caribbean\-court\-justice\-electronic\-filing\\|title\=Caribbean Court of Justice Electronic Filing – The Supreme Court of Jamaica\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=25 February 2017\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225001741/http://supremecourt.gov.jm/content/caribbean\-court\-justice\-electronic\-filing\\|url\-status\=live}} The CCJ also utilizes the system to conduct hearings electronically, making use of teleconferencing equipment installed in all contracting states. It is in the aspect of the CCJ and JCPC itinerancy that the costs to states (and further differences between the CCJ and JCPC) becomes apparent. Although it is not established to operate as an itinerant court,{{Cite web \\|url\=http://jis.gov.jm/privy\-council\-letters\-support\-governments\-ccj\-position/ \\|title\=Privy Council Letters Support Government's CCJ Position \\|access\-date\=5 November 2015 \\|archive\-date\=28 October 2015 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151028124250/http://jis.gov.jm/privy\-council\-letters\-support\-governments\-ccj\-position/ \\|url\-status\=live }} the JCPC has maintained that it is willing to consider sitting outside the UK, but only where it receives an official invitation to do so from the chief judge and the government of the country or territory concerned, and where the full costs of the JCPC (that is airfare, travel, accommodations and other relevant costs) are covered by the hosts, and where there is sufficient work to justify such a visit.{{cite web\\|url\=http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20141218/letters/letters2\.html\\|title\=Privy Council clarifies points\\|date\=18 December 2014\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129192202/http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20141218/letters/letters2\.html\\|url\-status\=live}} Such sufficient work might involve hearing cases from other neighbouring or nearby territories or countries in which case litigants from the other territories would have to incur the cost of travel and litigation to the country actually hosting the JCPC. By contrast, as expressly provided for in the Agreement establishing the CCJ,{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Reflections\-on\-the\-Privy\-Council\_19236290\\|title\=Reflections on the Privy Council\\|first\=Jamaica Observer\\|last\=Limited\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129144535/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Reflections\-on\-the\-Privy\-Council\_19236290\\|url\-status\=live}} the CCJ is willing to sit in any country within its jurisdiction on a case\-by\-case basis, if doing so is necessary for evidence to be given in person and where video\- or teleconferencing technology proves insufficient for the task and where the litigant may not be able to afford to appear before the seat of the court and thus be unable to adequately present his or her own case. When travelling to another country in its jurisdiction the costs are paid for by the CCJ itself including airfare, accommodations and any other expenses. The hosting state is expected to provide a location for the Court to sit (as with the JCPC) and to provide ground transportation and security for the Court (as with the JCPC).{{cite web\\|url\=http://ttnewsflash.com/?p\=22200\\|title\=Jamaica to hear evidence arising out of the original jurisdiction matter Shanique Myrie v the State of Barbados\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129144821/http://ttnewsflash.com/?p\=22200\\|url\-status\=live}} Thus far the CCJ has sat on cases in Barbados, Belize, Guyana, Jamaica and in its seat of Trinidad and Tobago.{{cite web\\|url\=http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/news/2015/04/20/caribbean\-court\-justice\-begins\-first\-itinerant\-session\-in\-belize/\\|title\=Caribbean Court of Justice begins first itinerant session in Belize\\|website\=\[\[Fox News]]\\|date\=20 April 2015\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129083240/http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/news/2015/04/20/caribbean\-court\-justice\-begins\-first\-itinerant\-session\-in\-belize/\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|url\-status\=dead}} #### Types of cases heard Due to the differences in costs, the JCPC has only been truly practically accessible to certain death row inmates or very wealthy individuals. Additionally, the JCPC does have jurisdictional limitations unrelated to the cost of appeal. The JCPC functions as a final appellate court in very restricted manner.{{Cite web \\|url\=https://www.academia.edu/8422736 \\|title\=Commonwealth Caribbean Law and Legal Systems, Second Edition by Rose\-Marie Belle Antoine, 1998 \\|access\-date\=2 December 2017 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430072058/http://www.academia.edu/8422736/Commonwealth\_Caribbean\_Law\_and\_Legal\_Systems\_Second\_Edition \\|archive\-date\=30 April 2015 \\|url\-status\=dead}}{{Cite web \\|url\=http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/CA/00/40/02/34/00001/PDF.pdf \\|title\="Replacing the Privy Council with the Caribbean Court of Justice in the OECS Countries." By: Isabel C. Dávila \\|access\-date\=15 May 2015 \\|archive\-date\=19 October 2013 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019214453/http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/CA/00/40/02/34/00001/PDF.pdf \\|url\-status\=live }} Under the common law, the right of appeal does not exist for all cases and instead must be specially conferred. This is done consequently as appeals "as of right" and "as of leave" (where leave is required by the local Court of Appeal or the JCPC itself). Firstly, appeals to the JCPC in civil proceedings lie at the discretion of the local court where the case at hand is one of 'great general public importance or otherwise ought to be submitted to Her Majesty in Council for decision' and where an amount or in dispute or claim (including property) is of, or exceeds, the prescribed statutory value. In criminal matters, the JCPC will not intervene unless it can be demonstrated that some serious miscarriage of justice has occurred through violation of the principles of natural justice; violation the due process of law or other serious injustice. This is as a result of the JCPC not being designed to function as a second tier Court of Appeal to review the evidence of a given case. The structural and practical limitations of JCPC appeals has meant that the range of precedent generated by the highest court for many Caribbean jurisdictions is confined to narrow categories, particularly capital punishment and high finance. The wide body of law between these categories, has often been left mainly to small domestic courts in the Caribbean. Thus different decisions have been more likely to be rendered for similar fact patterns, creating inconsistencies in how laws are interpreted across the region. The CCJ's structure and appellate jurisdiction, however, address this issue by providing a forum for the creation of jurisprudence in the gap in Caribbean law where the JCPC was never able to rule upon while also ruling on the area of law the JCPC specializes in. In the three years following the CCJ's inauguration, civil appeals petitioned to the court outnumbered criminal appeals by nearly seven to one, with half of the civil appeals coming from appellants the CCJ deemed too poor to pay for the filing costs. By contrast, under the JCPC, civil appeals have never outnumbered criminal appeals. This combination of lower litigant cost for the CCJ, the Court's willingness to grant in forma pauperis and having a wider field of law to hear appeals on has enabled the CCJ to hear types of cases from the region that the JCPC has never known. Although limited to only four states in its appellate jurisdiction at the moment, so far citizens of those states have been accessing the Court more than they did the JCPC. For Barbados there were eight appeals heard by the JCPC in the five years immediately prior to Barbados' accession to the appellate jurisdiction of the CCJ. In the five years that followed immediate after the switch to the CCJ, twelve appeals were heard from Barbados. Belize saw appeals roughly twice per year to the JCPC before switching to the CCJ in 2010 and subsequently saw 12 appeals in the four years since the first appeal to the CCJ from Belize in mid 2011\.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/judgments\-proceedings/appellate\-jurisdiction\-judgments\\|title\=The Caribbean Court of Justice » Appellate Jurisdiction Judgments\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=13 March 2017\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313012941/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/judgments\-proceedings/appellate\-jurisdiction\-judgments\\|url\-status\=live}} While Guyana originally abolished appeals to the JCPC in 1970, since adopting the CCJ, appeals to that Court have been exponentially increasing.	[ "Overview\n--------", "{{Politics of the Caribbean Community}}\nThe CCJ is intended to be a hybrid institution: a municipal court of last resort and an [international court](/wiki/International_court \"International court\") vested with original, compulsory and exclusive jurisdiction in respect of the interpretation and application of the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas. In the exercise of this original jurisdiction, the CCJ discharges the functions of an international tribunal, applying rules of international law in respect of the interpretation and application of the treaty. The CCJ thus performs similarly to the [European Court of Justice](/wiki/European_Court_of_Justice \"European Court of Justice\"), [EFTA Court](/wiki/EFTA_Court \"EFTA Court\"), [East African Court of Justice](/wiki/East_African_Court_of_Justice \"East African Court of Justice\"), the [ECOWAS](/wiki/ECOWAS \"ECOWAS\") Community Court of Justice, the [Andean Court of Justice](/wiki/Andean_Court_of_Justice \"Andean Court of Justice\") and the [International Court of Justice](/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice \"International Court of Justice\"). In contrast to many general international tribunals or courts, the original jurisdiction of the CCJ is compulsory, requiring no pre\\-existing agreement.", "As a municipal court of last resort, it exercises an appellate jurisdiction, as a final court of appeal for CARICOM member states, replacing the [Judicial Committee of the Privy Council](/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council \"Judicial Committee of the Privy Council\") (JCPC) for Anglophone member states. In the exercise of its appellate jurisdiction, the CCJ hears appeals from common law courts within the jurisdictions of parties to the Agreement Establishing the CCJ, and is the highest municipal court in the region.", "While the CCJ has jurisdiction in all member states of the Agreement Establishing The Caribbean Court of Justice, the Agreement itself provides for the CCJ's jurisdiction to also be available to any other state within the Caribbean that CARICOM should choose invite to become a party to the Agreement.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.lawschool.cornell.edu/research/ILJ/upload/Maharaijh\\-final.pdf \\\|title\\=The Caribbean Court of Justice: A Horizontally and Vertically Comparative Study of the Caribbean's First Independent and Interdependent Court by Andrew N. Maharajh \\\|access\\-date\\=8 May 2015 \\\|archive\\-date\\=18 May 2015 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518090039/http://www.lawschool.cornell.edu/research/ILJ/upload/Maharaijh\\-final.pdf \\\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2011/09/ccj\\_agreement.pdf \\\|title\\=Agreement Establishing the Caribbean Court of Justice \\\|access\\-date\\=6 May 2015 \\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2015 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200508/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2011/09/ccj\\_agreement.pdf \\\|url\\-status\\=live }} Thus the appellate jurisdiction of the Court, in particular, could be available to a non\\-CARICOM Caribbean state or to CARICOM's associate member states.", "Unlike some international courts (but similar to others such as the ECJ and EFTA Court), cases between member states, between CARICOM nationals, or between nationals and the state are all justiciable under the CCJ.", "Appellate decisions of the court are delivered with signed majority opinions, concurrences and dissenting opinions, as well as a record of which judges voted for the ruling and which voted against it.{{cite book\\\|last\\=Romano\\\|first\\=Cesare\\\|title\\=The Oxford Handbook of International Adjudication\\\|year\\=2014\\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\\|isbn\\=978\\-019\\-96\\-6068\\-1\\\|page\\=270\\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=SklYAgAAQBAJ\\&q\\=caribbean\\+court\\+of\\+justice\\+oxford\\+handbook\\&pg\\=PA268\\\|access\\-date\\=15 October 2020\\\|archive\\-date\\=1 September 2022\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901045629/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=SklYAgAAQBAJ\\&q\\=caribbean\\+court\\+of\\+justice\\+oxford\\+handbook\\&pg\\=PA268\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} As a result, CCJ appellate opinions do not shield judges behind a singular and collective\n\"voice of the court\" as the ECJ and the CCJ's original opinions do, and the practice is in keeping with the normal procedures of municipal courts. This may actually aid in providing transparency to the regional court operating in an environment where many of its citizens are distrustful of their local judiciaries.", "By contrast, judgments or advisory opinions under the original jurisdiction of the Court are published in a single judgment of the court once the majority of judges have reached a conclusion after final deliberation. No other judgments or opinions are permitted to be given or delivered.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/court\\-instruments/rules\\-of\\-the\\-court\\\|title\\=The Caribbean Court of Justice » Rules of the Court\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=11 July 2017\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711020732/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/court\\-instruments/rules\\-of\\-the\\-court\\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2011/06/FINAL\\-ORIG\\-INAL\\-RULES\\-AS\\-SIGNED\\-MARCH\\-24\\-O6\\.pdf \\\|title\\=The Caribbean Court of Justice (Original Jurisdiction) Rules, 2006 \\\|access\\-date\\=8 May 2015 \\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2015 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200507/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2011/06/FINAL\\-ORIG\\-INAL\\-RULES\\-AS\\-SIGNED\\-MARCH\\-24\\-O6\\.pdf \\\|url\\-status\\=live }} This is in keeping with the practice of the ECJ and EFTA Court as international courts.", "Although there is no ratio or quota for judges based on sex or nationality, most CCJ judges previously sat at a national level or previously taught law for 15 years or more. At least one member of the panel is required to be an expert in international law and one judge is also required to be from the civil law tradition, reflecting the presence of civil law jurisdictions such as Suriname and Haiti.{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.theguardian.com/law/2010/sep/10/caribbean\\-court\\-judges\\-selection\\\|title\\=Caribbean court of justice: a model for international courts?\\\|date\\=10 September 2010\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|work\\=The Guardian\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129151156/https://www.theguardian.com/law/2010/sep/10/caribbean\\-court\\-judges\\-selection\\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### Comparison with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council", "Initially being created as a replacement for the Privy Council or JCPC, and later being tasked with the original jurisdiction over the interpretation of the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas, the CCJ replicates certain aspects of the British justice system while being divergent in other ways.", "Both the CCJ and JCPC have a president of the Court and have a smaller panel of judges being called up for any one particular case from a larger pool of eligible judges. For the JCPC, five judges normally sit on appeals from Commonwealth countries, while three to five judges normally sit on the CCJ for cases, although at times all the eligible judges have sat for a case.", "A major difference though is in the pool of eligible justices from which the deciding panel is called. For the JCPC has no explicit limit on the number of eligible jurists, while for the CCJ the initial limit is nine judges other than the president (though this limit may be increased by the agreement of all the member states). The actual number of judges eligible for JCPC at any given time is actually difficult to determine with one 2009 estimate having ninety\\-five jurists, of which only three were Caribbean judges. The primary decision makers in the JCPC's pool are the privy councillors who also serve as judges on the [Supreme Court of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Supreme Court of the United Kingdom\") and tend to be the only ones listed on the JCPC's website. No Caribbean judges, however, have sat on the JCPC since 2009 when the JCPC was co\\-located with the new UK Supreme Court.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/business/Leaving\\-the\\-Privy\\-Council\\-could\\-hit\\-foreign\\-direct\\-investment\\_18418081\\\|title\\=Leaving the Privy Council could hit foreign direct investment – Business\\\|first\\=Jamaica Observer\\\|last\\=Limited\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055728/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/business/Leaving\\-the\\-Privy\\-Council\\-could\\-hit\\-foreign\\-direct\\-investment\\_18418081\\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "As a result of the JCPC's employment of a large pool of jurists but usage of only a fraction of them, the JCPC has been criticized for the fact that decisions for any one case often depends on the judges called. The possible combinations of judges available means that different decisions can be rendered for very similar fact patterns in cases. This issue becomes particularly relevant when an appeal comes from a Caribbean country as it may be difficult for judgments to be handed down based on the nuances of Caribbean society when it is unlikely that a majority of judges on the panel for a case would come from the Caribbean. As one Caribbean lawyer lobbyist (initially an opponent of the CCJ) noted: \"What is the \"reasonable man\" test in the Caribbean? Acts of provocation in England and the Caribbean may not be the same....... In the Caribbean, even express words may have different connotations. These are the types of questions that need to be discussed by an indigenous tribunal...\"", "#### Cost comparisons for litigants and states", "As comparable appellate courts, the CCJ and JCPC as outlined above have similar procedures, but there are major differences in both the time and money that would need to be spent by individual litigants and states in pursuing cases to either court.", "Individual litigants are expected to almost always face reductions in the costs associated with pursuing their cases whenever a switch to the CCJ is made. For instance the cost of filing an appeal with the JCPC is more than five times greater than filing an appeal with the CCJ. For the JCPC, the filing of an application for permission to appeal along with the actual notice of appeal would have cost £220, or roughly US$350 in 2013, while the CCJ requires no payment for filing an application for permission to appeal and the cost for filing a notice of appeal was US$60\\. In 2015, the new filing fees for the JCPC were noted as ranging from £400 to £5,000 or roughly US$600 to US$7,500 while the comparable fees for the CCJ remained at US$60{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/article/lead\\-stories/20151017/jamaicans\\-get\\-legal\\-aid\\-ccj\\\|title\\=Jamaicans to get legal aid to CCJ\\\|date\\=17 October 2015\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129175116/http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/article/lead\\-stories/20151017/jamaicans\\-get\\-legal\\-aid\\-ccj\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} thus making the cost of filing an appeal with the JCPC at least ten times greater than filing an appeal with the CCJ.", "Although both courts do allow appeals [in forma pauperis](/wiki/In_forma_pauperis \"In forma pauperis\"), waiving filing fees when they are deemed too burdensome on the individual litigant, the JCPC does so on a more limited basis.", "Some of the highest costs for litigants however arise when litigation of the case actually begins. In most cases, litigants will have to travel to the United Kingdom (UK) to pursue their cases before the JCPC. This may involve purchasing plane tickets and/or finding and hiring lawyers licensed in the UK. Additionally, [Jamaican and Guyanese citizens are required to obtain visas before travelling to the UK](/wiki/Visa_policy_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Visa policy of the United Kingdom\"), and for these citizens the cost of a UK visa would range from £85 to £737 (or US$131 to US$1,138\\) depending on the type of visitor visa applied for.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\\_data/file/419449/fees\\_table\\_for\\_website\\_2015\\_03\\_30\\.pdf \\\|title\\=Home Office: Immigration and Nationality Fees, 6 April 2015 \\\|access\\-date\\=9 May 2015 \\\|archive\\-date\\=18 May 2015 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518091341/https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\\_data/file/419449/fees\\_table\\_for\\_website\\_2015\\_03\\_30\\.pdf \\\|url\\-status\\=live }} Regardless of whether or not a visa is required, all litigants would also have to pay for accommodation and any other necessary expenses in the UK for the duration of the litigation.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120109/cleisure/cleisure3\\.html\\\|title\\=Privy Council does cost something\\\|date\\=9 January 2012\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129182131/http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120109/cleisure/cleisure3\\.html\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} All of this adds up as a very expensive appeals process; one estimate placed the average total cost between US$57,000{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.lexpress.mu/article/privy\\-council\\-should\\-hold\\-sittings\\-mauritius\\-next\\-september\\\|title\\=The Privy Council should hold sittings in Mauritius as from next September\\\|date\\=13 September 2007\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129083012/http://www.lexpress.mu/article/privy\\-council\\-should\\-hold\\-sittings\\-mauritius\\-next\\-september\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and US$87,500\\.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://old.jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/19991214/f4\\.html\\\|title\\='We cannot wait until everything is state of the art...' – Dec 14, 1999 – Jamaica Gleaner\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2017\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011001649/http://old.jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/19991214/f4\\.html\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Given the generally low number of appeals coming from the smaller CARICOM states and sometimes from larger CARICOM states such as Jamaica,{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20140518/lead/lead3\\.html\\\|title\\=Too little from London law lords\\\|date\\=18 May 2014\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129152042/http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20140518/lead/lead3\\.html\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} in effect the local courts of appeal are the courts of last resort for the majority of CARICOM litigants who cannot afford to take their appeals to the JCPC and must therefore be satisfied with the judgments of the local courts of appeal.", "As a result, the JCPC has only really been accessible to either the very wealthy from the Caribbean or to certain inmates on death row who are able to secure pro bono legal service from British barristers. In the case of those nationals, such as Jamaicans, who also require visas in order to travel to the UK to pursue cases before the JCPC, there is the risk that the denial of the visa could negatively impact on the ability for their cases to be heard, thus further reducing potential accessibility (especially if the work load is not sufficient to justify the JCPC travelling to their jurisdiction instead).{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/columns/How\\-many\\-of\\-us\\-could\\-really\\-go\\-to\\-the\\-Privy\\-Council\\-\\-Holness\\-\\_18974604\\\|title\\=How many of us could really go to the Privy Council, Holness? – Columns\\\|first\\=Jamaica Observer\\\|last\\=Limited\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064842/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/columns/How\\-many\\-of\\-us\\-could\\-really\\-go\\-to\\-the\\-Privy\\-Council\\-\\-Holness\\-\\_18974604\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} By contrast, the CCJ, in most cases, is a much less expensive option for litigants in all comparative costs (filing, airfare, accommodations, other expenses, etc.). As the CARICOM has successfully pushed for visa free access by CARICOM nationals (except Haitians for now) to other member states, no citizen of any country that currently has the JCPC as its final court would need to apply for and exhaust financial resources obtaining a visa to travel to the seat of the CCJ or to any other state where the CCJ may sit. And by virtue of distance, travel to the seat of the CCJ in Trinidad, is much cheaper than travel to the UK. In fact physical travel to the seat of the CCJ itself in some cases is not necessary as the court itself (like the JCPC) is itinerant and (unlike the JCPC), the CCJ makes extensive use of electronic and teleconferencing facilities to reduce the cost to litigants. The CCJ has an e\\-filing system (which has been hailed as \"impressive\") that makes provision for all court filing to be carried out electronically specifically in order to reduce to the cost to litigants of filing documents with the court and to keep its commitment of access to justice for all.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://supremecourt.gov.jm/content/caribbean\\-court\\-justice\\-electronic\\-filing\\\|title\\=Caribbean Court of Justice Electronic Filing – The Supreme Court of Jamaica\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=25 February 2017\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225001741/http://supremecourt.gov.jm/content/caribbean\\-court\\-justice\\-electronic\\-filing\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The CCJ also utilizes the system to conduct hearings electronically, making use of teleconferencing equipment installed in all contracting states.", "It is in the aspect of the CCJ and JCPC itinerancy that the costs to states (and further differences between the CCJ and JCPC) becomes apparent. Although it is not established to operate as an itinerant court,{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://jis.gov.jm/privy\\-council\\-letters\\-support\\-governments\\-ccj\\-position/ \\\|title\\=Privy Council Letters Support Government's CCJ Position \\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2015 \\\|archive\\-date\\=28 October 2015 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151028124250/http://jis.gov.jm/privy\\-council\\-letters\\-support\\-governments\\-ccj\\-position/ \\\|url\\-status\\=live }} the JCPC has maintained that it is willing to consider sitting outside the UK, but only where it receives an official invitation to do so from the chief judge and the government of the country or territory concerned, and where the full costs of the JCPC (that is airfare, travel, accommodations and other relevant costs) are covered by the hosts, and where there is sufficient work to justify such a visit.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20141218/letters/letters2\\.html\\\|title\\=Privy Council clarifies points\\\|date\\=18 December 2014\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129192202/http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20141218/letters/letters2\\.html\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Such sufficient work might involve hearing cases from other neighbouring or nearby territories or countries in which case litigants from the other territories would have to incur the cost of travel and litigation to the country actually hosting the JCPC.", "By contrast, as expressly provided for in the Agreement establishing the CCJ,{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Reflections\\-on\\-the\\-Privy\\-Council\\_19236290\\\|title\\=Reflections on the Privy Council\\\|first\\=Jamaica Observer\\\|last\\=Limited\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129144535/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Reflections\\-on\\-the\\-Privy\\-Council\\_19236290\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} the CCJ is willing to sit in any country within its jurisdiction on a case\\-by\\-case basis, if doing so is necessary for evidence to be given in person and where video\\- or teleconferencing technology proves insufficient for the task and where the litigant may not be able to afford to appear before the seat of the court and thus be unable to adequately present his or her own case. When travelling to another country in its jurisdiction the costs are paid for by the CCJ itself including airfare, accommodations and any other expenses. The hosting state is expected to provide a location for the Court to sit (as with the JCPC) and to provide ground transportation and security for the Court (as with the JCPC).{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://ttnewsflash.com/?p\\=22200\\\|title\\=Jamaica to hear evidence arising out of the original jurisdiction matter Shanique Myrie v the State of Barbados\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129144821/http://ttnewsflash.com/?p\\=22200\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Thus far the CCJ has sat on cases in Barbados, Belize, Guyana, Jamaica and in its seat of Trinidad and Tobago.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/news/2015/04/20/caribbean\\-court\\-justice\\-begins\\-first\\-itinerant\\-session\\-in\\-belize/\\\|title\\=Caribbean Court of Justice begins first itinerant session in Belize\\\|website\\=\\[\\[Fox News]]\\\|date\\=20 April 2015\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129083240/http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/news/2015/04/20/caribbean\\-court\\-justice\\-begins\\-first\\-itinerant\\-session\\-in\\-belize/\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "#### Types of cases heard", "Due to the differences in costs, the JCPC has only been truly practically accessible to certain death row inmates or very wealthy individuals. Additionally, the JCPC does have jurisdictional limitations unrelated to the cost of appeal. The JCPC functions as a final appellate court in very restricted manner.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/8422736 \\\|title\\=Commonwealth Caribbean Law and Legal Systems, Second Edition by Rose\\-Marie Belle Antoine, 1998 \\\|access\\-date\\=2 December 2017 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430072058/http://www.academia.edu/8422736/Commonwealth\\_Caribbean\\_Law\\_and\\_Legal\\_Systems\\_Second\\_Edition \\\|archive\\-date\\=30 April 2015 \\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/CA/00/40/02/34/00001/PDF.pdf \\\|title\\=\"Replacing the Privy Council with the Caribbean Court of Justice in the OECS Countries.\" By: Isabel C. Dávila \\\|access\\-date\\=15 May 2015 \\\|archive\\-date\\=19 October 2013 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019214453/http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/CA/00/40/02/34/00001/PDF.pdf \\\|url\\-status\\=live }} Under the common law, the right of appeal does not exist for all cases and instead must be specially conferred. This is done consequently as appeals \"as of right\" and \"as of leave\" (where leave is required by the local Court of Appeal or the JCPC itself).", "Firstly, appeals to the JCPC in civil proceedings lie at the discretion of the local court where the case at hand is one of 'great general public importance or otherwise ought to be submitted to Her Majesty in Council for decision' and where an amount or in dispute or claim (including property) is of, or exceeds, the prescribed statutory value. In criminal matters, the JCPC will not intervene unless it can be demonstrated that some serious miscarriage of justice has occurred through violation of the principles of natural justice; violation the due process of law or other serious injustice. This is as a result of the JCPC not being designed to function as a second tier Court of Appeal to review the evidence of a given case.", "The structural and practical limitations of JCPC appeals has meant that the range of precedent generated by the highest court for many Caribbean jurisdictions is confined to narrow categories, particularly capital punishment and high finance. The wide body of law between these categories, has often been left mainly to small domestic courts in the Caribbean. Thus different decisions have been more likely to be rendered for similar fact patterns, creating inconsistencies in how laws are interpreted across the region.", "The CCJ's structure and appellate jurisdiction, however, address this issue by providing a forum for the creation of jurisprudence in the gap in Caribbean law where the JCPC was never able to rule upon while also ruling on the area of law the JCPC specializes in. In the three years following the CCJ's inauguration, civil appeals petitioned to the court outnumbered criminal appeals by nearly seven to one, with half of the civil appeals coming from appellants the CCJ deemed too poor to pay for the filing costs. By contrast, under the JCPC, civil appeals have never outnumbered criminal appeals. This combination of lower litigant cost for the CCJ, the Court's willingness to grant in forma pauperis and having a wider field of law to hear appeals on has enabled the CCJ to hear types of cases from the region that the JCPC has never known.", "Although limited to only four states in its appellate jurisdiction at the moment, so far citizens of those states have been accessing the Court more than they did the JCPC. For Barbados there were eight appeals heard by the JCPC in the five years immediately prior to Barbados' accession to the appellate jurisdiction of the CCJ. In the five years that followed immediate after the switch to the CCJ, twelve appeals were heard from Barbados. Belize saw appeals roughly twice per year to the JCPC before switching to the CCJ in 2010 and subsequently saw 12 appeals in the four years since the first appeal to the CCJ from Belize in mid 2011\\.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/judgments\\-proceedings/appellate\\-jurisdiction\\-judgments\\\|title\\=The Caribbean Court of Justice » Appellate Jurisdiction Judgments\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=13 March 2017\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313012941/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/judgments\\-proceedings/appellate\\-jurisdiction\\-judgments\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} While Guyana originally abolished appeals to the JCPC in 1970, since adopting the CCJ, appeals to that Court have been exponentially increasing.", "" ]
### Comparison with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council Initially being created as a replacement for the Privy Council or JCPC, and later being tasked with the original jurisdiction over the interpretation of the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas, the CCJ replicates certain aspects of the British justice system while being divergent in other ways. Both the CCJ and JCPC have a president of the Court and have a smaller panel of judges being called up for any one particular case from a larger pool of eligible judges. For the JCPC, five judges normally sit on appeals from Commonwealth countries, while three to five judges normally sit on the CCJ for cases, although at times all the eligible judges have sat for a case. A major difference though is in the pool of eligible justices from which the deciding panel is called. For the JCPC has no explicit limit on the number of eligible jurists, while for the CCJ the initial limit is nine judges other than the president (though this limit may be increased by the agreement of all the member states). The actual number of judges eligible for JCPC at any given time is actually difficult to determine with one 2009 estimate having ninety\-five jurists, of which only three were Caribbean judges. The primary decision makers in the JCPC's pool are the privy councillors who also serve as judges on the [Supreme Court of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom "Supreme Court of the United Kingdom") and tend to be the only ones listed on the JCPC's website. No Caribbean judges, however, have sat on the JCPC since 2009 when the JCPC was co\-located with the new UK Supreme Court.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/business/Leaving\-the\-Privy\-Council\-could\-hit\-foreign\-direct\-investment\_18418081\\|title\=Leaving the Privy Council could hit foreign direct investment – Business\\|first\=Jamaica Observer\\|last\=Limited\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055728/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/business/Leaving\-the\-Privy\-Council\-could\-hit\-foreign\-direct\-investment\_18418081\\|url\-status\=live}} As a result of the JCPC's employment of a large pool of jurists but usage of only a fraction of them, the JCPC has been criticized for the fact that decisions for any one case often depends on the judges called. The possible combinations of judges available means that different decisions can be rendered for very similar fact patterns in cases. This issue becomes particularly relevant when an appeal comes from a Caribbean country as it may be difficult for judgments to be handed down based on the nuances of Caribbean society when it is unlikely that a majority of judges on the panel for a case would come from the Caribbean. As one Caribbean lawyer lobbyist (initially an opponent of the CCJ) noted: "What is the "reasonable man" test in the Caribbean? Acts of provocation in England and the Caribbean may not be the same....... In the Caribbean, even express words may have different connotations. These are the types of questions that need to be discussed by an indigenous tribunal..." #### Cost comparisons for litigants and states As comparable appellate courts, the CCJ and JCPC as outlined above have similar procedures, but there are major differences in both the time and money that would need to be spent by individual litigants and states in pursuing cases to either court. Individual litigants are expected to almost always face reductions in the costs associated with pursuing their cases whenever a switch to the CCJ is made. For instance the cost of filing an appeal with the JCPC is more than five times greater than filing an appeal with the CCJ. For the JCPC, the filing of an application for permission to appeal along with the actual notice of appeal would have cost £220, or roughly US$350 in 2013, while the CCJ requires no payment for filing an application for permission to appeal and the cost for filing a notice of appeal was US$60\. In 2015, the new filing fees for the JCPC were noted as ranging from £400 to £5,000 or roughly US$600 to US$7,500 while the comparable fees for the CCJ remained at US$60{{cite web\\|url\=http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/article/lead\-stories/20151017/jamaicans\-get\-legal\-aid\-ccj\\|title\=Jamaicans to get legal aid to CCJ\\|date\=17 October 2015\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129175116/http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/article/lead\-stories/20151017/jamaicans\-get\-legal\-aid\-ccj\\|url\-status\=live}} thus making the cost of filing an appeal with the JCPC at least ten times greater than filing an appeal with the CCJ. Although both courts do allow appeals [in forma pauperis](/wiki/In_forma_pauperis "In forma pauperis"), waiving filing fees when they are deemed too burdensome on the individual litigant, the JCPC does so on a more limited basis. Some of the highest costs for litigants however arise when litigation of the case actually begins. In most cases, litigants will have to travel to the United Kingdom (UK) to pursue their cases before the JCPC. This may involve purchasing plane tickets and/or finding and hiring lawyers licensed in the UK. Additionally, [Jamaican and Guyanese citizens are required to obtain visas before travelling to the UK](/wiki/Visa_policy_of_the_United_Kingdom "Visa policy of the United Kingdom"), and for these citizens the cost of a UK visa would range from £85 to £737 (or US$131 to US$1,138\) depending on the type of visitor visa applied for.{{Cite web \\|url\=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\_data/file/419449/fees\_table\_for\_website\_2015\_03\_30\.pdf \\|title\=Home Office: Immigration and Nationality Fees, 6 April 2015 \\|access\-date\=9 May 2015 \\|archive\-date\=18 May 2015 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518091341/https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\_data/file/419449/fees\_table\_for\_website\_2015\_03\_30\.pdf \\|url\-status\=live }} Regardless of whether or not a visa is required, all litigants would also have to pay for accommodation and any other necessary expenses in the UK for the duration of the litigation.{{cite web\\|url\=http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120109/cleisure/cleisure3\.html\\|title\=Privy Council does cost something\\|date\=9 January 2012\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129182131/http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120109/cleisure/cleisure3\.html\\|url\-status\=live}} All of this adds up as a very expensive appeals process; one estimate placed the average total cost between US$57,000{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.lexpress.mu/article/privy\-council\-should\-hold\-sittings\-mauritius\-next\-september\\|title\=The Privy Council should hold sittings in Mauritius as from next September\\|date\=13 September 2007\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129083012/http://www.lexpress.mu/article/privy\-council\-should\-hold\-sittings\-mauritius\-next\-september\\|url\-status\=live}} and US$87,500\.{{cite web\\|url\=http://old.jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/19991214/f4\.html\\|title\='We cannot wait until everything is state of the art...' – Dec 14, 1999 – Jamaica Gleaner\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=11 October 2017\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011001649/http://old.jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/19991214/f4\.html\\|url\-status\=live}} Given the generally low number of appeals coming from the smaller CARICOM states and sometimes from larger CARICOM states such as Jamaica,{{cite web\\|url\=http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20140518/lead/lead3\.html\\|title\=Too little from London law lords\\|date\=18 May 2014\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129152042/http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20140518/lead/lead3\.html\\|url\-status\=live}} in effect the local courts of appeal are the courts of last resort for the majority of CARICOM litigants who cannot afford to take their appeals to the JCPC and must therefore be satisfied with the judgments of the local courts of appeal. As a result, the JCPC has only really been accessible to either the very wealthy from the Caribbean or to certain inmates on death row who are able to secure pro bono legal service from British barristers. In the case of those nationals, such as Jamaicans, who also require visas in order to travel to the UK to pursue cases before the JCPC, there is the risk that the denial of the visa could negatively impact on the ability for their cases to be heard, thus further reducing potential accessibility (especially if the work load is not sufficient to justify the JCPC travelling to their jurisdiction instead).{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/columns/How\-many\-of\-us\-could\-really\-go\-to\-the\-Privy\-Council\-\-Holness\-\_18974604\\|title\=How many of us could really go to the Privy Council, Holness? – Columns\\|first\=Jamaica Observer\\|last\=Limited\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064842/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/columns/How\-many\-of\-us\-could\-really\-go\-to\-the\-Privy\-Council\-\-Holness\-\_18974604\\|url\-status\=live}} By contrast, the CCJ, in most cases, is a much less expensive option for litigants in all comparative costs (filing, airfare, accommodations, other expenses, etc.). As the CARICOM has successfully pushed for visa free access by CARICOM nationals (except Haitians for now) to other member states, no citizen of any country that currently has the JCPC as its final court would need to apply for and exhaust financial resources obtaining a visa to travel to the seat of the CCJ or to any other state where the CCJ may sit. And by virtue of distance, travel to the seat of the CCJ in Trinidad, is much cheaper than travel to the UK. In fact physical travel to the seat of the CCJ itself in some cases is not necessary as the court itself (like the JCPC) is itinerant and (unlike the JCPC), the CCJ makes extensive use of electronic and teleconferencing facilities to reduce the cost to litigants. The CCJ has an e\-filing system (which has been hailed as "impressive") that makes provision for all court filing to be carried out electronically specifically in order to reduce to the cost to litigants of filing documents with the court and to keep its commitment of access to justice for all.{{cite web\\|url\=http://supremecourt.gov.jm/content/caribbean\-court\-justice\-electronic\-filing\\|title\=Caribbean Court of Justice Electronic Filing – The Supreme Court of Jamaica\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=25 February 2017\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225001741/http://supremecourt.gov.jm/content/caribbean\-court\-justice\-electronic\-filing\\|url\-status\=live}} The CCJ also utilizes the system to conduct hearings electronically, making use of teleconferencing equipment installed in all contracting states. It is in the aspect of the CCJ and JCPC itinerancy that the costs to states (and further differences between the CCJ and JCPC) becomes apparent. Although it is not established to operate as an itinerant court,{{Cite web \\|url\=http://jis.gov.jm/privy\-council\-letters\-support\-governments\-ccj\-position/ \\|title\=Privy Council Letters Support Government's CCJ Position \\|access\-date\=5 November 2015 \\|archive\-date\=28 October 2015 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151028124250/http://jis.gov.jm/privy\-council\-letters\-support\-governments\-ccj\-position/ \\|url\-status\=live }} the JCPC has maintained that it is willing to consider sitting outside the UK, but only where it receives an official invitation to do so from the chief judge and the government of the country or territory concerned, and where the full costs of the JCPC (that is airfare, travel, accommodations and other relevant costs) are covered by the hosts, and where there is sufficient work to justify such a visit.{{cite web\\|url\=http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20141218/letters/letters2\.html\\|title\=Privy Council clarifies points\\|date\=18 December 2014\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129192202/http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20141218/letters/letters2\.html\\|url\-status\=live}} Such sufficient work might involve hearing cases from other neighbouring or nearby territories or countries in which case litigants from the other territories would have to incur the cost of travel and litigation to the country actually hosting the JCPC. By contrast, as expressly provided for in the Agreement establishing the CCJ,{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Reflections\-on\-the\-Privy\-Council\_19236290\\|title\=Reflections on the Privy Council\\|first\=Jamaica Observer\\|last\=Limited\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129144535/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Reflections\-on\-the\-Privy\-Council\_19236290\\|url\-status\=live}} the CCJ is willing to sit in any country within its jurisdiction on a case\-by\-case basis, if doing so is necessary for evidence to be given in person and where video\- or teleconferencing technology proves insufficient for the task and where the litigant may not be able to afford to appear before the seat of the court and thus be unable to adequately present his or her own case. When travelling to another country in its jurisdiction the costs are paid for by the CCJ itself including airfare, accommodations and any other expenses. The hosting state is expected to provide a location for the Court to sit (as with the JCPC) and to provide ground transportation and security for the Court (as with the JCPC).{{cite web\\|url\=http://ttnewsflash.com/?p\=22200\\|title\=Jamaica to hear evidence arising out of the original jurisdiction matter Shanique Myrie v the State of Barbados\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129144821/http://ttnewsflash.com/?p\=22200\\|url\-status\=live}} Thus far the CCJ has sat on cases in Barbados, Belize, Guyana, Jamaica and in its seat of Trinidad and Tobago.{{cite web\\|url\=http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/news/2015/04/20/caribbean\-court\-justice\-begins\-first\-itinerant\-session\-in\-belize/\\|title\=Caribbean Court of Justice begins first itinerant session in Belize\\|website\=\[\[Fox News]]\\|date\=20 April 2015\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129083240/http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/news/2015/04/20/caribbean\-court\-justice\-begins\-first\-itinerant\-session\-in\-belize/\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|url\-status\=dead}} #### Types of cases heard Due to the differences in costs, the JCPC has only been truly practically accessible to certain death row inmates or very wealthy individuals. Additionally, the JCPC does have jurisdictional limitations unrelated to the cost of appeal. The JCPC functions as a final appellate court in very restricted manner.{{Cite web \\|url\=https://www.academia.edu/8422736 \\|title\=Commonwealth Caribbean Law and Legal Systems, Second Edition by Rose\-Marie Belle Antoine, 1998 \\|access\-date\=2 December 2017 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430072058/http://www.academia.edu/8422736/Commonwealth\_Caribbean\_Law\_and\_Legal\_Systems\_Second\_Edition \\|archive\-date\=30 April 2015 \\|url\-status\=dead}}{{Cite web \\|url\=http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/CA/00/40/02/34/00001/PDF.pdf \\|title\="Replacing the Privy Council with the Caribbean Court of Justice in the OECS Countries." By: Isabel C. Dávila \\|access\-date\=15 May 2015 \\|archive\-date\=19 October 2013 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019214453/http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/CA/00/40/02/34/00001/PDF.pdf \\|url\-status\=live }} Under the common law, the right of appeal does not exist for all cases and instead must be specially conferred. This is done consequently as appeals "as of right" and "as of leave" (where leave is required by the local Court of Appeal or the JCPC itself). Firstly, appeals to the JCPC in civil proceedings lie at the discretion of the local court where the case at hand is one of 'great general public importance or otherwise ought to be submitted to Her Majesty in Council for decision' and where an amount or in dispute or claim (including property) is of, or exceeds, the prescribed statutory value. In criminal matters, the JCPC will not intervene unless it can be demonstrated that some serious miscarriage of justice has occurred through violation of the principles of natural justice; violation the due process of law or other serious injustice. This is as a result of the JCPC not being designed to function as a second tier Court of Appeal to review the evidence of a given case. The structural and practical limitations of JCPC appeals has meant that the range of precedent generated by the highest court for many Caribbean jurisdictions is confined to narrow categories, particularly capital punishment and high finance. The wide body of law between these categories, has often been left mainly to small domestic courts in the Caribbean. Thus different decisions have been more likely to be rendered for similar fact patterns, creating inconsistencies in how laws are interpreted across the region. The CCJ's structure and appellate jurisdiction, however, address this issue by providing a forum for the creation of jurisprudence in the gap in Caribbean law where the JCPC was never able to rule upon while also ruling on the area of law the JCPC specializes in. In the three years following the CCJ's inauguration, civil appeals petitioned to the court outnumbered criminal appeals by nearly seven to one, with half of the civil appeals coming from appellants the CCJ deemed too poor to pay for the filing costs. By contrast, under the JCPC, civil appeals have never outnumbered criminal appeals. This combination of lower litigant cost for the CCJ, the Court's willingness to grant in forma pauperis and having a wider field of law to hear appeals on has enabled the CCJ to hear types of cases from the region that the JCPC has never known. Although limited to only four states in its appellate jurisdiction at the moment, so far citizens of those states have been accessing the Court more than they did the JCPC. For Barbados there were eight appeals heard by the JCPC in the five years immediately prior to Barbados' accession to the appellate jurisdiction of the CCJ. In the five years that followed immediate after the switch to the CCJ, twelve appeals were heard from Barbados. Belize saw appeals roughly twice per year to the JCPC before switching to the CCJ in 2010 and subsequently saw 12 appeals in the four years since the first appeal to the CCJ from Belize in mid 2011\.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/judgments\-proceedings/appellate\-jurisdiction\-judgments\\|title\=The Caribbean Court of Justice » Appellate Jurisdiction Judgments\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=13 March 2017\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313012941/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/judgments\-proceedings/appellate\-jurisdiction\-judgments\\|url\-status\=live}} While Guyana originally abolished appeals to the JCPC in 1970, since adopting the CCJ, appeals to that Court have been exponentially increasing.	[ "### Comparison with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council", "Initially being created as a replacement for the Privy Council or JCPC, and later being tasked with the original jurisdiction over the interpretation of the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas, the CCJ replicates certain aspects of the British justice system while being divergent in other ways.", "Both the CCJ and JCPC have a president of the Court and have a smaller panel of judges being called up for any one particular case from a larger pool of eligible judges. For the JCPC, five judges normally sit on appeals from Commonwealth countries, while three to five judges normally sit on the CCJ for cases, although at times all the eligible judges have sat for a case.", "A major difference though is in the pool of eligible justices from which the deciding panel is called. For the JCPC has no explicit limit on the number of eligible jurists, while for the CCJ the initial limit is nine judges other than the president (though this limit may be increased by the agreement of all the member states). The actual number of judges eligible for JCPC at any given time is actually difficult to determine with one 2009 estimate having ninety\\-five jurists, of which only three were Caribbean judges. The primary decision makers in the JCPC's pool are the privy councillors who also serve as judges on the [Supreme Court of the United Kingdom](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Supreme Court of the United Kingdom\") and tend to be the only ones listed on the JCPC's website. No Caribbean judges, however, have sat on the JCPC since 2009 when the JCPC was co\\-located with the new UK Supreme Court.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/business/Leaving\\-the\\-Privy\\-Council\\-could\\-hit\\-foreign\\-direct\\-investment\\_18418081\\\|title\\=Leaving the Privy Council could hit foreign direct investment – Business\\\|first\\=Jamaica Observer\\\|last\\=Limited\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055728/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/business/Leaving\\-the\\-Privy\\-Council\\-could\\-hit\\-foreign\\-direct\\-investment\\_18418081\\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "As a result of the JCPC's employment of a large pool of jurists but usage of only a fraction of them, the JCPC has been criticized for the fact that decisions for any one case often depends on the judges called. The possible combinations of judges available means that different decisions can be rendered for very similar fact patterns in cases. This issue becomes particularly relevant when an appeal comes from a Caribbean country as it may be difficult for judgments to be handed down based on the nuances of Caribbean society when it is unlikely that a majority of judges on the panel for a case would come from the Caribbean. As one Caribbean lawyer lobbyist (initially an opponent of the CCJ) noted: \"What is the \"reasonable man\" test in the Caribbean? Acts of provocation in England and the Caribbean may not be the same....... In the Caribbean, even express words may have different connotations. These are the types of questions that need to be discussed by an indigenous tribunal...\"", "#### Cost comparisons for litigants and states", "As comparable appellate courts, the CCJ and JCPC as outlined above have similar procedures, but there are major differences in both the time and money that would need to be spent by individual litigants and states in pursuing cases to either court.", "Individual litigants are expected to almost always face reductions in the costs associated with pursuing their cases whenever a switch to the CCJ is made. For instance the cost of filing an appeal with the JCPC is more than five times greater than filing an appeal with the CCJ. For the JCPC, the filing of an application for permission to appeal along with the actual notice of appeal would have cost £220, or roughly US$350 in 2013, while the CCJ requires no payment for filing an application for permission to appeal and the cost for filing a notice of appeal was US$60\\. In 2015, the new filing fees for the JCPC were noted as ranging from £400 to £5,000 or roughly US$600 to US$7,500 while the comparable fees for the CCJ remained at US$60{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/article/lead\\-stories/20151017/jamaicans\\-get\\-legal\\-aid\\-ccj\\\|title\\=Jamaicans to get legal aid to CCJ\\\|date\\=17 October 2015\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129175116/http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/article/lead\\-stories/20151017/jamaicans\\-get\\-legal\\-aid\\-ccj\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} thus making the cost of filing an appeal with the JCPC at least ten times greater than filing an appeal with the CCJ.", "Although both courts do allow appeals [in forma pauperis](/wiki/In_forma_pauperis \"In forma pauperis\"), waiving filing fees when they are deemed too burdensome on the individual litigant, the JCPC does so on a more limited basis.", "Some of the highest costs for litigants however arise when litigation of the case actually begins. In most cases, litigants will have to travel to the United Kingdom (UK) to pursue their cases before the JCPC. This may involve purchasing plane tickets and/or finding and hiring lawyers licensed in the UK. Additionally, [Jamaican and Guyanese citizens are required to obtain visas before travelling to the UK](/wiki/Visa_policy_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Visa policy of the United Kingdom\"), and for these citizens the cost of a UK visa would range from £85 to £737 (or US$131 to US$1,138\\) depending on the type of visitor visa applied for.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\\_data/file/419449/fees\\_table\\_for\\_website\\_2015\\_03\\_30\\.pdf \\\|title\\=Home Office: Immigration and Nationality Fees, 6 April 2015 \\\|access\\-date\\=9 May 2015 \\\|archive\\-date\\=18 May 2015 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518091341/https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\\_data/file/419449/fees\\_table\\_for\\_website\\_2015\\_03\\_30\\.pdf \\\|url\\-status\\=live }} Regardless of whether or not a visa is required, all litigants would also have to pay for accommodation and any other necessary expenses in the UK for the duration of the litigation.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120109/cleisure/cleisure3\\.html\\\|title\\=Privy Council does cost something\\\|date\\=9 January 2012\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129182131/http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120109/cleisure/cleisure3\\.html\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} All of this adds up as a very expensive appeals process; one estimate placed the average total cost between US$57,000{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.lexpress.mu/article/privy\\-council\\-should\\-hold\\-sittings\\-mauritius\\-next\\-september\\\|title\\=The Privy Council should hold sittings in Mauritius as from next September\\\|date\\=13 September 2007\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129083012/http://www.lexpress.mu/article/privy\\-council\\-should\\-hold\\-sittings\\-mauritius\\-next\\-september\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and US$87,500\\.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://old.jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/19991214/f4\\.html\\\|title\\='We cannot wait until everything is state of the art...' – Dec 14, 1999 – Jamaica Gleaner\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2017\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011001649/http://old.jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/19991214/f4\\.html\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Given the generally low number of appeals coming from the smaller CARICOM states and sometimes from larger CARICOM states such as Jamaica,{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20140518/lead/lead3\\.html\\\|title\\=Too little from London law lords\\\|date\\=18 May 2014\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129152042/http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20140518/lead/lead3\\.html\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} in effect the local courts of appeal are the courts of last resort for the majority of CARICOM litigants who cannot afford to take their appeals to the JCPC and must therefore be satisfied with the judgments of the local courts of appeal.", "As a result, the JCPC has only really been accessible to either the very wealthy from the Caribbean or to certain inmates on death row who are able to secure pro bono legal service from British barristers. In the case of those nationals, such as Jamaicans, who also require visas in order to travel to the UK to pursue cases before the JCPC, there is the risk that the denial of the visa could negatively impact on the ability for their cases to be heard, thus further reducing potential accessibility (especially if the work load is not sufficient to justify the JCPC travelling to their jurisdiction instead).{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/columns/How\\-many\\-of\\-us\\-could\\-really\\-go\\-to\\-the\\-Privy\\-Council\\-\\-Holness\\-\\_18974604\\\|title\\=How many of us could really go to the Privy Council, Holness? – Columns\\\|first\\=Jamaica Observer\\\|last\\=Limited\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064842/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/columns/How\\-many\\-of\\-us\\-could\\-really\\-go\\-to\\-the\\-Privy\\-Council\\-\\-Holness\\-\\_18974604\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} By contrast, the CCJ, in most cases, is a much less expensive option for litigants in all comparative costs (filing, airfare, accommodations, other expenses, etc.). As the CARICOM has successfully pushed for visa free access by CARICOM nationals (except Haitians for now) to other member states, no citizen of any country that currently has the JCPC as its final court would need to apply for and exhaust financial resources obtaining a visa to travel to the seat of the CCJ or to any other state where the CCJ may sit. And by virtue of distance, travel to the seat of the CCJ in Trinidad, is much cheaper than travel to the UK. In fact physical travel to the seat of the CCJ itself in some cases is not necessary as the court itself (like the JCPC) is itinerant and (unlike the JCPC), the CCJ makes extensive use of electronic and teleconferencing facilities to reduce the cost to litigants. The CCJ has an e\\-filing system (which has been hailed as \"impressive\") that makes provision for all court filing to be carried out electronically specifically in order to reduce to the cost to litigants of filing documents with the court and to keep its commitment of access to justice for all.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://supremecourt.gov.jm/content/caribbean\\-court\\-justice\\-electronic\\-filing\\\|title\\=Caribbean Court of Justice Electronic Filing – The Supreme Court of Jamaica\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=25 February 2017\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225001741/http://supremecourt.gov.jm/content/caribbean\\-court\\-justice\\-electronic\\-filing\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The CCJ also utilizes the system to conduct hearings electronically, making use of teleconferencing equipment installed in all contracting states.", "It is in the aspect of the CCJ and JCPC itinerancy that the costs to states (and further differences between the CCJ and JCPC) becomes apparent. Although it is not established to operate as an itinerant court,{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://jis.gov.jm/privy\\-council\\-letters\\-support\\-governments\\-ccj\\-position/ \\\|title\\=Privy Council Letters Support Government's CCJ Position \\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2015 \\\|archive\\-date\\=28 October 2015 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151028124250/http://jis.gov.jm/privy\\-council\\-letters\\-support\\-governments\\-ccj\\-position/ \\\|url\\-status\\=live }} the JCPC has maintained that it is willing to consider sitting outside the UK, but only where it receives an official invitation to do so from the chief judge and the government of the country or territory concerned, and where the full costs of the JCPC (that is airfare, travel, accommodations and other relevant costs) are covered by the hosts, and where there is sufficient work to justify such a visit.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20141218/letters/letters2\\.html\\\|title\\=Privy Council clarifies points\\\|date\\=18 December 2014\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129192202/http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20141218/letters/letters2\\.html\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Such sufficient work might involve hearing cases from other neighbouring or nearby territories or countries in which case litigants from the other territories would have to incur the cost of travel and litigation to the country actually hosting the JCPC.", "By contrast, as expressly provided for in the Agreement establishing the CCJ,{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Reflections\\-on\\-the\\-Privy\\-Council\\_19236290\\\|title\\=Reflections on the Privy Council\\\|first\\=Jamaica Observer\\\|last\\=Limited\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129144535/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Reflections\\-on\\-the\\-Privy\\-Council\\_19236290\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} the CCJ is willing to sit in any country within its jurisdiction on a case\\-by\\-case basis, if doing so is necessary for evidence to be given in person and where video\\- or teleconferencing technology proves insufficient for the task and where the litigant may not be able to afford to appear before the seat of the court and thus be unable to adequately present his or her own case. When travelling to another country in its jurisdiction the costs are paid for by the CCJ itself including airfare, accommodations and any other expenses. The hosting state is expected to provide a location for the Court to sit (as with the JCPC) and to provide ground transportation and security for the Court (as with the JCPC).{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://ttnewsflash.com/?p\\=22200\\\|title\\=Jamaica to hear evidence arising out of the original jurisdiction matter Shanique Myrie v the State of Barbados\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129144821/http://ttnewsflash.com/?p\\=22200\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Thus far the CCJ has sat on cases in Barbados, Belize, Guyana, Jamaica and in its seat of Trinidad and Tobago.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/news/2015/04/20/caribbean\\-court\\-justice\\-begins\\-first\\-itinerant\\-session\\-in\\-belize/\\\|title\\=Caribbean Court of Justice begins first itinerant session in Belize\\\|website\\=\\[\\[Fox News]]\\\|date\\=20 April 2015\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129083240/http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/news/2015/04/20/caribbean\\-court\\-justice\\-begins\\-first\\-itinerant\\-session\\-in\\-belize/\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "#### Types of cases heard", "Due to the differences in costs, the JCPC has only been truly practically accessible to certain death row inmates or very wealthy individuals. Additionally, the JCPC does have jurisdictional limitations unrelated to the cost of appeal. The JCPC functions as a final appellate court in very restricted manner.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/8422736 \\\|title\\=Commonwealth Caribbean Law and Legal Systems, Second Edition by Rose\\-Marie Belle Antoine, 1998 \\\|access\\-date\\=2 December 2017 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430072058/http://www.academia.edu/8422736/Commonwealth\\_Caribbean\\_Law\\_and\\_Legal\\_Systems\\_Second\\_Edition \\\|archive\\-date\\=30 April 2015 \\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/CA/00/40/02/34/00001/PDF.pdf \\\|title\\=\"Replacing the Privy Council with the Caribbean Court of Justice in the OECS Countries.\" By: Isabel C. Dávila \\\|access\\-date\\=15 May 2015 \\\|archive\\-date\\=19 October 2013 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019214453/http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/CA/00/40/02/34/00001/PDF.pdf \\\|url\\-status\\=live }} Under the common law, the right of appeal does not exist for all cases and instead must be specially conferred. This is done consequently as appeals \"as of right\" and \"as of leave\" (where leave is required by the local Court of Appeal or the JCPC itself).", "Firstly, appeals to the JCPC in civil proceedings lie at the discretion of the local court where the case at hand is one of 'great general public importance or otherwise ought to be submitted to Her Majesty in Council for decision' and where an amount or in dispute or claim (including property) is of, or exceeds, the prescribed statutory value. In criminal matters, the JCPC will not intervene unless it can be demonstrated that some serious miscarriage of justice has occurred through violation of the principles of natural justice; violation the due process of law or other serious injustice. This is as a result of the JCPC not being designed to function as a second tier Court of Appeal to review the evidence of a given case.", "The structural and practical limitations of JCPC appeals has meant that the range of precedent generated by the highest court for many Caribbean jurisdictions is confined to narrow categories, particularly capital punishment and high finance. The wide body of law between these categories, has often been left mainly to small domestic courts in the Caribbean. Thus different decisions have been more likely to be rendered for similar fact patterns, creating inconsistencies in how laws are interpreted across the region.", "The CCJ's structure and appellate jurisdiction, however, address this issue by providing a forum for the creation of jurisprudence in the gap in Caribbean law where the JCPC was never able to rule upon while also ruling on the area of law the JCPC specializes in. In the three years following the CCJ's inauguration, civil appeals petitioned to the court outnumbered criminal appeals by nearly seven to one, with half of the civil appeals coming from appellants the CCJ deemed too poor to pay for the filing costs. By contrast, under the JCPC, civil appeals have never outnumbered criminal appeals. This combination of lower litigant cost for the CCJ, the Court's willingness to grant in forma pauperis and having a wider field of law to hear appeals on has enabled the CCJ to hear types of cases from the region that the JCPC has never known.", "Although limited to only four states in its appellate jurisdiction at the moment, so far citizens of those states have been accessing the Court more than they did the JCPC. For Barbados there were eight appeals heard by the JCPC in the five years immediately prior to Barbados' accession to the appellate jurisdiction of the CCJ. In the five years that followed immediate after the switch to the CCJ, twelve appeals were heard from Barbados. Belize saw appeals roughly twice per year to the JCPC before switching to the CCJ in 2010 and subsequently saw 12 appeals in the four years since the first appeal to the CCJ from Belize in mid 2011\\.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/judgments\\-proceedings/appellate\\-jurisdiction\\-judgments\\\|title\\=The Caribbean Court of Justice » Appellate Jurisdiction Judgments\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=13 March 2017\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313012941/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/judgments\\-proceedings/appellate\\-jurisdiction\\-judgments\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} While Guyana originally abolished appeals to the JCPC in 1970, since adopting the CCJ, appeals to that Court have been exponentially increasing.", "" ]
#### Cost comparisons for litigants and states As comparable appellate courts, the CCJ and JCPC as outlined above have similar procedures, but there are major differences in both the time and money that would need to be spent by individual litigants and states in pursuing cases to either court. Individual litigants are expected to almost always face reductions in the costs associated with pursuing their cases whenever a switch to the CCJ is made. For instance the cost of filing an appeal with the JCPC is more than five times greater than filing an appeal with the CCJ. For the JCPC, the filing of an application for permission to appeal along with the actual notice of appeal would have cost £220, or roughly US$350 in 2013, while the CCJ requires no payment for filing an application for permission to appeal and the cost for filing a notice of appeal was US$60\. In 2015, the new filing fees for the JCPC were noted as ranging from £400 to £5,000 or roughly US$600 to US$7,500 while the comparable fees for the CCJ remained at US$60{{cite web\\|url\=http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/article/lead\-stories/20151017/jamaicans\-get\-legal\-aid\-ccj\\|title\=Jamaicans to get legal aid to CCJ\\|date\=17 October 2015\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129175116/http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/article/lead\-stories/20151017/jamaicans\-get\-legal\-aid\-ccj\\|url\-status\=live}} thus making the cost of filing an appeal with the JCPC at least ten times greater than filing an appeal with the CCJ. Although both courts do allow appeals [in forma pauperis](/wiki/In_forma_pauperis "In forma pauperis"), waiving filing fees when they are deemed too burdensome on the individual litigant, the JCPC does so on a more limited basis. Some of the highest costs for litigants however arise when litigation of the case actually begins. In most cases, litigants will have to travel to the United Kingdom (UK) to pursue their cases before the JCPC. This may involve purchasing plane tickets and/or finding and hiring lawyers licensed in the UK. Additionally, [Jamaican and Guyanese citizens are required to obtain visas before travelling to the UK](/wiki/Visa_policy_of_the_United_Kingdom "Visa policy of the United Kingdom"), and for these citizens the cost of a UK visa would range from £85 to £737 (or US$131 to US$1,138\) depending on the type of visitor visa applied for.{{Cite web \\|url\=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\_data/file/419449/fees\_table\_for\_website\_2015\_03\_30\.pdf \\|title\=Home Office: Immigration and Nationality Fees, 6 April 2015 \\|access\-date\=9 May 2015 \\|archive\-date\=18 May 2015 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518091341/https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\_data/file/419449/fees\_table\_for\_website\_2015\_03\_30\.pdf \\|url\-status\=live }} Regardless of whether or not a visa is required, all litigants would also have to pay for accommodation and any other necessary expenses in the UK for the duration of the litigation.{{cite web\\|url\=http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120109/cleisure/cleisure3\.html\\|title\=Privy Council does cost something\\|date\=9 January 2012\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129182131/http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120109/cleisure/cleisure3\.html\\|url\-status\=live}} All of this adds up as a very expensive appeals process; one estimate placed the average total cost between US$57,000{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.lexpress.mu/article/privy\-council\-should\-hold\-sittings\-mauritius\-next\-september\\|title\=The Privy Council should hold sittings in Mauritius as from next September\\|date\=13 September 2007\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129083012/http://www.lexpress.mu/article/privy\-council\-should\-hold\-sittings\-mauritius\-next\-september\\|url\-status\=live}} and US$87,500\.{{cite web\\|url\=http://old.jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/19991214/f4\.html\\|title\='We cannot wait until everything is state of the art...' – Dec 14, 1999 – Jamaica Gleaner\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=11 October 2017\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011001649/http://old.jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/19991214/f4\.html\\|url\-status\=live}} Given the generally low number of appeals coming from the smaller CARICOM states and sometimes from larger CARICOM states such as Jamaica,{{cite web\\|url\=http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20140518/lead/lead3\.html\\|title\=Too little from London law lords\\|date\=18 May 2014\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129152042/http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20140518/lead/lead3\.html\\|url\-status\=live}} in effect the local courts of appeal are the courts of last resort for the majority of CARICOM litigants who cannot afford to take their appeals to the JCPC and must therefore be satisfied with the judgments of the local courts of appeal. As a result, the JCPC has only really been accessible to either the very wealthy from the Caribbean or to certain inmates on death row who are able to secure pro bono legal service from British barristers. In the case of those nationals, such as Jamaicans, who also require visas in order to travel to the UK to pursue cases before the JCPC, there is the risk that the denial of the visa could negatively impact on the ability for their cases to be heard, thus further reducing potential accessibility (especially if the work load is not sufficient to justify the JCPC travelling to their jurisdiction instead).{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/columns/How\-many\-of\-us\-could\-really\-go\-to\-the\-Privy\-Council\-\-Holness\-\_18974604\\|title\=How many of us could really go to the Privy Council, Holness? – Columns\\|first\=Jamaica Observer\\|last\=Limited\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064842/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/columns/How\-many\-of\-us\-could\-really\-go\-to\-the\-Privy\-Council\-\-Holness\-\_18974604\\|url\-status\=live}} By contrast, the CCJ, in most cases, is a much less expensive option for litigants in all comparative costs (filing, airfare, accommodations, other expenses, etc.). As the CARICOM has successfully pushed for visa free access by CARICOM nationals (except Haitians for now) to other member states, no citizen of any country that currently has the JCPC as its final court would need to apply for and exhaust financial resources obtaining a visa to travel to the seat of the CCJ or to any other state where the CCJ may sit. And by virtue of distance, travel to the seat of the CCJ in Trinidad, is much cheaper than travel to the UK. In fact physical travel to the seat of the CCJ itself in some cases is not necessary as the court itself (like the JCPC) is itinerant and (unlike the JCPC), the CCJ makes extensive use of electronic and teleconferencing facilities to reduce the cost to litigants. The CCJ has an e\-filing system (which has been hailed as "impressive") that makes provision for all court filing to be carried out electronically specifically in order to reduce to the cost to litigants of filing documents with the court and to keep its commitment of access to justice for all.{{cite web\\|url\=http://supremecourt.gov.jm/content/caribbean\-court\-justice\-electronic\-filing\\|title\=Caribbean Court of Justice Electronic Filing – The Supreme Court of Jamaica\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=25 February 2017\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225001741/http://supremecourt.gov.jm/content/caribbean\-court\-justice\-electronic\-filing\\|url\-status\=live}} The CCJ also utilizes the system to conduct hearings electronically, making use of teleconferencing equipment installed in all contracting states. It is in the aspect of the CCJ and JCPC itinerancy that the costs to states (and further differences between the CCJ and JCPC) becomes apparent. Although it is not established to operate as an itinerant court,{{Cite web \\|url\=http://jis.gov.jm/privy\-council\-letters\-support\-governments\-ccj\-position/ \\|title\=Privy Council Letters Support Government's CCJ Position \\|access\-date\=5 November 2015 \\|archive\-date\=28 October 2015 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151028124250/http://jis.gov.jm/privy\-council\-letters\-support\-governments\-ccj\-position/ \\|url\-status\=live }} the JCPC has maintained that it is willing to consider sitting outside the UK, but only where it receives an official invitation to do so from the chief judge and the government of the country or territory concerned, and where the full costs of the JCPC (that is airfare, travel, accommodations and other relevant costs) are covered by the hosts, and where there is sufficient work to justify such a visit.{{cite web\\|url\=http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20141218/letters/letters2\.html\\|title\=Privy Council clarifies points\\|date\=18 December 2014\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129192202/http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20141218/letters/letters2\.html\\|url\-status\=live}} Such sufficient work might involve hearing cases from other neighbouring or nearby territories or countries in which case litigants from the other territories would have to incur the cost of travel and litigation to the country actually hosting the JCPC. By contrast, as expressly provided for in the Agreement establishing the CCJ,{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Reflections\-on\-the\-Privy\-Council\_19236290\\|title\=Reflections on the Privy Council\\|first\=Jamaica Observer\\|last\=Limited\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129144535/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Reflections\-on\-the\-Privy\-Council\_19236290\\|url\-status\=live}} the CCJ is willing to sit in any country within its jurisdiction on a case\-by\-case basis, if doing so is necessary for evidence to be given in person and where video\- or teleconferencing technology proves insufficient for the task and where the litigant may not be able to afford to appear before the seat of the court and thus be unable to adequately present his or her own case. When travelling to another country in its jurisdiction the costs are paid for by the CCJ itself including airfare, accommodations and any other expenses. The hosting state is expected to provide a location for the Court to sit (as with the JCPC) and to provide ground transportation and security for the Court (as with the JCPC).{{cite web\\|url\=http://ttnewsflash.com/?p\=22200\\|title\=Jamaica to hear evidence arising out of the original jurisdiction matter Shanique Myrie v the State of Barbados\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129144821/http://ttnewsflash.com/?p\=22200\\|url\-status\=live}} Thus far the CCJ has sat on cases in Barbados, Belize, Guyana, Jamaica and in its seat of Trinidad and Tobago.{{cite web\\|url\=http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/news/2015/04/20/caribbean\-court\-justice\-begins\-first\-itinerant\-session\-in\-belize/\\|title\=Caribbean Court of Justice begins first itinerant session in Belize\\|website\=\[\[Fox News]]\\|date\=20 April 2015\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129083240/http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/news/2015/04/20/caribbean\-court\-justice\-begins\-first\-itinerant\-session\-in\-belize/\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|url\-status\=dead}}	[ "#### Cost comparisons for litigants and states", "As comparable appellate courts, the CCJ and JCPC as outlined above have similar procedures, but there are major differences in both the time and money that would need to be spent by individual litigants and states in pursuing cases to either court.", "Individual litigants are expected to almost always face reductions in the costs associated with pursuing their cases whenever a switch to the CCJ is made. For instance the cost of filing an appeal with the JCPC is more than five times greater than filing an appeal with the CCJ. For the JCPC, the filing of an application for permission to appeal along with the actual notice of appeal would have cost £220, or roughly US$350 in 2013, while the CCJ requires no payment for filing an application for permission to appeal and the cost for filing a notice of appeal was US$60\\. In 2015, the new filing fees for the JCPC were noted as ranging from £400 to £5,000 or roughly US$600 to US$7,500 while the comparable fees for the CCJ remained at US$60{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/article/lead\\-stories/20151017/jamaicans\\-get\\-legal\\-aid\\-ccj\\\|title\\=Jamaicans to get legal aid to CCJ\\\|date\\=17 October 2015\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129175116/http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/article/lead\\-stories/20151017/jamaicans\\-get\\-legal\\-aid\\-ccj\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} thus making the cost of filing an appeal with the JCPC at least ten times greater than filing an appeal with the CCJ.", "Although both courts do allow appeals [in forma pauperis](/wiki/In_forma_pauperis \"In forma pauperis\"), waiving filing fees when they are deemed too burdensome on the individual litigant, the JCPC does so on a more limited basis.", "Some of the highest costs for litigants however arise when litigation of the case actually begins. In most cases, litigants will have to travel to the United Kingdom (UK) to pursue their cases before the JCPC. This may involve purchasing plane tickets and/or finding and hiring lawyers licensed in the UK. Additionally, [Jamaican and Guyanese citizens are required to obtain visas before travelling to the UK](/wiki/Visa_policy_of_the_United_Kingdom \"Visa policy of the United Kingdom\"), and for these citizens the cost of a UK visa would range from £85 to £737 (or US$131 to US$1,138\\) depending on the type of visitor visa applied for.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\\_data/file/419449/fees\\_table\\_for\\_website\\_2015\\_03\\_30\\.pdf \\\|title\\=Home Office: Immigration and Nationality Fees, 6 April 2015 \\\|access\\-date\\=9 May 2015 \\\|archive\\-date\\=18 May 2015 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518091341/https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment\\_data/file/419449/fees\\_table\\_for\\_website\\_2015\\_03\\_30\\.pdf \\\|url\\-status\\=live }} Regardless of whether or not a visa is required, all litigants would also have to pay for accommodation and any other necessary expenses in the UK for the duration of the litigation.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120109/cleisure/cleisure3\\.html\\\|title\\=Privy Council does cost something\\\|date\\=9 January 2012\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129182131/http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120109/cleisure/cleisure3\\.html\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} All of this adds up as a very expensive appeals process; one estimate placed the average total cost between US$57,000{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.lexpress.mu/article/privy\\-council\\-should\\-hold\\-sittings\\-mauritius\\-next\\-september\\\|title\\=The Privy Council should hold sittings in Mauritius as from next September\\\|date\\=13 September 2007\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129083012/http://www.lexpress.mu/article/privy\\-council\\-should\\-hold\\-sittings\\-mauritius\\-next\\-september\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and US$87,500\\.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://old.jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/19991214/f4\\.html\\\|title\\='We cannot wait until everything is state of the art...' – Dec 14, 1999 – Jamaica Gleaner\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=11 October 2017\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011001649/http://old.jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/19991214/f4\\.html\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Given the generally low number of appeals coming from the smaller CARICOM states and sometimes from larger CARICOM states such as Jamaica,{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20140518/lead/lead3\\.html\\\|title\\=Too little from London law lords\\\|date\\=18 May 2014\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129152042/http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20140518/lead/lead3\\.html\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} in effect the local courts of appeal are the courts of last resort for the majority of CARICOM litigants who cannot afford to take their appeals to the JCPC and must therefore be satisfied with the judgments of the local courts of appeal.", "As a result, the JCPC has only really been accessible to either the very wealthy from the Caribbean or to certain inmates on death row who are able to secure pro bono legal service from British barristers. In the case of those nationals, such as Jamaicans, who also require visas in order to travel to the UK to pursue cases before the JCPC, there is the risk that the denial of the visa could negatively impact on the ability for their cases to be heard, thus further reducing potential accessibility (especially if the work load is not sufficient to justify the JCPC travelling to their jurisdiction instead).{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/columns/How\\-many\\-of\\-us\\-could\\-really\\-go\\-to\\-the\\-Privy\\-Council\\-\\-Holness\\-\\_18974604\\\|title\\=How many of us could really go to the Privy Council, Holness? – Columns\\\|first\\=Jamaica Observer\\\|last\\=Limited\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064842/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/columns/How\\-many\\-of\\-us\\-could\\-really\\-go\\-to\\-the\\-Privy\\-Council\\-\\-Holness\\-\\_18974604\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} By contrast, the CCJ, in most cases, is a much less expensive option for litigants in all comparative costs (filing, airfare, accommodations, other expenses, etc.). As the CARICOM has successfully pushed for visa free access by CARICOM nationals (except Haitians for now) to other member states, no citizen of any country that currently has the JCPC as its final court would need to apply for and exhaust financial resources obtaining a visa to travel to the seat of the CCJ or to any other state where the CCJ may sit. And by virtue of distance, travel to the seat of the CCJ in Trinidad, is much cheaper than travel to the UK. In fact physical travel to the seat of the CCJ itself in some cases is not necessary as the court itself (like the JCPC) is itinerant and (unlike the JCPC), the CCJ makes extensive use of electronic and teleconferencing facilities to reduce the cost to litigants. The CCJ has an e\\-filing system (which has been hailed as \"impressive\") that makes provision for all court filing to be carried out electronically specifically in order to reduce to the cost to litigants of filing documents with the court and to keep its commitment of access to justice for all.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://supremecourt.gov.jm/content/caribbean\\-court\\-justice\\-electronic\\-filing\\\|title\\=Caribbean Court of Justice Electronic Filing – The Supreme Court of Jamaica\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=25 February 2017\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225001741/http://supremecourt.gov.jm/content/caribbean\\-court\\-justice\\-electronic\\-filing\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The CCJ also utilizes the system to conduct hearings electronically, making use of teleconferencing equipment installed in all contracting states.", "It is in the aspect of the CCJ and JCPC itinerancy that the costs to states (and further differences between the CCJ and JCPC) becomes apparent. Although it is not established to operate as an itinerant court,{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://jis.gov.jm/privy\\-council\\-letters\\-support\\-governments\\-ccj\\-position/ \\\|title\\=Privy Council Letters Support Government's CCJ Position \\\|access\\-date\\=5 November 2015 \\\|archive\\-date\\=28 October 2015 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151028124250/http://jis.gov.jm/privy\\-council\\-letters\\-support\\-governments\\-ccj\\-position/ \\\|url\\-status\\=live }} the JCPC has maintained that it is willing to consider sitting outside the UK, but only where it receives an official invitation to do so from the chief judge and the government of the country or territory concerned, and where the full costs of the JCPC (that is airfare, travel, accommodations and other relevant costs) are covered by the hosts, and where there is sufficient work to justify such a visit.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20141218/letters/letters2\\.html\\\|title\\=Privy Council clarifies points\\\|date\\=18 December 2014\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129192202/http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20141218/letters/letters2\\.html\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Such sufficient work might involve hearing cases from other neighbouring or nearby territories or countries in which case litigants from the other territories would have to incur the cost of travel and litigation to the country actually hosting the JCPC.", "By contrast, as expressly provided for in the Agreement establishing the CCJ,{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Reflections\\-on\\-the\\-Privy\\-Council\\_19236290\\\|title\\=Reflections on the Privy Council\\\|first\\=Jamaica Observer\\\|last\\=Limited\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129144535/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Reflections\\-on\\-the\\-Privy\\-Council\\_19236290\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} the CCJ is willing to sit in any country within its jurisdiction on a case\\-by\\-case basis, if doing so is necessary for evidence to be given in person and where video\\- or teleconferencing technology proves insufficient for the task and where the litigant may not be able to afford to appear before the seat of the court and thus be unable to adequately present his or her own case. When travelling to another country in its jurisdiction the costs are paid for by the CCJ itself including airfare, accommodations and any other expenses. The hosting state is expected to provide a location for the Court to sit (as with the JCPC) and to provide ground transportation and security for the Court (as with the JCPC).{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://ttnewsflash.com/?p\\=22200\\\|title\\=Jamaica to hear evidence arising out of the original jurisdiction matter Shanique Myrie v the State of Barbados\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129144821/http://ttnewsflash.com/?p\\=22200\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Thus far the CCJ has sat on cases in Barbados, Belize, Guyana, Jamaica and in its seat of Trinidad and Tobago.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/news/2015/04/20/caribbean\\-court\\-justice\\-begins\\-first\\-itinerant\\-session\\-in\\-belize/\\\|title\\=Caribbean Court of Justice begins first itinerant session in Belize\\\|website\\=\\[\\[Fox News]]\\\|date\\=20 April 2015\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129083240/http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/news/2015/04/20/caribbean\\-court\\-justice\\-begins\\-first\\-itinerant\\-session\\-in\\-belize/\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "" ]
#### Types of cases heard Due to the differences in costs, the JCPC has only been truly practically accessible to certain death row inmates or very wealthy individuals. Additionally, the JCPC does have jurisdictional limitations unrelated to the cost of appeal. The JCPC functions as a final appellate court in very restricted manner.{{Cite web \\|url\=https://www.academia.edu/8422736 \\|title\=Commonwealth Caribbean Law and Legal Systems, Second Edition by Rose\-Marie Belle Antoine, 1998 \\|access\-date\=2 December 2017 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430072058/http://www.academia.edu/8422736/Commonwealth\_Caribbean\_Law\_and\_Legal\_Systems\_Second\_Edition \\|archive\-date\=30 April 2015 \\|url\-status\=dead}}{{Cite web \\|url\=http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/CA/00/40/02/34/00001/PDF.pdf \\|title\="Replacing the Privy Council with the Caribbean Court of Justice in the OECS Countries." By: Isabel C. Dávila \\|access\-date\=15 May 2015 \\|archive\-date\=19 October 2013 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019214453/http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/CA/00/40/02/34/00001/PDF.pdf \\|url\-status\=live }} Under the common law, the right of appeal does not exist for all cases and instead must be specially conferred. This is done consequently as appeals "as of right" and "as of leave" (where leave is required by the local Court of Appeal or the JCPC itself). Firstly, appeals to the JCPC in civil proceedings lie at the discretion of the local court where the case at hand is one of 'great general public importance or otherwise ought to be submitted to Her Majesty in Council for decision' and where an amount or in dispute or claim (including property) is of, or exceeds, the prescribed statutory value. In criminal matters, the JCPC will not intervene unless it can be demonstrated that some serious miscarriage of justice has occurred through violation of the principles of natural justice; violation the due process of law or other serious injustice. This is as a result of the JCPC not being designed to function as a second tier Court of Appeal to review the evidence of a given case. The structural and practical limitations of JCPC appeals has meant that the range of precedent generated by the highest court for many Caribbean jurisdictions is confined to narrow categories, particularly capital punishment and high finance. The wide body of law between these categories, has often been left mainly to small domestic courts in the Caribbean. Thus different decisions have been more likely to be rendered for similar fact patterns, creating inconsistencies in how laws are interpreted across the region. The CCJ's structure and appellate jurisdiction, however, address this issue by providing a forum for the creation of jurisprudence in the gap in Caribbean law where the JCPC was never able to rule upon while also ruling on the area of law the JCPC specializes in. In the three years following the CCJ's inauguration, civil appeals petitioned to the court outnumbered criminal appeals by nearly seven to one, with half of the civil appeals coming from appellants the CCJ deemed too poor to pay for the filing costs. By contrast, under the JCPC, civil appeals have never outnumbered criminal appeals. This combination of lower litigant cost for the CCJ, the Court's willingness to grant in forma pauperis and having a wider field of law to hear appeals on has enabled the CCJ to hear types of cases from the region that the JCPC has never known. Although limited to only four states in its appellate jurisdiction at the moment, so far citizens of those states have been accessing the Court more than they did the JCPC. For Barbados there were eight appeals heard by the JCPC in the five years immediately prior to Barbados' accession to the appellate jurisdiction of the CCJ. In the five years that followed immediate after the switch to the CCJ, twelve appeals were heard from Barbados. Belize saw appeals roughly twice per year to the JCPC before switching to the CCJ in 2010 and subsequently saw 12 appeals in the four years since the first appeal to the CCJ from Belize in mid 2011\.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/judgments\-proceedings/appellate\-jurisdiction\-judgments\\|title\=The Caribbean Court of Justice » Appellate Jurisdiction Judgments\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=13 March 2017\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313012941/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/judgments\-proceedings/appellate\-jurisdiction\-judgments\\|url\-status\=live}} While Guyana originally abolished appeals to the JCPC in 1970, since adopting the CCJ, appeals to that Court have been exponentially increasing.	[ "#### Types of cases heard", "Due to the differences in costs, the JCPC has only been truly practically accessible to certain death row inmates or very wealthy individuals. Additionally, the JCPC does have jurisdictional limitations unrelated to the cost of appeal. The JCPC functions as a final appellate court in very restricted manner.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/8422736 \\\|title\\=Commonwealth Caribbean Law and Legal Systems, Second Edition by Rose\\-Marie Belle Antoine, 1998 \\\|access\\-date\\=2 December 2017 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430072058/http://www.academia.edu/8422736/Commonwealth\\_Caribbean\\_Law\\_and\\_Legal\\_Systems\\_Second\\_Edition \\\|archive\\-date\\=30 April 2015 \\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/CA/00/40/02/34/00001/PDF.pdf \\\|title\\=\"Replacing the Privy Council with the Caribbean Court of Justice in the OECS Countries.\" By: Isabel C. Dávila \\\|access\\-date\\=15 May 2015 \\\|archive\\-date\\=19 October 2013 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019214453/http://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/CA/00/40/02/34/00001/PDF.pdf \\\|url\\-status\\=live }} Under the common law, the right of appeal does not exist for all cases and instead must be specially conferred. This is done consequently as appeals \"as of right\" and \"as of leave\" (where leave is required by the local Court of Appeal or the JCPC itself).", "Firstly, appeals to the JCPC in civil proceedings lie at the discretion of the local court where the case at hand is one of 'great general public importance or otherwise ought to be submitted to Her Majesty in Council for decision' and where an amount or in dispute or claim (including property) is of, or exceeds, the prescribed statutory value. In criminal matters, the JCPC will not intervene unless it can be demonstrated that some serious miscarriage of justice has occurred through violation of the principles of natural justice; violation the due process of law or other serious injustice. This is as a result of the JCPC not being designed to function as a second tier Court of Appeal to review the evidence of a given case.", "The structural and practical limitations of JCPC appeals has meant that the range of precedent generated by the highest court for many Caribbean jurisdictions is confined to narrow categories, particularly capital punishment and high finance. The wide body of law between these categories, has often been left mainly to small domestic courts in the Caribbean. Thus different decisions have been more likely to be rendered for similar fact patterns, creating inconsistencies in how laws are interpreted across the region.", "The CCJ's structure and appellate jurisdiction, however, address this issue by providing a forum for the creation of jurisprudence in the gap in Caribbean law where the JCPC was never able to rule upon while also ruling on the area of law the JCPC specializes in. In the three years following the CCJ's inauguration, civil appeals petitioned to the court outnumbered criminal appeals by nearly seven to one, with half of the civil appeals coming from appellants the CCJ deemed too poor to pay for the filing costs. By contrast, under the JCPC, civil appeals have never outnumbered criminal appeals. This combination of lower litigant cost for the CCJ, the Court's willingness to grant in forma pauperis and having a wider field of law to hear appeals on has enabled the CCJ to hear types of cases from the region that the JCPC has never known.", "Although limited to only four states in its appellate jurisdiction at the moment, so far citizens of those states have been accessing the Court more than they did the JCPC. For Barbados there were eight appeals heard by the JCPC in the five years immediately prior to Barbados' accession to the appellate jurisdiction of the CCJ. In the five years that followed immediate after the switch to the CCJ, twelve appeals were heard from Barbados. Belize saw appeals roughly twice per year to the JCPC before switching to the CCJ in 2010 and subsequently saw 12 appeals in the four years since the first appeal to the CCJ from Belize in mid 2011\\.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/judgments\\-proceedings/appellate\\-jurisdiction\\-judgments\\\|title\\=The Caribbean Court of Justice » Appellate Jurisdiction Judgments\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=13 March 2017\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313012941/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/judgments\\-proceedings/appellate\\-jurisdiction\\-judgments\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} While Guyana originally abolished appeals to the JCPC in 1970, since adopting the CCJ, appeals to that Court have been exponentially increasing.", "" ]
History ------- In the aftermath of the collapse of the [Federation of the West Indies](/wiki/Federation_of_the_West_Indies "Federation of the West Indies") (and with it the [Federal Supreme Court](/wiki/West_Indies_Federation%23Federal_Supreme_Court "West Indies Federation#Federal Supreme Court")), which had lasted a mere four years, from 1958 to 1962, the [Anglophone continental and insular Caribbean states](/wiki/Caribbean "Caribbean") formed the CARIFTA (the Caribbean Free Trade Association), with a view to maintaining an economic link among the various former and continuing colonies of the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") after the collapse of the political bond. On 1 August 1973, the successor to the CARIFTA, the [Caribbean Community](/wiki/Caribbean_Community "Caribbean Community"), better known by its acronym, [CARICOM](/wiki/CARICOM "CARICOM"), came into being. The founding document of the CARICOM, the [Treaty of Chaguaramas](/wiki/Treaty_of_Chaguaramas "Treaty of Chaguaramas"), was signed by the so\-called "Big Four" states: [Barbados](/wiki/Barbados "Barbados"), [Jamaica](/wiki/Jamaica "Jamaica"), [Guyana](/wiki/Guyana "Guyana") and [Trinidad and Tobago](/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago "Trinidad and Tobago"), all of which had gained their political independence from the UK during the 1960s. This signing was the starter's signal for a more mature, though at times slow and halting, process of regional integration among the states of the Commonwealth Caribbean. ### Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas and Agreement establishing the CCJ In 2001, the Conference of Heads of Government of the Caribbean Community, at their 22nd meeting in Nassau, the Bahamas, signed the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas (RTC), rebranding the Caribbean Community and Common Market to include the proposed [CARICOM Single Market and Economy](/wiki/CARICOM_Single_Market_and_Economy "CARICOM Single Market and Economy") (CSME). The single market replacing the original [Common Market](/wiki/Common_Market "Common Market") aspect of the group. Originally an Anglophone club, the admission of Dutch\-speaking [Suriname](/wiki/Suriname "Suriname") in 1995, and Créole\-speaking [Haiti](/wiki/Haiti "Haiti") (where French is the official language) in 2002 has somewhat modified the cultural and jurisprudential mix of the community. Under the revised Treaty of Chaguaramas, and typical of similar international integrationist movements, the CARICOM has restructured itself to include such elements as are characteristic of the modern democratic state, viz., [executive](/wiki/CARICOM_Heads_of_Government "CARICOM Heads of Government") (CARICOM Heads of Government and the Community Council), [legislative](/wiki/Caribbean_Community%23Institutions "Caribbean Community#Institutions") (Assembly of Caribbean Community Parliamentarians – established before the revised treaty and now moribund) and judicial (CCJ) arms. The Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ) is the Caribbean regional judicial tribunal established on 14 February 2001, by the Agreement Establishing the Caribbean Court of Justice. The agreement was signed on that date by the CARICOM states of: [Antigua and Barbuda](/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda "Antigua and Barbuda"); Barbados; Belize; Grenada; Guyana; Jamaica; [Saint Kitts and Nevis](/wiki/Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis "Saint Kitts and Nevis"); Saint Lucia; Suriname; and Trinidad and Tobago. Two further states, Dominica and [Saint Vincent and the Grenadines](/wiki/Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines "Saint Vincent and the Grenadines"), signed the agreement on 15 February 2003, bringing the total number of signatories to 12\. The Bahamas and Haiti, though full members of the CARICOM, are not yet signatories, and because of [Montserrat](/wiki/Montserrat "Montserrat")'s status as a [British territory](/wiki/British_Overseas_Territory "British Overseas Territory"), they must await Instruments of Entrustment from the UK in order to ratify. The Agreement Establishing the Caribbean Court of Justice came into force on 23 July 2003, and the CCJ was inaugurated on 16 April 2005 in Port of Spain, Trinidad \& Tobago, the seat of the Court. ### Appellate jurisdiction The birth of the CCJ came after a long and arduous period of planning. In March 1970, the Organisation of Commonwealth Caribbean Bar Associations (OCCBA) first raised the issue of the need to replace the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the court of last resort for the Commonwealth Caribbean by a regional court of appeal. Again in Jamaica, in April 1970, at the Sixth Commonwealth Caribbean Heads of Government,[Speech by justice Michael de la Bastide, president of the CCJ, at the inauguration of the Court](http://www.caricom.org/jsp/speeches/ccj_inauguration_delabastide.jsp) {{webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140825050120/http://www.caricom.org/jsp/speeches/ccj\_inauguration\_delabastide.jsp \\|date\=25 August 2014 }} the Jamaican delegation tabled a proposal on setting up a regional Court of Appeal{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/about\-the\-ccj/ccj\-concept\-to\-reality\\|title\=The Caribbean Court of Justice » The CCJ: from concept to reality\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=11 July 2017\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711025450/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/about\-the\-ccj/ccj\-concept\-to\-reality\\|url\-status\=live}} and the heads further agreed to take action on relinquishing the Privy Council as the Anglophone Caribbean's final appeal court and mandated a committee of CARICOM attorneys\-general to further explore the question of the establishment of what was then being called a "Caribbean Court of Appeal". Further to the perceived need for an indigenous, regional court as a tribunal of last resort in civil and criminal cases, other factors eventually led to the strong support for the creation of a judicial arm of the CARICOM. In 1972 consideration was being given by the OCCBA for the proposed Caribbean Court of Appeal to serve as both a municipal court of last resort and an international tribunal to adjudicate disputes between CARICOM member states. In 1989 the West Indian Commission established by the CARICOM heads of government endorsed this proposed hybrid jurisdiction without qualification.{{Cite web \\|url\=http://www.docstoc.com/docs/91941938/The\-Caribbean\-Court\-of\-Justice\-\_?the\-CCJ%3F\_\-Who\-Stands\-to\-Gain \\|title\=The Caribbean Court of Justice: Who Stands to Gain? by Justice Duke Pollard, 2008 \\|access\-date\=9 May 2015 \\|archive\-date\=18 May 2015 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518065140/http://www.docstoc.com/docs/91941938/The\-Caribbean\-Court\-of\-Justice\-\_?the\-CCJ%3F\_\-Who\-Stands\-to\-Gain \\|url\-status\=live }} As Duke Pollard, then director of the Caricom Legislative Drafting Facility, wrote in 2000: "the old Treaty of Chaguaramas provided for arbitration in the event of disputes concerning the interpretation and application of the Treaty. Unfortunately, however, the arbitral procedure was never used and serious disputes were never settled, thereby causing the integration movement to be hampered. Moreover, the rights and obligations created by the CSME are so important and extensive, relating to the establishment of economic enterprises, the provision of professional services, the movement of capital, the acquisition of land for the operation of businesses, that there is a clear need to have a permanent, central, regional institution to authoritatively and definitively pronounce on those rights and corresponding obligations. The Caribbean Court of Justice is intended to be such an authoritative institution."{{Cite web \\|url\=http://www.ncsc.org/\~/media/Files/PDF/Education%20and%20Careers/CEDP%20Papers/2008/Lilla\_CaribJustAsFinalCtAppeal.ashx \\|title\=Promoting the CCJ as the final court of appeal for states of the Caribbean Community by Michael Anthony Lilla \\|access\-date\=6 May 2015 \\|archive\-date\=9 November 2015 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151109210644/http://www.ncsc.org/\~/media/Files/PDF/Education%20and%20Careers/CEDP%20Papers/2008/Lilla\_CaribJustAsFinalCtAppeal.ashx \\|url\-status\=live }} The official inauguration was held in Queen's Hall, [Port of Spain](/wiki/Port_of_Spain "Port of Spain"), [Trinidad and Tobago](/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago "Trinidad and Tobago"), on Saturday 16 April 2005\. The first case heard by the CCJ was in August 2005{{cite news \\| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4132328\.stm \\| work\=BBC News \\| title\=Caribbean court hears first case \\| date\=9 August 2005 \\| access\-date\=5 September 2005 \\| archive\-date\=12 March 2007 \\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312211027/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4132328\.stm \\| url\-status\=live }} and was to settle a "decade\-long" libel court case from Barbados. Barbados and Guyana acceded to the CCJ's appellate jurisdiction in 2005, with Belize joining them in June 2010, and Dominica in March 2015\. ### Jurisdictional competition with the Privy Council The reasons given for the establishment of a supreme appellate court are many and varied, including a perceived regional disenfranchisement from the [British](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom") [Judicial Committee of the Privy Council](/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council "Judicial Committee of the Privy Council").[Mike Melia, "Spurning Europe, Caribbean pushes death penalty"](http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5gdmE1EaGg8gBWUzmudijT0T5eC7wD94D0UA82), 11 November 2008{{dead link\\|date\=November 2012\\|bot\=Legobot}}[Mike Melia (Associated Press), "Spurning Europe, Caribbean pushes death penalty"](http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5gdmE1EaGg8gBWUzmudijT0T5eC7wD94D0UA82), 11 November 2008{{dead link\\|date\=November 2012\\|bot\=Legobot}}[Letter: Colonial power over death penalty](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4185745.stm) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060628064608/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4185745\.stm \\|date\=28 June 2006 }}. By Therese Mills (BBC), Wednesday, 19 January 2005, 19:15 GMT.[T \& T pushing death penalty](http://archive.nationnews.com/archive_detail.php?archiveFile=2008/January/17/Regional/51927.xml&start=0&numPer=20&keyword=Pratt+Morgan&sectionSearch=&begindate=1%2F1%2F2008&enddate=12%2F2%2F2008&authorSearch=&IncludeStories=1&pubsection=&page=&IncludePages=1&IncludeImages=1&mode=allwords&archive_pubname=Daily+Nation%0A%09%09%09) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013092107/http://archive.nationnews.com/archive\_detail.php?archiveFile\=2008%2FJanuary%2F17%2FRegional%2F51927\.xml\&start\=0\&numPer\=20\&keyword\=Pratt\+Morgan\&sectionSearch\=\&begindate\=1%2F1%2F2008\&enddate\=12%2F2%2F2008\&authorSearch\=\&IncludeStories\=1\&pubsection\=\&page\=\&IncludePages\=1\&IncludeImages\=1\&mode\=allwords\&archive\_pubname\=Daily\+Nation%0A%09%09%09 \\|date\=13 October 2016 }} Nation Newspaper – 17 January 2008 Controversy surrounding the establishment of this court corresponds to two major events that made the Privy Council unpopular in the Caribbean region.{{citation needed\\|date\=March 2017}} * One reason was the refusal of the Privy Council to allow [capital punishment](/wiki/Capital_punishment "Capital punishment") for persons convicted of murder (who had spent more than five years pursuing their various appeal options) to be practiced in Caribbean states, even where a majority of the people in the relevant jurisdictions supported the death penalty.<http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/2004/07/08/sentence.htm> {{webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060516143656/http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/2004/07/08/sentence.htm\\|date\=16 May 2006}}<http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/2005/02/08/sanders.shtml> {{webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060225193604/http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/2005/02/08/sanders.shtml\\|date\=25 February 2006}}{{cite news \\| url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/1171362\.stm \\| work\=BBC News \\| title\=Caribbean rejects UK justice \\| date\=15 February 2001 \\| access\-date\=5 September 2005 \\| archive\-date\=16 July 2004 \\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040716183151/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/1171362\.stm \\| url\-status\=live }} In the 1993 case of [Pratt v Attorney General of Jamaica](/wiki/Pratt_v_Attorney_General_of_Jamaica "Pratt v Attorney General of Jamaica"), the Privy Council held that persons imprisoned on death row for more than five years should have their sentences commuted to life imprisonment. * The second main issue was a case in [Antigua and Barbuda](/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda "Antigua and Barbuda"), Observer Publications v Matthew, where the Privy Council ruled that the government had acted unlawfully in refusing to consider an application for a broadcast radio station licence. Until the ruling, radio station licences had only been issued to members of the prime minister's family.Observer Publications Limited \-v\- Campbell 'Mickey' Matthew, The Commissioner of Police and The Attorney General \[2001] UKPC 11 The British\-based court has been perceived as having too much power in the Caribbean region.{{citation needed\\|date\=March 2017}} Several politicians{{who\\|date\=March 2017}} also lamented that the Caribbean nations are the only remaining region of the former British Empire still to rely on the British court system for appeals.{{citation needed\\|date\=March 2017}} ### Support from the British legal establishment for the CCJ over the JCPC for the Caribbean Paradoxically, even as some within the Caribbean oppose switching from the Privy Council to the CCJ over fears of lessened impartiality by CCJ judges not as far removed from the region as the Privy Council judges, senior British legal figures (often members of the JCPC itself) have expressed support for a regional court for the Caribbean. As far back as 1828, the man responsible for remodelling the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, [Lord Brougham](/wiki/Henry_Brougham%2C_1st_Baron_Brougham_and_Vaux "Henry Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux"), had raised the issue of removing colonies from the Privy Council's jurisdiction. He opined that due to the distance of the colonies from the UK and the immense variety of matters arising from them which would be foreign to British habits, that any court in the UK would be extremely inadequate for the colonies. Lord Brougham's sentiments were echoed nearly 200 years later in 2003 by [Lord Hoffman](/wiki/Leonard_Hoffmann%2C_Baron_Hoffmann "Leonard Hoffmann, Baron Hoffmann"), a [Law Lord](/wiki/Lords_of_Appeal_in_Ordinary "Lords of Appeal in Ordinary") from 1995 to 2009, when he noted that although the Privy Council had done its best to serve the Caribbean and had effected improvements in the administration of justice, the remoteness of the court from the community served as a handicap. In his own view a local final court would be necessary and beneficial to transform society in partnership with the other two branches of government. In 1990, [Lord Wilberforce](/wiki/Richard_Wilberforce%2C_Baron_Wilberforce "Richard Wilberforce, Baron Wilberforce") (Senior Law Lord from 1975 to 1982\) and later in 1992 leading barrister [Lord Gifford](/wiki/Anthony_Gifford%2C_6th_Baron_Gifford "Anthony Gifford, 6th Baron Gifford") [QC](/wiki/Queen%27s_Counsel "Queen's Counsel") both called on the Commonwealth Caribbean to establish its own regional and final court of appeal. In 1999, then Senior Law Lord [Lord Browne\-Wilkinson](/wiki/Nicolas_Browne-Wilkinson%2C_Baron_Browne-Wilkinson "Nicolas Browne-Wilkinson, Baron Browne-Wilkinson") described as burdensome the number of appeals in capital matters coming from the Caribbean to the Privy Council. He noted that such appeals occupied 25% of the Privy Council's time and he felt it was time for the Privy Council to be relieved of the Caribbean cases in order for the region to accede to full legal independence. Browne\-Wilkinson also advocated for the establishment of a regional Caribbean court of last resort. In September 2009, [Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers](/wiki/Nicholas_Phillips%2C_Baron_Phillips_of_Worth_Matravers "Nicholas Phillips, Baron Phillips of Worth Matravers") expressed sentiments close to those of Browne\-Wilkinson a decade earlier. Phillips, the last Senior Law Lord and first [President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom](/wiki/President_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom "President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom"), said he would search for ways to curb the "disproportionate" time that he and his fellow senior justices spent on hearing legal appeals from independent Commonwealth countries to the Privy Council. He expressed concern that the new Supreme Court's judges would end up spending as much as 40% of their working time on Privy Council business and was intending to take some pressure off of the Supreme Court judges by drafting in lower tier judges from the Court of Appeal to sit on cases from Commonwealth countries. He also added that in an ideal world former Commonwealth countries would stop utilising the Privy Council and instead set up their own final courts of appeal.{{cite news\\|url\=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/3c5b14a6\-a61d\-11de\-8c92\-00144feabdc0\.html\\|title\=Privy Council hampers Supreme Court\\|newspaper\=Financial Times\\|date\=20 September 2009\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=19 February 2011\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219085446/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/3c5b14a6\-a61d\-11de\-8c92\-00144feabdc0\.html\\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2009/09/090922\_privyccjphillips.shtml\\|title\=BBCCaribbean.com – Privy Council's complaint\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=4 December 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204123416/http://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2009/09/090922\_privyccjphillips.shtml\\|url\-status\=live}} In October 2009, Lord Gifford at a reception in Kingston, Jamaica, again expressed support for the replacement of the Privy Council by the CCJ. Gifford noted that the CCJ would be more accessible, affordable and provide a better quality of justice for Jamaicans and other former British colonies in the Caribbean than the Privy Council. Gifford expressed support for Phillips' earlier comments, and hoped that they would serve to stir Jamaica and other Caribbean states to leave the Privy Council and join the CCJ. Gifford also said that his arguments in support of the CCJ were strictly practical and not based on the Privy Council's composition or being a "colonial relic".{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/161654\_Lord\-Gifford\-urges\-quick\-referendum\-on\-CCJ\\|title\=Lord Gifford urges quick referendum on CCJ \\|first\=Jamaica Observer\\|last\=Limited\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104506/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/161654\_Lord\-Gifford\-urges\-quick\-referendum\-on\-CCJ\\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\\|url\-status\=dead}} Thus it would seems that for at least some of members of the JCPC, geographical and psychological distance (often raised as necessary for greater objectivity and impartiality) does not seem to be an issue and what is more important is the need for the Caribbean (and other Commonwealth countries) to take care of its own affairs. In fact, the Privy Council has often been willing to accept findings by Caribbean courts on local matters because they recognize that such courts are more familiar with Caribbean matters.	[ "History\n-------", "In the aftermath of the collapse of the [Federation of the West Indies](/wiki/Federation_of_the_West_Indies \"Federation of the West Indies\") (and with it the [Federal Supreme Court](/wiki/West_Indies_Federation%23Federal_Supreme_Court \"West Indies Federation#Federal Supreme Court\")), which had lasted a mere four years, from 1958 to 1962, the [Anglophone continental and insular Caribbean states](/wiki/Caribbean \"Caribbean\") formed the CARIFTA (the Caribbean Free Trade Association), with a view to maintaining an economic link among the various former and continuing colonies of the [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") after the collapse of the political bond. On 1 August 1973, the successor to the CARIFTA, the [Caribbean Community](/wiki/Caribbean_Community \"Caribbean Community\"), better known by its acronym, [CARICOM](/wiki/CARICOM \"CARICOM\"), came into being.", "The founding document of the CARICOM, the [Treaty of Chaguaramas](/wiki/Treaty_of_Chaguaramas \"Treaty of Chaguaramas\"), was signed by the so\\-called \"Big Four\" states: [Barbados](/wiki/Barbados \"Barbados\"), [Jamaica](/wiki/Jamaica \"Jamaica\"), [Guyana](/wiki/Guyana \"Guyana\") and [Trinidad and Tobago](/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago \"Trinidad and Tobago\"), all of which had gained their political independence from the UK during the 1960s. This signing was the starter's signal for a more mature, though at times slow and halting, process of regional integration among the states of the Commonwealth Caribbean.", "### Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas and Agreement establishing the CCJ", "In 2001, the Conference of Heads of Government of the Caribbean Community, at their 22nd meeting in Nassau, the Bahamas, signed the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas (RTC), rebranding the Caribbean Community and Common Market to include the proposed [CARICOM Single Market and Economy](/wiki/CARICOM_Single_Market_and_Economy \"CARICOM Single Market and Economy\") (CSME). The single market replacing the original [Common Market](/wiki/Common_Market \"Common Market\") aspect of the group.", "Originally an Anglophone club, the admission of Dutch\\-speaking [Suriname](/wiki/Suriname \"Suriname\") in 1995, and Créole\\-speaking [Haiti](/wiki/Haiti \"Haiti\") (where French is the official language) in 2002 has somewhat modified the cultural and jurisprudential mix of the community.", "Under the revised Treaty of Chaguaramas, and typical of similar international integrationist movements, the CARICOM has restructured itself to include such elements as are characteristic of the modern democratic state, viz., [executive](/wiki/CARICOM_Heads_of_Government \"CARICOM Heads of Government\") (CARICOM Heads of Government and the Community Council), [legislative](/wiki/Caribbean_Community%23Institutions \"Caribbean Community#Institutions\") (Assembly of Caribbean Community Parliamentarians – established before the revised treaty and now moribund) and judicial (CCJ) arms.", "The Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ) is the Caribbean regional judicial tribunal established on 14 February 2001, by the Agreement Establishing the Caribbean Court of Justice. The agreement was signed on that date by the CARICOM states of: [Antigua and Barbuda](/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda \"Antigua and Barbuda\"); Barbados; Belize; Grenada; Guyana; Jamaica; [Saint Kitts and Nevis](/wiki/Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis \"Saint Kitts and Nevis\"); Saint Lucia; Suriname; and Trinidad and Tobago. Two further states, Dominica and [Saint Vincent and the Grenadines](/wiki/Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines \"Saint Vincent and the Grenadines\"), signed the agreement on 15 February 2003, bringing the total number of signatories to 12\\. The Bahamas and Haiti, though full members of the CARICOM, are not yet signatories, and because of [Montserrat](/wiki/Montserrat \"Montserrat\")'s status as a [British territory](/wiki/British_Overseas_Territory \"British Overseas Territory\"), they must await Instruments of Entrustment from the UK in order to ratify. The Agreement Establishing the Caribbean Court of Justice came into force on 23 July 2003, and the CCJ was inaugurated on 16 April 2005 in Port of Spain, Trinidad \\& Tobago, the seat of the Court.", "### Appellate jurisdiction", "The birth of the CCJ came after a long and arduous period of planning. In March 1970, the Organisation of Commonwealth Caribbean Bar Associations (OCCBA) first raised the issue of the need to replace the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the court of last resort for the Commonwealth Caribbean by a regional court of appeal. Again in Jamaica, in April 1970, at the Sixth Commonwealth Caribbean Heads of Government,[Speech by justice Michael de la Bastide, president of the CCJ, at the inauguration of the Court](http://www.caricom.org/jsp/speeches/ccj_inauguration_delabastide.jsp) {{webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140825050120/http://www.caricom.org/jsp/speeches/ccj\\_inauguration\\_delabastide.jsp \\\|date\\=25 August 2014 }} the Jamaican delegation tabled a proposal on setting up a regional Court of Appeal{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/about\\-the\\-ccj/ccj\\-concept\\-to\\-reality\\\|title\\=The Caribbean Court of Justice » The CCJ: from concept to reality\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=11 July 2017\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711025450/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/about\\-the\\-ccj/ccj\\-concept\\-to\\-reality\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} and the heads further agreed to take action on relinquishing the Privy Council as the Anglophone Caribbean's final appeal court and mandated a committee of CARICOM attorneys\\-general to further explore the question of the establishment of what was then being called a \"Caribbean Court of Appeal\".", "Further to the perceived need for an indigenous, regional court as a tribunal of last resort in civil and criminal cases, other factors eventually led to the strong support for the creation of a judicial arm of the CARICOM. In 1972 consideration was being given by the OCCBA for the proposed Caribbean Court of Appeal to serve as both a municipal court of last resort and an international tribunal to adjudicate disputes between CARICOM member states. In 1989 the West Indian Commission established by the CARICOM heads of government endorsed this proposed hybrid jurisdiction without qualification.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.docstoc.com/docs/91941938/The\\-Caribbean\\-Court\\-of\\-Justice\\-\\_?the\\-CCJ%3F\\_\\-Who\\-Stands\\-to\\-Gain \\\|title\\=The Caribbean Court of Justice: Who Stands to Gain? by Justice Duke Pollard, 2008 \\\|access\\-date\\=9 May 2015 \\\|archive\\-date\\=18 May 2015 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518065140/http://www.docstoc.com/docs/91941938/The\\-Caribbean\\-Court\\-of\\-Justice\\-\\_?the\\-CCJ%3F\\_\\-Who\\-Stands\\-to\\-Gain \\\|url\\-status\\=live }} As Duke Pollard, then director of the Caricom Legislative Drafting Facility, wrote in 2000: \"the old Treaty of Chaguaramas provided for arbitration in the event of disputes concerning the interpretation and application of the Treaty. Unfortunately, however, the arbitral procedure was never used and serious disputes were never settled, thereby causing the integration movement to be hampered. Moreover, the rights and obligations created by the CSME are so important and extensive, relating to the establishment of economic enterprises, the provision of professional services, the movement of capital, the acquisition of land for the operation of businesses, that there is a clear need to have a permanent, central, regional institution to authoritatively and definitively pronounce on those rights and corresponding obligations. The Caribbean Court of Justice is intended to be such an authoritative institution.\"{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.ncsc.org/\\~/media/Files/PDF/Education%20and%20Careers/CEDP%20Papers/2008/Lilla\\_CaribJustAsFinalCtAppeal.ashx \\\|title\\=Promoting the CCJ as the final court of appeal for states of the Caribbean Community by Michael Anthony Lilla \\\|access\\-date\\=6 May 2015 \\\|archive\\-date\\=9 November 2015 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20151109210644/http://www.ncsc.org/\\~/media/Files/PDF/Education%20and%20Careers/CEDP%20Papers/2008/Lilla\\_CaribJustAsFinalCtAppeal.ashx \\\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "The official inauguration was held in Queen's Hall, [Port of Spain](/wiki/Port_of_Spain \"Port of Spain\"), [Trinidad and Tobago](/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago \"Trinidad and Tobago\"), on Saturday 16 April 2005\\. The first case heard by the CCJ was in August 2005{{cite news \\\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4132328\\.stm \\\| work\\=BBC News \\\| title\\=Caribbean court hears first case \\\| date\\=9 August 2005 \\\| access\\-date\\=5 September 2005 \\\| archive\\-date\\=12 March 2007 \\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312211027/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4132328\\.stm \\\| url\\-status\\=live }} and was to settle a \"decade\\-long\" libel court case from Barbados. Barbados and Guyana acceded to the CCJ's appellate jurisdiction in 2005, with Belize joining them in June 2010, and Dominica in March 2015\\.", "### Jurisdictional competition with the Privy Council", "The reasons given for the establishment of a supreme appellate court are many and varied, including a perceived regional disenfranchisement from the [British](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\") [Judicial Committee of the Privy Council](/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council \"Judicial Committee of the Privy Council\").[Mike Melia, \"Spurning Europe, Caribbean pushes death penalty\"](http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5gdmE1EaGg8gBWUzmudijT0T5eC7wD94D0UA82), 11 November 2008{{dead link\\\|date\\=November 2012\\\|bot\\=Legobot}}[Mike Melia (Associated Press), \"Spurning Europe, Caribbean pushes death penalty\"](http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5gdmE1EaGg8gBWUzmudijT0T5eC7wD94D0UA82), 11 November 2008{{dead link\\\|date\\=November 2012\\\|bot\\=Legobot}}[Letter: Colonial power over death penalty](http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4185745.stm) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060628064608/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4185745\\.stm \\\|date\\=28 June 2006 }}. By Therese Mills (BBC), Wednesday, 19 January 2005, 19:15 GMT.[T \\& T pushing death penalty](http://archive.nationnews.com/archive_detail.php?archiveFile=2008/January/17/Regional/51927.xml&start=0&numPer=20&keyword=Pratt+Morgan&sectionSearch=&begindate=1%2F1%2F2008&enddate=12%2F2%2F2008&authorSearch=&IncludeStories=1&pubsection=&page=&IncludePages=1&IncludeImages=1&mode=allwords&archive_pubname=Daily+Nation%0A%09%09%09) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013092107/http://archive.nationnews.com/archive\\_detail.php?archiveFile\\=2008%2FJanuary%2F17%2FRegional%2F51927\\.xml\\&start\\=0\\&numPer\\=20\\&keyword\\=Pratt\\+Morgan\\&sectionSearch\\=\\&begindate\\=1%2F1%2F2008\\&enddate\\=12%2F2%2F2008\\&authorSearch\\=\\&IncludeStories\\=1\\&pubsection\\=\\&page\\=\\&IncludePages\\=1\\&IncludeImages\\=1\\&mode\\=allwords\\&archive\\_pubname\\=Daily\\+Nation%0A%09%09%09 \\\|date\\=13 October 2016 }} Nation Newspaper – 17 January 2008", "Controversy surrounding the establishment of this court corresponds to two major events that made the Privy Council unpopular in the Caribbean region.{{citation needed\\\|date\\=March 2017}}\n* One reason was the refusal of the Privy Council to allow [capital punishment](/wiki/Capital_punishment \"Capital punishment\") for persons convicted of murder (who had spent more than five years pursuing their various appeal options) to be practiced in Caribbean states, even where a majority of the people in the relevant jurisdictions supported the death penalty.<http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/2004/07/08/sentence.htm> {{webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060516143656/http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/2004/07/08/sentence.htm\\\|date\\=16 May 2006}}<http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/2005/02/08/sanders.shtml> {{webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060225193604/http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/2005/02/08/sanders.shtml\\\|date\\=25 February 2006}}{{cite news \\\| url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/1171362\\.stm \\\| work\\=BBC News \\\| title\\=Caribbean rejects UK justice \\\| date\\=15 February 2001 \\\| access\\-date\\=5 September 2005 \\\| archive\\-date\\=16 July 2004 \\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040716183151/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/1171362\\.stm \\\| url\\-status\\=live }} In the 1993 case of [Pratt v Attorney General of Jamaica](/wiki/Pratt_v_Attorney_General_of_Jamaica \"Pratt v Attorney General of Jamaica\"), the Privy Council held that persons imprisoned on death row for more than five years should have their sentences commuted to life imprisonment.\n* The second main issue was a case in [Antigua and Barbuda](/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda \"Antigua and Barbuda\"), Observer Publications v Matthew, where the Privy Council ruled that the government had acted unlawfully in refusing to consider an application for a broadcast radio station licence. Until the ruling, radio station licences had only been issued to members of the prime minister's family.Observer Publications Limited \\-v\\- Campbell 'Mickey' Matthew, The Commissioner of Police and The Attorney General \\[2001] UKPC 11", "The British\\-based court has been perceived as having too much power in the Caribbean region.{{citation needed\\\|date\\=March 2017}} Several politicians{{who\\\|date\\=March 2017}} also lamented that the Caribbean nations are the only remaining region of the former British Empire still to rely on the British court system for appeals.{{citation needed\\\|date\\=March 2017}}", "### Support from the British legal establishment for the CCJ over the JCPC for the Caribbean", "Paradoxically, even as some within the Caribbean oppose switching from the Privy Council to the CCJ over fears of lessened impartiality by CCJ judges not as far removed from the region as the Privy Council judges, senior British legal figures (often members of the JCPC itself) have expressed support for a regional court for the Caribbean. As far back as 1828, the man responsible for remodelling the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, [Lord Brougham](/wiki/Henry_Brougham%2C_1st_Baron_Brougham_and_Vaux \"Henry Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux\"), had raised the issue of removing colonies from the Privy Council's jurisdiction. He opined that due to the distance of the colonies from the UK and the immense variety of matters arising from them which would be foreign to British habits, that any court in the UK would be extremely inadequate for the colonies.", "Lord Brougham's sentiments were echoed nearly 200 years later in 2003 by [Lord Hoffman](/wiki/Leonard_Hoffmann%2C_Baron_Hoffmann \"Leonard Hoffmann, Baron Hoffmann\"), a [Law Lord](/wiki/Lords_of_Appeal_in_Ordinary \"Lords of Appeal in Ordinary\") from 1995 to 2009, when he noted that although the Privy Council had done its best to serve the Caribbean and had effected improvements in the administration of justice, the remoteness of the court from the community served as a handicap. In his own view a local final court would be necessary and beneficial to transform society in partnership with the other two branches of government.", "In 1990, [Lord Wilberforce](/wiki/Richard_Wilberforce%2C_Baron_Wilberforce \"Richard Wilberforce, Baron Wilberforce\") (Senior Law Lord from 1975 to 1982\\) and later in 1992 leading barrister [Lord Gifford](/wiki/Anthony_Gifford%2C_6th_Baron_Gifford \"Anthony Gifford, 6th Baron Gifford\") [QC](/wiki/Queen%27s_Counsel \"Queen's Counsel\") both called on the Commonwealth Caribbean to establish its own regional and final court of appeal. In 1999, then Senior Law Lord [Lord Browne\\-Wilkinson](/wiki/Nicolas_Browne-Wilkinson%2C_Baron_Browne-Wilkinson \"Nicolas Browne-Wilkinson, Baron Browne-Wilkinson\") described as burdensome the number of appeals in capital matters coming from the Caribbean to the Privy Council. He noted that such appeals occupied 25% of the Privy Council's time and he felt it was time for the Privy Council to be relieved of the Caribbean cases in order for the region to accede to full legal independence. Browne\\-Wilkinson also advocated for the establishment of a regional Caribbean court of last resort.", "In September 2009, [Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers](/wiki/Nicholas_Phillips%2C_Baron_Phillips_of_Worth_Matravers \"Nicholas Phillips, Baron Phillips of Worth Matravers\") expressed sentiments close to those of Browne\\-Wilkinson a decade earlier. Phillips, the last Senior Law Lord and first [President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom](/wiki/President_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom \"President of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom\"), said he would search for ways to curb the \"disproportionate\" time that he and his fellow senior justices spent on hearing legal appeals from independent Commonwealth countries to the Privy Council. He expressed concern that the new Supreme Court's judges would end up spending as much as 40% of their working time on Privy Council business and was intending to take some pressure off of the Supreme Court judges by drafting in lower tier judges from the Court of Appeal to sit on cases from Commonwealth countries. He also added that in an ideal world former Commonwealth countries would stop utilising the Privy Council and instead set up their own final courts of appeal.{{cite news\\\|url\\=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/3c5b14a6\\-a61d\\-11de\\-8c92\\-00144feabdc0\\.html\\\|title\\=Privy Council hampers Supreme Court\\\|newspaper\\=Financial Times\\\|date\\=20 September 2009\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=19 February 2011\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219085446/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/3c5b14a6\\-a61d\\-11de\\-8c92\\-00144feabdc0\\.html\\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2009/09/090922\\_privyccjphillips.shtml\\\|title\\=BBCCaribbean.com – Privy Council's complaint\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=4 December 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204123416/http://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2009/09/090922\\_privyccjphillips.shtml\\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "In October 2009, Lord Gifford at a reception in Kingston, Jamaica, again expressed support for the replacement of the Privy Council by the CCJ. Gifford noted that the CCJ would be more accessible, affordable and provide a better quality of justice for Jamaicans and other former British colonies in the Caribbean than the Privy Council. Gifford expressed support for Phillips' earlier comments, and hoped that they would serve to stir Jamaica and other Caribbean states to leave the Privy Council and join the CCJ. Gifford also said that his arguments in support of the CCJ were strictly practical and not based on the Privy Council's composition or being a \"colonial relic\".{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/161654\\_Lord\\-Gifford\\-urges\\-quick\\-referendum\\-on\\-CCJ\\\|title\\=Lord Gifford urges quick referendum on CCJ \\\|first\\=Jamaica Observer\\\|last\\=Limited\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104506/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/161654\\_Lord\\-Gifford\\-urges\\-quick\\-referendum\\-on\\-CCJ\\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}", "Thus it would seems that for at least some of members of the JCPC, geographical and psychological distance (often raised as necessary for greater objectivity and impartiality) does not seem to be an issue and what is more important is the need for the Caribbean (and other Commonwealth countries) to take care of its own affairs. In fact, the Privy Council has often been willing to accept findings by Caribbean courts on local matters because they recognize that such courts are more familiar with Caribbean matters.", "" ]
Composition ----------- ### Judges The Caribbean Court of justice currently consists of 7 Judges (including the President), though under the Agreement establishing the court there can be a maximum of 10 Judges including the President. This limit may be increased by the agreement of all of the member states if necessary. The Judges, other than the President, are appointed or removed by a majority vote of the eleven member Regional Judicial and Legal Services Commission (RJLSC), which is also the body which must recommend a need of for an increase in the number of Judges (other than the President) before such an increase can be effected by the agreement of the member states. Removal of a Judge by the RJLSC occurs only after the question of the removal of a Judge has been referred by the RJLSC to a tribunal and the tribunal has subsequently advised that the Judge should be removed for misbehaviour or an inability to carry out the duties of a Judge. Under the Agreement establishing the court, at least three judges of the full complement of ten are required to possess expertise in international law including international trade law and one judge is also required to be from the civil law tradition similar to such jurisdictions as Haiti and Suriname. Persons being appointed to the office of Judge (including the President) are supposed to have high moral character, intellectual and analytical ability, integrity, demonstrate sound judgment, and an understanding of people and society. The RJLSC appoints persons to be Judges (or recommends persons to be President of the Court) from candidates who have distinguished themselves in their careers either practicing or teaching law for at least fifteen years or being Judges of a court of unlimited jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases for at least five years. The candidates must have practiced or taught law, or been a judge, in at least one of the following: * a CARICOM member state * a Contracting Party (i.e. a state which has executed the agreement establishing the CCJ) * some part of the Commonwealth * a state exercising civil law jurisprudence common to Contracting Parties The RJLSC does not and is not allowed to consider potential judges by recommendations from contracting member states, but only by a prospective judge's individual application. Once a judge is appointed, they are allowed to hold office until the age of 72, but are allowed to continue in office, if necessary for a further three months in order to deliver a judgment or to do any other thing in proceedings that he or she has heard. During the evolutionary phase of the Court (that is until the full complement of 9 Judges plus the President have been appointed), the RJLSC may extend the tenure of a Judge until the age of 75\.{{Cite web \\|url\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\-content/uploads/2011/11/Protocol\-relating\-to\-the\-Tenure\-of\-Judges\-CCJ\-with\-signatures\-June\-2007\.pdf \\|title\=Protocol to the Agreement relating to the Tenure of Judges \\|access\-date\=21 May 2015 \\|archive\-date\=11 January 2016 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111012617/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\-content/uploads/2011/11/Protocol\-relating\-to\-the\-Tenure\-of\-Judges\-CCJ\-with\-signatures\-June\-2007\.pdf \\|url\-status\=live }} As of {{date}}: \| State \| Members of the Court \| President \| Judge \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| {{flag\\|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}} \| Hon. [Adrian Saunders](/wiki/Adrian_Saunders "Adrian Saunders") \| 2018– \| 2005– \| \| {{Flag\\|Jamaica}} \| Hon. [Winston Charles Anderson](/wiki/Winston_Charles_Anderson "Winston Charles Anderson") \| \| 2010– \| \| {{flag\\|Trinidad and Tobago}} \| Hon. [Maureen Rajnauth\-Lee](/wiki/Maureen_Rajnauth-Lee "Maureen Rajnauth-Lee") \| \| 2015– \| \| {{flag\\|Belize}} \| Hon. [Denys Barrow](/wiki/Denys_Barrow "Denys Barrow") \| \| 2017– \| \| {{flag\\|Barbados}} \| Hon. [Andrew Burgess](/wiki/Andrew_Burgess_%28judge%29 "Andrew Burgess (judge)") \| \| 2019– \| \| {{flag\\|Trinidad and Tobago}} \| Hon. [Peter Jamadar](/wiki/Peter_Jamadar "Peter Jamadar") \| \| 2019– \| \| {{flag\\|Jamaica}} \| Hon. [Chantal Ononaiwu](/wiki/Chantal_Ononaiwu "Chantal Ononaiwu") \| \| 2024– \| Past Judges: \| State \| Members of the Court \| President \| Judge \| \| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \| \| {{flag\\|Trinidad and Tobago}} \| Hon. [Michael de la Bastide](/wiki/Michael_de_la_Bastide "Michael de la Bastide") \| 2005–2011 \| \| \| {{flag\\|Guyana}} \| Hon. [Duke Pollard](/wiki/Duke_Pollard "Duke Pollard") \| \| 2005–2010 \| \| {{flag\\|Guyana}} \| Hon. [Désirée Bernard](/wiki/D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9e_Bernard "Désirée Bernard") \| \| 2005–2014 \| \| {{flag\\|Trinidad and Tobago}} \| Hon. [Rolston Nelson](/wiki/Rolston_Nelson "Rolston Nelson") \| \| 2005–2017 \| \| {{flag\\|Saint Kitts and Nevis}} \| Rt Hon. Sir [Dennis Byron](/wiki/Dennis_Byron "Dennis Byron") \| 2011–2018 \| \| \| {{flag\\|United Kingdom}} \| Hon. [David Hayton](/wiki/David_Hayton "David Hayton") \| \| 2005–2019 \| \| {{flag\\|Kingdom of the Netherlands}} \| Hon. [Jacob Wit](/wiki/Jacob_Wit "Jacob Wit") \| \| 2005–2023 \| ### President The President of the CCJ is appointed or removed by the qualified super majority vote of three\-quarters of the Contracting Parties on the recommendation of the RJLSC. The President may be removed by the Contracting Parties only on recommendation of the RJLSC and then only after the question of the removal of the President has been referred by the RJLSC to a tribunal and the tribunal has subsequently advised that the President should be removed for an inability to carry out the duties of President or for misbehaviour. The President serves also as Chairman of the RJLSC and in the Court will preside over hearings and deliberations; direct the Court to sit in such number of divisions as he or she chooses; appoint one or more judges to determine interlocutory matters; and (in consultation with the five other Judges selected by him for the purpose) establish rules for the exercise of the original jurisdiction of the Court and rules for regulating the practice and procedure in the exercise of the appellate jurisdiction of the Court. The President automatically takes precedence over all other Judges of the Court, with the seniority of the other Judges being determined by the dates of their appointment. In the event that the President is unable to perform the duties of office (or if there is a vacancy in the office of President), the most senior Judge shall perform the role of President and shall be appointed to perform that role by the Chairman of the Conference of Heads of Government of CARICOM until the President can resume those functions or, in the case of a vacancy in the Presidency, until someone has been appointed to and assumes the functions of the office. Where there is no difference in seniority among the Judges, one of the Judges will simply be selected by the Heads of Government to perform the role of President in the event of a vacancy in Presidency or the inability of the President to perform the functions of office. The President may only serve for one, non\-renewable 7\-year term or until the age of 72 (whichever is earlier) but is allowed to continue in office, if necessary for a further three months in order to deliver a judgment or to do any other thing in proceedings that he or she has heard. As with the other Judges, during the evolutionary phase of the Court (that is until the full complement of 9 Judges plus the President have been appointed), the RJLSC may extend the tenure of the President until the age of 75 or until seven years in office have been reached, whichever comes first. ### Regional Judicial and Legal Services Commission The Regional Judicial and Legal Services Commission (the RJLSC or the commission) was established pursuant to Article V(1\) of the Agreement Establishing the Caribbean Court of Justice.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/about\-the\-ccj/rjlsc\-2\\|title\=The Caribbean Court of Justice » The Regional Judicial and Legal Services Commission\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=11 July 2017\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711025214/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/about\-the\-ccj/rjlsc\-2\\|url\-status\=live}} The commission is composed of the following persons: the President of the Court who is also the Chairman of the commission; two persons nominated jointly by the Organisation of the Commonwealth Caribbean Bar Association (OCCBA) and the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) Bar Association; one chairman of the Judicial Services Commission of a contracting state selected in rotation in the English alphabetical order for a period of three years; the Chairman of a Public Service Commission of a contracting state selected in rotation in the reverse English alphabetical order for a period of three years; two persons from civil society nominated jointly by the Secretary\-General of the Caribbean Community and the Director General of the [OECS](/wiki/OECS "OECS") for a period of three years following consultations with regional non\-governmental organisations; two distinguished jurists nominated jointly by the Dean of the Faculty of Law of the University of the West Indies, the Deans of the Faculties of Law of any of the contracting states and the Chairman of the Council of Legal Education; and two persons nominated jointly by the Bar or Law Associations of the Contracting Parties. The Commission itself has a number of responsibilities that help to ensure the independence and proper functioning of the CCJ. It is responsible for recommending the candidate to be the next President of the Court; for considering and appointing potential judges for the Court; for appointing the registrar, deputy registrars and other officials and employees as necessary and determining their terms of service and terminating their appointments; for exercising disciplinary control over the judges and starting the process for removing judges based on inability to perform or misbehaviour. ### Protection from political pressure and influence The framework of the CCJ provides many layers of protection from political pressure and influence in both the appellate and original jurisdictions: * Original jurisdiction judgments and advisory opinions are delivered as a single judgment with no dissenting or separate concurring opinions or judgments allowed and record of the way judges voted in a majority ruling. This ensures that the judges themselves are insulated from excessive political pressure (especially in cases involving multiple member states) by having their individual decisions remain unknown as the judicial decisions are written as though the court is speaking with a single and collective voice. * Political pressure is not permitted to reach the judges through member state appointment as occurred in the defunct [SADC Tribunal](/wiki/SADC_Tribunal "SADC Tribunal") and as occurs in the ECJ and East African Court of Justice. Instead, judges are appointed by the Regional Judicial and Legal Services Commission (RJLSC), an independent 11 person body created expressly for the purpose to decide judicial admission. * While member states do vote in the selection of the president of the Court, political distance is maintained since it is the RJLSC alone which is responsible for selecting the nominees to the post of president for the member states to vote upon. Member states cannot substitute any nominee and must await a fresh selection by the RJLSC in the event that they fail to approve an appointment for president. * Even appointment to the RJLSC itself is done by relatively independent jurists, including the deans of the law school at the [University of the West Indies](/wiki/University_of_the_West_Indies "University of the West Indies") and other law schools in the contracting states (jointly responsible for two nominations), as well as the [Organisation of the Commonwealth Caribbean Bar Association](/wiki/Organisation_of_the_Commonwealth_Caribbean_Bar_Association "Organisation of the Commonwealth Caribbean Bar Association") and the [Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States Bar Association](/wiki/Organisation_of_Eastern_Caribbean_States_Bar_Association "Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States Bar Association") (also jointly responsible for two nominations). * The RJLSC does not consider potential judges by recommendations from contracting member states, but by a prospective judge's individual application. * Only the RJLSC is responsible for initiating proceedings for the removal of a judge (due to inability to perform or misbehaviour) and for recommending an increase in the number of judicial positions in the court. * Judges of the Court (including the president) may only be removed (by the RJLSC in the case of other judges or heads of government in the case of the president) by an affirmation of a tribunal specifically established for this purpose. * While normal judges of the CCJ have life tenure until the age of 72, the president of the Court may only serve for one, non\-renewable 7\-year term. As a result, all judges of the CCJ (unlike judges in the ECJ or the defunct SADC Tribunal) are free to make decisions without having to consider judicial term renewal. This put a check on the potential for political influence on the CCJ through the president of the Court (who also serves as chairman of the RJLSC), who is appointed by the super majority vote of three\-quarters of the contracting states upon the recommendation of the RJLSC as once voted in the president of the Court would not potentially be beholden to the governments of the contracting states to render favourable decisions in order to gain a new term. * As a unique feature of international and integration courts, the Court is funded through a CCJ Trust Fund which increases the independence of the Court, by preventing direct financial connections between the Court (salaries of the judges, operations of the court, etc.) and the member states and ensures economic stability and certainty for the Court. Pre\-empting the possibility of informal political pressure to delivery judgements favourable to any particular government, the Trust Fund is intended to finance the expenditures of the Court through the income from the fund in perpetuity.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/about\-the\-ccj/ccj\-trust\-fund\\|title\=The Caribbean Court of Justice » CCJ Trust Fund\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=11 July 2017\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711015323/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/about\-the\-ccj/ccj\-trust\-fund\\|url\-status\=live}} * The CCJ Trust Fund is itself administered by a board of trustees drawn from regional entities, many of which are independent of the influence of the governments of member states and represent both private and public interests. * The CCJ's initial funding was not derived directly from a single member state (and thus risking the possibility of the CCJ being beholden to that member state) but was provided by all contracting states, who were required to submit payment without any influence on how the CCJ Trust Fund utilizes the funds. * The CCJ Trust Fund cannot solicit or accept any extra donations unless all the member states agree to do so. * Any decision regarding the fund requires consensus or, failing that, a two\-thirds majority. In January 2020, the [Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit](/wiki/Deutsche_Gesellschaft_f%C3%BCr_Internationale_Zusammenarbeit "Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit") (GIZ) of Germany, announced the results of a Judicial Integrity Scan that they had conducted on the CCJ. Utilizing the [Bangalore Principles of Judicial Conduct](/wiki/Judicial_independence%23International_standards "Judicial independence#International standards") and the [United Nations Convention against Corruption](/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_against_Corruption "United Nations Convention against Corruption") as a basis for the review, the GIZ endorsed many aspects of the CCJ's structure including the transparency and accessibility of its hearings and judgments; its use of a Code of Judicial Conduct and the high levels of adherence to this Code; the overall design of the Court itself and the RJLSC; and the recruitment and selection process for judges as handled by the RJLSC. It noted however that there was currently a gender imbalance among the judges that should be addressed in future recruitments and that RJLSC could institute a competition complaint filing procedure for unsuccessful applicants hoping to fill any vacancies as judges.{{Cite web \\|url\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/latestnews/German\_judicial\_scan\_applauds\_CCJ \\|title\=German judicial scan applauds CCJ \\|access\-date\=28 January 2020 \\|archive\-date\=25 January 2020 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125235842/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/latestnews/German\_judicial\_scan\_applauds\_CCJ \\|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web \\|url\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/study\-finds\-high\-level\-of\-confidence\-in\-integrity\-of\-ccj\_184765?profile\=1373 \\|title\=Study finds high level of confidence in integrity of CCJ \\|access\-date\=28 January 2020 \\|archive\-date\=28 January 2020 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128115359/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/study\-finds\-high\-level\-of\-confidence\-in\-integrity\-of\-ccj\_184765?profile\=1373 \\|url\-status\=live }} ### CCJ Trust Fund The CCJ is funded through an independent Caribbean Court of Justice Trust Fund.{{cite web \\|url\=http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/\#2 \\|url\-access\= \\|title\=CCJ will have 10 judges and 40 staff members \\|author\=Staff writer \\|date\=August 8, 2003 \\|publisher\=Caribbean Net News \\|access\-date\= \\|url\-status\=dead \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030808171003/http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/\#2 \\|archive\-date\=August 8, 2003 \\|quote\=The Caribbean Development Bank will raise US$100 million for a Trust Fund to finance the court indefinitely while other CCJ members will take loans to help contribute towards their individual costs, the paper reported.}}{{cite web \\|url\=https://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/10\-judges\-for\-ccj\-start\-up/ \\|url\-access\= \\|title\=10 judges for CCJ start\-up \\|author\=Staff writer \\|author\-link\= \\|date\=August 7, 2003 \\|department\= \\|website\=www.jamaicaobserver.com \\|publisher\=\[\[Jamaica Observer]] \\|access\-date\=December 24, 2022 \\|url\-status\= \\|archive\-url\= \\|archive\-date\= \\|quote\= }} The Trust Fund was developed to promote financial independence of the Court from political interference. It was established with roughly USD$100 million from initial contributions of the member states by way of loans from the [Caribbean Development Bank](/wiki/Caribbean_Development_Bank "Caribbean Development Bank") and other possible lenders. Select contributions by state were reportedly: Jamaica contributing USD$28\.7 million, Trinidad and Tobago: USD$31\.6 million; Barbados: USD$13\.5 million; and Guyana: USD$8\.8 million. This income from the fund is expected to finance the expenditures of the Court (remuneration of judges and other employees, operation of the court) in perpetuity and was calculated on a 10\-year projection. This keeps the CCJ from depending on the largesse of governments and keeps it free from their administrative control. The CCJ Trust Fund is administered by a board of trustees drawn from various regional bodies including the following persons or their nominees: the secretary\-general of the Caribbean Community; the vice\-chancellor of the University of the West Indies; the president of the Insurance Association of the Caribbean; the chairman of the Association of Indigenous Banks of the Caribbean; the president of the Caribbean Institute of Chartered Accountants; the president of the Organisation of Commonwealth Caribbean Bar Associations; the chairman of the Conference of Heads of the Judiciary of Member States of the Caribbean Community; the president of the Caribbean Association of Industry and Commerce; and the president of the Caribbean Congress of Labour. ### Caribbean Community Administrative Tribunal In February 2020 a new [Caribbean Community Administrative Tribunal](/wiki/Caribbean_Community_Administrative_Tribunal "Caribbean Community Administrative Tribunal") was created with the aim of settling employment disputes for staff at CARICOM's Secretariat and other Institutions which normally (like most international organisations) enjoy immunity from lawsuits in national courts over contract disputes. While the administrative tribunal is constituted as a separate entity with a separate Statute, the administrative tribunal is co\-located on the same premises as the CCJ,{{Cite web \\|url\=http://www.ccjacademy.org/programmes/caribbean\-community\-administrative\-tribunal/ \\|title\=CCJ Academy for Law Programmes: Caribbean Community Administrative Tribunal \\|access\-date\=28 May 2019 \\|archive\-date\=28 May 2019 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528115439/http://www.ccjacademy.org/programmes/caribbean\-community\-administrative\-tribunal/ \\|url\-status\=live }} the RJLSC does play a similar role in constituting the tribunal[Statute of the Caribbean Community Administrative Tribunal](https://ccj.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Statute-of-the-CCAT-Adopted-on-27-February-2019.pdf) as it does for the CCJ and in exceptional cases, judgements from the administrative tribunal can be appealed to a Review Committee composed of 5 CCJ Judges.{{Cite web \\|url\=https://today.caricom.org/2020/02/10/caricom\-administrative\-tribunal\-to\-be\-launched\-next\-week/ \\|title\=CARICOM Administrative Tribunal to be launched next week \\|date\=10 February 2020 \\|access\-date\=11 February 2020 \\|archive\-date\=15 February 2020 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215121647/https://today.caricom.org/2020/02/10/caricom\-administrative\-tribunal\-to\-be\-launched\-next\-week/ \\|url\-status\=live }}	[ "Composition\n-----------", "### Judges", "The Caribbean Court of justice currently consists of 7 Judges (including the President), though under the Agreement establishing the court there can be a maximum of 10 Judges including the President. This limit may be increased by the agreement of all of the member states if necessary. The Judges, other than the President, are appointed or removed by a majority vote of the eleven member Regional Judicial and Legal Services Commission (RJLSC), which is also the body which must recommend a need of for an increase in the number of Judges (other than the President) before such an increase can be effected by the agreement of the member states. Removal of a Judge by the RJLSC occurs only after the question of the removal of a Judge has been referred by the RJLSC to a tribunal and the tribunal has subsequently advised that the Judge should be removed for misbehaviour or an inability to carry out the duties of a Judge.", "Under the Agreement establishing the court, at least three judges of the full complement of ten are required to possess expertise in international law including international trade law and one judge is also required to be from the civil law tradition similar to such jurisdictions as Haiti and Suriname. Persons being appointed to the office of Judge (including the President) are supposed to have high moral character, intellectual and analytical ability, integrity, demonstrate sound judgment, and an understanding of people and society. The RJLSC appoints persons to be Judges (or recommends persons to be President of the Court) from candidates who have distinguished themselves in their careers either practicing or teaching law for at least fifteen years or being Judges of a court of unlimited jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases for at least five years. The candidates must have practiced or taught law, or been a judge, in at least one of the following:", "* a CARICOM member state\n* a Contracting Party (i.e. a state which has executed the agreement establishing the CCJ)\n* some part of the Commonwealth\n* a state exercising civil law jurisprudence common to Contracting Parties", "The RJLSC does not and is not allowed to consider potential judges by recommendations from contracting member states, but only by a prospective judge's individual application.", "Once a judge is appointed, they are allowed to hold office until the age of 72, but are allowed to continue in office, if necessary for a further three months in order to deliver a judgment or to do any other thing in proceedings that he or she has heard. During the evolutionary phase of the Court (that is until the full complement of 9 Judges plus the President have been appointed), the RJLSC may extend the tenure of a Judge until the age of 75\\.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2011/11/Protocol\\-relating\\-to\\-the\\-Tenure\\-of\\-Judges\\-CCJ\\-with\\-signatures\\-June\\-2007\\.pdf \\\|title\\=Protocol to the Agreement relating to the Tenure of Judges \\\|access\\-date\\=21 May 2015 \\\|archive\\-date\\=11 January 2016 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111012617/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2011/11/Protocol\\-relating\\-to\\-the\\-Tenure\\-of\\-Judges\\-CCJ\\-with\\-signatures\\-June\\-2007\\.pdf \\\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "As of {{date}}:", "\| State \| Members of the Court \| President \| Judge \|\n\| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \|\n\| {{flag\\\|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}} \| Hon. [Adrian Saunders](/wiki/Adrian_Saunders \"Adrian Saunders\") \| 2018– \| 2005– \|\n\| {{Flag\\\|Jamaica}} \| Hon. [Winston Charles Anderson](/wiki/Winston_Charles_Anderson \"Winston Charles Anderson\") \| \| 2010– \|\n\| {{flag\\\|Trinidad and Tobago}} \| Hon. [Maureen Rajnauth\\-Lee](/wiki/Maureen_Rajnauth-Lee \"Maureen Rajnauth-Lee\") \| \| 2015– \|\n\| {{flag\\\|Belize}} \| Hon. [Denys Barrow](/wiki/Denys_Barrow \"Denys Barrow\") \| \| 2017– \|\n\| {{flag\\\|Barbados}} \| Hon. [Andrew Burgess](/wiki/Andrew_Burgess_%28judge%29 \"Andrew Burgess (judge)\") \| \| 2019– \|\n\| {{flag\\\|Trinidad and Tobago}} \| Hon. [Peter Jamadar](/wiki/Peter_Jamadar \"Peter Jamadar\") \| \| 2019– \|\n\| {{flag\\\|Jamaica}} \| Hon. [Chantal Ononaiwu](/wiki/Chantal_Ononaiwu \"Chantal Ononaiwu\") \| \| 2024– \|", "", "Past Judges:", "", "\| State \| Members of the Court \| President \| Judge \|\n\| --- \| --- \| --- \| --- \|\n\| {{flag\\\|Trinidad and Tobago}} \| Hon. [Michael de la Bastide](/wiki/Michael_de_la_Bastide \"Michael de la Bastide\") \| 2005–2011 \| \|\n\| {{flag\\\|Guyana}} \| Hon. [Duke Pollard](/wiki/Duke_Pollard \"Duke Pollard\") \| \| 2005–2010 \|\n\| {{flag\\\|Guyana}} \| Hon. [Désirée Bernard](/wiki/D%C3%A9sir%C3%A9e_Bernard \"Désirée Bernard\") \| \| 2005–2014 \|\n\| {{flag\\\|Trinidad and Tobago}} \| Hon. [Rolston Nelson](/wiki/Rolston_Nelson \"Rolston Nelson\") \| \| 2005–2017 \|\n\| {{flag\\\|Saint Kitts and Nevis}} \| Rt Hon. Sir [Dennis Byron](/wiki/Dennis_Byron \"Dennis Byron\") \| 2011–2018 \| \|\n\| {{flag\\\|United Kingdom}} \| Hon. [David Hayton](/wiki/David_Hayton \"David Hayton\") \| \| 2005–2019 \|\n\| {{flag\\\|Kingdom of the Netherlands}} \| Hon. [Jacob Wit](/wiki/Jacob_Wit \"Jacob Wit\") \| \| 2005–2023 \|", "### President", "The President of the CCJ is appointed or removed by the qualified super majority vote of three\\-quarters of the Contracting Parties on the recommendation of the RJLSC. The President may be removed by the Contracting Parties only on recommendation of the RJLSC and then only after the question of the removal of the President has been referred by the RJLSC to a tribunal and the tribunal has subsequently advised that the President should be removed for an inability to carry out the duties of President or for misbehaviour.", "The President serves also as Chairman of the RJLSC and in the Court will preside over hearings and deliberations; direct the Court to sit in such number of divisions as he or she chooses; appoint one or more judges to determine interlocutory matters; and (in consultation with the five other Judges selected by him for the purpose) establish rules for the exercise of the original jurisdiction of the Court and rules for regulating the practice and procedure in the exercise of the appellate jurisdiction of the Court.", "The President automatically takes precedence over all other Judges of the Court, with the seniority of the other Judges being determined by the dates of their appointment. In the event that the President is unable to perform the duties of office (or if there is a vacancy in the office of President), the most senior Judge shall perform the role of President and shall be appointed to perform that role by the Chairman of the Conference of Heads of Government of CARICOM until the President can resume those functions or, in the case of a vacancy in the Presidency, until someone has been appointed to and assumes the functions of the office. Where there is no difference in seniority among the Judges, one of the Judges will simply be selected by the Heads of Government to perform the role of President in the event of a vacancy in Presidency or the inability of the President to perform the functions of office.", "The President may only serve for one, non\\-renewable 7\\-year term or until the age of 72 (whichever is earlier) but is allowed to continue in office, if necessary for a further three months in order to deliver a judgment or to do any other thing in proceedings that he or she has heard. As with the other Judges, during the evolutionary phase of the Court (that is until the full complement of 9 Judges plus the President have been appointed), the RJLSC may extend the tenure of the President until the age of 75 or until seven years in office have been reached, whichever comes first.", "### Regional Judicial and Legal Services Commission", "The Regional Judicial and Legal Services Commission (the RJLSC or the commission) was established pursuant to Article V(1\\) of the Agreement Establishing the Caribbean Court of Justice.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/about\\-the\\-ccj/rjlsc\\-2\\\|title\\=The Caribbean Court of Justice » The Regional Judicial and Legal Services Commission\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=11 July 2017\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711025214/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/about\\-the\\-ccj/rjlsc\\-2\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The commission is composed of the following persons: the President of the Court who is also the Chairman of the commission; two persons nominated jointly by the Organisation of the Commonwealth Caribbean Bar Association (OCCBA) and the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) Bar Association; one chairman of the Judicial Services Commission of a contracting state selected in rotation in the English alphabetical order for a period of three years; the Chairman of a Public Service Commission of a contracting state selected in rotation in the reverse English alphabetical order for a period of three years; two persons from civil society nominated jointly by the Secretary\\-General of the Caribbean Community and the Director General of the [OECS](/wiki/OECS \"OECS\") for a period of three years following consultations with regional non\\-governmental organisations; two distinguished jurists nominated jointly by the Dean of the Faculty of Law of the University of the West Indies, the Deans of the Faculties of Law of any of the contracting states and the Chairman of the Council of Legal Education; and two persons nominated jointly by the Bar or Law Associations of the Contracting Parties.", "The Commission itself has a number of responsibilities that help to ensure the independence and proper functioning of the CCJ. It is responsible for recommending the candidate to be the next President of the Court; for considering and appointing potential judges for the Court; for appointing the registrar, deputy registrars and other officials and employees as necessary and determining their terms of service and terminating their appointments; for exercising disciplinary control over the judges and starting the process for removing judges based on inability to perform or misbehaviour.", "### Protection from political pressure and influence", "The framework of the CCJ provides many layers of protection from political pressure and influence in both the appellate and original jurisdictions:", "* Original jurisdiction judgments and advisory opinions are delivered as a single judgment with no dissenting or separate concurring opinions or judgments allowed and record of the way judges voted in a majority ruling. This ensures that the judges themselves are insulated from excessive political pressure (especially in cases involving multiple member states) by having their individual decisions remain unknown as the judicial decisions are written as though the court is speaking with a single and collective voice.\n* Political pressure is not permitted to reach the judges through member state appointment as occurred in the defunct [SADC Tribunal](/wiki/SADC_Tribunal \"SADC Tribunal\") and as occurs in the ECJ and East African Court of Justice. Instead, judges are appointed by the Regional Judicial and Legal Services Commission (RJLSC), an independent 11 person body created expressly for the purpose to decide judicial admission.\n* While member states do vote in the selection of the president of the Court, political distance is maintained since it is the RJLSC alone which is responsible for selecting the nominees to the post of president for the member states to vote upon. Member states cannot substitute any nominee and must await a fresh selection by the RJLSC in the event that they fail to approve an appointment for president.\n* Even appointment to the RJLSC itself is done by relatively independent jurists, including the deans of the law school at the [University of the West Indies](/wiki/University_of_the_West_Indies \"University of the West Indies\") and other law schools in the contracting states (jointly responsible for two nominations), as well as the [Organisation of the Commonwealth Caribbean Bar Association](/wiki/Organisation_of_the_Commonwealth_Caribbean_Bar_Association \"Organisation of the Commonwealth Caribbean Bar Association\") and the [Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States Bar Association](/wiki/Organisation_of_Eastern_Caribbean_States_Bar_Association \"Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States Bar Association\") (also jointly responsible for two nominations).\n* The RJLSC does not consider potential judges by recommendations from contracting member states, but by a prospective judge's individual application.\n* Only the RJLSC is responsible for initiating proceedings for the removal of a judge (due to inability to perform or misbehaviour) and for recommending an increase in the number of judicial positions in the court.\n* Judges of the Court (including the president) may only be removed (by the RJLSC in the case of other judges or heads of government in the case of the president) by an affirmation of a tribunal specifically established for this purpose.\n* While normal judges of the CCJ have life tenure until the age of 72, the president of the Court may only serve for one, non\\-renewable 7\\-year term. As a result, all judges of the CCJ (unlike judges in the ECJ or the defunct SADC Tribunal) are free to make decisions without having to consider judicial term renewal. This put a check on the potential for political influence on the CCJ through the president of the Court (who also serves as chairman of the RJLSC), who is appointed by the super majority vote of three\\-quarters of the contracting states upon the recommendation of the RJLSC as once voted in the president of the Court would not potentially be beholden to the governments of the contracting states to render favourable decisions in order to gain a new term.\n* As a unique feature of international and integration courts, the Court is funded through a CCJ Trust Fund which increases the independence of the Court, by preventing direct financial connections between the Court (salaries of the judges, operations of the court, etc.) and the member states and ensures economic stability and certainty for the Court. Pre\\-empting the possibility of informal political pressure to delivery judgements favourable to any particular government, the Trust Fund is intended to finance the expenditures of the Court through the income from the fund in perpetuity.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/about\\-the\\-ccj/ccj\\-trust\\-fund\\\|title\\=The Caribbean Court of Justice » CCJ Trust Fund\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=11 July 2017\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711015323/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/about\\-the\\-ccj/ccj\\-trust\\-fund\\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n* The CCJ Trust Fund is itself administered by a board of trustees drawn from regional entities, many of which are independent of the influence of the governments of member states and represent both private and public interests.\n* The CCJ's initial funding was not derived directly from a single member state (and thus risking the possibility of the CCJ being beholden to that member state) but was provided by all contracting states, who were required to submit payment without any influence on how the CCJ Trust Fund utilizes the funds.\n* The CCJ Trust Fund cannot solicit or accept any extra donations unless all the member states agree to do so.\n* Any decision regarding the fund requires consensus or, failing that, a two\\-thirds majority.", "In January 2020, the [Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit](/wiki/Deutsche_Gesellschaft_f%C3%BCr_Internationale_Zusammenarbeit \"Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit\") (GIZ) of Germany, announced the results of a Judicial Integrity Scan that they had conducted on the CCJ. Utilizing the [Bangalore Principles of Judicial Conduct](/wiki/Judicial_independence%23International_standards \"Judicial independence#International standards\") and the [United Nations Convention against Corruption](/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_against_Corruption \"United Nations Convention against Corruption\") as a basis for the review, the GIZ endorsed many aspects of the CCJ's structure including the transparency and accessibility of its hearings and judgments; its use of a Code of Judicial Conduct and the high levels of adherence to this Code; the overall design of the Court itself and the RJLSC; and the recruitment and selection process for judges as handled by the RJLSC. It noted however that there was currently a gender imbalance among the judges that should be addressed in future recruitments and that RJLSC could institute a competition complaint filing procedure for unsuccessful applicants hoping to fill any vacancies as judges.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/latestnews/German\\_judicial\\_scan\\_applauds\\_CCJ \\\|title\\=German judicial scan applauds CCJ \\\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2020 \\\|archive\\-date\\=25 January 2020 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125235842/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/latestnews/German\\_judicial\\_scan\\_applauds\\_CCJ \\\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/study\\-finds\\-high\\-level\\-of\\-confidence\\-in\\-integrity\\-of\\-ccj\\_184765?profile\\=1373 \\\|title\\=Study finds high level of confidence in integrity of CCJ \\\|access\\-date\\=28 January 2020 \\\|archive\\-date\\=28 January 2020 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128115359/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/study\\-finds\\-high\\-level\\-of\\-confidence\\-in\\-integrity\\-of\\-ccj\\_184765?profile\\=1373 \\\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "### CCJ Trust Fund", "The CCJ is funded through an independent Caribbean Court of Justice Trust Fund.{{cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/\\#2 \\\|url\\-access\\= \\\|title\\=CCJ will have 10 judges and 40 staff members \\\|author\\=Staff writer \\\|date\\=August 8, 2003 \\\|publisher\\=Caribbean Net News \\\|access\\-date\\= \\\|url\\-status\\=dead \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20030808171003/http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/\\#2 \\\|archive\\-date\\=August 8, 2003 \\\|quote\\=The Caribbean Development Bank will raise US$100 million for a Trust Fund to finance the court indefinitely while other CCJ members will take loans to help contribute towards their individual costs, the paper reported.}}{{cite web \\\|url\\=https://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/10\\-judges\\-for\\-ccj\\-start\\-up/ \\\|url\\-access\\= \\\|title\\=10 judges for CCJ start\\-up \\\|author\\=Staff writer \\\|author\\-link\\= \\\|date\\=August 7, 2003 \\\|department\\= \\\|website\\=www.jamaicaobserver.com \\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Jamaica Observer]] \\\|access\\-date\\=December 24, 2022 \\\|url\\-status\\= \\\|archive\\-url\\= \\\|archive\\-date\\= \\\|quote\\= }} The Trust Fund was developed to promote financial independence of the Court from political interference. It was established with roughly USD$100 million from initial contributions of the member states by way of loans from the [Caribbean Development Bank](/wiki/Caribbean_Development_Bank \"Caribbean Development Bank\") and other possible lenders.\nSelect contributions by state were reportedly: Jamaica contributing USD$28\\.7 million, Trinidad and Tobago: USD$31\\.6 million; Barbados: USD$13\\.5 million; and Guyana: USD$8\\.8 million.\nThis income from the fund is expected to finance the expenditures of the Court (remuneration of judges and other employees, operation of the court) in perpetuity and was calculated on a 10\\-year projection. This keeps the CCJ from depending on the largesse of governments and keeps it free from their administrative control. The CCJ Trust Fund is administered by a board of trustees drawn from various regional bodies including the following persons or their nominees: the secretary\\-general of the Caribbean Community; the vice\\-chancellor of the University of the West Indies; the president of the Insurance Association of the Caribbean; the chairman of the Association of Indigenous Banks of the Caribbean; the president of the Caribbean Institute of Chartered Accountants; the president of the Organisation of Commonwealth Caribbean Bar Associations; the chairman of the Conference of Heads of the Judiciary of Member States of the Caribbean Community; the president of the Caribbean Association of Industry and Commerce; and the president of the Caribbean Congress of Labour.", "### Caribbean Community Administrative Tribunal", "In February 2020 a new [Caribbean Community Administrative Tribunal](/wiki/Caribbean_Community_Administrative_Tribunal \"Caribbean Community Administrative Tribunal\") was created with the aim of settling employment disputes for staff at CARICOM's Secretariat and other Institutions which normally (like most international organisations) enjoy immunity from lawsuits in national courts over contract disputes. While the administrative tribunal is constituted as a separate entity with a separate Statute, the administrative tribunal is co\\-located on the same premises as the CCJ,{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.ccjacademy.org/programmes/caribbean\\-community\\-administrative\\-tribunal/ \\\|title\\=CCJ Academy for Law Programmes: Caribbean Community Administrative Tribunal \\\|access\\-date\\=28 May 2019 \\\|archive\\-date\\=28 May 2019 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528115439/http://www.ccjacademy.org/programmes/caribbean\\-community\\-administrative\\-tribunal/ \\\|url\\-status\\=live }} the RJLSC does play a similar role in constituting the tribunal[Statute of the Caribbean Community Administrative Tribunal](https://ccj.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Statute-of-the-CCAT-Adopted-on-27-February-2019.pdf) as it does for the CCJ and in exceptional cases, judgements from the administrative tribunal can be appealed to a Review Committee composed of 5 CCJ Judges.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=https://today.caricom.org/2020/02/10/caricom\\-administrative\\-tribunal\\-to\\-be\\-launched\\-next\\-week/ \\\|title\\=CARICOM Administrative Tribunal to be launched next week \\\|date\\=10 February 2020 \\\|access\\-date\\=11 February 2020 \\\|archive\\-date\\=15 February 2020 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215121647/https://today.caricom.org/2020/02/10/caricom\\-administrative\\-tribunal\\-to\\-be\\-launched\\-next\\-week/ \\\|url\\-status\\=live }}", "" ]
Jurisdiction by country and institution --------------------------------------- ### The Bahamas In 2011, Bahamian Chief Justice Sir Michael Barnett said The Bahamas should eventually abandon the Privy Council as the final court of appeal and move toward the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ). While that decision would be up to the government of The Bahamas, Sir Michael said there is a "powerful argument to moving eventually toward the CCJ". "Whether we do that now is a matter for political debate and a matter that \[the government] will have to discuss and consider", Sir Michael told the Nassau Guardian following the opening ceremony of the Caribbean Association of Judicial Officers Conference. "I have my own views and I think it’s almost a natural progression of our constitutional development that we move away from the Privy Council and I think the Caribbean Court of Justice is likely to be the alternative to the Privy Council. I think that as a part of our constitutional development it’s almost inevitable that we move away from the Privy Council like lots of other countries, including Australia and New Zealand". Sir Michael said while the Privy Council has been useful, the CCJ would better serve the country's needs. "It's a regional court but it's also part of our development as a nation that we look to our own court for the resolution of disputes." Some proponents in The Bahamas wishing to sever links with the Privy Council are in favour of joining the CCJ, perhaps by having a dual final court of appeal system in the country with the Privy Council for civil and commercial matters and the CCJ for criminal matters. ### Barbados Barbados recognizes the court for original and final jurisdictions. In 2003 the Parliament of Barbados passed its Caribbean Court of Justice Act and the Constitution (Amendment) Act, and they were brought into force by Proclamation on 8 April 2005\. ### Belize Belizean legislation to recognize the CCJ was tied up for some years in partisan politics. In 2007, the [People's United Party](/wiki/People%27s_United_Party "People's United Party") (PUP)\-led government introduced the Caribbean Court of Justice Bill, but due to the opposition of [United Democratic Party](/wiki/United_Democratic_Party_%28Belize%29 "United Democratic Party (Belize)") (UDP) members, it did not achieve the required three\-fourths majority. This led to mutual recriminations, with PM [Said Musa](/wiki/Said_Musa "Said Musa") accusing the UDP of being anti\-Caribbean, while the UDP complained of the PUP's attempts to tie the CCJ Bill to the Coast Guard Bill, which the UDP supported.{{cite news\\|url\=http://www.amandala.com.bz/index.php?id\=6427\\|title\=UDP says nay to CCJ\\|periodical\=\[\[Amandala]]\\|date\=21 December 2007\\|access\-date\=19 April 2012\\|archive\-date\=1 September 2022\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901045630/https://amandala.com.bz/news/\\|url\-status\=live}} The [Belizean general election, 2008](/wiki/Belizean_general_election%2C_2008 "Belizean general election, 2008") resulted in the UDP taking power; new PM [Dean Barrow](/wiki/Dean_Barrow "Dean Barrow") then tabled the [Belize Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Bill](https://web.archive.org/web/20160111012617/http://www.belize.org/bcci/resourcesmodule/download_resource/id/11/src/@random4a8449b6e4dc7/), which aside from replacing the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council with the CCJ, would also have removed the prohibition against [dual citizens](/wiki/Multiple_citizenship "Multiple citizenship") being elected to the [National Assembly](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Belize "National Assembly of Belize").{{cite news\\|url\=http://www.7newsbelize.com/sstory.php?nid\=14280\\|title\=Belize Constitution Seventh Amendment Bill Tabled\\|work\=7 News Belize\\|date\=19 June 2009\\|access\-date\=19 April 2012\\|archive\-date\=31 July 2013\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731201741/http://www.7newsbelize.com/sstory.php?nid\=14280\\|url\-status\=live}} This time the PUP blocked passage of the constitutional amendment until the dual citizenship provision was removed; after this was done, the bill passed in February 2010\.{{cite news\\|url\=http://www.amandala.com.bz/index.php?id\=9589\\|first\=Adele\\|last\=Ramos\\|title\=Belize Senate approves Caribbean Court of Justice\\|work\=\[\[Amandala]]\\|date\=26 February 2010\\|access\-date\=18 April 2012\\|archive\-date\=1 September 2022\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901045631/https://amandala.com.bz/news/\\|url\-status\=live}} After the passage of the bill, PM Barrow signed the order in May 2010 to abolish appeals to the Privy Council beginning on 1 June that year.{{cite news\\|url\=http://dominicanewsonline.com/news/news/crime\-court\-law/good\-bye\-belize\-abolishes\-all\-appeals\-to\-privy\-council/\\|title\=Good Bye: Belize abolishes all appeals to Privy Council\\|work\=Dominica News Online\\|date\=13 May 2010\\|access\-date\=18 April 2012\\|archive\-date\=1 September 2022\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901045632/https://dominicanewsonline.com/news/homepage/news/crime\-court\-law/good\-bye\-belize\-abolishes\-all\-appeals\-to\-privy\-council/\\|url\-status\=live}} ### Jamaica The [Jamaica Labour Party](/wiki/Jamaica_Labour_Party "Jamaica Labour Party") opposed granting CCJ full powers on the basis that it was a [hanging court](/wiki/Hanging_judge "Hanging judge").{{cite web\\|url\=http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20150204/cleisure/cleisure3\.html\\|title\=Tear down that CCJ wall\\|date\=4 February 2015\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129185146/http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20150204/cleisure/cleisure3\.html\\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web\\|url\=https://constructedthoughts.wordpress.com/2012/06/25/the\-jlp\-and\-the\-ccj/\\|title\=The JLP and The CCJ\\|author\=((Mr. Editor))\\|date\=25 June 2012\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304201649/https://constructedthoughts.wordpress.com/2012/06/25/the\-jlp\-and\-the\-ccj/\\|url\-status\=live}} In February 2005, the [Privy Council](/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council "Judicial Committee of the Privy Council") declared that the CCJ\-related companion bills passed by the [Jamaican Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_Jamaica "Parliament of Jamaica") in 2004 were unconstitutional and therefore void. The bills would have established the CCJ as the final court of appeal in Jamaica.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Gov\-t\-tables\-three\-CCJ\-bills\-in\-House\_12037090\\|title\=Gov't tables three CCJ bills in House\\|first\=Jamaica Observer\\|last\=Limited\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129144354/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Gov\-t\-tables\-three\-CCJ\-bills\-in\-House\_12037090\\|url\-status\=live}} The Privy Council sided with the appellants, including the Jamaican Council for Human Rights, the [Jamaica Labour Party](/wiki/Jamaica_Labour_Party "Jamaica Labour Party") and others, ruling that to establish the CCJ as the country's final appeal court, without it being entrenched in the constitution would undermine the protection given to the Jamaican people by Chapter Seven of the Jamaican constitution. The court concluded that the procedure appropriate for an amendment of an entrenched provision – a referendum – should have been followed. In January 2012, the new [People's National Party](/wiki/People%27s_National_Party "People's National Party") government of Jamaica stated that it would be moving to have the CCJ serving in both the original and appellate jurisdictions for Jamaica in time for the 50th anniversary of Jamaica's independence in August.[Gary Spaulding, "CCJ For Independence"](http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120102/lead/lead91.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120122052050/http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120102/lead/lead91\.html \\|date\=22 January 2012 }}, The Gleaner, 2 January 2012 The Jamaica Labour Party, now in opposition, stated it has no issue with the government's plan and seems set to support the move despite strident objections in the past.[Conrad Hamilton, "JLP ready to support Portia's CCJ bid – Opposition firm on Caribbean Court over Privy Council"](http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/JLP-ready-to-support-Portia-s-CCJ-bid_10521743) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219132229/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/JLP\-ready\-to\-support\-Portia\-s\-CCJ\-bid\_10521743 \\|date\=19 February 2012 }}, Jamaica Observer, 9 January 2012\. In February, the foreign affairs minister of Jamaica has also called on Trinidad \& Tobago to sign on to the court's appellate jurisdiction to mark that country's 50th anniversary of independence.[Daraine Luton, "Joining CCJ should mark Jamaica, T\&T's 50th, says Nicholson"](http://mobile.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120206/news/news3.php) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111012616/http://mobile.jamaica\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120206/news/news3\.php \\|date\=11 January 2016 }}, Jamaica Gleaner, 6 February 2012\. In May 2015, the [Jamaican House of Representatives](/wiki/Parliament_of_Jamaica "Parliament of Jamaica") approved, with the necessary two\-thirds majority, three bills that would end legal appeals to the [Judicial Committee of the Privy Council](/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council "Judicial Committee of the Privy Council") and make the Caribbean Court of Justice as Jamaica's final Court of Appeal. The reform was debated by the Jamaican Senate, however, the government needed the support of at least one opposition senator for the measures to be approved by the required two\-thirds majority.{{cite news\\|title\=House of Representatives Votes For Jamaica To Leave The Privy Council for the CCJ\\|url\=http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/article/news/20150512/house\-representatives\-votes\-jamaica\-leave\-privy\-council\-ccj\\|access\-date\=2 June 2015\\|work\=The Gleaner\\|date\=12 May 2015\\|archive\-date\=14 May 2015\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150514225723/http://jamaica\-gleaner.com/article/news/20150512/house\-representatives\-votes\-jamaica\-leave\-privy\-council\-ccj\\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news\\|title\=Bills to replace Privy Council with CCJ tabled in Senate\\|url\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/latestnews/Bills\-to\-replace\-Privy\-Council\-with\-CCJ\-tabled\-in\-Senate\\|access\-date\=2 June 2015\\|work\=Jamaica Observer\\|date\=22 May 2015\\|url\-status\=dead\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150523194256/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/latestnews/Bills\-to\-replace\-Privy\-Council\-with\-CCJ\-tabled\-in\-Senate\\|archive\-date\=23 May 2015}} The [2016 general election](/wiki/Jamaican_general_election%2C_2016 "Jamaican general election, 2016") was held without the issue being resolved and resulted in the defeat of the [People's National Party](/wiki/People%27s_National_Party "People's National Party") government and the election of a new [Jamaican Labour Party](/wiki/Jamaican_Labour_Party "Jamaican Labour Party") government, led by [Andrew Holness](/wiki/Andrew_Holness "Andrew Holness"), which opposes implementing the reform without a referendum. Holness's government has promised to hold a referendum on the question.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Holness\-promises\-\-The\-first\-100\-days\\|title\=Holness promises: The first 100 days\\|first\=Jamaica Observer\\|last\=Limited\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=13 October 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013123116/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Holness\-promises\-\-The\-first\-100\-days\\|url\-status\=live}} ### Saint Lucia The Parliament of St. Lucia voted to accede to the appellate jurisdiction of the CCJ on February 28, 2023\.{{Cite web \\|last\=Release \\|first\=Press \\|date\=2023\-03\-03 \\|title\=Government Advances St. Lucia to CCJ \\|url\=https://stluciastar.com/government\-advances\-st\-lucia\-to\-ccj/ \\|access\-date\=2023\-04\-24 \\|website\=THE STAR \- St Lucia \\|language\=en\-US}} ### Trinidad and Tobago In late 2009, controversy arose over the fact that the CEO {{clarify\\|date\=July 2015}} of a company involved in CCJ litigation was also the chairman of the Court's trust fund.[http://www.caribarena.com/belize/caribbean/trinidad\-and\-tobago/trinidad\-tcl\-responds\-to\-jagdeos\-conflict\-of\-interest\-claims\-200910156042\.html](http://www.caribarena.com/belize/caribbean/trinidad-and-tobago/trinidad-tcl-responds-to-jagdeos-conflict-of-interest-claims-200910156042.html) {{webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708120613/http://www.caribarena.com/belize/caribbean/trinidad\-and\-tobago/trinidad\-tcl\-responds\-to\-jagdeos\-conflict\-of\-interest\-claims\-200910156042\.html\\|date\=8 July 2011}} In April 2012, the prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago [Kamla Persad\-Bissessar](/wiki/Kamla_Persad-Bissessar "Kamla Persad-Bissessar") announced in Parliament that it intended to abolish criminal appeals to the Privy Council in favour of the CCJ and would be tabling legislation to that effect. This follows a review of the situation conducted by the government after a commitment given at the last CARICOM heads of government conference in Suriname in July 2011\. Although the announcement had the general support of the Opposition leader Dr [Keith Rowley](/wiki/Keith_Rowley "Keith Rowley"),[Richard Lord, "Out goes Privy Council"](http://www.guardian.co.tt/news/2012-04-26-000000/out-goes-privy-council) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120429052849/http://www.guardian.co.tt/news/2012\-04\-26\-000000/out\-goes\-privy\-council \\|date\=29 April 2012 }}, Trinidad and Tobago Guardian, 26 April 2012\. he expressed disappointment that the government was "only going halfway" by planning to adopt the CCJ for criminal appeals only["Caribbean integration – Centrifugal force", The Economist](http://www.economist.com/node/21556277) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120607034020/http://www.economist.com/node/21556277 \\|date\=7 June 2012 }}, 2 June 2012\. while retaining the Privy Council for civil matters and cautioned that the move may not be legally possible under the relevant treaties. He said the opposition [People's National Movement](/wiki/People%27s_National_Movement "People's National Movement") was fully supportive of adopting the CCJ as a final appeals court on all matters, both civil and criminal.["Opposition leader blasts Trinidad and Tobago's ‘illegal and half\-way’ move to join CCJ"](http://cananewsonline.com/news/78766-opposition-leader-blasts-trinidad-and-tobago%26%23039%3Bs-%E2%80%98illegal-and-half-way%E2%80%99-move-to-join-ccj.html) {{dead link\\|date\=September 2018\\|bot\=medic}}{{cbignore\\|bot\=medic}}, CANA News Online, 26 April 2012\. It has been observed however that there is a precedent for the partial abolition of appeals to the Privy Council with Canada ending criminal appeals to the court in 1933 and civil appeals in 1949\.[Dana Seetahal, "CCJ — partial adoption as final court?"](http://www.trinidadexpress.com/commentaries/CCJ___partial_adoption_as_final__court_-149330025.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120429184831/http://www.trinidadexpress.com/commentaries/CCJ\_\_\_partial\_adoption\_as\_final\_\_court\_\-149330025\.html\# \\|date\=29 April 2012 }}, Trinidad Express Newspapers, 27 April 2012\. ### Other states It is expected that the two Caribbean states that will have the most difficulty accessing the court will be [Suriname](/wiki/Suriname "Suriname") which has a [Dutch](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands")\-based legal system, and [Haiti](/wiki/Haiti "Haiti") which has a [French](/wiki/France "France")\-based legal system. All other member states have British\-based legal systems with the CCJ itself being predominantly modeled after the British system. In 2012, following the 54th meeting of the OECS Authority, it was agreed that although all OECS members are committed to acceding to the CCJ's appellate jurisdiction as soon as possible the differing constitutional provisions of each member state meant that simultaneous accession was no longer the preferred option. Dominica and St. Kitts \& Nevis are the only members that would be able to take steps to accede to the CCJ's appellate jurisdiction during the course of 2012{{cite web \\|url\=http://www.oecs.org/news\-a\-events/9\-secretariat/815\-communique\-54th\-meeting\-of\-the\-oecs\-authority \\|title\=Maritime Boundary Delimitation – a priority for the region \\|publisher\=OECS \\|access\-date\=28 December 2015 \\|url\-status\=dead \\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20120905175436/http://www.oecs.org/news\-a\-events/9\-secretariat/815\-communique\-54th\-meeting\-of\-the\-oecs\-authority \\|archive\-date\=5 September 2012}} as they only require a parliamentary majority to join up to the court. Grenada and Antigua \& Barbuda would require referendums before being able to accede, while St. Lucia and St. Vincent \& the Grenadines would need a parliamentary majority approving accession along with a judicial resolution.["Jamaica's embrace helping CCJ, says Sir Dennis"](http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Jamaica-s-embrace-helping-CCJ--says-Sir-Dennis_11271398) {{Webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120428095859/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Jamaica\-s\-embrace\-helping\-CCJ\-\-says\-Sir\-Dennis\_11271398 \\|date\=28 April 2012 }}, Jamaica Observer, 18 April 2012\. On 29 January 2015, it was announced that Dominica would become the fourth CARICOM member state to accede to both the original and appellate jurisdictions of the CCJ by early February 2015\. This was announced by Dominica's Prime Minister, [Roosevelt Skerrit](/wiki/Roosevelt_Skerrit "Roosevelt Skerrit") and follows on the formal approval received in 2014 from the British government that was required in order for Dominica to delink from the Privy Council.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Dominica\-to\-become\-fourth\-full\-member\-of\-CCJ\_18306865\\|title\=Dominica to become fourth full member of CCJ\\|first\=Jamaica Observer\\|last\=Limited\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=29 November 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129144537/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Dominica\-to\-become\-fourth\-full\-member\-of\-CCJ\_18306865\\|url\-status\=live}} Dominica acceded to the CCJ in its appellate jurisdiction on 6 March 2015\. In July 2015, the St. Lucian government announced that intended to soon table legislation that would replace the Privy Council with the CCJ. Prime Minister Dr. Kenny Anthony noted that St. Lucia had a provision in its Constitution which was identical to a provision in the Constitution of Dominica which allowed that country to recently join the CCJ. Further noting that St. Lucia's Attorney General had received an advisory opinion from the Court of Appeal to a possible erroneous section that the provision in question had referred to; the Court of Appeal agreed by a 2–1 majority that there was indeed an error in the Constitution. On that basis the government plans to proceed with accession to the CCJ's appellate jurisdiction and it has formally written to the British government advising them that the government of St. Lucia wishes to delink from the Privy Council pursuant to the requirements of that section of the Constitution. Prime Minister Anthony anticipated opposition and possible legal challenges to this move, and stated his government had no problems with that, even suggesting it would be interesting to see what pronouncement the Privy Council would make on the non\-binding advisory opinion of the Court of Appeal.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/St\-Lucia\-to\-table\-legislation\-to\-make\-CCJ\-final\-court\_19186846\\|title\=St Lucia to table legislation to make CCJ final court\\|first\=Jamaica Observer\\|last\=Limited\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=4 March 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304114613/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/St\-Lucia\-to\-table\-legislation\-to\-make\-CCJ\-final\-court\_19186846\\|url\-status\=live}} Antigua and Barbuda began taking positive steps towards adopting the CCJ as its final appellate court when it launched a public education campaign on the CCJ in March 2016\.{{cite web\\|url\=http://caribbeannewsservice.com/now/antigua\-launches\-public\-education\-campaign\-on\-the\-ccj/\\|title\=Antigua Launches Public Education Campaign on the CCJ – Caribbean News Service\\|first\=Desmond\\|last\=Brown\\|date\=10 March 2016\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=13 October 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013092006/http://caribbeannewsservice.com/now/antigua\-launches\-public\-education\-campaign\-on\-the\-ccj/\\|url\-status\=live}} The public education campaign and move towards acceding to the CCJ in the appellate jurisdiction has the support of both the Government and the Opposition and is expected to go on for three months ahead of a referendum on the issue likely to be held in June.{{cite web\\|url\=https://antiguachronicle.net/2016/03/11/antigua\-and\-barbudas\-journey\-to\-the\-ccj/\\|title\=Antigua and Barbuda's journey to the CCJ – Antigua Chronicle\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016}}{{Dead link\\|date\=September 2018 \\|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\-attempted\=yes }} Additionally three new pieces of legislation would be needed to facilitate the referendum on accession to the appellate jurisdiction – a Constitution Amendment Bill to amend the provisions of the Constitution on the Supreme Court Order, an amendment to the Referendum Act, and an amendment to the Representation of the People Act. Two of these instruments were expected to be submitted to the Parliament for review and voting in late March 2016\.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.nationalcoordinatingcommittee.com/grenada\-constitutional\-expert\-to\-present\-legislation\-on\-referendum/\\|title\=Grenada constitutional expert to present legislation on referendum – National Coordinating Committee\\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=13 October 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013091928/http://www.nationalcoordinatingcommittee.com/grenada\-constitutional\-expert\-to\-present\-legislation\-on\-referendum/\\|url\-status\=live}} On 20 June 2016, the Parliament of Grenada passed legislation that would allow Grenada to accede to the CCJ's appellate jurisdiction. Before Grenada could accede however the bill needed to be approved by a simple majority in Senate and then be approved by a 2/3 majority referendum. The [referendum was held on 24 November](/wiki/2016_Grenadian_constitutional_referendum "2016 Grenadian constitutional referendum") that same year, with the amendment voted down, with 56\.73% against.{{cite web\\|url\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Grenada\-Parliament\-gives\-nod\-to\-Caribbean\-Court\-of\-Justice\\|title\=Grenada Parliament gives nod to Caribbean Court of Justice\\|first\=Jamaica Observer\\|last\=Limited\\|date\=21 June 2016 \\|access\-date\=28 November 2016\\|archive\-date\=13 October 2016\\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013091923/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Grenada\-Parliament\-gives\-nod\-to\-Caribbean\-Court\-of\-Justice\\|url\-status\=live}}	[ "Jurisdiction by country and institution\n---------------------------------------", "### The Bahamas", "In 2011, Bahamian Chief Justice Sir Michael Barnett said The Bahamas should eventually abandon the Privy Council as the final court of appeal and move toward the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ). While that decision would be up to the government of The Bahamas, Sir Michael said there is a \"powerful argument to moving eventually toward the CCJ\".", "\"Whether we do that now is a matter for political debate and a matter that \\[the government] will have to discuss and consider\", Sir Michael told the Nassau Guardian following the opening ceremony of the Caribbean Association of Judicial Officers Conference.", "\"I have my own views and I think it’s almost a natural progression of our constitutional development that we move away from the Privy Council and I think the Caribbean Court of Justice is likely to be the alternative to the Privy Council. I think that as a part of our constitutional development it’s almost inevitable that we move away from the Privy Council like lots of other countries, including Australia and New Zealand\".", "Sir Michael said while the Privy Council has been useful, the CCJ would better serve the country's needs. \"It's a regional court but it's also part of our development as a nation that we look to our own court for the resolution of disputes.\"", "Some proponents in The Bahamas wishing to sever links with the Privy Council are in favour of joining the CCJ, perhaps by having a dual final court of appeal system in the country with the Privy Council for civil and commercial matters and the CCJ for criminal matters.", "### Barbados", "Barbados recognizes the court for original and final jurisdictions. In 2003 the Parliament of Barbados passed its Caribbean Court of Justice Act and the Constitution (Amendment) Act, and they were brought into force by Proclamation on 8 April 2005\\.", "### Belize", "Belizean legislation to recognize the CCJ was tied up for some years in partisan politics. In 2007, the [People's United Party](/wiki/People%27s_United_Party \"People's United Party\") (PUP)\\-led government introduced the Caribbean Court of Justice Bill, but due to the opposition of [United Democratic Party](/wiki/United_Democratic_Party_%28Belize%29 \"United Democratic Party (Belize)\") (UDP) members, it did not achieve the required three\\-fourths majority. This led to mutual recriminations, with PM [Said Musa](/wiki/Said_Musa \"Said Musa\") accusing the UDP of being anti\\-Caribbean, while the UDP complained of the PUP's attempts to tie the CCJ Bill to the Coast Guard Bill, which the UDP supported.{{cite news\\\|url\\=http://www.amandala.com.bz/index.php?id\\=6427\\\|title\\=UDP says nay to CCJ\\\|periodical\\=\\[\\[Amandala]]\\\|date\\=21 December 2007\\\|access\\-date\\=19 April 2012\\\|archive\\-date\\=1 September 2022\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901045630/https://amandala.com.bz/news/\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The [Belizean general election, 2008](/wiki/Belizean_general_election%2C_2008 \"Belizean general election, 2008\") resulted in the UDP taking power; new PM [Dean Barrow](/wiki/Dean_Barrow \"Dean Barrow\") then tabled the [Belize Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Bill](https://web.archive.org/web/20160111012617/http://www.belize.org/bcci/resourcesmodule/download_resource/id/11/src/@random4a8449b6e4dc7/), which aside from replacing the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council with the CCJ, would also have removed the prohibition against [dual citizens](/wiki/Multiple_citizenship \"Multiple citizenship\") being elected to the [National Assembly](/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Belize \"National Assembly of Belize\").{{cite news\\\|url\\=http://www.7newsbelize.com/sstory.php?nid\\=14280\\\|title\\=Belize Constitution Seventh Amendment Bill Tabled\\\|work\\=7 News Belize\\\|date\\=19 June 2009\\\|access\\-date\\=19 April 2012\\\|archive\\-date\\=31 July 2013\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731201741/http://www.7newsbelize.com/sstory.php?nid\\=14280\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} This time the PUP blocked passage of the constitutional amendment until the dual citizenship provision was removed; after this was done, the bill passed in February 2010\\.{{cite news\\\|url\\=http://www.amandala.com.bz/index.php?id\\=9589\\\|first\\=Adele\\\|last\\=Ramos\\\|title\\=Belize Senate approves Caribbean Court of Justice\\\|work\\=\\[\\[Amandala]]\\\|date\\=26 February 2010\\\|access\\-date\\=18 April 2012\\\|archive\\-date\\=1 September 2022\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901045631/https://amandala.com.bz/news/\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} After the passage of the bill, PM Barrow signed the order in May 2010 to abolish appeals to the Privy Council beginning on 1 June that year.{{cite news\\\|url\\=http://dominicanewsonline.com/news/news/crime\\-court\\-law/good\\-bye\\-belize\\-abolishes\\-all\\-appeals\\-to\\-privy\\-council/\\\|title\\=Good Bye: Belize abolishes all appeals to Privy Council\\\|work\\=Dominica News Online\\\|date\\=13 May 2010\\\|access\\-date\\=18 April 2012\\\|archive\\-date\\=1 September 2022\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901045632/https://dominicanewsonline.com/news/homepage/news/crime\\-court\\-law/good\\-bye\\-belize\\-abolishes\\-all\\-appeals\\-to\\-privy\\-council/\\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### Jamaica", "The [Jamaica Labour Party](/wiki/Jamaica_Labour_Party \"Jamaica Labour Party\") opposed granting CCJ full powers on the basis that it was a [hanging court](/wiki/Hanging_judge \"Hanging judge\").{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20150204/cleisure/cleisure3\\.html\\\|title\\=Tear down that CCJ wall\\\|date\\=4 February 2015\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129185146/http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20150204/cleisure/cleisure3\\.html\\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://constructedthoughts.wordpress.com/2012/06/25/the\\-jlp\\-and\\-the\\-ccj/\\\|title\\=The JLP and The CCJ\\\|author\\=((Mr. Editor))\\\|date\\=25 June 2012\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304201649/https://constructedthoughts.wordpress.com/2012/06/25/the\\-jlp\\-and\\-the\\-ccj/\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} In February 2005, the [Privy Council](/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council \"Judicial Committee of the Privy Council\") declared that the CCJ\\-related companion bills passed by the [Jamaican Parliament](/wiki/Parliament_of_Jamaica \"Parliament of Jamaica\") in 2004 were unconstitutional and therefore void. The bills would have established the CCJ as the final court of appeal in Jamaica.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Gov\\-t\\-tables\\-three\\-CCJ\\-bills\\-in\\-House\\_12037090\\\|title\\=Gov't tables three CCJ bills in House\\\|first\\=Jamaica Observer\\\|last\\=Limited\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129144354/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Gov\\-t\\-tables\\-three\\-CCJ\\-bills\\-in\\-House\\_12037090\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The Privy Council sided with the appellants, including the Jamaican Council for Human Rights, the [Jamaica Labour Party](/wiki/Jamaica_Labour_Party \"Jamaica Labour Party\") and others, ruling that to establish the CCJ as the country's final appeal court, without it being entrenched in the constitution would undermine the protection given to the Jamaican people by Chapter Seven of the Jamaican constitution. The court concluded that the procedure appropriate for an amendment of an entrenched provision – a referendum – should have been followed.", "In January 2012, the new [People's National Party](/wiki/People%27s_National_Party \"People's National Party\") government of Jamaica stated that it would be moving to have the CCJ serving in both the original and appellate jurisdictions for Jamaica in time for the 50th anniversary of Jamaica's independence in August.[Gary Spaulding, \"CCJ For Independence\"](http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120102/lead/lead91.html) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120122052050/http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120102/lead/lead91\\.html \\\|date\\=22 January 2012 }}, The Gleaner, 2 January 2012 The Jamaica Labour Party, now in opposition, stated it has no issue with the government's plan and seems set to support the move despite strident objections in the past.[Conrad Hamilton, \"JLP ready to support Portia's CCJ bid – Opposition firm on Caribbean Court over Privy Council\"](http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/JLP-ready-to-support-Portia-s-CCJ-bid_10521743) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219132229/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/JLP\\-ready\\-to\\-support\\-Portia\\-s\\-CCJ\\-bid\\_10521743 \\\|date\\=19 February 2012 }}, Jamaica Observer, 9 January 2012\\. In February, the foreign affairs minister of Jamaica has also called on Trinidad \\& Tobago to sign on to the court's appellate jurisdiction to mark that country's 50th anniversary of independence.[Daraine Luton, \"Joining CCJ should mark Jamaica, T\\&T's 50th, says Nicholson\"](http://mobile.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120206/news/news3.php) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111012616/http://mobile.jamaica\\-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120206/news/news3\\.php \\\|date\\=11 January 2016 }}, Jamaica Gleaner, 6 February 2012\\.", "In May 2015, the [Jamaican House of Representatives](/wiki/Parliament_of_Jamaica \"Parliament of Jamaica\") approved, with the necessary two\\-thirds majority, three bills that would end legal appeals to the [Judicial Committee of the Privy Council](/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council \"Judicial Committee of the Privy Council\") and make the Caribbean Court of Justice as Jamaica's final Court of Appeal. The reform was debated by the Jamaican Senate, however, the government needed the support of at least one opposition senator for the measures to be approved by the required two\\-thirds majority.{{cite news\\\|title\\=House of Representatives Votes For Jamaica To Leave The Privy Council for the CCJ\\\|url\\=http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/article/news/20150512/house\\-representatives\\-votes\\-jamaica\\-leave\\-privy\\-council\\-ccj\\\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2015\\\|work\\=The Gleaner\\\|date\\=12 May 2015\\\|archive\\-date\\=14 May 2015\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150514225723/http://jamaica\\-gleaner.com/article/news/20150512/house\\-representatives\\-votes\\-jamaica\\-leave\\-privy\\-council\\-ccj\\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news\\\|title\\=Bills to replace Privy Council with CCJ tabled in Senate\\\|url\\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/latestnews/Bills\\-to\\-replace\\-Privy\\-Council\\-with\\-CCJ\\-tabled\\-in\\-Senate\\\|access\\-date\\=2 June 2015\\\|work\\=Jamaica Observer\\\|date\\=22 May 2015\\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150523194256/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/latestnews/Bills\\-to\\-replace\\-Privy\\-Council\\-with\\-CCJ\\-tabled\\-in\\-Senate\\\|archive\\-date\\=23 May 2015}} The [2016 general election](/wiki/Jamaican_general_election%2C_2016 \"Jamaican general election, 2016\") was held without the issue being resolved and resulted in the defeat of the [People's National Party](/wiki/People%27s_National_Party \"People's National Party\") government and the election of a new [Jamaican Labour Party](/wiki/Jamaican_Labour_Party \"Jamaican Labour Party\") government, led by [Andrew Holness](/wiki/Andrew_Holness \"Andrew Holness\"), which opposes implementing the reform without a referendum. Holness's government has promised to hold a referendum on the question.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Holness\\-promises\\-\\-The\\-first\\-100\\-days\\\|title\\=Holness promises: The first 100 days\\\|first\\=Jamaica Observer\\\|last\\=Limited\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=13 October 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013123116/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Holness\\-promises\\-\\-The\\-first\\-100\\-days\\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "### Saint Lucia", "The Parliament of St. Lucia voted to accede to the appellate jurisdiction of the CCJ on February 28, 2023\\.{{Cite web \\\|last\\=Release \\\|first\\=Press \\\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-03 \\\|title\\=Government Advances St. Lucia to CCJ \\\|url\\=https://stluciastar.com/government\\-advances\\-st\\-lucia\\-to\\-ccj/ \\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-04\\-24 \\\|website\\=THE STAR \\- St Lucia \\\|language\\=en\\-US}}", "### Trinidad and Tobago", "In late 2009, controversy arose over the fact that the CEO {{clarify\\\|date\\=July 2015}} of a company involved in CCJ litigation was also the chairman of the Court's trust fund.[http://www.caribarena.com/belize/caribbean/trinidad\\-and\\-tobago/trinidad\\-tcl\\-responds\\-to\\-jagdeos\\-conflict\\-of\\-interest\\-claims\\-200910156042\\.html](http://www.caribarena.com/belize/caribbean/trinidad-and-tobago/trinidad-tcl-responds-to-jagdeos-conflict-of-interest-claims-200910156042.html) {{webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708120613/http://www.caribarena.com/belize/caribbean/trinidad\\-and\\-tobago/trinidad\\-tcl\\-responds\\-to\\-jagdeos\\-conflict\\-of\\-interest\\-claims\\-200910156042\\.html\\\|date\\=8 July 2011}}", "In April 2012, the prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago [Kamla Persad\\-Bissessar](/wiki/Kamla_Persad-Bissessar \"Kamla Persad-Bissessar\") announced in Parliament that it intended to abolish criminal appeals to the Privy Council in favour of the CCJ and would be tabling legislation to that effect. This follows a review of the situation conducted by the government after a commitment given at the last CARICOM heads of government conference in Suriname in July 2011\\. Although the announcement had the general support of the Opposition leader Dr [Keith Rowley](/wiki/Keith_Rowley \"Keith Rowley\"),[Richard Lord, \"Out goes Privy Council\"](http://www.guardian.co.tt/news/2012-04-26-000000/out-goes-privy-council) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120429052849/http://www.guardian.co.tt/news/2012\\-04\\-26\\-000000/out\\-goes\\-privy\\-council \\\|date\\=29 April 2012 }}, Trinidad and Tobago Guardian, 26 April 2012\\. he expressed disappointment that the government was \"only going halfway\" by planning to adopt the CCJ for criminal appeals only[\"Caribbean integration – Centrifugal force\", The Economist](http://www.economist.com/node/21556277) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120607034020/http://www.economist.com/node/21556277 \\\|date\\=7 June 2012 }}, 2 June 2012\\. while retaining the Privy Council for civil matters and cautioned that the move may not be legally possible under the relevant treaties. He said the opposition [People's National Movement](/wiki/People%27s_National_Movement \"People's National Movement\") was fully supportive of adopting the CCJ as a final appeals court on all matters, both civil and criminal.[\"Opposition leader blasts Trinidad and Tobago's ‘illegal and half\\-way’ move to join CCJ\"](http://cananewsonline.com/news/78766-opposition-leader-blasts-trinidad-and-tobago%26%23039%3Bs-%E2%80%98illegal-and-half-way%E2%80%99-move-to-join-ccj.html) {{dead link\\\|date\\=September 2018\\\|bot\\=medic}}{{cbignore\\\|bot\\=medic}}, CANA News Online, 26 April 2012\\. It has been observed however that there is a precedent for the partial abolition of appeals to the Privy Council with Canada ending criminal appeals to the court in 1933 and civil appeals in 1949\\.[Dana Seetahal, \"CCJ — partial adoption as final court?\"](http://www.trinidadexpress.com/commentaries/CCJ___partial_adoption_as_final__court_-149330025.html) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120429184831/http://www.trinidadexpress.com/commentaries/CCJ\\_\\_\\_partial\\_adoption\\_as\\_final\\_\\_court\\_\\-149330025\\.html\\# \\\|date\\=29 April 2012 }}, Trinidad Express Newspapers, 27 April 2012\\.", "### Other states", "It is expected that the two Caribbean states that will have the most difficulty accessing the court will be [Suriname](/wiki/Suriname \"Suriname\") which has a [Dutch](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\")\\-based legal system, and [Haiti](/wiki/Haiti \"Haiti\") which has a [French](/wiki/France \"France\")\\-based legal system. All other member states have British\\-based legal systems with the CCJ itself being predominantly modeled after the British system.", "In 2012, following the 54th meeting of the OECS Authority, it was agreed that although all OECS members are committed to acceding to the CCJ's appellate jurisdiction as soon as possible the differing constitutional provisions of each member state meant that simultaneous accession was no longer the preferred option. Dominica and St. Kitts \\& Nevis are the only members that would be able to take steps to accede to the CCJ's appellate jurisdiction during the course of 2012{{cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.oecs.org/news\\-a\\-events/9\\-secretariat/815\\-communique\\-54th\\-meeting\\-of\\-the\\-oecs\\-authority \\\|title\\=Maritime Boundary Delimitation – a priority for the region \\\|publisher\\=OECS \\\|access\\-date\\=28 December 2015 \\\|url\\-status\\=dead \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20120905175436/http://www.oecs.org/news\\-a\\-events/9\\-secretariat/815\\-communique\\-54th\\-meeting\\-of\\-the\\-oecs\\-authority \\\|archive\\-date\\=5 September 2012}} as they only require a parliamentary majority to join up to the court. Grenada and Antigua \\& Barbuda would require referendums before being able to accede, while St. Lucia and St. Vincent \\& the Grenadines would need a parliamentary majority approving accession along with a judicial resolution.[\"Jamaica's embrace helping CCJ, says Sir Dennis\"](http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Jamaica-s-embrace-helping-CCJ--says-Sir-Dennis_11271398) {{Webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120428095859/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Jamaica\\-s\\-embrace\\-helping\\-CCJ\\-\\-says\\-Sir\\-Dennis\\_11271398 \\\|date\\=28 April 2012 }}, Jamaica Observer, 18 April 2012\\.", "On 29 January 2015, it was announced that Dominica would become the fourth CARICOM member state to accede to both the original and appellate jurisdictions of the CCJ by early February 2015\\. This was announced by Dominica's Prime Minister, [Roosevelt Skerrit](/wiki/Roosevelt_Skerrit \"Roosevelt Skerrit\") and follows on the formal approval received in 2014 from the British government that was required in order for Dominica to delink from the Privy Council.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Dominica\\-to\\-become\\-fourth\\-full\\-member\\-of\\-CCJ\\_18306865\\\|title\\=Dominica to become fourth full member of CCJ\\\|first\\=Jamaica Observer\\\|last\\=Limited\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=29 November 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161129144537/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Dominica\\-to\\-become\\-fourth\\-full\\-member\\-of\\-CCJ\\_18306865\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Dominica acceded to the CCJ in its appellate jurisdiction on 6 March 2015\\.", "In July 2015, the St. Lucian government announced that intended to soon table legislation that would replace the Privy Council with the CCJ. Prime Minister Dr. Kenny Anthony noted that St. Lucia had a provision in its Constitution which was identical to a provision in the Constitution of Dominica which allowed that country to recently join the CCJ. Further noting that St. Lucia's Attorney General had received an advisory opinion from the Court of Appeal to a possible erroneous section that the provision in question had referred to; the Court of Appeal agreed by a 2–1 majority that there was indeed an error in the Constitution. On that basis the government plans to proceed with accession to the CCJ's appellate jurisdiction and it has formally written to the British government advising them that the government of St. Lucia wishes to delink from the Privy Council pursuant to the requirements of that section of the Constitution. Prime Minister Anthony anticipated opposition and possible legal challenges to this move, and stated his government had no problems with that, even suggesting it would be interesting to see what pronouncement the Privy Council would make on the non\\-binding advisory opinion of the Court of Appeal.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/St\\-Lucia\\-to\\-table\\-legislation\\-to\\-make\\-CCJ\\-final\\-court\\_19186846\\\|title\\=St Lucia to table legislation to make CCJ final court\\\|first\\=Jamaica Observer\\\|last\\=Limited\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304114613/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/St\\-Lucia\\-to\\-table\\-legislation\\-to\\-make\\-CCJ\\-final\\-court\\_19186846\\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "Antigua and Barbuda began taking positive steps towards adopting the CCJ as its final appellate court when it launched a public education campaign on the CCJ in March 2016\\.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://caribbeannewsservice.com/now/antigua\\-launches\\-public\\-education\\-campaign\\-on\\-the\\-ccj/\\\|title\\=Antigua Launches Public Education Campaign on the CCJ – Caribbean News Service\\\|first\\=Desmond\\\|last\\=Brown\\\|date\\=10 March 2016\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=13 October 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013092006/http://caribbeannewsservice.com/now/antigua\\-launches\\-public\\-education\\-campaign\\-on\\-the\\-ccj/\\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The public education campaign and move towards acceding to the CCJ in the appellate jurisdiction has the support of both the Government and the Opposition and is expected to go on for three months ahead of a referendum on the issue likely to be held in June.{{cite web\\\|url\\=https://antiguachronicle.net/2016/03/11/antigua\\-and\\-barbudas\\-journey\\-to\\-the\\-ccj/\\\|title\\=Antigua and Barbuda's journey to the CCJ – Antigua Chronicle\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016}}{{Dead link\\\|date\\=September 2018 \\\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} Additionally three new pieces of legislation would be needed to facilitate the referendum on accession to the appellate jurisdiction – a Constitution Amendment Bill to amend the provisions of the Constitution on the Supreme Court Order, an amendment to the Referendum Act, and an amendment to the Representation of the People Act. Two of these instruments were expected to be submitted to the Parliament for review and voting in late March 2016\\.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.nationalcoordinatingcommittee.com/grenada\\-constitutional\\-expert\\-to\\-present\\-legislation\\-on\\-referendum/\\\|title\\=Grenada constitutional expert to present legislation on referendum – National Coordinating Committee\\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=13 October 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013091928/http://www.nationalcoordinatingcommittee.com/grenada\\-constitutional\\-expert\\-to\\-present\\-legislation\\-on\\-referendum/\\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "On 20 June 2016, the Parliament of Grenada passed legislation that would allow Grenada to accede to the CCJ's appellate jurisdiction. Before Grenada could accede however the bill needed to be approved by a simple majority in Senate and then be approved by a 2/3 majority referendum. The [referendum was held on 24 November](/wiki/2016_Grenadian_constitutional_referendum \"2016 Grenadian constitutional referendum\") that same year, with the amendment voted down, with 56\\.73% against.{{cite web\\\|url\\=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Grenada\\-Parliament\\-gives\\-nod\\-to\\-Caribbean\\-Court\\-of\\-Justice\\\|title\\=Grenada Parliament gives nod to Caribbean Court of Justice\\\|first\\=Jamaica Observer\\\|last\\=Limited\\\|date\\=21 June 2016 \\\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2016\\\|archive\\-date\\=13 October 2016\\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013091923/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Grenada\\-Parliament\\-gives\\-nod\\-to\\-Caribbean\\-Court\\-of\\-Justice\\\|url\\-status\\=live}}", "" ]
Seat and itinerancy ------------------- Article III of the Agreement establishing the CCJ provides that The Seat of the Court shall be in the territory of a Contracting Party as determined by a qualified majority of the Contracting Parties. In 1999, Trinidad and Tobago signed an Agreement with the Caribbean Community establishing the seat of the CCJ and the offices of the RJLSC in that country.[Agreement establishing the Seat of the Caribbean Court of Justice and the Offices of the Regional Judicial and Legal Services Commission between the Government of Trinidad \& Tobago and the Caribbean Community](http://www.caricom.org/jsp/secretariat/legal_instruments/ccj_seat.jsp?menu=secretariat) {{webarchive\\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111012617/http://www.caricom.org/jsp/secretariat/legal\_instruments/ccj\_seat.jsp?menu\=secretariat \\|date\=11 January 2016 }} This followed from the decision of the Contracting Parties for Trinidad and Tobago to serve as the headquarters of the court in the 1990s and the promotion by Basdeo Panday (then Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago) of the CCJ and his desire to seek agreement with the Opposition to give effect to the Agreement establishing the CCJ and for Trinidad and Tobago to effectively act as the base for the Court. In 2005, a broadly identical Agreement was signed between Trinidad and Tobago and the newly established CCJ and RJLSC establishing the seat of the CCJ and Offices of the RJLSC in Trinidad and Tobago{{Cite web \\|url\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\-content/uploads/2011/11/ccj\_seat.pdf \\|title\=Agreement establishing the Seat of the Caribbean Court of Justice and the Offices of the Regional Judicial and Legal Services Commission between the Government of Trinidad \& Tobago and the Caribbean Court of Justice and the Regional Judicial and Legal Services Commission \\|access\-date\=21 May 2015 \\|archive\-date\=11 January 2016 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111012616/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\-content/uploads/2011/11/ccj\_seat.pdf \\|url\-status\=live }} as was required under Article III of the Agreement establishing the CCJ itself. While having a seat in Trinidad, the Court is also given the authority (under the same Article III of the Agreement establishing the CCJ) to sit, as circumstances warrant, in the territory of any other Contracting Party. This itinerant ability, coupled with the Court's use of electronic and teleconferencing facilities, makes travel to the seat of the Court unnecessary in some cases. This is especially true for cases where litigants may be unable to afford the cost of appearing before the seat of the Court and electronic and teleconferencing facilities are inadequate for the task. As a result of the CCJ's planned self\-sufficiency in terms of funding, when the Court sits in another country in its jurisdiction, it pays the cost for travelling, accommodation and other expenses and only requires the host state to provide a location for the Court to sit and to provide security and ground transportation to and from the venue of the sitting. Up to May 2015, the CCJ has sat in Barbados, Belize, Guyana, Jamaica and Trinidad \& Tobago.{{Cite web \\|url\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\-content/uploads/2015/04/MEDIA\-RELEASE\-15\-20151\.pdf \\|title\=CCJ Itinerant Sitting in Belize \\|access\-date\=21 May 2015 \\|archive\-date\=23 September 2015 \\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200511/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\-content/uploads/2015/04/MEDIA\-RELEASE\-15\-20151\.pdf \\|url\-status\=live }} The Court itself views itinerant sittings as important to ensuring that the accessibility of itself and justice in general to the people it serves of the Caribbean Community. ### Facilities Located at 134 Henry Street, Port of Spain{{cite web\\| title\=Visit the CCJ\\| publisher\=Caribbean Court of Justice\\| year\=2019\\| url\=http://www.ccj.org/visit\-the\-ccj/\\| access\-date\=28 May 2019\\| archive\-date\=12 May 2019\\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512054027/http://www.ccj.org/visit\-the\-ccj/\\| url\-status\=live}} the CCJ's building is open to the public from 8 am to 4 pm weekdays but closed on weekends. Visitors may partake in guided tours of individuals and groups of 20 or less facilitated by the Court. Tours usually last 45 minutes, and include welcome messages, walk throughs the building, courtroom demonstrations, and opportunities to meet the judges and staff of the court. The Court's four\-storey building on at Henry Street{{cite web\\| title\=CCJ Annual Report 2007\\| publisher\=Caribbean Court of Justice\\| year\=2007\\| url\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\-content/uploads/annualreports/ar0506\.pdf\\| access\-date\=28 May 2019\\| archive\-date\=28 May 2019\\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528115440/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\-content/uploads/annualreports/ar0506\.pdf\\| url\-status\=live}} was originally intended as a temporary home for the Court and Regional Judicial Legal Services Commission (RJLSC){{cite web\\| title\=RJLSC Annual Report 2005\\| publisher\=Caribbean Court of Justice\\| year\=2017\\| url\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\-content/uploads/2017/11/2005RJLSCAnnualReport.pdf\\| access\-date\=28 May 2019\\| archive\-date\=28 May 2019\\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528115440/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\-content/uploads/2017/11/2005RJLSCAnnualReport.pdf\\| url\-status\=live}} when the Court and RJLSC were moved there in 2006\. Prior to that both the Court and the RJLSC operated from another temporary location, the Unit Trust Corporation Financial Centre (UTC), 82 Independence Square, Port of Spain (with the RJLSC beginning operations there from 1 February 2005 and the Court following its inauguration in April 2005\). This was the RJLSC's second temporary home as it had previously operated from 63 Tragarete Road, Port of Spain in facilities rented and furnished by the Trinidad and Tobago government. The CCJ's building also now houses the CCJ Academy for Law{{cite web\\| title\=Connect with the CCJ Academy for Law\\| publisher\=CCJ Academy for Law\\| year\=2019\\| url\=http://www.ccjacademy.org/connect/\\| access\-date\=28 May 2019\\| archive\-date\=28 May 2019\\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528115441/http://www.ccjacademy.org/connect/\\| url\-status\=live}} and is expected to house the Caribbean Community Administrative Tribunal (CCAT){{cite web\\| title\=Caribbean Community Administrative Tribunal (CCAT)\\| publisher\=CCJ Academy for Law\\| year\=2019\\| url\=http://www.ccjacademy.org/programmes/caribbean\-community\-administrative\-tribunal/\\| access\-date\=28 May 2019\\| archive\-date\=28 May 2019\\| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528115439/http://www.ccjacademy.org/programmes/caribbean\-community\-administrative\-tribunal/\\| url\-status\=live}} which is intended to be an independent institution for resolving employment disputes between employees and CARICOM institutions and their employees (as many of the institutions enjoy immunity from local laws).	[ "Seat and itinerancy\n-------------------", "Article III of the Agreement establishing the CCJ provides that The Seat of the Court shall be in the territory of a Contracting Party as determined by a qualified majority of the Contracting Parties.", "In 1999, Trinidad and Tobago signed an Agreement with the Caribbean Community establishing the seat of the CCJ and the offices of the RJLSC in that country.[Agreement establishing the Seat of the Caribbean Court of Justice and the Offices of the Regional Judicial and Legal Services Commission between the Government of Trinidad \\& Tobago and the Caribbean Community](http://www.caricom.org/jsp/secretariat/legal_instruments/ccj_seat.jsp?menu=secretariat) {{webarchive\\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111012617/http://www.caricom.org/jsp/secretariat/legal\\_instruments/ccj\\_seat.jsp?menu\\=secretariat \\\|date\\=11 January 2016 }} This followed from the decision of the Contracting Parties for Trinidad and Tobago to serve as the headquarters of the court in the 1990s and the promotion by Basdeo Panday (then Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago) of the CCJ and his desire to seek agreement with the Opposition to give effect to the Agreement establishing the CCJ and for Trinidad and Tobago to effectively act as the base for the Court.", "In 2005, a broadly identical Agreement was signed between Trinidad and Tobago and the newly established CCJ and RJLSC establishing the seat of the CCJ and Offices of the RJLSC in Trinidad and Tobago{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2011/11/ccj\\_seat.pdf \\\|title\\=Agreement establishing the Seat of the Caribbean Court of Justice and the Offices of the Regional Judicial and Legal Services Commission between the Government of Trinidad \\& Tobago and the Caribbean Court of Justice and the Regional Judicial and Legal Services Commission \\\|access\\-date\\=21 May 2015 \\\|archive\\-date\\=11 January 2016 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111012616/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2011/11/ccj\\_seat.pdf \\\|url\\-status\\=live }} as was required under Article III of the Agreement establishing the CCJ itself.", "While having a seat in Trinidad, the Court is also given the authority (under the same Article III of the Agreement establishing the CCJ) to sit, as circumstances warrant, in the territory of any other Contracting Party. This itinerant ability, coupled with the Court's use of electronic and teleconferencing facilities, makes travel to the seat of the Court unnecessary in some cases. This is especially true for cases where litigants may be unable to afford the cost of appearing before the seat of the Court and electronic and teleconferencing facilities are inadequate for the task. As a result of the CCJ's planned self\\-sufficiency in terms of funding, when the Court sits in another country in its jurisdiction, it pays the cost for travelling, accommodation and other expenses and only requires the host state to provide a location for the Court to sit and to provide security and ground transportation to and from the venue of the sitting. Up to May 2015, the CCJ has sat in Barbados, Belize, Guyana, Jamaica and Trinidad \\& Tobago.{{Cite web \\\|url\\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2015/04/MEDIA\\-RELEASE\\-15\\-20151\\.pdf \\\|title\\=CCJ Itinerant Sitting in Belize \\\|access\\-date\\=21 May 2015 \\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2015 \\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200511/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2015/04/MEDIA\\-RELEASE\\-15\\-20151\\.pdf \\\|url\\-status\\=live }} The Court itself views itinerant sittings as important to ensuring that the accessibility of itself and justice in general to the people it serves of the Caribbean Community.", "### Facilities", "Located at 134 Henry Street, Port of Spain{{cite web\\\| title\\=Visit the CCJ\\\| publisher\\=Caribbean Court of Justice\\\| year\\=2019\\\| url\\=http://www.ccj.org/visit\\-the\\-ccj/\\\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019\\\| archive\\-date\\=12 May 2019\\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512054027/http://www.ccj.org/visit\\-the\\-ccj/\\\| url\\-status\\=live}} the CCJ's building is open to the public from 8 am to 4 pm weekdays but closed on weekends. Visitors may partake in guided tours of individuals and groups of 20 or less facilitated by the Court. Tours usually last 45 minutes, and include welcome messages, walk throughs the building, courtroom demonstrations, and opportunities to meet the judges and staff of the court.", "The Court's four\\-storey building on at Henry Street{{cite web\\\| title\\=CCJ Annual Report 2007\\\| publisher\\=Caribbean Court of Justice\\\| year\\=2007\\\| url\\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\\-content/uploads/annualreports/ar0506\\.pdf\\\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019\\\| archive\\-date\\=28 May 2019\\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528115440/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\\-content/uploads/annualreports/ar0506\\.pdf\\\| url\\-status\\=live}} was originally intended as a temporary home for the Court and Regional Judicial Legal Services Commission (RJLSC){{cite web\\\| title\\=RJLSC Annual Report 2005\\\| publisher\\=Caribbean Court of Justice\\\| year\\=2017\\\| url\\=http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/11/2005RJLSCAnnualReport.pdf\\\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019\\\| archive\\-date\\=28 May 2019\\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528115440/http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/wp\\-content/uploads/2017/11/2005RJLSCAnnualReport.pdf\\\| url\\-status\\=live}} when the Court and RJLSC were moved there in 2006\\. Prior to that both the Court and the RJLSC operated from another temporary location, the Unit Trust Corporation Financial Centre (UTC), 82 Independence Square, Port of Spain (with the RJLSC beginning operations there from 1 February 2005 and the Court following its inauguration in April 2005\\). This was the RJLSC's second temporary home as it had previously operated from 63 Tragarete Road, Port of Spain in facilities rented and furnished by the Trinidad and Tobago government.", "The CCJ's building also now houses the CCJ Academy for Law{{cite web\\\| title\\=Connect with the CCJ Academy for Law\\\| publisher\\=CCJ Academy for Law\\\| year\\=2019\\\| url\\=http://www.ccjacademy.org/connect/\\\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019\\\| archive\\-date\\=28 May 2019\\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528115441/http://www.ccjacademy.org/connect/\\\| url\\-status\\=live}} and is expected to house the Caribbean Community Administrative Tribunal (CCAT){{cite web\\\| title\\=Caribbean Community Administrative Tribunal (CCAT)\\\| publisher\\=CCJ Academy for Law\\\| year\\=2019\\\| url\\=http://www.ccjacademy.org/programmes/caribbean\\-community\\-administrative\\-tribunal/\\\| access\\-date\\=28 May 2019\\\| archive\\-date\\=28 May 2019\\\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528115439/http://www.ccjacademy.org/programmes/caribbean\\-community\\-administrative\\-tribunal/\\\| url\\-status\\=live}} which is intended to be an independent institution for resolving employment disputes between employees and CARICOM institutions and their employees (as many of the institutions enjoy immunity from local laws).", "" ]
Biography --------- Park Chan\-ju was born into the Bannam Park clan on 11 December 1914 in [Keijō](/wiki/Keij%C5%8D "Keijō") (Seoul), [Keiki\-dō](/wiki/Keiki-d%C5%8D "Keiki-dō"), [Korea, Empire of Japan](/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule "Korea under Japanese rule") to Park Il\-seo and his wife, Park Won\-hui as the eldest daughter within their youngest five sons and youngest daughter. In March 1932, Chan\-ju graduated from Kyungsung Girls' High School (now known today as Gyeonggi Girls' High School), and went to Japan to study in Tokyo Women's Learning Center. [Prince Uihwa](/wiki/Yi_Kang "Yi Kang") did not want [Yi U](/wiki/Yi_U "Yi U"), his second son, to marry a Japanese noblewoman and insisted that he marry a Korean noblewoman unlike his brother, [Prince Yi Geon](/wiki/Yi_Geon "Yi Geon"). Since Park Yeong\-hyo was close friends with Prince Uihwa, both wanted to find a way to reject Yi U's marriage to a Japanese bride. Park had spoken about setting up his eldest granddaughter with Prince Uihwa's second eldest son. Yi U's adoptive mother, Lady Kim of the Gwangsan Kim clan, disliked Chan\-ju because the prince had attempted to kill his adoptive father, [Yi Jun\-yong](/wiki/Yi_Jun-yong "Yi Jun-yong") (the nephew of [Emperor Gojong](/wiki/Gojong_of_Korea "Gojong of Korea") and [Empress Myeongseong](/wiki/Empress_Myeongseong "Empress Myeongseong")) who tried to assassinate and rebel towards Kim Hak\-woo ({{Korean\\|hangul\=김학우\\|hanja\=金鶴羽\\|labels\=no}}) of the Legal Affairs Association, with charges in 1895 while her grandfather served as Minister of Interior.이청 (2007\). “〈나의 아버지 이우공〉,《흥선대원군과 운현궁 사람들》 웹도록”. 서울역사박물관. The prince had notified Minister Han Chang\-soo ({{Korean\\|hangul\=한창수\\|hanja\=韓昌洙\\|labels\=no}}) to establish the marriage when he sent an engagement ring to Chan\-ju, but Lee Wang\-jik ({{Korean\\|hangul\=이왕직\\|labels\=no}}), a Minister who was in charge of the affairs of the royal family, had protested against the marriage as it was done without the Emperor's acknowledge and tried to pressure the prince to marry within the Japanese royal family instead.박후작 영손 찬주양 이우공비로 어내정” (PDF). 매일신보. 1933년 12월 13일. 2016년 3월 6일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. 2014년 4월 23일에 확인함. Yi U was adamant in marrying a Korean, and with Park Yeong\-hyo's influence against Japanese politics, the Japanese royal court and Lee Wang\-jik acknowledged the Yi U's and Park Chan\-ju's marriage. Chan\-ju's grandfather had pretended that the marriage with a Japanese noblewoman was withdrawn, and had gone to Tokyo to make use of his political, aristocratic, and personal connections to eventually have the acknowledgement of the engagement announced by the Japanese Imperial Palace on 11 July 1934\.“이우공 어배우로 박찬주양을 어확정 종질료에서 어약혼 정식발표” (PDF). 매일신보. 1934년 7월 12일. 2016년 3월 6일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. 2014년 4월 23일에 확인함 On 17 April 1935,“이우공 전하 어결혼칙허” (PDF). 매일신보. 1935년 4월 18일. 2016년 3월 5일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. 2014년 4월 23일에 확인함. Emperor Showa made a decree to acknowledge the marriage in which the wedding ceremony of the couple was held in Tokyo on 3 May 1935\.“이우공 전하 어혼의 3일 동경서 신식으로 어거행 궁중어참내는 4일” (PDF). 매일신보. 1935년 5월 4일. 2016년 3월 6일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. 2014년 4월 23일에 확인함. When the married couple returned to Keijō, they visited the Jongmyo Shrine and Neungwon, and held a ceremony at the Joseon Hotel and [Unhyeongung](/wiki/Unhyeongung "Unhyeongung") Palace.“이우공 동비 양전하 가례후 어초환가” (PDF). 매일신보. 1935년 6월 29일. 2016년 3월 4일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. 2014년 4월 23일에 확인함. Their eldest son was born on 23 April 1936 and their second son was on 9 November 1940 in separate residences in Tokyo. In 1938, the building they lived in was donated to the female activist and educator Hwang Shin\-deok ({{Korean\\|hangul\=황신덕\\|labels\=no}}) to help establish the Kyungsung Family Ryosuk (now known as Joongang Girls' High School). On 25 August 1945, Park Chan\-ju had lost Yi U to the [atomic bombing of Hiroshima](/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki "Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki") and went to live at [Unhyeongung Palace](/wiki/Unhyeongung "Unhyeongung") with her two sons. In April 1950, she became the first chairman of Chugye University of Arts, Joongang Girls' High School, and Chugye Elementary School. In 1992, Unhyeongung Palace was sold to Seoul, and after spending her last years at her home in Bukahyeon\-dong, [Seodaemun](/wiki/Seodaemun_District "Seodaemun District"), [Seoul](/wiki/Seoul "Seoul"), she died from an illness on 13 July 1995\. She is buried with her husband Yi U at the gravesite of [Heungseon Daewongun](/wiki/Heungseon_Daewongun "Heungseon Daewongun") in Changhyeon, Hwado\-eub, [Namyang](/wiki/Namyangju "Namyangju"), [Gyeonggi Province](/wiki/Gyeonggi_Province "Gyeonggi Province").	[ "Biography\n---------", "Park Chan\\-ju was born into the Bannam Park clan on 11 December 1914 in [Keijō](/wiki/Keij%C5%8D \"Keijō\") (Seoul), [Keiki\\-dō](/wiki/Keiki-d%C5%8D \"Keiki-dō\"), [Korea, Empire of Japan](/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule \"Korea under Japanese rule\") to Park Il\\-seo and his wife, Park Won\\-hui as the eldest daughter within their youngest five sons and youngest daughter. In March 1932, Chan\\-ju graduated from Kyungsung Girls' High School (now known today as Gyeonggi Girls' High School), and went to Japan to study in Tokyo Women's Learning Center.", "[Prince Uihwa](/wiki/Yi_Kang \"Yi Kang\") did not want [Yi U](/wiki/Yi_U \"Yi U\"), his second son, to marry a Japanese noblewoman and insisted that he marry a Korean noblewoman unlike his brother, [Prince Yi Geon](/wiki/Yi_Geon \"Yi Geon\"). Since Park Yeong\\-hyo was close friends with Prince Uihwa, both wanted to find a way to reject Yi U's marriage to a Japanese bride. Park had spoken about setting up his eldest granddaughter with Prince Uihwa's second eldest son. Yi U's adoptive mother, Lady Kim of the Gwangsan Kim clan, disliked Chan\\-ju because the prince had attempted to kill his adoptive father, [Yi Jun\\-yong](/wiki/Yi_Jun-yong \"Yi Jun-yong\") (the nephew of [Emperor Gojong](/wiki/Gojong_of_Korea \"Gojong of Korea\") and [Empress Myeongseong](/wiki/Empress_Myeongseong \"Empress Myeongseong\")) who tried to assassinate and rebel towards Kim Hak\\-woo ({{Korean\\\|hangul\\=김학우\\\|hanja\\=金鶴羽\\\|labels\\=no}}) of the Legal Affairs Association, with charges in 1895 while her grandfather served as Minister of Interior.이청 (2007\\). “〈나의 아버지 이우공〉,《흥선대원군과 운현궁 사람들》 웹도록”. 서울역사박물관.", "The prince had notified Minister Han Chang\\-soo ({{Korean\\\|hangul\\=한창수\\\|hanja\\=韓昌洙\\\|labels\\=no}}) to establish the marriage when he sent an engagement ring to Chan\\-ju, but Lee Wang\\-jik ({{Korean\\\|hangul\\=이왕직\\\|labels\\=no}}), a Minister who was in charge of the affairs of the royal family, had protested against the marriage as it was done without the Emperor's acknowledge and tried to pressure the prince to marry within the Japanese royal family instead.박후작 영손 찬주양 이우공비로 어내정” (PDF). 매일신보. 1933년 12월 13일. 2016년 3월 6일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. 2014년 4월 23일에 확인함.", "Yi U was adamant in marrying a Korean, and with Park Yeong\\-hyo's influence against Japanese politics, the Japanese royal court and Lee Wang\\-jik acknowledged the Yi U's and Park Chan\\-ju's marriage. Chan\\-ju's grandfather had pretended that the marriage with a Japanese noblewoman was withdrawn, and had gone to Tokyo to make use of his political, aristocratic, and personal connections to eventually have the acknowledgement of the engagement announced by the Japanese Imperial Palace on 11 July 1934\\.“이우공 어배우로 박찬주양을 어확정 종질료에서 어약혼 정식발표” (PDF). 매일신보. 1934년 7월 12일. 2016년 3월 6일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. 2014년 4월 23일에 확인함 On 17 April 1935,“이우공 전하 어결혼칙허” (PDF). 매일신보. 1935년 4월 18일. 2016년 3월 5일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. 2014년 4월 23일에 확인함. Emperor Showa made a decree to acknowledge the marriage in which the wedding ceremony of the couple was held in Tokyo on 3 May 1935\\.“이우공 전하 어혼의 3일 동경서 신식으로 어거행 궁중어참내는 4일” (PDF). 매일신보. 1935년 5월 4일. 2016년 3월 6일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. 2014년 4월 23일에 확인함. When the married couple returned to Keijō, they visited the Jongmyo Shrine and Neungwon, and held a ceremony at the Joseon Hotel and [Unhyeongung](/wiki/Unhyeongung \"Unhyeongung\") Palace.“이우공 동비 양전하 가례후 어초환가” (PDF). 매일신보. 1935년 6월 29일. 2016년 3월 4일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. 2014년 4월 23일에 확인함. Their eldest son was born on 23 April 1936 and their second son was on 9 November 1940 in separate residences in Tokyo.", "In 1938, the building they lived in was donated to the female activist and educator Hwang Shin\\-deok ({{Korean\\\|hangul\\=황신덕\\\|labels\\=no}}) to help establish the Kyungsung Family Ryosuk (now known as Joongang Girls' High School). On 25 August 1945, Park Chan\\-ju had lost Yi U to the [atomic bombing of Hiroshima](/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki \"Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki\") and went to live at [Unhyeongung Palace](/wiki/Unhyeongung \"Unhyeongung\") with her two sons. In April 1950, she became the first chairman of Chugye University of Arts, Joongang Girls' High School, and Chugye Elementary School.", "In 1992, Unhyeongung Palace was sold to Seoul, and after spending her last years at her home in Bukahyeon\\-dong, [Seodaemun](/wiki/Seodaemun_District \"Seodaemun District\"), [Seoul](/wiki/Seoul \"Seoul\"), she died from an illness on 13 July 1995\\. She is buried with her husband Yi U at the gravesite of [Heungseon Daewongun](/wiki/Heungseon_Daewongun \"Heungseon Daewongun\") in Changhyeon, Hwado\\-eub, [Namyang](/wiki/Namyangju \"Namyangju\"), [Gyeonggi Province](/wiki/Gyeonggi_Province \"Gyeonggi Province\").", "" ]
Biography --------- Tournon was born of a noble [Savoyard](/wiki/Savoy "Savoy") family at [Turin](/wiki/Turin "Turin") on 21 December 1668; died in confinement at [Macau](/wiki/Colonial_Macau "Colonial Macau"), 8 June 1710\. Tournon studied at the Propaganda at Rome, and later taught there.[Biblical Cyclopedia website, Tournon, Charles Thomas Maillard de](https://www.biblicalcyclopedia.com/T/tournon-charles-thomas-maillard-de.html) After graduating in canon and civil law; [New Advent website, Charles\-Thomas Maillard De Tournon](https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15001a.htm) he went to Rome where he gained the esteem of [Clement XI](/wiki/Clement_XI "Clement XI"), who on 5 December 1701, appointed him [legate a latere](/wiki/Legate_a_latere "Legate a latere") to the [East Indies](/wiki/East_Indies "East Indies") and the [Qing Empire](/wiki/Qing_dynasty "Qing dynasty") of China. The purpose of this legation was to establish harmony among the missionaries there; to provide for the needs of these extensive missions; to report to the Holy See on the general state of the missions, and the labours of the missionaries and to enforce the decision of the [Holy Office](/wiki/Holy_Office "Holy Office") against the further toleration of the so\-called [Chinese rites](/wiki/Chinese_rites "Chinese rites") among the native Christians. In particular, he was sent to China to settle the question of whether Confucianism was an ethic system or a religion, thereby confirming if Christians could observe Confucian rituals. [New Advent website, Malabar Rites](https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09558b.htm#:~:text=On%206%20November%2C%201703%2C%20Charles,especially%20China%2C%20landed%20at%20Pondicherry.) [Google Books, The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, edited by Andrew Louth](https://books.google.com/books?id=3CNeEAAAQBAJ&dq=MAILLARD+DE+TOURNON%2C+Charles+Thomas+%281668-1710%29&pg=PT2669) These rites consisted chiefly in offering sacrifices to [Confucius](/wiki/Confucius "Confucius") and the ancestors, and in using the Chinese names [Tiān](/wiki/Tian "Tian") (heaven) and [Shàngdì](/wiki/Shangdi "Shangdi") (supreme emperor) for the God of the Christians. On 27 December 1701, the Pope consecrated Tournon bishop in the Vatican Basilica, with the title of [Patriarch of Antioch](/wiki/Patriarch_of_Antioch "Patriarch of Antioch"). The legate left Europe on the French royal vessel Maurepas on 9 February 1703, arriving at [Pondicherry](/wiki/Pondicherry_%28city%29 "Pondicherry (city)") in India on 6 November 1703\. On 23 June 1704, Tournon issued at this place the decree Inter graviores, summarily forbidding the missionaries under severe censures to permit the further practice of the [Malabar rites](/wiki/Malabar_rites "Malabar rites"). On 11 July 1704, Tournon set sail for China by way of the [Philippine Islands](/wiki/Philippine_Islands "Philippine Islands"), arriving at [Macau](/wiki/Colonial_Macau "Colonial Macau") in China, 2 April, and at [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing "Beijing") on 4 December 1705\. He was the first papal legate to China. [Fides website, VATICAN \- Prof. Zhang tells Urbaniana about the mission of Maillard de Tournon, the first papal legate in China, article dated March 6, 2023](https://www.fides.org/en/news/73498-VATICAN_Prof_Zhang_tells_Urbaniana_about_the_mission_of_Maillard_de_Tournon_the_first_papal_legate_in_China) The [Kangxi Emperor](/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor "Kangxi Emperor") received him kindly at first, but upon hearing that he came to abolish the Chinese rites among the native Christians, he demanded from all missionaries on pain of immediate expulsion a promise to retain these rites. Many missionaries left China at this time.[Google Books, The History of the Relations Between the Low Countries and China in the Qing Era (1644\-1911\), edited by Willy van de Walle and Noël Golvers, p115](https://books.google.com/books?id=Dw9gYo4Pk0MC&dq=MAILLARD+DE+TOURNON%2C+Charles+Thomas+%281668-1710%29&pg=PA115) At Rome, the Holy Office had meanwhile [decided against the rites](/wiki/Chinese_Rites_controversy "Chinese Rites controversy") on 20 November 1704, and being acquainted with this decision, the legate issued a decree at [Nanjing](/wiki/Nanjing "Nanjing") on 25 January 1707, obliging the missionaries under pain of [excommunication](/wiki/Excommunication "Excommunication") latae sententiae to abolish these rites. Hereupon, the Kangxi Emperor ordered Tournon to be imprisoned at Macau and sent some Jesuit missionaries to Rome to protest against the decree. Tournon died in prison,[Britannica website, Charles\-Thomas Maillard De Tournon](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Thomas-Maillard-de-Tournon) shortly after being informed that he had been created cardinal on 1 August 1707\. Upon the announcement of his death at Rome, Clement XI highly praised him for his courage and loyalty to the Holy See and ordered the Holy Office to issue a Decree (25 September 1710\) approving the acts of the legate. Tournon's remains were brought to Rome by his successor, Carlo Ambrogio Mezzabarba, and buried in the church of the [Propaganda Fide](/wiki/Propaganda_Fide "Propaganda Fide") on 27 September 1723\.	[ "Biography\n---------", "Tournon was born of a noble [Savoyard](/wiki/Savoy \"Savoy\") family at [Turin](/wiki/Turin \"Turin\") on 21 December 1668; died in confinement at [Macau](/wiki/Colonial_Macau \"Colonial Macau\"), 8 June 1710\\.", "Tournon studied at the Propaganda at Rome, and later taught there.[Biblical Cyclopedia website, Tournon, Charles Thomas Maillard de](https://www.biblicalcyclopedia.com/T/tournon-charles-thomas-maillard-de.html)", "After graduating in canon and civil law; [New Advent website, Charles\\-Thomas Maillard De Tournon](https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15001a.htm) he went to Rome where he gained the esteem of [Clement XI](/wiki/Clement_XI \"Clement XI\"), who on 5 December 1701, appointed him [legate a latere](/wiki/Legate_a_latere \"Legate a latere\") to the [East Indies](/wiki/East_Indies \"East Indies\") and the [Qing Empire](/wiki/Qing_dynasty \"Qing dynasty\") of China. The purpose of this legation was to establish harmony among the missionaries there; to provide for the needs of these extensive missions; to report to the Holy See on the general state of the missions, and the labours of the missionaries and to enforce the decision of the [Holy Office](/wiki/Holy_Office \"Holy Office\") against the further toleration of the so\\-called [Chinese rites](/wiki/Chinese_rites \"Chinese rites\") among the native Christians. In particular, he was sent to China to settle the question of whether Confucianism was an ethic system or a religion, thereby confirming if Christians could observe Confucian rituals. [New Advent website, Malabar Rites](https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09558b.htm#:~:text=On%206%20November%2C%201703%2C%20Charles,especially%20China%2C%20landed%20at%20Pondicherry.) [Google Books, The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, edited by Andrew Louth](https://books.google.com/books?id=3CNeEAAAQBAJ&dq=MAILLARD+DE+TOURNON%2C+Charles+Thomas+%281668-1710%29&pg=PT2669) These rites consisted chiefly in offering sacrifices to [Confucius](/wiki/Confucius \"Confucius\") and the ancestors, and in using the Chinese names [Tiān](/wiki/Tian \"Tian\") (heaven) and [Shàngdì](/wiki/Shangdi \"Shangdi\") (supreme emperor) for the God of the Christians. On 27 December 1701, the Pope consecrated Tournon bishop in the Vatican Basilica, with the title of [Patriarch of Antioch](/wiki/Patriarch_of_Antioch \"Patriarch of Antioch\").", "The legate left Europe on the French royal vessel Maurepas on 9 February 1703, arriving at [Pondicherry](/wiki/Pondicherry_%28city%29 \"Pondicherry (city)\") in India on 6 November 1703\\. On 23 June 1704, Tournon issued at this place the decree Inter graviores, summarily forbidding the missionaries under severe censures to permit the further practice of the [Malabar rites](/wiki/Malabar_rites \"Malabar rites\").", "On 11 July 1704, Tournon set sail for China by way of the [Philippine Islands](/wiki/Philippine_Islands \"Philippine Islands\"), arriving at [Macau](/wiki/Colonial_Macau \"Colonial Macau\") in China, 2 April, and at [Beijing](/wiki/Beijing \"Beijing\") on 4 December 1705\\. He was the first papal legate to China. [Fides website, VATICAN \\- Prof. Zhang tells Urbaniana about the mission of Maillard de Tournon, the first papal legate in China, article dated March 6, 2023](https://www.fides.org/en/news/73498-VATICAN_Prof_Zhang_tells_Urbaniana_about_the_mission_of_Maillard_de_Tournon_the_first_papal_legate_in_China) The [Kangxi Emperor](/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor \"Kangxi Emperor\") received him kindly at first, but upon hearing that he came to abolish the Chinese rites among the native Christians, he demanded from all missionaries on pain of immediate expulsion a promise to retain these rites. Many missionaries left China at this time.[Google Books, The History of the Relations Between the Low Countries and China in the Qing Era (1644\\-1911\\), edited by Willy van de Walle and Noël Golvers, p115](https://books.google.com/books?id=Dw9gYo4Pk0MC&dq=MAILLARD+DE+TOURNON%2C+Charles+Thomas+%281668-1710%29&pg=PA115)", "At Rome, the Holy Office had meanwhile [decided against the rites](/wiki/Chinese_Rites_controversy \"Chinese Rites controversy\") on 20 November 1704, and being acquainted with this decision, the legate issued a decree at [Nanjing](/wiki/Nanjing \"Nanjing\") on 25 January 1707, obliging the missionaries under pain of [excommunication](/wiki/Excommunication \"Excommunication\") latae sententiae to abolish these rites. Hereupon, the Kangxi Emperor ordered Tournon to be imprisoned at Macau and sent some Jesuit missionaries to Rome to protest against the decree. Tournon died in prison,[Britannica website, Charles\\-Thomas Maillard De Tournon](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Thomas-Maillard-de-Tournon) shortly after being informed that he had been created cardinal on 1 August 1707\\.", "Upon the announcement of his death at Rome, Clement XI highly praised him for his courage and loyalty to the Holy See and ordered the Holy Office to issue a Decree (25 September 1710\\) approving the acts of the legate. Tournon's remains were brought to Rome by his successor, Carlo Ambrogio Mezzabarba, and buried in the church of the [Propaganda Fide](/wiki/Propaganda_Fide \"Propaganda Fide\") on 27 September 1723\\.", "" ]
Prelude ------- So Görgei planned to attack Pozsony and Vienna quickly, before the main Russian army started attacking the eastern and northern front against Hungary. To this end he and his chief of the general staff, Lieutenant\-Colonel József Bayer, organized the Central Operational Bureau (Központi Hadműveleti Iroda) at the end of May, in order to coordinate the movements of the different units of the Hungarian main army corps gathered in the western front.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2001\\|p\=322}}. Besides the troops which the Central Operational Bureau disposed (I, II, III and parts of the VIII corps), on the western front was another army grouping to which the VII corps from the Rába line, led by Ernő Poeltenberg (from 6 May Colonel, and from 7 June General),{{Harvnb\\|Bóna\\|1987\\|p\=268}}. and the garrison of Komárom (the VIII corps) belonged, and this was led by [Major General](/wiki/Major_General "Major General") György Klapka, commander of the garrison of Komárom. Klapka refused to submit to the orders of chief of the general staff József Bayer, acting independently.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2004\\|p\=272}}. [thumb\\|left\\|Brocky Károly: Kmety György](/wiki/File:Brocky_K%C3%A1roly_Kmety_Gy%C3%B6rgy.jpg "Brocky Károly Kmety György.jpg") [thumb\\|Franz Wyss](/wiki/File:Franz_Wyss.jpg "Franz Wyss.jpg") General Görgei sent the VII. corps led by General Poeltenberg to [Győr](/wiki/Gy%C5%91r "Győr") and a detached division led by Colonel György Kmety to [Pápa](/wiki/P%C3%A1pa "Pápa"). Their mission was to gather reliable information on the enemy's strength and to impede his advance through smaller and greater skirmishes in the region of [Hédervár](/wiki/H%C3%A9derv%C3%A1r "Hédervár"), Öttevény, Kapuvár etc.Markó Árpád: [A csornai ütközet.](http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00018/00095/pdf/EPA00018_hadtortenelmi_1960_01_201-209.pdf) Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 1960 (volume 7, nr. 1, pp. 202 On 11 June the division led by Colonel György Kmety arrived at Pápa in order to secure the right wing of the VII corps. This division was not under the command of Klapka. The division, numbering 5002 men and 17 guns, had to reach the Rába through Székesfehérvár, near Pápa, to occupy the crossing points and destroy the bridges, except for the one at Marcaltő. Here he joined the left wing of the VII Corps and controlled the road between [Sárvár](/wiki/S%C3%A1rv%C3%A1r "Sárvár")\-[Veszprém](/wiki/Veszpr%C3%A9m "Veszprém")\-[Székesfehérvár](/wiki/Sz%C3%A9kesfeh%C3%A9rv%C3%A1r "Székesfehérvár").Babucs Zoltán: [A csornai ütközet](https://mki.gov.hu/hu/hirek-hu/evfortulok-hu/csornai-utkozet) Magyarságkutató Intézet 13\.06\.2020 From a spy, Kmety heard that an imperial half brigade (2690 soldiers) led by Major General Franz Wyss was stationed in the city of Csorna. Kmety wanted to profit from this opportunity and decided to make a surprise attack against Csorna. The Wyss brigade was subordinate to the Imperial I. Corps under the command of Lieutenant General Franz von Schlik, with its headquarters at Magyaróvár. The brigade had to occupy Kapuvár and Csorna as a vanguard of the I. corps. The brigade was divided into 2 columns, Wyss marched to Csorna with 2,690 soldiers \- 2 battalions, two Kaiserjäger companies, 4 uhlan squadrons \- and 8 guns, while in Kapuvár he had 2,026 men \- 2 battalions, 2 uhlan squadrons \- and 3 guns. The city was at 40 km distance from Pápa, requiring 16 hours of marching, an exhausting task for the Hungarian Honvéd troops, but he set his troops on the march. Kmety's division was characterized by a Honvéd officer in the "Győri Közlöny" newspaper: The ragged\-looking, the worn\-down division was superbly disciplined, accustomed to battle; \- led by skilled officers, with unbounded confidence in its commander. Kmety himself was loved by his soldiers: gave nothing to his appearance, and he had his uniform made only for the occasion when he was sent to Kossuth with the news of the capture of Buda Castle. Otherwise, he wore a simple honvéd mackinaw, leather trousers, rider's boots with large spurs, mostly without any distinguishing marks, and an ordinary officer's cap (...) this was his winter and spring attire, until in the summer he replaced the mackinaw with a sleeveless coat (...) (Hazánk, 1888\). In order to make sure that nobody could inform the enemy, Kmety did not reveal his plan to his officers, saying that they were heading towards [Győr](/wiki/Gy%C5%91r "Győr"). Only when they arrived at [Marcaltő](/wiki/Marcalt%C5%91 "Marcaltő"), at 12 June at night, did he send an envoy to inform Klapka and Colonel{{Harvnb\\|Bóna\\|1987\\|p\=340}}. Lajos Zámbelly, the chief of the VII corps general staff about his plans. The imperial commander, Wyss, who came to [Kapuvár](/wiki/Kapuv%C3%A1r "Kapuvár") on the 7th, and a day later with the majority of his troops to Csorna, suspected for some days that he would be attacked, but the Austrian commander did not send troops to his aid. Some other signs too made a Hungarian attack likely to happen. When Colonel Zessner, the commander of the 4th imperial lancer regiment headed to Kapuvár on his carriage without escort, to take the command of the troops stationed here, he was attacked in the neighborhood of [Bogyoszló](/wiki/Bogyoszl%C3%B3 "Bogyoszló") by Hungarian [Hussars](/wiki/Hussar "Hussar"), who according to some accounts killed him when he defended himself, while the others say he surrendered but was killed later when he tried to escape. Because of this, Wyss lost one of his best officers, along with the plan of the location and strength of his units. Despite knowing about this, Wyss did not change anything in the positions of his troops. Kmety planned to attack Csorna from the south and west, after crossing the Rába river. He said that the two bridges on the road through the Hanság mire were destroyed, so if his attack against Csorna would be successful, the imperials would have two options: to retreat towards the east, right where the Hungarian VII corps were stationed, or flee towards the north, entering the marshes of the Hanság, and both of these options would have forced them to surrender.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2004\\|pp\=272–273}}. This plan was not without risk because the other imperial half brigade, stationed at Kapuvár, could come to Wyss's rescue in 5 hours, while the Collery brigade could come from Szerdahely in 8–9 hours.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2004\\|p\=273}}. In Csorna, Franz Wyss had at his disposition 3 ½ companies from the 49\. (Hess) infantry regiment, 6 companies from the Landwehr battalion of the 59\. (Baden) regiment, 2 companies of the 14th Kaiserjägers battalion, 3 companies of the 4th lancer regiment (11 [platoons](/wiki/Platoon "Platoon")), 4 cavalry cannons, and 2 rocket launching racks. Wyss positioned his troops for the defense of Csorna in the following way: * On the exit road towards [Farád](/wiki/Far%C3%A1d "Farád"), under the leadership of Major Ahsbahs: \- 1\. company of the 59 (Baden) infantry regiment, joined later also by the 3\. and 5\. companies of the same regiment; \- 5 (later 6\) platoons of the 2\. Major division of the 4\. (Imperial) [Uhlan](/wiki/Uhlan "Uhlan") Regiment; \- 2 cavalry guns; \- 2 Congreve rocket launching racks. * On the western exit road towards Szilsárkány under the leadership of Major Weiss: \- 2 companies of the 59 (Baden) infantry regiment; \- 2 cavalry guns. * On the eastern exit road towards [Szilsárkány](/wiki/Szils%C3%A1rk%C3%A1ny "Szilsárkány") under the leadership of Major Magner: \- 2 companies of the 49 (Hess) infantry regiment. * On the western exit road towards [Pásztori](/wiki/P%C3%A1sztori "Pásztori") under the leadership of Major Patera: \- ½ company of the 49 (Hess) infantry regiment. * On the eastern exit road towards Pásztori under the leadership of Captain Weiss: \- 2 companies of the 1\. category of the 14\. Kaiserjäger battalion. * On the exit road towards [Kóny](/wiki/K%C3%B3ny "Kóny"): \- 1 company of the 49 (Hess) infantry regiment. * The reserve in the center of Csorna: \- 2\., 4\. and 6\. companies of the 59 (Baden) infantry regiment; \- 5 platoons of the 2\. Major division of the 4\. (Imperial) [Uhlan](/wiki/Uhlan "Uhlan") Regiment.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|p\=28}}. On the southwestern end of Csorna was a cemetery, surrounded by a stone wall; it even had a trench very suitable for a defensive line, and from the right some banks, making the cemetery a very good place for an efficient defense. The region behind the graveyard and the marketplace in connection with it was very suitable for placing the reserves. In the background was a grange surrounded by walls and buildings with ditches on the left, and from the front, a poplar park made a second defense line. ### Opposing forces The Austrian Wyss brigade In and around Csorna \- 3\. battalion of the 49\. (Hess) infantry regiment \= 1024 soldiers (3 ½ companies); \- 1\. Landwehr battalion of the 59\. (Baden) infantry regiment \= 832 soldiers (6 companies); \- 1\. category of the 14\. [Kaiserjäger](/wiki/Kaiserj%C3%A4ger "Kaiserjäger") battalion \= 245 soldiers (2 companies); \- 1\. and 2\. Major division of the 4\. (Imperial) [Uhlan](/wiki/Uhlan "Uhlan") Regiment \= 434 soldiers, 434 horses (4 companies); \- 8\. cavalry battery \= 131 soldiers, 146 horses, 6 cannons; \- 1/3 [Congreve rocket](/wiki/Congreve_rocket "Congreve rocket") battery \= 24 soldiers, 26 horses, 2 rocket launching racks; Total: 2690 soldiers, 606 horses, 6 cannons, 2 rocket launching racks;{{efn\\|These troops will participate, from the Austrian side, in the battle of Csorna.}} In and around Kapuvár \- 3\. battalion of the 29\. (Schönhals) infantry regiment \= 837 soldiers; \- 4\. battalion of the 1\. ([Lika](/wiki/Lika-Senj_County "Lika-Senj County")) border guard infantry regiment \= 905 soldiers; \- 2 companies of the Colonel division of the 4\. (Imperial) Uhlan Regiment \= 230 soldiers, 230 horses; \- 34\. infantry 1/2 battery \= 54 soldiers, 41 horses, 3 cannons; Total: 2026 soldiers, 271 horses, 3 cannons; The Hungarian Kmety division \- 10\. [Honvéd](/wiki/Royal_Hungarian_Honv%C3%A9d "Royal Hungarian Honvéd") battalion \= 450 soldiers; \- 23\. Honvéd battalion \= 720 soldiers; \- 33\. Honvéd battalion \= 700 soldiers; \- 45\. Honvéd battalion \= 830 soldiers; \- 2\. Honvéd battalion from Beszterce \= 750 soldiers; \- 2 companies of the 1\. [Jäger](/wiki/J%C3%A4ger_%28infantry%29 "Jäger (infantry)") division \= 280 soldiers; \- 1 company of [sappers](/wiki/Sapper "Sapper") \= 80 soldiers; \- 2 companies of the 12\. (Nádor) Hussar Regiment \= 300 soldiers, 300 horses; \- 4 companies of the 10\. (Wilhelm) Hussar Regiment \= 423 soldiers, 430 horses; \- 2 companies of the 10\. (Wilhelm) Hussar Regiment \= 200 soldiers, 200 horses; \- 9\. infantry battery \= 122 soldiers, 76 horses, 7 cannons; \- 9\. cavalry battery \= 101 soldiers, 85 horses, 8 cannons; \- 1 Congreve rocket battery \= 46 soldiers, 29 horses, 2 rocket launching racks; Total: 5002 soldiers, 1120 horses, 15 cannons, 2 rocket launching racks;{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|pp\=24–25}}.	[ "Prelude\n-------", "So Görgei planned to attack Pozsony and Vienna quickly, before the main Russian army started attacking the eastern and northern front against Hungary. To this end he and his chief of the general staff, Lieutenant\\-Colonel József Bayer, organized the Central Operational Bureau (Központi Hadműveleti Iroda) at the end of May, in order to coordinate the movements of the different units of the Hungarian main army corps gathered in the western front.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2001\\\|p\\=322}}. Besides the troops which the Central Operational Bureau disposed (I, II, III and parts of the VIII corps), on the western front was another army grouping to which the VII corps from the Rába line, led by Ernő Poeltenberg (from 6 May Colonel, and from 7 June General),{{Harvnb\\\|Bóna\\\|1987\\\|p\\=268}}. and the garrison of Komárom (the VIII corps) belonged, and this was led by [Major General](/wiki/Major_General \"Major General\") György Klapka, commander of the garrison of Komárom. Klapka refused to submit to the orders of chief of the general staff József Bayer, acting independently.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2004\\\|p\\=272}}.\n[thumb\\\|left\\\|Brocky Károly: Kmety György](/wiki/File:Brocky_K%C3%A1roly_Kmety_Gy%C3%B6rgy.jpg \"Brocky Károly Kmety György.jpg\")\n[thumb\\\|Franz Wyss](/wiki/File:Franz_Wyss.jpg \"Franz Wyss.jpg\")\nGeneral Görgei sent the VII. corps led by General Poeltenberg to [Győr](/wiki/Gy%C5%91r \"Győr\") and a detached division led by Colonel György Kmety to [Pápa](/wiki/P%C3%A1pa \"Pápa\"). Their mission was to gather reliable information on the enemy's strength and to impede his advance through smaller and greater skirmishes in the region of [Hédervár](/wiki/H%C3%A9derv%C3%A1r \"Hédervár\"), Öttevény, Kapuvár etc.Markó Árpád: [A csornai ütközet.](http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00018/00095/pdf/EPA00018_hadtortenelmi_1960_01_201-209.pdf) Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 1960 (volume 7, nr. 1, pp. 202", "On 11 June the division led by Colonel György Kmety arrived at Pápa in order to secure the right wing of the VII corps. This division was not under the command of Klapka. The division, numbering 5002 men and 17 guns, had to reach the Rába through Székesfehérvár, near Pápa, to occupy the crossing points and destroy the bridges, except for the one at Marcaltő. Here he joined the left wing of the VII Corps and controlled the road between [Sárvár](/wiki/S%C3%A1rv%C3%A1r \"Sárvár\")\\-[Veszprém](/wiki/Veszpr%C3%A9m \"Veszprém\")\\-[Székesfehérvár](/wiki/Sz%C3%A9kesfeh%C3%A9rv%C3%A1r \"Székesfehérvár\").Babucs Zoltán: [A csornai ütközet](https://mki.gov.hu/hu/hirek-hu/evfortulok-hu/csornai-utkozet) Magyarságkutató Intézet 13\\.06\\.2020", "From a spy, Kmety heard that an imperial half brigade (2690 soldiers) led by Major General Franz Wyss was stationed in the city of Csorna. Kmety wanted to profit from this opportunity and decided to make a surprise attack against Csorna. The Wyss brigade was subordinate to the Imperial I. Corps under the command of Lieutenant General Franz von Schlik, with its headquarters at Magyaróvár. The brigade had to occupy Kapuvár and Csorna as a vanguard of the I. corps. The brigade was divided into 2 columns, Wyss marched to Csorna with 2,690 soldiers \\- 2 battalions, two Kaiserjäger companies, 4 uhlan squadrons \\- and 8 guns, while in Kapuvár he had 2,026 men \\- 2 battalions, 2 uhlan squadrons \\- and 3 guns.\nThe city was at 40 km distance from Pápa, requiring 16 hours of marching, an exhausting task for the Hungarian Honvéd troops, but he set his troops on the march. Kmety's division was characterized by a Honvéd officer in the \"Győri Közlöny\" newspaper: The ragged\\-looking, the worn\\-down division was superbly disciplined, accustomed to battle; \\- led by skilled officers, with unbounded confidence in its commander. Kmety himself was loved by his soldiers: gave nothing to his appearance, and he had his uniform made only for the occasion when he was sent to Kossuth with the news of the capture of Buda Castle. Otherwise, he wore a simple honvéd mackinaw, leather trousers, rider's boots with large spurs, mostly without any distinguishing marks, and an ordinary officer's cap (...) this was his winter and spring attire, until in the summer he replaced the mackinaw with a sleeveless coat (...) (Hazánk, 1888\\).", "In order to make sure that nobody could inform the enemy, Kmety did not reveal his plan to his officers, saying that they were heading towards [Győr](/wiki/Gy%C5%91r \"Győr\"). Only when they arrived at [Marcaltő](/wiki/Marcalt%C5%91 \"Marcaltő\"), at 12 June at night, did he send an envoy to inform Klapka and Colonel{{Harvnb\\\|Bóna\\\|1987\\\|p\\=340}}. Lajos Zámbelly, the chief of the VII corps general staff about his plans. The imperial commander, Wyss, who came to [Kapuvár](/wiki/Kapuv%C3%A1r \"Kapuvár\") on the 7th, and a day later with the majority of his troops to Csorna, suspected for some days that he would be attacked, but the Austrian commander did not send troops to his aid. Some other signs too made a Hungarian attack likely to happen. When Colonel Zessner, the commander of the 4th imperial lancer regiment headed to Kapuvár on his carriage without escort, to take the command of the troops stationed here, he was attacked in the neighborhood of [Bogyoszló](/wiki/Bogyoszl%C3%B3 \"Bogyoszló\") by Hungarian [Hussars](/wiki/Hussar \"Hussar\"), who according to some accounts killed him when he defended himself, while the others say he surrendered but was killed later when he tried to escape. Because of this, Wyss lost one of his best officers, along with the plan of the location and strength of his units. Despite knowing about this, Wyss did not change anything in the positions of his troops.", "Kmety planned to attack Csorna from the south and west, after crossing the Rába river. He said that the two bridges on the road through the Hanság mire were destroyed, so if his attack against Csorna would be successful, the imperials would have two options: to retreat towards the east, right where the Hungarian VII corps were stationed, or flee towards the north, entering the marshes of the Hanság, and both of these options would have forced them to surrender.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2004\\\|pp\\=272–273}}. This plan was not without risk because the other imperial half brigade, stationed at Kapuvár, could come to Wyss's rescue in 5 hours, while the Collery brigade could come from Szerdahely in 8–9 hours.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2004\\\|p\\=273}}.", "In Csorna, Franz Wyss had at his disposition 3 ½ companies from the 49\\. (Hess) infantry regiment, 6 companies from the Landwehr battalion of the 59\\. (Baden) regiment, 2 companies of the 14th Kaiserjägers battalion, 3 companies of the 4th lancer regiment (11 [platoons](/wiki/Platoon \"Platoon\")), 4 cavalry cannons, and 2 rocket launching racks. Wyss positioned his troops for the defense of Csorna in the following way:", "* On the exit road towards [Farád](/wiki/Far%C3%A1d \"Farád\"), under the leadership of Major Ahsbahs:\n\\- 1\\. company of the 59 (Baden) infantry regiment, joined later also by the 3\\. and 5\\. companies of the same regiment;", "\\- 5 (later 6\\) platoons of the 2\\. Major division of the 4\\. (Imperial) [Uhlan](/wiki/Uhlan \"Uhlan\") Regiment;", "\\- 2 cavalry guns;", "\\- 2 Congreve rocket launching racks.\n* On the western exit road towards Szilsárkány under the leadership of Major Weiss:\n\\- 2 companies of the 59 (Baden) infantry regiment;", "\\- 2 cavalry guns.\n* On the eastern exit road towards [Szilsárkány](/wiki/Szils%C3%A1rk%C3%A1ny \"Szilsárkány\") under the leadership of Major Magner:\n\\- 2 companies of the 49 (Hess) infantry regiment.\n* On the western exit road towards [Pásztori](/wiki/P%C3%A1sztori \"Pásztori\") under the leadership of Major Patera:\n\\- ½ company of the 49 (Hess) infantry regiment.\n* On the eastern exit road towards Pásztori under the leadership of Captain Weiss:\n\\- 2 companies of the 1\\. category of the 14\\. Kaiserjäger battalion.\n* On the exit road towards [Kóny](/wiki/K%C3%B3ny \"Kóny\"):\n\\- 1 company of the 49 (Hess) infantry regiment.\n* The reserve in the center of Csorna:\n\\- 2\\., 4\\. and 6\\. companies of the 59 (Baden) infantry regiment;", "\\- 5 platoons of the 2\\. Major division of the 4\\. (Imperial) [Uhlan](/wiki/Uhlan \"Uhlan\") Regiment.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|p\\=28}}.", "On the southwestern end of Csorna was a cemetery, surrounded by a stone wall; it even had a trench very suitable for a defensive line, and from the right some banks, making the cemetery a very good place for an efficient defense. The region behind the graveyard and the marketplace in connection with it was very suitable for placing the reserves. In the background was a grange surrounded by walls and buildings with ditches on the left, and from the front, a poplar park made a second defense line.", "### Opposing forces", "The Austrian Wyss brigade", "In and around Csorna", "\\- 3\\. battalion of the 49\\. (Hess) infantry regiment \\= 1024 soldiers (3 ½ companies);", "\\- 1\\. Landwehr battalion of the 59\\. (Baden) infantry regiment \\= 832 soldiers (6 companies);", "\\- 1\\. category of the 14\\. [Kaiserjäger](/wiki/Kaiserj%C3%A4ger \"Kaiserjäger\") battalion \\= 245 soldiers (2 companies);", "\\- 1\\. and 2\\. Major division of the 4\\. (Imperial) [Uhlan](/wiki/Uhlan \"Uhlan\") Regiment \\= 434 soldiers, 434 horses (4 companies);", "\\- 8\\. cavalry battery \\= 131 soldiers, 146 horses, 6 cannons;", "\\- 1/3 [Congreve rocket](/wiki/Congreve_rocket \"Congreve rocket\") battery \\= 24 soldiers, 26 horses, 2 rocket launching racks;", "Total: 2690 soldiers, 606 horses, 6 cannons, 2 rocket launching racks;{{efn\\\|These troops will participate, from the Austrian side, in the battle of Csorna.}}", "In and around Kapuvár", "\\- 3\\. battalion of the 29\\. (Schönhals) infantry regiment \\= 837 soldiers;", "\\- 4\\. battalion of the 1\\. ([Lika](/wiki/Lika-Senj_County \"Lika-Senj County\")) border guard infantry regiment \\= 905 soldiers;", "\\- 2 companies of the Colonel division of the 4\\. (Imperial) Uhlan Regiment \\= 230 soldiers, 230 horses;", "\\- 34\\. infantry 1/2 battery \\= 54 soldiers, 41 horses, 3 cannons;", "Total: 2026 soldiers, 271 horses, 3 cannons;", "The Hungarian Kmety division", "\\- 10\\. [Honvéd](/wiki/Royal_Hungarian_Honv%C3%A9d \"Royal Hungarian Honvéd\") battalion \\= 450 soldiers;", "\\- 23\\. Honvéd battalion \\= 720 soldiers; \n \n\\- 33\\. Honvéd battalion \\= 700 soldiers;", "\\- 45\\. Honvéd battalion \\= 830 soldiers;", "\\- 2\\. Honvéd battalion from Beszterce \\= 750 soldiers;", "\\- 2 companies of the 1\\. [Jäger](/wiki/J%C3%A4ger_%28infantry%29 \"Jäger (infantry)\") division \\= 280 soldiers;", "\\- 1 company of [sappers](/wiki/Sapper \"Sapper\") \\= 80 soldiers;", "\\- 2 companies of the 12\\. (Nádor) Hussar Regiment \\= 300 soldiers, 300 horses;", "\\- 4 companies of the 10\\. (Wilhelm) Hussar Regiment \\= 423 soldiers, 430 horses;", "\\- 2 companies of the 10\\. (Wilhelm) Hussar Regiment \\= 200 soldiers, 200 horses;", "\\- 9\\. infantry battery \\= 122 soldiers, 76 horses, 7 cannons;", "\\- 9\\. cavalry battery \\= 101 soldiers, 85 horses, 8 cannons;", "\\- 1 Congreve rocket battery \\= 46 soldiers, 29 horses, 2 rocket launching racks;", "Total: 5002 soldiers, 1120 horses, 15 cannons, 2 rocket launching racks;{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|pp\\=24–25}}.", "" ]
Battle ------ Kmety departed from Pápa on 12 June, and after his troops arrived at the destination, crossing the Rába river at [Malomsok](/wiki/Malomsok "Malomsok"),{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|p\=25}}. they started the attack on 13 June at dawn. He had his sappers make two bridges in order to secure his troops' retreat if needed, and left a hussar company in Marcaltő. The Hungarian troops at [Szilsárkány](/wiki/Szils%C3%A1rk%C3%A1ny "Szilsárkány"), which prepared to attack from the south, stumbled on an imperial patrol made of lancer cavalry ([Uhlans](/wiki/Uhlan "Uhlan")) and captured one of them, but the others rode away. So it was a real danger, that Wyss and the Austrian troops around Csorna would be informed about the coming Hungarian attack. Kmety sent the cavalry of the Hungarian column which he wanted to send to [Farád](/wiki/Far%C3%A1d "Farád") to cut the way of the imperials and their envoys towards Kapuvár.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|p\=26}}. At Szilsárkány, Kmety divided his troops for the attack. He sent the Lieutenant\-Colonels Emil Üchritz and László Pongrácz to lead the 10th, 23rd, and 33rd Honvéd battalions with five companies of Vilmos (Wilhelm) Hussars and the 9th cavalry battery to the enemy's rear, on the route: [Bogyoszló](/wiki/Bogyoszl%C3%B3 "Bogyoszló") — Jobbaháza — Farád. He himself, with the 45th and 2nd Honvéd battalions, 2 jaeger companies, 2 companies of Nádor Hussars, an infantry battery, and 2 Congreve rocket launching racks marched through Szilsárkány and [Pásztori](/wiki/P%C3%A1sztori "Pásztori") to Csorna. So he planned to attack Csorna from three directions. When Emil Üchritz's troops were passing through Jobbaháza, the Lieutenant\-Colonel learned that 15 Hungarian soldiers had been taken prisoners by a patrolling Uhlan platoon. These cavalry troops, together with an infantry company and two cavalry batteries, were stationed on an embankment between Kóny and Csorna. At Bősárkány a half infantry company with an Uhlan platoon were also stationed. These troops had the mission of observing the region to learn about Hungarian movements, and to keep the connection with the I imperial Army Corps. The Uhlan patrols' commander, lieutenant Chamot, after taking the Hungarian prisoners at Jobbaháza, heard the first roar of the cannons from Csorna, signalling the start of the battle, and in order to prevent his soldiers from being cut off by the enemy, decided to retreat towards Kapuvár. But right then, the Hungarian Vilmos\-Hussars attacked, so the Uhlans retreated in haste, letting the prisoner soldiers loose, who thus could return to their comrades. The column led by Lieutenant\-Colonels Emil Üchritz and László Pongrácz advanced on and along the road from Farád to Csorna, as follows: North from the road, the two companies of the Vilmos\-hussars; on the road the 9th cavalry battery advanced; south from the road the 23rd and leftwards from it the 10th battalion, both having a line of skirmishers at their front lines. The 33rd battalion followed them as reserve troops.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|p\=29}}. [left\\|thumb\\|Battle of Csorna (13 June 1849\). Situation around 5ː00 a.m](/wiki/File:Battle_of_Csorna_%2813_June_1849%29._Situation_around_5%CB%9000_a.m.png "Battle of Csorna (13 June 1849). Situation around 5ː00 a.m.png") Wyss received news from its Uhlan patrol about the 400 Hungarian troops at Szilsárkány, but he did not get concerned, thinking that they were only an isolated scout unit, so at 4:30 o'clock in the morning he commanded his troops to march out from Csorna in order to capture them. He also sent envoys to his outposts from Bágyog, Kóny, and to the half brigade from Kapuvár to advance towards Csorna. But none of the envoys arrived at their destinations. Shortly after that, at 4:45 o'clock, Wyss received news that some troops were advancing from the southeast, but he explained that they were the imperial battalions from the 29th infantry regiment, for which he was waiting. He sent a patrol to meet them, thanks to whom he finally learned that these were actually Hungarian soldiers.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|pp\=26–27}}. Hearing this, Wyss took a platoon of the Uhlans and went towards the southern part of Csorna in the direction of Szilsárkány. The advance of the Hungarians was so quick that they started to fire on Csorna from three directions, long before the imperials installed their cannons.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|p\=27}}. The surprised imperials responded well, installing their cannons and troops in a hurry, in the heavy attack and fire of the Hungarians. The attack occurred at 5 o'clock, according to Kmety and 5:15 or 5:30 o'clock, according to the Austrians, and although \- according to their pre\-battle reports \- they were expecting this to happen, the extraordinary quickness of the Hungarian attack took them by surprise. [thumb\\|Location of the Battle of Csorna](/wiki/File:Csornai_%C3%BCtk%C3%B6zet.jpg "Csornai ütközet.jpg") Wyss sent his baggage from Csorna to Bősárkány, guarded by two platoons of the Imperial uhlans. To cut their way, Üchritz sent two companies of the Vilmos\-hussars together with the 9th cavalry battery. The hussars, led by Captain Wladyslaw Dzwonkowski, advanced slowly and when they observed the uhlans, who were north\-east of the cemetery, attacked them, but because of the deep and wide trench, they could hurdle with their horses only one by one, so the uhlans waited them on the other side of the trenches and stabbed many of them to death with their lances. Then the uhlans attacked the Hussars, chasing them away, while another three platoons were sent to the uhlans' aid. In the skirmish also Captain Wladyslaw Dzwonkowski was killed. Three new uhlan platoons arrived, and attacked the Hungarian hussars from the sides, who just before were strengthened by a company of the Vilmos\-hussars, and led by this started a counterattack. As a result of this, the Hussars were forced to retreat again, both sides suffering great losses, augmented by the Hungarian cavalry battery which, during all this time, shot in the uhlans. Then another 6 uhlan platoons arrived, with two cannons and two rockets, together with the 59\. (Baden) infantry regiment. In the meantime, the 1\. company of the 59\. regiment entered the wood west from Csorna and chased the Hungarian infantry out, but when the Hungarian artillery opened fire, and the Hungarians counterattacked with reinforcements, the Austrians had to retreat to the town.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|pp\=29–30}}. The 3rd and 5th companies of the 59\. (Baden) regiment, with two cannons, positioned themselves on the road towards Kapuvár and in the cemetery, while the 2nd, 4th, and half of the 6th companies defended the western exit towards Szilsárkány, while the other half of the 6th company had the mission of maintaining the connection with the infantry from the 49\. (Hess) regiment.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|p\=30}}. [thumb\\|Battle of Csorna (13 June 1849\). The Hungarian troops start the attack](/wiki/File:Battle_of_Csorna_%2813_June_1849%29._The_Hungarian_troops_start_the_attack.png "Battle of Csorna (13 June 1849). The Hungarian troops start the attack.png") The 10th and 23d Hungarian Honvéd battalions started an attack on the cemetery, while the imperials tried to stop them with rocket\-shots, but with little success. On the narrow road towards the cemetery, the soldiers from the Hungarian lines intermingled and lost their coordination, and the officers lost control of them. Many of them pressed to the stone wall of the cemetery, so the 1st, 3d and 5th companies of the 59\. regiment could easily repulse them and counterattack. The enemy fire also did its job mainly to the 5th Hungarian company, which was face to face with the imperial cannons. [thumb\\|left\\|Fleeing Austrian dragoons, chased by Hungarian Hussars, August von Pettenkofen](/wiki/File:Pettenkofen_menekulo_dragonyosok_1848-49.jpg "Pettenkofen menekulo dragonyosok 1848-49.jpg") At the southern part of Csorna, the Hungarian troops led directly by Colonel Kmety attacked in three columns. Through the eastern road coming from Szilsárkány, attacked the 2\. Honvéd battalion from Beszterce led by Major Mikovényi, helped by the infantry battery.{{efn\\|Here the book of historian Róbert Hermann writes that the Beszterce battalion was helped by the 9\. cavalry battery,. but in reality, they were the 9\. infantry battery, as it is shown on page 26\. But the cavalry battery was in the column of Üchritz, which attacked from the west, the direction of Farád.}} They were received by a company of the 49 (Hess) regiment, while another company was in reserve; half of them were sent to help the 2nd, 4th and 6th companies of the 59\. regiment, pushed back by the Hungarians, as shown before. Left from them were two companies of the 14th Kaiserjaeger battalion. The Hungarian advance led by Mikovényi stopped after the Major was wounded on his knee. From the direction of Pásztori the 45th Honvéd battalion, two companies of [Jägers](/wiki/J%C3%A4ger_%28infantry%29 "Jäger (infantry)"), and two companies of the Nádor\-hussars advanced. On one road half a company of the 49\. (Hess) infantry regiment, while on the other 2 companies of the 14th Kaiserjaeger battalion opposed them. Captain Weiss, their commander made a [skirmish line](/wiki/Skirmish_line "Skirmish line") out of the half battalion of Kaiserjaegers and positioned them in the trenches; he also put two platoons in the background to left and right, and made a barricade from carriages, beams, and boards, and put the remaining company soldiers behind them.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|pp\=31–32}}. After repulsing, with the salvos of the Kaiserjägers, the first attack of the Nádor\-hussars, Captain Weiss ordered a continuously fighting retreat of his troops, because he knew that the 59\. regiment which fought right from his troops was retreating, so he did not want to be encircled. The Hungarian 45th battalion was advancing on the street, together with the two Jäger companies,{{efn\\|Some sources affirm that the 45th battalion's attack was joined also by the Nádor hussars, but others claim that they participated in the famous skirmish with the Austrian uhlans at the Western edge of Csorna.}} putting the imperials at risk of being cut in half, but Wyss arrived just in time with reinforcements, sending the 49\. (Hess) infantry regiment against them, who together with the Kaiserjaegers pushed the Hungarians back to the entrance of Csorna.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|p\=32}}. But here the Hungarians got a foothold in the houses east of the street, enabling a cavalry battery to join the battle and shoot grapeshot at the Kaiserjaegers and pushing two cannons forward, against which the Kaiserjaegers made an attack. But when a Hungarian Hussar platoon arrived, they retreated to their positions. In the meanwhile, the Hungarians attacking Csorna on the western road which came from Szilsárkány faced the 2nd and 4th companies of the 59\. (Baden) infantry regiment, supported by two cavalry batteries which unleashed [grapeshot](/wiki/Grapeshot "Grapeshot"), causing them to disperse, but when the Hungarian artillery started to fire on the imperial battery, they too retreated. Wyss saw the danger and tried to convince the battery to reenter the battle, but with no success. Using this opportunity, the Hungarian infantry regrouped and entered into Csorna at that place. They advanced to the building of the tavern, but the counterattack of the 2nd infantry company, strengthened with units from the 49 (Hess) infantry regiment, caused them to retreat. In the attack the commander of the Austrian infantry, Major Weiss was wounded twice, and his place was taken by Captain Hörnes, who led these troops retreat towards the center of Csorna.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|p\=31}}. The 2nd and 4th companies and half of the 6th company retreated towards the city's main square, followed by the Hungarians. The imperial artillery fired grapeshot, but after the Hungarian soldiers regrouped, they started to advance again. Wyss ordered his Uhlan cavalry to attack the Hungarian infantry, in order to enable to his infantry to attack. The Hungarians retreated from the attack of the uhlans, but some of them went into the houses and behind the fences, while others regrouped in the end of the street in a mass, and unleashed a fusillade against the imperial cavalry, who therefore started to retreat. But on their way back they were caught in the fire of the Hungarians who hid behind fences and in houses, inflicting heavy losses, forcing them to retreat further. After half an hour of fighting the Hungarians advanced until the main square. At the square between the convent and the tavern, the Kaiserjaegers tried to make a stand, but the salvo of the Hungarian Honvéds forced them to retreat. After harsh fighting, the Hungarians cut the imperial troops in two: the right wing which was at the exit of Csorna towards Kapuvár, and the left wing which was on the exit towards Kóny. When the retreating companies of the 49\. (Hess) regiment arrived just outside of Csorna and started to gather, they were attacked by a Hungarian battalion that entered Csorna through the gardens and houses from the eastern part of the city, cutting their way towards Kóny, while to their right was another Hungarian battalion, with some hussars and two cannons, which started to fire on them. At that moment two imperial Kaiserjaegers companies also joined the 49\. infantry regiment, and together they managed to retreat towards Bősárkány through Barbacs and Markota, covered by the skirmish\-line of the Kaiserjaegers.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|pp\=32–33}}. Between 8 and 9 o'clock, Wyss sent Lieutenant Bujanovics with the order that his troops fighting throughout Csorna must retreat towards the exit of the city leading to Bősárkány, in order to retreat together in an organized way.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|p\=33}}. The troops in most cases were already retreating because of the pressure of the Hungarians. Many of these troops however did not follow Wyss's order, and retreated in haste towards the villages nearest to them, which shows that at that time the Hungarian troops had cut the majority of the roads on which they could fulfill their commander's order. [left\\|thumb\\|Battle of Csorna (13 June 1849\). The Hungarian breakthrough in the center of the city](/wiki/File:Battle_of_Csorna_%2813_June_1849%29._The_Hungarian_breakthrough_in_the_center_of_the_city.png "Battle of Csorna (13 June 1849). The Hungarian breakthrough in the center of the city.png") At this moment two companies of the Nádor\-hussars arrived on the scene (north\-east from the cemetery) of the place where the Vilmos Hussars and the Austrian uhlans fought with each other, and the uhlans were ready to retreat with Wyss's baggage towards Bősárkány. The Nádor hussars were formerly at the southern end of the town, but it seems that after the unsuccessful actions of the Vilmos\-hussars, they came here and started an attack against the uhlans, then withdrew in a [feigned retreat](/wiki/Feigned_retreat "Feigned retreat"), and at a proper moment counterattacked, taking the uhlans by surprise, and pushed them on the Hungarian infantry lines, inflicting heavy losses. However, the hussars too had great losses, and in the end, the remaining uhlans managed to secure the retreat of the baggage towards Bősárkány. The encounter of the hussars with the uhlans was described by the writer, historian, former revolutionary [Alajos Degré](/wiki/Alajos_Degr%C3%A9 "Alajos Degré"), then a Hussar captain, with words of praise: The cavalry charge at Csorna was also amazing when the Emperor's Uhlan Regiment, the most famous cavalry \[unit] of the Austrian army, arrived from Italy and asked to be sent against the Nádor Hussars, and they went toe\-to\-toe in wheat up to the horse's breast. \[Captain] Dénes Dessewffy was stabbed with a lance in the stomach which came out through his back. He was saved from death by the fact that he had not eaten for thirty\-six hours \[...] Four times the Nádor\-Hussars repulsed the Uhlans, who lined up for the fifth time to fight. At this fifth engagement, the divisions of both sides were now commanded by non\-commissioned officers, as all the senior officers were \[wounded or dead] on the ground. The memoirs of Major Ferenc Karsa add to this: It was also interesting that the Nádor hussars \[...] rushed to attack \[over and over] in small groups without waiting for the command. In order to curb this, platoon commander D. issued the order of the day, "Whoever gets his sword bloodied before mine gets twenty\-five sticks" \[beating]. Kmety in his post\-battle, among other soldiers, nominated for the 3\. class order of merit two men from the 12\. (Nádor) Hussar Regiment: Captain Dénes Dessewffy, for continuing to participate in the fight with his hussars even after taking 2 severe lance\-wounds, and the hussar József Balla\-Rigó for single handedly repulsing the attack of 8 Austrian uhlans.Markó Árpád: [A csornai ütközet.](http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00018/00095/pdf/EPA00018_hadtortenelmi_1960_01_201-209.pdf) Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 1960 (volume 7, nr. 1, pp. 205 At the end of the fight, 92 Austrian Uhlans were dead or wounded, while the Hungarian Hussars had only 31 (according to other sources 36\) casualties. Meanwhile, the 23rd and a part of the 10th Hungarian Honvéd battalion, getting around the cemetery and the trenches from the right, entered the streets. Lieutenant\-Colonel László Pongrácz led the charge taking the flag of the 10th battalion, with the help of the 2nd Beszterce battalion, pushing the 1st, 3rd and 5th companies of the 59\. (Baden) infantry regiment from the cemetery. These together with the five platoons of uhlans were the first units to reach Bősárkány, then retreated towards [Szentpéter](/wiki/J%C3%A1nossomorja "Jánossomorja"). While these followed a straight road towards Bősárkány, the other imperial columns used roundabout roads in their retreat, showing signs of disorder and panic, because they feared that the Hungarians closed their retreat way. In the meantime the half company of the 49\. infantry regiment which was in the entrance towards Pásztori, also started to retreat, followed a little later by the imperial troops at the entrance towards Szilsárkány, who retreated not through the street, but through the gardens, fearing an ambush. The retreating 1 ½ company of the 49\. infantry regiment, half of the 6th company of the 59\. regiment, and two cannons met at the exit of the city towards Kóny; then Wyss commanded them to retreat towards Bősárkány on the [Barbacs](/wiki/Barbacs "Barbacs")\-Markota road. Wyss did not follow them, but retreated to Csorna, although Captain Zerboni said to him that there were no imperial units left there, and that they were the last Austrians to leave the town. [left\\|300 px\\|thumb\\|Pongrácz László](/wiki/File:Pongr%C3%A1cz_L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3-1.jpg "Pongrácz László-1.jpg") Bujanovic then returned to Wyss, who sent him back to the right flank with the request that, if possible, the troops there should also withdraw towards Wyss's position, so that the brigade could retreat in unity. Bujanovich tried to get to the right flank, but the streets were already occupied by the Honvéds, so he tried to get there by bypassing Csorna from the north. He did not succeed in this either, but on the road to Barbacs he found Colonel Castelnau leading 3 platoons of uhlans, 2 companies of 59\. (Baden) infantry regiment and 2 guns. Soon, two companies of the 49\. regiment appeared on the northeastern edge of the settlement, as well as 2 Kaiserjäger companies, which were mentioned earlier. Here Bujanovics took over the leadership of all these Austrian units. He sent Captain Jósika with 3 platoons of uhlans to ride ahead, and meet with the 4 companies of infantry (the 2 companies of 49\. regiment and the 2 companies of Kaiserjägers), but they stumbled in 45\. Honvéd battalion, which immediately formed a [square](/wiki/Square_formation "Square formation") against the attacking uhlans, who gave up the attack. Castelnau tried to help the uhlans by sending also his cannons to shoot in the 45\. battalion, but they also gave up, when 6 platoons of hussars attacked from the left. [thumb\\|Battle of Csorna (13 June 1849\). The situation around 9ː00 a.m. The Austrians retreat from the city. Wyss is killed](/wiki/File:Battle_of_Csorna_%2813_June_1849%29._The_situation_around_9%CB%9000_a.m._The_Austrians_retreat_from_the_city._Wyss_dies.png "Battle of Csorna (13 June 1849). The situation around 9ː00 a.m. The Austrians retreat from the city. Wyss dies.png") The Austrian reports tell us that the Hungarian soldiers were helped by the inhabitants of Csorna, who participated in the battle with scythes and rifles.Markó Árpád: [A csornai ütközet.](http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00018/00095/pdf/EPA00018_hadtortenelmi_1960_01_201-209.pdf) Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 1960 (volume 7, nr. 1, pp. 207 After the retreat from Csorna, the 6 companies of infantry, 3 uhlan platoons, and 2 cannons stopped at Bősárkány, because they heard gunshots from the direction of Kóny. Bujanovics sent 2 platoons of uhlans towards Kóny, while the rest of the troops prepared to defend themselves at Bősárkány.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|pp\=34}}. Meanwhile, at the end of the battle, the Austrian commander Major General Franz Wyss died in Csorna. The accounts about his death are many but contradictory. According to an anonymous Hungarian account, Wyss was shot dead by a Honvéd soldier. According to Colonel Zámbelly he was shot by a Hungarian officer. Another Hungarian account say that Wyss was shot by a 14 years old Hungarian Jäger, who lost his company, and wandering in Csorna trying to find his unit he stumbled upon Wyss and his suite, shooting him dead, then the Austrian officers from Wyss's staff avenged their commander by killing the young Hungarian soldier. But the Austrian accounts do not tell nothing about this. It seems that Wyss was alone when he was killed. The Austrian accounts are more contradictory than the Hungarian ones. Some say that he was shot in his chest near a manor, then hussars and Hungarian honvéds attacked and killed him. Another Austrian account say that Wyss was attacked and killed by Hungarian peasants, who wanted to steal his horse. Others say that he was shot dead by four soldiers at the graveyard chapel. Lieutenant Bujanovics, based on "later news" said that Wyss went near the Hungarian infantry, and was killed by them with 3 bullets. A report from a day after the battle, recognizes that do not know anything precise about their commanders death, and they suspect that Wyss was wounded and captured by the Hungarians. So the conclusion is that there is uncertainty about Wyss's death, but probably he was shot dead at the end of the battle in Csorna, when the majority of his troops were already retreated from the town.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|pp\=35–36}}. The battle was already over when the Hussar squadron that had rescued the captured Honvéds returned to the division, and under Kmety's personal command, with half of the 9th cavalry battery, they took over the pursuit of the enemy's main force. However, soon returned to Csorna due to the horses fatigue. ### Military actions outside of Csorna, but related to the battle On 13 June like half of Wyss's brigade was outside of Csorna, guarding other villages and small towns in the region. On the same day in these places too some important clashes occurred between the units of the two sides. About an hour after the arrival of Castelnau's column in Bősárkány, the detachment led by Captain Varicourt, which stationed near the embankment from Kóny, arrived in the village. This happened because there was an additional episode of the battle. At Kmety's request \- and possibly on his own initiative \- Colonel Lajos Zámbelly, the Chief of Staff VII Corps', after 6:00 a.m., hearing the cannons shootings from Csorna, rode to Lesvár. He took with him the 3 hussar platoons and 3 guns that he found there, s and set off for Kóny. At the same time he sent a request for two more companies of hussars and three guns from the reserve. At Kóny, he ran into a detachment of one company of 49\. (Hess) infantry regiment and ½ a company of the imperial uhlans, and two guns led by Captain Varicourt. Varicourt, who was stationed at Bágyog with his detachment, heard the shelling himself, and tried to get news from Csorna by sending couriers, but they did not return. So he headed to the station on the Győr road. 10 minutes after had he arrived, a column of Hungarian hussars, Zámbelly's detachment, was pushing forward on the Kóny embankment. Varicourt ordered the bridge to be dismantled, but they had to abandon it because of the Hungarian gunfire. The two guns of the detachment, now consisting of 2 infantry companies and 3 platoons of uhlans (according to Zámbelly's report 500 infantrymen, 50 uhlans and 2 cannons),Markó Árpád: [A csornai ütközet.](http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00018/00095/pdf/EPA00018_hadtortenelmi_1960_01_201-209.pdf) Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 1960 (volume 7, nr. 1, pp. 206 returned fire, but without any result. A quarter of an hour later Varicourt saw another Hungarian column approaching from Bágyog, and received a message that the Hungarians had taken Csorna. He then immediately ordered the retreat, but before Barbacs again deployed the 3 uhlan platoons and the 2 guns. [left\\|thumb\\|The military actions of the Hungarian troops during and after the Battle of Csorna, around the town.jpg](/wiki/File:The_military_actions_of_the_Hungarian_troops_during_and_after_the_Battle_of_Csorna.jpg "The military actions of the Hungarian troops during and after the Battle of Csorna.jpg") Meanwhile, Zámbelly crossed the bridge, and soon arrived the 2 hussar companies and 3 cannons from the reserve, which he then sent to Markota, to cut the Austrians retreat rout. He himself continued his pursuit of Varicourt, but the detachment sent towards Bősárkány could not continue its way, because they found the bridge from Cakóháza dismantled by the enemy so they could not effectively disrupt the retreat of the Austrians retreating in from Csorna. Zámbelly pursued Varicourt's detachment as far as Maglóca, which meanwhile was joined by a platoon of uhlans. At Maglóca he handed over the command to a captain, telling him to follow the enemy slowly, hoping that they will not reach Bősárkány before the Hungarian detachment sent to encircle them. However, the captain effectively stopped the enemy's pursuit, so the detachment of Varincourt reached Bősárkány unhindered.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|pp\=34–35}}. At the same time, Lieutenant\-General [Franz Schlik](/wiki/Franz_Schlik "Franz Schlik"), commander of the I Corps, arrived in Bősárkány, then he led the retreat himself. He ordered the troops to destroy the bridges on the embankment.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|pp\=35}}. The inhabitants of the village attempted to rebuild the bridge in order to help the pursuing Hungarians to capture the retreating Austrians, whereupon the Austrian troops captured three peasants and a woman; trialed, and after a summary judgment and executed other 3 by shooting, and killed with sword another one. Enraged by the hostile behaviour of the population of Bősárkány and the actions of the guerrillas in the area, Schlik burnt the village on 21 June. Why did the Austrian units stationed in other localities nearby Csorna, not intervened in the battle? On the morning of 13 June, 90 imperial uhlans, 4 companies of Schönhals infantry, 4 companies of Lika border guards and 3 artillery pieces were stationed in Kapuvár under the command of Major Bombelles. Major Kahlert was in [Mihályi](/wiki/Mih%C3%A1lyi "Mihályi") with two companies of Lika border guards, two companies of Schönhals infantrymen and one company of imperial uhlans, who had arrived the night before as replacements for the fatigued troops.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|pp\=36}}. At dawn, the uhlans sent a reconnaissance patrol to Sebes, Marcal and [Szany](/wiki/Szany "Szany"). The patrol, however, returned with the report that "they spotted an enemy column at Szany marching towards [Szil](/wiki/Szil "Szil"), and they are followed by cavalry". The patrol also captured two honvéds, who said that during the night 11,000 Hungarians had marched with four squadrons of hussars towards Csorna. Kahlert reported this to Major Bombelles. Bombelles himself sent patrols towards Mihályi and Babót during the night, but they did not detect anything. At half past five in the morning, he heard gunfire from Csorna, and the report of his patrol sent at 4:00 a.m. arrived at the same time, reporting about the Hungarian attack against Csorna. Bombelles then left a company of the Schönhals infantry with one gun behind to cover Kapuvár, and he himself with 3 companies of the Schönhals, 3 platoons of uhlans and 2 guns pushed through Babót towards Jobbaháza. When he was heading to Jobbahágya, he learned from one of his patrols, that the Hungarians took Csorna, and the half brigade of Wyss retreated to Bősárkány. Bombelles then returned to Kapuvár, and at 4 p.m. evacuated the settlement and took up a position in [Vitnyéd](/wiki/Vitny%C3%A9d "Vitnyéd"). Colonel Schneider, delegated to investigate the conduct, during the battle, of Bombelles considered his retreat justified, saying that it would have been useless to advance further, and that, if he continued his march, the enemy could easily have surrounded his troops. On the day of the battle Major General Collery was at [Szerdahely](/wiki/Fert%C5%91szentmikl%C3%B3s "Fertőszentmiklós") with a brigade of the Austrian III. corps. He received news of the Hungarian attack against Csorna only at 9:30 a.m. from Bombelles, but this time the battle was already over. Collery reported this to the commandement of the III. corps, and he was ordered to retreat towards [Nagycenk](/wiki/Nagycenk "Nagycenk"), but to keep his vanguards at [Fertőszentmiklós](/wiki/Fert%C5%91szentmikl%C3%B3s "Fertőszentmiklós").{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|pp\=37}}. Days later Lieutenant Field Marshal Julius Jacob von Haynau, and Lieutenant General Franz Schlik demanded a detailed investigation, why Bombelles and Collery did not intervened in the battle of Csorna, and despite this investigation proved that they were not guilty, Haynau still removed Collery from the leadership of his brigade, putting Lieutenant General Moltke in his place. The Hungarians, after they occupied Csorna, pushed the imperials towards the marshes of Hanság. The imperials were lucky, because some days before the Austrian sappers had restored the bridges, so they could retreat over them, without this they could have easily fallen into the Hungarian trap, and been forced to surrender. Thanks to these bridges, they reached Bősárkány with heavy losses. At the same time two other Hungarian detachments from the VII corps also won victories against Austrian troops, chasing them away from Öttevény and Kóny.	[ "Battle\n------", "Kmety departed from Pápa on 12 June, and after his troops arrived at the destination, crossing the Rába river at [Malomsok](/wiki/Malomsok \"Malomsok\"),{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|p\\=25}}. they started the attack on 13 June at dawn. He had his sappers make two bridges in order to secure his troops' retreat if needed, and left a hussar company in Marcaltő. The Hungarian troops at [Szilsárkány](/wiki/Szils%C3%A1rk%C3%A1ny \"Szilsárkány\"), which prepared to attack from the south, stumbled on an imperial patrol made of lancer cavalry ([Uhlans](/wiki/Uhlan \"Uhlan\")) and captured one of them, but the others rode away. So it was a real danger, that Wyss and the Austrian troops around Csorna would be informed about the coming Hungarian attack. Kmety sent the cavalry of the Hungarian column which he wanted to send to [Farád](/wiki/Far%C3%A1d \"Farád\") to cut the way of the imperials and their envoys towards Kapuvár.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|p\\=26}}. At Szilsárkány, Kmety divided his troops for the attack. He sent the Lieutenant\\-Colonels Emil Üchritz and László Pongrácz to lead the 10th, 23rd, and 33rd Honvéd battalions with five companies of Vilmos (Wilhelm) Hussars and the 9th cavalry battery to the enemy's rear, on the route: [Bogyoszló](/wiki/Bogyoszl%C3%B3 \"Bogyoszló\") — Jobbaháza — Farád. He himself, with the 45th and 2nd Honvéd battalions, 2 jaeger companies, 2 companies of Nádor Hussars, an infantry battery, and 2 Congreve rocket launching racks marched through Szilsárkány and [Pásztori](/wiki/P%C3%A1sztori \"Pásztori\") to Csorna. So he planned to attack Csorna from three directions.", "When Emil Üchritz's troops were passing through Jobbaháza, the Lieutenant\\-Colonel learned that 15 Hungarian soldiers had been taken prisoners by a patrolling Uhlan platoon. These cavalry troops, together with an infantry company and two cavalry batteries, were stationed on an embankment between Kóny and Csorna. At Bősárkány a half infantry company with an Uhlan platoon were also stationed. These troops had the mission of observing the region to learn about Hungarian movements, and to keep the connection with the I imperial Army Corps. The Uhlan patrols' commander, lieutenant Chamot, after taking the Hungarian prisoners at Jobbaháza, heard the first roar of the cannons from Csorna, signalling the start of the battle, and in order to prevent his soldiers from being cut off by the enemy, decided to retreat towards Kapuvár. But right then, the Hungarian Vilmos\\-Hussars attacked, so the Uhlans retreated in haste, letting the prisoner soldiers loose, who thus could return to their comrades.", "The column led by Lieutenant\\-Colonels Emil Üchritz and László Pongrácz advanced on and along the road from Farád to Csorna, as follows: North from the road, the two companies of the Vilmos\\-hussars; on the road the 9th cavalry battery advanced; south from the road the 23rd and leftwards from it the 10th battalion, both having a line of skirmishers at their front lines. The 33rd battalion followed them as reserve troops.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|p\\=29}}.\n[left\\\|thumb\\\|Battle of Csorna (13 June 1849\\). Situation around 5ː00 a.m](/wiki/File:Battle_of_Csorna_%2813_June_1849%29._Situation_around_5%CB%9000_a.m.png \"Battle of Csorna (13 June 1849). Situation around 5ː00 a.m.png\")\nWyss received news from its Uhlan patrol about the 400 Hungarian troops at Szilsárkány, but he did not get concerned, thinking that they were only an isolated scout unit, so at 4:30 o'clock in the morning he commanded his troops to march out from Csorna in order to capture them. He also sent envoys to his outposts from Bágyog, Kóny, and to the half brigade from Kapuvár to advance towards Csorna. But none of the envoys arrived at their destinations.", "Shortly after that, at 4:45 o'clock, Wyss received news that some troops were advancing from the southeast, but he explained that they were the imperial battalions from the 29th infantry regiment, for which he was waiting. He sent a patrol to meet them, thanks to whom he finally learned that these were actually Hungarian soldiers.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|pp\\=26–27}}. Hearing this, Wyss took a platoon of the Uhlans and went towards the southern part of Csorna in the direction of Szilsárkány. The advance of the Hungarians was so quick that they started to fire on Csorna from three directions, long before the imperials installed their cannons.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|p\\=27}}. The surprised imperials responded well, installing their cannons and troops in a hurry, in the heavy attack and fire of the Hungarians. The attack occurred at 5 o'clock, according to Kmety and 5:15 or 5:30 o'clock, according to the Austrians, and although \\- according to their pre\\-battle reports \\- they were expecting this to happen, the extraordinary quickness of the Hungarian attack took them by surprise.\n[thumb\\\|Location of the Battle of Csorna](/wiki/File:Csornai_%C3%BCtk%C3%B6zet.jpg \"Csornai ütközet.jpg\")", "Wyss sent his baggage from Csorna to Bősárkány, guarded by two platoons of the Imperial uhlans. To cut their way, Üchritz sent two companies of the Vilmos\\-hussars together with the 9th cavalry battery. The hussars, led by Captain Wladyslaw Dzwonkowski, advanced slowly and when they observed the uhlans, who were north\\-east of the cemetery, attacked them, but because of the deep and wide trench, they could hurdle with their horses only one by one, so the uhlans waited them on the other side of the trenches and stabbed many of them to death with their lances. Then the uhlans attacked the Hussars, chasing them away, while another three platoons were sent to the uhlans' aid. In the skirmish also Captain Wladyslaw Dzwonkowski was killed. Three new uhlan platoons arrived, and attacked the Hungarian hussars from the sides, who just before were strengthened by a company of the Vilmos\\-hussars, and led by this started a counterattack. As a result of this, the Hussars were forced to retreat again, both sides suffering great losses, augmented by the Hungarian cavalry battery which, during all this time, shot in the uhlans. Then another 6 uhlan platoons arrived, with two cannons and two rockets, together with the 59\\. (Baden) infantry regiment.", "In the meantime, the 1\\. company of the 59\\. regiment entered the wood west from Csorna and chased the Hungarian infantry out, but when the Hungarian artillery opened fire, and the Hungarians counterattacked with reinforcements, the Austrians had to retreat to the town.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|pp\\=29–30}}. The 3rd and 5th companies of the 59\\. (Baden) regiment, with two cannons, positioned themselves on the road towards Kapuvár and in the cemetery, while the 2nd, 4th, and half of the 6th companies defended the western exit towards Szilsárkány, while the other half of the 6th company had the mission of maintaining the connection with the infantry from the 49\\. (Hess) regiment.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|p\\=30}}.\n[thumb\\\|Battle of Csorna (13 June 1849\\). The Hungarian troops start the attack](/wiki/File:Battle_of_Csorna_%2813_June_1849%29._The_Hungarian_troops_start_the_attack.png \"Battle of Csorna (13 June 1849). The Hungarian troops start the attack.png\")\nThe 10th and 23d Hungarian Honvéd battalions started an attack on the cemetery, while the imperials tried to stop them with rocket\\-shots, but with little success. On the narrow road towards the cemetery, the soldiers from the Hungarian lines intermingled and lost their coordination, and the officers lost control of them. Many of them pressed to the stone wall of the cemetery, so the 1st, 3d and 5th companies of the 59\\. regiment could easily repulse them and counterattack. The enemy fire also did its job mainly to the 5th Hungarian company, which was face to face with the imperial cannons.", "[thumb\\\|left\\\|Fleeing Austrian dragoons, chased by Hungarian Hussars, August von Pettenkofen](/wiki/File:Pettenkofen_menekulo_dragonyosok_1848-49.jpg \"Pettenkofen menekulo dragonyosok 1848-49.jpg\")\nAt the southern part of Csorna, the Hungarian troops led directly by Colonel Kmety attacked in three columns.", "Through the eastern road coming from Szilsárkány, attacked the 2\\. Honvéd battalion from Beszterce led by Major Mikovényi, helped by the infantry battery.{{efn\\\|Here the book of historian Róbert Hermann writes that the Beszterce battalion was helped by the 9\\. cavalry battery,. but in reality, they were the 9\\. infantry battery, as it is shown on page 26\\. But the cavalry battery was in the column of Üchritz, which attacked from the west, the direction of Farád.}} They were received by a company of the 49 (Hess) regiment, while another company was in reserve; half of them were sent to help the 2nd, 4th and 6th companies of the 59\\. regiment, pushed back by the Hungarians, as shown before. Left from them were two companies of the 14th Kaiserjaeger battalion. The Hungarian advance led by Mikovényi stopped after the Major was wounded on his knee.", "From the direction of Pásztori the 45th Honvéd battalion, two companies of [Jägers](/wiki/J%C3%A4ger_%28infantry%29 \"Jäger (infantry)\"), and two companies of the Nádor\\-hussars advanced. On one road half a company of the 49\\. (Hess) infantry regiment, while on the other 2 companies of the 14th Kaiserjaeger battalion opposed them. Captain Weiss, their commander made a [skirmish line](/wiki/Skirmish_line \"Skirmish line\") out of the half battalion of Kaiserjaegers and positioned them in the trenches; he also put two platoons in the background to left and right, and made a barricade from carriages, beams, and boards, and put the remaining company soldiers behind them.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|pp\\=31–32}}. After repulsing, with the salvos of the Kaiserjägers, the first attack of the Nádor\\-hussars, Captain Weiss ordered a continuously fighting retreat of his troops, because he knew that the 59\\. regiment which fought right from his troops was retreating, so he did not want to be encircled. The Hungarian 45th battalion was advancing on the street, together with the two Jäger companies,{{efn\\\|Some sources affirm that the 45th battalion's attack was joined also by the Nádor hussars, but others claim that they participated in the famous skirmish with the Austrian uhlans at the Western edge of Csorna.}} putting the imperials at risk of being cut in half, but Wyss arrived just in time with reinforcements, sending the 49\\. (Hess) infantry regiment against them, who together with the Kaiserjaegers pushed the Hungarians back to the entrance of Csorna.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|p\\=32}}. But here the Hungarians got a foothold in the houses east of the street, enabling a cavalry battery to join the battle and shoot grapeshot at the Kaiserjaegers and pushing two cannons forward, against which the Kaiserjaegers made an attack. But when a Hungarian Hussar platoon arrived, they retreated to their positions.", "In the meanwhile, the Hungarians attacking Csorna on the western road which came from Szilsárkány faced the 2nd and 4th companies of the 59\\. (Baden) infantry regiment, supported by two cavalry batteries which unleashed [grapeshot](/wiki/Grapeshot \"Grapeshot\"), causing them to disperse, but when the Hungarian artillery started to fire on the imperial battery, they too retreated. Wyss saw the danger and tried to convince the battery to reenter the battle, but with no success. Using this opportunity, the Hungarian infantry regrouped and entered into Csorna at that place. They advanced to the building of the tavern, but the counterattack of the 2nd infantry company, strengthened with units from the 49 (Hess) infantry regiment, caused them to retreat. In the attack the commander of the Austrian infantry, Major Weiss was wounded twice, and his place was taken by Captain Hörnes, who led these troops retreat towards the center of Csorna.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|p\\=31}}. The 2nd and 4th companies and half of the 6th company retreated towards the city's main square, followed by the Hungarians. The imperial artillery fired grapeshot, but after the Hungarian soldiers regrouped, they started to advance again. Wyss ordered his Uhlan cavalry to attack the Hungarian infantry, in order to enable to his infantry to attack. The Hungarians retreated from the attack of the uhlans, but some of them went into the houses and behind the fences, while others regrouped in the end of the street in a mass, and unleashed a fusillade against the imperial cavalry, who therefore started to retreat. But on their way back they were caught in the fire of the Hungarians who hid behind fences and in houses, inflicting heavy losses, forcing them to retreat further. After half an hour of fighting the Hungarians advanced until the main square. At the square between the convent and the tavern, the Kaiserjaegers tried to make a stand, but the salvo of the Hungarian Honvéds forced them to retreat. After harsh fighting, the Hungarians cut the imperial troops in two: the right wing which was at the exit of Csorna towards Kapuvár, and the left wing which was on the exit towards Kóny.", "When the retreating companies of the 49\\. (Hess) regiment arrived just outside of Csorna and started to gather, they were attacked by a Hungarian battalion that entered Csorna through the gardens and houses from the eastern part of the city, cutting their way towards Kóny, while to their right was another Hungarian battalion, with some hussars and two cannons, which started to fire on them. At that moment two imperial Kaiserjaegers companies also joined the 49\\. infantry regiment, and together they managed to retreat towards Bősárkány through Barbacs and Markota, covered by the skirmish\\-line of the Kaiserjaegers.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|pp\\=32–33}}.", "Between 8 and 9 o'clock, Wyss sent Lieutenant Bujanovics with the order that his troops fighting throughout Csorna must retreat towards the exit of the city leading to Bősárkány, in order to retreat together in an organized way.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|p\\=33}}. The troops in most cases were already retreating because of the pressure of the Hungarians. Many of these troops however did not follow Wyss's order, and retreated in haste towards the villages nearest to them, which shows that at that time the Hungarian troops had cut the majority of the roads on which they could fulfill their commander's order.\n[left\\\|thumb\\\|Battle of Csorna (13 June 1849\\). The Hungarian breakthrough in the center of the city](/wiki/File:Battle_of_Csorna_%2813_June_1849%29._The_Hungarian_breakthrough_in_the_center_of_the_city.png \"Battle of Csorna (13 June 1849). The Hungarian breakthrough in the center of the city.png\")\nAt this moment two companies of the Nádor\\-hussars arrived on the scene (north\\-east from the cemetery) of the place where the Vilmos Hussars and the Austrian uhlans fought with each other, and the uhlans were ready to retreat with Wyss's baggage towards Bősárkány. The Nádor hussars were formerly at the southern end of the town, but it seems that after the unsuccessful actions of the Vilmos\\-hussars, they came here and started an attack against the uhlans, then withdrew in a [feigned retreat](/wiki/Feigned_retreat \"Feigned retreat\"), and at a proper moment counterattacked, taking the uhlans by surprise, and pushed them on the Hungarian infantry lines, inflicting heavy losses. However, the hussars too had great losses, and in the end, the remaining uhlans managed to secure the retreat of the baggage towards Bősárkány. The encounter of the hussars with the uhlans was described by the writer, historian, former revolutionary [Alajos Degré](/wiki/Alajos_Degr%C3%A9 \"Alajos Degré\"), then a Hussar captain, with words of praise: The cavalry charge at Csorna was also amazing when the Emperor's Uhlan Regiment, the most famous cavalry \\[unit] of the Austrian army, arrived from Italy and asked to be sent against the Nádor Hussars, and they went toe\\-to\\-toe in wheat up to the horse's breast. \\[Captain] Dénes Dessewffy was stabbed with a lance in the stomach which came out through his back. He was saved from death by the fact that he had not eaten for thirty\\-six hours \\[...] Four times the Nádor\\-Hussars repulsed the Uhlans, who lined up for the fifth time to fight. At this fifth engagement, the divisions of both sides were now commanded by non\\-commissioned officers, as all the senior officers were \\[wounded or dead] on the ground. The memoirs of Major Ferenc Karsa add to this: It was also interesting that the Nádor hussars \\[...] rushed to attack \\[over and over] in small groups without waiting for the command. In order to curb this, platoon commander D. issued the order of the day, \"Whoever gets his sword bloodied before mine gets twenty\\-five sticks\" \\[beating]. Kmety in his post\\-battle, among other soldiers, nominated for the 3\\. class order of merit two men from the 12\\. (Nádor) Hussar Regiment: Captain Dénes Dessewffy, for continuing to participate in the fight with his hussars even after taking 2 severe lance\\-wounds, and the hussar József Balla\\-Rigó for single handedly repulsing the attack of 8 Austrian uhlans.Markó Árpád: [A csornai ütközet.](http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00018/00095/pdf/EPA00018_hadtortenelmi_1960_01_201-209.pdf) Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 1960 (volume 7, nr. 1, pp. 205 At the end of the fight, 92 Austrian Uhlans were dead or wounded, while the Hungarian Hussars had only 31 (according to other sources 36\\) casualties.", "Meanwhile, the 23rd and a part of the 10th Hungarian Honvéd battalion, getting around the cemetery and the trenches from the right, entered the streets. Lieutenant\\-Colonel László Pongrácz led the charge taking the flag of the 10th battalion, with the help of the 2nd Beszterce battalion, pushing the 1st, 3rd and 5th companies of the 59\\. (Baden) infantry regiment from the cemetery.", "These together with the five platoons of uhlans were the first units to reach Bősárkány, then retreated towards [Szentpéter](/wiki/J%C3%A1nossomorja \"Jánossomorja\"). While these followed a straight road towards Bősárkány, the other imperial columns used roundabout roads in their retreat, showing signs of disorder and panic, because they feared that the Hungarians closed their retreat way.", "In the meantime the half company of the 49\\. infantry regiment which was in the entrance towards Pásztori, also started to retreat, followed a little later by the imperial troops at the entrance towards Szilsárkány, who retreated not through the street, but through the gardens, fearing an ambush. The retreating 1 ½ company of the 49\\. infantry regiment, half of the 6th company of the 59\\. regiment, and two cannons met at the exit of the city towards Kóny; then Wyss commanded them to retreat towards Bősárkány on the [Barbacs](/wiki/Barbacs \"Barbacs\")\\-Markota road. Wyss did not follow them, but retreated to Csorna, although Captain Zerboni said to him that there were no imperial units left there, and that they were the last Austrians to leave the town.\n[left\\\|300 px\\\|thumb\\\|Pongrácz László](/wiki/File:Pongr%C3%A1cz_L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3-1.jpg \"Pongrácz László-1.jpg\")\nBujanovic then returned to Wyss, who sent him back to the right flank with the request that, if possible, the troops there should also withdraw towards Wyss's position, so that the brigade could retreat in unity. Bujanovich tried to get to the right flank, but the streets were already occupied by the Honvéds, so he tried to get there by bypassing Csorna from the north. He did not succeed in this either, but on the road to Barbacs he found Colonel Castelnau leading 3 platoons of uhlans, 2 companies of 59\\. (Baden) infantry regiment and 2 guns. Soon, two companies of the 49\\. regiment appeared on the northeastern edge of the settlement, as well as 2 Kaiserjäger companies, which were mentioned earlier. Here Bujanovics took over the leadership of all these Austrian units. He sent Captain Jósika with 3 platoons of uhlans to ride ahead, and meet with the 4 companies of infantry (the 2 companies of 49\\. regiment and the 2 companies of Kaiserjägers), but they stumbled in 45\\. Honvéd battalion, which immediately formed a [square](/wiki/Square_formation \"Square formation\") against the attacking uhlans, who gave up the attack. Castelnau tried to help the uhlans by sending also his cannons to shoot in the 45\\. battalion, but they also gave up, when 6 platoons of hussars attacked from the left.\n[thumb\\\|Battle of Csorna (13 June 1849\\). The situation around 9ː00 a.m. The Austrians retreat from the city. Wyss is killed](/wiki/File:Battle_of_Csorna_%2813_June_1849%29._The_situation_around_9%CB%9000_a.m._The_Austrians_retreat_from_the_city._Wyss_dies.png \"Battle of Csorna (13 June 1849). The situation around 9ː00 a.m. The Austrians retreat from the city. Wyss dies.png\")\nThe Austrian reports tell us that the Hungarian soldiers were helped by the inhabitants of Csorna, who participated in the battle with scythes and rifles.Markó Árpád: [A csornai ütközet.](http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00018/00095/pdf/EPA00018_hadtortenelmi_1960_01_201-209.pdf) Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 1960 (volume 7, nr. 1, pp. 207", "After the retreat from Csorna, the 6 companies of infantry, 3 uhlan platoons, and 2 cannons stopped at Bősárkány, because they heard gunshots from the direction of Kóny. Bujanovics sent 2 platoons of uhlans towards Kóny, while the rest of the troops prepared to defend themselves at Bősárkány.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|pp\\=34}}.", "Meanwhile, at the end of the battle, the Austrian commander Major General Franz Wyss died in Csorna. The accounts about his death are many but contradictory. According to an anonymous Hungarian account, Wyss was shot dead by a Honvéd soldier. According to Colonel Zámbelly he was shot by a Hungarian officer. Another Hungarian account say that Wyss was shot by a 14 years old Hungarian Jäger, who lost his company, and wandering in Csorna trying to find his unit he stumbled upon Wyss and his suite, shooting him dead, then the Austrian officers from Wyss's staff avenged their commander by killing the young Hungarian soldier.", "But the Austrian accounts do not tell nothing about this. It seems that Wyss was alone when he was killed. The Austrian accounts are more contradictory than the Hungarian ones. Some say that he was shot in his chest near a manor, then hussars and Hungarian honvéds attacked and killed him. Another Austrian account say that Wyss was attacked and killed by Hungarian peasants, who wanted to steal his horse. Others say that he was shot dead by four soldiers at the graveyard chapel. Lieutenant Bujanovics, based on \"later news\" said that Wyss went near the Hungarian infantry, and was killed by them with 3 bullets. A report from a day after the battle, recognizes that do not know anything precise about their commanders death, and they suspect that Wyss was wounded and captured by the Hungarians. So the conclusion is that there is uncertainty about Wyss's death, but probably he was shot dead at the end of the battle in Csorna, when the majority of his troops were already retreated from the town.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|pp\\=35–36}}.", "The battle was already over when the Hussar squadron that had rescued the captured Honvéds returned to the division, and under Kmety's personal command, with half of the 9th cavalry battery, they took over the pursuit of the enemy's main force. However, soon returned to Csorna due to the horses fatigue.", "### Military actions outside of Csorna, but related to the battle", "On 13 June like half of Wyss's brigade was outside of Csorna, guarding other villages and small towns in the region. On the same day in these places too some important clashes occurred between the units of the two sides.", "About an hour after the arrival of Castelnau's column in Bősárkány, the detachment led by Captain Varicourt, which stationed near the embankment from Kóny, arrived in the village. This happened because there was an additional episode of the battle. At Kmety's request \\- and possibly on his own initiative \\- Colonel Lajos Zámbelly, the Chief of Staff VII Corps', after 6:00 a.m., hearing the cannons shootings from Csorna, rode to Lesvár. He took with him the 3 hussar platoons and 3 guns that he found there, s and set off for Kóny. At the same time he sent a request for two more companies of hussars and three guns from the reserve. At Kóny, he ran into a detachment of one company of 49\\. (Hess) infantry regiment and ½ a company of the imperial uhlans, and two guns led by Captain Varicourt. Varicourt, who was stationed at Bágyog with his detachment, heard the shelling himself, and tried to get news from Csorna by sending couriers, but they did not return. So he headed to the station on the Győr road. 10 minutes after had he arrived, a column of Hungarian hussars, Zámbelly's detachment, was pushing forward on the Kóny embankment.", "Varicourt ordered the bridge to be dismantled, but they had to abandon it because of the Hungarian gunfire. The two guns of the detachment, now consisting of 2 infantry companies and 3 platoons of uhlans (according to Zámbelly's report 500 infantrymen, 50 uhlans and 2 cannons),Markó Árpád: [A csornai ütközet.](http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00018/00095/pdf/EPA00018_hadtortenelmi_1960_01_201-209.pdf) Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 1960 (volume 7, nr. 1, pp. 206 returned fire, but without any result. A quarter of an hour later Varicourt saw another Hungarian column approaching from Bágyog, and received a message that the Hungarians had taken Csorna. He then immediately ordered the retreat, but before Barbacs again deployed the 3 uhlan platoons and the 2 guns.\n[left\\\|thumb\\\|The military actions of the Hungarian troops during and after the Battle of Csorna, around the town.jpg](/wiki/File:The_military_actions_of_the_Hungarian_troops_during_and_after_the_Battle_of_Csorna.jpg \"The military actions of the Hungarian troops during and after the Battle of Csorna.jpg\")\nMeanwhile, Zámbelly crossed the bridge, and soon arrived the 2 hussar companies and 3 cannons from the reserve, which he then sent to Markota, to cut the Austrians retreat rout. He himself continued his pursuit of Varicourt, but the detachment sent towards Bősárkány could not continue its way, because they found the bridge from Cakóháza dismantled by the enemy so they could not effectively disrupt the retreat of the Austrians retreating in from Csorna. Zámbelly pursued Varicourt's detachment as far as Maglóca, which meanwhile was joined by a platoon of uhlans. At Maglóca he handed over the command to a captain, telling him to follow the enemy slowly, hoping that they will not reach Bősárkány before the Hungarian detachment sent to encircle them. However, the captain effectively stopped the enemy's pursuit, so the detachment of Varincourt reached Bősárkány unhindered.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|pp\\=34–35}}. At the same time, Lieutenant\\-General [Franz Schlik](/wiki/Franz_Schlik \"Franz Schlik\"), commander of the I Corps, arrived in Bősárkány, then he led the retreat himself. He ordered the troops to destroy the bridges on the embankment.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|pp\\=35}}. The inhabitants of the village attempted to rebuild the bridge in order to help the pursuing Hungarians to capture the retreating Austrians, whereupon the Austrian troops captured three peasants and a woman; trialed, and after a summary judgment and executed other 3 by shooting, and killed with sword another one. Enraged by the hostile behaviour of the population of Bősárkány and the actions of the guerrillas in the area, Schlik burnt the village on 21 June.", "Why did the Austrian units stationed in other localities nearby Csorna, not intervened in the battle? On the morning of 13 June, 90 imperial uhlans, 4 companies of Schönhals infantry, 4 companies of Lika border guards and 3 artillery pieces were stationed in Kapuvár under the command of Major Bombelles. Major Kahlert was in [Mihályi](/wiki/Mih%C3%A1lyi \"Mihályi\") with two companies of Lika border guards, two companies of Schönhals infantrymen and one company of imperial uhlans, who had arrived the night before as replacements for the fatigued troops.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|pp\\=36}}. At dawn, the uhlans sent a reconnaissance patrol to Sebes, Marcal and [Szany](/wiki/Szany \"Szany\"). The patrol, however, returned with the report that \"they spotted an enemy column at Szany marching towards [Szil](/wiki/Szil \"Szil\"), and they are followed by cavalry\". The patrol also captured two honvéds, who said that during the night 11,000 Hungarians had marched with four squadrons of hussars towards Csorna. Kahlert reported this to Major Bombelles. Bombelles himself sent patrols towards Mihályi and Babót during the night, but they did not detect anything. At half past five in the morning, he heard gunfire from Csorna, and the report of his patrol sent at 4:00 a.m. arrived at the same time, reporting about the Hungarian attack against Csorna. Bombelles then left a company of the Schönhals infantry with one gun behind to cover Kapuvár, and he himself with 3 companies of the Schönhals, 3 platoons of uhlans and 2 guns pushed through Babót towards Jobbaháza. When he was heading to Jobbahágya, he learned from one of his patrols, that the Hungarians took Csorna, and the half brigade of Wyss retreated to Bősárkány. Bombelles then returned to Kapuvár, and at 4 p.m. evacuated the settlement and took up a position in [Vitnyéd](/wiki/Vitny%C3%A9d \"Vitnyéd\"). Colonel Schneider, delegated to investigate the conduct, during the battle, of Bombelles considered his retreat justified, saying that it would have been useless to advance further, and that, if he continued his march, the enemy could easily have surrounded his troops.", "On the day of the battle Major General Collery was at [Szerdahely](/wiki/Fert%C5%91szentmikl%C3%B3s \"Fertőszentmiklós\") with a brigade of the Austrian III. corps. He received news of the Hungarian attack against Csorna only at 9:30 a.m. from Bombelles, but this time the battle was already over. Collery reported this to the commandement of the III. corps, and he was ordered to retreat towards [Nagycenk](/wiki/Nagycenk \"Nagycenk\"), but to keep his vanguards at [Fertőszentmiklós](/wiki/Fert%C5%91szentmikl%C3%B3s \"Fertőszentmiklós\").{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|pp\\=37}}.", "Days later Lieutenant Field Marshal Julius Jacob von Haynau, and Lieutenant General Franz Schlik demanded a detailed investigation, why Bombelles and Collery did not intervened in the battle of Csorna, and despite this investigation proved that they were not guilty, Haynau still removed Collery from the leadership of his brigade, putting Lieutenant General Moltke in his place.", "The Hungarians, after they occupied Csorna, pushed the imperials towards the marshes of Hanság. The imperials were lucky, because some days before the Austrian sappers had restored the bridges, so they could retreat over them, without this they could have easily fallen into the Hungarian trap, and been forced to surrender. Thanks to these bridges, they reached Bősárkány with heavy losses. At the same time two other Hungarian detachments from the VII corps also won victories against Austrian troops, chasing them away from Öttevény and Kóny.", "" ]
### Military actions outside of Csorna, but related to the battle On 13 June like half of Wyss's brigade was outside of Csorna, guarding other villages and small towns in the region. On the same day in these places too some important clashes occurred between the units of the two sides. About an hour after the arrival of Castelnau's column in Bősárkány, the detachment led by Captain Varicourt, which stationed near the embankment from Kóny, arrived in the village. This happened because there was an additional episode of the battle. At Kmety's request \- and possibly on his own initiative \- Colonel Lajos Zámbelly, the Chief of Staff VII Corps', after 6:00 a.m., hearing the cannons shootings from Csorna, rode to Lesvár. He took with him the 3 hussar platoons and 3 guns that he found there, s and set off for Kóny. At the same time he sent a request for two more companies of hussars and three guns from the reserve. At Kóny, he ran into a detachment of one company of 49\. (Hess) infantry regiment and ½ a company of the imperial uhlans, and two guns led by Captain Varicourt. Varicourt, who was stationed at Bágyog with his detachment, heard the shelling himself, and tried to get news from Csorna by sending couriers, but they did not return. So he headed to the station on the Győr road. 10 minutes after had he arrived, a column of Hungarian hussars, Zámbelly's detachment, was pushing forward on the Kóny embankment. Varicourt ordered the bridge to be dismantled, but they had to abandon it because of the Hungarian gunfire. The two guns of the detachment, now consisting of 2 infantry companies and 3 platoons of uhlans (according to Zámbelly's report 500 infantrymen, 50 uhlans and 2 cannons),Markó Árpád: [A csornai ütközet.](http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00018/00095/pdf/EPA00018_hadtortenelmi_1960_01_201-209.pdf) Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 1960 (volume 7, nr. 1, pp. 206 returned fire, but without any result. A quarter of an hour later Varicourt saw another Hungarian column approaching from Bágyog, and received a message that the Hungarians had taken Csorna. He then immediately ordered the retreat, but before Barbacs again deployed the 3 uhlan platoons and the 2 guns. [left\\|thumb\\|The military actions of the Hungarian troops during and after the Battle of Csorna, around the town.jpg](/wiki/File:The_military_actions_of_the_Hungarian_troops_during_and_after_the_Battle_of_Csorna.jpg "The military actions of the Hungarian troops during and after the Battle of Csorna.jpg") Meanwhile, Zámbelly crossed the bridge, and soon arrived the 2 hussar companies and 3 cannons from the reserve, which he then sent to Markota, to cut the Austrians retreat rout. He himself continued his pursuit of Varicourt, but the detachment sent towards Bősárkány could not continue its way, because they found the bridge from Cakóháza dismantled by the enemy so they could not effectively disrupt the retreat of the Austrians retreating in from Csorna. Zámbelly pursued Varicourt's detachment as far as Maglóca, which meanwhile was joined by a platoon of uhlans. At Maglóca he handed over the command to a captain, telling him to follow the enemy slowly, hoping that they will not reach Bősárkány before the Hungarian detachment sent to encircle them. However, the captain effectively stopped the enemy's pursuit, so the detachment of Varincourt reached Bősárkány unhindered.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|pp\=34–35}}. At the same time, Lieutenant\-General [Franz Schlik](/wiki/Franz_Schlik "Franz Schlik"), commander of the I Corps, arrived in Bősárkány, then he led the retreat himself. He ordered the troops to destroy the bridges on the embankment.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|pp\=35}}. The inhabitants of the village attempted to rebuild the bridge in order to help the pursuing Hungarians to capture the retreating Austrians, whereupon the Austrian troops captured three peasants and a woman; trialed, and after a summary judgment and executed other 3 by shooting, and killed with sword another one. Enraged by the hostile behaviour of the population of Bősárkány and the actions of the guerrillas in the area, Schlik burnt the village on 21 June. Why did the Austrian units stationed in other localities nearby Csorna, not intervened in the battle? On the morning of 13 June, 90 imperial uhlans, 4 companies of Schönhals infantry, 4 companies of Lika border guards and 3 artillery pieces were stationed in Kapuvár under the command of Major Bombelles. Major Kahlert was in [Mihályi](/wiki/Mih%C3%A1lyi "Mihályi") with two companies of Lika border guards, two companies of Schönhals infantrymen and one company of imperial uhlans, who had arrived the night before as replacements for the fatigued troops.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|pp\=36}}. At dawn, the uhlans sent a reconnaissance patrol to Sebes, Marcal and [Szany](/wiki/Szany "Szany"). The patrol, however, returned with the report that "they spotted an enemy column at Szany marching towards [Szil](/wiki/Szil "Szil"), and they are followed by cavalry". The patrol also captured two honvéds, who said that during the night 11,000 Hungarians had marched with four squadrons of hussars towards Csorna. Kahlert reported this to Major Bombelles. Bombelles himself sent patrols towards Mihályi and Babót during the night, but they did not detect anything. At half past five in the morning, he heard gunfire from Csorna, and the report of his patrol sent at 4:00 a.m. arrived at the same time, reporting about the Hungarian attack against Csorna. Bombelles then left a company of the Schönhals infantry with one gun behind to cover Kapuvár, and he himself with 3 companies of the Schönhals, 3 platoons of uhlans and 2 guns pushed through Babót towards Jobbaháza. When he was heading to Jobbahágya, he learned from one of his patrols, that the Hungarians took Csorna, and the half brigade of Wyss retreated to Bősárkány. Bombelles then returned to Kapuvár, and at 4 p.m. evacuated the settlement and took up a position in [Vitnyéd](/wiki/Vitny%C3%A9d "Vitnyéd"). Colonel Schneider, delegated to investigate the conduct, during the battle, of Bombelles considered his retreat justified, saying that it would have been useless to advance further, and that, if he continued his march, the enemy could easily have surrounded his troops. On the day of the battle Major General Collery was at [Szerdahely](/wiki/Fert%C5%91szentmikl%C3%B3s "Fertőszentmiklós") with a brigade of the Austrian III. corps. He received news of the Hungarian attack against Csorna only at 9:30 a.m. from Bombelles, but this time the battle was already over. Collery reported this to the commandement of the III. corps, and he was ordered to retreat towards [Nagycenk](/wiki/Nagycenk "Nagycenk"), but to keep his vanguards at [Fertőszentmiklós](/wiki/Fert%C5%91szentmikl%C3%B3s "Fertőszentmiklós").{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|pp\=37}}. Days later Lieutenant Field Marshal Julius Jacob von Haynau, and Lieutenant General Franz Schlik demanded a detailed investigation, why Bombelles and Collery did not intervened in the battle of Csorna, and despite this investigation proved that they were not guilty, Haynau still removed Collery from the leadership of his brigade, putting Lieutenant General Moltke in his place. The Hungarians, after they occupied Csorna, pushed the imperials towards the marshes of Hanság. The imperials were lucky, because some days before the Austrian sappers had restored the bridges, so they could retreat over them, without this they could have easily fallen into the Hungarian trap, and been forced to surrender. Thanks to these bridges, they reached Bősárkány with heavy losses. At the same time two other Hungarian detachments from the VII corps also won victories against Austrian troops, chasing them away from Öttevény and Kóny.	[ "### Military actions outside of Csorna, but related to the battle", "On 13 June like half of Wyss's brigade was outside of Csorna, guarding other villages and small towns in the region. On the same day in these places too some important clashes occurred between the units of the two sides.", "About an hour after the arrival of Castelnau's column in Bősárkány, the detachment led by Captain Varicourt, which stationed near the embankment from Kóny, arrived in the village. This happened because there was an additional episode of the battle. At Kmety's request \\- and possibly on his own initiative \\- Colonel Lajos Zámbelly, the Chief of Staff VII Corps', after 6:00 a.m., hearing the cannons shootings from Csorna, rode to Lesvár. He took with him the 3 hussar platoons and 3 guns that he found there, s and set off for Kóny. At the same time he sent a request for two more companies of hussars and three guns from the reserve. At Kóny, he ran into a detachment of one company of 49\\. (Hess) infantry regiment and ½ a company of the imperial uhlans, and two guns led by Captain Varicourt. Varicourt, who was stationed at Bágyog with his detachment, heard the shelling himself, and tried to get news from Csorna by sending couriers, but they did not return. So he headed to the station on the Győr road. 10 minutes after had he arrived, a column of Hungarian hussars, Zámbelly's detachment, was pushing forward on the Kóny embankment.", "Varicourt ordered the bridge to be dismantled, but they had to abandon it because of the Hungarian gunfire. The two guns of the detachment, now consisting of 2 infantry companies and 3 platoons of uhlans (according to Zámbelly's report 500 infantrymen, 50 uhlans and 2 cannons),Markó Árpád: [A csornai ütközet.](http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00018/00095/pdf/EPA00018_hadtortenelmi_1960_01_201-209.pdf) Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 1960 (volume 7, nr. 1, pp. 206 returned fire, but without any result. A quarter of an hour later Varicourt saw another Hungarian column approaching from Bágyog, and received a message that the Hungarians had taken Csorna. He then immediately ordered the retreat, but before Barbacs again deployed the 3 uhlan platoons and the 2 guns.\n[left\\\|thumb\\\|The military actions of the Hungarian troops during and after the Battle of Csorna, around the town.jpg](/wiki/File:The_military_actions_of_the_Hungarian_troops_during_and_after_the_Battle_of_Csorna.jpg \"The military actions of the Hungarian troops during and after the Battle of Csorna.jpg\")\nMeanwhile, Zámbelly crossed the bridge, and soon arrived the 2 hussar companies and 3 cannons from the reserve, which he then sent to Markota, to cut the Austrians retreat rout. He himself continued his pursuit of Varicourt, but the detachment sent towards Bősárkány could not continue its way, because they found the bridge from Cakóháza dismantled by the enemy so they could not effectively disrupt the retreat of the Austrians retreating in from Csorna. Zámbelly pursued Varicourt's detachment as far as Maglóca, which meanwhile was joined by a platoon of uhlans. At Maglóca he handed over the command to a captain, telling him to follow the enemy slowly, hoping that they will not reach Bősárkány before the Hungarian detachment sent to encircle them. However, the captain effectively stopped the enemy's pursuit, so the detachment of Varincourt reached Bősárkány unhindered.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|pp\\=34–35}}. At the same time, Lieutenant\\-General [Franz Schlik](/wiki/Franz_Schlik \"Franz Schlik\"), commander of the I Corps, arrived in Bősárkány, then he led the retreat himself. He ordered the troops to destroy the bridges on the embankment.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|pp\\=35}}. The inhabitants of the village attempted to rebuild the bridge in order to help the pursuing Hungarians to capture the retreating Austrians, whereupon the Austrian troops captured three peasants and a woman; trialed, and after a summary judgment and executed other 3 by shooting, and killed with sword another one. Enraged by the hostile behaviour of the population of Bősárkány and the actions of the guerrillas in the area, Schlik burnt the village on 21 June.", "Why did the Austrian units stationed in other localities nearby Csorna, not intervened in the battle? On the morning of 13 June, 90 imperial uhlans, 4 companies of Schönhals infantry, 4 companies of Lika border guards and 3 artillery pieces were stationed in Kapuvár under the command of Major Bombelles. Major Kahlert was in [Mihályi](/wiki/Mih%C3%A1lyi \"Mihályi\") with two companies of Lika border guards, two companies of Schönhals infantrymen and one company of imperial uhlans, who had arrived the night before as replacements for the fatigued troops.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|pp\\=36}}. At dawn, the uhlans sent a reconnaissance patrol to Sebes, Marcal and [Szany](/wiki/Szany \"Szany\"). The patrol, however, returned with the report that \"they spotted an enemy column at Szany marching towards [Szil](/wiki/Szil \"Szil\"), and they are followed by cavalry\". The patrol also captured two honvéds, who said that during the night 11,000 Hungarians had marched with four squadrons of hussars towards Csorna. Kahlert reported this to Major Bombelles. Bombelles himself sent patrols towards Mihályi and Babót during the night, but they did not detect anything. At half past five in the morning, he heard gunfire from Csorna, and the report of his patrol sent at 4:00 a.m. arrived at the same time, reporting about the Hungarian attack against Csorna. Bombelles then left a company of the Schönhals infantry with one gun behind to cover Kapuvár, and he himself with 3 companies of the Schönhals, 3 platoons of uhlans and 2 guns pushed through Babót towards Jobbaháza. When he was heading to Jobbahágya, he learned from one of his patrols, that the Hungarians took Csorna, and the half brigade of Wyss retreated to Bősárkány. Bombelles then returned to Kapuvár, and at 4 p.m. evacuated the settlement and took up a position in [Vitnyéd](/wiki/Vitny%C3%A9d \"Vitnyéd\"). Colonel Schneider, delegated to investigate the conduct, during the battle, of Bombelles considered his retreat justified, saying that it would have been useless to advance further, and that, if he continued his march, the enemy could easily have surrounded his troops.", "On the day of the battle Major General Collery was at [Szerdahely](/wiki/Fert%C5%91szentmikl%C3%B3s \"Fertőszentmiklós\") with a brigade of the Austrian III. corps. He received news of the Hungarian attack against Csorna only at 9:30 a.m. from Bombelles, but this time the battle was already over. Collery reported this to the commandement of the III. corps, and he was ordered to retreat towards [Nagycenk](/wiki/Nagycenk \"Nagycenk\"), but to keep his vanguards at [Fertőszentmiklós](/wiki/Fert%C5%91szentmikl%C3%B3s \"Fertőszentmiklós\").{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|pp\\=37}}.", "Days later Lieutenant Field Marshal Julius Jacob von Haynau, and Lieutenant General Franz Schlik demanded a detailed investigation, why Bombelles and Collery did not intervened in the battle of Csorna, and despite this investigation proved that they were not guilty, Haynau still removed Collery from the leadership of his brigade, putting Lieutenant General Moltke in his place.", "The Hungarians, after they occupied Csorna, pushed the imperials towards the marshes of Hanság. The imperials were lucky, because some days before the Austrian sappers had restored the bridges, so they could retreat over them, without this they could have easily fallen into the Hungarian trap, and been forced to surrender. Thanks to these bridges, they reached Bősárkány with heavy losses. At the same time two other Hungarian detachments from the VII corps also won victories against Austrian troops, chasing them away from Öttevény and Kóny.", "" ]
Aftermath --------- After this success Kmety retreated with the bulk of his troops on the right bank of the Rába, leaving only a weak advance guard in Csorna.{{Harvnb\\|Pusztaszeri\\|1984\\|p\=446}}. After the battle the population of Csorna was accused of helping the Hungarian troops, some saying that some inhabitants wanted to kill the Austrian wounded soldiers.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|p\=39}}. Haynau said that if its proven that the inhabitants helped the Hungarians, they should be punished to give 200 oxen. But when Haynau was informed by Colonel Schneider, that people from Csorna killed Austrian wounded soldiers, he ordered the burning of the city. On 26 June the Austrian troops led by Schneider, put fire on 3 edges of Csorna, which was partially destroyed. Kmety's attack at Csorna caused serious confusion among the leaders of the imperial troops. Schlik proposed that the Austrian III. Corps to advance to Fertőszentmiklós. However, Lieutenant General Burits, the temporary commander of III. Corps, withdrew his troops and wanted to place them as close to the border as possible, because he taught that Kmety had 25,000 \- 30,000 soldiers at Csorna, Szil, Kiscell and Marcaltő, and these could seriously put his troops in danger.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|pp\=37–38}}. But Haynau declared, correctly, that it is very unlikely that a Hungarian army so strong could be on the right (southern) bank of the Danube, and that he supports an active, aggressive conduct from his troops, who, if they were attacked, instead of retreating, should resist and, if it is possible, to counterattack, while the other troops nearby should immediately come to their rescue as soon they hear the cannon shots.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|pp\=38}}. Despite losing, in that period, a series of smaller battles [Szered](/wiki/Szered "Szered") (on 9 June), Csorna, [Seregakol](/wiki/Kol%C3%A1rovo "Kolárovo") and [Aszódpuszta](/wiki/Oko%C4%8D "Okoč") (on 13 June), Seregakol and [Vásárút](/wiki/V%C3%A1s%C3%A1r%C3%BAt "Vásárút") (on 14 June) and Pata and [Sopornya](/wiki/Sopornya "Sopornya") (on 15 June), he did not lose his head. The next days prove that he was right, and his troops started to win battles (16\. June [Zsigárd](/wiki/Battle_of_Zsig%C3%A1rd "Battle of Zsigárd"), [Sempte](/wiki/%C5%A0intava "Šintava"), [Patas](/wiki/Pata%C5%A1 "Pataš"); 20–21 June [Pered](/wiki/Battle_of_Pered "Battle of Pered")).{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|pp\=39}}. For this successful battle Colonel György Kmety was awarded on 27 June with the rank of General.Markó Árpád: [A csornai ütközet.](http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00018/00095/pdf/EPA00018_hadtortenelmi_1960_01_201-209.pdf) Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 1960 (volume 7, nr. 1, pp. 209 Kmety's attack could have had very positive results for the planned general Hungarian attack, making Haynau send troops to the right banks of the Danube, thus easing the job of the Hungarian main armies, who wanted to attack in the region of the [Vág](/wiki/V%C3%A1g "Vág") river, which was on the left bank. Haynau indeed started to group his troops on the right bank, but not for defensive reasons, but because he himself wanted to attack. So, Kmety's action resulted in a great Hungarian tactical success, but did not have more important results. Haynau penalized the imperial officers from Wyss's half brigade, whom he found to be guilty of the defeat, continuing at the same time to prepare for his attack. The Austrians and Russians still enjoyed numerical and technical superiority. The Hungarian army corps changed leaders by bringing new Hungarian commanders, inexperienced or unsuited for their heavy tasks, in the places of the talented and experienced generals like [János Damjanich](/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Damjanich "János Damjanich"), [András Gáspár](/wiki/Andr%C3%A1s_G%C3%A1sp%C3%A1r_%28general%29 "András Gáspár (general)"), and [Lajos Aulich](/wiki/Lajos_Aulich "Lajos Aulich"), who because of different causes had to retire, or were moved into other positions. The Governor, President Lajos Kossuth had conflicts with the commander in chief of the army and at the same time with Minister of War General Artúr Görgei. Last but not least, the news of hugely superior Russian armies entering different parts of Hungarian soil had a demoralizing effect on Hungarian soldiers. So for all those reasons, the attack of Haynau's main imperial troops over the following days and weeks started to defeat the Hungarian armies more and more, eventually forcing them to start to retreat towards Komárom.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|2001\\|pp\=316–319, 325–327}}. An interesting event happened long after the battle. In August 1852, 12 officers of the Austrian imperial uhlan regiment appeared at the dungeon of [Arad](/wiki/Arad%2C_Romania "Arad, Romania"), where the Hungarian soldiers served their prison sentence for fighting in the Hungarian war of independence from 1848 to 1849\. They asked the prisoners if there are among them hussars of the Nádor regiment, who fought at Csorna. The prisoners pointed at Gedeon Virágh, who led the 2 companies of the regiment in the battle of Csorna. When the former Hungarian officer asked them what they want. They told him that they are from the Imperial Uhlan Regiment, with which the Nádor Hussars fought in the battle of Csorna, and until then, they fought battles in Italy, where they won every of their engagements, and only the Hussars led by Virágh defeated them at Csorna. And now they shaked his hand and congratulated him.{{Harvnb\\|Hermann\\|1999\\|pp\=40}}.	[ "Aftermath\n---------", "After this success Kmety retreated with the bulk of his troops on the right bank of the Rába, leaving only a weak advance guard in Csorna.{{Harvnb\\\|Pusztaszeri\\\|1984\\\|p\\=446}}.", "After the battle the population of Csorna was accused of helping the Hungarian troops, some saying that some inhabitants wanted to kill the Austrian wounded soldiers.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|p\\=39}}. Haynau said that if its proven that the inhabitants helped the Hungarians, they should be punished to give 200 oxen. But when Haynau was informed by Colonel Schneider, that people from Csorna killed Austrian wounded soldiers, he ordered the burning of the city. On 26 June the Austrian troops led by Schneider, put fire on 3 edges of Csorna, which was partially destroyed.", "Kmety's attack at Csorna caused serious confusion among the leaders of the imperial troops. Schlik proposed that the Austrian III. Corps to advance to Fertőszentmiklós. However, Lieutenant General Burits, the temporary commander of III. Corps, withdrew his troops and wanted to place them as close to the border as possible, because he taught that Kmety had 25,000 \\- 30,000 soldiers at Csorna, Szil, Kiscell and Marcaltő, and these could seriously put his troops in danger.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|pp\\=37–38}}. But Haynau declared, correctly, that it is very unlikely that a Hungarian army so strong could be on the right (southern) bank of the Danube, and that he supports an active, aggressive conduct from his troops, who, if they were attacked, instead of retreating, should resist and, if it is possible, to counterattack, while the other troops nearby should immediately come to their rescue as soon they hear the cannon shots.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|pp\\=38}}. Despite losing, in that period, a series of smaller battles [Szered](/wiki/Szered \"Szered\") (on 9 June), Csorna, [Seregakol](/wiki/Kol%C3%A1rovo \"Kolárovo\") and [Aszódpuszta](/wiki/Oko%C4%8D \"Okoč\") (on 13 June), Seregakol and [Vásárút](/wiki/V%C3%A1s%C3%A1r%C3%BAt \"Vásárút\") (on 14 June) and Pata and [Sopornya](/wiki/Sopornya \"Sopornya\") (on 15 June), he did not lose his head. The next days prove that he was right, and his troops started to win battles (16\\. June [Zsigárd](/wiki/Battle_of_Zsig%C3%A1rd \"Battle of Zsigárd\"), [Sempte](/wiki/%C5%A0intava \"Šintava\"), [Patas](/wiki/Pata%C5%A1 \"Pataš\"); 20–21 June [Pered](/wiki/Battle_of_Pered \"Battle of Pered\")).{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|pp\\=39}}.", "For this successful battle Colonel György Kmety was awarded on 27 June with the rank of General.Markó Árpád: [A csornai ütközet.](http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/00018/00095/pdf/EPA00018_hadtortenelmi_1960_01_201-209.pdf) Hadtörténelmi Közlemények 1960 (volume 7, nr. 1, pp. 209", "Kmety's attack could have had very positive results for the planned general Hungarian attack, making Haynau send troops to the right banks of the Danube, thus easing the job of the Hungarian main armies, who wanted to attack in the region of the [Vág](/wiki/V%C3%A1g \"Vág\") river, which was on the left bank. Haynau indeed started to group his troops on the right bank, but not for defensive reasons, but because he himself wanted to attack. So, Kmety's action resulted in a great Hungarian tactical success, but did not have more important results. Haynau penalized the imperial officers from Wyss's half brigade, whom he found to be guilty of the defeat, continuing at the same time to prepare for his attack.", "The Austrians and Russians still enjoyed numerical and technical superiority. The Hungarian army corps changed leaders by bringing new Hungarian commanders, inexperienced or unsuited for their heavy tasks, in the places of the talented and experienced generals like [János Damjanich](/wiki/J%C3%A1nos_Damjanich \"János Damjanich\"), [András Gáspár](/wiki/Andr%C3%A1s_G%C3%A1sp%C3%A1r_%28general%29 \"András Gáspár (general)\"), and [Lajos Aulich](/wiki/Lajos_Aulich \"Lajos Aulich\"), who because of different causes had to retire, or were moved into other positions. The Governor, President Lajos Kossuth had conflicts with the commander in chief of the army and at the same time with Minister of War General Artúr Görgei. Last but not least, the news of hugely superior Russian armies entering different parts of Hungarian soil had a demoralizing effect on Hungarian soldiers. So for all those reasons, the attack of Haynau's main imperial troops over the following days and weeks started to defeat the Hungarian armies more and more, eventually forcing them to start to retreat towards Komárom.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|2001\\\|pp\\=316–319, 325–327}}.", "An interesting event happened long after the battle. In August 1852, 12 officers of the Austrian imperial uhlan regiment appeared at the dungeon of [Arad](/wiki/Arad%2C_Romania \"Arad, Romania\"), where the Hungarian soldiers served their prison sentence for fighting in the Hungarian war of independence from 1848 to 1849\\. They asked the prisoners if there are among them hussars of the Nádor regiment, who fought at Csorna. The prisoners pointed at Gedeon Virágh, who led the 2 companies of the regiment in the battle of Csorna. When the former Hungarian officer asked them what they want. They told him that they are from the Imperial Uhlan Regiment, with which the Nádor Hussars fought in the battle of Csorna, and until then, they fought battles in Italy, where they won every of their engagements, and only the Hussars led by Virágh defeated them at Csorna. And now they shaked his hand and congratulated him.{{Harvnb\\\|Hermann\\\|1999\\\|pp\\=40}}.", "" ]
Ward results ------------ \* \- Previously a member of the preceding Common Council ### Everton and Kirkdale {{Election box begin \\| title\=No. 1 \[\[Everton (Liverpool ward)\\|Everton and Kirkdale]] \- 3 seats}} {{Election box winning candidate\\| \\|party \= Reformer \\|candidate \= John Holmes \\|votes \= 224 \\|percentage \= 51% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate\\| \\|party \= Reformer \\|candidate \= S. Hope \\|votes \= 215 \\|percentage \= 49% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Charles Horsfall \* \\|votes \= 214 \\|percentage \= 49% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate\\| \\|party \= Reformer \\|candidate \= Joseph Hornby \\|votes \= 211 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= \[\[Adam Hodgson]] \\|votes \= 195 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= W. C. Molyneux \\|votes \= 193 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box majority\\| \\|votes \= 10 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box Registered electors \\|reg. electors \= 503 }} {{Election box turnout\\| \\|votes \= 438 \\|percentage \= 87% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Conservative Party (UK) }} {{Election box end}} The polling place for the township of Kirkdale was Mrs. Stretch's public house in Kirkdale Village. The polling place for Everton township was Halliday's, Everton Coffee\-house ### Scotland {{Election box begin \\| title\=No. 2 \[\[Scotland (Liverpool ward)\\|Scotland]] \- 3 seats}} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Crawford Logan \\|votes \= 177 \\|percentage \= 60% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= William Thornhill \\|votes \= 171 \\|percentage \= 58% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Richard Shiel \\|votes \= 159 \\|percentage \= 54% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Richard Houghton \\|votes \= 118 \\|percentage \= 40% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= James Heyworth \\|votes \= 96 \\|percentage \= 33% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Mr. Foster \\|votes \= 89 \\|percentage \= 30% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box majority\\| \\|votes \= 59 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box Registered electors \\|reg. electors \= 345 }} {{Election box turnout\\| \\|votes \= 295 \\|percentage \= 86% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box end}} The Polling place was Mr. Horner's at the corner of Eccles\-street and Vauxhall\-road. ### Vauxhall {{Election box begin \\| title\=No. 3 \[\[Vauxhall (Liverpool ward)\\|Vauxhall]] \- 3 seats}} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Enoch Harvey \\|votes \= 92 \\|percentage \= 55% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Egerton Smith \\|votes \= 86 \\|percentage \= 51% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= J. D. Thornely \\|votes \= 80 \\|percentage \= 48% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Henry Coupland \\|votes \= 76 \\|percentage \= 45% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= John Wright '''\''' \\|votes \= 74 \\|percentage \= 44% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Joseph Ackers \\|votes \= 66 \\|percentage \= 39% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box majority\\| \\|votes \= 16 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box Registered electors \\|reg. electors \= 201 }} {{Election box turnout\\| \\|votes \= 168 \\|percentage \= 84% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box end}} The polling place was at the Vauxhall Vaults, corner of Banastre\-street and Vauxhall\-road. ### St. Paul's {{Election box begin \\| title\=No. 4 \[\[St. Paul's (Liverpool ward)\\|St. Paul's]] \- 3 seats}} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Christopher Rawdon \\|votes \= 137 \\|percentage \= 54% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Alexander McGregor \\|votes \= 124 \\|percentage \= 48% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= John Barton \\|votes \= 119 \\|percentage \= 46% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= William Stuart \\|votes \= 117 \\|percentage \= 46% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= R. B. B. Hollinshead \\|votes \= 102 \\|percentage \= 40% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= William Shand \\|votes \= 89 \\|percentage \= 35% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box majority\\| \\|votes \= 18 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box Registered electors \\|reg. electors \= 297 }} {{Election box turnout\\| \\|votes \= 256 \\|percentage \= 86% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Conservative Party (UK) }} {{Election box end}} Polling place : At Mather's Baths, corner of St. Paul's\-square and Virginia\-street ### Exchange {{Election box begin \\| title\=No. 5 \[\[Exchange (Liverpool ward)\\|Exchange]] \- 3 seats}} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= James Holmes \\|votes \= 179 \\|percentage \= 56% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Lawrence Heyworth \\|votes \= 167 \\|percentage \= 53% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= \[\[James Mellor (merchant)\\|James Mellor]] \\|votes \= 161 \\|percentage \= 51% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Thomas Sands \\|votes \= 139 \\|percentage \= 44% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= John Bent \\|votes \= 126 \\|percentage \= 40% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= G. B. Irlam \\|votes \= 118 \\|percentage \= 37% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box majority\\| \\|votes \= 40 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box Registered electors \\|reg. electors \= 468 }} {{Election box turnout\\| \\|votes \= 318 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box end}} Polling places : Surnames A to K : at the south end of the Sessions'\-house in South Chapel\-street. Surnames L to Z : at the north end of the Sessions'\-house in Chapel\-street. ### Castle Street {{Election box begin \\| title\=No. 6 \[\[Castle Street (Liverpool ward)\\|Castle Street]] \- 3 seats}} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Joshua Walmsley \\|votes \= 260 \\|percentage \= 73% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Charles Birch \\|votes \= 259 \\|percentage \= 73% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Thomas Bolton \\|votes \= 248 \\|percentage \= 70% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Sir Thomas Brancker '''\''' \\|votes \= 96 \\|percentage \= 27% \\|change \= }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= George Grant \\|votes \= 83 \\|percentage \= 23% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Mr. Wood \\|votes \= 78 \\|percentage \= 22% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box majority\\| \\|votes \= 164 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box Registered electors \\|reg. electors \= 604 }} {{Election box turnout\\| \\|votes \= 356 \\|percentage \= 59% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box end}} Polling place : At the two windows of the King's Arms Hotel fronting Castle\-street ### St. Peter's {{Election box begin \\| title\=No. 7 \[\[St. Peter's (Liverpool ward)\\|St. Peter's]] \- 3 seats}} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= John Woollright \\|votes \= 205 \\|percentage \= 59% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= William Rushton \\|votes \= 200 \\|percentage \= 57% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Richard Bright \\|votes \= 190 \\|percentage \= 54% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Mr. Potter \\|votes \= 145 \\|percentage \= 41% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Nathan Litherland \\|votes \= 143 \\|percentage \= 41% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Thomas Tobin \\|votes \= 142 \\|percentage \= 41% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box majority\\| \\|votes \= 60 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box Registered electors \\|reg. electors \= 548 }} {{Election box turnout\\| \\|votes \= 359 \\|percentage \= 64% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box end}} Polling place : At the two windows of the Horse and Jockey public\-house fronting Seel\-street ### Pitt Street {{Election box begin \\| title\=No. 8 \[\[Pitt Street (Liverpool ward)\\|Pitt Street]] \- 3 seats}} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Hugh Hornby \\|votes \= 201 \\|percentage \= 56% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= \[\[William Rathbone V\\|William Rathbone]] \\|votes \= 193 \\|percentage \= 54% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= William Robert Preston \\|votes \= 184 \\|percentage \= 51% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= John Bibby \\|votes \= 158 \\|percentage \= 44% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Peter Bourne \\|votes \= 151 \\|percentage \= 42% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= T. C. Molyneux \\|votes \= 140 \\|percentage \= 39% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box majority\\| \\|votes \= 43 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box Registered electors \\|reg. electors \= 532 }} {{Election box turnout\\| \\|votes \= 359 \\|percentage \= 67% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box end}} Polling place : At two compartments in the South Free School in Park\-lane. ### Great George {{Election box begin \\| title\=No. 9 \[\[Great George (Liverpool ward)\\|Great George]]}} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= James Lawrence \\|votes \= 237 \\|percentage \= 64% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Wellwood Maxwell \\|votes \= 146 \\|percentage \= 40% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= James Aikin \\|votes \= 135 \\|percentage \= 37% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Charles Lawrence '''\''' \\|votes \= 131 \\|percentage \= 36% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Joseph Cooper \\|votes \= 108 \\|percentage \= 29% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box majority\\| \\|votes \= 106 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box Registered electors \\|reg. electors \= 335 }} {{Election box turnout\\| \\|votes \= \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box end}} Polling place : At a warehouse, east side of St. James's\-street, near the corner of St. Vincent\-street. ### Rodney Street {{Election box begin \\| title\=No. 10 \[\[Rodney Street (Liverpool ward)\\|Rodney Street]] \- 3 seats}} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Henry Lawrence \\|votes \= 198 \\|percentage \= 50\.1% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= William Lassell \\|votes \= 197 \\|percentage \= 49\.9% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Thomas Holt \\|votes \= 194 \\|percentage \= 49% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Dr. J. P. Brandreth \\|votes \= 192 \\|percentage \= 49% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= John H. Turner \\|votes \= 182 \\|percentage \= 46% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Eyre Evans \\|votes \= 179 \\|percentage \= 45% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box majority\\| \\|votes \= 1 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box Registered electors \\|reg. electors \= 478 }} {{Election box turnout\\| \\|votes \= 395 \\|percentage \= 83% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Conservative Party (UK) }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box end}} Polling place : A to K : at a new shop at the entrance of the New Arcade from Renshaw Street. L to Z : at a window of an empty\-house, opposite the Unitarian Chapel, in Renshaw\-street. ### Abercromby {{Election box begin \\| title\=No. 11 \[\[Abercromby (Liverpool ward)\\|Abercromby]] \- 3 seats}} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= William Earle jun. \ \\|votes \= 186 \\|percentage \= 56% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Jas. Carson M.D. \\|votes \= 184 \\|percentage \= 55% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Thomas Brocklebank \\|votes \= 172 \\|percentage \= 52% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= \[\[Robertson Gladstone]] \\|votes \= 147 \\|percentage \= 44% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Thomas Kaye \\|votes \= 141 \\|percentage \= 42% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= William Ripley \\|votes \= 129 \\|percentage \= 39% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box majority\\| \\|votes \= 39 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box Registered electors \\|reg. electors \= 373 }} {{Election box turnout\\| \\|votes \= 333 \\|percentage \= 89% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box end}} Polling place : At the Phoenix Inn, at the top of Mount Pleasant ### Lime Street {{Election box begin \\| title\=No. 12 \[\[Lime Street, Liverpool ward\\|Lime Street]] \- 3 seats}} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Mr. Langton \\|votes \= 308 \\|percentage \= 62% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Thomas Blackburn \\|votes \= 302 \\|percentage \= 61% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= R. Roskell \\|votes \= 292 \\|percentage \= 59% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Ambrose Lace \\|votes \= 190 \\|percentage \= 38% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Robert Rigby \\|votes \= 176 \\|percentage \= 35% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= J. Todd Naylor \\|votes \= 170 \\|percentage \= 34% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box majority\\| \\|votes \= 118 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box Registered electors \\|reg. electors \= 633 }} {{Election box turnout\\| \\|votes \= 498 \\|percentage \= 79% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box end}} Polling places : A to K : at a window in the Black Bell Inn, London\-road. L to Z : at a window in Challinor's Public\-house, on the opposite side of London\-road. ### St. Anne Street {{Election box begin \\| title\=No. 13 \[\[St. Anne Street (Liverpool ward)\\|St. Anne Street]] \- 3 seats}} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Richard Alison \\|votes \= 288 \\|percentage \= 67% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Thomas Coglan \\|votes \= 195 \\|percentage \= 46% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Edward Cropper \\|votes \= 191 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Edward Gibbon \\|votes \= 139 \\|percentage \= 33% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= John Davies \\|votes \= 132 \\|percentage \= 31% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Richard Jones \\|votes \= 127 \\|percentage \= 30% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box majority\\| \\|votes \= 149 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box Registered electors \\|reg. electors \= 393 }} {{Election box turnout\\| \\|votes \= \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box end}} Polling place : At the Pontack's Public\-house, in Christian\-street. ### West Derby {{Election box begin \\| title\=No. 14 \[\[West Derby (Liverpool ward)\\|West Derby]] \- 3 seats}} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= John Shaw Leigh \* \\|votes \= 172 \\|percentage \= 50\.9% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= \[\[George Holt (cotton\-broker)\\|George Holt]] \\|votes \= 166 \\|percentage \= 49\.4% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Joseph Sanders \\|votes \= 153 \\|percentage \= 45% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= William Purser Freme \\|votes \= 153 \\|percentage \= 45% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= William Blaine \\|votes \= 152 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= William P. Bushby \\|votes \= 136 \\|percentage \= 40% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box majority\\| \\|votes \= 6 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box Registered electors \\|reg. electors \= 370 }} {{Election box turnout\\| \\|votes \= 338 \\|percentage \= 91% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Conservative Party (UK) }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Conservative Party (UK) }} {{Election box end}} Polling place : At the Edge\-hill Coffee\-house. ### South Toxteth {{Election box begin \\| title\=No. 15 \[\[South Toxteth (Liverpool ward)\\|South Toxteth]] \- 3 seats}} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= John Cropper \\|votes \= 114 \\|percentage \= 59% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= W. Sharples \\|votes \= 99 \\|percentage \= 51% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Francis Jordan \\|votes \= 92 \\|percentage \= 47% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Mr. Fletcher \\|votes \= 80 \\|percentage \= 41% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Mr. Smith \\|votes \= 75 \\|percentage \= 39% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= N. Robinson \\|votes \= 65 \\|percentage \= 34% \\|change \= }} {{Election box majority\\| \\|votes \= 34 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box Registered electors \\|reg. electors \= 230 }} {{Election box turnout\\| \\|votes \= 194 \\|percentage \= 84% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box end}} Polling place : At the southernmost of the Shops recently built by Dr. Hughes, on the west side of Park\-road. ### North Toxteth {{Election box begin \\| title\=No. 16 \[\[North Toxteth (Liverpool ward)\\|North Toxteth]] \- 3 seats}} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= W. W. Currie \* \\|votes \= 242 \\|percentage \= 65% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= Mr. Duncan \\|votes \= 223 \\|percentage \= 60% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box winning candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer \\|candidate \= C. Tayleur \\|votes \= 222 \\|percentage \= 59% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Mr. Troughton \\|votes \= 132 \\|percentage \= 35% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= Mr. Gibbons \\|votes \= 130 \\|percentage \= 35% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box candidate with party link\\| \\|party \= Conservative Party (UK) \\|candidate \= James Dempsey \\|votes \= 90 \\|percentage \= 24% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box majority\\| \\|votes \= 110 \\|percentage \= \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box Registered electors \\|reg. electors \= 493 }} {{Election box turnout\\| \\|votes \= 374 \\|percentage \= 76% \\|change \= N/A }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box new seat win \\| \\|winner \= Whigs (British political party)\\|Reformer }} {{Election box end}} Polling place : At two windows of the Royal Oak Public\-house, at the corner of Upper Warwick\-street and Park\-place. {{Cite web \\|url\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pWElDRkJiNDJxT1k \\|title\=The Albion Monday 28th December 1835 (1\) (scan) \\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-30 }}{{Cite web \\|url\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pWnBxeE5RNjFsTWM \\|title\=The Albion Monsday 28th December 1835 (2\) (scan) \\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-30 }}{{Cite web \\|url\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pT1JuX0lrbURIcm8 \\|title\=The Albion Monday 28th December 1835 (3\) (scan) \\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-30 }}{{Cite web \\|url\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pS2N4bjZROTNrS1E \\|title\=The Albion Monday 28th December 1835 (4\) (scan) \\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-30 }}{{Cite web \\|url\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pVUlJazNGbGlIZDA \\|title\=The Albion Monday 28th December 1835 (5\) (scan) \\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-30 }}{{Cite web \\|url\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pY1ZlV2RxSnRhUk0 \\|title\=The Albion Monday 28th December 1835 (6\) (scan) \\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-30 }}{{Cite web \\|url\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pNnotbFJHMnRYeEk \\|title\=The Albion Monday 28th December 1835 (7\) (scan) \\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-30 }}{{Cite web \\|url\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pa1FQZTJvNWlQYVU \\|title\=Liverpool Courier Wednesday 30th December 1835 (1\) (scan) \\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-30 }}{{Cite web \\|url\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pMk9Hd2M1RG9ra00 \\|title\=Liverpool Courier Wednesday 30th December 1835 (2\) (scan) \\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-30 }}{{Cite web \\|url\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pV0Q4OU5wT1M3c0E \\|title\=Liverpool Courier Wednesday 30th December 1835 (3\) (scan) \\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-30 }}{{Cite web \\|url\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pNzdLTG5CZEx2Uzg \\|title\=Liverpool Courier Wednesday 30th December 1835 (3\) (scan) \\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-30 }}{{Cite web \\|url\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pZlV6bHFKT3l1OEU \\|title\=Liverpool Mercury Friday 1st January 1836 (1\) (scan) \\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-30 }}{{Cite web \\|url\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pWlJKR0pNdHY0a2M \\|title\=Liverpool Mercury Friday 1st January 1836 (2\) (scan) \\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-30 }}{{Cite web \\|url\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pQWplWmg0NjVJQ0E \\|title\=Liverpool Mercury Friday 1st January 1836 (3\) (scan) \\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-30 }}{{Cite web \\|url\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pUGtDUG9UZFR1NUE \\|title\=Liverpool Mercury Friday 1st January 1836 (4\) (scan) \\|access\-date\=2016\-09\-30 }}	[ "Ward results\n------------", "\\* \\- Previously a member of the preceding Common Council", "### Everton and Kirkdale", "{{Election box begin \\\| title\\=No. 1 \\[\\[Everton (Liverpool ward)\\\|Everton and Kirkdale]] \\- 3 seats}}\n{{Election box winning candidate\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= John Holmes\n \\\|votes \\= 224\n \\\|percentage \\= 51%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= S. Hope\n \\\|votes \\= 215\n \\\|percentage \\= 49%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Charles Horsfall \\\n \\\|votes \\= 214\n \\\|percentage \\= 49%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Joseph Hornby\n \\\|votes \\= 211\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= \\[\\[Adam Hodgson]]\n \\\|votes \\= 195\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= W. C. Molyneux\n \\\|votes \\= 193\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box majority\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 10\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box Registered electors\n \\\|reg. electors \\= 503\n}}\n{{Election box turnout\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 438\n \\\|percentage \\= 87%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n}}\n{{Election box end}}", "The polling place for the township of Kirkdale was Mrs. Stretch's public house in Kirkdale Village.", "The polling place for Everton township was Halliday's, Everton Coffee\\-house", "### Scotland", "{{Election box begin \\\| title\\=No. 2 \\[\\[Scotland (Liverpool ward)\\\|Scotland]] \\- 3 seats}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Crawford Logan\n \\\|votes \\= 177\n \\\|percentage \\= 60%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= William Thornhill\n \\\|votes \\= 171\n \\\|percentage \\= 58%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Richard Shiel\n \\\|votes \\= 159\n \\\|percentage \\= 54%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Richard Houghton\n \\\|votes \\= 118\n \\\|percentage \\= 40%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= James Heyworth\n \\\|votes \\= 96\n \\\|percentage \\= 33%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Mr. Foster\n \\\|votes \\= 89\n \\\|percentage \\= 30%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box majority\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 59\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box Registered electors\n \\\|reg. electors \\= 345\n}}\n{{Election box turnout\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 295\n \\\|percentage \\= 86%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box end}}", "The Polling place was Mr. Horner's at the corner of Eccles\\-street and Vauxhall\\-road.", "### Vauxhall", "{{Election box begin \\\| title\\=No. 3 \\[\\[Vauxhall (Liverpool ward)\\\|Vauxhall]] \\- 3 seats}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Enoch Harvey\n \\\|votes \\= 92\n \\\|percentage \\= 55%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Egerton Smith\n \\\|votes \\= 86\n \\\|percentage \\= 51%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= J. D. Thornely\n \\\|votes \\= 80\n \\\|percentage \\= 48%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Henry Coupland\n \\\|votes \\= 76\n \\\|percentage \\= 45%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= John Wright '''\\'''\n \\\|votes \\= 74\n \\\|percentage \\= 44%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Joseph Ackers\n \\\|votes \\= 66\n \\\|percentage \\= 39%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box majority\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 16\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box Registered electors\n \\\|reg. electors \\= 201\n}}\n{{Election box turnout\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 168\n \\\|percentage \\= 84%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box end}}", "The polling place was at the Vauxhall Vaults, corner of Banastre\\-street and Vauxhall\\-road.", "### St. Paul's", "{{Election box begin \\\| title\\=No. 4 \\[\\[St. Paul's (Liverpool ward)\\\|St. Paul's]] \\- 3 seats}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Christopher Rawdon\n \\\|votes \\= 137\n \\\|percentage \\= 54%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Alexander McGregor\n \\\|votes \\= 124\n \\\|percentage \\= 48%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= John Barton\n \\\|votes \\= 119\n \\\|percentage \\= 46%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= William Stuart\n \\\|votes \\= 117\n \\\|percentage \\= 46%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= R. B. B. Hollinshead\n \\\|votes \\= 102\n \\\|percentage \\= 40%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= William Shand\n \\\|votes \\= 89\n \\\|percentage \\= 35%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box majority\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 18\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box Registered electors\n \\\|reg. electors \\= 297\n}}\n{{Election box turnout\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 256\n \\\|percentage \\= 86%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n}}\n{{Election box end}}", "Polling place : At Mather's Baths, corner of St. Paul's\\-square and Virginia\\-street", "### Exchange", "{{Election box begin \\\| title\\=No. 5 \\[\\[Exchange (Liverpool ward)\\\|Exchange]] \\- 3 seats}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= James Holmes\n \\\|votes \\= 179\n \\\|percentage \\= 56%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Lawrence Heyworth\n \\\|votes \\= 167\n \\\|percentage \\= 53%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= \\[\\[James Mellor (merchant)\\\|James Mellor]]\n \\\|votes \\= 161\n \\\|percentage \\= 51%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Thomas Sands\n \\\|votes \\= 139\n \\\|percentage \\= 44%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= John Bent\n \\\|votes \\= 126\n \\\|percentage \\= 40%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= G. B. Irlam\n \\\|votes \\= 118\n \\\|percentage \\= 37%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box majority\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 40\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box Registered electors\n \\\|reg. electors \\= 468\n}}\n{{Election box turnout\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 318\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box end}}", "Polling places : Surnames A to K : at the south end of the Sessions'\\-house in South Chapel\\-street. \nSurnames L to Z : at the north end of the Sessions'\\-house in Chapel\\-street.", "### Castle Street", "{{Election box begin \\\| title\\=No. 6 \\[\\[Castle Street (Liverpool ward)\\\|Castle Street]] \\- 3 seats}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Joshua Walmsley\n \\\|votes \\= 260\n \\\|percentage \\= 73%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Charles Birch\n \\\|votes \\= 259\n \\\|percentage \\= 73%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Thomas Bolton\n \\\|votes \\= 248\n \\\|percentage \\= 70%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Sir Thomas Brancker '''\\'''\n \\\|votes \\= 96\n \\\|percentage \\= 27%\n \\\|change \\= \n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= George Grant\n \\\|votes \\= 83\n \\\|percentage \\= 23%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Mr. Wood\n \\\|votes \\= 78\n \\\|percentage \\= 22%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box majority\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 164\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box Registered electors\n \\\|reg. electors \\= 604\n}}\n{{Election box turnout\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 356\n \\\|percentage \\= 59%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box end}}", "Polling place : At the two windows of the King's Arms Hotel fronting Castle\\-street", "### St. Peter's", "{{Election box begin \\\| title\\=No. 7 \\[\\[St. Peter's (Liverpool ward)\\\|St. Peter's]] \\- 3 seats}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= John Woollright\n \\\|votes \\= 205\n \\\|percentage \\= 59%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= William Rushton\n \\\|votes \\= 200\n \\\|percentage \\= 57%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Richard Bright\n \\\|votes \\= 190\n \\\|percentage \\= 54%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Mr. Potter\n \\\|votes \\= 145\n \\\|percentage \\= 41%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Nathan Litherland\n \\\|votes \\= 143\n \\\|percentage \\= 41%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Thomas Tobin\n \\\|votes \\= 142\n \\\|percentage \\= 41%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box majority\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 60\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box Registered electors\n \\\|reg. electors \\= 548\n}}\n{{Election box turnout\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 359\n \\\|percentage \\= 64%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box end}}", "Polling place : At the two windows of the Horse and Jockey public\\-house fronting Seel\\-street", "### Pitt Street", "{{Election box begin \\\| title\\=No. 8 \\[\\[Pitt Street (Liverpool ward)\\\|Pitt Street]] \\- 3 seats}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Hugh Hornby\n \\\|votes \\= 201\n \\\|percentage \\= 56%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= \\[\\[William Rathbone V\\\|William Rathbone]]\n \\\|votes \\= 193\n \\\|percentage \\= 54%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= William Robert Preston\n \\\|votes \\= 184\n \\\|percentage \\= 51%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= John Bibby\n \\\|votes \\= 158\n \\\|percentage \\= 44%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Peter Bourne\n \\\|votes \\= 151\n \\\|percentage \\= 42%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= T. C. Molyneux\n \\\|votes \\= 140\n \\\|percentage \\= 39%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box majority\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 43\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box Registered electors\n \\\|reg. electors \\= 532\n}}\n{{Election box turnout\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 359\n \\\|percentage \\= 67%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box end}}", "Polling place : At two compartments in the South Free School in Park\\-lane.", "### Great George", "{{Election box begin \\\| title\\=No. 9 \\[\\[Great George (Liverpool ward)\\\|Great George]]}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= James Lawrence\n \\\|votes \\= 237\n \\\|percentage \\= 64%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Wellwood Maxwell\n \\\|votes \\= 146\n \\\|percentage \\= 40%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= James Aikin\n \\\|votes \\= 135\n \\\|percentage \\= 37%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Charles Lawrence '''\\'''\n \\\|votes \\= 131\n \\\|percentage \\= 36%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Joseph Cooper\n \\\|votes \\= 108\n \\\|percentage \\= 29%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box majority\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 106\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box Registered electors\n \\\|reg. electors \\= 335\n}}\n{{Election box turnout\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= \n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box end}}", "Polling place : At a warehouse, east side of St. James's\\-street, near the corner of St. Vincent\\-street.", "### Rodney Street", "{{Election box begin \\\| title\\=No. 10 \\[\\[Rodney Street (Liverpool ward)\\\|Rodney Street]] \\- 3 seats}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Henry Lawrence\n \\\|votes \\= 198\n \\\|percentage \\= 50\\.1%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= William Lassell\n \\\|votes \\= 197\n \\\|percentage \\= 49\\.9%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Thomas Holt\n \\\|votes \\= 194\n \\\|percentage \\= 49%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Dr. J. P. Brandreth\n \\\|votes \\= 192\n \\\|percentage \\= 49%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= John H. Turner\n \\\|votes \\= 182\n \\\|percentage \\= 46%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Eyre Evans\n \\\|votes \\= 179\n \\\|percentage \\= 45%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box majority\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 1\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box Registered electors\n \\\|reg. electors \\= 478\n}}\n{{Election box turnout\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 395\n \\\|percentage \\= 83%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box end}}", "Polling place : A to K : at a new shop at the entrance of the New Arcade from Renshaw Street. \nL to Z : at a window of an empty\\-house, opposite the Unitarian Chapel, in Renshaw\\-street.", "### Abercromby", "{{Election box begin \\\| title\\=No. 11 \\[\\[Abercromby (Liverpool ward)\\\|Abercromby]] \\- 3 seats}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= William Earle jun. \\\n \\\|votes \\= 186\n \\\|percentage \\= 56%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Jas. Carson M.D.\n \\\|votes \\= 184\n \\\|percentage \\= 55%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Thomas Brocklebank\n \\\|votes \\= 172\n \\\|percentage \\= 52%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= \\[\\[Robertson Gladstone]]\n \\\|votes \\= 147\n \\\|percentage \\= 44%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Thomas Kaye\n \\\|votes \\= 141\n \\\|percentage \\= 42%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= William Ripley\n \\\|votes \\= 129\n \\\|percentage \\= 39%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box majority\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 39\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box Registered electors\n \\\|reg. electors \\= 373\n}}\n{{Election box turnout\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 333\n \\\|percentage \\= 89%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box end}}", "Polling place : At the Phoenix Inn, at the top of Mount Pleasant", "### Lime Street", "{{Election box begin \\\| title\\=No. 12 \\[\\[Lime Street, Liverpool ward\\\|Lime Street]] \\- 3 seats}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Mr. Langton\n \\\|votes \\= 308\n \\\|percentage \\= 62%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Thomas Blackburn\n \\\|votes \\= 302\n \\\|percentage \\= 61%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= R. Roskell\n \\\|votes \\= 292\n \\\|percentage \\= 59%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Ambrose Lace\n \\\|votes \\= 190\n \\\|percentage \\= 38%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Robert Rigby\n \\\|votes \\= 176\n \\\|percentage \\= 35%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= J. Todd Naylor\n \\\|votes \\= 170\n \\\|percentage \\= 34%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box majority\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 118\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box Registered electors\n \\\|reg. electors \\= 633\n}}\n{{Election box turnout\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 498\n \\\|percentage \\= 79%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box end}}", "Polling places : A to K : at a window in the Black Bell Inn, London\\-road.\nL to Z : at a window in Challinor's Public\\-house, on the opposite side of London\\-road.", "### St. Anne Street", "{{Election box begin \\\| title\\=No. 13 \\[\\[St. Anne Street (Liverpool ward)\\\|St. Anne Street]] \\- 3 seats}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Richard Alison\n \\\|votes \\= 288\n \\\|percentage \\= 67%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Thomas Coglan\n \\\|votes \\= 195\n \\\|percentage \\= 46%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Edward Cropper\n \\\|votes \\= 191\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Edward Gibbon\n \\\|votes \\= 139\n \\\|percentage \\= 33%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= John Davies\n \\\|votes \\= 132\n \\\|percentage \\= 31%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Richard Jones\n \\\|votes \\= 127\n \\\|percentage \\= 30%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box majority\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 149\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box Registered electors\n \\\|reg. electors \\= 393\n}}\n{{Election box turnout\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= \n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box end}}", "Polling place : At the Pontack's Public\\-house, in Christian\\-street.", "### West Derby", "{{Election box begin \\\| title\\=No. 14 \\[\\[West Derby (Liverpool ward)\\\|West Derby]] \\- 3 seats}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= John Shaw Leigh \\\n \\\|votes \\= 172\n \\\|percentage \\= 50\\.9%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= \\[\\[George Holt (cotton\\-broker)\\\|George Holt]]\n \\\|votes \\= 166\n \\\|percentage \\= 49\\.4%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Joseph Sanders\n \\\|votes \\= 153\n \\\|percentage \\= 45%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= William Purser Freme\n \\\|votes \\= 153\n \\\|percentage \\= 45%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= William Blaine\n \\\|votes \\= 152\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= William P. Bushby\n \\\|votes \\= 136\n \\\|percentage \\= 40%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box majority\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 6\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box Registered electors\n \\\|reg. electors \\= 370\n}}\n{{Election box turnout\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 338\n \\\|percentage \\= 91%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n}}\n{{Election box end}}", "Polling place : At the Edge\\-hill Coffee\\-house.", "### South Toxteth", "{{Election box begin \\\| title\\=No. 15 \\[\\[South Toxteth (Liverpool ward)\\\|South Toxteth]] \\- 3 seats}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= John Cropper\n \\\|votes \\= 114\n \\\|percentage \\= 59%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= W. Sharples\n \\\|votes \\= 99\n \\\|percentage \\= 51%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Francis Jordan\n \\\|votes \\= 92\n \\\|percentage \\= 47%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Mr. Fletcher\n \\\|votes \\= 80\n \\\|percentage \\= 41%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Mr. Smith\n \\\|votes \\= 75\n \\\|percentage \\= 39%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= N. Robinson\n \\\|votes \\= 65\n \\\|percentage \\= 34%\n \\\|change \\= \n}}\n{{Election box majority\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 34\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box Registered electors\n \\\|reg. electors \\= 230\n}}\n{{Election box turnout\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 194\n \\\|percentage \\= 84%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box end}}", "Polling place : At the southernmost of the Shops recently built by Dr. Hughes, on the west side of Park\\-road.", "### North Toxteth", "{{Election box begin \\\| title\\=No. 16 \\[\\[North Toxteth (Liverpool ward)\\\|North Toxteth]] \\- 3 seats}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= W. W. Currie \\*\n \\\|votes \\= 242\n \\\|percentage \\= 65%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= Mr. Duncan\n \\\|votes \\= 223\n \\\|percentage \\= 60%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box winning candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n \\\|candidate \\= C. Tayleur\n \\\|votes \\= 222\n \\\|percentage \\= 59%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Mr. Troughton\n \\\|votes \\= 132\n \\\|percentage \\= 35%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= Mr. Gibbons\n \\\|votes \\= 130\n \\\|percentage \\= 35%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box candidate with party link\\\|\n \\\|party \\= Conservative Party (UK)\n \\\|candidate \\= James Dempsey\n \\\|votes \\= 90\n \\\|percentage \\= 24%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box majority\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 110\n \\\|percentage \\= \n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box Registered electors\n \\\|reg. electors \\= 493\n}}\n{{Election box turnout\\\|\n \\\|votes \\= 374\n \\\|percentage \\= 76%\n \\\|change \\= N/A\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box new seat win \\\|\n \\\|winner \\= Whigs (British political party)\\\|Reformer\n}}\n{{Election box end}}", "Polling place : At two windows of the Royal Oak Public\\-house, at the corner of Upper Warwick\\-street and Park\\-place.\n{{Cite web \\\|url\\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pWElDRkJiNDJxT1k\n\\\|title\\=The Albion Monday 28th December 1835 (1\\) (scan)\n\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-30 }}{{Cite web \\\|url\\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pWnBxeE5RNjFsTWM\n\\\|title\\=The Albion Monsday 28th December 1835 (2\\) (scan)\n\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-30 }}{{Cite web \\\|url\\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pT1JuX0lrbURIcm8\n\\\|title\\=The Albion Monday 28th December 1835 (3\\) (scan)\n\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-30 }}{{Cite web \\\|url\\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pS2N4bjZROTNrS1E\n\\\|title\\=The Albion Monday 28th December 1835 (4\\) (scan)\n\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-30 }}{{Cite web \\\|url\\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pVUlJazNGbGlIZDA\n\\\|title\\=The Albion Monday 28th December 1835 (5\\) (scan)\n\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-30 }}{{Cite web \\\|url\\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pY1ZlV2RxSnRhUk0\n\\\|title\\=The Albion Monday 28th December 1835 (6\\) (scan)\n\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-30 }}{{Cite web \\\|url\\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pNnotbFJHMnRYeEk\n\\\|title\\=The Albion Monday 28th December 1835 (7\\) (scan)\n\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-30 }}{{Cite web \\\|url\\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pa1FQZTJvNWlQYVU\n\\\|title\\=Liverpool Courier Wednesday 30th December 1835 (1\\) (scan)\n\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-30 }}{{Cite web \\\|url\\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pMk9Hd2M1RG9ra00\n\\\|title\\=Liverpool Courier Wednesday 30th December 1835 (2\\) (scan)\n\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-30 }}{{Cite web \\\|url\\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pV0Q4OU5wT1M3c0E\n\\\|title\\=Liverpool Courier Wednesday 30th December 1835 (3\\) (scan)\n\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-30 }}{{Cite web \\\|url\\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pNzdLTG5CZEx2Uzg\n\\\|title\\=Liverpool Courier Wednesday 30th December 1835 (3\\) (scan)\n\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-30 }}{{Cite web \\\|url\\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pZlV6bHFKT3l1OEU\n\\\|title\\=Liverpool Mercury Friday 1st January 1836 (1\\) (scan)\n\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-30 }}{{Cite web \\\|url\\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pWlJKR0pNdHY0a2M\n\\\|title\\=Liverpool Mercury Friday 1st January 1836 (2\\) (scan)\n\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-30 }}{{Cite web \\\|url\\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pQWplWmg0NjVJQ0E\n\\\|title\\=Liverpool Mercury Friday 1st January 1836 (3\\) (scan)\n\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-30 }}{{Cite web \\\|url\\= https://drive.google.com/open?id\\=0BwOaUiDOoD1pUGtDUG9UZFR1NUE\n\\\|title\\=Liverpool Mercury Friday 1st January 1836 (4\\) (scan)\n\\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-09\\-30 }}", "" ]
Battle ------ [thumb\\|upright\=2\\|General staff of the German 8th Army during the battle.](/wiki/File:Stab_der_8-Armee.JPG "Stab der 8-Armee.JPG") During September 2–3, the Russian cavalry occupied [Kelladen](/wiki/Kelladen "Kelladen") and [Schelecken](/wiki/Scholochowo_%28Kaliningrad%2C_Polessk%29 "Scholochowo (Kaliningrad, Polessk)") and faced the German infantry across the [Deime](/wiki/Deyma "Deyma") River. The Russian [3rd Army Corps](/wiki/3rd_Army_Corps_%28Russia%29 "3rd Army Corps (Russia)") repulsed all German attacks at Levenhagen and was preparing for pursuit by the forces of the [1st Guards Cavalry Division](/wiki/1st_Guards_Cavalry_Division_%28Russian_Empire%29 "1st Guards Cavalry Division (Russian Empire)"). The Russian [4th Army Corps](/wiki/4th_Army_Corps_%28Russian_Empire%29 "4th Army Corps (Russian Empire)") at [Gross\-Wolfsdorf](/wiki/Wilkowo_Wielkie "Wilkowo Wielkie") repulsed the attacks of the [German 1st Reserve Division](/wiki/1st_Reserve_Division_%28German_Empire%29 "1st Reserve Division (German Empire)") and occupied [Friedland](/wiki/Pravdinsk "Pravdinsk") with the forces of the [40th Infantry Division](/wiki/40th_Infantry_Division_%28Russian_Empire%29 "40th Infantry Division (Russian Empire)"). But on the left flank of the 1st Russian army, the situation worsened. On the site of the [2nd Army Corps](/wiki/2nd_Army_%28Russian_Empire%29 "2nd Army (Russian Empire)"), the [German 20th Army Corps](/wiki/XX_Corps_%28German_Empire%29 "XX Corps (German Empire)") occupied [Rastenburg](/wiki/K%C4%99trzyn "Kętrzyn") and [Barten](/wiki/Barty%2C_Warmian-Masurian_Voivodeship "Barty, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship"); The Russian [2nd Guards Cavalry Division](/wiki/2nd_Guards_Cavalry_Division "2nd Guards Cavalry Division") retreated from [Drengfurth](/wiki/Srokowo "Srokowo") . The [1st Cavalry Division](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Division_%28Russian_Empire%29 "1st Cavalry Division (Russian Empire)") of [Vasily Gurko](/wiki/Vasily_Gurko "Vasily Gurko"), advancing on [Allenstein](/wiki/Olsztyn "Olsztyn"), was met by fire from the German 147th Infantry Regiment and two squadrons of the 11th Dragoon Regiment. Having lost 5 officers and 15 soldiers, Gurko was able to knock the Germans out of position, but could not withstand the counterattack of the cavalry brigade and retreated in battle to Krolikheim.Восточно\-прусская операция. Сборник документов,1939, документ 467\. p. 348 By September 7–8, the command of the 8th German Army unhinderedly concentrated shock groups in front of the positions of the 1st Army and the intensification of operations east of [Königsberg](/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg "Königsberg") disoriented Russian intelligence. The [Guards Reserve Corps](/wiki/Guards_Reserve_Corps "Guards Reserve Corps") (3rd Guards, 1st Guards Reserve Divisions; commander General of Artillery [Max von Gallwitz](/wiki/Max_von_Gallwitz "Max von Gallwitz")) took over the site near [Allenburg](/wiki/Druzhba%2C_Pravdinsky_District%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast "Druzhba, Pravdinsky District, Kaliningrad Oblast"), and the [11th Army Corps](/wiki/XI_Corps_%28German_Empire%29 "XI Corps (German Empire)") ([22nd](/wiki/22nd_Division_%28German_Empire%29 "22nd Division (German Empire)"), [38th Infantry](/wiki/38th_Division_%28German_Empire%29 "38th Division (German Empire)") Divisions; commander General of infantry [Otto von Plüskow](/wiki/Otto_von_Pl%C3%BCskow "Otto von Plüskow")) took over the site near [Nordenburg](/wiki/Krylowo "Krylowo"). The concentration and offensive of the Russian [22nd Army Corps](/wiki/22nd_Army_Corps_%28Russian_Empire%29 "22nd Army Corps (Russian Empire)")—the vanguard of the Russian [10th Army](/wiki/10th_Army_%28Russian_Empire%29 "10th Army (Russian Empire)")—at first did not meet with Germans opposition. But on September 7, the German offensive began against the 10th Russian Army. The German [3rd reserve division](/wiki/3rd_Reserve_Division_%28German_Empire%29 "3rd Reserve Division (German Empire)"), after a 2\-hour artillery preparation, captured the city of Bialla, capturing 400 prisoners and 8 guns from the detachment of Lieutenant General {{interlanguage link\\|Stanislav Stelnitsky\\|ru\\|Стельницкий, Станислав Феликсович}} (1st, 2nd, 4th and 12th Finnish rifle regiments ). The next day, the [Curt von Morgen](/wiki/Curt_von_Morgen "Curt von Morgen") group broke through the Russian defenses and entered the operational space. To counter the enemy offensive, the 2nd and 4th Finnish rifle brigades were sent to [Lyck](/wiki/E%C5%82k "Ełk"), the 10th Finnish rifle regiment to [Arys](/wiki/Orzysz "Orzysz"), and the 27th Siberian rifle regiment to [Grajewo](/wiki/Grajewo "Grajewo"). The [8th Siberian Rifle Division](/wiki/8th_Siberian_Rifle_Division "8th Siberian Rifle Division") of the arriving [3rd Siberian Army Corps](/wiki/3rd_Siberian_Army_Corps "3rd Siberian Army Corps") was supposed to go to the rear of the Germans. The German [1st Army Corps](/wiki/I_Corps_%28German_Empire%29 "I Corps (German Empire)") advanced on [Widminnen](/wiki/Wydminy "Wydminy"), where the [1st Infantry Division](/wiki/1st_Division_%28German_Empire%29 "1st Division (German Empire)") took up to 1,000 prisoners; another 1,000 defenders (parts of the [43rd Infantry Division](/wiki/43rd_Infantry_Division_%28Russian_Empire%29 "43rd Infantry Division (Russian Empire)") and the 3rd Finnish Rifle Brigade) lost killed and wounded. On the front to the north, the Germans continued to approach the Russian positions on the Deime and Alla rivers. The commander of the [10th Russian army](/wiki/10th_Army_%28Russian_Empire%29 "10th Army (Russian Empire)"), infantry general [Vasily Flug](/wiki/Vasily_Flug "Vasily Flug"), ordered the 22nd Army and [3rd Siberian corps](/wiki/3rd_Siberian_Army_Corps "3rd Siberian Army Corps") (97,084 men, 192 machine guns, 240 guns)С. Нелипович, 2020, p.78 to go on the offensive on [Johannisburg](/wiki/Pisz "Pisz"), but on the night of September 8, the [German 3rd reserve division](/wiki/3rd_Reserve_Division_%28German_Empire%29 "3rd Reserve Division (German Empire)") attacked the junction of the 1st and 10th Armies near the city [Lyck](/wiki/Lyck "Lyck"). The 22nd Army Corps left the city by the morning of September 9, having lost 96 killed, 493 wounded and 350 missing. The 36th reserve division released [Lötzen](/wiki/L%C3%B6tzen "Lötzen"), capturing 1,000 prisoners and 16 guns. The 43rd infantry division and the 3rd Finnish rifle brigade retreated under the onslaught of the Germans from ArisMorgen C. von. Meiner truppen heldenkaempfe berlin, 1920, p. 16 The commander of the Russian [22nd Corps](/wiki/22nd_Army_Corps_%28Russian_Empire%29 "22nd Army Corps (Russian Empire)"), [A. von Brinken](/wiki/Alexander_Freidrikhovich_Brinken "Alexander Freidrikhovich Brinken"), considered it necessary to withdraw troops to the defensive line. But the commander of the 10th Army forbade the retreat and ordered at all costs to strike and assist the 1st Army. Von Brinken objected: the continuation of the battle would lead to a complete loss of combat capability, and no assistance would be provided. He proposed to withdraw the vanguards of the army to Augustow, concentrate there, arrange the rear and organize supplies, and then go on the offensive with a single fist. After negotiations with the headquarters of the armies of the [North\-Western Front](/wiki/Northwestern_Front_%28Russian_Empire%29 "Northwestern Front (Russian Empire)"), Flug allowed to withdraw to [Augustow](/wiki/Augustow "Augustow"). On September 9, the Guards Reserve Corps of Artillery General [M. von Gallwitz](/wiki/Max_von_Gallwitz "Max von Gallwitz") went on the offensive against the center of the 1st Russian Army near [Allenburg](/wiki/Druzhba%2C_Pravdinsky_District%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast "Druzhba, Pravdinsky District, Kaliningrad Oblast"). His 3rd and [1st reserve](/wiki/1st_Guards_Reserve_Division_%28German_Empire%29 "1st Guards Reserve Division (German Empire)") guards divisions started a battle at the crossings across the [Alle River](/wiki/%C5%81yna_%28river%29 "Łyna (river)") and here they encountered stubborn resistance from the Russian 3rd and 20th army corps, reinforced by the 54th and 72nd infantry divisions. With great difficulty, with the support of the Landwehr from the fortress of [Posen](/wiki/Pozna%C5%84 "Poznań") (division of Lieutenant General [Anatol Graf von Bredow](/wiki/Anatol_Graf_von_Bredow "Anatol Graf von Bredow")), they managed to gain a foothold at Redden and Schillen. The Russian artillery inflicted especially great damage on the attackers; von Gallwitz ordered at night the artillery brigades to get as close as possible to the Russian positions in order to open fire at close range in the morning and suppress the Russian batteries. From Posen, heavy artillery arrived in the corps under the command of Lieutenant General O. Gereke.Gallwitz M. von. Meine fuerertaetigkeit im Weltkriege 1914/1916, 1929, p. 36\-37С.Г. Нелипович, Два похода, 2020, p. 82 The situation on the left flank of the 1st Army was becoming threatening. The distracting group of Morgen wedged into the location of the Russian troops and created a threat of encirclement in front of the rivers [Instruch](/wiki/Instruch "Instruch") and [Angerapp](/wiki/Angrapa "Angrapa"). The Russians took urgent measures to strengthen the flank and to gradually withdraw troops from under the blow of the Germans—to the [Angerapp River](/wiki/Angrapa "Angrapa"). By the evening of September 9, a grouping of troops was assembled to launch a counterattack on the flank of the corps of [Hermann von François](/wiki/Hermann_von_Fran%C3%A7ois "Hermann von François") and Morgen. For this, 9 Russian divisions were concentrated in the [Gołdap](/wiki/Go%C5%82dap "Gołdap") area (the 2nd and 20th army corps, the Gurko cavalry detachment and the 54th, 57th and 76th infantry divisions). Rennenkampf ordered to shoot anyone who left the trenches without an order.Ларионов Я.М. Записки участника мировой войны, Харбин, 1936, p. 29, 35 He also turned to the headquarters of the armies of the North\-Western Front with a request to support his actions with the offensive of the 10th Army, but the quartermaster general of the headquarters, Major General V. Leontiev, stated that "the corps have not yet been arranged." At the same time, during the day, the [Guards Reserve Corps](/wiki/Guards_Reserve_Corps "Guards Reserve Corps") was able to build 5 bridges on the Alle River on both sides of [Allenburg](/wiki/Druzhba%2C_Pravdinsky_District%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast "Druzhba, Pravdinsky District, Kaliningrad Oblast"); to parry a possible Russian counterattack (and German reconnaissance established the arrival of two divisions), Bredow's landwehr division was advanced to the threatened direction, and to the south of [Tapiau](/wiki/Gvardeysk "Gvardeysk"), a detachment of K. Wolgemut from the garrison of Koenigsberg (5 battalions and 2 squadrons with strong artillery). Rennenkampf did not lose hope of repelling the blow of the German army. He instructs the [Huseyn Khan Nakhchivanski](/wiki/Huseyn_Khan_Nakhchivanski "Huseyn Khan Nakhchivanski") to move to Goldap and delay the advance of the Germans. The Rauch division is directed to [Benkheim](/wiki/Banie_Mazurskie "Banie Mazurskie") and [Marggrаbоwo](/wiki/Olecko "Olecko"), the detachment of Lieutenant General [Anatoly Rosenshield](/wiki/Anatoly_Rosenshield "Anatoly Rosenshield") (54th and 28th infantry divisions) to [Trempen](/wiki/Trempen "Trempen") and Kiselen, the 29th infantry division to [Darkehmen](/wiki/Ozyorsk%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast "Ozyorsk, Kaliningrad Oblast"). The defense of the Deime River was entrusted to the newly formed 26th Army Corps of Infantry General [Aleksandr Gerngross](/wiki/Aleksandr_Gerngross "Aleksandr Gerngross") (53rd and 56th Infantry Divisions, 73rd Artillery Brigade). Throughout the day on September 9, units of the Russian 3rd Army Corps held back the Germans at Allenburg, and the 4th Army Corps at Bavien. But in the 2nd Army Corps, the Germans occupied [Widminnen](/wiki/Wydminy "Wydminy"), went to [Lake Gablick](/wiki/Lake_Gablick "Lake Gablick"), where they were stopped by the 1st Cavalry Division entering the battle. In the battles, the Russian 302nd Surazh Infantry Regiment was defeated, the commander of the 1st brigade of the 26th Infantry Division, Major General [K. Druzhinin](/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD%2C_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87 "Дружинин, Константин Иванович"), was killed. At [Kutten](/wiki/Kuty%2C_Warmian-Masurian_Voivodeship "Kuty, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship"), the Russian 72nd Infantry Division was brought into battle. Thus, both sides were concentrating forces on the southern flank, striving to envelop the enemy's battle formation. At the same time, P. Rennenkampf also counted on a powerful blow with three corps in the direction of [Melauken](/wiki/Melauken "Melauken"), [Wirbeln](/wiki/Wirbeln "Wirbeln"), [Norkitten](/wiki/Norkitten "Norkitten"), [Nordenburg](/wiki/Krylovo%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast "Krylovo, Kaliningrad Oblast")—in the center and northern flank of the Germans. On September 7, the Russian 2nd Army launched a diversionary attack on [Myszyniec](/wiki/Myszyniec "Myszyniec") and captured the city by the night of September 10\. The cavalry drove out the German vanguards from [Friedrichshof](/wiki/Rozogi%2C_Szczytno_County "Rozogi, Szczytno County"). These attacks were carried out by a few detachments, since the army had not yet recovered from the defeat at Tannenberg. The attack on [Mława](/wiki/M%C5%82awa "Mława") was not successful, but by the morning of September 13, Janów was taken. During this time, 17 prisoners were captured. Russian losses were 22 killed, 120 wounded and 19 missing. The main result of the actions of the 2nd Army during this period was that the German 8th Army was deprived of the opportunity to reinforce the troops against the 1st Army at the expense of its Southern Group and had to constantly worry about the right flank. Only on the orders of the Supreme Commander\-in\-Chief did the 2nd Army begin to retreat to its original positions, since the headquarters of the front armies feared a breakthrough here too. On September 10, the shock group of the 1st Army launched an offensive from the [Gołdap](/wiki/Go%C5%82dap "Gołdap") area, but was met by hurricane artillery and machine\-gun fire, first at the attacking chains, and then at the Russian positions. Taking advantage of the confusion, the 1st German reserve corps captured Goldap on the move, taking 1,000 prisoners and 32 guns in the city, and then advanced to [Insterburg](/wiki/Chernyakhovsk "Chernyakhovsk"). Having lost a springboard for regrouping, the Russian 2nd Army Corps retreated. His 43rd Infantry Division suffered heavy casualties; in the companies of the 26th infantry division, 5\-10 men remained (it lost more than 4,000 men).Ларионов Я.М.,1936, p. 33, 56, 68; Der Weltkrieg 1914 bis 1918 Bd. II., p. 293 Rennenkampf was furious at the failure of the counterattack. He demanded from the commander of the 20th Corps, General of Infantry [V. Smirnov](/wiki/Vladimir_Vasilyevich_Smirnov "Vladimir Vasilyevich Smirnov"), the most energetic actions to support the 2nd Army Corps. Using the success of the 1st Army Corps and 1st Reserve Corps, the divisions of the Guards Reserve Corps crossed the Alle and [Omet](/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B0_%28%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%29 "Стоговка (река)") rivers and began the pursuit to [Velau](/wiki/Znamensk%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast "Znamensk, Kaliningrad Oblast")Gallwitz M. von. Meine fuerertaetigkeit im Weltkriege 1914/1916, 1929, p. 39\-40 On September 10, the headquarters of the 22nd Army Corps moved to Augustow. Four brigades of the corps, united in the detachments of Stelnitsky and Lieutenant General [Vladimir von Notbek](/wiki/Vladimir_von_Notbek "Vladimir von Notbek"), retreated to [Kallinowen](/wiki/Kalinowo%2C_E%C5%82k_County "Kalinowo, Ełk County") and [Lake Skomenten](/wiki/Skom%C4%99tno_Wielkie "Skomętno Wielkie"). The German regiments of the 1st Army Corps at that time launched an offensive against the flank of the Russian 2nd Army Corps. The 44th Infantry Regiment of the 2nd Infantry Division occupied [Gross Pillaken](/wiki/Gross_Pillaken "Gross Pillaken") and [Gross Jakunoven](/wiki/Gross_Jakunoven "Gross Jakunoven"), capturing 657 Russian prisoners (including 7 officers) and 8 guns.Hoffmann T. Geschichte des Infanterie\-Regiments Doenhoff Nr. 44 (1800—1918\). B., 1930\. S. 119 The German 3rd reserve division entered Lyck. The combined cavalry corps of Lieutenant General [Hermann Bernhard Brecht](/wiki/Hermann_Bernhard_Brecht "Hermann Bernhard Brecht") (1st and 8th cavalry divisions) moved into the gap between the flanks of the 1st and 10th Russian armies. By evening, the German cavalry reached Kovalen, intercepting the retreat routes of the 1st Army. The German 1st and 17th army corps were involved in the battle for Goldap, and the 3rd reserve division and the 1st cavalry brigade defended Lyck against the troops of the Russian 10th army. The Russian 20th Army Corps, reinforced by the 54th, 57th and 72nd Infantry Divisions, suffered huge losses (over 16,000 men, not counting the completely destroyed 72nd Division), but did not allow the Germans to enter the Russian rear.С.Г. Нелипович, Два похода, 2020, p. 85 The divisions of the Russian 3rd and 4th army corps defended steadfastly at the turn of the Omet and Angerapp rivers. Their resistance did not allow the collapse of the right flank of the 1st Army and created an opportunity for the transfer of two divisions of the 20th army corps, and then the cavalry corps of Khan Nakhichevan to the breakthrough site of Brecht's German cavalry. Only on the night of September 12 did the Russian 40th Infantry Division retreat across the Angerapp River and destroy the bridges behind them. Her losses exceeded 1,600 men. Until the evening of September 11, the Guards and the 1st Reserve and the 11th Army Corps and 20th Army Corps of the Germans could not move forward against these forces. Nevertheless, the results of the battle on September 10 were depressing for Rennenkampf. By midnight, the 2nd Army Corps retreated across the [Gołdapa](/wiki/Go%C5%82dapa "Gołdapa") River, the counterattacks of the 20th Army Corps were repulsed. The Germans with the forces of the 1st reserve corps pursued the Friedrichswald, the Guards Reserve Corps occupied Neumühl, Hoendamerau, the Wolgemut detachment—[Wehlau](/wiki/Znamensk%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast "Znamensk, Kaliningrad Oblast"). Considering the growing threat of covering the left flank of the army, Rennenkampf ordered on the night of September 11 to begin a withdrawal. The commander of the 10th Army, General of Artillery V. Flug, on the morning of September 11, attacked Lyck with the 3rd Siberian Army Corps (7th and 8th Siberian Rifle Divisions) and the 22nd Army Corps. The 3rd Siberian Army Corps persistently attacked Lyck until the morning of September 12, and although the city was never taken, the German command attracted the landwehr division of R. von der Goltz from the Narew direction to defend it. The 3rd reserve division was unable to reinforce the bypass group, which crashed south of Goldap into the flank of the 1st army. But the detachments of Stelnitsky and Notbek, who received the task of hitting the rear of the Germans at [Marggrabowa](/wiki/Olecko "Olecko") and [Wielitsken](/wiki/Wielitsken "Wielitsken"), were just deploying. In total, the 10th Army lost 343 killed, 1,105 wounded and 451 missing in these battles and captured 4 wounded German soldiers.С.Г. Нелипович, Два похода, 2020, p. 89 On September 11, German corps began pursuing the retreating Russian corps of the 1st Army. The Guards Reserve Corps crossed the [Pregolya](/wiki/Pregolya "Pregolya") river and reached Norkitten. The 1st Reserve Corps entrenched itself in Insterburg, the 1st Army Corps in Rominten Forest, the 17th and 20th Army Corps reached [Nemmersdorf](/wiki/Mayakovskoye "Mayakovskoye"). The 9th Landwehr Brigade successfully advanced to [Tilsit](/wiki/Sovetsk%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast "Sovetsk, Kaliningrad Oblast"), bypassing the right flank of the Russians.Gallwitz M. von. Meine fuerertaetigkeit im Weltkriege 1914/1916, 1929, p. 41 The stubborn resistance of the troops of the 1st Army, led, however, to significant fatigue of the Russian troops, and to a temporary loss of control over them. There were also extremely heavy losses. In a few days, the 1st army lost (according to incomplete data) 3,603 killed, 13,202 wounded and 44,475 missing. On September 11, the commander\-in\-chief of the armies of the North\-Western Front, Y. Zhilinsky, ordered P. von Rennenkampf to withdraw troops to the Neman line. During the day of September 11, the 4th Army Corps repelled most of the German attacks and was pushed back only on the right flank. The 2nd and 20th Army Corps retreated with a battle for [Gawaiten](/wiki/Gawaiten "Gawaiten") and [Groß Sobrost](/wiki/Zabrost_Wielki "Zabrost Wielki"). The 2nd Guards Cavalry Division (G. Rauch), after a stubborn battle at Kovalen, retreated to Tolmingkemen. The 1st and 2nd Guards Cavalry Divisions retreated to [Gurken](/wiki/G%C3%B3rki%2C_Gmina_Sztum "Górki, Gmina Sztum"). On the extreme right flank of the 1st Army, Tilsit was surrounded. The retreat of the 1st Army soon took on the character of flight. In previous battles, the Germans managed to create a threat of encirclement of the left flank with a blow from the [Romincka Forest](/wiki/Romincka_Forest "Romincka Forest") to the north—with cutting off the mass of P. von Rennenkampf's troops on the Angerapp River. This caused the haste of the withdrawal of three corps, the mixing of troops, and the loss of communications. On September 12–13, Rennenkampf, who retreated with the headquarters and command of the army in [Kovno](/wiki/Kovno "Kovno"), lost command of the troops and restored communication only by the night of September 14\.С.Г. Нелипович, Два похода, 2020, p. 90 The loss of communication was caused primarily by panic in the immediate rear. The army was served by large telegraph and telephone centers in [Suwalki](/wiki/Suwalki "Suwalki"), [Augustow](/wiki/Augustow "Augustow") and [Sejny](/wiki/Sejny "Sejny"). At the first news of the retreat of the army on September 12, the civil administration abandoned their posts and fled, cutting telegraph and telephone lines. Therefore, the blame for the loss of command and control lies to a large extent on the civilian department. On September 12, the 20th Russian Army Corps retreated to the [Trakehnen](/wiki/Yasnaya_Polyana%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast "Yasnaya Polyana, Kaliningrad Oblast")\-[Tollmingkehinel](/wiki/Chistye_Prudy%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast "Chistye Prudy, Kaliningrad Oblast") line, continually coming under fire from German artillery. On September 14–16, the divisions of the corps retreated successively to [Marijampolė](/wiki/Marijampol%C4%97 "Marijampolė"), [Lyudvinovo](/wiki/Lyudvinovo "Lyudvinovo") and [Simnas](/wiki/Simnas "Simnas"). The troops suffered heavy losses during the withdrawal; as a result, the 54th Infantry Division was disbanded. By September 19, the 28th and 29th Infantry Divisions were entrenched in positions near [Alytus](/wiki/Alytus "Alytus"). On September 12, the divisions of the 26th Army Corps took up a position at [Kussen](/wiki/Kussen "Kussen"), [Kattenau](/wiki/Kattenau "Kattenau"), keeping in touch with the 3rd Army Corps and preparing to repulse the advancing Germans. The Russian 53rd and 56th divisions and the 5th rifle brigade fought a stubborn battle until late in the evening, when the 3rd corps had already retreated to [Vilkaviškis](/wiki/Vilkavi%C5%A1kis "Vilkaviškis") . By nightfall, the corps broke away from the Germans and withdrew to Širvinta River and [Vladislavov](/wiki/Kudirkos_Naumiestis "Kudirkos Naumiestis"), on September 13, the 53rd and 56th divisions withdrew to [Šakiai](/wiki/%C5%A0akiai "Šakiai"). The 53rd and 56th divisions were withdrawn from the corps to the reserve of the 1st Army, and in return the 57th and 64th infantry divisions were subordinated. The German 9th Landwehr Brigade of Lieutenant General [Hermann Clausius](/wiki/Hermann_Clausius "Hermann Clausius") advanced on [Tilsit](/wiki/Tilsit "Tilsit"). On this site there was a detachment of Major General V. Malm (1st brigade of the 68th infantry division and 1st division of the 68th artillery brigade) and the 6th Taurogen border guard brigade, reinforced by two hundred Cossacks and a militia squad. The flanks of the detachment were provided by the 1st separate cavalry brigade and the 53rd infantry division at [Labiau](/wiki/Polessk "Polessk"). From the evening of September 11, the Germans pressed the border guards from Kovalen to the Alexandrovskoye. By the morning of September 12, the Germans made their way to the bridges on the Neman, and by noon completely surrounded the city. From 15 o'clock the bombardment began, the cavalry retreated to [Kovno](/wiki/Kovno "Kovno"). In Tilsit, an uprising of the population began; retreating Russian troops were shot from the windows of houses. The 270th Gatchina Infantry Regiment was surrounded and, while trying to break through, lost its commander (Colonel A. Volkov was captured), almost all the officers and 3,000 soldiers. 8 machine guns, 16 guns were lost, and General Malm was also captured. The remnants of the detachments (8 officers and 869 soldiers) retreated to Shavli.С.Г. Нелипович, Два похода, 2020, p. 91 The 22nd Army Corps was ordered to go on the offensive to rescue the 1st Army, hitting the rear of the Germans. The attack was scheduled for noon, but the commander\-in\-chief of the armies of the North\-Western Front, cavalry general [Yakov Zhilinsky](/wiki/Yakov_Zhilinsky "Yakov Zhilinsky"), categorically forbade the attack and ordered the corps to be withdrawn. After the Germans occupied Suwalki on September 14, the brigades of the corps were assigned to [Lipsk](/wiki/Lipsk "Lipsk"), [Sztabin](/wiki/Sztabin "Sztabin"). On September 16, the Germans knocked down the corps from the Augustow position and occupied Augustow. The corps managed to gain a foothold at the crossings near Lipsk and [Sapotskin](/wiki/Sapotskin "Sapotskin") and received the task of defending the paths to [Grodno](/wiki/Grodno "Grodno"). The soldiers pursued by the Germans, deprived of leadership, lacking not only ammunition, but also provisions, began to surrender en masse. The panic began. The Germans captured 12,000 men and 80 guns. By September 14, East Prussia was cleared of Russian troops, they continued to retreat across the Neman River. On September 14–15, the German vanguard captured Mariampol, Suwalki, Vladislavov and [Pilviškiai](/wiki/Pilvi%C5%A1kiai "Pilviškiai"). An attempt to stop the Germans at Mariampol by the forces of the Russian 4th Army Corps failed: he retreated, losing 52 killed, 163 wounded, 83 missing. On September 15, the German 3rd reserve division captured the city of Augustow, left by the 22nd army corps of the 10th army.Der Weltkrieg 1914 bis 1918 Bd. II., p. 303Morgen C. von. Meiner truppen heldenkaempfe berlin, 1920, p. 21\-23 Nevertheless, Rennenkampf managed to restore control of the troops, withdrawing the army beyond the Neman from Olita to Kovno. He escaped encirclement, although the Russian troops were defeated. The pursuing German cavalry also suffered significant losses. So, in the battles of September 10–14, the Saxon cavalry regiments of the 8th division lost 9 officers killed (including the commander of the Horse Guards Regiment, Major E. Grafen) and 29 soldiers, 8 officers and 53 soldiers wounded, 2 missing and 1 soldier capture.Boerries, Freiherr von Muenchhausen. Das Koeniglich Saechsische Garde\-Reiter\-Regiment. Dresden, 1926\. p. 106, 121; Jahn Das Koeniglich Saechsische Karabinier\-Regiment. Dresden, 1924\. p. 74—78; Wilkens C. Das 1\. Koeniglich\-Saechsische Ulanen\-Regiment Nr. 17 Franz Joseph I Kaiser des Oesterreich und Koenig Ungams. Dresden, 1931 p. 58, 78\-79	[ "Battle\n------", "[thumb\\\|upright\\=2\\\|General staff of the German 8th Army during the battle.](/wiki/File:Stab_der_8-Armee.JPG \"Stab der 8-Armee.JPG\")\nDuring September 2–3, the Russian cavalry occupied [Kelladen](/wiki/Kelladen \"Kelladen\") and [Schelecken](/wiki/Scholochowo_%28Kaliningrad%2C_Polessk%29 \"Scholochowo (Kaliningrad, Polessk)\") and faced the German infantry across the [Deime](/wiki/Deyma \"Deyma\") River. The Russian [3rd Army Corps](/wiki/3rd_Army_Corps_%28Russia%29 \"3rd Army Corps (Russia)\") repulsed all German attacks at Levenhagen and was preparing for pursuit by the forces of the [1st Guards Cavalry Division](/wiki/1st_Guards_Cavalry_Division_%28Russian_Empire%29 \"1st Guards Cavalry Division (Russian Empire)\"). The Russian [4th Army Corps](/wiki/4th_Army_Corps_%28Russian_Empire%29 \"4th Army Corps (Russian Empire)\") at [Gross\\-Wolfsdorf](/wiki/Wilkowo_Wielkie \"Wilkowo Wielkie\") repulsed the attacks of the [German 1st Reserve Division](/wiki/1st_Reserve_Division_%28German_Empire%29 \"1st Reserve Division (German Empire)\") and occupied [Friedland](/wiki/Pravdinsk \"Pravdinsk\") with the forces of the [40th Infantry Division](/wiki/40th_Infantry_Division_%28Russian_Empire%29 \"40th Infantry Division (Russian Empire)\").", "But on the left flank of the 1st Russian army, the situation worsened. On the site of the [2nd Army Corps](/wiki/2nd_Army_%28Russian_Empire%29 \"2nd Army (Russian Empire)\"), the [German 20th Army Corps](/wiki/XX_Corps_%28German_Empire%29 \"XX Corps (German Empire)\") occupied [Rastenburg](/wiki/K%C4%99trzyn \"Kętrzyn\") and [Barten](/wiki/Barty%2C_Warmian-Masurian_Voivodeship \"Barty, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship\"); The Russian [2nd Guards Cavalry Division](/wiki/2nd_Guards_Cavalry_Division \"2nd Guards Cavalry Division\") retreated from [Drengfurth](/wiki/Srokowo \"Srokowo\") . The [1st Cavalry Division](/wiki/1st_Cavalry_Division_%28Russian_Empire%29 \"1st Cavalry Division (Russian Empire)\") of [Vasily Gurko](/wiki/Vasily_Gurko \"Vasily Gurko\"), advancing on [Allenstein](/wiki/Olsztyn \"Olsztyn\"), was met by fire from the German 147th Infantry Regiment and two squadrons of the 11th Dragoon Regiment. Having lost 5 officers and 15 soldiers, Gurko was able to knock the Germans out of position, but could not withstand the counterattack of the cavalry brigade and retreated in battle to Krolikheim.Восточно\\-прусская операция. Сборник документов,1939, документ 467\\. p. 348", "By September 7–8, the command of the 8th German Army unhinderedly concentrated shock groups in front of the positions of the 1st Army and the intensification of operations east of [Königsberg](/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg \"Königsberg\") disoriented Russian intelligence. The [Guards Reserve Corps](/wiki/Guards_Reserve_Corps \"Guards Reserve Corps\") (3rd Guards, 1st Guards Reserve Divisions; commander General of Artillery [Max von Gallwitz](/wiki/Max_von_Gallwitz \"Max von Gallwitz\")) took over the site near [Allenburg](/wiki/Druzhba%2C_Pravdinsky_District%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast \"Druzhba, Pravdinsky District, Kaliningrad Oblast\"), and the [11th Army Corps](/wiki/XI_Corps_%28German_Empire%29 \"XI Corps (German Empire)\") ([22nd](/wiki/22nd_Division_%28German_Empire%29 \"22nd Division (German Empire)\"), [38th Infantry](/wiki/38th_Division_%28German_Empire%29 \"38th Division (German Empire)\") Divisions; commander General of infantry [Otto von Plüskow](/wiki/Otto_von_Pl%C3%BCskow \"Otto von Plüskow\")) took over the site near [Nordenburg](/wiki/Krylowo \"Krylowo\").", "The concentration and offensive of the Russian [22nd Army Corps](/wiki/22nd_Army_Corps_%28Russian_Empire%29 \"22nd Army Corps (Russian Empire)\")—the vanguard of the Russian [10th Army](/wiki/10th_Army_%28Russian_Empire%29 \"10th Army (Russian Empire)\")—at first did not meet with Germans opposition. But on September 7, the German offensive began against the 10th Russian Army. The German [3rd reserve division](/wiki/3rd_Reserve_Division_%28German_Empire%29 \"3rd Reserve Division (German Empire)\"), after a 2\\-hour artillery preparation, captured the city of Bialla, capturing 400 prisoners and 8 guns from the detachment of Lieutenant General {{interlanguage link\\\|Stanislav Stelnitsky\\\|ru\\\|Стельницкий, Станислав Феликсович}} (1st, 2nd, 4th and 12th Finnish rifle regiments ). The next day, the [Curt von Morgen](/wiki/Curt_von_Morgen \"Curt von Morgen\") group broke through the Russian defenses and entered the operational space. To counter the enemy offensive, the 2nd and 4th Finnish rifle brigades were sent to [Lyck](/wiki/E%C5%82k \"Ełk\"), the 10th Finnish rifle regiment to [Arys](/wiki/Orzysz \"Orzysz\"), and the 27th Siberian rifle regiment to [Grajewo](/wiki/Grajewo \"Grajewo\"). The [8th Siberian Rifle Division](/wiki/8th_Siberian_Rifle_Division \"8th Siberian Rifle Division\") of the arriving [3rd Siberian Army Corps](/wiki/3rd_Siberian_Army_Corps \"3rd Siberian Army Corps\") was supposed to go to the rear of the Germans.", "The German [1st Army Corps](/wiki/I_Corps_%28German_Empire%29 \"I Corps (German Empire)\") advanced on [Widminnen](/wiki/Wydminy \"Wydminy\"), where the [1st Infantry Division](/wiki/1st_Division_%28German_Empire%29 \"1st Division (German Empire)\") took up to 1,000 prisoners; another 1,000 defenders (parts of the [43rd Infantry Division](/wiki/43rd_Infantry_Division_%28Russian_Empire%29 \"43rd Infantry Division (Russian Empire)\") and the 3rd Finnish Rifle Brigade) lost killed and wounded. On the front to the north, the Germans continued to approach the Russian positions on the Deime and Alla rivers.", "The commander of the [10th Russian army](/wiki/10th_Army_%28Russian_Empire%29 \"10th Army (Russian Empire)\"), infantry general [Vasily Flug](/wiki/Vasily_Flug \"Vasily Flug\"), ordered the 22nd Army and [3rd Siberian corps](/wiki/3rd_Siberian_Army_Corps \"3rd Siberian Army Corps\") (97,084 men, 192 machine guns, 240 guns)С. Нелипович, 2020, p.78 to go on the offensive on [Johannisburg](/wiki/Pisz \"Pisz\"), but on the night of September 8, the [German 3rd reserve division](/wiki/3rd_Reserve_Division_%28German_Empire%29 \"3rd Reserve Division (German Empire)\") attacked the junction of the 1st and 10th Armies near the city [Lyck](/wiki/Lyck \"Lyck\"). The 22nd Army Corps left the city by the morning of September 9, having lost 96 killed, 493 wounded and 350 missing. The 36th reserve division released [Lötzen](/wiki/L%C3%B6tzen \"Lötzen\"), capturing 1,000 prisoners and 16 guns. The 43rd infantry division and the 3rd Finnish rifle brigade retreated under the onslaught of the Germans from ArisMorgen C. von. Meiner truppen heldenkaempfe berlin, 1920, p. 16", "The commander of the Russian [22nd Corps](/wiki/22nd_Army_Corps_%28Russian_Empire%29 \"22nd Army Corps (Russian Empire)\"), [A. von Brinken](/wiki/Alexander_Freidrikhovich_Brinken \"Alexander Freidrikhovich Brinken\"), considered it necessary to withdraw troops to the defensive line. But the commander of the 10th Army forbade the retreat and ordered at all costs to strike and assist the 1st Army. Von Brinken objected: the continuation of the battle would lead to a complete loss of combat capability, and no assistance would be provided. He proposed to withdraw the vanguards of the army to Augustow, concentrate there, arrange the rear and organize supplies, and then go on the offensive with a single fist. After negotiations with the headquarters of the armies of the [North\\-Western Front](/wiki/Northwestern_Front_%28Russian_Empire%29 \"Northwestern Front (Russian Empire)\"), Flug allowed to withdraw to [Augustow](/wiki/Augustow \"Augustow\").", "On September 9, the Guards Reserve Corps of Artillery General [M. von Gallwitz](/wiki/Max_von_Gallwitz \"Max von Gallwitz\") went on the offensive against the center of the 1st Russian Army near [Allenburg](/wiki/Druzhba%2C_Pravdinsky_District%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast \"Druzhba, Pravdinsky District, Kaliningrad Oblast\"). His 3rd and [1st reserve](/wiki/1st_Guards_Reserve_Division_%28German_Empire%29 \"1st Guards Reserve Division (German Empire)\") guards divisions started a battle at the crossings across the [Alle River](/wiki/%C5%81yna_%28river%29 \"Łyna (river)\") and here they encountered stubborn resistance from the Russian 3rd and 20th army corps, reinforced by the 54th and 72nd infantry divisions. With great difficulty, with the support of the Landwehr from the fortress of [Posen](/wiki/Pozna%C5%84 \"Poznań\") (division of Lieutenant General [Anatol Graf von Bredow](/wiki/Anatol_Graf_von_Bredow \"Anatol Graf von Bredow\")), they managed to gain a foothold at Redden and Schillen. The Russian artillery inflicted especially great damage on the attackers; von Gallwitz ordered at night the artillery brigades to get as close as possible to the Russian positions in order to open fire at close range in the morning and suppress the Russian batteries. From Posen, heavy artillery arrived in the corps under the command of Lieutenant General O. Gereke.Gallwitz M. von. Meine fuerertaetigkeit im Weltkriege 1914/1916, 1929, p. 36\\-37С.Г. Нелипович, Два похода, 2020, p. 82", "The situation on the left flank of the 1st Army was becoming threatening. The distracting group of Morgen wedged into the location of the Russian troops and created a threat of encirclement in front of the rivers [Instruch](/wiki/Instruch \"Instruch\") and [Angerapp](/wiki/Angrapa \"Angrapa\").", "The Russians took urgent measures to strengthen the flank and to gradually withdraw troops from under the blow of the Germans—to the [Angerapp River](/wiki/Angrapa \"Angrapa\"). By the evening of September 9, a grouping of troops was assembled to launch a counterattack on the flank of the corps of [Hermann von François](/wiki/Hermann_von_Fran%C3%A7ois \"Hermann von François\") and Morgen. For this, 9 Russian divisions were concentrated in the [Gołdap](/wiki/Go%C5%82dap \"Gołdap\") area (the 2nd and 20th army corps, the Gurko cavalry detachment and the 54th, 57th and 76th infantry divisions). Rennenkampf ordered to shoot anyone who left the trenches without an order.Ларионов Я.М. Записки участника мировой войны, Харбин, 1936, p. 29, 35 He also turned to the headquarters of the armies of the North\\-Western Front with a request to support his actions with the offensive of the 10th Army, but the quartermaster general of the headquarters, Major General V. Leontiev, stated that \"the corps have not yet been arranged.\"", "At the same time, during the day, the [Guards Reserve Corps](/wiki/Guards_Reserve_Corps \"Guards Reserve Corps\") was able to build 5 bridges on the Alle River on both sides of [Allenburg](/wiki/Druzhba%2C_Pravdinsky_District%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast \"Druzhba, Pravdinsky District, Kaliningrad Oblast\"); to parry a possible Russian counterattack (and German reconnaissance established the arrival of two divisions), Bredow's landwehr division was advanced to the threatened direction, and to the south of [Tapiau](/wiki/Gvardeysk \"Gvardeysk\"), a detachment of K. Wolgemut from the garrison of Koenigsberg (5 battalions and 2 squadrons with strong artillery).", "Rennenkampf did not lose hope of repelling the blow of the German army. He instructs the [Huseyn Khan Nakhchivanski](/wiki/Huseyn_Khan_Nakhchivanski \"Huseyn Khan Nakhchivanski\") to move to Goldap and delay the advance of the Germans. The Rauch division is directed to [Benkheim](/wiki/Banie_Mazurskie \"Banie Mazurskie\") and [Marggrаbоwo](/wiki/Olecko \"Olecko\"), the detachment of Lieutenant General [Anatoly Rosenshield](/wiki/Anatoly_Rosenshield \"Anatoly Rosenshield\") (54th and 28th infantry divisions) to [Trempen](/wiki/Trempen \"Trempen\") and Kiselen, the 29th infantry division to [Darkehmen](/wiki/Ozyorsk%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast \"Ozyorsk, Kaliningrad Oblast\"). The defense of the Deime River was entrusted to the newly formed 26th Army Corps of Infantry General [Aleksandr Gerngross](/wiki/Aleksandr_Gerngross \"Aleksandr Gerngross\") (53rd and 56th Infantry Divisions, 73rd Artillery Brigade).", "Throughout the day on September 9, units of the Russian 3rd Army Corps held back the Germans at Allenburg, and the 4th Army Corps at Bavien. But in the 2nd Army Corps, the Germans occupied [Widminnen](/wiki/Wydminy \"Wydminy\"), went to [Lake Gablick](/wiki/Lake_Gablick \"Lake Gablick\"), where they were stopped by the 1st Cavalry Division entering the battle. In the battles, the Russian 302nd Surazh Infantry Regiment was defeated, the commander of the 1st brigade of the 26th Infantry Division, Major General [K. Druzhinin](/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD%2C_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87 \"Дружинин, Константин Иванович\"), was killed. At [Kutten](/wiki/Kuty%2C_Warmian-Masurian_Voivodeship \"Kuty, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship\"), the Russian 72nd Infantry Division was brought into battle.", "Thus, both sides were concentrating forces on the southern flank, striving to envelop the enemy's battle formation. At the same time, P. Rennenkampf also counted on a powerful blow with three corps in the direction of [Melauken](/wiki/Melauken \"Melauken\"), [Wirbeln](/wiki/Wirbeln \"Wirbeln\"), [Norkitten](/wiki/Norkitten \"Norkitten\"), [Nordenburg](/wiki/Krylovo%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast \"Krylovo, Kaliningrad Oblast\")—in the center and northern flank of the Germans.", "On September 7, the Russian 2nd Army launched a diversionary attack on [Myszyniec](/wiki/Myszyniec \"Myszyniec\") and captured the city by the night of September 10\\. The cavalry drove out the German vanguards from [Friedrichshof](/wiki/Rozogi%2C_Szczytno_County \"Rozogi, Szczytno County\"). These attacks were carried out by a few detachments, since the army had not yet recovered from the defeat at Tannenberg. The attack on [Mława](/wiki/M%C5%82awa \"Mława\") was not successful, but by the morning of September 13, Janów was taken. During this time, 17 prisoners were captured. Russian losses were 22 killed, 120 wounded and 19 missing. The main result of the actions of the 2nd Army during this period was that the German 8th Army was deprived of the opportunity to reinforce the troops against the 1st Army at the expense of its Southern Group and had to constantly worry about the right flank. Only on the orders of the Supreme Commander\\-in\\-Chief did the 2nd Army begin to retreat to its original positions, since the headquarters of the front armies feared a breakthrough here too.", "On September 10, the shock group of the 1st Army launched an offensive from the [Gołdap](/wiki/Go%C5%82dap \"Gołdap\") area, but was met by hurricane artillery and machine\\-gun fire, first at the attacking chains, and then at the Russian positions. Taking advantage of the confusion, the 1st German reserve corps captured Goldap on the move, taking 1,000 prisoners and 32 guns in the city, and then advanced to [Insterburg](/wiki/Chernyakhovsk \"Chernyakhovsk\"). Having lost a springboard for regrouping, the Russian 2nd Army Corps retreated. His 43rd Infantry Division suffered heavy casualties; in the companies of the 26th infantry division, 5\\-10 men remained (it lost more than 4,000 men).Ларионов Я.М.,1936, p. 33, 56, 68; Der Weltkrieg 1914 bis 1918 Bd. II., p. 293", "Rennenkampf was furious at the failure of the counterattack. He demanded from the commander of the 20th Corps, General of Infantry [V. Smirnov](/wiki/Vladimir_Vasilyevich_Smirnov \"Vladimir Vasilyevich Smirnov\"), the most energetic actions to support the 2nd Army Corps. Using the success of the 1st Army Corps and 1st Reserve Corps, the divisions of the Guards Reserve Corps crossed the Alle and [Omet](/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B0_%28%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%29 \"Стоговка (река)\") rivers and began the pursuit to [Velau](/wiki/Znamensk%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast \"Znamensk, Kaliningrad Oblast\")Gallwitz M. von. Meine fuerertaetigkeit im Weltkriege 1914/1916, 1929, p. 39\\-40", "On September 10, the headquarters of the 22nd Army Corps moved to Augustow. Four brigades of the corps, united in the detachments of Stelnitsky and Lieutenant General [Vladimir von Notbek](/wiki/Vladimir_von_Notbek \"Vladimir von Notbek\"), retreated to [Kallinowen](/wiki/Kalinowo%2C_E%C5%82k_County \"Kalinowo, Ełk County\") and [Lake Skomenten](/wiki/Skom%C4%99tno_Wielkie \"Skomętno Wielkie\"). The German regiments of the 1st Army Corps at that time launched an offensive against the flank of the Russian 2nd Army Corps. The 44th Infantry Regiment of the 2nd Infantry Division occupied [Gross Pillaken](/wiki/Gross_Pillaken \"Gross Pillaken\") and [Gross Jakunoven](/wiki/Gross_Jakunoven \"Gross Jakunoven\"), capturing 657 Russian prisoners (including 7 officers) and 8 guns.Hoffmann T. Geschichte des Infanterie\\-Regiments Doenhoff Nr. 44 (1800—1918\\). B., 1930\\. S. 119", "The German 3rd reserve division entered Lyck. The combined cavalry corps of Lieutenant General [Hermann Bernhard Brecht](/wiki/Hermann_Bernhard_Brecht \"Hermann Bernhard Brecht\") (1st and 8th cavalry divisions) moved into the gap between the flanks of the 1st and 10th Russian armies. By evening, the German cavalry reached Kovalen, intercepting the retreat routes of the 1st Army. The German 1st and 17th army corps were involved in the battle for Goldap, and the 3rd reserve division and the 1st cavalry brigade defended Lyck against the troops of the Russian 10th army. The Russian 20th Army Corps, reinforced by the 54th, 57th and 72nd Infantry Divisions, suffered huge losses (over 16,000 men, not counting the completely destroyed 72nd Division), but did not allow the Germans to enter the Russian rear.С.Г. Нелипович, Два похода, 2020, p. 85", "The divisions of the Russian 3rd and 4th army corps defended steadfastly at the turn of the Omet and Angerapp rivers. Their resistance did not allow the collapse of the right flank of the 1st Army and created an opportunity for the transfer of two divisions of the 20th army corps, and then the cavalry corps of Khan Nakhichevan to the breakthrough site of Brecht's German cavalry. Only on the night of September 12 did the Russian 40th Infantry Division retreat across the Angerapp River and destroy the bridges behind them. Her losses exceeded 1,600 men. Until the evening of September 11, the Guards and the 1st Reserve and the 11th Army Corps and 20th Army Corps of the Germans could not move forward against these forces.", "Nevertheless, the results of the battle on September 10 were depressing for Rennenkampf. By midnight, the 2nd Army Corps retreated across the [Gołdapa](/wiki/Go%C5%82dapa \"Gołdapa\") River, the counterattacks of the 20th Army Corps were repulsed. The Germans with the forces of the 1st reserve corps pursued the Friedrichswald, the Guards Reserve Corps occupied Neumühl, Hoendamerau, the Wolgemut detachment—[Wehlau](/wiki/Znamensk%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast \"Znamensk, Kaliningrad Oblast\"). Considering the growing threat of covering the left flank of the army, Rennenkampf ordered on the night of September 11 to begin a withdrawal.", "The commander of the 10th Army, General of Artillery V. Flug, on the morning of September 11, attacked Lyck with the 3rd Siberian Army Corps (7th and 8th Siberian Rifle Divisions) and the 22nd Army Corps. The 3rd Siberian Army Corps persistently attacked Lyck until the morning of September 12, and although the city was never taken, the German command attracted the landwehr division of R. von der Goltz from the Narew direction to defend it. The 3rd reserve division was unable to reinforce the bypass group, which crashed south of Goldap into the flank of the 1st army. But the detachments of Stelnitsky and Notbek, who received the task of hitting the rear of the Germans at [Marggrabowa](/wiki/Olecko \"Olecko\") and [Wielitsken](/wiki/Wielitsken \"Wielitsken\"), were just deploying. In total, the 10th Army lost 343 killed, 1,105 wounded and 451 missing in these battles and captured 4 wounded German soldiers.С.Г. Нелипович, Два похода, 2020, p. 89", "On September 11, German corps began pursuing the retreating Russian corps of the 1st Army. The Guards Reserve Corps crossed the [Pregolya](/wiki/Pregolya \"Pregolya\") river and reached Norkitten. The 1st Reserve Corps entrenched itself in Insterburg, the 1st Army Corps in Rominten Forest, the 17th and 20th Army Corps reached [Nemmersdorf](/wiki/Mayakovskoye \"Mayakovskoye\"). The 9th Landwehr Brigade successfully advanced to [Tilsit](/wiki/Sovetsk%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast \"Sovetsk, Kaliningrad Oblast\"), bypassing the right flank of the Russians.Gallwitz M. von. Meine fuerertaetigkeit im Weltkriege 1914/1916, 1929, p. 41", "The stubborn resistance of the troops of the 1st Army, led, however, to significant fatigue of the Russian troops, and to a temporary loss of control over them. There were also extremely heavy losses. In a few days, the 1st army lost (according to incomplete data) 3,603 killed, 13,202 wounded and 44,475 missing.", "On September 11, the commander\\-in\\-chief of the armies of the North\\-Western Front, Y. Zhilinsky, ordered P. von Rennenkampf to withdraw troops to the Neman line. During the day of September 11, the 4th Army Corps repelled most of the German attacks and was pushed back only on the right flank. The 2nd and 20th Army Corps retreated with a battle for [Gawaiten](/wiki/Gawaiten \"Gawaiten\") and [Groß Sobrost](/wiki/Zabrost_Wielki \"Zabrost Wielki\"). The 2nd Guards Cavalry Division (G. Rauch), after a stubborn battle at Kovalen, retreated to Tolmingkemen. The 1st and 2nd Guards Cavalry Divisions retreated to [Gurken](/wiki/G%C3%B3rki%2C_Gmina_Sztum \"Górki, Gmina Sztum\"). On the extreme right flank of the 1st Army, Tilsit was surrounded.", "The retreat of the 1st Army soon took on the character of flight. In previous battles, the Germans managed to create a threat of encirclement of the left flank with a blow from the [Romincka Forest](/wiki/Romincka_Forest \"Romincka Forest\") to the north—with cutting off the mass of P. von Rennenkampf's troops on the Angerapp River. This caused the haste of the withdrawal of three corps, the mixing of troops, and the loss of communications. On September 12–13, Rennenkampf, who retreated with the headquarters and command of the army in [Kovno](/wiki/Kovno \"Kovno\"), lost command of the troops and restored communication only by the night of September 14\\.С.Г. Нелипович, Два похода, 2020, p. 90", "The loss of communication was caused primarily by panic in the immediate rear. The army was served by large telegraph and telephone centers in [Suwalki](/wiki/Suwalki \"Suwalki\"), [Augustow](/wiki/Augustow \"Augustow\") and [Sejny](/wiki/Sejny \"Sejny\"). At the first news of the retreat of the army on September 12, the civil administration abandoned their posts and fled, cutting telegraph and telephone lines. Therefore, the blame for the loss of command and control lies to a large extent on the civilian department.", "On September 12, the 20th Russian Army Corps retreated to the [Trakehnen](/wiki/Yasnaya_Polyana%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast \"Yasnaya Polyana, Kaliningrad Oblast\")\\-[Tollmingkehinel](/wiki/Chistye_Prudy%2C_Kaliningrad_Oblast \"Chistye Prudy, Kaliningrad Oblast\") line, continually coming under fire from German artillery. On September 14–16, the divisions of the corps retreated successively to [Marijampolė](/wiki/Marijampol%C4%97 \"Marijampolė\"), [Lyudvinovo](/wiki/Lyudvinovo \"Lyudvinovo\") and [Simnas](/wiki/Simnas \"Simnas\"). The troops suffered heavy losses during the withdrawal; as a result, the 54th Infantry Division was disbanded. By September 19, the 28th and 29th Infantry Divisions were entrenched in positions near [Alytus](/wiki/Alytus \"Alytus\").", "On September 12, the divisions of the 26th Army Corps took up a position at [Kussen](/wiki/Kussen \"Kussen\"), [Kattenau](/wiki/Kattenau \"Kattenau\"), keeping in touch with the 3rd Army Corps and preparing to repulse the advancing Germans. The Russian 53rd and 56th divisions and the 5th rifle brigade fought a stubborn battle until late in the evening, when the 3rd corps had already retreated to [Vilkaviškis](/wiki/Vilkavi%C5%A1kis \"Vilkaviškis\") . By nightfall, the corps broke away from the Germans and withdrew to Širvinta River and [Vladislavov](/wiki/Kudirkos_Naumiestis \"Kudirkos Naumiestis\"), on September 13, the 53rd and 56th divisions withdrew to [Šakiai](/wiki/%C5%A0akiai \"Šakiai\"). The 53rd and 56th divisions were withdrawn from the corps to the reserve of the 1st Army, and in return the 57th and 64th infantry divisions were subordinated.", "The German 9th Landwehr Brigade of Lieutenant General [Hermann Clausius](/wiki/Hermann_Clausius \"Hermann Clausius\") advanced on [Tilsit](/wiki/Tilsit \"Tilsit\"). On this site there was a detachment of Major General V. Malm (1st brigade of the 68th infantry division and 1st division of the 68th artillery brigade) and the 6th Taurogen border guard brigade, reinforced by two hundred Cossacks and a militia squad. The flanks of the detachment were provided by the 1st separate cavalry brigade and the 53rd infantry division at [Labiau](/wiki/Polessk \"Polessk\").", "From the evening of September 11, the Germans pressed the border guards from Kovalen to the Alexandrovskoye. By the morning of September 12, the Germans made their way to the bridges on the Neman, and by noon completely surrounded the city. From 15 o'clock the bombardment began, the cavalry retreated to [Kovno](/wiki/Kovno \"Kovno\"). In Tilsit, an uprising of the population began; retreating Russian troops were shot from the windows of houses. The 270th Gatchina Infantry Regiment was surrounded and, while trying to break through, lost its commander (Colonel A. Volkov was captured), almost all the officers and 3,000 soldiers. 8 machine guns, 16 guns were lost, and General Malm was also captured. The remnants of the detachments (8 officers and 869 soldiers) retreated to Shavli.С.Г. Нелипович, Два похода, 2020, p. 91", "The 22nd Army Corps was ordered to go on the offensive to rescue the 1st Army, hitting the rear of the Germans. The attack was scheduled for noon, but the commander\\-in\\-chief of the armies of the North\\-Western Front, cavalry general [Yakov Zhilinsky](/wiki/Yakov_Zhilinsky \"Yakov Zhilinsky\"), categorically forbade the attack and ordered the corps to be withdrawn. After the Germans occupied Suwalki on September 14, the brigades of the corps were assigned to [Lipsk](/wiki/Lipsk \"Lipsk\"), [Sztabin](/wiki/Sztabin \"Sztabin\"). On September 16, the Germans knocked down the corps from the Augustow position and occupied Augustow. The corps managed to gain a foothold at the crossings near Lipsk and [Sapotskin](/wiki/Sapotskin \"Sapotskin\") and received the task of defending the paths to [Grodno](/wiki/Grodno \"Grodno\").", "The soldiers pursued by the Germans, deprived of leadership, lacking not only ammunition, but also provisions, began to surrender en masse. The panic began. The Germans captured 12,000 men and 80 guns. By September 14, East Prussia was cleared of Russian troops, they continued to retreat across the Neman River. On September 14–15, the German vanguard captured Mariampol, Suwalki, Vladislavov and [Pilviškiai](/wiki/Pilvi%C5%A1kiai \"Pilviškiai\"). An attempt to stop the Germans at Mariampol by the forces of the Russian 4th Army Corps failed: he retreated, losing 52 killed, 163 wounded, 83 missing. On September 15, the German 3rd reserve division captured the city of Augustow, left by the 22nd army corps of the 10th army.Der Weltkrieg 1914 bis 1918 Bd. II., p. 303Morgen C. von. Meiner truppen heldenkaempfe berlin, 1920, p. 21\\-23", "Nevertheless, Rennenkampf managed to restore control of the troops, withdrawing the army beyond the Neman from Olita to Kovno. He escaped encirclement, although the Russian troops were defeated. The pursuing German cavalry also suffered significant losses. So, in the battles of September 10–14, the Saxon cavalry regiments of the 8th division lost 9 officers killed (including the commander of the Horse Guards Regiment, Major E. Grafen) and 29 soldiers, 8 officers and 53 soldiers wounded, 2 missing and 1 soldier capture.Boerries, Freiherr von Muenchhausen. Das Koeniglich Saechsische Garde\\-Reiter\\-Regiment. Dresden, 1926\\. p. 106, 121; Jahn Das Koeniglich Saechsische Karabinier\\-Regiment. Dresden, 1924\\. p. 74—78; Wilkens C. Das 1\\. Koeniglich\\-Saechsische Ulanen\\-Regiment Nr. 17 Franz Joseph I Kaiser des Oesterreich und Koenig Ungams. Dresden, 1931 p. 58, 78\\-79", "" ]
Permanent Secretariat --------------------- [thumb\\|left\\|Sabas Chahuán, Attorney general of Chile](/wiki/File:Fiscal_chahuan.jpg "Fiscal chahuan.jpg") The Permanent Secretariat is the body of legal technical support of the Association and within its functions is to exercise the mandates of the President, Service History and institutional continuity, including the administration of the website, and encourage and make preliminary studies necessary for the promotion of projects of interest to the members of the Association. The Permanent Secretariat has been exercised from 2007 to 2012 by the Public Ministry of [Chile](/wiki/Chile "Chile"). Having held the XV General Assembly AIAMP ([Madrid](/wiki/Madrid "Madrid"), [Spain](/wiki/Spain "Spain")), and within the new statutory framework, the members agreed to establish the Permanent General Secretariat based in the prosecution of [Chile](/wiki/Chile "Chile"), whose head would be appointed by the Attorney General of that country. On January 29, 2008, the Attorney General of [Chile](/wiki/Chile "Chile"), Sabas Chahuán complied with the provisions of Article 19 and 22 of the new regulations governing the Association and fixing to Chile to host the Permanent Secretariat AIAMP. The appointment of the Secretary General of the AIAMP the lawyer Jorge Chocair Lahsen, Director of the Special Unit for International Cooperation and Public Ministry and Extraditions from [Chile](/wiki/Chile "Chile"). From April 2013, the Secretary General shall be responsible to [Costa Rica](/wiki/Costa_Rica "Costa Rica").	[ "Permanent Secretariat\n---------------------", "[thumb\\\|left\\\|Sabas Chahuán, Attorney general of Chile](/wiki/File:Fiscal_chahuan.jpg \"Fiscal chahuan.jpg\")", "The Permanent Secretariat is the body of legal technical support of the Association and within its functions is to exercise the mandates of the President, Service History and institutional continuity, including the administration of the website, and encourage and make preliminary studies necessary for the promotion of projects of interest to the members of the Association. The Permanent Secretariat has been exercised from 2007 to 2012 by the Public Ministry of [Chile](/wiki/Chile \"Chile\").", "Having held the XV General Assembly AIAMP ([Madrid](/wiki/Madrid \"Madrid\"), [Spain](/wiki/Spain \"Spain\")), and within the new statutory framework, the members agreed to establish the Permanent General Secretariat based in the prosecution of [Chile](/wiki/Chile \"Chile\"), whose head would be appointed by the Attorney General of that country.", "On January 29, 2008, the Attorney General of [Chile](/wiki/Chile \"Chile\"), Sabas Chahuán complied with the provisions of Article 19 and 22 of the new regulations governing the Association and fixing to Chile to host the Permanent Secretariat AIAMP.", "The appointment of the Secretary General of the AIAMP the lawyer Jorge Chocair Lahsen, Director of the Special Unit for International Cooperation and Public Ministry and Extraditions from [Chile](/wiki/Chile \"Chile\").", "From April 2013, the Secretary General shall be responsible to [Costa Rica](/wiki/Costa_Rica \"Costa Rica\").", "" ]