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{{multiple image
\| total\_width \= 400
\| image1 \= Shigeru Miyamoto 20150610 (cropped 2\).jpg
\| image2 \= John Romero \- Jason Scott interview (6951215353\) (cropped).jpg
\| footer \= \[\[Shigeru Miyamoto]] (left) and \[\[John Romero]] (right) are well\-known game developers.
}}
### First\-party developers{{anchor\|First\-party\_developer}}
In the [video game industry](/wiki/Video_game_industry "Video game industry"), a first\-party developer is part of a company that manufactures a video game console and develops mainly for it. First\-party developers may use the name of the company itself (such as [Nintendo](/wiki/Nintendo "Nintendo")), have a specific division name (such as [Sony's](/wiki/Sony_Computer_Entertainment "Sony Computer Entertainment") [Polyphony Digital](/wiki/Polyphony_Digital "Polyphony Digital")) or have been an independent studio before being acquired by the console manufacturer (such as [Rare](/wiki/Rare_%28company%29 "Rare (company)") or [Naughty Dog](/wiki/Naughty_Dog "Naughty Dog")).{{cite web\|last\=Ahmed\|first\=Shahed\|title\=Naughty Dog discusses being acquired by Sony\|url\=https://www.gamespot.com/articles/naughty\-dog\-discusses\-being\-acquired\-by\-sony/1100\-2677654/\|website\=GameSpot\|access\-date\=2018\-05\-26\|archive\-date\=2018\-06\-29\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629131447/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/naughty\-dog\-discusses\-being\-acquired\-by\-sony/1100\-2677654/\|url\-status\=live}} Whether by purchasing an independent studio or by founding a new team, the acquisition of a first\-party developer involves a huge [financial investment](/wiki/Financial_investment "Financial investment") on the part of the console manufacturer, which is wasted if the developer fails to produce a hit game on time.{{cite magazine \|title\=Is Your Favorite Game Company Ripping You Off? \|magazine\=\[\[Next Generation (magazine)\|Next Generation]] \|issue\=30\|publisher\=\[\[Imagine Media]] \|date\=June 1997\|pages\=39–40 \|url\=https://archive.org/stream/NextGeneration30Jun1997/Next\_Generation\_30\_Jun\_1997\#page/n40}} However, using first\-party developers saves the cost of having to make royalty payments on a game's profits. Current examples of first\-party studios include [PlayStation Studios](/wiki/SIE_Worldwide_Studios "SIE Worldwide Studios") for Sony, and [Xbox Game Studios](/wiki/Xbox_Game_Studios "Xbox Game Studios") for [Microsoft Gaming](/wiki/Microsoft_Gaming "Microsoft Gaming").
### Second\-party developers{{anchor\|Second\-party\_developer}}
Second\-party developer is a colloquial term often used by gaming enthusiasts and media to describe game studios that take development contracts from [platform holders](/wiki/Platform_holders "Platform holders") and develop games exclusive to that platform, i.e. a non\-owned developer making games for a first\-party company.{{cite magazine\|title\=The Next Generation 1996 Lexicon A to Z: Second Party\|magazine\=\[\[Next Generation (magazine)\|Next Generation]]\|issue\=15 \|publisher\=\[\[Imagine Media]]\|date\=March 1996\|page\=40}} As a balance to not being able to release their game for other platforms, second\-party developers are usually offered higher royalty rates than third\-party developers. These studios may have exclusive publishing agreements (or other business relationships) with the platform holder, but maintain independence so that upon completion or termination of their contracts, they are able to continue developing games for other publishers if they choose to. For example, while [HAL Laboratory](/wiki/HAL_Laboratory "HAL Laboratory") initially began developing games on personal computers like the [MSX](/wiki/MSX "MSX"), they became one of the earliest second\-party developers for Nintendo, developing exclusively for Nintendo's consoles starting with the Famicom, though they would self\-publish their mobile games.{{cite web \| url \= https://kotaku.com/the\-studio\-behind\-smash\-bros\-and\-kirby\-hal\-laboratory\-1687219609 \| title \= The Studio Behind Smash Bros. And Kirby, HAL Laboratory Turns 35 Today \| first \= Mike \| last \= Fahey \| date \= February 21, 2015 \| access\-date \= March 25, 2021 \| work \= \[\[Kotaku]] \| archive\-date \= November 6, 2021 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20211106052019/https://kotaku.com/the\-studio\-behind\-smash\-bros\-and\-kirby\-hal\-laboratory\-1687219609 \| url\-status \= live }}{{Cite web \|last\=Devore \|first\=Jordan \|date\=2018\-02\-26 \|title\=HAL Laboratory's first mobile game is out today \|url\=https://www.destructoid.com/hal\-laboratorys\-first\-mobile\-game\-is\-out\-today/ \|url\-status\=live \|access\-date\=2022\-06\-16 \|website\=Destructoid \|language\=en\-CA \|archive\-date\=2022\-08\-19 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819200051/https://www.destructoid.com/hal\-laboratorys\-first\-mobile\-game\-is\-out\-today/ }}
### Third\-party developers
{{Anchor\|Third\-party developers\|3rd\-party developers}}
{{see also\|Third\-party software component}}
A third\-party developer may also publish games, or work for a video game publisher to develop a title. Both publisher and developer have considerable input in the game's [design](/wiki/Game_design "Game design") and content. However, the publisher's wishes generally override those of the developer. Work for hire studios solely execute the publishers vision.
The business arrangement between the developer and publisher is governed by a contract, which specifies a list of [milestones](/wiki/Milestone_%28project_management%29 "Milestone (project management)") intended to be delivered over a period of time. By updating its milestones, the publisher verifies that work is progressing quickly enough to meet its deadline and can direct the developer if the game is not meeting expectations. When each milestone is completed (and accepted), the publisher pays the developer an advance on [royalties](/wiki/Royalties "Royalties"). Successful developers may maintain several teams working on different games for different publishers. Generally, however, third\-party developers tend to be small, close\-knit teams. Third\-party game development is a volatile sector, since small developers may depend on income from a single publisher; one canceled game may devastate a small developer. Because of this, many small development companies are short\-lived.
A common [exit strategy](/wiki/Exit_strategy "Exit strategy") for a successful video game developer is to sell the company to a publisher, becoming an in\-house developer. In\-house development teams tend to have more freedom in game design and content than third\-party developers. One reason is that since the developers are the publisher's employees, their interests align with those of the publisher; the publisher may spend less effort ensuring that the developer's decisions do not enrich the developer at the publisher's expense.
[Activision](/wiki/Activision "Activision") in 1979 became the first third\-party video game developer. When four [Atari, Inc.](/wiki/Atari%2C_Inc. "Atari, Inc.") programmers left the company following its sale to [Warner Communications](/wiki/Warner_Communications "Warner Communications"), partially over the lack of respect that the new management gave to programmers, they used their knowledge of how [Atari VCS](/wiki/Atari_VCS "Atari VCS") game cartridges were programmed to create their own games for the system, founding Activision in 1979 to sell these. Atari took legal action to try to block the sale of these games, but the companies ultimately settled, with Activision agreeing to pay a portion of their sales as a license fee to Atari for developing for the console. This established the use of licensing fees as a model for third\-party development that persists into the present.{{cite news \| url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=nwsdAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3635%2C1989311 \| title\=Stream of video games is endless \| work\=Milwaukee Journal \| date\=1982\-12\-26 \| access\-date\=10 January 2015 \| pages\=Business 1 \| archive\-date\=2016\-03\-12 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312093025/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=nwsdAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=QX8EAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3635%2C1989311 \| url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1537/the\_history\_of\_activision.php?print\=1 \|title\=The History Of Activision \|work\=Gamasutra \|first\=Jeffrey \|last\=Flemming \|access\-date\=December 30, 2016 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220122651/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1537/the\_history\_of\_activision.php?print\=1 \|archive\-date\=December 20, 2016}} The licensing fee approach was further enforced by [Nintendo](/wiki/Nintendo "Nintendo") when it decided to allow other third\-party developers to make games for the [Famicom](/wiki/Famicom "Famicom") console, setting a 30% licensing fee that covered game cartridge manufacturing costs and development fees. The 30% licensing fee for third\-party developers has also persisted to the present, being a de facto rate used for most digital storefronts for third\-party developers to offer their games on the platform.{{cite news \| url \= https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020\-08\-19/epic\-games\-fortnite\-battle\-with\-apple\-and\-google\-can\-be\-traced\-to\-nintendo\-tax \| title \= Epic's Battle With Apple and Google Actually Dates Back to Pac\-Man \| first1 \= Takahashi \| last1 \= Mochizuki \| first2 \= Vlad \| last2 \= Savov \| date \= August 25, 2020 \| access\-date \= August 25, 2020 \| work \= \[\[Bloomberg News]] \| archive\-date \= November 6, 2021 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20211106025128/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020\-08\-19/epic\-games\-fortnite\-battle\-with\-apple\-and\-google\-can\-be\-traced\-to\-nintendo\-tax \| url\-status \= live }}
In recent years, larger publishers have acquired several third\-party developers. While these development teams are now technically "in\-house", they often continue to operate in an autonomous manner (with their own culture and work practices). For example, Activision acquired [Raven](/wiki/Raven_Software "Raven Software") (1997\); [Neversoft](/wiki/Neversoft "Neversoft") (1999\), which merged with [Infinity Ward](/wiki/Infinity_Ward "Infinity Ward") in 2014; [Z\-Axis](/wiki/Z-Axis "Z-Axis") (2001\); [Treyarch](/wiki/Treyarch "Treyarch") (2001\); [Luxoflux](/wiki/Luxoflux "Luxoflux") (2002\); [Shaba](/wiki/Shaba_Games "Shaba Games") (2002\); [Infinity Ward](/wiki/Infinity_Ward "Infinity Ward") (2003\) and [Vicarious Visions](/wiki/Vicarious_Visions "Vicarious Visions") (2005\). All these developers continue operating much as they did before acquisition, the primary differences being exclusivity and financial details. Publishers tend to be more forgiving of their own development teams going over budget (or missing deadlines) than third\-party developers.
A developer may not be the primary entity creating a piece of software, usually providing an external software tool which helps organize (or use) information for the primary software product. Such tools may be a [database](/wiki/Database "Database"), [Voice over IP](/wiki/Voice_over_IP "Voice over IP"), or add\-in [interface](/wiki/Interface_%28computer_science%29 "Interface (computer science)") software; this is also known as [middleware](/wiki/Middleware "Middleware"). Examples of this include [SpeedTree](/wiki/SpeedTree "SpeedTree") and [Havoc](/wiki/Havok_%28software%29 "Havok (software)").
#### Indie game developers
{{See also\|Indie game\|Independent video game development}}
Independents are software developers which are not owned by (or dependent on) a single publisher. Some of these developers self\-publish their games, relying on the [Internet](/wiki/Internet "Internet") and word of mouth for publicity. Without the large marketing budgets of mainstream publishers, their products may receive less recognition than those of larger publishers such as Sony, Microsoft or Nintendo. With the advent of digital distribution of inexpensive games on game consoles, it is now possible for indie game developers to forge agreements with console manufacturers for broad distribution of their games.
Other indie game developers create game software for a number of video\-game publishers on several gaming platforms.{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2009}} In recent years this model has been in decline; larger publishers, such as Electronic Arts and Activision, increasingly turn to internal studios (usually former independent developers acquired for their development needs).{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/130449/the\_end\_game\_how\_top\_developers\_.php\|title\=The End Game: How Top Developers Sold Their Studios \- Part One\|website\=www.gamasutra.com\|date\=3 March 2004\|access\-date\=14 October 2019\|archive\-date\=23 September 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923193804/https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/130449/the\_end\_game\_how\_top\_developers\_.php\|url\-status\=live}}
|
[
"Types\n-----",
"{{multiple image\n\\| total\\_width \\= 400\n\\| image1 \\= Shigeru Miyamoto 20150610 (cropped 2\\).jpg\n\\| image2 \\= John Romero \\- Jason Scott interview (6951215353\\) (cropped).jpg\n\\| footer \\= \\[\\[Shigeru Miyamoto]] (left) and \\[\\[John Romero]] (right) are well\\-known game developers.\n}}",
"### First\\-party developers{{anchor\\|First\\-party\\_developer}}",
"In the [video game industry](/wiki/Video_game_industry \"Video game industry\"), a first\\-party developer is part of a company that manufactures a video game console and develops mainly for it. First\\-party developers may use the name of the company itself (such as [Nintendo](/wiki/Nintendo \"Nintendo\")), have a specific division name (such as [Sony's](/wiki/Sony_Computer_Entertainment \"Sony Computer Entertainment\") [Polyphony Digital](/wiki/Polyphony_Digital \"Polyphony Digital\")) or have been an independent studio before being acquired by the console manufacturer (such as [Rare](/wiki/Rare_%28company%29 \"Rare (company)\") or [Naughty Dog](/wiki/Naughty_Dog \"Naughty Dog\")).{{cite web\\|last\\=Ahmed\\|first\\=Shahed\\|title\\=Naughty Dog discusses being acquired by Sony\\|url\\=https://www.gamespot.com/articles/naughty\\-dog\\-discusses\\-being\\-acquired\\-by\\-sony/1100\\-2677654/\\|website\\=GameSpot\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-05\\-26\\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-06\\-29\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629131447/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/naughty\\-dog\\-discusses\\-being\\-acquired\\-by\\-sony/1100\\-2677654/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Whether by purchasing an independent studio or by founding a new team, the acquisition of a first\\-party developer involves a huge [financial investment](/wiki/Financial_investment \"Financial investment\") on the part of the console manufacturer, which is wasted if the developer fails to produce a hit game on time.{{cite magazine \\|title\\=Is Your Favorite Game Company Ripping You Off? \\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Next Generation (magazine)\\|Next Generation]] \\|issue\\=30\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Imagine Media]] \\|date\\=June 1997\\|pages\\=39–40 \\|url\\=https://archive.org/stream/NextGeneration30Jun1997/Next\\_Generation\\_30\\_Jun\\_1997\\#page/n40}} However, using first\\-party developers saves the cost of having to make royalty payments on a game's profits. Current examples of first\\-party studios include [PlayStation Studios](/wiki/SIE_Worldwide_Studios \"SIE Worldwide Studios\") for Sony, and [Xbox Game Studios](/wiki/Xbox_Game_Studios \"Xbox Game Studios\") for [Microsoft Gaming](/wiki/Microsoft_Gaming \"Microsoft Gaming\").",
"### Second\\-party developers{{anchor\\|Second\\-party\\_developer}}",
"Second\\-party developer is a colloquial term often used by gaming enthusiasts and media to describe game studios that take development contracts from [platform holders](/wiki/Platform_holders \"Platform holders\") and develop games exclusive to that platform, i.e. a non\\-owned developer making games for a first\\-party company.{{cite magazine\\|title\\=The Next Generation 1996 Lexicon A to Z: Second Party\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Next Generation (magazine)\\|Next Generation]]\\|issue\\=15 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Imagine Media]]\\|date\\=March 1996\\|page\\=40}} As a balance to not being able to release their game for other platforms, second\\-party developers are usually offered higher royalty rates than third\\-party developers. These studios may have exclusive publishing agreements (or other business relationships) with the platform holder, but maintain independence so that upon completion or termination of their contracts, they are able to continue developing games for other publishers if they choose to. For example, while [HAL Laboratory](/wiki/HAL_Laboratory \"HAL Laboratory\") initially began developing games on personal computers like the [MSX](/wiki/MSX \"MSX\"), they became one of the earliest second\\-party developers for Nintendo, developing exclusively for Nintendo's consoles starting with the Famicom, though they would self\\-publish their mobile games.{{cite web \\| url \\= https://kotaku.com/the\\-studio\\-behind\\-smash\\-bros\\-and\\-kirby\\-hal\\-laboratory\\-1687219609 \\| title \\= The Studio Behind Smash Bros. And Kirby, HAL Laboratory Turns 35 Today \\| first \\= Mike \\| last \\= Fahey \\| date \\= February 21, 2015 \\| access\\-date \\= March 25, 2021 \\| work \\= \\[\\[Kotaku]] \\| archive\\-date \\= November 6, 2021 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20211106052019/https://kotaku.com/the\\-studio\\-behind\\-smash\\-bros\\-and\\-kirby\\-hal\\-laboratory\\-1687219609 \\| url\\-status \\= live }}{{Cite web \\|last\\=Devore \\|first\\=Jordan \\|date\\=2018\\-02\\-26 \\|title\\=HAL Laboratory's first mobile game is out today \\|url\\=https://www.destructoid.com/hal\\-laboratorys\\-first\\-mobile\\-game\\-is\\-out\\-today/ \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-06\\-16 \\|website\\=Destructoid \\|language\\=en\\-CA \\|archive\\-date\\=2022\\-08\\-19 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819200051/https://www.destructoid.com/hal\\-laboratorys\\-first\\-mobile\\-game\\-is\\-out\\-today/ }}",
"### Third\\-party developers",
"{{Anchor\\|Third\\-party developers\\|3rd\\-party developers}}\n{{see also\\|Third\\-party software component}}",
"A third\\-party developer may also publish games, or work for a video game publisher to develop a title. Both publisher and developer have considerable input in the game's [design](/wiki/Game_design \"Game design\") and content. However, the publisher's wishes generally override those of the developer. Work for hire studios solely execute the publishers vision.",
"The business arrangement between the developer and publisher is governed by a contract, which specifies a list of [milestones](/wiki/Milestone_%28project_management%29 \"Milestone (project management)\") intended to be delivered over a period of time. By updating its milestones, the publisher verifies that work is progressing quickly enough to meet its deadline and can direct the developer if the game is not meeting expectations. When each milestone is completed (and accepted), the publisher pays the developer an advance on [royalties](/wiki/Royalties \"Royalties\"). Successful developers may maintain several teams working on different games for different publishers. Generally, however, third\\-party developers tend to be small, close\\-knit teams. Third\\-party game development is a volatile sector, since small developers may depend on income from a single publisher; one canceled game may devastate a small developer. Because of this, many small development companies are short\\-lived.",
"A common [exit strategy](/wiki/Exit_strategy \"Exit strategy\") for a successful video game developer is to sell the company to a publisher, becoming an in\\-house developer. In\\-house development teams tend to have more freedom in game design and content than third\\-party developers. One reason is that since the developers are the publisher's employees, their interests align with those of the publisher; the publisher may spend less effort ensuring that the developer's decisions do not enrich the developer at the publisher's expense.",
"[Activision](/wiki/Activision \"Activision\") in 1979 became the first third\\-party video game developer. When four [Atari, Inc.](/wiki/Atari%2C_Inc. \"Atari, Inc.\") programmers left the company following its sale to [Warner Communications](/wiki/Warner_Communications \"Warner Communications\"), partially over the lack of respect that the new management gave to programmers, they used their knowledge of how [Atari VCS](/wiki/Atari_VCS \"Atari VCS\") game cartridges were programmed to create their own games for the system, founding Activision in 1979 to sell these. Atari took legal action to try to block the sale of these games, but the companies ultimately settled, with Activision agreeing to pay a portion of their sales as a license fee to Atari for developing for the console. This established the use of licensing fees as a model for third\\-party development that persists into the present.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=nwsdAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3635%2C1989311 \\| title\\=Stream of video games is endless \\| work\\=Milwaukee Journal \\| date\\=1982\\-12\\-26 \\| access\\-date\\=10 January 2015 \\| pages\\=Business 1 \\| archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-12 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312093025/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=nwsdAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=QX8EAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3635%2C1989311 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1537/the\\_history\\_of\\_activision.php?print\\=1 \\|title\\=The History Of Activision \\|work\\=Gamasutra \\|first\\=Jeffrey \\|last\\=Flemming \\|access\\-date\\=December 30, 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220122651/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1537/the\\_history\\_of\\_activision.php?print\\=1 \\|archive\\-date\\=December 20, 2016}} The licensing fee approach was further enforced by [Nintendo](/wiki/Nintendo \"Nintendo\") when it decided to allow other third\\-party developers to make games for the [Famicom](/wiki/Famicom \"Famicom\") console, setting a 30% licensing fee that covered game cartridge manufacturing costs and development fees. The 30% licensing fee for third\\-party developers has also persisted to the present, being a de facto rate used for most digital storefronts for third\\-party developers to offer their games on the platform.{{cite news \\| url \\= https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020\\-08\\-19/epic\\-games\\-fortnite\\-battle\\-with\\-apple\\-and\\-google\\-can\\-be\\-traced\\-to\\-nintendo\\-tax \\| title \\= Epic's Battle With Apple and Google Actually Dates Back to Pac\\-Man \\| first1 \\= Takahashi \\| last1 \\= Mochizuki \\| first2 \\= Vlad \\| last2 \\= Savov \\| date \\= August 25, 2020 \\| access\\-date \\= August 25, 2020 \\| work \\= \\[\\[Bloomberg News]] \\| archive\\-date \\= November 6, 2021 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20211106025128/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020\\-08\\-19/epic\\-games\\-fortnite\\-battle\\-with\\-apple\\-and\\-google\\-can\\-be\\-traced\\-to\\-nintendo\\-tax \\| url\\-status \\= live }}",
"In recent years, larger publishers have acquired several third\\-party developers. While these development teams are now technically \"in\\-house\", they often continue to operate in an autonomous manner (with their own culture and work practices). For example, Activision acquired [Raven](/wiki/Raven_Software \"Raven Software\") (1997\\); [Neversoft](/wiki/Neversoft \"Neversoft\") (1999\\), which merged with [Infinity Ward](/wiki/Infinity_Ward \"Infinity Ward\") in 2014; [Z\\-Axis](/wiki/Z-Axis \"Z-Axis\") (2001\\); [Treyarch](/wiki/Treyarch \"Treyarch\") (2001\\); [Luxoflux](/wiki/Luxoflux \"Luxoflux\") (2002\\); [Shaba](/wiki/Shaba_Games \"Shaba Games\") (2002\\); [Infinity Ward](/wiki/Infinity_Ward \"Infinity Ward\") (2003\\) and [Vicarious Visions](/wiki/Vicarious_Visions \"Vicarious Visions\") (2005\\). All these developers continue operating much as they did before acquisition, the primary differences being exclusivity and financial details. Publishers tend to be more forgiving of their own development teams going over budget (or missing deadlines) than third\\-party developers.",
"A developer may not be the primary entity creating a piece of software, usually providing an external software tool which helps organize (or use) information for the primary software product. Such tools may be a [database](/wiki/Database \"Database\"), [Voice over IP](/wiki/Voice_over_IP \"Voice over IP\"), or add\\-in [interface](/wiki/Interface_%28computer_science%29 \"Interface (computer science)\") software; this is also known as [middleware](/wiki/Middleware \"Middleware\"). Examples of this include [SpeedTree](/wiki/SpeedTree \"SpeedTree\") and [Havoc](/wiki/Havok_%28software%29 \"Havok (software)\").",
"#### Indie game developers",
"{{See also\\|Indie game\\|Independent video game development}}\nIndependents are software developers which are not owned by (or dependent on) a single publisher. Some of these developers self\\-publish their games, relying on the [Internet](/wiki/Internet \"Internet\") and word of mouth for publicity. Without the large marketing budgets of mainstream publishers, their products may receive less recognition than those of larger publishers such as Sony, Microsoft or Nintendo. With the advent of digital distribution of inexpensive games on game consoles, it is now possible for indie game developers to forge agreements with console manufacturers for broad distribution of their games.",
"Other indie game developers create game software for a number of video\\-game publishers on several gaming platforms.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2009}} In recent years this model has been in decline; larger publishers, such as Electronic Arts and Activision, increasingly turn to internal studios (usually former independent developers acquired for their development needs).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/130449/the\\_end\\_game\\_how\\_top\\_developers\\_.php\\|title\\=The End Game: How Top Developers Sold Their Studios \\- Part One\\|website\\=www.gamasutra.com\\|date\\=3 March 2004\\|access\\-date\\=14 October 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923193804/https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/130449/the\\_end\\_game\\_how\\_top\\_developers\\_.php\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
""
] |
### Third\-party developers
{{Anchor\|Third\-party developers\|3rd\-party developers}}
{{see also\|Third\-party software component}}
A third\-party developer may also publish games, or work for a video game publisher to develop a title. Both publisher and developer have considerable input in the game's [design](/wiki/Game_design "Game design") and content. However, the publisher's wishes generally override those of the developer. Work for hire studios solely execute the publishers vision.
The business arrangement between the developer and publisher is governed by a contract, which specifies a list of [milestones](/wiki/Milestone_%28project_management%29 "Milestone (project management)") intended to be delivered over a period of time. By updating its milestones, the publisher verifies that work is progressing quickly enough to meet its deadline and can direct the developer if the game is not meeting expectations. When each milestone is completed (and accepted), the publisher pays the developer an advance on [royalties](/wiki/Royalties "Royalties"). Successful developers may maintain several teams working on different games for different publishers. Generally, however, third\-party developers tend to be small, close\-knit teams. Third\-party game development is a volatile sector, since small developers may depend on income from a single publisher; one canceled game may devastate a small developer. Because of this, many small development companies are short\-lived.
A common [exit strategy](/wiki/Exit_strategy "Exit strategy") for a successful video game developer is to sell the company to a publisher, becoming an in\-house developer. In\-house development teams tend to have more freedom in game design and content than third\-party developers. One reason is that since the developers are the publisher's employees, their interests align with those of the publisher; the publisher may spend less effort ensuring that the developer's decisions do not enrich the developer at the publisher's expense.
[Activision](/wiki/Activision "Activision") in 1979 became the first third\-party video game developer. When four [Atari, Inc.](/wiki/Atari%2C_Inc. "Atari, Inc.") programmers left the company following its sale to [Warner Communications](/wiki/Warner_Communications "Warner Communications"), partially over the lack of respect that the new management gave to programmers, they used their knowledge of how [Atari VCS](/wiki/Atari_VCS "Atari VCS") game cartridges were programmed to create their own games for the system, founding Activision in 1979 to sell these. Atari took legal action to try to block the sale of these games, but the companies ultimately settled, with Activision agreeing to pay a portion of their sales as a license fee to Atari for developing for the console. This established the use of licensing fees as a model for third\-party development that persists into the present.{{cite news \| url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=nwsdAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3635%2C1989311 \| title\=Stream of video games is endless \| work\=Milwaukee Journal \| date\=1982\-12\-26 \| access\-date\=10 January 2015 \| pages\=Business 1 \| archive\-date\=2016\-03\-12 \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312093025/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\=nwsdAAAAIBAJ\&sjid\=QX8EAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3635%2C1989311 \| url\-status\=dead }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1537/the\_history\_of\_activision.php?print\=1 \|title\=The History Of Activision \|work\=Gamasutra \|first\=Jeffrey \|last\=Flemming \|access\-date\=December 30, 2016 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220122651/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1537/the\_history\_of\_activision.php?print\=1 \|archive\-date\=December 20, 2016}} The licensing fee approach was further enforced by [Nintendo](/wiki/Nintendo "Nintendo") when it decided to allow other third\-party developers to make games for the [Famicom](/wiki/Famicom "Famicom") console, setting a 30% licensing fee that covered game cartridge manufacturing costs and development fees. The 30% licensing fee for third\-party developers has also persisted to the present, being a de facto rate used for most digital storefronts for third\-party developers to offer their games on the platform.{{cite news \| url \= https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020\-08\-19/epic\-games\-fortnite\-battle\-with\-apple\-and\-google\-can\-be\-traced\-to\-nintendo\-tax \| title \= Epic's Battle With Apple and Google Actually Dates Back to Pac\-Man \| first1 \= Takahashi \| last1 \= Mochizuki \| first2 \= Vlad \| last2 \= Savov \| date \= August 25, 2020 \| access\-date \= August 25, 2020 \| work \= \[\[Bloomberg News]] \| archive\-date \= November 6, 2021 \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20211106025128/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020\-08\-19/epic\-games\-fortnite\-battle\-with\-apple\-and\-google\-can\-be\-traced\-to\-nintendo\-tax \| url\-status \= live }}
In recent years, larger publishers have acquired several third\-party developers. While these development teams are now technically "in\-house", they often continue to operate in an autonomous manner (with their own culture and work practices). For example, Activision acquired [Raven](/wiki/Raven_Software "Raven Software") (1997\); [Neversoft](/wiki/Neversoft "Neversoft") (1999\), which merged with [Infinity Ward](/wiki/Infinity_Ward "Infinity Ward") in 2014; [Z\-Axis](/wiki/Z-Axis "Z-Axis") (2001\); [Treyarch](/wiki/Treyarch "Treyarch") (2001\); [Luxoflux](/wiki/Luxoflux "Luxoflux") (2002\); [Shaba](/wiki/Shaba_Games "Shaba Games") (2002\); [Infinity Ward](/wiki/Infinity_Ward "Infinity Ward") (2003\) and [Vicarious Visions](/wiki/Vicarious_Visions "Vicarious Visions") (2005\). All these developers continue operating much as they did before acquisition, the primary differences being exclusivity and financial details. Publishers tend to be more forgiving of their own development teams going over budget (or missing deadlines) than third\-party developers.
A developer may not be the primary entity creating a piece of software, usually providing an external software tool which helps organize (or use) information for the primary software product. Such tools may be a [database](/wiki/Database "Database"), [Voice over IP](/wiki/Voice_over_IP "Voice over IP"), or add\-in [interface](/wiki/Interface_%28computer_science%29 "Interface (computer science)") software; this is also known as [middleware](/wiki/Middleware "Middleware"). Examples of this include [SpeedTree](/wiki/SpeedTree "SpeedTree") and [Havoc](/wiki/Havok_%28software%29 "Havok (software)").
#### Indie game developers
{{See also\|Indie game\|Independent video game development}}
Independents are software developers which are not owned by (or dependent on) a single publisher. Some of these developers self\-publish their games, relying on the [Internet](/wiki/Internet "Internet") and word of mouth for publicity. Without the large marketing budgets of mainstream publishers, their products may receive less recognition than those of larger publishers such as Sony, Microsoft or Nintendo. With the advent of digital distribution of inexpensive games on game consoles, it is now possible for indie game developers to forge agreements with console manufacturers for broad distribution of their games.
Other indie game developers create game software for a number of video\-game publishers on several gaming platforms.{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2009}} In recent years this model has been in decline; larger publishers, such as Electronic Arts and Activision, increasingly turn to internal studios (usually former independent developers acquired for their development needs).{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/130449/the\_end\_game\_how\_top\_developers\_.php\|title\=The End Game: How Top Developers Sold Their Studios \- Part One\|website\=www.gamasutra.com\|date\=3 March 2004\|access\-date\=14 October 2019\|archive\-date\=23 September 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923193804/https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/130449/the\_end\_game\_how\_top\_developers\_.php\|url\-status\=live}}
|
[
"### Third\\-party developers",
"{{Anchor\\|Third\\-party developers\\|3rd\\-party developers}}\n{{see also\\|Third\\-party software component}}",
"A third\\-party developer may also publish games, or work for a video game publisher to develop a title. Both publisher and developer have considerable input in the game's [design](/wiki/Game_design \"Game design\") and content. However, the publisher's wishes generally override those of the developer. Work for hire studios solely execute the publishers vision.",
"The business arrangement between the developer and publisher is governed by a contract, which specifies a list of [milestones](/wiki/Milestone_%28project_management%29 \"Milestone (project management)\") intended to be delivered over a period of time. By updating its milestones, the publisher verifies that work is progressing quickly enough to meet its deadline and can direct the developer if the game is not meeting expectations. When each milestone is completed (and accepted), the publisher pays the developer an advance on [royalties](/wiki/Royalties \"Royalties\"). Successful developers may maintain several teams working on different games for different publishers. Generally, however, third\\-party developers tend to be small, close\\-knit teams. Third\\-party game development is a volatile sector, since small developers may depend on income from a single publisher; one canceled game may devastate a small developer. Because of this, many small development companies are short\\-lived.",
"A common [exit strategy](/wiki/Exit_strategy \"Exit strategy\") for a successful video game developer is to sell the company to a publisher, becoming an in\\-house developer. In\\-house development teams tend to have more freedom in game design and content than third\\-party developers. One reason is that since the developers are the publisher's employees, their interests align with those of the publisher; the publisher may spend less effort ensuring that the developer's decisions do not enrich the developer at the publisher's expense.",
"[Activision](/wiki/Activision \"Activision\") in 1979 became the first third\\-party video game developer. When four [Atari, Inc.](/wiki/Atari%2C_Inc. \"Atari, Inc.\") programmers left the company following its sale to [Warner Communications](/wiki/Warner_Communications \"Warner Communications\"), partially over the lack of respect that the new management gave to programmers, they used their knowledge of how [Atari VCS](/wiki/Atari_VCS \"Atari VCS\") game cartridges were programmed to create their own games for the system, founding Activision in 1979 to sell these. Atari took legal action to try to block the sale of these games, but the companies ultimately settled, with Activision agreeing to pay a portion of their sales as a license fee to Atari for developing for the console. This established the use of licensing fees as a model for third\\-party development that persists into the present.{{cite news \\| url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=nwsdAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3635%2C1989311 \\| title\\=Stream of video games is endless \\| work\\=Milwaukee Journal \\| date\\=1982\\-12\\-26 \\| access\\-date\\=10 January 2015 \\| pages\\=Business 1 \\| archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-12 \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312093025/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id\\=nwsdAAAAIBAJ\\&sjid\\=QX8EAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3635%2C1989311 \\| url\\-status\\=dead }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1537/the\\_history\\_of\\_activision.php?print\\=1 \\|title\\=The History Of Activision \\|work\\=Gamasutra \\|first\\=Jeffrey \\|last\\=Flemming \\|access\\-date\\=December 30, 2016 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220122651/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1537/the\\_history\\_of\\_activision.php?print\\=1 \\|archive\\-date\\=December 20, 2016}} The licensing fee approach was further enforced by [Nintendo](/wiki/Nintendo \"Nintendo\") when it decided to allow other third\\-party developers to make games for the [Famicom](/wiki/Famicom \"Famicom\") console, setting a 30% licensing fee that covered game cartridge manufacturing costs and development fees. The 30% licensing fee for third\\-party developers has also persisted to the present, being a de facto rate used for most digital storefronts for third\\-party developers to offer their games on the platform.{{cite news \\| url \\= https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020\\-08\\-19/epic\\-games\\-fortnite\\-battle\\-with\\-apple\\-and\\-google\\-can\\-be\\-traced\\-to\\-nintendo\\-tax \\| title \\= Epic's Battle With Apple and Google Actually Dates Back to Pac\\-Man \\| first1 \\= Takahashi \\| last1 \\= Mochizuki \\| first2 \\= Vlad \\| last2 \\= Savov \\| date \\= August 25, 2020 \\| access\\-date \\= August 25, 2020 \\| work \\= \\[\\[Bloomberg News]] \\| archive\\-date \\= November 6, 2021 \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20211106025128/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020\\-08\\-19/epic\\-games\\-fortnite\\-battle\\-with\\-apple\\-and\\-google\\-can\\-be\\-traced\\-to\\-nintendo\\-tax \\| url\\-status \\= live }}",
"In recent years, larger publishers have acquired several third\\-party developers. While these development teams are now technically \"in\\-house\", they often continue to operate in an autonomous manner (with their own culture and work practices). For example, Activision acquired [Raven](/wiki/Raven_Software \"Raven Software\") (1997\\); [Neversoft](/wiki/Neversoft \"Neversoft\") (1999\\), which merged with [Infinity Ward](/wiki/Infinity_Ward \"Infinity Ward\") in 2014; [Z\\-Axis](/wiki/Z-Axis \"Z-Axis\") (2001\\); [Treyarch](/wiki/Treyarch \"Treyarch\") (2001\\); [Luxoflux](/wiki/Luxoflux \"Luxoflux\") (2002\\); [Shaba](/wiki/Shaba_Games \"Shaba Games\") (2002\\); [Infinity Ward](/wiki/Infinity_Ward \"Infinity Ward\") (2003\\) and [Vicarious Visions](/wiki/Vicarious_Visions \"Vicarious Visions\") (2005\\). All these developers continue operating much as they did before acquisition, the primary differences being exclusivity and financial details. Publishers tend to be more forgiving of their own development teams going over budget (or missing deadlines) than third\\-party developers.",
"A developer may not be the primary entity creating a piece of software, usually providing an external software tool which helps organize (or use) information for the primary software product. Such tools may be a [database](/wiki/Database \"Database\"), [Voice over IP](/wiki/Voice_over_IP \"Voice over IP\"), or add\\-in [interface](/wiki/Interface_%28computer_science%29 \"Interface (computer science)\") software; this is also known as [middleware](/wiki/Middleware \"Middleware\"). Examples of this include [SpeedTree](/wiki/SpeedTree \"SpeedTree\") and [Havoc](/wiki/Havok_%28software%29 \"Havok (software)\").",
"#### Indie game developers",
"{{See also\\|Indie game\\|Independent video game development}}\nIndependents are software developers which are not owned by (or dependent on) a single publisher. Some of these developers self\\-publish their games, relying on the [Internet](/wiki/Internet \"Internet\") and word of mouth for publicity. Without the large marketing budgets of mainstream publishers, their products may receive less recognition than those of larger publishers such as Sony, Microsoft or Nintendo. With the advent of digital distribution of inexpensive games on game consoles, it is now possible for indie game developers to forge agreements with console manufacturers for broad distribution of their games.",
"Other indie game developers create game software for a number of video\\-game publishers on several gaming platforms.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2009}} In recent years this model has been in decline; larger publishers, such as Electronic Arts and Activision, increasingly turn to internal studios (usually former independent developers acquired for their development needs).{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/130449/the\\_end\\_game\\_how\\_top\\_developers\\_.php\\|title\\=The End Game: How Top Developers Sold Their Studios \\- Part One\\|website\\=www.gamasutra.com\\|date\\=3 March 2004\\|access\\-date\\=14 October 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923193804/https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/130449/the\\_end\\_game\\_how\\_top\\_developers\\_.php\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
""
] |
Career
------
Professor Khayat landed an assistant professorial position at the Department of Medical Oncology at [Pitié\-Salpetrière](/wiki/Piti%C3%A9-Salpetri%C3%A8re "Pitié-Salpetrière"), a teaching hospital in the [Assistance Publique\-Hôpitaux de Paris](/wiki/Assistance_Publique-H%C3%B4pitaux_de_Paris "Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris") network, in 1985\. He moved onto a full professorship at [University Pierre and Marie Curie](/wiki/University_Pierre_and_Marie_Curie "University Pierre and Marie Curie") in 1989 after getting his PhD.
David Khayat returned to [Pitié\-Salpetrière](/wiki/Piti%C3%A9-Salpetri%C3%A8re "Pitié-Salpetrière") in 1990 as Head of the Department of Medical Oncology. In this role, he developed a research laboratory that worked on tumor immunology and the pharmacokinetics of anti\-cancer drugs.
In April 2004, Professor Khayat became the Founding President of Cancer National Institute (INCa). Since 2006, he is Honorary President of the INCa.
Professor Khayat is the President of the Foundation AVEC,{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.fondation\-avec.org/ \|title\=Accueil \- Fondation AVEC \|access\-date\=2013\-12\-08 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209022528/http://www.fondation\-avec.org/ \|archive\-date\=2013\-12\-09 \|url\-status\=dead }} a non\-profit organisation which finances actions to improve the quality of life of cancer patients and research programmes.
Khayat serves as a [professor emeritus](/wiki/Professor_emeritus "Professor emeritus") for a number of educational institutes worldwide, including the [Suzhou Institute for oncology](/wiki/Suzhou_Institute_for_oncology "Suzhou Institute for oncology"), China, and [Matsumoto University](/wiki/Matsumoto_University "Matsumoto University"), Japan. He is also Adjunct Professor of Medicine of the Department of Breast Diseases at the [MD Anderson Cancer Center](/wiki/MD_Anderson_Cancer_Center "MD Anderson Cancer Center"), [University of Texas](/wiki/University_of_Texas "University of Texas"), United States. He was elected at the [American Society of Clinical Oncology](/wiki/American_Society_of_Clinical_Oncology "American Society of Clinical Oncology") board in 2013\.
### National oncology teaching program
Khayat has set up a national oncology teaching program for young French oncologists — the "Master of Excellence in Medicine in Oncology" (*Master d'excellence en médecine oncologique*). This program is aimed to allow participants to learn the necessary skills to become the future [key opinion leaders](/wiki/Key_opinion_leaders "Key opinion leaders") in oncology and promote French oncology in the international community.
### Social activities
Working to organise French oncologists, he formed the [French Federation of Medical Oncologists](/wiki/French_Federation_of_Medical_Oncologists "French Federation of Medical Oncologists") (FFOM) in 1998\. He was elected the Federation's first president and held this position until 2001\. Along with [Gabriel Hortobagyi](/wiki/Gabriel_Hortobagyi "Gabriel Hortobagyi"), David Khayat organised the [World Summit Against Cancer](/wiki/World_Summit_Against_Cancer "World Summit Against Cancer") in 2000 and 2001, as well as the [Charter of Paris against cancer](/wiki/Charter_of_Paris_against_cancer "Charter of Paris against cancer") in 2000\. This text was firmed by French President [Jacques Chirac](/wiki/Jacques_Chirac "Jacques Chirac") and Koïchiro Matsuura, Director\-General of the [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO "UNESCO").
Professor Khayat became a member of French President [Jacques Chirac](/wiki/Jacques_Chirac "Jacques Chirac")'s "war on cancer plan"(*Plan cancer*) in July 2002, and was President of a high\-level bilateral committee for Franco\-Israeli cooperation.
David Khayat sits on several French, European and International Committees. He is steering committee member of the [World Alliance of Cancer Research Organizations](/wiki/World_Alliance_of_Cancer_Research_Organizations "World Alliance of Cancer Research Organizations"). He is an advisor to the [LEED program](/wiki/LEED_program "LEED program") at the [Organization for Economic and Cooperative Development](/wiki/Organization_for_Economic_and_Cooperative_Development "Organization for Economic and Cooperative Development") (OECD). He is the Associate Editor of the [Journal of Clinical Oncology and Cancer](/wiki/Journal_of_Clinical_Oncology_and_Cancer "Journal of Clinical Oncology and Cancer") and is a member of several other editorial boards.
Professor Khayat is also the Ambassador of the [Republic of San Marino](/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marino "Republic of San Marino") at [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO "UNESCO").
### Lobbyist for the tobacco industry
An investigation by Stéphane Horel and Jérémie Baruch for *[Le Monde](/wiki/Le_Monde "Le Monde")* relates that David Khayat, capitalizing on his worldly knowledge, undertook in the 2010s a consulting activity with industrialists on risk reduction.{{cite news
\| last \= Horel
\| first \= Stéphane
\| date \= 14 April 2021
\| title \= David Khayat, un cancérologue star en VRP de l'industrie du tabac
\| newspaper \= Le Monde
\| url \=https://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2021/04/14/david\-khayat\-un\-monsieur\-cancer\-en\-vrp\-de\-l\-industrie\-du\-tabac\_6076758\_3224\.html
\| access\-date \= 14 April 2021
}} He is notably paid by [Philip Morris International](/wiki/Philip_Morris_International "Philip Morris International") for [lobbying](/wiki/Lobbying "Lobbying") activities in favor of [heated tobacco product](/wiki/Heated_tobacco_product "Heated tobacco product"), which Philip Morris International markets. In particular, he sought to influence public decisions in France (where senators indicate that they did not understand, at the time, that he was working for the tobacco company) and in [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong").
|
[
"Career\n------",
"Professor Khayat landed an assistant professorial position at the Department of Medical Oncology at [Pitié\\-Salpetrière](/wiki/Piti%C3%A9-Salpetri%C3%A8re \"Pitié-Salpetrière\"), a teaching hospital in the [Assistance Publique\\-Hôpitaux de Paris](/wiki/Assistance_Publique-H%C3%B4pitaux_de_Paris \"Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris\") network, in 1985\\. He moved onto a full professorship at [University Pierre and Marie Curie](/wiki/University_Pierre_and_Marie_Curie \"University Pierre and Marie Curie\") in 1989 after getting his PhD.",
"David Khayat returned to [Pitié\\-Salpetrière](/wiki/Piti%C3%A9-Salpetri%C3%A8re \"Pitié-Salpetrière\") in 1990 as Head of the Department of Medical Oncology. In this role, he developed a research laboratory that worked on tumor immunology and the pharmacokinetics of anti\\-cancer drugs.",
"In April 2004, Professor Khayat became the Founding President of Cancer National Institute (INCa). Since 2006, he is Honorary President of the INCa.",
"Professor Khayat is the President of the Foundation AVEC,{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.fondation\\-avec.org/ \\|title\\=Accueil \\- Fondation AVEC \\|access\\-date\\=2013\\-12\\-08 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209022528/http://www.fondation\\-avec.org/ \\|archive\\-date\\=2013\\-12\\-09 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} a non\\-profit organisation which finances actions to improve the quality of life of cancer patients and research programmes.",
"Khayat serves as a [professor emeritus](/wiki/Professor_emeritus \"Professor emeritus\") for a number of educational institutes worldwide, including the [Suzhou Institute for oncology](/wiki/Suzhou_Institute_for_oncology \"Suzhou Institute for oncology\"), China, and [Matsumoto University](/wiki/Matsumoto_University \"Matsumoto University\"), Japan. He is also Adjunct Professor of Medicine of the Department of Breast Diseases at the [MD Anderson Cancer Center](/wiki/MD_Anderson_Cancer_Center \"MD Anderson Cancer Center\"), [University of Texas](/wiki/University_of_Texas \"University of Texas\"), United States. He was elected at the [American Society of Clinical Oncology](/wiki/American_Society_of_Clinical_Oncology \"American Society of Clinical Oncology\") board in 2013\\.",
"### National oncology teaching program",
"Khayat has set up a national oncology teaching program for young French oncologists — the \"Master of Excellence in Medicine in Oncology\" (*Master d'excellence en médecine oncologique*). This program is aimed to allow participants to learn the necessary skills to become the future [key opinion leaders](/wiki/Key_opinion_leaders \"Key opinion leaders\") in oncology and promote French oncology in the international community.",
"### Social activities",
"Working to organise French oncologists, he formed the [French Federation of Medical Oncologists](/wiki/French_Federation_of_Medical_Oncologists \"French Federation of Medical Oncologists\") (FFOM) in 1998\\. He was elected the Federation's first president and held this position until 2001\\. Along with [Gabriel Hortobagyi](/wiki/Gabriel_Hortobagyi \"Gabriel Hortobagyi\"), David Khayat organised the [World Summit Against Cancer](/wiki/World_Summit_Against_Cancer \"World Summit Against Cancer\") in 2000 and 2001, as well as the [Charter of Paris against cancer](/wiki/Charter_of_Paris_against_cancer \"Charter of Paris against cancer\") in 2000\\. This text was firmed by French President [Jacques Chirac](/wiki/Jacques_Chirac \"Jacques Chirac\") and Koïchiro Matsuura, Director\\-General of the [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO \"UNESCO\").",
"Professor Khayat became a member of French President [Jacques Chirac](/wiki/Jacques_Chirac \"Jacques Chirac\")'s \"war on cancer plan\"(*Plan cancer*) in July 2002, and was President of a high\\-level bilateral committee for Franco\\-Israeli cooperation.",
"David Khayat sits on several French, European and International Committees. He is steering committee member of the [World Alliance of Cancer Research Organizations](/wiki/World_Alliance_of_Cancer_Research_Organizations \"World Alliance of Cancer Research Organizations\"). He is an advisor to the [LEED program](/wiki/LEED_program \"LEED program\") at the [Organization for Economic and Cooperative Development](/wiki/Organization_for_Economic_and_Cooperative_Development \"Organization for Economic and Cooperative Development\") (OECD). He is the Associate Editor of the [Journal of Clinical Oncology and Cancer](/wiki/Journal_of_Clinical_Oncology_and_Cancer \"Journal of Clinical Oncology and Cancer\") and is a member of several other editorial boards.",
"Professor Khayat is also the Ambassador of the [Republic of San Marino](/wiki/Republic_of_San_Marino \"Republic of San Marino\") at [UNESCO](/wiki/UNESCO \"UNESCO\").",
"### Lobbyist for the tobacco industry",
"An investigation by Stéphane Horel and Jérémie Baruch for *[Le Monde](/wiki/Le_Monde \"Le Monde\")* relates that David Khayat, capitalizing on his worldly knowledge, undertook in the 2010s a consulting activity with industrialists on risk reduction.{{cite news\n\\| last \\= Horel\n\\| first \\= Stéphane\n\\| date \\= 14 April 2021\n\\| title \\= David Khayat, un cancérologue star en VRP de l'industrie du tabac\n\\| newspaper \\= Le Monde\n\\| url \\=https://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2021/04/14/david\\-khayat\\-un\\-monsieur\\-cancer\\-en\\-vrp\\-de\\-l\\-industrie\\-du\\-tabac\\_6076758\\_3224\\.html\n\\| access\\-date \\= 14 April 2021\n}} He is notably paid by [Philip Morris International](/wiki/Philip_Morris_International \"Philip Morris International\") for [lobbying](/wiki/Lobbying \"Lobbying\") activities in favor of [heated tobacco product](/wiki/Heated_tobacco_product \"Heated tobacco product\"), which Philip Morris International markets. In particular, he sought to influence public decisions in France (where senators indicate that they did not understand, at the time, that he was working for the tobacco company) and in [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\").",
""
] |
History
-------
The palace was used for living until 1829, but taking into consideration its age and state Prince [Miloš Obrenović](/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Obrenovi%C4%87 "Miloš Obrenović") had decided to build another residence in [Topčider](/wiki/Top%C4%8Dider "Topčider"). New residence was larger and more exclusive as it was supposed to show the economic growth and further strengthening of power of [house of Obrenović](/wiki/House_of_Obrenovi%C4%87 "House of Obrenović") after having received the *Hatisherif* (Sultan's Edict) in 1830\.
The building is one of the most remarkable among the preserved examples of civil architecture of Belgrade from the first half of the 19th century. It was built during the period from 1829 to 1830\. According to plans of Prince Miloš, the residence was supposed to have a twofold purpose – to be a home for his family, Princess [Ljubica](/wiki/Ljubica_Vukomanovi%C4%87 "Ljubica Vukomanović") and his sons [Milan](/wiki/Milan_Obrenovi%C4%87_II%2C_Prince_of_Serbia "Milan Obrenović II, Prince of Serbia") and [Mihailo](/wiki/Mihailo_Obrenovi%C4%87 "Mihailo Obrenović") (later rulers of Serbia) and at the same time a residential palace. It was built according to ideas and under supervision of [Hadži\-Neimar](/wiki/Had%C5%BEi-Neimar "Hadži-Neimar"), the pioneer of Serbian building and construction.
Prince Miloš decided to hire a constructor from [Eddesa](/wiki/Edessa%2C_Greece "Edessa, Greece"), Hadži Nikola Živković, since there were none in Belgrade at that time
for there were no construction activities for years. Thus Hadži\-Neimar became the first builder of restored Serbia managing all of Prince Miloš's buildings during his first reign. Foundation was laid in July 1829, and the building was completed in late autumn of 1830\. Princess Ljubica informed her husband in a letter from November 22, 1830 that "they have settled in the new residence". A new Turkish bath (*hammam*), with one\-storey wing was built in 1836\.
One of the first records about Princess Ljubica Residence is from travel\-writer Otto Dubislav Pirch, from 1892: “One small part of Belgrade stands out in comparison to others, and this is one small place at the Southwest end of the upper town main street. (…) Although not the largest in its form it is the most beautiful building I have seen in Serbia“.1 Consistent to its intended function, the new Residence differed from the common private houses and it “contains certain characteristics which (…) place it among fortified palaces of great Pashas and wealthy Beys (tur. for a leader of a small region or province)“.\[Пирх Ото Дубислав, Путовање по Србији у год. 1829, Београд, 1899\.]\[Бранислав Ђ. Којић, Варошице у Србији XIX века, Београд 1970\.]
Princess Ljubica, modest by nature, wanted to arrange a high life in the palace. Saved correspondence between the Princess and Prince Miloš from January 1, 1831 states that the Princess asked her husband “to provide red socks for servants in the palace“. Presumably, the Princess got a negative reply, considering that in the letter from January 24 she claims “that she can manage without any servants“.
During the first reign of Prince Miloš, main state treasury was situated at the palace. Princedom Regency held their sessions in the palace until the return of Prince Miahilo to Serbia in 1840, who lived there until 1842\.
[right\|thumb\|250px\|[Princess consort](/wiki/List_of_consorts_of_Serbia "List of consorts of Serbia") [Ljubica Vukomanović](/wiki/Ljubica_Vukomanovi%C4%87 "Ljubica Vukomanović")](/wiki/File:Ljubica_Vukomanovic.jpg "Ljubica Vukomanovic.jpg")
The Belgrade Lyceum moved in 1846 and was located there until 1863, then the First Grammar School of Belgrade and the Supreme Court of Appeals until 1905\. The Institution for Education of Deaf Children was located here in 1912 until 1929 when Contemporary Art Museum moved in and stayed there until 1934\. AfterwardsThe Residence housed the Museum of the Serbian Orthodox Church Church, 1941\. Part of the Serbian Patriarchate was located here from 1945–47 and the Institute for Cultural Heritage Preservation from 1947 until 1971\.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.mgb.org.rs/en/visit/the\-residence\-of\-princess\-ljubica \|title\=The Residence of Princess Ljubica \- Belgrade City Museum \|access\-date\=2019\-03\-28 \|archive\-date\=2019\-03\-28 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328013604/http://www.mgb.org.rs/en/visit/the\-residence\-of\-princess\-ljubica \|url\-status\=dead }}
Preservation and restoration works were performed during the period from 1971 to 1979, when rehabilitation and renewal of facades and interiors were carried out. On that occasion, Residence of Princess Ljubica, from than on an integral part of the [Belgrade City Museum](/wiki/Belgrade_City_Museum "Belgrade City Museum"), was adapted for a permanenet museum exhibition.
Because of its cultural and architectural importance the Residence of Princess Ljubica has been designated a [Monument of Culture of Exceptional Importance](/wiki/Monument_of_Culture_of_Exceptional_Importance "Monument of Culture of Exceptional Importance") in 1979\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The palace was used for living until 1829, but taking into consideration its age and state Prince [Miloš Obrenović](/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Obrenovi%C4%87 \"Miloš Obrenović\") had decided to build another residence in [Topčider](/wiki/Top%C4%8Dider \"Topčider\"). New residence was larger and more exclusive as it was supposed to show the economic growth and further strengthening of power of [house of Obrenović](/wiki/House_of_Obrenovi%C4%87 \"House of Obrenović\") after having received the *Hatisherif* (Sultan's Edict) in 1830\\.",
"The building is one of the most remarkable among the preserved examples of civil architecture of Belgrade from the first half of the 19th century. It was built during the period from 1829 to 1830\\. According to plans of Prince Miloš, the residence was supposed to have a twofold purpose – to be a home for his family, Princess [Ljubica](/wiki/Ljubica_Vukomanovi%C4%87 \"Ljubica Vukomanović\") and his sons [Milan](/wiki/Milan_Obrenovi%C4%87_II%2C_Prince_of_Serbia \"Milan Obrenović II, Prince of Serbia\") and [Mihailo](/wiki/Mihailo_Obrenovi%C4%87 \"Mihailo Obrenović\") (later rulers of Serbia) and at the same time a residential palace. It was built according to ideas and under supervision of [Hadži\\-Neimar](/wiki/Had%C5%BEi-Neimar \"Hadži-Neimar\"), the pioneer of Serbian building and construction.",
"Prince Miloš decided to hire a constructor from [Eddesa](/wiki/Edessa%2C_Greece \"Edessa, Greece\"), Hadži Nikola Živković, since there were none in Belgrade at that time\nfor there were no construction activities for years. Thus Hadži\\-Neimar became the first builder of restored Serbia managing all of Prince Miloš's buildings during his first reign. Foundation was laid in July 1829, and the building was completed in late autumn of 1830\\. Princess Ljubica informed her husband in a letter from November 22, 1830 that \"they have settled in the new residence\". A new Turkish bath (*hammam*), with one\\-storey wing was built in 1836\\.",
"One of the first records about Princess Ljubica Residence is from travel\\-writer Otto Dubislav Pirch, from 1892: “One small part of Belgrade stands out in comparison to others, and this is one small place at the Southwest end of the upper town main street. (…) Although not the largest in its form it is the most beautiful building I have seen in Serbia“.1 Consistent to its intended function, the new Residence differed from the common private houses and it “contains certain characteristics which (…) place it among fortified palaces of great Pashas and wealthy Beys (tur. for a leader of a small region or province)“.\\[Пирх Ото Дубислав, Путовање по Србији у год. 1829, Београд, 1899\\.]\\[Бранислав Ђ. Којић, Варошице у Србији XIX века, Београд 1970\\.]",
"Princess Ljubica, modest by nature, wanted to arrange a high life in the palace. Saved correspondence between the Princess and Prince Miloš from January 1, 1831 states that the Princess asked her husband “to provide red socks for servants in the palace“. Presumably, the Princess got a negative reply, considering that in the letter from January 24 she claims “that she can manage without any servants“.",
"During the first reign of Prince Miloš, main state treasury was situated at the palace. Princedom Regency held their sessions in the palace until the return of Prince Miahilo to Serbia in 1840, who lived there until 1842\\.\n[right\\|thumb\\|250px\\|[Princess consort](/wiki/List_of_consorts_of_Serbia \"List of consorts of Serbia\") [Ljubica Vukomanović](/wiki/Ljubica_Vukomanovi%C4%87 \"Ljubica Vukomanović\")](/wiki/File:Ljubica_Vukomanovic.jpg \"Ljubica Vukomanovic.jpg\")\nThe Belgrade Lyceum moved in 1846 and was located there until 1863, then the First Grammar School of Belgrade and the Supreme Court of Appeals until 1905\\. The Institution for Education of Deaf Children was located here in 1912 until 1929 when Contemporary Art Museum moved in and stayed there until 1934\\. AfterwardsThe Residence housed the Museum of the Serbian Orthodox Church Church, 1941\\. Part of the Serbian Patriarchate was located here from 1945–47 and the Institute for Cultural Heritage Preservation from 1947 until 1971\\.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.mgb.org.rs/en/visit/the\\-residence\\-of\\-princess\\-ljubica \\|title\\=The Residence of Princess Ljubica \\- Belgrade City Museum \\|access\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-28 \\|archive\\-date\\=2019\\-03\\-28 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328013604/http://www.mgb.org.rs/en/visit/the\\-residence\\-of\\-princess\\-ljubica \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"Preservation and restoration works were performed during the period from 1971 to 1979, when rehabilitation and renewal of facades and interiors were carried out. On that occasion, Residence of Princess Ljubica, from than on an integral part of the [Belgrade City Museum](/wiki/Belgrade_City_Museum \"Belgrade City Museum\"), was adapted for a permanenet museum exhibition.",
"Because of its cultural and architectural importance the Residence of Princess Ljubica has been designated a [Monument of Culture of Exceptional Importance](/wiki/Monument_of_Culture_of_Exceptional_Importance \"Monument of Culture of Exceptional Importance\") in 1979\\.",
""
] |
Excavation and dating
---------------------
The Gabarnmung rock shelter was re\-discovered by Ray Whear and Chris Morgan of the Jawoyn Association while flying by helicopter on 15 June 2006\.[World's oldest ground\-edge implement discovered in northern Australia](https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/11/101106082604.htm), Monash University press release, 6 November 2010\.
The Jawoyn Association found two Jawoyn elders, Wamud Namok and Jimmy Kalarriya, who reported the name of the site as
*Nawarla Gabarnmang* ([Jawoyn](/wiki/Jawoyn_language "Jawoyn language") {{lang\|djn\|nawarla}} "place of", {{lang\|djn\|gabarnmang}} "hole in the rock"),
and who reported to have visited the shelter when they were children. They also identified the [Jawoyn](/wiki/Jawoyn "Jawoyn") clan [Buyhmi](/wiki/Buyhmi "Buyhmi") as the [traditional owners](/wiki/Traditional_owners "Traditional owners") of the site.Bruno David et al., "Nawarla Gabarnmang, a 45,180±910 cal BP Site in Jawoyn Country, Southwest Arnhem Land Platea", *Journal of Australian Archaeology* 73(1\), 2011\.
The site was first excavated in May 2010\. Led by Bruno David of Monash University, the team included
Jean\-Michel Geneste from the Centre National de Prehistoire of the French Ministry of Culture,
Hugues Plisson from the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique at the University of Bordeaux,
Christopher Clarkson from the University of Queensland,
Jean\-Jacques Delannoy from the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique at the University de Savoie,
and Fiona Petchey from the University of Waikato.
A fragment of a ground\-edge [stone axe](/wiki/Stone_axe "Stone axe") found by the international [archaeological](/wiki/Archaeology "Archaeology") team has been dated at 35,500 years old, which makes it the oldest of its type known in the world.
A slab of painted rock which fell to the floor had ash adhering which was radiocarbon dated at {{val\|27631\|717\|u\=years cal BP}} which indicates that the ceiling must have been painted before 28,000 years ago. Radiocarbon dating of charcoal excavated from the lowest stratigraphic layer returned a mean age of {{val\|35400\|410\|u\=years cal BP}} while the six upper layers had been deposited over the last 20,000 years. The art is the oldest firmly dated [rock painting](/wiki/Parietal_art "Parietal art") in Australia.David, Bruno, Barker, Bryce, Petchey, Fiona, Delannoy, Jean\-Jacques, Geneste, Jean\-Michel, Rowe, Cassandra, Eccleston, Mark, Lamb, Lara, and Whear, Ray "A 28,000 year old excavated painted rock from Nawarla Gabarnmang" Journal of Archaeological Science, 40 (5\), 2013, pp. 2493\-25011, {{doi\|10\.1016/j.jas.2012\.08\.015}} However, radiocarbon dating of charcoal excavated from the base of the lowest stratigraphic layer of the floor returned a mean age of {{val\|45180\|910\|u\=years cal BP}} suggesting the oldest date for the earliest human habitation. Faceted and use\-striated [hematite](/wiki/Hematite "Hematite") crayons have been recovered from nearby locations ([Malakunanja II](/wiki/Malakunanja_II "Malakunanja II") and [Nauwalabila 1](/wiki/Nauwalabila_I "Nauwalabila I")) in strata dated from 45,000 to 60,000 years old which suggests that the Gabarnmung shelter may have been decorated from its inception.
The site also includes panels of recent paintings, radiocarbon dated to between AD 1433–1631 and AD 1658–1952 (calibrated [95% CI](/wiki/95%25_CI "95% CI")), consistent with the reports that the cave was still visited within living memory.Robert Gunn, Bruno David, Jean\-Jacques Delannoy and Margaret Katherine, "The past 500 years of rock art at Nawarla Gabarnmang, central\-western Arnhem Land" in: Bruno David,
Paul S.C. Taçon,
Jean\-Jacques Delannoy,
Jean\-Michel Geneste (eds.),
*The Archaeology of Rock Art in Western Arnhem Land, Australia* (2017\), pp. 303–328\.
|
[
"Excavation and dating\n---------------------",
"The Gabarnmung rock shelter was re\\-discovered by Ray Whear and Chris Morgan of the Jawoyn Association while flying by helicopter on 15 June 2006\\.[World's oldest ground\\-edge implement discovered in northern Australia](https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/11/101106082604.htm), Monash University press release, 6 November 2010\\.",
"The Jawoyn Association found two Jawoyn elders, Wamud Namok and Jimmy Kalarriya, who reported the name of the site as \n*Nawarla Gabarnmang* ([Jawoyn](/wiki/Jawoyn_language \"Jawoyn language\") {{lang\\|djn\\|nawarla}} \"place of\", {{lang\\|djn\\|gabarnmang}} \"hole in the rock\"), \nand who reported to have visited the shelter when they were children. They also identified the [Jawoyn](/wiki/Jawoyn \"Jawoyn\") clan [Buyhmi](/wiki/Buyhmi \"Buyhmi\") as the [traditional owners](/wiki/Traditional_owners \"Traditional owners\") of the site.Bruno David et al., \"Nawarla Gabarnmang, a 45,180±910 cal BP Site in Jawoyn Country, Southwest Arnhem Land Platea\", *Journal of Australian Archaeology* 73(1\\), 2011\\.",
"The site was first excavated in May 2010\\. Led by Bruno David of Monash University, the team included \nJean\\-Michel Geneste from the Centre National de Prehistoire of the French Ministry of Culture,\nHugues Plisson from the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique at the University of Bordeaux,\nChristopher Clarkson from the University of Queensland, \nJean\\-Jacques Delannoy from the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique at the University de Savoie, \nand Fiona Petchey from the University of Waikato.",
"A fragment of a ground\\-edge [stone axe](/wiki/Stone_axe \"Stone axe\") found by the international [archaeological](/wiki/Archaeology \"Archaeology\") team has been dated at 35,500 years old, which makes it the oldest of its type known in the world.",
"A slab of painted rock which fell to the floor had ash adhering which was radiocarbon dated at {{val\\|27631\\|717\\|u\\=years cal BP}} which indicates that the ceiling must have been painted before 28,000 years ago. Radiocarbon dating of charcoal excavated from the lowest stratigraphic layer returned a mean age of {{val\\|35400\\|410\\|u\\=years cal BP}} while the six upper layers had been deposited over the last 20,000 years. The art is the oldest firmly dated [rock painting](/wiki/Parietal_art \"Parietal art\") in Australia.David, Bruno, Barker, Bryce, Petchey, Fiona, Delannoy, Jean\\-Jacques, Geneste, Jean\\-Michel, Rowe, Cassandra, Eccleston, Mark, Lamb, Lara, and Whear, Ray \"A 28,000 year old excavated painted rock from Nawarla Gabarnmang\" Journal of Archaeological Science, 40 (5\\), 2013, pp. 2493\\-25011, {{doi\\|10\\.1016/j.jas.2012\\.08\\.015}} However, radiocarbon dating of charcoal excavated from the base of the lowest stratigraphic layer of the floor returned a mean age of {{val\\|45180\\|910\\|u\\=years cal BP}} suggesting the oldest date for the earliest human habitation. Faceted and use\\-striated [hematite](/wiki/Hematite \"Hematite\") crayons have been recovered from nearby locations ([Malakunanja II](/wiki/Malakunanja_II \"Malakunanja II\") and [Nauwalabila 1](/wiki/Nauwalabila_I \"Nauwalabila I\")) in strata dated from 45,000 to 60,000 years old which suggests that the Gabarnmung shelter may have been decorated from its inception.",
"The site also includes panels of recent paintings, radiocarbon dated to between AD 1433–1631 and AD 1658–1952 (calibrated [95% CI](/wiki/95%25_CI \"95% CI\")), consistent with the reports that the cave was still visited within living memory.Robert Gunn, Bruno David, Jean\\-Jacques Delannoy and Margaret Katherine, \"The past 500 years of rock art at Nawarla Gabarnmang, central\\-western Arnhem Land\" in: Bruno David,\nPaul S.C. Taçon,\nJean\\-Jacques Delannoy,\nJean\\-Michel Geneste (eds.),\n*The Archaeology of Rock Art in Western Arnhem Land, Australia* (2017\\), pp. 303–328\\.",
""
] |
Career
------
From 1966 to 1968 Winter was the lead singer for The Hague\-based band "Daddy's Act". One of his first recordings was a cover of the [Beatles](/wiki/Beatles "Beatles") hit "Eight Days A Week".
Under the name Johnny van Dooren, he was a DJ at Dutch pirate station [Radio Veronica](/wiki/Radio_Veronica "Radio Veronica") and later at Radio 227, an English pirate radio station in the North Sea. During 1967–68, he also recorded two singles in Dutch for the [Philips label](/wiki/Philips_Records "Philips Records").[Albums by David Alexandre Winter](http://rateyourmusic.com/artist/david_alexandre_winter). Rate Your Music (21 January 2003\). In early 1968 while living in London he represented England at the Innsbruck Song Festival in Austria, where he obtained first prize and the coveted ‘'prix de press'’.
He left England where he resided at the time to go to Paris, and was discovered by Leo Missir from Riviera Records (an affiliate of the Barclay group).{{cite book
\| first\= Joseph
\| last\= Murrells
\| year\= 1978
\| title\= The Book of Golden Discs
\| edition\= 2nd
\| publisher\= Barrie and Jenkins Ltd
\| location\= London
\| page\= \[https://archive.org/details/bookofgoldendisc00murr/page/270 270]
\| isbn\= 0\-214\-20512\-6
\| url\-access\= registration
\| url\= https://archive.org/details/bookofgoldendisc00murr/page/270
}} In January 1969, his debut single, "[Oh Lady Mary](/wiki/Samanyolu "Samanyolu")", was released; and by April 1969 it had sold 750,000, and one million sales were achieved by August in France, where it was [number one](/wiki/Chart-topper "Chart-topper") for 36 weeks and in the [Top 10](/wiki/Top_40 "Top 40") for nine months. Total sales for the first single resulted in 2,6 million copies sold. It was also a [hit](/wiki/Hit_single "Hit single") in Italy (\#4\), Spain (\#5\), Germany (\#2\), Netherlands (\# 5\), Belgium (\#1\). In total it sold over 4\.5\. million copies throughout Europe. The song was written by Patricia Carli and Turkish composer Metin Bükey, and also became a hit in 1970 for [Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria")'s [Peter Alexander](/wiki/Peter_Alexander_%28Austrian_actor_and_singer%29 "Peter Alexander (Austrian actor and singer)") (number one for four weeks). Winter went on to record 10 albums and 42 singles \& E.P.'s, of which 9 titles became No. 1 hits in France, Belgium, Netherlands, Italy and Germany. Songs like: "Vole s’envole" (\#1 1\.650\.000 sold )/"Je suis tombé du ciel" (\# 3\. 850,000 sold, Luxemburg's entry for the 1970 [Eurovision Song Contest](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest "Eurovision Song Contest") in Amsterdam, finishing last).
He also recorded in all those languages, and scored two number 1 hits in Germany: "Schau Schau Hinter Den Dunen" and "Ohne Dich war es Halb So Schoen"
In total David\-Alexandre Winter sold well over 26 million records over his 10\-year career in France and the rest of Europe, and performed on the most prestigious stages in all of Europe: The Bolchoi Theater in Moscow, the Royal Command Performance for Queen Elizabeth of England at the Royal Albert Hall in London, as well as the Gala of the Red Cross for Prince Raineer and Grace Kelly in Monte Carlo.
In 1980, Winter moved to the United States. He recorded and produced an album with the Canadian independent company Isba Records and released a single entitled "L'Étoile du Berger".
In 2010, Winter returned to the stage in France for a revival tour with "Age Tendre \& Têtes de Bois", which tour played for 55 sold\-out venues with over 550,000 people seeing him in concert.{{citation needed\|date\=January 2014}} In 2014, Winter recorded a studio album *Winter Country* in Nashville, Tennessee.
|
[
"Career\n------",
"From 1966 to 1968 Winter was the lead singer for The Hague\\-based band \"Daddy's Act\". One of his first recordings was a cover of the [Beatles](/wiki/Beatles \"Beatles\") hit \"Eight Days A Week\". \nUnder the name Johnny van Dooren, he was a DJ at Dutch pirate station [Radio Veronica](/wiki/Radio_Veronica \"Radio Veronica\") and later at Radio 227, an English pirate radio station in the North Sea. During 1967–68, he also recorded two singles in Dutch for the [Philips label](/wiki/Philips_Records \"Philips Records\").[Albums by David Alexandre Winter](http://rateyourmusic.com/artist/david_alexandre_winter). Rate Your Music (21 January 2003\\). In early 1968 while living in London he represented England at the Innsbruck Song Festival in Austria, where he obtained first prize and the coveted ‘'prix de press'’.",
"He left England where he resided at the time to go to Paris, and was discovered by Leo Missir from Riviera Records (an affiliate of the Barclay group).{{cite book\n\\| first\\= Joseph\n\\| last\\= Murrells\n\\| year\\= 1978\n\\| title\\= The Book of Golden Discs\n\\| edition\\= 2nd\n\\| publisher\\= Barrie and Jenkins Ltd\n\\| location\\= London\n\\| page\\= \\[https://archive.org/details/bookofgoldendisc00murr/page/270 270]\n\\| isbn\\= 0\\-214\\-20512\\-6\n\\| url\\-access\\= registration\n\\| url\\= https://archive.org/details/bookofgoldendisc00murr/page/270\n}} In January 1969, his debut single, \"[Oh Lady Mary](/wiki/Samanyolu \"Samanyolu\")\", was released; and by April 1969 it had sold 750,000, and one million sales were achieved by August in France, where it was [number one](/wiki/Chart-topper \"Chart-topper\") for 36 weeks and in the [Top 10](/wiki/Top_40 \"Top 40\") for nine months. Total sales for the first single resulted in 2,6 million copies sold. It was also a [hit](/wiki/Hit_single \"Hit single\") in Italy (\\#4\\), Spain (\\#5\\), Germany (\\#2\\), Netherlands (\\# 5\\), Belgium (\\#1\\). In total it sold over 4\\.5\\. million copies throughout Europe. The song was written by Patricia Carli and Turkish composer Metin Bükey, and also became a hit in 1970 for [Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\")'s [Peter Alexander](/wiki/Peter_Alexander_%28Austrian_actor_and_singer%29 \"Peter Alexander (Austrian actor and singer)\") (number one for four weeks). Winter went on to record 10 albums and 42 singles \\& E.P.'s, of which 9 titles became No. 1 hits in France, Belgium, Netherlands, Italy and Germany. Songs like: \"Vole s’envole\" (\\#1 1\\.650\\.000 sold )/\"Je suis tombé du ciel\" (\\# 3\\. 850,000 sold, Luxemburg's entry for the 1970 [Eurovision Song Contest](/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest \"Eurovision Song Contest\") in Amsterdam, finishing last).",
"He also recorded in all those languages, and scored two number 1 hits in Germany: \"Schau Schau Hinter Den Dunen\" and \"Ohne Dich war es Halb So Schoen\" \nIn total David\\-Alexandre Winter sold well over 26 million records over his 10\\-year career in France and the rest of Europe, and performed on the most prestigious stages in all of Europe: The Bolchoi Theater in Moscow, the Royal Command Performance for Queen Elizabeth of England at the Royal Albert Hall in London, as well as the Gala of the Red Cross for Prince Raineer and Grace Kelly in Monte Carlo.",
"In 1980, Winter moved to the United States. He recorded and produced an album with the Canadian independent company Isba Records and released a single entitled \"L'Étoile du Berger\".",
"In 2010, Winter returned to the stage in France for a revival tour with \"Age Tendre \\& Têtes de Bois\", which tour played for 55 sold\\-out venues with over 550,000 people seeing him in concert.{{citation needed\\|date\\=January 2014}} In 2014, Winter recorded a studio album *Winter Country* in Nashville, Tennessee.",
""
] |
Plot
----
[thumb\|left\|start\=44\|thumbtime\=47\|*7th Heaven* full film](/wiki/File:7th_Heaven_%281927%29.webm "7th Heaven (1927).webm")
In the early 1910s, Chico works in the sewers of [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris"). He expresses his desire to be a street sweeper to work above ground and light candles at a nearby church. After a meeting with the church's priest, Chico gets the recommendation he needs for the street sweeping job.
Diane and her sister Nana live together, facing financial difficulties since their parents left them a few years ago. When news arrives that their parents have returned with a fortune, Diane and Nana anticipate a return to comfortable living. However, their father discovers their involvement in prostitution to make ends meet and refuses to accept them back, disowning them instead. Nana, furious at Diane for revealing the news, begins to beat her. As Diane tries to escape, Chico steps in, intervening in the confrontation and rescuing her.
After a brief flirtation, Nana returns with the police intending to arrest Diane. Once again, Chico intervenes, asserting that Diane is not a prostitute but his wife. Despite initial skepticism, the police refrain from arresting Diane due to lack of evidence. Concerned about potential repercussions for lying, Chico fears losing his job as a streetsweeper. To provide an alibi, he suggests Diane move in with him. After ensuring she's not being exploited, Diane agrees to Chico's proposal.
Soon afterwards, the police visit Chico's apartment for further investigation, and their strategy succeeds, absolving them both of suspicion. With no more reason to stay, Diane prepares to leave, feeling disheartened after having grown fond of Chico and his apartment. When Chico offers her to stay, she joyfully accepts, feeling that Chico is a godsend. As they spend more time together, they quickly fall in love, and decide to marry genuinely.
News of [World War I reaching France](/wiki/French_entry_into_World_War_I "French entry into World War I") arrives, prompting the couple to hold an unofficial wedding in their apartment, with God as their sole witness. Chico is swiftly recruited, forcing him to depart for the battlefield. Upon his departure, a resentful Nana returns, deriding Diane for her marriage and attempting to assault her once more. However, Diane instead triumphs over Nana, expelling her from the apartment, and cites Chico’s support for her newfound bravery.
As Chico fights in the war, Diane finds work at a munitions factory. During a battle, Chico is gravely wounded and believes he's dying. Diane is told by a soldier that Chico has been officially declared dead, leaving her devastated. When the war ends, Chico returns home, his death having been wrongly recorded, but he is now blind.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"[thumb\\|left\\|start\\=44\\|thumbtime\\=47\\|*7th Heaven* full film](/wiki/File:7th_Heaven_%281927%29.webm \"7th Heaven (1927).webm\")\nIn the early 1910s, Chico works in the sewers of [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\"). He expresses his desire to be a street sweeper to work above ground and light candles at a nearby church. After a meeting with the church's priest, Chico gets the recommendation he needs for the street sweeping job.",
"Diane and her sister Nana live together, facing financial difficulties since their parents left them a few years ago. When news arrives that their parents have returned with a fortune, Diane and Nana anticipate a return to comfortable living. However, their father discovers their involvement in prostitution to make ends meet and refuses to accept them back, disowning them instead. Nana, furious at Diane for revealing the news, begins to beat her. As Diane tries to escape, Chico steps in, intervening in the confrontation and rescuing her.",
"After a brief flirtation, Nana returns with the police intending to arrest Diane. Once again, Chico intervenes, asserting that Diane is not a prostitute but his wife. Despite initial skepticism, the police refrain from arresting Diane due to lack of evidence. Concerned about potential repercussions for lying, Chico fears losing his job as a streetsweeper. To provide an alibi, he suggests Diane move in with him. After ensuring she's not being exploited, Diane agrees to Chico's proposal.",
"Soon afterwards, the police visit Chico's apartment for further investigation, and their strategy succeeds, absolving them both of suspicion. With no more reason to stay, Diane prepares to leave, feeling disheartened after having grown fond of Chico and his apartment. When Chico offers her to stay, she joyfully accepts, feeling that Chico is a godsend. As they spend more time together, they quickly fall in love, and decide to marry genuinely.",
"News of [World War I reaching France](/wiki/French_entry_into_World_War_I \"French entry into World War I\") arrives, prompting the couple to hold an unofficial wedding in their apartment, with God as their sole witness. Chico is swiftly recruited, forcing him to depart for the battlefield. Upon his departure, a resentful Nana returns, deriding Diane for her marriage and attempting to assault her once more. However, Diane instead triumphs over Nana, expelling her from the apartment, and cites Chico’s support for her newfound bravery.",
"As Chico fights in the war, Diane finds work at a munitions factory. During a battle, Chico is gravely wounded and believes he's dying. Diane is told by a soldier that Chico has been officially declared dead, leaving her devastated. When the war ends, Chico returns home, his death having been wrongly recorded, but he is now blind.",
""
] |
Word processing and page layout
-------------------------------
{{unreferenced section\|date\=September 2023}}
While desktop video proved to be a major market for the Amiga, a surge of word processing, page layout and graphic software filled out the professional needs starting from the first Amiga text program, Textcraft, which was a mix between a real word processor and an advanced text editor, capable of changing page layouts, fonts, enlarging or reducing their width, changing their colors, and adding color images to the text.
Notable word processing programs for Amiga included the then\-industry standard [WordPerfect](/wiki/WordPerfect "WordPerfect") up to version 4\.1, Shakespeare, [Excellence](/wiki/Excellence_%28software%29 "Excellence (software)"), Maxon Word, Final Writer, Amiga Writer, Scribble!, ProWrite, Wordworth and the little Personal Write by Cloanto.
The page layout software included Page Setter and Professional Page from Gold Disk Inc., and [PageStream](/wiki/PageStream "PageStream") by Soft\-Logik, known today as Grasshopper LLC. Only PageStream was ported to other platforms and continues to be developed and supported by the developers. Graphic software included vector drawing applications like Art Expression from Soft\-Logik, ProVector by Stylus, Inc. (formerly Taliesin), Draw Studio, and Professional Draw from Gold Disk Inc.
Amiga lacked an [office suite](/wiki/Office_suite "Office suite") as the term is meant now, but [integrated software](/wiki/Integrated_software "Integrated software") was available. Pen Pal was a word processor integrated with a database and a form editor. Scribble!, Analyze!, and Organize! were bundled together as the Works! suite combining a word processor, spreadsheet, and database. Despite the similarity in name, it had no connection to [Microsoft Works](/wiki/Microsoft_Works "Microsoft Works").
The page layout language [LaTeX](/wiki/LaTeX "LaTeX") was available in two ports: [AmigaTeX](/wiki/AmigaTeX "AmigaTeX"), which is no longer available (the first LaTeX can be edited with a front\-end program), and PasTEX, available on [Aminet](/wiki/Aminet "Aminet") repository.
Modern software [AbiWord](/wiki/AbiWord "AbiWord") is available today on [AmigaOS 4\.0](/wiki/AmigaOS_4.0 "AmigaOS 4.0") through the AmiCygnix [X11](/wiki/X11 "X11") graphical engine, Scriba and Papyrus Office pre\-release is available for [MorphOS](/wiki/MorphOS "MorphOS").
### Text editors
Text editors available on Amiga include [Vim](/wiki/Vim_%28text_editor%29 "Vim (text editor)"), [Emacs](/wiki/Emacs "Emacs") and [MicroEMACS](/wiki/MicroEMACS "MicroEMACS") (included), [Cygnus Editor](/wiki/CygnusEd "CygnusEd") also known as CED, and [GoldED](/wiki/Cubic_IDE "Cubic IDE"), which then evolved in 2006 into [Cubic IDE](/wiki/Cubic_IDE "Cubic IDE"). The [UNIX](/wiki/UNIX "UNIX") [ne](/wiki/Ne_%28text_editor%29 "Ne (text editor)") editor and the [vi](/wiki/Vi_%28text_editor%29 "Vi (text editor)")\-clone [Vim](/wiki/Vim_%28text_editor%29%23Vi_IMproved "Vim (text editor)#Vi IMproved") were initially developed on the Amiga.
Development of Text editors never stopped in Amiga. Since 2001, in MorphOS, a limited edition version of GoldEd called MorphEd is available, and since 2008 Cinnamon Writer{{Cite web \|title\=Welcome: Desler.Be \|url\=http://desler.be/modules/wfchannel/ \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413025214/http://desler.be/modules/wfchannel/ \|archive\-date\=13 April 2009 \|website\=desler.be}} and NoWin ED,{{Cite web \|title\=ShInKurO's Home Page \- Software per Amiga \|url\=http://shinkuro.altervista.org/amiga/software/nowined.htm \|website\=shinkuro.altervista.org}} a universal editor which runs on any Amiga\-like platform, are available. Cinnamon Writer is increasing new features to all new releases and aspires to become a full\-featured WordProcessor.
|
[
"Word processing and page layout\n-------------------------------",
"{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=September 2023}}\nWhile desktop video proved to be a major market for the Amiga, a surge of word processing, page layout and graphic software filled out the professional needs starting from the first Amiga text program, Textcraft, which was a mix between a real word processor and an advanced text editor, capable of changing page layouts, fonts, enlarging or reducing their width, changing their colors, and adding color images to the text.",
"Notable word processing programs for Amiga included the then\\-industry standard [WordPerfect](/wiki/WordPerfect \"WordPerfect\") up to version 4\\.1, Shakespeare, [Excellence](/wiki/Excellence_%28software%29 \"Excellence (software)\"), Maxon Word, Final Writer, Amiga Writer, Scribble!, ProWrite, Wordworth and the little Personal Write by Cloanto.",
"The page layout software included Page Setter and Professional Page from Gold Disk Inc., and [PageStream](/wiki/PageStream \"PageStream\") by Soft\\-Logik, known today as Grasshopper LLC. Only PageStream was ported to other platforms and continues to be developed and supported by the developers. Graphic software included vector drawing applications like Art Expression from Soft\\-Logik, ProVector by Stylus, Inc. (formerly Taliesin), Draw Studio, and Professional Draw from Gold Disk Inc.",
"Amiga lacked an [office suite](/wiki/Office_suite \"Office suite\") as the term is meant now, but [integrated software](/wiki/Integrated_software \"Integrated software\") was available. Pen Pal was a word processor integrated with a database and a form editor. Scribble!, Analyze!, and Organize! were bundled together as the Works! suite combining a word processor, spreadsheet, and database. Despite the similarity in name, it had no connection to [Microsoft Works](/wiki/Microsoft_Works \"Microsoft Works\").",
"The page layout language [LaTeX](/wiki/LaTeX \"LaTeX\") was available in two ports: [AmigaTeX](/wiki/AmigaTeX \"AmigaTeX\"), which is no longer available (the first LaTeX can be edited with a front\\-end program), and PasTEX, available on [Aminet](/wiki/Aminet \"Aminet\") repository.",
"Modern software [AbiWord](/wiki/AbiWord \"AbiWord\") is available today on [AmigaOS 4\\.0](/wiki/AmigaOS_4.0 \"AmigaOS 4.0\") through the AmiCygnix [X11](/wiki/X11 \"X11\") graphical engine, Scriba and Papyrus Office pre\\-release is available for [MorphOS](/wiki/MorphOS \"MorphOS\").",
"### Text editors",
"Text editors available on Amiga include [Vim](/wiki/Vim_%28text_editor%29 \"Vim (text editor)\"), [Emacs](/wiki/Emacs \"Emacs\") and [MicroEMACS](/wiki/MicroEMACS \"MicroEMACS\") (included), [Cygnus Editor](/wiki/CygnusEd \"CygnusEd\") also known as CED, and [GoldED](/wiki/Cubic_IDE \"Cubic IDE\"), which then evolved in 2006 into [Cubic IDE](/wiki/Cubic_IDE \"Cubic IDE\"). The [UNIX](/wiki/UNIX \"UNIX\") [ne](/wiki/Ne_%28text_editor%29 \"Ne (text editor)\") editor and the [vi](/wiki/Vi_%28text_editor%29 \"Vi (text editor)\")\\-clone [Vim](/wiki/Vim_%28text_editor%29%23Vi_IMproved \"Vim (text editor)#Vi IMproved\") were initially developed on the Amiga.",
"Development of Text editors never stopped in Amiga. Since 2001, in MorphOS, a limited edition version of GoldEd called MorphEd is available, and since 2008 Cinnamon Writer{{Cite web \\|title\\=Welcome: Desler.Be \\|url\\=http://desler.be/modules/wfchannel/ \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413025214/http://desler.be/modules/wfchannel/ \\|archive\\-date\\=13 April 2009 \\|website\\=desler.be}} and NoWin ED,{{Cite web \\|title\\=ShInKurO's Home Page \\- Software per Amiga \\|url\\=http://shinkuro.altervista.org/amiga/software/nowined.htm \\|website\\=shinkuro.altervista.org}} a universal editor which runs on any Amiga\\-like platform, are available. Cinnamon Writer is increasing new features to all new releases and aspires to become a full\\-featured WordProcessor.",
""
] |
Science, entertainment and special use programs
-----------------------------------------------
{{unreferenced section\|date\=September 2023}}
[Maple V](/wiki/Maple_%28software%29 "Maple (software)") is one of the best general\-purpose mathematics software (a.k.a. Mathematic\-CAD) ever made. It was available for Amiga, and was appreciated by many scientists using Amiga in its time. Distant Suns, Galileo, Digital Almanac and Amiga Digital Universe (from Bill Eaves for the OS4\) were stellar sky exploring programs and astronomic calculators. During the age of [CDTV](/wiki/CDTV "CDTV") many historic, science, and art CDs like Timetable of Science, Innovation, Timetable of Business, Politics, [Grolier's Encyclopedia](/wiki/Grolier%27s_Encyclopedia "Grolier's Encyclopedia"), Guinness Disk of Records, Video Creator, [American Heritage Dictionary](/wiki/American_Heritage_Dictionary "American Heritage Dictionary"), Illustrated Holy Bible, Illustrated Works of Shakespeare, etc. were available.
### Entertainment
Amiga featured hundreds of entertainment software projects. Some notable programs for education and learning were Adventures in Math from Free Spirit Software, Animal Kingdom from Unicorn Software, [Art School](/wiki/Art_School "Art School") all the series of [Barney Bear](/wiki/Barney_Bear "Barney Bear") software, the Discovery series including Discovery trivia, [Donald's Alphabet Chase](/wiki/Donald%27s_Alphabet_Chase "Donald's Alphabet Chase"), Mickey's 123's and Mickey's ABC's by [Disney Software](/wiki/Disney_Software "Disney Software"), the [Electric Crayon](/wiki/Electric_Crayon "Electric Crayon") and [Ferngully](/wiki/Ferngully "Ferngully") series of educational coloring book software (Ferngully was taken from the animated feature film), [Fun School](/wiki/Fun_School "Fun School") series of disks, [Kid Pix](/wiki/Kid_Pix "Kid Pix") set of disks from the well known [Broderbund Software](/wiki/Broderbund_Software "Broderbund Software") house, which was famous in the nineties, [Miracle Piano Teaching System](/wiki/Miracle_Piano_Teaching_System "Miracle Piano Teaching System") to teach music to kids, various tales of [Mother Goose](/wiki/Mother_Goose "Mother Goose"), and World Atlas by Centaur Software.
### Fractals, virtual reality, artificial intelligence
ZoneXplorer from Elena Novaretti is considered amongst Amiga users one of the best [fractal](/wiki/Fractal "Fractal") experience programs ever made on Amiga, if not on any platform. In 1989 the X\-Specs 3D Glasses from Haitex Resources, one of the first interactive 3D solutions for home computers were created. Also created on Amiga, were the multimedia interactive TV non\-immersive [Virtual reality](/wiki/Virtual_reality "Virtual reality") exploring software Mandala from Vivid Group Inc.{{efn\|name\=Virtuality Systems\|text\=Info on Virtuality at \[https://web.archive.org/web/20071009140626/http://www.amiga\-hardware.com/showhardware.cgi?HARDID\=56 Amiga Hardware site]}}, and the [Virtuality System](/wiki/Virtuality_%28gaming%29 "Virtuality (gaming)") Virtuality 1000 CS 3D VRML all\-immersive simulator from W\-Industries (then Virtuality Inc.){{efn\|name\=Virtuality Systems}}, for game entertainment in big arcade installations and theme parks, based on A3000\.
Magellan v.1\.1 (Artificial Intelligence Software), not to be confused with Directory Opus Magellan, was a program to emulate [Artificial intelligence](/wiki/Artificial_intelligence "Artificial intelligence") responses on Amiga, by creating heuristic programmed rules based on [machine learning](/wiki/Machine_learning "Machine learning") in its form of [supervised learning](/wiki/Supervised_learning "Supervised learning"). The user would choose into [decision trees](/wiki/Decision_tree "Decision tree") and [decision tables](/wiki/Decision_tables "Decision tables") system of AI featured by the Magellan program, in which to input objects, and desired outputs and describe all associate conditions and rules which the machine should follow in order to output pseudo\-intelligent solutions to given problems.
### Route planning
AmiATLAS v.6, was a complete [Route planner](/wiki/Route_planner "Route planner") tool for Amiga computers. It provided worldwide interactive maps and found optimal routes for traveling from one place to another. It also featured multiple map loading, an integrated CityGuide\-System with information to interesting towns, places or regions, some even with pictures, and information about many parks and points of interest.
### Personal organizer, notebook, diary software
Digita Organizer v.1\.1 from Digita International was the best Amiga program to let the user to note about dates, meetings, remember expiry dates, etcetera. [PolyOrga](http://polymere.free.fr/orga_en.html) for [MorphOS](/wiki/MorphOS "MorphOS") by Frédéric Rignault.
### Personal budget, home banking, accounts
Easy Banker, Home Accounts, Small Business Accounts, Small Business Manager, Account Master, Accountant, AmigaMoney, Banca Base III, [HomeBank](/wiki/HomeBank "HomeBank"), CashMaster, Counting House, etc.
### Software for special purposes
[AVT](/wiki/Slow-scan_television%23AVT "Slow-scan television#AVT") (Amiga Video Transceiver), was a software and hardware [Slow\-scan television](/wiki/Slow-scan_television "Slow-scan television") system originally developed by "Black Belt Systems" (USA) around 1990 for the Amiga home computer popular all over the world before the IBM PC family gained sufficient audio quality with the help of special sound cards.
Richmond Sound Design (RSD) created both [show control](/wiki/Show_control "Show control") (a.k.a. MSC or "[MIDI Show Control](/wiki/MIDI_Show_Control "MIDI Show Control")") and theatre [sound design](/wiki/Sound_design "Sound design") software which was used extensively in the theatre, theme park, display, exhibit, [stage managing](/wiki/Stage_Manager "Stage Manager"), show and themed entertainment industries in the 1980s and 1990s and at one point in the mid 90s, there were many high\-profile shows at major theme parks around the world being controlled by Amigas through software simply called [Stage Manager](/wiki/Stage_Manager "Stage Manager") which then evolved into its Microsoft Windows version called ShowMan. There were dozens at [Walt Disney World](/wiki/Walt_Disney_World "Walt Disney World") alone and more at all other [Disney](/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company "The Walt Disney Company"), [Universal Studios](/wiki/Universal_Studios "Universal Studios"), [Six Flags](/wiki/Six_Flags "Six Flags") and [Madame Tussauds](/wiki/Madame_Tussauds "Madame Tussauds") properties as well as in many venues in Las Vegas including [The Mirage](/wiki/The_Mirage "The Mirage") hotel Volcano and [Siegfried and Roy](/wiki/Siegfried_and_Roy "Siegfried and Roy") show, the [MGM Grand](/wiki/MGM_Grand_Las_Vegas "MGM Grand Las Vegas") EFX show, [Broadway theatre](/wiki/Broadway_theatre "Broadway theatre"), London's [West End](/wiki/West_End_theatre "West End theatre"), the [Royal Shakespeare Company](/wiki/Royal_Shakespeare_Company "Royal Shakespeare Company")'s many venues, most of [Branson, Missouri](/wiki/Branson%2C_Missouri "Branson, Missouri")'s theatres, and scores of theatres on cruise ships, amongst hundreds of others. RSD purchased used Amigas on the web and reconditioned them to provide enough systems for all the shows that specified them and only stopped providing new Amiga installations in 2000\. There are still an unknown number of shows on cruise ships and in themed venues being run by Amigas.{{citation needed\|date\=April 2018}}
|
[
"Science, entertainment and special use programs\n-----------------------------------------------",
"{{unreferenced section\\|date\\=September 2023}}\n[Maple V](/wiki/Maple_%28software%29 \"Maple (software)\") is one of the best general\\-purpose mathematics software (a.k.a. Mathematic\\-CAD) ever made. It was available for Amiga, and was appreciated by many scientists using Amiga in its time. Distant Suns, Galileo, Digital Almanac and Amiga Digital Universe (from Bill Eaves for the OS4\\) were stellar sky exploring programs and astronomic calculators. During the age of [CDTV](/wiki/CDTV \"CDTV\") many historic, science, and art CDs like Timetable of Science, Innovation, Timetable of Business, Politics, [Grolier's Encyclopedia](/wiki/Grolier%27s_Encyclopedia \"Grolier's Encyclopedia\"), Guinness Disk of Records, Video Creator, [American Heritage Dictionary](/wiki/American_Heritage_Dictionary \"American Heritage Dictionary\"), Illustrated Holy Bible, Illustrated Works of Shakespeare, etc. were available.",
"### Entertainment",
"Amiga featured hundreds of entertainment software projects. Some notable programs for education and learning were Adventures in Math from Free Spirit Software, Animal Kingdom from Unicorn Software, [Art School](/wiki/Art_School \"Art School\") all the series of [Barney Bear](/wiki/Barney_Bear \"Barney Bear\") software, the Discovery series including Discovery trivia, [Donald's Alphabet Chase](/wiki/Donald%27s_Alphabet_Chase \"Donald's Alphabet Chase\"), Mickey's 123's and Mickey's ABC's by [Disney Software](/wiki/Disney_Software \"Disney Software\"), the [Electric Crayon](/wiki/Electric_Crayon \"Electric Crayon\") and [Ferngully](/wiki/Ferngully \"Ferngully\") series of educational coloring book software (Ferngully was taken from the animated feature film), [Fun School](/wiki/Fun_School \"Fun School\") series of disks, [Kid Pix](/wiki/Kid_Pix \"Kid Pix\") set of disks from the well known [Broderbund Software](/wiki/Broderbund_Software \"Broderbund Software\") house, which was famous in the nineties, [Miracle Piano Teaching System](/wiki/Miracle_Piano_Teaching_System \"Miracle Piano Teaching System\") to teach music to kids, various tales of [Mother Goose](/wiki/Mother_Goose \"Mother Goose\"), and World Atlas by Centaur Software.",
"### Fractals, virtual reality, artificial intelligence",
"ZoneXplorer from Elena Novaretti is considered amongst Amiga users one of the best [fractal](/wiki/Fractal \"Fractal\") experience programs ever made on Amiga, if not on any platform. In 1989 the X\\-Specs 3D Glasses from Haitex Resources, one of the first interactive 3D solutions for home computers were created. Also created on Amiga, were the multimedia interactive TV non\\-immersive [Virtual reality](/wiki/Virtual_reality \"Virtual reality\") exploring software Mandala from Vivid Group Inc.{{efn\\|name\\=Virtuality Systems\\|text\\=Info on Virtuality at \\[https://web.archive.org/web/20071009140626/http://www.amiga\\-hardware.com/showhardware.cgi?HARDID\\=56 Amiga Hardware site]}}, and the [Virtuality System](/wiki/Virtuality_%28gaming%29 \"Virtuality (gaming)\") Virtuality 1000 CS 3D VRML all\\-immersive simulator from W\\-Industries (then Virtuality Inc.){{efn\\|name\\=Virtuality Systems}}, for game entertainment in big arcade installations and theme parks, based on A3000\\.",
"Magellan v.1\\.1 (Artificial Intelligence Software), not to be confused with Directory Opus Magellan, was a program to emulate [Artificial intelligence](/wiki/Artificial_intelligence \"Artificial intelligence\") responses on Amiga, by creating heuristic programmed rules based on [machine learning](/wiki/Machine_learning \"Machine learning\") in its form of [supervised learning](/wiki/Supervised_learning \"Supervised learning\"). The user would choose into [decision trees](/wiki/Decision_tree \"Decision tree\") and [decision tables](/wiki/Decision_tables \"Decision tables\") system of AI featured by the Magellan program, in which to input objects, and desired outputs and describe all associate conditions and rules which the machine should follow in order to output pseudo\\-intelligent solutions to given problems.",
"### Route planning",
"AmiATLAS v.6, was a complete [Route planner](/wiki/Route_planner \"Route planner\") tool for Amiga computers. It provided worldwide interactive maps and found optimal routes for traveling from one place to another. It also featured multiple map loading, an integrated CityGuide\\-System with information to interesting towns, places or regions, some even with pictures, and information about many parks and points of interest.",
"### Personal organizer, notebook, diary software",
"Digita Organizer v.1\\.1 from Digita International was the best Amiga program to let the user to note about dates, meetings, remember expiry dates, etcetera. [PolyOrga](http://polymere.free.fr/orga_en.html) for [MorphOS](/wiki/MorphOS \"MorphOS\") by Frédéric Rignault.",
"### Personal budget, home banking, accounts",
"Easy Banker, Home Accounts, Small Business Accounts, Small Business Manager, Account Master, Accountant, AmigaMoney, Banca Base III, [HomeBank](/wiki/HomeBank \"HomeBank\"), CashMaster, Counting House, etc.",
"### Software for special purposes",
"[AVT](/wiki/Slow-scan_television%23AVT \"Slow-scan television#AVT\") (Amiga Video Transceiver), was a software and hardware [Slow\\-scan television](/wiki/Slow-scan_television \"Slow-scan television\") system originally developed by \"Black Belt Systems\" (USA) around 1990 for the Amiga home computer popular all over the world before the IBM PC family gained sufficient audio quality with the help of special sound cards.",
"Richmond Sound Design (RSD) created both [show control](/wiki/Show_control \"Show control\") (a.k.a. MSC or \"[MIDI Show Control](/wiki/MIDI_Show_Control \"MIDI Show Control\")\") and theatre [sound design](/wiki/Sound_design \"Sound design\") software which was used extensively in the theatre, theme park, display, exhibit, [stage managing](/wiki/Stage_Manager \"Stage Manager\"), show and themed entertainment industries in the 1980s and 1990s and at one point in the mid 90s, there were many high\\-profile shows at major theme parks around the world being controlled by Amigas through software simply called [Stage Manager](/wiki/Stage_Manager \"Stage Manager\") which then evolved into its Microsoft Windows version called ShowMan. There were dozens at [Walt Disney World](/wiki/Walt_Disney_World \"Walt Disney World\") alone and more at all other [Disney](/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company \"The Walt Disney Company\"), [Universal Studios](/wiki/Universal_Studios \"Universal Studios\"), [Six Flags](/wiki/Six_Flags \"Six Flags\") and [Madame Tussauds](/wiki/Madame_Tussauds \"Madame Tussauds\") properties as well as in many venues in Las Vegas including [The Mirage](/wiki/The_Mirage \"The Mirage\") hotel Volcano and [Siegfried and Roy](/wiki/Siegfried_and_Roy \"Siegfried and Roy\") show, the [MGM Grand](/wiki/MGM_Grand_Las_Vegas \"MGM Grand Las Vegas\") EFX show, [Broadway theatre](/wiki/Broadway_theatre \"Broadway theatre\"), London's [West End](/wiki/West_End_theatre \"West End theatre\"), the [Royal Shakespeare Company](/wiki/Royal_Shakespeare_Company \"Royal Shakespeare Company\")'s many venues, most of [Branson, Missouri](/wiki/Branson%2C_Missouri \"Branson, Missouri\")'s theatres, and scores of theatres on cruise ships, amongst hundreds of others. RSD purchased used Amigas on the web and reconditioned them to provide enough systems for all the shows that specified them and only stopped providing new Amiga installations in 2000\\. There are still an unknown number of shows on cruise ships and in themed venues being run by Amigas.{{citation needed\\|date\\=April 2018}}",
""
] |
History
-------
Within the Ruins founding members Joe Cocchi and Kevin McGuill started the band during 2003\.{{Allmusic \|id\=mn0001043675 \|label\=Within the Ruins}}
The band went through some line\-up changes and finally began working on their first self\-released EP entitled *Driven by Fear* which was completed in 2005\.
Followed by the release, the band began touring in late 2006 in an effort to gain exposure and label recognition. With the release of their second EP *Empires* through Innerstrength Records the band received an offer from [Victory Records](/wiki/Victory_Records "Victory Records").
The band's debut studio album *[Creature](/wiki/Creature_%28Within_the_Ruins_album%29 "Creature (Within the Ruins album)")* was released in February 2009, followed by their second studio album entitled *[Invade](/wiki/Invade_%28Within_the_Ruins_album%29 "Invade (Within the Ruins album)")* in September 2010\. *Invade* sold over 3,000 copies in its first week.
The band has most recently toured Europe with [Carnifex](/wiki/Carnifex_%28band%29 "Carnifex (band)") and has been part of a number of 2011\-12 festivals thus far including the Bonecrusher Fest, [the Jamboree](/wiki/The_Jamboree_%28music_festival%29 "The Jamboree (music festival)"), [New England Metal and Hardcore Festival](/wiki/New_England_Metal_and_Hardcore_Festival "New England Metal and Hardcore Festival"), [the Bamboozle](/wiki/The_Bamboozle "The Bamboozle"), [South by Southwest](/wiki/South_by_Southwest "South by Southwest") and 2011's [the Summer Slaughter Tour](/wiki/The_Summer_Slaughter_Tour "The Summer Slaughter Tour").
In support of the Summer Slaughter Tour the band released a 4\-song EP entitled *[Omen](/wiki/Omen_%28EP%29 "Omen (EP)")*. The EP consists of 2 new original songs and a cover of [Metallica](/wiki/Metallica "Metallica")'s "Fight Fire with Fire" and [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas_%28band%29 "Kansas (band)")' "[Carry On Wayward Son](/wiki/Carry_On_Wayward_Son "Carry On Wayward Son")".
In 2013 the band signed with new label eOne Entertainment and released the third studio album called *[Elite](/wiki/Elite_%28album%29 "Elite (album)")*.
On April 20, 2014, vocalist Tim Goergen was hospitalized in the band's hometown of [Westfield, Massachusetts](/wiki/Westfield%2C_Massachusetts "Westfield, Massachusetts") with "heart/liver complications".{{cite web\|url\=http://www.metalsucks.net/2014/04/21/within\-ruins\-vocalist\-tim\-goergen\-hospitalized/\|title\=Within The Ruins Vocalist Tim Goergen Hospitalized\|date\=21 April 2014\|website\=Metalsucks.net\|access\-date\=4 March 2017}} As a result, the band was forced to miss a scheduled appearance at the "Eat Your Heart Out Fest" in [Poughkeepsie, New York](/wiki/Poughkeepsie%2C_New_York "Poughkeepsie, New York") while touring in support of fellow [deathcore](/wiki/Deathcore "Deathcore") mainstays [Whitechapel](/wiki/Whitechapel_%28band%29 "Whitechapel (band)").
The band released an official statement on the occurrence via their [Facebook](/wiki/Facebook "Facebook") page:
> "Yesterday morning Tim checked into a hospital here in Western Mass for a second time since our tour began four days ago. We will unfortunately not be performing at today's Eat Your Heart Out Fest, as we are waiting for clarity on Tim's condition and release. Tim informed us a few weeks before leaving for tour that he was experiencing chest and stomach pains. After his first doctor visit he was advised to "take it easy" if he did do the tour. At this point all we know is that he is experiencing heart/liver complications, will not be released today, but is stable."{{cite web\|url\=http://lambgoat.com/news/22370/Within\-The\-Ruins\-frontman\-hospitalized\|title\=Within The Ruins frontman hospitalized\|website\=Lambgoat.com\|access\-date\=4 March 2017}}
Tim's recovery necessitated the band canceling the rest of their scheduled tour dates. On their [Facebook](/wiki/Facebook "Facebook") page, the band released an official statement:
> Unfortunately, at this point we have no other option but to withdraw from the remaining dates of the Whitechapel tour. Tim will be released tomorrow, but due to the seriousness of his condition he has been advised not to engage in any strenuous activity while recovering over the next few weeks. We apologize to any fans that were looking forward to seeing us, but Tim’s health comes first. We WILL be back out this summer in support of our forthcoming album. The rest of the shows are still happening so be sure to make it out and support our friends in Whitechapel, Carnifex and Cruel Hand. See you all this summer!{{cite web\|url\=http://www.metalinsider.net/touring/within\-the\-ruins\-drop\-off\-remaining\-whitechapel\-dates\|title\=Within the Ruins drop off remaining Whitechapel dates\|date\=23 April 2014\|website\=Metalinsider.net\|access\-date\=4 March 2017}}
On July 8, the band released their fourth studio album entitled *[Phenomena](/wiki/Phenomena_%28Within_the_Ruins_album%29 "Phenomena (Within the Ruins album)")*, which reached \#72 on the [*Billboard* 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 "Billboard 200").
On February 15, 2015, while traveling through Pennsylvania in support of [Suicide Silence](/wiki/Suicide_Silence "Suicide Silence") on "The Stronger Than Faith", the band were involved in a serious bus accident. Extreme winter conditions resulted in the band's van and trailer flipping several times on the interstate. None of the band members were injured, however their gear was completely destroyed.
Speaking on the incident, Joe Cocchi stated:
> "We rolled about three times from what I can remember and landed on the median. Our van and trailer are totaled. All I can say is that we're happy to be alive. I don't know how, but none of us were injured. We're on the road touring because this is all we know and love, and we want to continue. Help us get back on our feet by picking up a shirt. Thank you all for the continued support."{{cite web\|url\=http://www.metalinjection.net/latest\-news/bummer\-alert/within\-the\-ruins\-involved\-in\-horrific\-van\-crash\-forced\-to\-miss\-two\-dates\-of\-tour\|title\=WITHIN THE RUINS Involved In Horrific Van Crash; Forced To Miss Two Dates of Tour \- Metal Injection\|date\=16 February 2015\|website\=Metalinjection.net\|access\-date\=4 March 2017}}
The band created a [GoFundMe](/wiki/GoFundMe "GoFundMe") page in order to help pay for the damages to their equipment.
On November 21, 2016, Within the Ruins announced their fifth studio album, *[Halfway Human](/wiki/Halfway_Human_%28album%29 "Halfway Human (album)")*, and debuted a single, "Death of the Rockstar". On March 3, 2017, the band released *Halfway Human*. The album debuted at number 191 on the *Billboard* 200, selling 4,025 copies in its first week.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.metalsucks.net/2017/03/03/shit\-that\-comes\-out\-today\-march\-4\-2017/\|title\=Shit That Comes Out Today: March 3, 2017\|first\=Metal\|last\=Matt\|date\=3 March 2017\|website\=MetalSucks\|access\-date\=6 January 2019}}
On February 24, 2018, it was announced vocalist Tim Goergen would be leaving the band following his final performance with the band at the 2018 [New England Metal and Hardcore Festival](/wiki/New_England_Metal_and_Hardcore_Festival "New England Metal and Hardcore Festival") on April 21\. His replacement would be Steve Tinnon.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.theprp.com/2018/02/24/news/within\-ruins\-part\-ways\-vocalist\-tim\-goergen\-replacement\-announced/\|title\=Within The Ruins To Part Ways With Vocalist Tim Goergen, Replacement Announced\|website\=Theprp.com\|date\=24 February 2018}} On July 27, the band released two new singles, their first with Tinnon, "Resurgence" and "World Undone".{{cite web\|url\=http://loudwire.com/within\-the\-ruins\-first\-two\-songs\-new\-singer/ \|title\=Within the Ruins Surprise Release First Two Songs with New Singer\|date\=27 July 2018\|website\=Loudwire.com}}
On September 24, 2020, the band announced that their sixth studio album, *[Black Heart](/wiki/Black_Heart_%28Within_the_Ruins_album%29 "Black Heart (Within the Ruins album)")*, would be released on November 27\.{{cite web\|url\=https://lambgoat.com/news/33480/Within\-The\-Ruins\-to\-release\-new\-album\-in\-November\|title\=Within The Ruins to release new album in November\|publisher\=Lambgoat\|access\-date\=September 25, 2020\|date\=September 24, 2020}}
On June 26, 2024, the band released a single titled "Castle in the Sky" and announced that their seventh studio album, *[Phenomena II](/wiki/Phenomena_II "Phenomena II")* would be released on August 23, 2024\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.metalsucks.net/2024/06/27/within\-the\-ruins\-announce\-phenomena\-ii\-drop\-new\-video\-castle\-in\-the\-sky/ \|title\=Within the Ruins Announce Phenomena II, Drop New Video "Castle in the Sky" \|date\=June 26, 2024 \|accessdate\=June 27, 2024}}
|
[
"History\n-------",
"Within the Ruins founding members Joe Cocchi and Kevin McGuill started the band during 2003\\.{{Allmusic \\|id\\=mn0001043675 \\|label\\=Within the Ruins}}",
"The band went through some line\\-up changes and finally began working on their first self\\-released EP entitled *Driven by Fear* which was completed in 2005\\.",
"Followed by the release, the band began touring in late 2006 in an effort to gain exposure and label recognition. With the release of their second EP *Empires* through Innerstrength Records the band received an offer from [Victory Records](/wiki/Victory_Records \"Victory Records\").",
"The band's debut studio album *[Creature](/wiki/Creature_%28Within_the_Ruins_album%29 \"Creature (Within the Ruins album)\")* was released in February 2009, followed by their second studio album entitled *[Invade](/wiki/Invade_%28Within_the_Ruins_album%29 \"Invade (Within the Ruins album)\")* in September 2010\\. *Invade* sold over 3,000 copies in its first week.",
"The band has most recently toured Europe with [Carnifex](/wiki/Carnifex_%28band%29 \"Carnifex (band)\") and has been part of a number of 2011\\-12 festivals thus far including the Bonecrusher Fest, [the Jamboree](/wiki/The_Jamboree_%28music_festival%29 \"The Jamboree (music festival)\"), [New England Metal and Hardcore Festival](/wiki/New_England_Metal_and_Hardcore_Festival \"New England Metal and Hardcore Festival\"), [the Bamboozle](/wiki/The_Bamboozle \"The Bamboozle\"), [South by Southwest](/wiki/South_by_Southwest \"South by Southwest\") and 2011's [the Summer Slaughter Tour](/wiki/The_Summer_Slaughter_Tour \"The Summer Slaughter Tour\").",
"In support of the Summer Slaughter Tour the band released a 4\\-song EP entitled *[Omen](/wiki/Omen_%28EP%29 \"Omen (EP)\")*. The EP consists of 2 new original songs and a cover of [Metallica](/wiki/Metallica \"Metallica\")'s \"Fight Fire with Fire\" and [Kansas](/wiki/Kansas_%28band%29 \"Kansas (band)\")' \"[Carry On Wayward Son](/wiki/Carry_On_Wayward_Son \"Carry On Wayward Son\")\".",
"In 2013 the band signed with new label eOne Entertainment and released the third studio album called *[Elite](/wiki/Elite_%28album%29 \"Elite (album)\")*.",
"On April 20, 2014, vocalist Tim Goergen was hospitalized in the band's hometown of [Westfield, Massachusetts](/wiki/Westfield%2C_Massachusetts \"Westfield, Massachusetts\") with \"heart/liver complications\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.metalsucks.net/2014/04/21/within\\-ruins\\-vocalist\\-tim\\-goergen\\-hospitalized/\\|title\\=Within The Ruins Vocalist Tim Goergen Hospitalized\\|date\\=21 April 2014\\|website\\=Metalsucks.net\\|access\\-date\\=4 March 2017}} As a result, the band was forced to miss a scheduled appearance at the \"Eat Your Heart Out Fest\" in [Poughkeepsie, New York](/wiki/Poughkeepsie%2C_New_York \"Poughkeepsie, New York\") while touring in support of fellow [deathcore](/wiki/Deathcore \"Deathcore\") mainstays [Whitechapel](/wiki/Whitechapel_%28band%29 \"Whitechapel (band)\").",
"The band released an official statement on the occurrence via their [Facebook](/wiki/Facebook \"Facebook\") page:",
"",
"> \"Yesterday morning Tim checked into a hospital here in Western Mass for a second time since our tour began four days ago. We will unfortunately not be performing at today's Eat Your Heart Out Fest, as we are waiting for clarity on Tim's condition and release. Tim informed us a few weeks before leaving for tour that he was experiencing chest and stomach pains. After his first doctor visit he was advised to \"take it easy\" if he did do the tour. At this point all we know is that he is experiencing heart/liver complications, will not be released today, but is stable.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://lambgoat.com/news/22370/Within\\-The\\-Ruins\\-frontman\\-hospitalized\\|title\\=Within The Ruins frontman hospitalized\\|website\\=Lambgoat.com\\|access\\-date\\=4 March 2017}}",
"Tim's recovery necessitated the band canceling the rest of their scheduled tour dates. On their [Facebook](/wiki/Facebook \"Facebook\") page, the band released an official statement:",
"",
"> Unfortunately, at this point we have no other option but to withdraw from the remaining dates of the Whitechapel tour. Tim will be released tomorrow, but due to the seriousness of his condition he has been advised not to engage in any strenuous activity while recovering over the next few weeks. We apologize to any fans that were looking forward to seeing us, but Tim’s health comes first. We WILL be back out this summer in support of our forthcoming album. The rest of the shows are still happening so be sure to make it out and support our friends in Whitechapel, Carnifex and Cruel Hand. See you all this summer!{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.metalinsider.net/touring/within\\-the\\-ruins\\-drop\\-off\\-remaining\\-whitechapel\\-dates\\|title\\=Within the Ruins drop off remaining Whitechapel dates\\|date\\=23 April 2014\\|website\\=Metalinsider.net\\|access\\-date\\=4 March 2017}}",
"On July 8, the band released their fourth studio album entitled *[Phenomena](/wiki/Phenomena_%28Within_the_Ruins_album%29 \"Phenomena (Within the Ruins album)\")*, which reached \\#72 on the [*Billboard* 200](/wiki/Billboard_200 \"Billboard 200\").",
"On February 15, 2015, while traveling through Pennsylvania in support of [Suicide Silence](/wiki/Suicide_Silence \"Suicide Silence\") on \"The Stronger Than Faith\", the band were involved in a serious bus accident. Extreme winter conditions resulted in the band's van and trailer flipping several times on the interstate. None of the band members were injured, however their gear was completely destroyed.",
"Speaking on the incident, Joe Cocchi stated:",
"",
"> \"We rolled about three times from what I can remember and landed on the median. Our van and trailer are totaled. All I can say is that we're happy to be alive. I don't know how, but none of us were injured. We're on the road touring because this is all we know and love, and we want to continue. Help us get back on our feet by picking up a shirt. Thank you all for the continued support.\"{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.metalinjection.net/latest\\-news/bummer\\-alert/within\\-the\\-ruins\\-involved\\-in\\-horrific\\-van\\-crash\\-forced\\-to\\-miss\\-two\\-dates\\-of\\-tour\\|title\\=WITHIN THE RUINS Involved In Horrific Van Crash; Forced To Miss Two Dates of Tour \\- Metal Injection\\|date\\=16 February 2015\\|website\\=Metalinjection.net\\|access\\-date\\=4 March 2017}}",
"The band created a [GoFundMe](/wiki/GoFundMe \"GoFundMe\") page in order to help pay for the damages to their equipment.",
"On November 21, 2016, Within the Ruins announced their fifth studio album, *[Halfway Human](/wiki/Halfway_Human_%28album%29 \"Halfway Human (album)\")*, and debuted a single, \"Death of the Rockstar\". On March 3, 2017, the band released *Halfway Human*. The album debuted at number 191 on the *Billboard* 200, selling 4,025 copies in its first week.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.metalsucks.net/2017/03/03/shit\\-that\\-comes\\-out\\-today\\-march\\-4\\-2017/\\|title\\=Shit That Comes Out Today: March 3, 2017\\|first\\=Metal\\|last\\=Matt\\|date\\=3 March 2017\\|website\\=MetalSucks\\|access\\-date\\=6 January 2019}}",
"On February 24, 2018, it was announced vocalist Tim Goergen would be leaving the band following his final performance with the band at the 2018 [New England Metal and Hardcore Festival](/wiki/New_England_Metal_and_Hardcore_Festival \"New England Metal and Hardcore Festival\") on April 21\\. His replacement would be Steve Tinnon.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.theprp.com/2018/02/24/news/within\\-ruins\\-part\\-ways\\-vocalist\\-tim\\-goergen\\-replacement\\-announced/\\|title\\=Within The Ruins To Part Ways With Vocalist Tim Goergen, Replacement Announced\\|website\\=Theprp.com\\|date\\=24 February 2018}} On July 27, the band released two new singles, their first with Tinnon, \"Resurgence\" and \"World Undone\".{{cite web\\|url\\=http://loudwire.com/within\\-the\\-ruins\\-first\\-two\\-songs\\-new\\-singer/ \\|title\\=Within the Ruins Surprise Release First Two Songs with New Singer\\|date\\=27 July 2018\\|website\\=Loudwire.com}}",
"On September 24, 2020, the band announced that their sixth studio album, *[Black Heart](/wiki/Black_Heart_%28Within_the_Ruins_album%29 \"Black Heart (Within the Ruins album)\")*, would be released on November 27\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://lambgoat.com/news/33480/Within\\-The\\-Ruins\\-to\\-release\\-new\\-album\\-in\\-November\\|title\\=Within The Ruins to release new album in November\\|publisher\\=Lambgoat\\|access\\-date\\=September 25, 2020\\|date\\=September 24, 2020}}",
"On June 26, 2024, the band released a single titled \"Castle in the Sky\" and announced that their seventh studio album, *[Phenomena II](/wiki/Phenomena_II \"Phenomena II\")* would be released on August 23, 2024\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.metalsucks.net/2024/06/27/within\\-the\\-ruins\\-announce\\-phenomena\\-ii\\-drop\\-new\\-video\\-castle\\-in\\-the\\-sky/ \\|title\\=Within the Ruins Announce Phenomena II, Drop New Video \"Castle in the Sky\" \\|date\\=June 26, 2024 \\|accessdate\\=June 27, 2024}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early life
He was born in [Kyoto](/wiki/Kyoto "Kyoto"), son of *[jidaigeki](/wiki/Jidaigeki "Jidaigeki")* film star [Ichikawa Utaemon](/wiki/Ichikawa_Utaemon "Ichikawa Utaemon"), and graduated from [Waseda University](/wiki/Waseda_University "Waseda University") School of Letters, Arts and Sciences II in [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo "Tokyo").{{cite web\|url\=https://kotobank.jp/word/%E5%8C%97%E5%A4%A7%E8%B7%AF%E6%AC%A3%E4%B9%9F\-1069235\|title\=Kinya Kitaoji\|publisher\=kotobank\|accessdate\=2 November 2019}}
### Acting career
Kin'ya made his debut with his father in the 1956 [Toei](/wiki/Toei_Company "Toei Company") film *Oyakodaka* in the role of [Katsu Kaishū](/wiki/Katsu_Kaish%C5%AB "Katsu Kaishū"). He is a contemporary of, and was taken to be a rival of, [Hiroki Matsukata](/wiki/Hiroki_Matsukata "Hiroki Matsukata"), who was also the son of a famous actor ([Jūshirō Konoe](/wiki/J%C5%ABshir%C5%8D_Konoe "Jūshirō Konoe")). In 1964, Kin'ya made his first appearance on stage in *[Cyrano de Bergerac](/wiki/Cyrano_de_Bergerac_%28play%29 "Cyrano de Bergerac (play)")*.
The 1960s and 1970s saw him in many contemporary roles. He appeared in *[Battles Without Honor and Humanity: Deadly Fight in Hiroshima](/wiki/Battles_Without_Honor_and_Humanity:Deadly_Fight_in_Hiroshima "Deadly Fight in Hiroshima")* and *[Battles Without Honor and Humanity: Final Episode](/wiki/Battles_Without_Honor_and_Humanity:Final_Episode "Final Episode")* as well as *Karei naru Ichizoku*. The title role in the 1975 film *[Takehisa Yumeji](/wiki/Takehisa_Yumeji "Takehisa Yumeji")* was his.
On television, Kitaōji portrayed [Miyamoto Musashi](/wiki/Miyamoto_Musashi "Miyamoto Musashi") in the [Nippon Television](/wiki/Nippon_Television "Nippon Television") show of the same name. A major historical role was [Sakamoto Ryōma](/wiki/Sakamoto_Ry%C5%8Dma "Sakamoto Ryōma") in the year\-long prime\-time [NHK](/wiki/NHK "NHK") [*taiga* drama](/wiki/Taiga_drama "Taiga drama") *[Ryōma ga Yuku](/wiki/Ry%C5%8Dma_ga_Yuku "Ryōma ga Yuku")* (1968\). He landed the title role in the long\-running cop show *[Zenigata Heiji](/wiki/Zenigata_Heiji "Zenigata Heiji")*, set in the [Edo period](/wiki/Edo_period "Edo period"). In the 1985 twelve\-hour New Year special *Fūun Yagyū Bugeichō,* he played [Yagyū Jūbei](/wiki/Yagy%C5%AB_J%C5%ABbei_Mitsuyoshi "Yagyū Jūbei Mitsuyoshi"), and in the following year's special, he portrayed both [Tokugawa Yoshimune](/wiki/Tokugawa_Yoshimune "Tokugawa Yoshimune") and Yagyū Shinrokurō. The role of another shogun fell to him in the following new year as [TV Tokyo](/wiki/TV_Tokyo "TV Tokyo") tapped him to play [Tokugawa Iemitsu](/wiki/Tokugawa_Iemitsu "Tokugawa Iemitsu"). Kin'ya returned to NHK for the 1987 Taiga drama *[Dokuganryū Masamune](/wiki/Dokuganry%C5%AB_Masamune "Dokuganryū Masamune")* as [Date Terumune](/wiki/Date_Terumune "Date Terumune"), father of title character [Date Masamune](/wiki/Date_Masamune "Date Masamune").
Another role he took had been created by his father. Saotome Mondonosuke was the title character in the series *Gozonji! Hatamoto Taikutsu Otoko (The Bored Hatamoto)*. It ran from 1988 to 1994 on [TV Asahi](/wiki/TV_Asahi "TV Asahi"). His father, Ichikawa Utaemon, had appeared in numerous films and a 1973\-74 TV series as Mondonosuke.
Kin'ya reprised the part of Miyamoto Musashi in the 1990 New Year's special. [Toshirō Mifune](/wiki/Toshir%C5%8D_Mifune "Toshirō Mifune") had portrayed Musashi in the earlier film, also based on the [Eiji Yoshikawa](/wiki/Eiji_Yoshikawa "Eiji Yoshikawa") story, that had won an [Academy Award](/wiki/Academy_Award "Academy Award"). He returned to the New Year's special in 1996, again as the famous swordsman, in *[Tokugawa Kengōden Sore kara no Musashi](/wiki/Tokugawa_Keng%C5%8Dden_Sore_kara_no_Musashi "Tokugawa Kengōden Sore kara no Musashi")*.
His first portrayal of [Ōishi Kuranosuke](/wiki/%C5%8Cishi_Yoshio "Ōishi Yoshio") was in the 1996 *[Chūshingura](/wiki/Ch%C5%ABshingura "Chūshingura")*. He took up the role again in 2004 for the NHK *Saigo no Chūshingura* and in 2007, in the New Year special *[Chūshingura Yōzei\-in no Inbō](/wiki/Ch%C5%ABshingura_Y%C5%8Dzei-in_no_Inb%C5%8D "Chūshingura Yōzei-in no Inbō")*. Other historical roles from the [Sengoku period](/wiki/Sengoku_period "Sengoku period") include [Azai Nagamasa](/wiki/Azai_Nagamasa "Azai Nagamasa"), [Saitō Dōsan](/wiki/Sait%C5%8D_D%C5%8Dsan "Saitō Dōsan"), and [Yamamoto Kansuke](/wiki/Yamamoto_Kansuke_%28general%29 "Yamamoto Kansuke (general)"). In addition to historical parts, he appeared in fictional series. His portrayal of Ogami Ittō in *Kozure Okami ([Lone Wolf and Cub](/wiki/Lone_Wolf_and_Cub "Lone Wolf and Cub"))* (2002\-2004\), which was a series for Asahi TV in Japan, is representative of these appearances.
In 2008, Kitaōji revisited the role of Katsu Kaishū in the *taiga* drama *[Atsuhime](/wiki/Atsuhime_%28drama%29 "Atsuhime (drama)")*. He had portrayed Katsu in his 1956 debut.
He won the award for best actor at the 10th [Hochi Film Award](/wiki/Hochi_Film_Award "Hochi Film Award") for *[Fire Festival](/wiki/Fire_Festival_%28film%29 "Fire Festival (film)")* and *[Haru no kane](/wiki/Haru_no_kane "Haru no kane")*.{{Cite web\|url\= http://cinemahochi.yomiuri.co.jp/h\_award/1985/\|script\-title\= ja:報知映画賞ヒストリー\|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-24\|language\= ja\|publisher\= Cinema Hochi\|url\-status\= dead\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120306194642/http://cinemahochi.yomiuri.co.jp/h\_award/1985/\|archive\-date\= 2012\-03\-06}} Kitaōji played one of the lead roles in [Hideo Nakata](/wiki/Hideo_Nakata "Hideo Nakata")'s psychological thriller film *[The Incite Mill](/wiki/The_Incite_Mill "The Incite Mill")*.
In recent times, Kitaōji voices the [Hokkaido\-inu](/wiki/Hokkaido_%28dog%29 "Hokkaido (dog)") character of "Father" in [SoftBank Mobile](/wiki/SoftBank_Mobile "SoftBank Mobile")'s White Family advertising campaign.{{cn\|date\=June 2017}}
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early life",
"He was born in [Kyoto](/wiki/Kyoto \"Kyoto\"), son of *[jidaigeki](/wiki/Jidaigeki \"Jidaigeki\")* film star [Ichikawa Utaemon](/wiki/Ichikawa_Utaemon \"Ichikawa Utaemon\"), and graduated from [Waseda University](/wiki/Waseda_University \"Waseda University\") School of Letters, Arts and Sciences II in [Tokyo](/wiki/Tokyo \"Tokyo\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://kotobank.jp/word/%E5%8C%97%E5%A4%A7%E8%B7%AF%E6%AC%A3%E4%B9%9F\\-1069235\\|title\\=Kinya Kitaoji\\|publisher\\=kotobank\\|accessdate\\=2 November 2019}}",
"### Acting career",
"Kin'ya made his debut with his father in the 1956 [Toei](/wiki/Toei_Company \"Toei Company\") film *Oyakodaka* in the role of [Katsu Kaishū](/wiki/Katsu_Kaish%C5%AB \"Katsu Kaishū\"). He is a contemporary of, and was taken to be a rival of, [Hiroki Matsukata](/wiki/Hiroki_Matsukata \"Hiroki Matsukata\"), who was also the son of a famous actor ([Jūshirō Konoe](/wiki/J%C5%ABshir%C5%8D_Konoe \"Jūshirō Konoe\")). In 1964, Kin'ya made his first appearance on stage in *[Cyrano de Bergerac](/wiki/Cyrano_de_Bergerac_%28play%29 \"Cyrano de Bergerac (play)\")*.",
"The 1960s and 1970s saw him in many contemporary roles. He appeared in *[Battles Without Honor and Humanity: Deadly Fight in Hiroshima](/wiki/Battles_Without_Honor_and_Humanity:Deadly_Fight_in_Hiroshima \"Deadly Fight in Hiroshima\")* and *[Battles Without Honor and Humanity: Final Episode](/wiki/Battles_Without_Honor_and_Humanity:Final_Episode \"Final Episode\")* as well as *Karei naru Ichizoku*. The title role in the 1975 film *[Takehisa Yumeji](/wiki/Takehisa_Yumeji \"Takehisa Yumeji\")* was his.",
"On television, Kitaōji portrayed [Miyamoto Musashi](/wiki/Miyamoto_Musashi \"Miyamoto Musashi\") in the [Nippon Television](/wiki/Nippon_Television \"Nippon Television\") show of the same name. A major historical role was [Sakamoto Ryōma](/wiki/Sakamoto_Ry%C5%8Dma \"Sakamoto Ryōma\") in the year\\-long prime\\-time [NHK](/wiki/NHK \"NHK\") [*taiga* drama](/wiki/Taiga_drama \"Taiga drama\") *[Ryōma ga Yuku](/wiki/Ry%C5%8Dma_ga_Yuku \"Ryōma ga Yuku\")* (1968\\). He landed the title role in the long\\-running cop show *[Zenigata Heiji](/wiki/Zenigata_Heiji \"Zenigata Heiji\")*, set in the [Edo period](/wiki/Edo_period \"Edo period\"). In the 1985 twelve\\-hour New Year special *Fūun Yagyū Bugeichō,* he played [Yagyū Jūbei](/wiki/Yagy%C5%AB_J%C5%ABbei_Mitsuyoshi \"Yagyū Jūbei Mitsuyoshi\"), and in the following year's special, he portrayed both [Tokugawa Yoshimune](/wiki/Tokugawa_Yoshimune \"Tokugawa Yoshimune\") and Yagyū Shinrokurō. The role of another shogun fell to him in the following new year as [TV Tokyo](/wiki/TV_Tokyo \"TV Tokyo\") tapped him to play [Tokugawa Iemitsu](/wiki/Tokugawa_Iemitsu \"Tokugawa Iemitsu\"). Kin'ya returned to NHK for the 1987 Taiga drama *[Dokuganryū Masamune](/wiki/Dokuganry%C5%AB_Masamune \"Dokuganryū Masamune\")* as [Date Terumune](/wiki/Date_Terumune \"Date Terumune\"), father of title character [Date Masamune](/wiki/Date_Masamune \"Date Masamune\").",
"Another role he took had been created by his father. Saotome Mondonosuke was the title character in the series *Gozonji! Hatamoto Taikutsu Otoko (The Bored Hatamoto)*. It ran from 1988 to 1994 on [TV Asahi](/wiki/TV_Asahi \"TV Asahi\"). His father, Ichikawa Utaemon, had appeared in numerous films and a 1973\\-74 TV series as Mondonosuke.",
"Kin'ya reprised the part of Miyamoto Musashi in the 1990 New Year's special. [Toshirō Mifune](/wiki/Toshir%C5%8D_Mifune \"Toshirō Mifune\") had portrayed Musashi in the earlier film, also based on the [Eiji Yoshikawa](/wiki/Eiji_Yoshikawa \"Eiji Yoshikawa\") story, that had won an [Academy Award](/wiki/Academy_Award \"Academy Award\"). He returned to the New Year's special in 1996, again as the famous swordsman, in *[Tokugawa Kengōden Sore kara no Musashi](/wiki/Tokugawa_Keng%C5%8Dden_Sore_kara_no_Musashi \"Tokugawa Kengōden Sore kara no Musashi\")*.",
"His first portrayal of [Ōishi Kuranosuke](/wiki/%C5%8Cishi_Yoshio \"Ōishi Yoshio\") was in the 1996 *[Chūshingura](/wiki/Ch%C5%ABshingura \"Chūshingura\")*. He took up the role again in 2004 for the NHK *Saigo no Chūshingura* and in 2007, in the New Year special *[Chūshingura Yōzei\\-in no Inbō](/wiki/Ch%C5%ABshingura_Y%C5%8Dzei-in_no_Inb%C5%8D \"Chūshingura Yōzei-in no Inbō\")*. Other historical roles from the [Sengoku period](/wiki/Sengoku_period \"Sengoku period\") include [Azai Nagamasa](/wiki/Azai_Nagamasa \"Azai Nagamasa\"), [Saitō Dōsan](/wiki/Sait%C5%8D_D%C5%8Dsan \"Saitō Dōsan\"), and [Yamamoto Kansuke](/wiki/Yamamoto_Kansuke_%28general%29 \"Yamamoto Kansuke (general)\"). In addition to historical parts, he appeared in fictional series. His portrayal of Ogami Ittō in *Kozure Okami ([Lone Wolf and Cub](/wiki/Lone_Wolf_and_Cub \"Lone Wolf and Cub\"))* (2002\\-2004\\), which was a series for Asahi TV in Japan, is representative of these appearances.",
"In 2008, Kitaōji revisited the role of Katsu Kaishū in the *taiga* drama *[Atsuhime](/wiki/Atsuhime_%28drama%29 \"Atsuhime (drama)\")*. He had portrayed Katsu in his 1956 debut.",
"He won the award for best actor at the 10th [Hochi Film Award](/wiki/Hochi_Film_Award \"Hochi Film Award\") for *[Fire Festival](/wiki/Fire_Festival_%28film%29 \"Fire Festival (film)\")* and *[Haru no kane](/wiki/Haru_no_kane \"Haru no kane\")*.{{Cite web\\|url\\= http://cinemahochi.yomiuri.co.jp/h\\_award/1985/\\|script\\-title\\= ja:報知映画賞ヒストリー\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-24\\|language\\= ja\\|publisher\\= Cinema Hochi\\|url\\-status\\= dead\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120306194642/http://cinemahochi.yomiuri.co.jp/h\\_award/1985/\\|archive\\-date\\= 2012\\-03\\-06}} Kitaōji played one of the lead roles in [Hideo Nakata](/wiki/Hideo_Nakata \"Hideo Nakata\")'s psychological thriller film *[The Incite Mill](/wiki/The_Incite_Mill \"The Incite Mill\")*.",
"In recent times, Kitaōji voices the [Hokkaido\\-inu](/wiki/Hokkaido_%28dog%29 \"Hokkaido (dog)\") character of \"Father\" in [SoftBank Mobile](/wiki/SoftBank_Mobile \"SoftBank Mobile\")'s White Family advertising campaign.{{cn\\|date\\=June 2017}}",
""
] |
### Acting career
Kin'ya made his debut with his father in the 1956 [Toei](/wiki/Toei_Company "Toei Company") film *Oyakodaka* in the role of [Katsu Kaishū](/wiki/Katsu_Kaish%C5%AB "Katsu Kaishū"). He is a contemporary of, and was taken to be a rival of, [Hiroki Matsukata](/wiki/Hiroki_Matsukata "Hiroki Matsukata"), who was also the son of a famous actor ([Jūshirō Konoe](/wiki/J%C5%ABshir%C5%8D_Konoe "Jūshirō Konoe")). In 1964, Kin'ya made his first appearance on stage in *[Cyrano de Bergerac](/wiki/Cyrano_de_Bergerac_%28play%29 "Cyrano de Bergerac (play)")*.
The 1960s and 1970s saw him in many contemporary roles. He appeared in *[Battles Without Honor and Humanity: Deadly Fight in Hiroshima](/wiki/Battles_Without_Honor_and_Humanity:Deadly_Fight_in_Hiroshima "Deadly Fight in Hiroshima")* and *[Battles Without Honor and Humanity: Final Episode](/wiki/Battles_Without_Honor_and_Humanity:Final_Episode "Final Episode")* as well as *Karei naru Ichizoku*. The title role in the 1975 film *[Takehisa Yumeji](/wiki/Takehisa_Yumeji "Takehisa Yumeji")* was his.
On television, Kitaōji portrayed [Miyamoto Musashi](/wiki/Miyamoto_Musashi "Miyamoto Musashi") in the [Nippon Television](/wiki/Nippon_Television "Nippon Television") show of the same name. A major historical role was [Sakamoto Ryōma](/wiki/Sakamoto_Ry%C5%8Dma "Sakamoto Ryōma") in the year\-long prime\-time [NHK](/wiki/NHK "NHK") [*taiga* drama](/wiki/Taiga_drama "Taiga drama") *[Ryōma ga Yuku](/wiki/Ry%C5%8Dma_ga_Yuku "Ryōma ga Yuku")* (1968\). He landed the title role in the long\-running cop show *[Zenigata Heiji](/wiki/Zenigata_Heiji "Zenigata Heiji")*, set in the [Edo period](/wiki/Edo_period "Edo period"). In the 1985 twelve\-hour New Year special *Fūun Yagyū Bugeichō,* he played [Yagyū Jūbei](/wiki/Yagy%C5%AB_J%C5%ABbei_Mitsuyoshi "Yagyū Jūbei Mitsuyoshi"), and in the following year's special, he portrayed both [Tokugawa Yoshimune](/wiki/Tokugawa_Yoshimune "Tokugawa Yoshimune") and Yagyū Shinrokurō. The role of another shogun fell to him in the following new year as [TV Tokyo](/wiki/TV_Tokyo "TV Tokyo") tapped him to play [Tokugawa Iemitsu](/wiki/Tokugawa_Iemitsu "Tokugawa Iemitsu"). Kin'ya returned to NHK for the 1987 Taiga drama *[Dokuganryū Masamune](/wiki/Dokuganry%C5%AB_Masamune "Dokuganryū Masamune")* as [Date Terumune](/wiki/Date_Terumune "Date Terumune"), father of title character [Date Masamune](/wiki/Date_Masamune "Date Masamune").
Another role he took had been created by his father. Saotome Mondonosuke was the title character in the series *Gozonji! Hatamoto Taikutsu Otoko (The Bored Hatamoto)*. It ran from 1988 to 1994 on [TV Asahi](/wiki/TV_Asahi "TV Asahi"). His father, Ichikawa Utaemon, had appeared in numerous films and a 1973\-74 TV series as Mondonosuke.
Kin'ya reprised the part of Miyamoto Musashi in the 1990 New Year's special. [Toshirō Mifune](/wiki/Toshir%C5%8D_Mifune "Toshirō Mifune") had portrayed Musashi in the earlier film, also based on the [Eiji Yoshikawa](/wiki/Eiji_Yoshikawa "Eiji Yoshikawa") story, that had won an [Academy Award](/wiki/Academy_Award "Academy Award"). He returned to the New Year's special in 1996, again as the famous swordsman, in *[Tokugawa Kengōden Sore kara no Musashi](/wiki/Tokugawa_Keng%C5%8Dden_Sore_kara_no_Musashi "Tokugawa Kengōden Sore kara no Musashi")*.
His first portrayal of [Ōishi Kuranosuke](/wiki/%C5%8Cishi_Yoshio "Ōishi Yoshio") was in the 1996 *[Chūshingura](/wiki/Ch%C5%ABshingura "Chūshingura")*. He took up the role again in 2004 for the NHK *Saigo no Chūshingura* and in 2007, in the New Year special *[Chūshingura Yōzei\-in no Inbō](/wiki/Ch%C5%ABshingura_Y%C5%8Dzei-in_no_Inb%C5%8D "Chūshingura Yōzei-in no Inbō")*. Other historical roles from the [Sengoku period](/wiki/Sengoku_period "Sengoku period") include [Azai Nagamasa](/wiki/Azai_Nagamasa "Azai Nagamasa"), [Saitō Dōsan](/wiki/Sait%C5%8D_D%C5%8Dsan "Saitō Dōsan"), and [Yamamoto Kansuke](/wiki/Yamamoto_Kansuke_%28general%29 "Yamamoto Kansuke (general)"). In addition to historical parts, he appeared in fictional series. His portrayal of Ogami Ittō in *Kozure Okami ([Lone Wolf and Cub](/wiki/Lone_Wolf_and_Cub "Lone Wolf and Cub"))* (2002\-2004\), which was a series for Asahi TV in Japan, is representative of these appearances.
In 2008, Kitaōji revisited the role of Katsu Kaishū in the *taiga* drama *[Atsuhime](/wiki/Atsuhime_%28drama%29 "Atsuhime (drama)")*. He had portrayed Katsu in his 1956 debut.
He won the award for best actor at the 10th [Hochi Film Award](/wiki/Hochi_Film_Award "Hochi Film Award") for *[Fire Festival](/wiki/Fire_Festival_%28film%29 "Fire Festival (film)")* and *[Haru no kane](/wiki/Haru_no_kane "Haru no kane")*.{{Cite web\|url\= http://cinemahochi.yomiuri.co.jp/h\_award/1985/\|script\-title\= ja:報知映画賞ヒストリー\|access\-date\= 2010\-01\-24\|language\= ja\|publisher\= Cinema Hochi\|url\-status\= dead\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120306194642/http://cinemahochi.yomiuri.co.jp/h\_award/1985/\|archive\-date\= 2012\-03\-06}} Kitaōji played one of the lead roles in [Hideo Nakata](/wiki/Hideo_Nakata "Hideo Nakata")'s psychological thriller film *[The Incite Mill](/wiki/The_Incite_Mill "The Incite Mill")*.
In recent times, Kitaōji voices the [Hokkaido\-inu](/wiki/Hokkaido_%28dog%29 "Hokkaido (dog)") character of "Father" in [SoftBank Mobile](/wiki/SoftBank_Mobile "SoftBank Mobile")'s White Family advertising campaign.{{cn\|date\=June 2017}}
|
[
"### Acting career",
"Kin'ya made his debut with his father in the 1956 [Toei](/wiki/Toei_Company \"Toei Company\") film *Oyakodaka* in the role of [Katsu Kaishū](/wiki/Katsu_Kaish%C5%AB \"Katsu Kaishū\"). He is a contemporary of, and was taken to be a rival of, [Hiroki Matsukata](/wiki/Hiroki_Matsukata \"Hiroki Matsukata\"), who was also the son of a famous actor ([Jūshirō Konoe](/wiki/J%C5%ABshir%C5%8D_Konoe \"Jūshirō Konoe\")). In 1964, Kin'ya made his first appearance on stage in *[Cyrano de Bergerac](/wiki/Cyrano_de_Bergerac_%28play%29 \"Cyrano de Bergerac (play)\")*.",
"The 1960s and 1970s saw him in many contemporary roles. He appeared in *[Battles Without Honor and Humanity: Deadly Fight in Hiroshima](/wiki/Battles_Without_Honor_and_Humanity:Deadly_Fight_in_Hiroshima \"Deadly Fight in Hiroshima\")* and *[Battles Without Honor and Humanity: Final Episode](/wiki/Battles_Without_Honor_and_Humanity:Final_Episode \"Final Episode\")* as well as *Karei naru Ichizoku*. The title role in the 1975 film *[Takehisa Yumeji](/wiki/Takehisa_Yumeji \"Takehisa Yumeji\")* was his.",
"On television, Kitaōji portrayed [Miyamoto Musashi](/wiki/Miyamoto_Musashi \"Miyamoto Musashi\") in the [Nippon Television](/wiki/Nippon_Television \"Nippon Television\") show of the same name. A major historical role was [Sakamoto Ryōma](/wiki/Sakamoto_Ry%C5%8Dma \"Sakamoto Ryōma\") in the year\\-long prime\\-time [NHK](/wiki/NHK \"NHK\") [*taiga* drama](/wiki/Taiga_drama \"Taiga drama\") *[Ryōma ga Yuku](/wiki/Ry%C5%8Dma_ga_Yuku \"Ryōma ga Yuku\")* (1968\\). He landed the title role in the long\\-running cop show *[Zenigata Heiji](/wiki/Zenigata_Heiji \"Zenigata Heiji\")*, set in the [Edo period](/wiki/Edo_period \"Edo period\"). In the 1985 twelve\\-hour New Year special *Fūun Yagyū Bugeichō,* he played [Yagyū Jūbei](/wiki/Yagy%C5%AB_J%C5%ABbei_Mitsuyoshi \"Yagyū Jūbei Mitsuyoshi\"), and in the following year's special, he portrayed both [Tokugawa Yoshimune](/wiki/Tokugawa_Yoshimune \"Tokugawa Yoshimune\") and Yagyū Shinrokurō. The role of another shogun fell to him in the following new year as [TV Tokyo](/wiki/TV_Tokyo \"TV Tokyo\") tapped him to play [Tokugawa Iemitsu](/wiki/Tokugawa_Iemitsu \"Tokugawa Iemitsu\"). Kin'ya returned to NHK for the 1987 Taiga drama *[Dokuganryū Masamune](/wiki/Dokuganry%C5%AB_Masamune \"Dokuganryū Masamune\")* as [Date Terumune](/wiki/Date_Terumune \"Date Terumune\"), father of title character [Date Masamune](/wiki/Date_Masamune \"Date Masamune\").",
"Another role he took had been created by his father. Saotome Mondonosuke was the title character in the series *Gozonji! Hatamoto Taikutsu Otoko (The Bored Hatamoto)*. It ran from 1988 to 1994 on [TV Asahi](/wiki/TV_Asahi \"TV Asahi\"). His father, Ichikawa Utaemon, had appeared in numerous films and a 1973\\-74 TV series as Mondonosuke.",
"Kin'ya reprised the part of Miyamoto Musashi in the 1990 New Year's special. [Toshirō Mifune](/wiki/Toshir%C5%8D_Mifune \"Toshirō Mifune\") had portrayed Musashi in the earlier film, also based on the [Eiji Yoshikawa](/wiki/Eiji_Yoshikawa \"Eiji Yoshikawa\") story, that had won an [Academy Award](/wiki/Academy_Award \"Academy Award\"). He returned to the New Year's special in 1996, again as the famous swordsman, in *[Tokugawa Kengōden Sore kara no Musashi](/wiki/Tokugawa_Keng%C5%8Dden_Sore_kara_no_Musashi \"Tokugawa Kengōden Sore kara no Musashi\")*.",
"His first portrayal of [Ōishi Kuranosuke](/wiki/%C5%8Cishi_Yoshio \"Ōishi Yoshio\") was in the 1996 *[Chūshingura](/wiki/Ch%C5%ABshingura \"Chūshingura\")*. He took up the role again in 2004 for the NHK *Saigo no Chūshingura* and in 2007, in the New Year special *[Chūshingura Yōzei\\-in no Inbō](/wiki/Ch%C5%ABshingura_Y%C5%8Dzei-in_no_Inb%C5%8D \"Chūshingura Yōzei-in no Inbō\")*. Other historical roles from the [Sengoku period](/wiki/Sengoku_period \"Sengoku period\") include [Azai Nagamasa](/wiki/Azai_Nagamasa \"Azai Nagamasa\"), [Saitō Dōsan](/wiki/Sait%C5%8D_D%C5%8Dsan \"Saitō Dōsan\"), and [Yamamoto Kansuke](/wiki/Yamamoto_Kansuke_%28general%29 \"Yamamoto Kansuke (general)\"). In addition to historical parts, he appeared in fictional series. His portrayal of Ogami Ittō in *Kozure Okami ([Lone Wolf and Cub](/wiki/Lone_Wolf_and_Cub \"Lone Wolf and Cub\"))* (2002\\-2004\\), which was a series for Asahi TV in Japan, is representative of these appearances.",
"In 2008, Kitaōji revisited the role of Katsu Kaishū in the *taiga* drama *[Atsuhime](/wiki/Atsuhime_%28drama%29 \"Atsuhime (drama)\")*. He had portrayed Katsu in his 1956 debut.",
"He won the award for best actor at the 10th [Hochi Film Award](/wiki/Hochi_Film_Award \"Hochi Film Award\") for *[Fire Festival](/wiki/Fire_Festival_%28film%29 \"Fire Festival (film)\")* and *[Haru no kane](/wiki/Haru_no_kane \"Haru no kane\")*.{{Cite web\\|url\\= http://cinemahochi.yomiuri.co.jp/h\\_award/1985/\\|script\\-title\\= ja:報知映画賞ヒストリー\\|access\\-date\\= 2010\\-01\\-24\\|language\\= ja\\|publisher\\= Cinema Hochi\\|url\\-status\\= dead\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120306194642/http://cinemahochi.yomiuri.co.jp/h\\_award/1985/\\|archive\\-date\\= 2012\\-03\\-06}} Kitaōji played one of the lead roles in [Hideo Nakata](/wiki/Hideo_Nakata \"Hideo Nakata\")'s psychological thriller film *[The Incite Mill](/wiki/The_Incite_Mill \"The Incite Mill\")*.",
"In recent times, Kitaōji voices the [Hokkaido\\-inu](/wiki/Hokkaido_%28dog%29 \"Hokkaido (dog)\") character of \"Father\" in [SoftBank Mobile](/wiki/SoftBank_Mobile \"SoftBank Mobile\")'s White Family advertising campaign.{{cn\\|date\\=June 2017}}",
""
] |
Publications
------------
### Articles
BLUMENFELD,S.N. \& J.E. WRIGHT, 1984\. "Two new pileate species of Junghuhnia
(Polyporaceae)." Mycotaxon 19 (1\): 471–478\.
WRIGHT, J.E. \& S.N. BLUMENFELD, 1984\. "New South American species Phellinus
(Hymenochaetaceae)." Mycotaxon 21(4\):423–425\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1984\. "Studies on the degradation of pine wood blocks by
Aphyllophorales." Material und Organismen 19 (4\): 253 \- 262\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1986\. "Estudio ecologico de los Basidiomycetes xilofilos en
plantaciones de Pinus elliottii y Pinus taeda de Argentina." Bol. Soc. Arg. Bot. 24 (3\-4\):
261\-281\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1986\. "Los hongos lignívoros de la región patagónica: estado actual
de su conocimiento." Actas I Jornadas Forestales Patagónicas: 238–244\. Siringa (Ed.),
Neuquén.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1986\. "Interacciones en cultivo entre Naematoloma fasciculare (Huds. Fr.) Karst. (Agaricales, Strophariaceae) y varias especies de hongos xilófilos." Physis (Buenos Aires), C,44 (107\): 97–102\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N. \& B.C. DOBRA, 1986\. "Athelia epiphylla Pers. (Aphyllophorales,
Corticiaceae), agente causal del ojo de pescado en peras." Actas VI Jornadas
Fitosanitarias Argentinas, Fitopatología: 335–343\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., L.A. GALLO \& H.A. MATTES, 1988\. "Selección de clones de Alamo
resistantes a la degradación fúngica." Actas V Jornadas Forestales Argentinas :532–543\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1992\. "Macromycetes (Aphyllophorales) asociados a los álamos. Estudio ecológico para el Alto Valle de Río Negro y Neuquén." Bol. Soc. Arg. Bot. 28 (1\-2\):101–110\.
WRIGHT, J.E., J.R. DESCHAMPS \& S.N. BLUMENFELD, 1993\. "Basidiomycetes xilófilos
de la región mesopotámica. IV. Especies poroides de la familia Hymenochaetaceae Donk."
Rev. Invest. Agrop. INTA, XXII (2\): 132–167\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., H.A. MATTES \& P. BUCKI, 1993\. "Fusarium lateritium Nees, agente
causal de una cancrosis en Alamos del Valle Medio del Río Negro." Actas VI Jornadas
Fitosanitarias Argentinas:115–122\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1993\. "Resistance of poplar clones to xylophagous fungi." Material
und Organismen: 28 (4\): 262–269\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N. \&H. RUBI. 1994 "Cultivo de hongos comestibles sobre residuos de
maderas." Bol. Soc. Arg. Bot. 30 (2\): 23–34
BLUMENFELD, S.N. \& C.L. COSCARON. 1995\. "Hongos lignívoros en bosques de lenga
\[Nothofagus pumilio (Poep. et Endl.) Krasser] de la provincial de Neuquén, Argentina."
Bosque (Chile) 16 (2\): 84–96
BLUMENFELD, S.N. \& J.A. SAIZ DE OMEÑACA. 1996\. "Micorrización de plántulas de
pino carrasco (Pinus halepensis) obtenidos por propagación vegetativa. Investigación
Agraria." Recursos forestales 5 (2\): 181–195\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1996\. "Cultivo de Lentinus edodes Berk, sobre aserrín de álamo
suplementado." Bol. Soc. Arg. Bot. 32 (1\): 55–61\.
Blumenfeld, S.N., 1997\. "Cepario LIHLCOM de la Universidad Nacional del Comahue."
En:CABBIO (Eds.), Catálogo Nacional de Cepas de Microorganismos, PROIMI \- FCEN \-
UBA, Tucumán, p. 92–96
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1998\. "El proyecto RESANFOR\-NEUQUÉN, evaluación de danos
producidos por las enfermedades de origen fúngico." Actas del Primer Simposio Argentinocanadiense
y Primer Congreso Argentino de Protección Forestal (PROFOR): 1–10\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N. \& H. RUBI, 1998\. "Micorrizas comestibles en plantaciones de
coníferas de Río Negro y Neuquén." Actas del Primer Simposio Argentino\-canadiense y
Primer Congreso de Protección Forestal (PROFOR): 51–59\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1998\. "Argentine patent on new method of mushroom cultivation on wood
wastes." Patente de invención No. 251\.648 del Instituto Nacional de la Propiedad Industrial,
INPI, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
<https://web.archive.org/web/20101122145434/http://conicet.gov.ar/VINCULACION/acciones/listado_convenios_de_patentes.php>
BLUMENFELD, S.N., \& H. RUBI, 2000\. "Estudio comparativo de cepas americanas y
europeas de hongos comestibles." Rev. Ibero\-Americana de Micología 17 :129–136\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N. \& H. RUBI, 2001\. "Cultivo de Pleurotus spp. sobre residuos
lignocelulosicos." Rev. Ibero\-Americana de Micología 18:92–98\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 2001\. "Crecimiento y productividad de cuatro cepas de Pleurotus
ostreatus (Fr.) Kumm. sobre differentes sustratos." Rev. Bosque (Chile) 22(2\): 135–141\.
ROMERO, A. \& BLUMENFELD, S.N., 2001\. "Tuber rufus Pico, first citation for Argentina."
The Mycologist: 15(4\):173–175\.
FLOCCARI, M., LEVIS, S., SFREDDO, E., MARTOS, G., LUCERO, N., LEARDINI, N.,
CABRAL, D. \& S. BLUMENFELD. 2004\. "Creation of a Culture Collection Federation for
Latin America and the Caribbean." WFCC Newsletter 38:45\.
Blumenfeld, S.N., Tzahavi, T. \& Reuveni, M., 2007\. "Fungi associated with esca wood decay
of grapevines in Israel." Proceedings of II International Congress of Food Science and
Technology, Cordoba, Argentina : 315–327\.
Blumenfeld, S.N., 2007\. "Toxic mushrooms in Israel." Proceedings of II International
Congress of Food Science and Technology, Cordoba, Argentina : 328–339\.
Blumenfeld, S.N., Tzahavi, T. \& Reuveni, M., 2008\. "Cultural studies on Fomitiporia punctata,
associated with esca wood decay of grapevines in Israel." Mycological Res. (in press).
**Publications of books or chapters of books**
Blumenfeld, S.N., 1991\. *Producción de hongos comestibles.* Cuaderno de Investigación
No. 1\. Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, 24 pp.
Blumenfeld, S.N., 1992\. *Curso de capacitación en el cultivo de hongos comestibles.*
Facultad de Cs. Agrarias, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, FORAT Impresos, Cinco
Saltos, 80 pp., (ISBN 950 \- 43 \- 5107 \- 7\).
Deschamps, J., J. Wright, S. Blumenfeld, D. Cozzo, H. Lauria, H. Peredo and J. Vizcarra
Sanchez, 1997\. *Patología Forestal del cono sur de América (Forest pathology of the South Cone of America)*, vol. I, Mycorrhizae. Orientación Gráfica Editora, Bs. As., 237 p.,(ISBN
987 \- 99791 \- 3\-3\)
Blumenfeld, S.N., 1998\. *Cultivo de hongos comestibles sobre residuos agroindustriales.*
Imprenta Islas Malvinas, Facultad de Cs. Agrarias, Universidad Nacional del Comahue
Neuquén, 112 pp.
Blumenfeld, S.N., 2002\. *Cultivo de hongos comestibles sobre residuos agroindustriales* (2ª
ed.). Imprenta Islas Malvinas, Facultad de Cs. Agrarias, Universidad Nacional del
Comahue Neuquén, 122 pp.
Deschamps, J., J. Wright, S. Blumenfeld, D. Cozzo, H. Lauria, H. Peredo and J. Vizcarra
Sanchez, 2007\. *Patología Forestal del cono sur de América (Forest pathology of the South Cone of America)*, vol. II, Forest Pathology of Poplars. Orientación Gráfica Editora, Bs.
As., 322 p.,( {{ISBN\|978\-987\-99791\-3\-6}} volume 1\)
Blumenfeld, S.N., 2008\. *Growing edible and medicinal wood\-rotting fungi*. Digital Printer,
Beer Sheva, Israel, 215p.
### Attendance at Congresses and Symposia
1983 \- XIX Jornadas Argentinas de Botánica, Santa Fe.
Blumenfeld, S.N. "Xylophylous Basidiomycetes in implanted Woods of Pinus taeda and Pinus
elliottii", p. 10\.
Blumenfeld, S.N. "Contribution to the study of the fungal Argentinean flora: species growing on
Pinus elliottii and Pinus taeda", p. 11
1986 \- VI Jornadas Fitosanitarias Argentinas, Neuquén.
Blumenfeld, S.N. \& A. Dobra. "Athelia epiphylla Pers.(Aphyllophorales, Corticiaceae),
ethiological agent of 'fish eye rot' on pears", p. 335
1987 \- First Symposium on Nothofagus, Villa La Angostura, Neuquén.
Blumenfeld, S.N. "Dynamics of fungal degradation on 'lenga' woods", p. 2
1987 \- First Joint Meeting of the Mycological Society of America and the Canadian
Phytopathological Society, Ottawa, Canada.
Blumenfeld, S.N. "Basidiomycetes that decay Nothofagus pumilio forests: dynamics of
fungal degradation of wood", p. 111
1991 \- XII International Plant Protection Congress, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Blumenfeld, S.N. \& P. Bucki. "Poplar diseases in southern Argentina".
1991 \- II Latin American Symposium on genetic resources of horticultural species. XVI
Argentinean Congress of Horticulture, Mar del Plata, Argentina
Blumenfeld, S.N. \& G. E. Rodriguez. "Production of edible mushrooms on agroindustrial
wastes", p. 40
1991 \- XXIII Argentinean Botanical Congress, San Carlos de Bariloche, Argentina.
Blumenfeld, S.N. "Growth and productivity of four strains of Pleurotus ostreatus on different
composts", p. 46
Bucki, P., M.B. Antola \& S.N. Blumenfeld. Micropropagation of poplar clones, p. 170\.
Blumenfeld, S.N. \& A. Bartusch. "Computer science applied to the investigation in forest
pathology", p. 290
1991 \- II National Congress of Phytopathology, Valdivia, Chile.
Blumenfeld, S.N. \& P. Bucki. "Selection of resistant poplars to fungal pathogens", p. 10
Blumenfeld, S. N. \& H. Rubi. "Bioconversion of agroindustrial wastes by wood\-degrading
mushrooms", p. 11
Antola, M.B., Bucki, P. \& S.N. Blumenfeld. "Micropropagation of resistant poplars to fungal
pathogens: preliminary studies", p. 12
1992 \- ETNOBOTANICA 92, Cordoba, Spain.
Blumenfeld, S.N. \& H. Rubi. "A comparative study of the productivity of European and
American strains of edible mushrooms", p. 299
1992 \- XXV Congreso Brasileiro de Fitopatologia, Gramado, Brazil.
Bucki, P., M.B.Antola \& S.N. Blumenfeld. "Micropropagation of resistant forest trees to
fungal diseases". Fitopatol. Bras. 17 (2\): 158\.
Blumenfeld, S.N. "The phytopathological frequent problems in the cultivation of edible
mushrooms on agroindustrial wastes". Fitopatol. Bras. 17 (2\): 171\.
1993 \- 6th International Congress of Plant Pathology, Montreal, Canada.
Blumenfeld, S.N. "Studies of Araucaria declines in the Caviahue Park, Argentina",
p. 98\.
1993 \- VI Argentinean Congress of Mycology . Buenos Aires.
Rubi,H. \& S.N. Blumenfeld. "Substrate formulation for the cultivation of edible mushrooms",
p. 1135\.
1994 \- 5th International Congress of Mycology. Vancouver, Canada
Blumenfeld,S.N. \& H. Rubí. "Bioconversion of wood wastes by white rot edible fungi".
1994 \- Latin American Congress of Botany. Mar del Plata.
Blumenfeld,S.N., M.B. Antola and H. Rubí. "Influences of the method of spawn production
in the cultivation of edible mushrooms".
1994 \- Workshop on contributions of the Phytopathology to the Argentinean agricultural
production. Buenos Aires.
Blumenfeld, S.N. "Pathology of the cultivation of edible mushrooms".
1995 \- IV Patagonical Forest Meeting. San Martin de los Andes, Neuquen.
Blumenfeld, S.N. \& L. Pozo. "The RESANFOR \- NEUQUEN Project:: forest diseases
survey".
1996 \- VIII Latin American Congress. VI National Congress of Horticulture, Montevideo,
Uruguay.
Blumenfeld, S.N. \& H. Rubi. "The LIHLCOM project: a system of technological transfer of
the production of edible mushrooms in the Republica Argentina", p. 174\.
1998 \- First Canadian Argentinean Symposium and First Argentinean Congress of Forest
Protection, Buenos Aires, 13 at April 15\.
Blumenfeld, S.N. "Sustainable use of the forest edible mushrooms", p. 32
Blumenfeld, S.N. "The RESANFOR\-NEUQUEN project, evaluation of the damage for
diseases", p. 47\.
Blumenfeld, S.N. \& H. Rubi. "The edible mycorrhizae in pine plantations: their role as
biological control agents", p. 53
Blumenfeld, S.N., H. Rubi \& C. Coscaron Arias. "The LIHLCOM project: a system of
technological transfer for the production of edible mushrooms", p. 33\.
1998 \- International Congress of Plant Protection, Edinburgh, U.K.
Blumenfeld, S.N. Ecology of diseases in forest nurseries in Neuquen, Argentina
1999 \- III Latinamerican Mycological Congress. Caracas, Venezuela.
Blumenfeld, S.N., A. Romero \& N. Barnes. "First citation of Tuber magnatum Pico for
Argentina", p. 124
2000\. I Latinamerican Symposium on mushroom production, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico.
Blumenfeld, S.N. y C. L. Coscaron Arias. "Germplasm collections and genetic resources on
edible mushrooms", p. 17
2000 \- 15th International Congress on the Science and Cultivation of Edible Mushrooms.
Maastricht, Netherlands.
Blumenfeld, S.N. \& H. Rubi. "Technological optimization for edible wood\- rotting fungi
production", p. 943\.
### Symposia lectures
1991 \- XXIII Argentinean Botanical Congress, San Carlos of Bariloche. Session on
Computer Sciences applied to the botanical research.
1993\. IVI Argentinean Congress of Mycology.
Blumenfeld, S.N. Biodeterioration of wood for industrial use, Symposium on materials
biodeterioration.
Blumenfeld, S.N. Degradation of lignocellulosic wastes: their application to the substrate
formulation for the cultivation of edible mushrooms, Symposium on Physiology of
mushrooms: Enzymes
1995 \- 61st. Annual Meeting of the Canadian Phytopathological Society, Toronto, Canada.
Blumenfeld, S.N., H.E. Giganti \& G. Dapoto. Forest Protection at Argentina: the
RESANFOR\-NEUQUEN project.
1996 \- II Latin American Congress of Mycology, Havana, Cuba.
Blumenfeld, S.N. \& H. Rubi. Cultivation of edible mushrooms on agroindustrial wastes in
the Republica Argentina, p. 8\.
1997 \- Workshop on Sustainable Development, Global Change and Environmental Impact.
Organised by the Dept. of Geography of the UNC and the Organising Committee of the
PROFOR, First Argentinean\-Canadian Symposium of Forest Protection.
Blumenfeld, S.N. sustainable Use of forest by\-products: the edible and medicinal
mushrooms.
1997 \- The Human Dimensions Global of Climate Change and Sustainable Forest
Management in the America: An Inter\-American Conference. Brasília, Brazil.
Blumenfeld, S.N., Sustainable cropping of edible mycorrhizae at Neuquen, Argentina
1999 \- III Latin American Congress of Mycology, Caracas, Venezuela, August 31 on 3 September.
Blumenfeld, S.N. \& H. Rubi. "The sustainable cultivation of edible and medicinal
mushrooms in Argentina".p. 47
1996 \- First Patagonical Meeting of educators in the Chemistry and others
Natural Sciences, Neuquen.
Blumenfeld, S.N. The medicinal, toxic and hallucinogens mushrooms.
1997\. "XIX Provincial Fair of Sciences and Technology".
Blumenfeld, S.N. The medicinal, toxic and hallucinogen mushrooms.{{cite news \|title\=Magic mushrooms \|url\=http://psilocybinlounge.com}}
1999 \- III Latinamerican Congress of Mycology, Caracas, Venezuela.
Blumenfeld, S.N. \& H. Rubi. "Sustainable production of edible and medicinal mushrooms in
Argentina". p. 47
2000 \- I Latinamerican Symposium on mushroom production, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico.
Blumenfeld, S.N. y H. Rubi. "Production of edible mushrooms in Argentina, an alternative to
the productive reconversion and economical development", p. 32\.
As Chairman of Session:
1996 \- II Latin American Congress of Mycology, Havana, Cuba.
Symposium on cultivation of edible mushrooms in Latin America.
1998 \- First Canadian Argentinean Symposium and First Argentinean Congress of Forest
Protection, Buenos Aires. Symposium of Forest Mycology and Forest Pathology.
1999 \- III Latin American Congress of Mycology, Caracas, Venezuela.
Symposium on Technological aspects of the cultivation of edible mushrooms in Latin
America.
2004 – XVIII Latin American Congress of Microbiology. Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Blumenfeld, S.N.. Strategies for the conservation of endangered culture collections.
{{Botanist\|Blumenf.\|Blumenfeld}}
|
[
"Publications\n------------",
"### Articles",
"BLUMENFELD,S.N. \\& J.E. WRIGHT, 1984\\. \"Two new pileate species of Junghuhnia\n(Polyporaceae).\" Mycotaxon 19 (1\\): 471–478\\.",
"WRIGHT, J.E. \\& S.N. BLUMENFELD, 1984\\. \"New South American species Phellinus\n(Hymenochaetaceae).\" Mycotaxon 21(4\\):423–425\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1984\\. \"Studies on the degradation of pine wood blocks by\nAphyllophorales.\" Material und Organismen 19 (4\\): 253 \\- 262\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1986\\. \"Estudio ecologico de los Basidiomycetes xilofilos en\nplantaciones de Pinus elliottii y Pinus taeda de Argentina.\" Bol. Soc. Arg. Bot. 24 (3\\-4\\):\n261\\-281\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1986\\. \"Los hongos lignívoros de la región patagónica: estado actual\nde su conocimiento.\" Actas I Jornadas Forestales Patagónicas: 238–244\\. Siringa (Ed.),\nNeuquén.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1986\\. \"Interacciones en cultivo entre Naematoloma fasciculare (Huds. Fr.) Karst. (Agaricales, Strophariaceae) y varias especies de hongos xilófilos.\" Physis (Buenos Aires), C,44 (107\\): 97–102\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N. \\& B.C. DOBRA, 1986\\. \"Athelia epiphylla Pers. (Aphyllophorales,\nCorticiaceae), agente causal del ojo de pescado en peras.\" Actas VI Jornadas\nFitosanitarias Argentinas, Fitopatología: 335–343\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., L.A. GALLO \\& H.A. MATTES, 1988\\. \"Selección de clones de Alamo\nresistantes a la degradación fúngica.\" Actas V Jornadas Forestales Argentinas :532–543\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1992\\. \"Macromycetes (Aphyllophorales) asociados a los álamos. Estudio ecológico para el Alto Valle de Río Negro y Neuquén.\" Bol. Soc. Arg. Bot. 28 (1\\-2\\):101–110\\.",
"WRIGHT, J.E., J.R. DESCHAMPS \\& S.N. BLUMENFELD, 1993\\. \"Basidiomycetes xilófilos\nde la región mesopotámica. IV. Especies poroides de la familia Hymenochaetaceae Donk.\"\nRev. Invest. Agrop. INTA, XXII (2\\): 132–167\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., H.A. MATTES \\& P. BUCKI, 1993\\. \"Fusarium lateritium Nees, agente\ncausal de una cancrosis en Alamos del Valle Medio del Río Negro.\" Actas VI Jornadas\nFitosanitarias Argentinas:115–122\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1993\\. \"Resistance of poplar clones to xylophagous fungi.\" Material\nund Organismen: 28 (4\\): 262–269\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N. \\&H. RUBI. 1994 \"Cultivo de hongos comestibles sobre residuos de\nmaderas.\" Bol. Soc. Arg. Bot. 30 (2\\): 23–34",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N. \\& C.L. COSCARON. 1995\\. \"Hongos lignívoros en bosques de lenga\n\\[Nothofagus pumilio (Poep. et Endl.) Krasser] de la provincial de Neuquén, Argentina.\"\nBosque (Chile) 16 (2\\): 84–96",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N. \\& J.A. SAIZ DE OMEÑACA. 1996\\. \"Micorrización de plántulas de\npino carrasco (Pinus halepensis) obtenidos por propagación vegetativa. Investigación\nAgraria.\" Recursos forestales 5 (2\\): 181–195\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1996\\. \"Cultivo de Lentinus edodes Berk, sobre aserrín de álamo\nsuplementado.\" Bol. Soc. Arg. Bot. 32 (1\\): 55–61\\.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., 1997\\. \"Cepario LIHLCOM de la Universidad Nacional del Comahue.\"\nEn:CABBIO (Eds.), Catálogo Nacional de Cepas de Microorganismos, PROIMI \\- FCEN \\-\nUBA, Tucumán, p. 92–96",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1998\\. \"El proyecto RESANFOR\\-NEUQUÉN, evaluación de danos\nproducidos por las enfermedades de origen fúngico.\" Actas del Primer Simposio Argentinocanadiense\ny Primer Congreso Argentino de Protección Forestal (PROFOR): 1–10\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N. \\& H. RUBI, 1998\\. \"Micorrizas comestibles en plantaciones de\nconíferas de Río Negro y Neuquén.\" Actas del Primer Simposio Argentino\\-canadiense y\nPrimer Congreso de Protección Forestal (PROFOR): 51–59\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1998\\. \"Argentine patent on new method of mushroom cultivation on wood\nwastes.\" Patente de invención No. 251\\.648 del Instituto Nacional de la Propiedad Industrial,\nINPI, Buenos Aires, Argentina.\n<https://web.archive.org/web/20101122145434/http://conicet.gov.ar/VINCULACION/acciones/listado_convenios_de_patentes.php>",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., \\& H. RUBI, 2000\\. \"Estudio comparativo de cepas americanas y\neuropeas de hongos comestibles.\" Rev. Ibero\\-Americana de Micología 17 :129–136\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N. \\& H. RUBI, 2001\\. \"Cultivo de Pleurotus spp. sobre residuos\nlignocelulosicos.\" Rev. Ibero\\-Americana de Micología 18:92–98\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 2001\\. \"Crecimiento y productividad de cuatro cepas de Pleurotus\nostreatus (Fr.) Kumm. sobre differentes sustratos.\" Rev. Bosque (Chile) 22(2\\): 135–141\\.",
"ROMERO, A. \\& BLUMENFELD, S.N., 2001\\. \"Tuber rufus Pico, first citation for Argentina.\"\nThe Mycologist: 15(4\\):173–175\\.",
"FLOCCARI, M., LEVIS, S., SFREDDO, E., MARTOS, G., LUCERO, N., LEARDINI, N.,\nCABRAL, D. \\& S. BLUMENFELD. 2004\\. \"Creation of a Culture Collection Federation for\nLatin America and the Caribbean.\" WFCC Newsletter 38:45\\.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., Tzahavi, T. \\& Reuveni, M., 2007\\. \"Fungi associated with esca wood decay\nof grapevines in Israel.\" Proceedings of II International Congress of Food Science and\nTechnology, Cordoba, Argentina : 315–327\\.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., 2007\\. \"Toxic mushrooms in Israel.\" Proceedings of II International\nCongress of Food Science and Technology, Cordoba, Argentina : 328–339\\.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., Tzahavi, T. \\& Reuveni, M., 2008\\. \"Cultural studies on Fomitiporia punctata,\nassociated with esca wood decay of grapevines in Israel.\" Mycological Res. (in press).",
"**Publications of books or chapters of books**",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., 1991\\. *Producción de hongos comestibles.* Cuaderno de Investigación\nNo. 1\\. Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, 24 pp.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., 1992\\. *Curso de capacitación en el cultivo de hongos comestibles.*\nFacultad de Cs. Agrarias, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, FORAT Impresos, Cinco\nSaltos, 80 pp., (ISBN 950 \\- 43 \\- 5107 \\- 7\\).",
"Deschamps, J., J. Wright, S. Blumenfeld, D. Cozzo, H. Lauria, H. Peredo and J. Vizcarra\nSanchez, 1997\\. *Patología Forestal del cono sur de América (Forest pathology of the South Cone of America)*, vol. I, Mycorrhizae. Orientación Gráfica Editora, Bs. As., 237 p.,(ISBN\n987 \\- 99791 \\- 3\\-3\\)",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., 1998\\. *Cultivo de hongos comestibles sobre residuos agroindustriales.*\nImprenta Islas Malvinas, Facultad de Cs. Agrarias, Universidad Nacional del Comahue\nNeuquén, 112 pp.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., 2002\\. *Cultivo de hongos comestibles sobre residuos agroindustriales* (2ª\ned.). Imprenta Islas Malvinas, Facultad de Cs. Agrarias, Universidad Nacional del\nComahue Neuquén, 122 pp.",
"Deschamps, J., J. Wright, S. Blumenfeld, D. Cozzo, H. Lauria, H. Peredo and J. Vizcarra\nSanchez, 2007\\. *Patología Forestal del cono sur de América (Forest pathology of the South Cone of America)*, vol. II, Forest Pathology of Poplars. Orientación Gráfica Editora, Bs.\nAs., 322 p.,( {{ISBN\\|978\\-987\\-99791\\-3\\-6}} volume 1\\)",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., 2008\\. *Growing edible and medicinal wood\\-rotting fungi*. Digital Printer,\nBeer Sheva, Israel, 215p.",
"### Attendance at Congresses and Symposia",
"1983 \\- XIX Jornadas Argentinas de Botánica, Santa Fe.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N. \"Xylophylous Basidiomycetes in implanted Woods of Pinus taeda and Pinus\nelliottii\", p. 10\\.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N. \"Contribution to the study of the fungal Argentinean flora: species growing on\nPinus elliottii and Pinus taeda\", p. 11",
"1986 \\- VI Jornadas Fitosanitarias Argentinas, Neuquén.\nBlumenfeld, S.N. \\& A. Dobra. \"Athelia epiphylla Pers.(Aphyllophorales, Corticiaceae),\nethiological agent of 'fish eye rot' on pears\", p. 335",
"1987 \\- First Symposium on Nothofagus, Villa La Angostura, Neuquén.\nBlumenfeld, S.N. \"Dynamics of fungal degradation on 'lenga' woods\", p. 2",
"1987 \\- First Joint Meeting of the Mycological Society of America and the Canadian\nPhytopathological Society, Ottawa, Canada.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N. \"Basidiomycetes that decay Nothofagus pumilio forests: dynamics of\nfungal degradation of wood\", p. 111",
"1991 \\- XII International Plant Protection Congress, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.\nBlumenfeld, S.N. \\& P. Bucki. \"Poplar diseases in southern Argentina\".",
"1991 \\- II Latin American Symposium on genetic resources of horticultural species. XVI\nArgentinean Congress of Horticulture, Mar del Plata, Argentina\nBlumenfeld, S.N. \\& G. E. Rodriguez. \"Production of edible mushrooms on agroindustrial\nwastes\", p. 40",
"1991 \\- XXIII Argentinean Botanical Congress, San Carlos de Bariloche, Argentina.\nBlumenfeld, S.N. \"Growth and productivity of four strains of Pleurotus ostreatus on different\ncomposts\", p. 46",
"Bucki, P., M.B. Antola \\& S.N. Blumenfeld. Micropropagation of poplar clones, p. 170\\.\nBlumenfeld, S.N. \\& A. Bartusch. \"Computer science applied to the investigation in forest\npathology\", p. 290",
"1991 \\- II National Congress of Phytopathology, Valdivia, Chile.\nBlumenfeld, S.N. \\& P. Bucki. \"Selection of resistant poplars to fungal pathogens\", p. 10\nBlumenfeld, S. N. \\& H. Rubi. \"Bioconversion of agroindustrial wastes by wood\\-degrading\nmushrooms\", p. 11",
"Antola, M.B., Bucki, P. \\& S.N. Blumenfeld. \"Micropropagation of resistant poplars to fungal\npathogens: preliminary studies\", p. 12",
"1992 \\- ETNOBOTANICA 92, Cordoba, Spain.\nBlumenfeld, S.N. \\& H. Rubi. \"A comparative study of the productivity of European and\nAmerican strains of edible mushrooms\", p. 299",
"1992 \\- XXV Congreso Brasileiro de Fitopatologia, Gramado, Brazil.\nBucki, P., M.B.Antola \\& S.N. Blumenfeld. \"Micropropagation of resistant forest trees to\nfungal diseases\". Fitopatol. Bras. 17 (2\\): 158\\.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N. \"The phytopathological frequent problems in the cultivation of edible\nmushrooms on agroindustrial wastes\". Fitopatol. Bras. 17 (2\\): 171\\.",
"1993 \\- 6th International Congress of Plant Pathology, Montreal, Canada.\nBlumenfeld, S.N. \"Studies of Araucaria declines in the Caviahue Park, Argentina\",\np. 98\\.\n1993 \\- VI Argentinean Congress of Mycology . Buenos Aires.\nRubi,H. \\& S.N. Blumenfeld. \"Substrate formulation for the cultivation of edible mushrooms\",\np. 1135\\.",
"1994 \\- 5th International Congress of Mycology. Vancouver, Canada\nBlumenfeld,S.N. \\& H. Rubí. \"Bioconversion of wood wastes by white rot edible fungi\".",
"1994 \\- Latin American Congress of Botany. Mar del Plata.\nBlumenfeld,S.N., M.B. Antola and H. Rubí. \"Influences of the method of spawn production\nin the cultivation of edible mushrooms\".",
"1994 \\- Workshop on contributions of the Phytopathology to the Argentinean agricultural\nproduction. Buenos Aires.\nBlumenfeld, S.N. \"Pathology of the cultivation of edible mushrooms\".",
"1995 \\- IV Patagonical Forest Meeting. San Martin de los Andes, Neuquen.\nBlumenfeld, S.N. \\& L. Pozo. \"The RESANFOR \\- NEUQUEN Project:: forest diseases\nsurvey\".",
"1996 \\- VIII Latin American Congress. VI National Congress of Horticulture, Montevideo,\nUruguay.\nBlumenfeld, S.N. \\& H. Rubi. \"The LIHLCOM project: a system of technological transfer of\nthe production of edible mushrooms in the Republica Argentina\", p. 174\\.",
"1998 \\- First Canadian Argentinean Symposium and First Argentinean Congress of Forest\nProtection, Buenos Aires, 13 at April 15\\.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N. \"Sustainable use of the forest edible mushrooms\", p. 32",
"Blumenfeld, S.N. \"The RESANFOR\\-NEUQUEN project, evaluation of the damage for\ndiseases\", p. 47\\.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N. \\& H. Rubi. \"The edible mycorrhizae in pine plantations: their role as\nbiological control agents\", p. 53",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., H. Rubi \\& C. Coscaron Arias. \"The LIHLCOM project: a system of\ntechnological transfer for the production of edible mushrooms\", p. 33\\.",
"1998 \\- International Congress of Plant Protection, Edinburgh, U.K.\nBlumenfeld, S.N. Ecology of diseases in forest nurseries in Neuquen, Argentina",
"1999 \\- III Latinamerican Mycological Congress. Caracas, Venezuela.\nBlumenfeld, S.N., A. Romero \\& N. Barnes. \"First citation of Tuber magnatum Pico for\nArgentina\", p. 124",
"2000\\. I Latinamerican Symposium on mushroom production, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico.\nBlumenfeld, S.N. y C. L. Coscaron Arias. \"Germplasm collections and genetic resources on\nedible mushrooms\", p. 17",
"2000 \\- 15th International Congress on the Science and Cultivation of Edible Mushrooms.\nMaastricht, Netherlands.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N. \\& H. Rubi. \"Technological optimization for edible wood\\- rotting fungi\nproduction\", p. 943\\.",
"### Symposia lectures",
"1991 \\- XXIII Argentinean Botanical Congress, San Carlos of Bariloche. Session on\nComputer Sciences applied to the botanical research.",
"1993\\. IVI Argentinean Congress of Mycology.\nBlumenfeld, S.N. Biodeterioration of wood for industrial use, Symposium on materials\nbiodeterioration.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N. Degradation of lignocellulosic wastes: their application to the substrate\nformulation for the cultivation of edible mushrooms, Symposium on Physiology of\nmushrooms: Enzymes",
"1995 \\- 61st. Annual Meeting of the Canadian Phytopathological Society, Toronto, Canada.\nBlumenfeld, S.N., H.E. Giganti \\& G. Dapoto. Forest Protection at Argentina: the\nRESANFOR\\-NEUQUEN project.",
"1996 \\- II Latin American Congress of Mycology, Havana, Cuba.\nBlumenfeld, S.N. \\& H. Rubi. Cultivation of edible mushrooms on agroindustrial wastes in\nthe Republica Argentina, p. 8\\.",
"1997 \\- Workshop on Sustainable Development, Global Change and Environmental Impact.\nOrganised by the Dept. of Geography of the UNC and the Organising Committee of the\nPROFOR, First Argentinean\\-Canadian Symposium of Forest Protection.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N. sustainable Use of forest by\\-products: the edible and medicinal\nmushrooms.",
"1997 \\- The Human Dimensions Global of Climate Change and Sustainable Forest\nManagement in the America: An Inter\\-American Conference. Brasília, Brazil.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., Sustainable cropping of edible mycorrhizae at Neuquen, Argentina",
"1999 \\- III Latin American Congress of Mycology, Caracas, Venezuela, August 31 on 3 September.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N. \\& H. Rubi. \"The sustainable cultivation of edible and medicinal\nmushrooms in Argentina\".p. 47",
"1996 \\- First Patagonical Meeting of educators in the Chemistry and others\nNatural Sciences, Neuquen.\nBlumenfeld, S.N. The medicinal, toxic and hallucinogens mushrooms.",
"1997\\. \"XIX Provincial Fair of Sciences and Technology\".\nBlumenfeld, S.N. The medicinal, toxic and hallucinogen mushrooms.{{cite news \\|title\\=Magic mushrooms \\|url\\=http://psilocybinlounge.com}}",
"1999 \\- III Latinamerican Congress of Mycology, Caracas, Venezuela.\nBlumenfeld, S.N. \\& H. Rubi. \"Sustainable production of edible and medicinal mushrooms in\nArgentina\". p. 47",
"2000 \\- I Latinamerican Symposium on mushroom production, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico.\nBlumenfeld, S.N. y H. Rubi. \"Production of edible mushrooms in Argentina, an alternative to\nthe productive reconversion and economical development\", p. 32\\.\nAs Chairman of Session:",
"1996 \\- II Latin American Congress of Mycology, Havana, Cuba.\nSymposium on cultivation of edible mushrooms in Latin America.",
"1998 \\- First Canadian Argentinean Symposium and First Argentinean Congress of Forest\nProtection, Buenos Aires. Symposium of Forest Mycology and Forest Pathology.",
"1999 \\- III Latin American Congress of Mycology, Caracas, Venezuela.\nSymposium on Technological aspects of the cultivation of edible mushrooms in Latin\nAmerica.",
"2004 – XVIII Latin American Congress of Microbiology. Buenos Aires, Argentina.\nBlumenfeld, S.N.. Strategies for the conservation of endangered culture collections.",
"{{Botanist\\|Blumenf.\\|Blumenfeld}}",
""
] |
### Articles
BLUMENFELD,S.N. \& J.E. WRIGHT, 1984\. "Two new pileate species of Junghuhnia
(Polyporaceae)." Mycotaxon 19 (1\): 471–478\.
WRIGHT, J.E. \& S.N. BLUMENFELD, 1984\. "New South American species Phellinus
(Hymenochaetaceae)." Mycotaxon 21(4\):423–425\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1984\. "Studies on the degradation of pine wood blocks by
Aphyllophorales." Material und Organismen 19 (4\): 253 \- 262\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1986\. "Estudio ecologico de los Basidiomycetes xilofilos en
plantaciones de Pinus elliottii y Pinus taeda de Argentina." Bol. Soc. Arg. Bot. 24 (3\-4\):
261\-281\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1986\. "Los hongos lignívoros de la región patagónica: estado actual
de su conocimiento." Actas I Jornadas Forestales Patagónicas: 238–244\. Siringa (Ed.),
Neuquén.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1986\. "Interacciones en cultivo entre Naematoloma fasciculare (Huds. Fr.) Karst. (Agaricales, Strophariaceae) y varias especies de hongos xilófilos." Physis (Buenos Aires), C,44 (107\): 97–102\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N. \& B.C. DOBRA, 1986\. "Athelia epiphylla Pers. (Aphyllophorales,
Corticiaceae), agente causal del ojo de pescado en peras." Actas VI Jornadas
Fitosanitarias Argentinas, Fitopatología: 335–343\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., L.A. GALLO \& H.A. MATTES, 1988\. "Selección de clones de Alamo
resistantes a la degradación fúngica." Actas V Jornadas Forestales Argentinas :532–543\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1992\. "Macromycetes (Aphyllophorales) asociados a los álamos. Estudio ecológico para el Alto Valle de Río Negro y Neuquén." Bol. Soc. Arg. Bot. 28 (1\-2\):101–110\.
WRIGHT, J.E., J.R. DESCHAMPS \& S.N. BLUMENFELD, 1993\. "Basidiomycetes xilófilos
de la región mesopotámica. IV. Especies poroides de la familia Hymenochaetaceae Donk."
Rev. Invest. Agrop. INTA, XXII (2\): 132–167\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., H.A. MATTES \& P. BUCKI, 1993\. "Fusarium lateritium Nees, agente
causal de una cancrosis en Alamos del Valle Medio del Río Negro." Actas VI Jornadas
Fitosanitarias Argentinas:115–122\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1993\. "Resistance of poplar clones to xylophagous fungi." Material
und Organismen: 28 (4\): 262–269\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N. \&H. RUBI. 1994 "Cultivo de hongos comestibles sobre residuos de
maderas." Bol. Soc. Arg. Bot. 30 (2\): 23–34
BLUMENFELD, S.N. \& C.L. COSCARON. 1995\. "Hongos lignívoros en bosques de lenga
\[Nothofagus pumilio (Poep. et Endl.) Krasser] de la provincial de Neuquén, Argentina."
Bosque (Chile) 16 (2\): 84–96
BLUMENFELD, S.N. \& J.A. SAIZ DE OMEÑACA. 1996\. "Micorrización de plántulas de
pino carrasco (Pinus halepensis) obtenidos por propagación vegetativa. Investigación
Agraria." Recursos forestales 5 (2\): 181–195\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1996\. "Cultivo de Lentinus edodes Berk, sobre aserrín de álamo
suplementado." Bol. Soc. Arg. Bot. 32 (1\): 55–61\.
Blumenfeld, S.N., 1997\. "Cepario LIHLCOM de la Universidad Nacional del Comahue."
En:CABBIO (Eds.), Catálogo Nacional de Cepas de Microorganismos, PROIMI \- FCEN \-
UBA, Tucumán, p. 92–96
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1998\. "El proyecto RESANFOR\-NEUQUÉN, evaluación de danos
producidos por las enfermedades de origen fúngico." Actas del Primer Simposio Argentinocanadiense
y Primer Congreso Argentino de Protección Forestal (PROFOR): 1–10\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N. \& H. RUBI, 1998\. "Micorrizas comestibles en plantaciones de
coníferas de Río Negro y Neuquén." Actas del Primer Simposio Argentino\-canadiense y
Primer Congreso de Protección Forestal (PROFOR): 51–59\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1998\. "Argentine patent on new method of mushroom cultivation on wood
wastes." Patente de invención No. 251\.648 del Instituto Nacional de la Propiedad Industrial,
INPI, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
<https://web.archive.org/web/20101122145434/http://conicet.gov.ar/VINCULACION/acciones/listado_convenios_de_patentes.php>
BLUMENFELD, S.N., \& H. RUBI, 2000\. "Estudio comparativo de cepas americanas y
europeas de hongos comestibles." Rev. Ibero\-Americana de Micología 17 :129–136\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N. \& H. RUBI, 2001\. "Cultivo de Pleurotus spp. sobre residuos
lignocelulosicos." Rev. Ibero\-Americana de Micología 18:92–98\.
BLUMENFELD, S.N., 2001\. "Crecimiento y productividad de cuatro cepas de Pleurotus
ostreatus (Fr.) Kumm. sobre differentes sustratos." Rev. Bosque (Chile) 22(2\): 135–141\.
ROMERO, A. \& BLUMENFELD, S.N., 2001\. "Tuber rufus Pico, first citation for Argentina."
The Mycologist: 15(4\):173–175\.
FLOCCARI, M., LEVIS, S., SFREDDO, E., MARTOS, G., LUCERO, N., LEARDINI, N.,
CABRAL, D. \& S. BLUMENFELD. 2004\. "Creation of a Culture Collection Federation for
Latin America and the Caribbean." WFCC Newsletter 38:45\.
Blumenfeld, S.N., Tzahavi, T. \& Reuveni, M., 2007\. "Fungi associated with esca wood decay
of grapevines in Israel." Proceedings of II International Congress of Food Science and
Technology, Cordoba, Argentina : 315–327\.
Blumenfeld, S.N., 2007\. "Toxic mushrooms in Israel." Proceedings of II International
Congress of Food Science and Technology, Cordoba, Argentina : 328–339\.
Blumenfeld, S.N., Tzahavi, T. \& Reuveni, M., 2008\. "Cultural studies on Fomitiporia punctata,
associated with esca wood decay of grapevines in Israel." Mycological Res. (in press).
**Publications of books or chapters of books**
Blumenfeld, S.N., 1991\. *Producción de hongos comestibles.* Cuaderno de Investigación
No. 1\. Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, 24 pp.
Blumenfeld, S.N., 1992\. *Curso de capacitación en el cultivo de hongos comestibles.*
Facultad de Cs. Agrarias, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, FORAT Impresos, Cinco
Saltos, 80 pp., (ISBN 950 \- 43 \- 5107 \- 7\).
Deschamps, J., J. Wright, S. Blumenfeld, D. Cozzo, H. Lauria, H. Peredo and J. Vizcarra
Sanchez, 1997\. *Patología Forestal del cono sur de América (Forest pathology of the South Cone of America)*, vol. I, Mycorrhizae. Orientación Gráfica Editora, Bs. As., 237 p.,(ISBN
987 \- 99791 \- 3\-3\)
Blumenfeld, S.N., 1998\. *Cultivo de hongos comestibles sobre residuos agroindustriales.*
Imprenta Islas Malvinas, Facultad de Cs. Agrarias, Universidad Nacional del Comahue
Neuquén, 112 pp.
Blumenfeld, S.N., 2002\. *Cultivo de hongos comestibles sobre residuos agroindustriales* (2ª
ed.). Imprenta Islas Malvinas, Facultad de Cs. Agrarias, Universidad Nacional del
Comahue Neuquén, 122 pp.
Deschamps, J., J. Wright, S. Blumenfeld, D. Cozzo, H. Lauria, H. Peredo and J. Vizcarra
Sanchez, 2007\. *Patología Forestal del cono sur de América (Forest pathology of the South Cone of America)*, vol. II, Forest Pathology of Poplars. Orientación Gráfica Editora, Bs.
As., 322 p.,( {{ISBN\|978\-987\-99791\-3\-6}} volume 1\)
Blumenfeld, S.N., 2008\. *Growing edible and medicinal wood\-rotting fungi*. Digital Printer,
Beer Sheva, Israel, 215p.
|
[
"### Articles",
"BLUMENFELD,S.N. \\& J.E. WRIGHT, 1984\\. \"Two new pileate species of Junghuhnia\n(Polyporaceae).\" Mycotaxon 19 (1\\): 471–478\\.",
"WRIGHT, J.E. \\& S.N. BLUMENFELD, 1984\\. \"New South American species Phellinus\n(Hymenochaetaceae).\" Mycotaxon 21(4\\):423–425\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1984\\. \"Studies on the degradation of pine wood blocks by\nAphyllophorales.\" Material und Organismen 19 (4\\): 253 \\- 262\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1986\\. \"Estudio ecologico de los Basidiomycetes xilofilos en\nplantaciones de Pinus elliottii y Pinus taeda de Argentina.\" Bol. Soc. Arg. Bot. 24 (3\\-4\\):\n261\\-281\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1986\\. \"Los hongos lignívoros de la región patagónica: estado actual\nde su conocimiento.\" Actas I Jornadas Forestales Patagónicas: 238–244\\. Siringa (Ed.),\nNeuquén.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1986\\. \"Interacciones en cultivo entre Naematoloma fasciculare (Huds. Fr.) Karst. (Agaricales, Strophariaceae) y varias especies de hongos xilófilos.\" Physis (Buenos Aires), C,44 (107\\): 97–102\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N. \\& B.C. DOBRA, 1986\\. \"Athelia epiphylla Pers. (Aphyllophorales,\nCorticiaceae), agente causal del ojo de pescado en peras.\" Actas VI Jornadas\nFitosanitarias Argentinas, Fitopatología: 335–343\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., L.A. GALLO \\& H.A. MATTES, 1988\\. \"Selección de clones de Alamo\nresistantes a la degradación fúngica.\" Actas V Jornadas Forestales Argentinas :532–543\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1992\\. \"Macromycetes (Aphyllophorales) asociados a los álamos. Estudio ecológico para el Alto Valle de Río Negro y Neuquén.\" Bol. Soc. Arg. Bot. 28 (1\\-2\\):101–110\\.",
"WRIGHT, J.E., J.R. DESCHAMPS \\& S.N. BLUMENFELD, 1993\\. \"Basidiomycetes xilófilos\nde la región mesopotámica. IV. Especies poroides de la familia Hymenochaetaceae Donk.\"\nRev. Invest. Agrop. INTA, XXII (2\\): 132–167\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., H.A. MATTES \\& P. BUCKI, 1993\\. \"Fusarium lateritium Nees, agente\ncausal de una cancrosis en Alamos del Valle Medio del Río Negro.\" Actas VI Jornadas\nFitosanitarias Argentinas:115–122\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1993\\. \"Resistance of poplar clones to xylophagous fungi.\" Material\nund Organismen: 28 (4\\): 262–269\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N. \\&H. RUBI. 1994 \"Cultivo de hongos comestibles sobre residuos de\nmaderas.\" Bol. Soc. Arg. Bot. 30 (2\\): 23–34",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N. \\& C.L. COSCARON. 1995\\. \"Hongos lignívoros en bosques de lenga\n\\[Nothofagus pumilio (Poep. et Endl.) Krasser] de la provincial de Neuquén, Argentina.\"\nBosque (Chile) 16 (2\\): 84–96",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N. \\& J.A. SAIZ DE OMEÑACA. 1996\\. \"Micorrización de plántulas de\npino carrasco (Pinus halepensis) obtenidos por propagación vegetativa. Investigación\nAgraria.\" Recursos forestales 5 (2\\): 181–195\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1996\\. \"Cultivo de Lentinus edodes Berk, sobre aserrín de álamo\nsuplementado.\" Bol. Soc. Arg. Bot. 32 (1\\): 55–61\\.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., 1997\\. \"Cepario LIHLCOM de la Universidad Nacional del Comahue.\"\nEn:CABBIO (Eds.), Catálogo Nacional de Cepas de Microorganismos, PROIMI \\- FCEN \\-\nUBA, Tucumán, p. 92–96",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1998\\. \"El proyecto RESANFOR\\-NEUQUÉN, evaluación de danos\nproducidos por las enfermedades de origen fúngico.\" Actas del Primer Simposio Argentinocanadiense\ny Primer Congreso Argentino de Protección Forestal (PROFOR): 1–10\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N. \\& H. RUBI, 1998\\. \"Micorrizas comestibles en plantaciones de\nconíferas de Río Negro y Neuquén.\" Actas del Primer Simposio Argentino\\-canadiense y\nPrimer Congreso de Protección Forestal (PROFOR): 51–59\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 1998\\. \"Argentine patent on new method of mushroom cultivation on wood\nwastes.\" Patente de invención No. 251\\.648 del Instituto Nacional de la Propiedad Industrial,\nINPI, Buenos Aires, Argentina.\n<https://web.archive.org/web/20101122145434/http://conicet.gov.ar/VINCULACION/acciones/listado_convenios_de_patentes.php>",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., \\& H. RUBI, 2000\\. \"Estudio comparativo de cepas americanas y\neuropeas de hongos comestibles.\" Rev. Ibero\\-Americana de Micología 17 :129–136\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N. \\& H. RUBI, 2001\\. \"Cultivo de Pleurotus spp. sobre residuos\nlignocelulosicos.\" Rev. Ibero\\-Americana de Micología 18:92–98\\.",
"BLUMENFELD, S.N., 2001\\. \"Crecimiento y productividad de cuatro cepas de Pleurotus\nostreatus (Fr.) Kumm. sobre differentes sustratos.\" Rev. Bosque (Chile) 22(2\\): 135–141\\.",
"ROMERO, A. \\& BLUMENFELD, S.N., 2001\\. \"Tuber rufus Pico, first citation for Argentina.\"\nThe Mycologist: 15(4\\):173–175\\.",
"FLOCCARI, M., LEVIS, S., SFREDDO, E., MARTOS, G., LUCERO, N., LEARDINI, N.,\nCABRAL, D. \\& S. BLUMENFELD. 2004\\. \"Creation of a Culture Collection Federation for\nLatin America and the Caribbean.\" WFCC Newsletter 38:45\\.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., Tzahavi, T. \\& Reuveni, M., 2007\\. \"Fungi associated with esca wood decay\nof grapevines in Israel.\" Proceedings of II International Congress of Food Science and\nTechnology, Cordoba, Argentina : 315–327\\.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., 2007\\. \"Toxic mushrooms in Israel.\" Proceedings of II International\nCongress of Food Science and Technology, Cordoba, Argentina : 328–339\\.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., Tzahavi, T. \\& Reuveni, M., 2008\\. \"Cultural studies on Fomitiporia punctata,\nassociated with esca wood decay of grapevines in Israel.\" Mycological Res. (in press).",
"**Publications of books or chapters of books**",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., 1991\\. *Producción de hongos comestibles.* Cuaderno de Investigación\nNo. 1\\. Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, 24 pp.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., 1992\\. *Curso de capacitación en el cultivo de hongos comestibles.*\nFacultad de Cs. Agrarias, Universidad Nacional del Comahue, FORAT Impresos, Cinco\nSaltos, 80 pp., (ISBN 950 \\- 43 \\- 5107 \\- 7\\).",
"Deschamps, J., J. Wright, S. Blumenfeld, D. Cozzo, H. Lauria, H. Peredo and J. Vizcarra\nSanchez, 1997\\. *Patología Forestal del cono sur de América (Forest pathology of the South Cone of America)*, vol. I, Mycorrhizae. Orientación Gráfica Editora, Bs. As., 237 p.,(ISBN\n987 \\- 99791 \\- 3\\-3\\)",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., 1998\\. *Cultivo de hongos comestibles sobre residuos agroindustriales.*\nImprenta Islas Malvinas, Facultad de Cs. Agrarias, Universidad Nacional del Comahue\nNeuquén, 112 pp.",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., 2002\\. *Cultivo de hongos comestibles sobre residuos agroindustriales* (2ª\ned.). Imprenta Islas Malvinas, Facultad de Cs. Agrarias, Universidad Nacional del\nComahue Neuquén, 122 pp.",
"Deschamps, J., J. Wright, S. Blumenfeld, D. Cozzo, H. Lauria, H. Peredo and J. Vizcarra\nSanchez, 2007\\. *Patología Forestal del cono sur de América (Forest pathology of the South Cone of America)*, vol. II, Forest Pathology of Poplars. Orientación Gráfica Editora, Bs.\nAs., 322 p.,( {{ISBN\\|978\\-987\\-99791\\-3\\-6}} volume 1\\)",
"Blumenfeld, S.N., 2008\\. *Growing edible and medicinal wood\\-rotting fungi*. Digital Printer,\nBeer Sheva, Israel, 215p.",
""
] |
Reign
-----
### Accession
On 28 September 1730, [Patrona Halil](/wiki/Patrona_Halil "Patrona Halil") with a small group of fellow [Janissaries](/wiki/Janissary "Janissary") aroused some of the citizens of [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople "Constantinople") who opposed the reforms of [Ahmed III](/wiki/Ahmed_III "Ahmed III").Shaw, Stanford J. and Shaw, Ezel Kural (1976\) *History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, volume 1: Empire of the Gazis: the rise and decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1280\-1808* Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, p. 240, {{ISBN\|0\-521\-21280\-4}} Sweeping up more soldiers Halil led the riot to the [Topkapı Palace](/wiki/Topkap%C4%B1_Palace "Topkapı Palace") and demanded the death of the grand vizer, [Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha](/wiki/Nev%C5%9Fehirli_Damat_%C4%B0brahim_Pasha "Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha") and the abdication of Ahmed III. Ahmed III acceded to the demands, had İbrahim Pasha strangled, and agreed to his nephew, Mahmud, becoming sultan.
Mahmud's real reign began on 25 November 1730, after this incident. First of all, [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul "Istanbul") was taken under strict control. Measures were taken. About two thousand suspicious people were captured, some were executed, some were exiled. {{sfn\|Sakaoğlu\|2015\|p\=311}}
### Mahmud's rule
Mahmud I was recognized as sultan by the mutineers as well as by court officials but for some weeks after his accession the empire was in the hands of the insurgents. Halil rode with the new sultan to the [Mosque of Eyüb](/wiki/Ey%C3%BCp_Sultan_Mosque "Eyüp Sultan Mosque") where the ceremony of girding Mahmud I with the [Sword of Osman](/wiki/Sword_of_Osman "Sword of Osman") was performed; many of the chief officers were deposed and successors to them appointed at the dictation of the bold rebel who had served in the ranks of the Janissaries and who appeared before the sultan bare\-legged and in his old uniform of a common soldier. A Greek butcher, named Yanaki, had formerly given credit to Halil and had lent him money during the three days of the insurrection. Halil showed his gratitude by compelling the Divan to make Yanaki [Hospodar](/wiki/Hospodar "Hospodar") of Moldavia. However, Yanaki never took charge of this office.
The Khan of the Crimea assisted the [Grand Vizier](/wiki/Grand_Vizier "Grand Vizier"), the [Mufti](/wiki/Mufti "Mufti") and the [Aga](/wiki/Agha_%28Ottoman_Empire%29 "Agha (Ottoman Empire)") of the Janissaries in putting down the rebellion. On 24 November 1731, Halil was strangled by the sultan's order and in his presence, after a Divan in which Halil had dictated that war be declared against Russia. His Greek friend, Yanaki, and 7,000 of those who had supported him were also put to death.{{Citation needed\|date\=June 2009}} The jealousy which the officers of the Janissaries felt towards Halil, and their readiness to aid in his destruction, facilitated the exertions of Mahmud I's supporters in putting an end to the rebellion after it had lasted over a year.
The Austrian ambassador, who came to [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul "Istanbul") in August 1740, was given a [dinner](/wiki/Feast "Feast") in Davudpaşa. Çavuşbaşı took the ambassador and took him to his mansion prepared in Beyoğlu. On the day of the Ulufe Court, he presented his name to the Sultan. Various demonstrations were held in places where welcome and farewell ceremonies were held for the ambassador from Yeniköy Pier. {{sfn\|Sakaoğlu\|2015\|p\=316}}
The rest of Mahmud I's reign was dominated by wars in [Persia](/wiki/Persia "Persia"), with the [collapsing Safavid dynasty](/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Persian_War_%281730%E2%80%931735%29 "Ottoman–Persian War (1730–1735)") and the [ascendance of](/wiki/Ottoman-Persian_War_%281743-1746%29 "Ottoman-Persian War (1743-1746)") Nader Shah. Mahmud also faced a notable war in Europe—the [Austro\-Russian\-Turkish War (1735–1739\)](/wiki/Austro-Russian-Turkish_War_%281735%E2%80%931739%29 "Austro-Russian-Turkish War (1735–1739)").
After the condemnation of Freemasonry by [Pope Clement XII](/wiki/Pope_Clement_XII "Pope Clement XII") in 1738, he followed suit outlawing the organization and since that time Freemasonry was equated with [atheism](/wiki/Atheism "Atheism") in the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire "Ottoman Empire") and the broader Islamic world.Layiktez, Cecil "[Freemasonry in the Islamic World](http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/layiktez1.html)", Pietre\-Stones Review of Freemasonry, 1996
Mahmud I entrusted government to his [viziers](/wiki/Vizier "Vizier") and spent much of his time composing poetry.
### Fires of 1750
The fire that started at the Ayazma gate in January 1750 lasted for 19 hours. Numerous shops, houses, and mansions burned until the fire reached [Vefa](/wiki/Vefa "Vefa") district. The sultan dismissed Boynueğri Abdullah Pasha and appointed Divitdar Mehmed Emin Pasha on 9 January 1750\. In the second fire that broke out on 31 March 1750, Bitpazan, Abacılar, Yorgancılar, Yağlıkcılar, Haffaflar were completely burned. The fire spread to Fingerkapi and Tatlikuyu. The sultan, with the help of the [treasury](/wiki/Defterdar "Defterdar"), repaired the burned down areas.{{sfn\|Sakaoğlu\|2015\|p\=321}}
|
[
"Reign\n-----",
"### Accession",
"On 28 September 1730, [Patrona Halil](/wiki/Patrona_Halil \"Patrona Halil\") with a small group of fellow [Janissaries](/wiki/Janissary \"Janissary\") aroused some of the citizens of [Constantinople](/wiki/Constantinople \"Constantinople\") who opposed the reforms of [Ahmed III](/wiki/Ahmed_III \"Ahmed III\").Shaw, Stanford J. and Shaw, Ezel Kural (1976\\) *History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, volume 1: Empire of the Gazis: the rise and decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1280\\-1808* Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, p. 240, {{ISBN\\|0\\-521\\-21280\\-4}} Sweeping up more soldiers Halil led the riot to the [Topkapı Palace](/wiki/Topkap%C4%B1_Palace \"Topkapı Palace\") and demanded the death of the grand vizer, [Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha](/wiki/Nev%C5%9Fehirli_Damat_%C4%B0brahim_Pasha \"Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha\") and the abdication of Ahmed III. Ahmed III acceded to the demands, had İbrahim Pasha strangled, and agreed to his nephew, Mahmud, becoming sultan.",
"Mahmud's real reign began on 25 November 1730, after this incident. First of all, [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul \"Istanbul\") was taken under strict control. Measures were taken. About two thousand suspicious people were captured, some were executed, some were exiled. {{sfn\\|Sakaoğlu\\|2015\\|p\\=311}}",
"### Mahmud's rule",
"Mahmud I was recognized as sultan by the mutineers as well as by court officials but for some weeks after his accession the empire was in the hands of the insurgents. Halil rode with the new sultan to the [Mosque of Eyüb](/wiki/Ey%C3%BCp_Sultan_Mosque \"Eyüp Sultan Mosque\") where the ceremony of girding Mahmud I with the [Sword of Osman](/wiki/Sword_of_Osman \"Sword of Osman\") was performed; many of the chief officers were deposed and successors to them appointed at the dictation of the bold rebel who had served in the ranks of the Janissaries and who appeared before the sultan bare\\-legged and in his old uniform of a common soldier. A Greek butcher, named Yanaki, had formerly given credit to Halil and had lent him money during the three days of the insurrection. Halil showed his gratitude by compelling the Divan to make Yanaki [Hospodar](/wiki/Hospodar \"Hospodar\") of Moldavia. However, Yanaki never took charge of this office.",
"The Khan of the Crimea assisted the [Grand Vizier](/wiki/Grand_Vizier \"Grand Vizier\"), the [Mufti](/wiki/Mufti \"Mufti\") and the [Aga](/wiki/Agha_%28Ottoman_Empire%29 \"Agha (Ottoman Empire)\") of the Janissaries in putting down the rebellion. On 24 November 1731, Halil was strangled by the sultan's order and in his presence, after a Divan in which Halil had dictated that war be declared against Russia. His Greek friend, Yanaki, and 7,000 of those who had supported him were also put to death.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=June 2009}} The jealousy which the officers of the Janissaries felt towards Halil, and their readiness to aid in his destruction, facilitated the exertions of Mahmud I's supporters in putting an end to the rebellion after it had lasted over a year.",
"The Austrian ambassador, who came to [Istanbul](/wiki/Istanbul \"Istanbul\") in August 1740, was given a [dinner](/wiki/Feast \"Feast\") in Davudpaşa. Çavuşbaşı took the ambassador and took him to his mansion prepared in Beyoğlu. On the day of the Ulufe Court, he presented his name to the Sultan. Various demonstrations were held in places where welcome and farewell ceremonies were held for the ambassador from Yeniköy Pier. {{sfn\\|Sakaoğlu\\|2015\\|p\\=316}}",
"The rest of Mahmud I's reign was dominated by wars in [Persia](/wiki/Persia \"Persia\"), with the [collapsing Safavid dynasty](/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Persian_War_%281730%E2%80%931735%29 \"Ottoman–Persian War (1730–1735)\") and the [ascendance of](/wiki/Ottoman-Persian_War_%281743-1746%29 \"Ottoman-Persian War (1743-1746)\") Nader Shah. Mahmud also faced a notable war in Europe—the [Austro\\-Russian\\-Turkish War (1735–1739\\)](/wiki/Austro-Russian-Turkish_War_%281735%E2%80%931739%29 \"Austro-Russian-Turkish War (1735–1739)\").",
"After the condemnation of Freemasonry by [Pope Clement XII](/wiki/Pope_Clement_XII \"Pope Clement XII\") in 1738, he followed suit outlawing the organization and since that time Freemasonry was equated with [atheism](/wiki/Atheism \"Atheism\") in the [Ottoman Empire](/wiki/Ottoman_Empire \"Ottoman Empire\") and the broader Islamic world.Layiktez, Cecil \"[Freemasonry in the Islamic World](http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/layiktez1.html)\", Pietre\\-Stones Review of Freemasonry, 1996",
"Mahmud I entrusted government to his [viziers](/wiki/Vizier \"Vizier\") and spent much of his time composing poetry.",
"### Fires of 1750",
"The fire that started at the Ayazma gate in January 1750 lasted for 19 hours. Numerous shops, houses, and mansions burned until the fire reached [Vefa](/wiki/Vefa \"Vefa\") district. The sultan dismissed Boynueğri Abdullah Pasha and appointed Divitdar Mehmed Emin Pasha on 9 January 1750\\. In the second fire that broke out on 31 March 1750, Bitpazan, Abacılar, Yorgancılar, Yağlıkcılar, Haffaflar were completely burned. The fire spread to Fingerkapi and Tatlikuyu. The sultan, with the help of the [treasury](/wiki/Defterdar \"Defterdar\"), repaired the burned down areas.{{sfn\\|Sakaoğlu\\|2015\\|p\\=321}}",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early years
According to her obituary, Valentine was born in [St. Albans, Queens](/wiki/St._Albans%2C_Queens "St. Albans, Queens"), New York City.The Malibu Times, Obituary: Nancy Annette Valentine, 18 August 2017\. [http://www.malibutimes.com/obituaries/article\_294aaa66\-8387\-11e7\-a8c4\-03b9ce9ed49d.html](http://www.malibutimes.com/obituaries/article_294aaa66-8387-11e7-a8c4-03b9ce9ed49d.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822213619/http://www.malibutimes.com/obituaries/article\_294aaa66\-8387\-11e7\-a8c4\-03b9ce9ed49d.html \|date\=2017\-08\-22 }} (Retrieved 2017\-08\-27\.) She was the middle child of five for Richard and Bertha Valentine.1940 United States Federal Census for Nancy Valentine, New York \> Queens \> New York \> 41\-1129, retrieved from [Ancestry.com](/wiki/Ancestry.com "Ancestry.com") Her father had his own sign painting business in Queens.
Her mother said in 1952 that she was born at [Smithtown, New York](/wiki/Smithtown%2C_New_York "Smithtown, New York") and attended school in [East Rockaway, New York](/wiki/East_Rockaway%2C_New_York "East Rockaway, New York").{{cite news \|title\=Maharajah Deal Falls Through; Nancy's Looking for a Job Again \|work\=Star\-Tribune \|date\=March 2, 1952 \|location\=Minneapolis, Minnesota \|page\=13 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} Valentine herself told columnist [Earl Wilson](/wiki/Earl_Wilson_%28columnist%29 "Earl Wilson (columnist)") she was from Smithtown and had been raised as a [Baptist](/wiki/Baptist "Baptist").{{cite news \|last\=Wilson \|first\=Earl \|title\=She Got a Millionaire \|work\=Winston Salem Journal \|date\=November 4, 1951 \|location\=Winston\-Salem, North Carolina \|page\=39 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} Her mother said she was never interested in school; instead she had brief jobs working as a store stock clerk and as a nightclub cigarette and camera girl, before becoming a model.{{cite news \|last\=Burton \|first\=Ron \|title\=Meditation Blessed By Young Actress \|work\=The Cincinnati Enquirer \|date\=June 1, 1958 \|location\=Cincinnati, Ohio \|page\=105 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
### Modeling
Valentine started as a [Conover model](/wiki/Harry_Conover "Harry Conover") but didn't get many assignments until she switched to the [Powers agency](/wiki/John_Robert_Powers "John Robert Powers").{{cite news \|last\=Garrison \|first\=Omar \|title\=Starlet Nancy Valentine Bares Films' Mad Whirl \|work\=The Mirror \|date\=July 1, 1953 \|location\=Los Angeles, California \|pages\=5, 38 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} Powers corrected her attempt to look glamorous in favor of a natural appearance. She first came to public notice in June 1945 at age 17, in newspaper photos distributed through [International News Service](/wiki/International_News_Service "International News Service").{{cite news \|title\=She Swims, Too! \|work\=The Ithaca Journal \|date\=June 26, 1945 \|location\=Ithaca, New York \|page\=10 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}}{{cite news \|title\=Pistol Packin' Peach \|work\=The Brooklyn Citizen \|date\=October 2, 1945 \|location\=Brooklyn, New York \|page\=2 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}}{{cite news \|title\=In the 1946 Swim \|work\=The Journal News \|date\=October 19, 1945 \|location\=White Plains, New York \|page\=5 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} Her modeling career reached its height with the cover of *[Parade](/wiki/Parade_%28magazine%29 "Parade (magazine)")* in February 1946\.{{cite news \|title\=The Face on the Cover \|work\=Detroit Free Press \|date\=February 10, 1946 \|location\=Detroit, Michigan \|page\=66 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} She was reportedly earning $750 a week modeling in New York.{{cite news \|title\=Cover Girl Uncovers Something \|work\=Des Moines Register \|date\=June 22, 1947 \|location\=Des Moines, Iowa \|page\=41 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
Valentine had just turned eighteen when a candid photo appeared in newspapers, showing her in a New York nightclub with [Orson Welles](/wiki/Orson_Welles "Orson Welles"), who was then married to [Rita Hayworth](/wiki/Rita_Hayworth "Rita Hayworth").{{cite news \|title\=Valentine Day for Orson \|work\=Des Moines Tribune \|date\=January 30, 1946 \|location\=Des Moines, Iowa \|page\=14 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} [Earl Wilson](/wiki/Earl_Wilson_%28columnist%29 "Earl Wilson (columnist)") reported that Welles took Valentine to "[Toots Shor's](/wiki/Toots_Shor%27s "Toots Shor's"), the [Stork Club](/wiki/Stork_Club "Stork Club") and even to his radio program",{{cite news \|last\=Wilson \|first\=Earl \|title\=It Happened Last Night \|work\=The Daily Mail \|date\=February 13, 1946 \|location\=Anderson, South Carolina \|page\=10 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} while [Dorothy Kilgallen](/wiki/Dorothy_Kilgallen "Dorothy Kilgallen") had her going back and forth between Welles and [Macoco](/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_%C3%81lzaga_%28racing_driver%29 "Martín de Álzaga (racing driver)") at [El Morocco](/wiki/El_Morocco "El Morocco").{{cite news \|last\=Kilgallen \|first\=Dorothy \|title\=Voice of Broadway \|work\=The Bangor Daily News \|date\=February 16, 1946 \|location\=Bangor, Maine \|page\=8 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} [Howard Hughes](/wiki/Howard_Hughes "Howard Hughes") dated her, and later paid for Valentine to travel to Hollywood for a movie tryout.{{cite news \|last\=Winchell \|first\=Walter \|title\=Walter Winchell \|work\=The Cincinnati Enquirer \|date\=February 28, 1946 \|location\=Cincinnati, Ohio \|page\=6 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}}{{cite news \|last\=Wilson \|first\=Earl \|title\=It Happened Last Night \|work\=The Daily Mail \|date\=February 28, 1946 \|location\=Anderson, South Carolina \|page\=12 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}}{{cite news \|last\=Kilgallen \|first\=Dorothy \|title\=On Broadway \|work\=Pittsburgh Post Gazette \|date\=April 17, 1946 \|location\=Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania \|page\=24 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
After arriving in Hollywood with her older sister Betty, Valentine never heard from Hughes again.{{cite news \|last\=Garrison \|first\=Omar \|title\=Maharajah Courtship\-\-\- Love Comes to Starlet \|work\=The Mirror \|date\=July 2, 1953 \|location\=Los Angeles, California \|pages\=5, 24 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} Valentine was signed to a personal contract by [Mervyn LeRoy](/wiki/Mervyn_LeRoy "Mervyn LeRoy") in May 1946\.{{cite news \|last\=Parsons \|first\=Louella \|title\=Hollywood \|work\=The Philadelphia Inquirer \|date\=May 10, 1946 \|location\=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania \|page\=29 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} He advised her to turn down a contract offer from Lou Schrieber at 20th Century Fox, a decision she soon regretted. Instead, LeRoy sold her contract to [David O. Selznick](/wiki/David_O._Selznick "David O. Selznick") at [Vanguard Films](/wiki/Vanguard_Films "Vanguard Films").
### Early film career
At Vanguard Films she started at $150 a week while taking acting classes. She continued doing highly\-paid modeling jobs, but the money now went to the studio, not her. She received a new contract from Vanguard Films in July 1947,{{cite news \|title\=Court Booking \|work\=Los Angeles Evening Citizen\-News \|date\=July 29, 1947 \|location\=Hollywood, California \|page\=17 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} but [Erskine Johnson](/wiki/Erskine_Johnson "Erskine Johnson") reported in April 1948 that "She just checked out of an acting contract at Selznick's".{{cite news \|last\=Johnson \|first\=Erskine \|title\=Erskine Johnson \|work\=Los Angeles Daily News \|date\=April 7, 1948 \|location\=Los Angeles, California \|page\=33 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} Despite two years at Vanguard she had yet to appear in a film. Within a month of leaving, she landed a bit part in Warner's *[The Girl from Jones Beach](/wiki/The_Girl_from_Jones_Beach "The Girl from Jones Beach")*.{{cite news \|last\=Schallert \|first\=Edwin \|title\=Drama and Film \|work\=Los Angeles Times \|date\=June 19, 1948 \|location\=Los Angeles, California \|page\=9 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} Her next part came in October 1948 with a Columbia film, *[The Crime Doctor's Diary](/wiki/The_Crime_Doctor%27s_Diary "The Crime Doctor's Diary")*.{{cite news \|title\='Crime Doctor' \|work\=The Pittsburgh Press \|date\=September 30, 1948 \|location\=Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania \|page\=28 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} She then appeared in a succession of uncredited bit parts for various studios, culminating in three MGM films: *[Father of the Bride](/wiki/Father_of_the_Bride_%281950_film%29 "Father of the Bride (1950 film)")*, *[Father's Little Dividend](/wiki/Father%27s_Little_Dividend "Father's Little Dividend")*, and *[Million Dollar Mermaid](/wiki/Million_Dollar_Mermaid "Million Dollar Mermaid")*. Her first screen credit came in 1952 with Universal's *[The Black Castle](/wiki/The_Black_Castle "The Black Castle")*.{{cite news \|author\=L.E.R. \|title\='Raiders' and 'Black Castle' Make Up Colorful Twin Bill \|work\=Los Angeles Evening Citizen\-News \|date\=November 21, 1952 \|location\=Hollywood, California \|page\=21 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} This was followed by *[Small Town Girl](/wiki/Small_Town_Girl_%281953_film%29 "Small Town Girl (1953 film)")*,{{cite news \|last\=Johnson \|first\=Erskine \|title\=Beauty gives up film career for religion \|work\=Daily News \|date\=May 6, 1953 \|location\=Los Angeles, California \|page\=13 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} her last film for six years.
### Maharaja romance
From late September 1947 she was linked in newspapers with [Jagaddipendra Narayan](/wiki/Jagaddipendra_Narayan "Jagaddipendra Narayan"), Maharaja of [Cooch\-Behar](/wiki/Cooch-Behar "Cooch-Behar"), in India.{{cite news \|last\=Carroll \|first\=Harrison \|title\=Behind the Scenes in Hollywood \|work\=The Wilkes Barre Record \|date\=September 24, 1947 \|location\=Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania \|page\=23 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}}{{cite news \|last\=Knickerbocker \|first\=Cholly \|title\=Strange Destiny \|work\=The San Francisco Examiner \|date\=October 11, 1947 \|location\=San Francisco, California \|page\=12 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}}{{cite news \|last\=Knickerbocker \|first\=Cholly \|title\=Nancy Valentine Has Maharajah on String \|work\=The San Francisco Examiner \|date\=October 26, 1947 \|location\=San Francisco, California \|page\=45 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} Narayan's mother, the Dowager Maharanee, suggested he should come home to India as the political situation was [volatile](/wiki/Partition_of_India "Partition of India"),{{cite news \|last\=Knickerbocher \|first\=Cholly \|title\=Cholly Knickerbocher Observes: \|work\=Pittsburg Sun\-Telegraph \|date\=October 29, 1947 \|location\=Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania \|page\=12 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} while a public relations representative tried to convince newspaper readers that Narayan's mission in America was industrial research.{{cite news \|last\=Knickerbocher \|first\=Cholly \|title\='You Can't Blame Everything on Joe' \|work\=The Miami Herald \|date\=November 7, 1947 \|location\=Miami, Florida \|page\=42 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} A photo of Narayan and Valentine at the El Morocco nightclub in New York made the papers shortly before he had to leave the states.{{cite news \|last\=Norris \|first\=H. C. \|title\=Gallivanting Maharajah \|work\=The Philadelphia Inquirer \|date\=December 14, 1947 \|location\=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania \|page\=147 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
Five months later Valentine announced her engagement to Howard Darrin Jr,{{cite news \|title\=Actress to Marry \|work\=Albuquerque Journal \|date\=May 8, 1948 \|location\=Albuquerque, New Mexico \|page\=7 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} but broke it off within a few weeks.{{cite news \|last\=Carroll \|first\=Harrison \|title\=Behind the Scenes in Hollywood \|work\=The Daily Clintonian \|date\=May 27, 1948 \|location\=Clinton, Indiana \|page\=2 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} She next announced her engagement to Omar Dejany, an Arab diplomat and businessman,{{cite news \|last\=Hopper \|first\=Hedda \|title\=Nancy Valentine to Be Bride of Abdullah Aide \|work\=Los Angeles Times \|date\=November 10, 1948 \|location\=Los Angeles, California \|page\=39 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} to which Mrs. Lilli Dejany objected while her husband declined comment.{{cite news \|title\=Has an Objection \|work\=Star\-Gazette \|date\=November 19, 1948 \|location\=Elmira, New York \|page\=14 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
[Sheilah Graham](/wiki/Sheilah_Graham "Sheilah Graham") reported in early January 1949 on Valentine's forthcoming trip to India to see Narayan.{{cite news \|last\=Graham \|first\=Sheilah \|title\=Errol and Nora Reconcile Again \|work\=Los Angeles Evening Citizen\-News \|date\=January 4, 1949 \|location\=Hollywood, California \|page\=14 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} By April 1949 Valentine was back in New York City, making the rounds of night spots.{{cite news \|last\=Sullivan \|first\=Ed \|title\=Little Old New York \|work\=Daily News \|date\=April 4, 1949 \|location\=New York, New York \|page\=12 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} She again visited Narayan, arriving in India on November 16, 1951,{{cite news \|title\=Nancy Reveals India Slow To Accept Her \|work\=The Evening Sun \|date\=January 1, 1952 \|location\=Baltimore, Maryland \|page\=4 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} after telling columnists they had been secretly married in Cooch Behar in 1949 "by two traveling priests". Arriving in Britain from India on January 1, 1952, she was pictured in the London papers, which described her as wearing a platinum and diamond wedding ring.{{cite news \|title\=Call Me Narayan, Says Nancy \|work\=London Evening Standard \|date\=January 1, 1952 \|location\=London, England \|page\=12 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
Though the government of India didn't approve of the marriage, Valentine was convinced she was married. However, while Valentine was sailing to New York, American newspapers reported the Indian government was now refusing to recognize the marriage.{{cite news \|last\=Parsons \|first\=Louella \|title\=Pinza Returning April 1 for Hollywood Film \|work\=The San Francisco Examiner \|date\=January 5, 1952 \|location\=San Francisco, California \|page\=12 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} The *[Star Tribune](/wiki/Star_Tribune "Star Tribune")* reported in March 1952 that "sources in India" said the ceremony she underwent in 1949 was a "betrothal ritual" not a wedding, and that Valentine herself was now uncertain as to her marital status. The widespread coverage of her situation in newspapers continued throughout the year. She received her first featured film role and screen credit with the November release of *[The Black Castle](/wiki/The_Black_Castle "The Black Castle")*, while columnist [Mike Connolly](/wiki/Mike_Connolly_%28columnist%29 "Mike Connolly (columnist)") reported she had signed an endorsement deal with the Puritan Dress Company in December.{{cite news \|last\=Connolly \|first\=Mike \|title\=Hollywood Report \|work\=Pasadena Independent \|date\=December 16, 1952 \|location\=Pasadena, California \|page\=27 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} The latter led to a lawsuit in April 1953 as Valentine claimed she wasn't receiving the money promised by Puritan for their "Nancy Valentine Original" line.{{cite news \|title\=Whats in a Name? 50Gs, Maybe \|work\=Daily News \|date\=April 26, 1953 \|location\=New York, New York \|page\=3 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
### Hiatus
Valentine announced during May 1953 she was leaving acting to enter the [Self\-Realization Fellowship](/wiki/Self-Realization_Fellowship "Self-Realization Fellowship") convent in Los Angeles, following what she later described as a "nervous breakdown". While in the convent she gave an extensive interview to *[Los Angeles Mirror](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times%23Competition_and_rivalries "Los Angeles Times#Competition and rivalries")* that ran in four installments from June 30, 1953, through July 3, 1953\.{{cite news \|last\=Garrison \|first\=Omar \|title\=Nancy Valentine Tells Why She Shuns World \|work\=The Mirror \|date\=June 30, 1953 \|location\=Los Angeles, California \|pages\=5, 14 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}}{{cite news \|last\=Garrison \|first\=Omar \|title\=Tears, Good\-Bys Fill East\-West Romance \|work\=The Mirror \|date\=July 3, 1953 \|location\=Los Angeles, California \|page\=12 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} She recounted details of her modeling, encounters with celebrities and the film industry, and her trips to India. In the last installment, she revealed the public hounding by columnists and photographers over her romance with Naranyan, and that she had become pregnant by him, but had lost the baby.
Valentine remained at Self\-Realization Fellowship for several years as a novitiate. She left before taking final vows, but credited meditation with restoring her mental equilibrium.
Valentine married Frederick Tillinghast III during July 1956, after obtaining an annulment of her marriage to Naranyan.{{cite news \|title\=Actress Married In Yoga Rites \|work\=Oakland Tribune \|date\=August 1, 1956 \|location\=Oakland, California \|page\=33 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} They had a daughter who was six months old when Valentine filed for divorce on November 5, 1957, charging mental cruelty.{{cite news \|title\=Actress Wed in Yoga Rites Asks Divorce \|work\=Los Angeles Times \|date\=November 6, 1957 \|location\=Los Angeles, California \|page\=5 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} She asked only for $100 monthly child support and $1 token alimony, which was granted on January 29, 1958, in Santa Monica Superior Court.{{cite news \|title\=Nancy Valentine's 1956 Yoga Marriage Ended \|work\=Los Angeles Times \|date\=January 30, 1958 \|location\=Los Angeles, California \|page\=5 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} Following her divorce Valentine began working on a memoir, originally titled *Broken Valentine*,{{cite news \|last\=Connolly \|first\=Mike \|title\=Hinton and Hayes \|work\=The Desert Sun \|date\=February 28, 1958 \|location\=Palm Springs, California \|page\=4 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} later *Fame, Fortune and Folly*. Several years later she threatened to sue Tillinghast over $3000 in unpaid child support.{{cite news \|last\=Carroll \|first\=Harrison \|title\=Behind the Scenes in Hollywood \|work\=The Index\-Journal \|date\=May 8, 1961 \|location\=Greenwood, South Carolina \|page\=8 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
### Television and later films
Valentine's first television work came in 1952 with an episode of *[Racket Squad](/wiki/Racket_Squad "Racket Squad")*, followed by *[Mr. \& Mrs. North](/wiki/Mr._%26_Mrs._North "Mr. & Mrs. North")* the following year. Her performing work ceased while in the convent, but resumed in 1956 with a supporting role in the anthology series *[Fireside Theatre](/wiki/Fireside_Theatre "Fireside Theatre")*.{{cite news \|last\=Ames \|first\=Walter \|title\=Nancy Valentine Out of Seclusion \|work\=Los Angeles Times \|date\=February 15, 1956 \|location\=Los Angeles, California \|page\= \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} Following her divorce, her television work picked up with episodes of *[Love That Jill](/wiki/Love_That_Jill "Love That Jill")* and *[Matinee Theatre](/wiki/Matinee_Theatre "Matinee Theatre")*{{cite news \|last\=Jones \|first\=John N. \|title\=TV Digest \|work\=Alton Evening Telegraph \|date\=March 1, 1958 \|location\=Alton, Illinois \|page\=13 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} and as the first guest on [George Fisher](/wiki/George_Fisher_%28journalist%29 "George Fisher (journalist)")'s local talk show.{{cite news \|title\=Television Programs \|work\=Los Angeles Evening Citizen\-News \|date\=March 17, 1958 \|location\=Hollywood, California \|page\=29 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} She then took over as occasional co\-host for [Tom Duggan](/wiki/Tom_Duggan "Tom Duggan")'s nightly live talk show on [KCOP\-TV](/wiki/KCOP-TV "KCOP-TV") starting in April 1958\.{{cite news \|last\=Tashman \|first\=George \|title\=Clickin' the Channels \|work\=The Independent \|date\=April 16, 1958 \|location\=Richmond, California \|page\=12 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
After doing two episodes of *[Dragnet](/wiki/Dragnet_%281951_TV_series%29 "Dragnet (1951 TV series)")*, producer [Jack Webb](/wiki/Jack_Webb "Jack Webb") gave Valentine her largest film role with *[\-30\-](/wiki/-30-_%28film%29 "-30- (film)")*. One columnist expressed surprise at her performance,{{cite news \|last\=Parsons \|first\=Louella \|title\=Keeping Up with Hollywood \|work\=The Cumberland News \|date\=October 19, 1959 \|location\=Cumberland, Maryland \|page\=10 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} while critic Philip K. Scheuer thought her not convincing as either society girl or would\-be reporter.{{cite news \|last\=Scheuer \|first\=Philip K. \|title\=Webb's Camera Finds Drama in City Room \|work\=Los Angeles Times \|date\=October 25, 1959 \|location\=Los Angeles, California \|pages\=97, 98 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} She had a much better received role in *[Tess of the Storm Country](/wiki/Tess_of_the_Storm_Country_%281960_film%29 "Tess of the Storm Country (1960 film)")* the following year,{{cite news \|title\=Two Color Films Of Famed Novels At Rialto \|work\=Valley Morning Star \|date\=March 26, 1961 \|location\=Harlingen, Texas \|page\=17 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} and played uncredited bits in *[Portrait of a Mobster](/wiki/Portrait_of_a_Mobster "Portrait of a Mobster")* and *[Too Late Blues](/wiki/Too_Late_Blues "Too Late Blues")* during 1961\.{{cite news \|title\=From Title To TV \|work\=Longview Daily News \|date\=March 11, 1961 \|location\=Longview, Washington \|page\=21 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}}{{cite news \|last\=Connolly \|first\=Mike \|title\=Chambers Gets Part In 'Too Late Blues' \|work\=The Daily Times \|date\=May 4, 1961 \|location\=Davenport, Iowa \|page\=48 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
From 1959 through 1961 Valentine was active on television, playing guest star and supporting roles on episodes of series such as *[Tales of Wells Fargo](/wiki/Tales_of_Wells_Fargo "Tales of Wells Fargo")*,{{cite news \|title\=Rehearsal Break (photo caption) \|work\=The Indianapolis Times \|date\=April 11, 1959 \|location\=Indianapolis, Indiana \|page\=9 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} *[The Texan](/wiki/The_Texan_%28TV_series%29 "The Texan (TV series)")*,{{cite news \|title\=Desparado Tries To Gun Down The Texan \|work\=The Modesto Bee \|date\=June 7, 1959 \|location\=Modesto, California \|page\=42 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} *[Man with a Camera](/wiki/Man_with_a_Camera "Man with a Camera")*,{{cite news \|title\=Monday Evening TV \|work\=Detroit Free Press \|date\=January 10, 1960 \|location\=Detroit, Michigan \|page\=79 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} *[77 Sunset Strip](/wiki/77_Sunset_Strip "77 Sunset Strip")*,{{cite news \|title\=Television \|work\=Daily Home News \|date\=February 26, 1960 \|location\=New Brunswick, New Jersey \|page\=19 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} *[Lawman](/wiki/Lawman_%28TV_series%29 "Lawman (TV series)")*,{{cite news \|title\=Marshal Dan Troop (photo caption) \|work\=The Miami News \|date\=May 29, 1960 \|location\=Miami, Florida \|page\=66 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} *[The Real McCoys](/wiki/The_Real_McCoys "The Real McCoys")*,{{cite news \|title\=October 6 Program Listings Thursday \|work\=Sunday News \|date\=October 2, 1960 \|location\=Lancaster, Pennsylvania \|page\=81 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} *[Hawaiian Eye](/wiki/Hawaiian_Eye "Hawaiian Eye")*,{{cite news \|title\=Wednesday, March 22 \|work\=Los Angeles Times \|date\=March 19, 1961 \|location\=Los Angeles, California \|page\=497 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} *[Thriller](/wiki/Thriller_%28American_TV_series%29 "Thriller (American TV series)")*,{{cite news \|title\=Tuesday April 11 \|work\=Los Angeles Times \|date\=April 9, 1961 \|location\=Los Angeles, California \|page\=686 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} and *[Surfside 6](/wiki/Surfside_6 "Surfside 6")*.{{cite news \|title\=Monday, February 19 \|work\=The Philadelphia Inquirer \|date\=February 18, 1962 \|location\=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania \|page\=191 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}}
### Later life
Valentine married actor\-director Everett Chambers in October 1961, at the Self\-Realization Fellowship Center in Santa Barbara, California.{{cite news \|last\=Parsons \|first\=Louella \|title\=Ava to Produce 'The Jackels' \|work\=The San Francisco Examiner \|date\=October 9, 1961 \|location\=San Francisco, California \|page\=37 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} Columnist [Sidney Skolsky](/wiki/Sidney_Skolsky "Sidney Skolsky") said the couple met on the set of *[Too Late Blues](/wiki/Too_Late_Blues "Too Late Blues")*.{{cite news \|last\=Skolsky \|first\=Sidney \|title\=Trevor Howard May Return for 'Bounty' \|work\=Los Angeles Evening Citizen\-News \|date\=September 25, 1961 \|location\=Hollywood, California \|page\=13 \|via \= \[\[Newspapers.com]]}} They had a daughter before divorcing in 1975\. Valentine died at her home in [Malibu, California](/wiki/Malibu%2C_California "Malibu, California") on July 31, 2017\.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early years",
"According to her obituary, Valentine was born in [St. Albans, Queens](/wiki/St._Albans%2C_Queens \"St. Albans, Queens\"), New York City.The Malibu Times, Obituary: Nancy Annette Valentine, 18 August 2017\\. [http://www.malibutimes.com/obituaries/article\\_294aaa66\\-8387\\-11e7\\-a8c4\\-03b9ce9ed49d.html](http://www.malibutimes.com/obituaries/article_294aaa66-8387-11e7-a8c4-03b9ce9ed49d.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822213619/http://www.malibutimes.com/obituaries/article\\_294aaa66\\-8387\\-11e7\\-a8c4\\-03b9ce9ed49d.html \\|date\\=2017\\-08\\-22 }} (Retrieved 2017\\-08\\-27\\.) She was the middle child of five for Richard and Bertha Valentine.1940 United States Federal Census for Nancy Valentine, New York \\> Queens \\> New York \\> 41\\-1129, retrieved from [Ancestry.com](/wiki/Ancestry.com \"Ancestry.com\") Her father had his own sign painting business in Queens.",
"Her mother said in 1952 that she was born at [Smithtown, New York](/wiki/Smithtown%2C_New_York \"Smithtown, New York\") and attended school in [East Rockaway, New York](/wiki/East_Rockaway%2C_New_York \"East Rockaway, New York\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Maharajah Deal Falls Through; Nancy's Looking for a Job Again \\|work\\=Star\\-Tribune \\|date\\=March 2, 1952 \\|location\\=Minneapolis, Minnesota \\|page\\=13 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} Valentine herself told columnist [Earl Wilson](/wiki/Earl_Wilson_%28columnist%29 \"Earl Wilson (columnist)\") she was from Smithtown and had been raised as a [Baptist](/wiki/Baptist \"Baptist\").{{cite news \\|last\\=Wilson \\|first\\=Earl \\|title\\=She Got a Millionaire \\|work\\=Winston Salem Journal \\|date\\=November 4, 1951 \\|location\\=Winston\\-Salem, North Carolina \\|page\\=39 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} Her mother said she was never interested in school; instead she had brief jobs working as a store stock clerk and as a nightclub cigarette and camera girl, before becoming a model.{{cite news \\|last\\=Burton \\|first\\=Ron \\|title\\=Meditation Blessed By Young Actress \\|work\\=The Cincinnati Enquirer \\|date\\=June 1, 1958 \\|location\\=Cincinnati, Ohio \\|page\\=105 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}",
"### Modeling",
"Valentine started as a [Conover model](/wiki/Harry_Conover \"Harry Conover\") but didn't get many assignments until she switched to the [Powers agency](/wiki/John_Robert_Powers \"John Robert Powers\").{{cite news \\|last\\=Garrison \\|first\\=Omar \\|title\\=Starlet Nancy Valentine Bares Films' Mad Whirl \\|work\\=The Mirror \\|date\\=July 1, 1953 \\|location\\=Los Angeles, California \\|pages\\=5, 38 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} Powers corrected her attempt to look glamorous in favor of a natural appearance. She first came to public notice in June 1945 at age 17, in newspaper photos distributed through [International News Service](/wiki/International_News_Service \"International News Service\").{{cite news \\|title\\=She Swims, Too! \\|work\\=The Ithaca Journal \\|date\\=June 26, 1945 \\|location\\=Ithaca, New York \\|page\\=10 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}{{cite news \\|title\\=Pistol Packin' Peach \\|work\\=The Brooklyn Citizen \\|date\\=October 2, 1945 \\|location\\=Brooklyn, New York \\|page\\=2 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}{{cite news \\|title\\=In the 1946 Swim \\|work\\=The Journal News \\|date\\=October 19, 1945 \\|location\\=White Plains, New York \\|page\\=5 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} Her modeling career reached its height with the cover of *[Parade](/wiki/Parade_%28magazine%29 \"Parade (magazine)\")* in February 1946\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=The Face on the Cover \\|work\\=Detroit Free Press \\|date\\=February 10, 1946 \\|location\\=Detroit, Michigan \\|page\\=66 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} She was reportedly earning $750 a week modeling in New York.{{cite news \\|title\\=Cover Girl Uncovers Something \\|work\\=Des Moines Register \\|date\\=June 22, 1947 \\|location\\=Des Moines, Iowa \\|page\\=41 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}",
"Valentine had just turned eighteen when a candid photo appeared in newspapers, showing her in a New York nightclub with [Orson Welles](/wiki/Orson_Welles \"Orson Welles\"), who was then married to [Rita Hayworth](/wiki/Rita_Hayworth \"Rita Hayworth\").{{cite news \\|title\\=Valentine Day for Orson \\|work\\=Des Moines Tribune \\|date\\=January 30, 1946 \\|location\\=Des Moines, Iowa \\|page\\=14 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} [Earl Wilson](/wiki/Earl_Wilson_%28columnist%29 \"Earl Wilson (columnist)\") reported that Welles took Valentine to \"[Toots Shor's](/wiki/Toots_Shor%27s \"Toots Shor's\"), the [Stork Club](/wiki/Stork_Club \"Stork Club\") and even to his radio program\",{{cite news \\|last\\=Wilson \\|first\\=Earl \\|title\\=It Happened Last Night \\|work\\=The Daily Mail \\|date\\=February 13, 1946 \\|location\\=Anderson, South Carolina \\|page\\=10 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} while [Dorothy Kilgallen](/wiki/Dorothy_Kilgallen \"Dorothy Kilgallen\") had her going back and forth between Welles and [Macoco](/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_%C3%81lzaga_%28racing_driver%29 \"Martín de Álzaga (racing driver)\") at [El Morocco](/wiki/El_Morocco \"El Morocco\").{{cite news \\|last\\=Kilgallen \\|first\\=Dorothy \\|title\\=Voice of Broadway \\|work\\=The Bangor Daily News \\|date\\=February 16, 1946 \\|location\\=Bangor, Maine \\|page\\=8 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} [Howard Hughes](/wiki/Howard_Hughes \"Howard Hughes\") dated her, and later paid for Valentine to travel to Hollywood for a movie tryout.{{cite news \\|last\\=Winchell \\|first\\=Walter \\|title\\=Walter Winchell \\|work\\=The Cincinnati Enquirer \\|date\\=February 28, 1946 \\|location\\=Cincinnati, Ohio \\|page\\=6 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}{{cite news \\|last\\=Wilson \\|first\\=Earl \\|title\\=It Happened Last Night \\|work\\=The Daily Mail \\|date\\=February 28, 1946 \\|location\\=Anderson, South Carolina \\|page\\=12 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}{{cite news \\|last\\=Kilgallen \\|first\\=Dorothy \\|title\\=On Broadway \\|work\\=Pittsburgh Post Gazette \\|date\\=April 17, 1946 \\|location\\=Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania \\|page\\=24 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}",
"After arriving in Hollywood with her older sister Betty, Valentine never heard from Hughes again.{{cite news \\|last\\=Garrison \\|first\\=Omar \\|title\\=Maharajah Courtship\\-\\-\\- Love Comes to Starlet \\|work\\=The Mirror \\|date\\=July 2, 1953 \\|location\\=Los Angeles, California \\|pages\\=5, 24 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} Valentine was signed to a personal contract by [Mervyn LeRoy](/wiki/Mervyn_LeRoy \"Mervyn LeRoy\") in May 1946\\.{{cite news \\|last\\=Parsons \\|first\\=Louella \\|title\\=Hollywood \\|work\\=The Philadelphia Inquirer \\|date\\=May 10, 1946 \\|location\\=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania \\|page\\=29 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} He advised her to turn down a contract offer from Lou Schrieber at 20th Century Fox, a decision she soon regretted. Instead, LeRoy sold her contract to [David O. Selznick](/wiki/David_O._Selznick \"David O. Selznick\") at [Vanguard Films](/wiki/Vanguard_Films \"Vanguard Films\").",
"### Early film career",
"At Vanguard Films she started at $150 a week while taking acting classes. She continued doing highly\\-paid modeling jobs, but the money now went to the studio, not her. She received a new contract from Vanguard Films in July 1947,{{cite news \\|title\\=Court Booking \\|work\\=Los Angeles Evening Citizen\\-News \\|date\\=July 29, 1947 \\|location\\=Hollywood, California \\|page\\=17 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} but [Erskine Johnson](/wiki/Erskine_Johnson \"Erskine Johnson\") reported in April 1948 that \"She just checked out of an acting contract at Selznick's\".{{cite news \\|last\\=Johnson \\|first\\=Erskine \\|title\\=Erskine Johnson \\|work\\=Los Angeles Daily News \\|date\\=April 7, 1948 \\|location\\=Los Angeles, California \\|page\\=33 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} Despite two years at Vanguard she had yet to appear in a film. Within a month of leaving, she landed a bit part in Warner's *[The Girl from Jones Beach](/wiki/The_Girl_from_Jones_Beach \"The Girl from Jones Beach\")*.{{cite news \\|last\\=Schallert \\|first\\=Edwin \\|title\\=Drama and Film \\|work\\=Los Angeles Times \\|date\\=June 19, 1948 \\|location\\=Los Angeles, California \\|page\\=9 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} Her next part came in October 1948 with a Columbia film, *[The Crime Doctor's Diary](/wiki/The_Crime_Doctor%27s_Diary \"The Crime Doctor's Diary\")*.{{cite news \\|title\\='Crime Doctor' \\|work\\=The Pittsburgh Press \\|date\\=September 30, 1948 \\|location\\=Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania \\|page\\=28 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} She then appeared in a succession of uncredited bit parts for various studios, culminating in three MGM films: *[Father of the Bride](/wiki/Father_of_the_Bride_%281950_film%29 \"Father of the Bride (1950 film)\")*, *[Father's Little Dividend](/wiki/Father%27s_Little_Dividend \"Father's Little Dividend\")*, and *[Million Dollar Mermaid](/wiki/Million_Dollar_Mermaid \"Million Dollar Mermaid\")*. Her first screen credit came in 1952 with Universal's *[The Black Castle](/wiki/The_Black_Castle \"The Black Castle\")*.{{cite news \\|author\\=L.E.R. \\|title\\='Raiders' and 'Black Castle' Make Up Colorful Twin Bill \\|work\\=Los Angeles Evening Citizen\\-News \\|date\\=November 21, 1952 \\|location\\=Hollywood, California \\|page\\=21 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} This was followed by *[Small Town Girl](/wiki/Small_Town_Girl_%281953_film%29 \"Small Town Girl (1953 film)\")*,{{cite news \\|last\\=Johnson \\|first\\=Erskine \\|title\\=Beauty gives up film career for religion \\|work\\=Daily News \\|date\\=May 6, 1953 \\|location\\=Los Angeles, California \\|page\\=13 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} her last film for six years.",
"### Maharaja romance",
"From late September 1947 she was linked in newspapers with [Jagaddipendra Narayan](/wiki/Jagaddipendra_Narayan \"Jagaddipendra Narayan\"), Maharaja of [Cooch\\-Behar](/wiki/Cooch-Behar \"Cooch-Behar\"), in India.{{cite news \\|last\\=Carroll \\|first\\=Harrison \\|title\\=Behind the Scenes in Hollywood \\|work\\=The Wilkes Barre Record \\|date\\=September 24, 1947 \\|location\\=Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania \\|page\\=23 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}{{cite news \\|last\\=Knickerbocker \\|first\\=Cholly \\|title\\=Strange Destiny \\|work\\=The San Francisco Examiner \\|date\\=October 11, 1947 \\|location\\=San Francisco, California \\|page\\=12 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}{{cite news \\|last\\=Knickerbocker \\|first\\=Cholly \\|title\\=Nancy Valentine Has Maharajah on String \\|work\\=The San Francisco Examiner \\|date\\=October 26, 1947 \\|location\\=San Francisco, California \\|page\\=45 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} Narayan's mother, the Dowager Maharanee, suggested he should come home to India as the political situation was [volatile](/wiki/Partition_of_India \"Partition of India\"),{{cite news \\|last\\=Knickerbocher \\|first\\=Cholly \\|title\\=Cholly Knickerbocher Observes: \\|work\\=Pittsburg Sun\\-Telegraph \\|date\\=October 29, 1947 \\|location\\=Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania \\|page\\=12 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} while a public relations representative tried to convince newspaper readers that Narayan's mission in America was industrial research.{{cite news \\|last\\=Knickerbocher \\|first\\=Cholly \\|title\\='You Can't Blame Everything on Joe' \\|work\\=The Miami Herald \\|date\\=November 7, 1947 \\|location\\=Miami, Florida \\|page\\=42 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} A photo of Narayan and Valentine at the El Morocco nightclub in New York made the papers shortly before he had to leave the states.{{cite news \\|last\\=Norris \\|first\\=H. C. \\|title\\=Gallivanting Maharajah \\|work\\=The Philadelphia Inquirer \\|date\\=December 14, 1947 \\|location\\=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania \\|page\\=147 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}",
"Five months later Valentine announced her engagement to Howard Darrin Jr,{{cite news \\|title\\=Actress to Marry \\|work\\=Albuquerque Journal \\|date\\=May 8, 1948 \\|location\\=Albuquerque, New Mexico \\|page\\=7 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} but broke it off within a few weeks.{{cite news \\|last\\=Carroll \\|first\\=Harrison \\|title\\=Behind the Scenes in Hollywood \\|work\\=The Daily Clintonian \\|date\\=May 27, 1948 \\|location\\=Clinton, Indiana \\|page\\=2 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} She next announced her engagement to Omar Dejany, an Arab diplomat and businessman,{{cite news \\|last\\=Hopper \\|first\\=Hedda \\|title\\=Nancy Valentine to Be Bride of Abdullah Aide \\|work\\=Los Angeles Times \\|date\\=November 10, 1948 \\|location\\=Los Angeles, California \\|page\\=39 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} to which Mrs. Lilli Dejany objected while her husband declined comment.{{cite news \\|title\\=Has an Objection \\|work\\=Star\\-Gazette \\|date\\=November 19, 1948 \\|location\\=Elmira, New York \\|page\\=14 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}",
"[Sheilah Graham](/wiki/Sheilah_Graham \"Sheilah Graham\") reported in early January 1949 on Valentine's forthcoming trip to India to see Narayan.{{cite news \\|last\\=Graham \\|first\\=Sheilah \\|title\\=Errol and Nora Reconcile Again \\|work\\=Los Angeles Evening Citizen\\-News \\|date\\=January 4, 1949 \\|location\\=Hollywood, California \\|page\\=14 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} By April 1949 Valentine was back in New York City, making the rounds of night spots.{{cite news \\|last\\=Sullivan \\|first\\=Ed \\|title\\=Little Old New York \\|work\\=Daily News \\|date\\=April 4, 1949 \\|location\\=New York, New York \\|page\\=12 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} She again visited Narayan, arriving in India on November 16, 1951,{{cite news \\|title\\=Nancy Reveals India Slow To Accept Her \\|work\\=The Evening Sun \\|date\\=January 1, 1952 \\|location\\=Baltimore, Maryland \\|page\\=4 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} after telling columnists they had been secretly married in Cooch Behar in 1949 \"by two traveling priests\". Arriving in Britain from India on January 1, 1952, she was pictured in the London papers, which described her as wearing a platinum and diamond wedding ring.{{cite news \\|title\\=Call Me Narayan, Says Nancy \\|work\\=London Evening Standard \\|date\\=January 1, 1952 \\|location\\=London, England \\|page\\=12 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}",
"Though the government of India didn't approve of the marriage, Valentine was convinced she was married. However, while Valentine was sailing to New York, American newspapers reported the Indian government was now refusing to recognize the marriage.{{cite news \\|last\\=Parsons \\|first\\=Louella \\|title\\=Pinza Returning April 1 for Hollywood Film \\|work\\=The San Francisco Examiner \\|date\\=January 5, 1952 \\|location\\=San Francisco, California \\|page\\=12 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} The *[Star Tribune](/wiki/Star_Tribune \"Star Tribune\")* reported in March 1952 that \"sources in India\" said the ceremony she underwent in 1949 was a \"betrothal ritual\" not a wedding, and that Valentine herself was now uncertain as to her marital status. The widespread coverage of her situation in newspapers continued throughout the year. She received her first featured film role and screen credit with the November release of *[The Black Castle](/wiki/The_Black_Castle \"The Black Castle\")*, while columnist [Mike Connolly](/wiki/Mike_Connolly_%28columnist%29 \"Mike Connolly (columnist)\") reported she had signed an endorsement deal with the Puritan Dress Company in December.{{cite news \\|last\\=Connolly \\|first\\=Mike \\|title\\=Hollywood Report \\|work\\=Pasadena Independent \\|date\\=December 16, 1952 \\|location\\=Pasadena, California \\|page\\=27 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} The latter led to a lawsuit in April 1953 as Valentine claimed she wasn't receiving the money promised by Puritan for their \"Nancy Valentine Original\" line.{{cite news \\|title\\=Whats in a Name? 50Gs, Maybe \\|work\\=Daily News \\|date\\=April 26, 1953 \\|location\\=New York, New York \\|page\\=3 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}",
"### Hiatus",
"Valentine announced during May 1953 she was leaving acting to enter the [Self\\-Realization Fellowship](/wiki/Self-Realization_Fellowship \"Self-Realization Fellowship\") convent in Los Angeles, following what she later described as a \"nervous breakdown\". While in the convent she gave an extensive interview to *[Los Angeles Mirror](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times%23Competition_and_rivalries \"Los Angeles Times#Competition and rivalries\")* that ran in four installments from June 30, 1953, through July 3, 1953\\.{{cite news \\|last\\=Garrison \\|first\\=Omar \\|title\\=Nancy Valentine Tells Why She Shuns World \\|work\\=The Mirror \\|date\\=June 30, 1953 \\|location\\=Los Angeles, California \\|pages\\=5, 14 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}{{cite news \\|last\\=Garrison \\|first\\=Omar \\|title\\=Tears, Good\\-Bys Fill East\\-West Romance \\|work\\=The Mirror \\|date\\=July 3, 1953 \\|location\\=Los Angeles, California \\|page\\=12 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} She recounted details of her modeling, encounters with celebrities and the film industry, and her trips to India. In the last installment, she revealed the public hounding by columnists and photographers over her romance with Naranyan, and that she had become pregnant by him, but had lost the baby.",
"Valentine remained at Self\\-Realization Fellowship for several years as a novitiate. She left before taking final vows, but credited meditation with restoring her mental equilibrium.",
"Valentine married Frederick Tillinghast III during July 1956, after obtaining an annulment of her marriage to Naranyan.{{cite news \\|title\\=Actress Married In Yoga Rites \\|work\\=Oakland Tribune \\|date\\=August 1, 1956 \\|location\\=Oakland, California \\|page\\=33 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} They had a daughter who was six months old when Valentine filed for divorce on November 5, 1957, charging mental cruelty.{{cite news \\|title\\=Actress Wed in Yoga Rites Asks Divorce \\|work\\=Los Angeles Times \\|date\\=November 6, 1957 \\|location\\=Los Angeles, California \\|page\\=5 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} She asked only for $100 monthly child support and $1 token alimony, which was granted on January 29, 1958, in Santa Monica Superior Court.{{cite news \\|title\\=Nancy Valentine's 1956 Yoga Marriage Ended \\|work\\=Los Angeles Times \\|date\\=January 30, 1958 \\|location\\=Los Angeles, California \\|page\\=5 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} Following her divorce Valentine began working on a memoir, originally titled *Broken Valentine*,{{cite news \\|last\\=Connolly \\|first\\=Mike \\|title\\=Hinton and Hayes \\|work\\=The Desert Sun \\|date\\=February 28, 1958 \\|location\\=Palm Springs, California \\|page\\=4 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} later *Fame, Fortune and Folly*. Several years later she threatened to sue Tillinghast over $3000 in unpaid child support.{{cite news \\|last\\=Carroll \\|first\\=Harrison \\|title\\=Behind the Scenes in Hollywood \\|work\\=The Index\\-Journal \\|date\\=May 8, 1961 \\|location\\=Greenwood, South Carolina \\|page\\=8 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}",
"### Television and later films",
"Valentine's first television work came in 1952 with an episode of *[Racket Squad](/wiki/Racket_Squad \"Racket Squad\")*, followed by *[Mr. \\& Mrs. North](/wiki/Mr._%26_Mrs._North \"Mr. & Mrs. North\")* the following year. Her performing work ceased while in the convent, but resumed in 1956 with a supporting role in the anthology series *[Fireside Theatre](/wiki/Fireside_Theatre \"Fireside Theatre\")*.{{cite news \\|last\\=Ames \\|first\\=Walter \\|title\\=Nancy Valentine Out of Seclusion \\|work\\=Los Angeles Times \\|date\\=February 15, 1956 \\|location\\=Los Angeles, California \\|page\\= \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} Following her divorce, her television work picked up with episodes of *[Love That Jill](/wiki/Love_That_Jill \"Love That Jill\")* and *[Matinee Theatre](/wiki/Matinee_Theatre \"Matinee Theatre\")*{{cite news \\|last\\=Jones \\|first\\=John N. \\|title\\=TV Digest \\|work\\=Alton Evening Telegraph \\|date\\=March 1, 1958 \\|location\\=Alton, Illinois \\|page\\=13 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} and as the first guest on [George Fisher](/wiki/George_Fisher_%28journalist%29 \"George Fisher (journalist)\")'s local talk show.{{cite news \\|title\\=Television Programs \\|work\\=Los Angeles Evening Citizen\\-News \\|date\\=March 17, 1958 \\|location\\=Hollywood, California \\|page\\=29 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} She then took over as occasional co\\-host for [Tom Duggan](/wiki/Tom_Duggan \"Tom Duggan\")'s nightly live talk show on [KCOP\\-TV](/wiki/KCOP-TV \"KCOP-TV\") starting in April 1958\\.{{cite news \\|last\\=Tashman \\|first\\=George \\|title\\=Clickin' the Channels \\|work\\=The Independent \\|date\\=April 16, 1958 \\|location\\=Richmond, California \\|page\\=12 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}",
"After doing two episodes of *[Dragnet](/wiki/Dragnet_%281951_TV_series%29 \"Dragnet (1951 TV series)\")*, producer [Jack Webb](/wiki/Jack_Webb \"Jack Webb\") gave Valentine her largest film role with *[\\-30\\-](/wiki/-30-_%28film%29 \"-30- (film)\")*. One columnist expressed surprise at her performance,{{cite news \\|last\\=Parsons \\|first\\=Louella \\|title\\=Keeping Up with Hollywood \\|work\\=The Cumberland News \\|date\\=October 19, 1959 \\|location\\=Cumberland, Maryland \\|page\\=10 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} while critic Philip K. Scheuer thought her not convincing as either society girl or would\\-be reporter.{{cite news \\|last\\=Scheuer \\|first\\=Philip K. \\|title\\=Webb's Camera Finds Drama in City Room \\|work\\=Los Angeles Times \\|date\\=October 25, 1959 \\|location\\=Los Angeles, California \\|pages\\=97, 98 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} She had a much better received role in *[Tess of the Storm Country](/wiki/Tess_of_the_Storm_Country_%281960_film%29 \"Tess of the Storm Country (1960 film)\")* the following year,{{cite news \\|title\\=Two Color Films Of Famed Novels At Rialto \\|work\\=Valley Morning Star \\|date\\=March 26, 1961 \\|location\\=Harlingen, Texas \\|page\\=17 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} and played uncredited bits in *[Portrait of a Mobster](/wiki/Portrait_of_a_Mobster \"Portrait of a Mobster\")* and *[Too Late Blues](/wiki/Too_Late_Blues \"Too Late Blues\")* during 1961\\.{{cite news \\|title\\=From Title To TV \\|work\\=Longview Daily News \\|date\\=March 11, 1961 \\|location\\=Longview, Washington \\|page\\=21 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}{{cite news \\|last\\=Connolly \\|first\\=Mike \\|title\\=Chambers Gets Part In 'Too Late Blues' \\|work\\=The Daily Times \\|date\\=May 4, 1961 \\|location\\=Davenport, Iowa \\|page\\=48 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}",
"From 1959 through 1961 Valentine was active on television, playing guest star and supporting roles on episodes of series such as *[Tales of Wells Fargo](/wiki/Tales_of_Wells_Fargo \"Tales of Wells Fargo\")*,{{cite news \\|title\\=Rehearsal Break (photo caption) \\|work\\=The Indianapolis Times \\|date\\=April 11, 1959 \\|location\\=Indianapolis, Indiana \\|page\\=9 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} *[The Texan](/wiki/The_Texan_%28TV_series%29 \"The Texan (TV series)\")*,{{cite news \\|title\\=Desparado Tries To Gun Down The Texan \\|work\\=The Modesto Bee \\|date\\=June 7, 1959 \\|location\\=Modesto, California \\|page\\=42 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} *[Man with a Camera](/wiki/Man_with_a_Camera \"Man with a Camera\")*,{{cite news \\|title\\=Monday Evening TV \\|work\\=Detroit Free Press \\|date\\=January 10, 1960 \\|location\\=Detroit, Michigan \\|page\\=79 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} *[77 Sunset Strip](/wiki/77_Sunset_Strip \"77 Sunset Strip\")*,{{cite news \\|title\\=Television \\|work\\=Daily Home News \\|date\\=February 26, 1960 \\|location\\=New Brunswick, New Jersey \\|page\\=19 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} *[Lawman](/wiki/Lawman_%28TV_series%29 \"Lawman (TV series)\")*,{{cite news \\|title\\=Marshal Dan Troop (photo caption) \\|work\\=The Miami News \\|date\\=May 29, 1960 \\|location\\=Miami, Florida \\|page\\=66 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} *[The Real McCoys](/wiki/The_Real_McCoys \"The Real McCoys\")*,{{cite news \\|title\\=October 6 Program Listings Thursday \\|work\\=Sunday News \\|date\\=October 2, 1960 \\|location\\=Lancaster, Pennsylvania \\|page\\=81 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} *[Hawaiian Eye](/wiki/Hawaiian_Eye \"Hawaiian Eye\")*,{{cite news \\|title\\=Wednesday, March 22 \\|work\\=Los Angeles Times \\|date\\=March 19, 1961 \\|location\\=Los Angeles, California \\|page\\=497 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} *[Thriller](/wiki/Thriller_%28American_TV_series%29 \"Thriller (American TV series)\")*,{{cite news \\|title\\=Tuesday April 11 \\|work\\=Los Angeles Times \\|date\\=April 9, 1961 \\|location\\=Los Angeles, California \\|page\\=686 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} and *[Surfside 6](/wiki/Surfside_6 \"Surfside 6\")*.{{cite news \\|title\\=Monday, February 19 \\|work\\=The Philadelphia Inquirer \\|date\\=February 18, 1962 \\|location\\=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania \\|page\\=191 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}}",
"### Later life",
"Valentine married actor\\-director Everett Chambers in October 1961, at the Self\\-Realization Fellowship Center in Santa Barbara, California.{{cite news \\|last\\=Parsons \\|first\\=Louella \\|title\\=Ava to Produce 'The Jackels' \\|work\\=The San Francisco Examiner \\|date\\=October 9, 1961 \\|location\\=San Francisco, California \\|page\\=37 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} Columnist [Sidney Skolsky](/wiki/Sidney_Skolsky \"Sidney Skolsky\") said the couple met on the set of *[Too Late Blues](/wiki/Too_Late_Blues \"Too Late Blues\")*.{{cite news \\|last\\=Skolsky \\|first\\=Sidney \\|title\\=Trevor Howard May Return for 'Bounty' \\|work\\=Los Angeles Evening Citizen\\-News \\|date\\=September 25, 1961 \\|location\\=Hollywood, California \\|page\\=13 \\|via \\= \\[\\[Newspapers.com]]}} They had a daughter before divorcing in 1975\\. Valentine died at her home in [Malibu, California](/wiki/Malibu%2C_California \"Malibu, California\") on July 31, 2017\\.",
""
] |
History
-------
The first recorded football match for St. James Football club was against [Tungamah Football Club](/wiki/Tungamah_Football_Club "Tungamah Football Club") in [Tungamah](/wiki/Tungamah "Tungamah") on Saturday, 16 June 1883, with [Tungamah Football Club](/wiki/Tungamah_Football_Club "Tungamah Football Club") winning three goals to two goals.{{cite web \|title\=1883 – St. James Football Club's first match \|url\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/70743823 \|via\=Trove Newspaper \|work\=The North East Ensign \|date\=22 June 1883 }}
The team won its first senior football premiership in 1884, winning the J. H. Fitzgerald Cup.{{cite news \|title\=J. H. Fitzgerald Cup Review\|date\=24 June 1884 \|newspaper\=The North\-Eastern Ensign \|location\=Benalla, Victoria\|url\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/70746706 \|via\=Trove Newspapers}}
The football club's president in 1908 was Sir [George J. Coles](/wiki/George_Coles_%28entrepreneur%29 "George Coles (entrepreneur)"), whose very first retail business was in St. James, which he purchased from his father, George W. Coles.{{cite web \|title\=1935 \- G J Coles \- Annual Report \|url\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/188626832 \|via\=Trove Newspapers \|work\=Cobram Courier \|accessdate\=5 June 2020 \|date\=12 September 1935\|page\=2}} His company, the [Coles Group](/wiki/Coles_Group "Coles Group"), would grow to become Australia's largest retail business.
In its short existence the St. James Football Club won an incredible eighteen premierships in various local football competitions and also produced several players that went onto play in the [Victorian Football League](/wiki/Victorian_Football_League "Victorian Football League"). An amazing achievement for such a small town.
In 1910, St. James entered two teams in the Dookie Football Association, with the St. James – "Socialables" defeating St. James in the Grand Final.
[Jim Flynn](/wiki/Jim_Flynn_%28footballer%29 "Jim Flynn (footballer)") started and finished his football career in St. James, but in between he played with both the [Geelong Football Club](/wiki/Geelong_Football_Club "Geelong Football Club") and [Carlton Football Club](/wiki/Carlton_Football_Club "Carlton Football Club") in the [Victorian Football League](/wiki/Victorian_Football_League "Victorian Football League") in the early 1900s. Jim went onto become the club captain and premiership player at [Carlton Football Club](/wiki/Carlton_Football_Club "Carlton Football Club"). Jim was still playing football with the St. James Football Club in his early 40s and was a member of the St. James Football Club premiership teams in 1910, 1911 and 1913\.
Former [Carlton Football Club](/wiki/Carlton_Football_Club "Carlton Football Club") premiership player and captain, [Gordon Green](/wiki/Gordon_Green_%28footballer%2C_born_1890%29 "Gordon Green (footballer, born 1890)")'s original club was St. James, before he went onto play with the [Yarrawonga Football Club](/wiki/Yarrawonga_Football_Club "Yarrawonga Football Club") and then [Carlton Football Club](/wiki/Carlton_Football_Club "Carlton Football Club"), debuting in 1911\.
[Pat Pelly](/wiki/Pat_Pelly "Pat Pelly") was also another local player who played eight games with the [Carlton Football Club](/wiki/Carlton_Football_Club "Carlton Football Club") in 1908\.
In 1924, Maurie Sheehan coached St. James to the premiership of the Yarrawonga Line Football Association.{{cite web \|title\=1925 \- Wimmera league \|url\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/223296101 \|publisher\=The Weekly Times \|access\-date\=20 December 2023 \|pages\=80 \|date\=15 August 1925}}
St. James FC played in the Murray Valley Football League in 1947, then the Benalla – Tungamah FL when it formed in 1948 until 1954\.{{cite web \|url\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/26599068 \|title\=Benalla League draw \|via\=Trove Newspapers \|work\=The Argus \|date\=26 March 1954 }}
In 1955 St. James FC merged with Devenish – United FC, to become known as "St. James / Devenish United FC". This team played in the Benalla – Tungamah FL from 1955 to 1960, which was their last season of competition football.
The Devenish FC then entered the [Benalla \& District Football League](/wiki/Benalla_%26_District_Football_League "Benalla & District Football League") in 1963 as a stand\-alone football club and played in the B\&DFL until they folded early on during the 2006 season.{{cite web \|title\=2006 – Devenish FC facing the chop \|url\=https://www.bordermail.com.au/story/18849/barbers\-facing\-chop\-due\-to\-player\-shortage/ \|date\=26 March 1954 \|via\=Trove Newspapers \|work\=The Border Mail }}
The [Benalla \& District Football League](/wiki/Benalla_%26_District_Football_League "Benalla & District Football League") eventually folded after the 2009 season, with the remaining clubs joining the [Ovens and King Football League](/wiki/Ovens_and_King_Football_League "Ovens and King Football League").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"The first recorded football match for St. James Football club was against [Tungamah Football Club](/wiki/Tungamah_Football_Club \"Tungamah Football Club\") in [Tungamah](/wiki/Tungamah \"Tungamah\") on Saturday, 16 June 1883, with [Tungamah Football Club](/wiki/Tungamah_Football_Club \"Tungamah Football Club\") winning three goals to two goals.{{cite web \\|title\\=1883 – St. James Football Club's first match \\|url\\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/70743823 \\|via\\=Trove Newspaper \\|work\\=The North East Ensign \\|date\\=22 June 1883 }}",
"The team won its first senior football premiership in 1884, winning the J. H. Fitzgerald Cup.{{cite news \\|title\\=J. H. Fitzgerald Cup Review\\|date\\=24 June 1884 \\|newspaper\\=The North\\-Eastern Ensign \\|location\\=Benalla, Victoria\\|url\\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/70746706 \\|via\\=Trove Newspapers}}",
"The football club's president in 1908 was Sir [George J. Coles](/wiki/George_Coles_%28entrepreneur%29 \"George Coles (entrepreneur)\"), whose very first retail business was in St. James, which he purchased from his father, George W. Coles.{{cite web \\|title\\=1935 \\- G J Coles \\- Annual Report \\|url\\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/188626832 \\|via\\=Trove Newspapers \\|work\\=Cobram Courier \\|accessdate\\=5 June 2020 \\|date\\=12 September 1935\\|page\\=2}} His company, the [Coles Group](/wiki/Coles_Group \"Coles Group\"), would grow to become Australia's largest retail business.",
"In its short existence the St. James Football Club won an incredible eighteen premierships in various local football competitions and also produced several players that went onto play in the [Victorian Football League](/wiki/Victorian_Football_League \"Victorian Football League\"). An amazing achievement for such a small town.",
"In 1910, St. James entered two teams in the Dookie Football Association, with the St. James – \"Socialables\" defeating St. James in the Grand Final.",
"[Jim Flynn](/wiki/Jim_Flynn_%28footballer%29 \"Jim Flynn (footballer)\") started and finished his football career in St. James, but in between he played with both the [Geelong Football Club](/wiki/Geelong_Football_Club \"Geelong Football Club\") and [Carlton Football Club](/wiki/Carlton_Football_Club \"Carlton Football Club\") in the [Victorian Football League](/wiki/Victorian_Football_League \"Victorian Football League\") in the early 1900s. Jim went onto become the club captain and premiership player at [Carlton Football Club](/wiki/Carlton_Football_Club \"Carlton Football Club\"). Jim was still playing football with the St. James Football Club in his early 40s and was a member of the St. James Football Club premiership teams in 1910, 1911 and 1913\\.",
"Former [Carlton Football Club](/wiki/Carlton_Football_Club \"Carlton Football Club\") premiership player and captain, [Gordon Green](/wiki/Gordon_Green_%28footballer%2C_born_1890%29 \"Gordon Green (footballer, born 1890)\")'s original club was St. James, before he went onto play with the [Yarrawonga Football Club](/wiki/Yarrawonga_Football_Club \"Yarrawonga Football Club\") and then [Carlton Football Club](/wiki/Carlton_Football_Club \"Carlton Football Club\"), debuting in 1911\\.",
"[Pat Pelly](/wiki/Pat_Pelly \"Pat Pelly\") was also another local player who played eight games with the [Carlton Football Club](/wiki/Carlton_Football_Club \"Carlton Football Club\") in 1908\\.",
"In 1924, Maurie Sheehan coached St. James to the premiership of the Yarrawonga Line Football Association.{{cite web \\|title\\=1925 \\- Wimmera league \\|url\\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/223296101 \\|publisher\\=The Weekly Times \\|access\\-date\\=20 December 2023 \\|pages\\=80 \\|date\\=15 August 1925}}",
"St. James FC played in the Murray Valley Football League in 1947, then the Benalla – Tungamah FL when it formed in 1948 until 1954\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/26599068 \\|title\\=Benalla League draw \\|via\\=Trove Newspapers \\|work\\=The Argus \\|date\\=26 March 1954 }}",
"In 1955 St. James FC merged with Devenish – United FC, to become known as \"St. James / Devenish United FC\". This team played in the Benalla – Tungamah FL from 1955 to 1960, which was their last season of competition football.",
"The Devenish FC then entered the [Benalla \\& District Football League](/wiki/Benalla_%26_District_Football_League \"Benalla & District Football League\") in 1963 as a stand\\-alone football club and played in the B\\&DFL until they folded early on during the 2006 season.{{cite web \\|title\\=2006 – Devenish FC facing the chop \\|url\\=https://www.bordermail.com.au/story/18849/barbers\\-facing\\-chop\\-due\\-to\\-player\\-shortage/ \\|date\\=26 March 1954 \\|via\\=Trove Newspapers \\|work\\=The Border Mail }}",
"The [Benalla \\& District Football League](/wiki/Benalla_%26_District_Football_League \"Benalla & District Football League\") eventually folded after the 2009 season, with the remaining clubs joining the [Ovens and King Football League](/wiki/Ovens_and_King_Football_League \"Ovens and King Football League\").",
""
] |
Scientific work
---------------
### Existence and regularity of elastic\-plastic solutions
In 1978, Pierre Suquet introduced the space of vector fields with bounded deformationSuquet P., « Sur un nouveau cadre fonctionnel pour les équations de la Plasticité », *C. R. Acad. Sc. Paris*, 286, a, 1978, p. 1129–1132Suquet P., « Un espace fonctionnel pour les équations de la Plasticité », *Ann. Fac. Sc. Toulouse*, 1, 1979, p. 77–87 and established certain properties (existence of internal and external traces on any surface, compact injection...). It shows that the evolution problem for a perfectly plastic elastic body admits a solution in speed (of displacement) in this space under a safe loading condition. It shows that there can be an infinite number of solutions, regular or non\-regular.Suquet P., « Sur les équations de la plasticité : existence et régularité des solutions », *J. Mécanique*, 20, 1981, pp. 3–39Suquet P., "Discontinuities and Plasticity". In J.J. Moreau, P.D. Panagiotopoulos (eds) *Non Smooth Mechanics and Applications*. CISM Lecture Notes N°302\. Springer\-Verlag. Wien. 1988\. 279–340\.
### Homogenization of dissipative media
The framework of generalized standard environments, due to Helphen and Nguyen Quoc Son, allows an easy writing of the laws of macroscopic behaviour.Germain P., Nguyen Q.S., Suquet P., « Continuum Thermodynamics », *J. Appl. Mech.*, 50, 1983, p. 1010–1020 In 1982, Pierre SuquetSuquet P. : "Plasticité et homogénéisation". Thèse de doctorat d’État. Université Paris 6\. 1982 established homogenization results for environments characterized by 2 potentials (free energy and dissipation potentials) and showed in particular that the generalized standard structure is preserved by changing scales when geometric variations are neglected.Suquet P., « Elements of Homogenization for Inelastic Solid Mechanics », *In E. Sanchez\-Palencia, A. Zaoui (eds), Homogenization Techniques for Composite Media. Lecture Notes in Physics N°272\. Springer\-Verlag. Berlin*, 1987, pp. 193–278 He notes that the homogenization of short\-memory viscoelastic composites can lead to the appearance of long memory effects (an effect already noted by J. \& E. Sanchez\-Palencia in 1978\). More recently, properties of these long memories have been established in relation to order moments 1 and 2 of the local fields.
### Homogenization and limit loads
In 1983, Pierre SuquetSuquet P., « Analyse limite et homogénéisation », *C. R. Acad. Sc. Paris*, 296, ii, 1983, p. 1355–1358 gave a first upper bound of the resistance domain of a heterogeneous medium by solving a boundary analysis problem on a base cell. This result is improved by Bouchitte and SuquetBouchitte G., Suquet P., Boston, in G. Dal Maso and G.F. Dell'Antonio (eds) Composite Media and Homogenization Theory, Birkhaüser, pp. 107–133 who show that the homogenized analysis problem is divided into two sub\-problems, one purely volumetric for which the resistance domain is that given by the boundary analysis of a base cell, the second, surface area for which a surface homogenization problem (and not on unit cell) must be solved.
### Terminals for non\-linear composites
In 1993, Pierre SuquetSuquet P., « Overall potentials and flow stresses of ideally plastic or power law materials », *J. Mech. Phys. Solids*, 41, 1993, pp. 981–1002 proposed a series of bollards for non\-linear phase composites, using a method different from those available at the time (Willis, 1988, Ponte Castañeda, 1991\), then showed in 1995Suquet P., « Overall properties of nonlinear composites: a modified secant moduli approach and its link with Ponte Casta\\\~neda's nonlinear variational procedure », *C. R. Acad. Sc. Paris, IIb*, 320, 1995, pp. 563–571Ponte Castaneda P., Suquet P., « Nonlinear composites », *Advances in Applied Mechanics*, 34, 1998, pp. 171–302 that Ponte Castañeda's (1991\) variational method is a secant method using the second moment by phase of local fields.
### Digital method for heterogeneous media based on FFT.
In 1994, H. Moulinec and P. SuquetMoulinec H., Suquet P., « A fast numerical method for computing the linear and nonlinear properties of composites », *C. R. Acad. Sc. Paris, II*, 318, 1994, pp. 1417–1423Moulinec H., Suquet P., « A numerical method for computing the overall response of nonlinear composites with complex microstructure », *Computer Meth. Appl. Mech. Engng.*, 157, 1998, pp. 69–94Michel J.C., Moulinec H., Suquet P., « A computational method for linear and nonlinear composites with arbitrary phase contrast », *Int. J. Numer. Meth. Engng.*, 52, 2001, p. 139–160Moulinec H., P. Suquet and G. Milton, « Convergence of iterative methods based on Neumann series for composite materials : Theory and practice », *Int. J. Numer. Meth. Engng.*, 2018 (lire en ligne) introduced a numerical method using massively the Fast [Fourier Transform](/wiki/Fourier_transform "Fourier transform") (FFT) using only a pixelized image of the study microstructure (without mesh size). By introducing a homogeneous reference medium, the heterogeneity of the medium is transformed into a polarization constraint. The Green operator of the reference medium, known explicitly in Fourier space, can be used to iteratively update the polarization field. Several improvements and accelerations have been made to this method, which is now used internationally in dedicated codes.
### Homogenization and reduction of models.
Since 2003, J.C. Michel and P. SuquetMichel J.C., Suquet P., « Nonuniform Transformation Field Analysis », *Int. J. Solids and Struct.*, 40, 2003, pp. 6937–6955Michel JC. and P. Suquet, « A model\-reduction approach in micromechanics of materials preserving the variational structure of constitutive relations », *J. Mech. Phys. Solids*, 90, 2016, pp. 254–285 (lire en ligne) have been developing a method to reduce the number of internal variables of homogenized behavioural laws. This Nonuniform Transformation Field Analysis (NTFA) model uses the structuring of microscopic plastic deformation fields. A mode base is first built by the "snapshot POD" method along learning paths. Then the reduced kinetic equations for the field components in these modes are constructed by approaching the effective potentials by techniques derived from non\-linear homogenization.
|
[
"Scientific work\n---------------",
"### Existence and regularity of elastic\\-plastic solutions",
"In 1978, Pierre Suquet introduced the space of vector fields with bounded deformationSuquet P., « Sur un nouveau cadre fonctionnel pour les équations de la Plasticité », *C. R. Acad. Sc. Paris*, 286, a, 1978, p. 1129–1132Suquet P., « Un espace fonctionnel pour les équations de la Plasticité », *Ann. Fac. Sc. Toulouse*, 1, 1979, p. 77–87 and established certain properties (existence of internal and external traces on any surface, compact injection...). It shows that the evolution problem for a perfectly plastic elastic body admits a solution in speed (of displacement) in this space under a safe loading condition. It shows that there can be an infinite number of solutions, regular or non\\-regular.Suquet P., « Sur les équations de la plasticité : existence et régularité des solutions », *J. Mécanique*, 20, 1981, pp. 3–39Suquet P., \"Discontinuities and Plasticity\". In J.J. Moreau, P.D. Panagiotopoulos (eds) *Non Smooth Mechanics and Applications*. CISM Lecture Notes N°302\\. Springer\\-Verlag. Wien. 1988\\. 279–340\\.",
"### Homogenization of dissipative media",
"The framework of generalized standard environments, due to Helphen and Nguyen Quoc Son, allows an easy writing of the laws of macroscopic behaviour.Germain P., Nguyen Q.S., Suquet P., « Continuum Thermodynamics », *J. Appl. Mech.*, 50, 1983, p. 1010–1020 In 1982, Pierre SuquetSuquet P. : \"Plasticité et homogénéisation\". Thèse de doctorat d’État. Université Paris 6\\. 1982 established homogenization results for environments characterized by 2 potentials (free energy and dissipation potentials) and showed in particular that the generalized standard structure is preserved by changing scales when geometric variations are neglected.Suquet P., « Elements of Homogenization for Inelastic Solid Mechanics », *In E. Sanchez\\-Palencia, A. Zaoui (eds), Homogenization Techniques for Composite Media. Lecture Notes in Physics N°272\\. Springer\\-Verlag. Berlin*, 1987, pp. 193–278 He notes that the homogenization of short\\-memory viscoelastic composites can lead to the appearance of long memory effects (an effect already noted by J. \\& E. Sanchez\\-Palencia in 1978\\). More recently, properties of these long memories have been established in relation to order moments 1 and 2 of the local fields.",
"### Homogenization and limit loads",
"In 1983, Pierre SuquetSuquet P., « Analyse limite et homogénéisation », *C. R. Acad. Sc. Paris*, 296, ii, 1983, p. 1355–1358 gave a first upper bound of the resistance domain of a heterogeneous medium by solving a boundary analysis problem on a base cell. This result is improved by Bouchitte and SuquetBouchitte G., Suquet P., Boston, in G. Dal Maso and G.F. Dell'Antonio (eds) Composite Media and Homogenization Theory, Birkhaüser, pp. 107–133 who show that the homogenized analysis problem is divided into two sub\\-problems, one purely volumetric for which the resistance domain is that given by the boundary analysis of a base cell, the second, surface area for which a surface homogenization problem (and not on unit cell) must be solved.",
"### Terminals for non\\-linear composites",
"In 1993, Pierre SuquetSuquet P., « Overall potentials and flow stresses of ideally plastic or power law materials », *J. Mech. Phys. Solids*, 41, 1993, pp. 981–1002 proposed a series of bollards for non\\-linear phase composites, using a method different from those available at the time (Willis, 1988, Ponte Castañeda, 1991\\), then showed in 1995Suquet P., « Overall properties of nonlinear composites: a modified secant moduli approach and its link with Ponte Casta\\\\\\~neda's nonlinear variational procedure », *C. R. Acad. Sc. Paris, IIb*, 320, 1995, pp. 563–571Ponte Castaneda P., Suquet P., « Nonlinear composites », *Advances in Applied Mechanics*, 34, 1998, pp. 171–302 that Ponte Castañeda's (1991\\) variational method is a secant method using the second moment by phase of local fields.",
"### Digital method for heterogeneous media based on FFT.",
"In 1994, H. Moulinec and P. SuquetMoulinec H., Suquet P., « A fast numerical method for computing the linear and nonlinear properties of composites », *C. R. Acad. Sc. Paris, II*, 318, 1994, pp. 1417–1423Moulinec H., Suquet P., « A numerical method for computing the overall response of nonlinear composites with complex microstructure », *Computer Meth. Appl. Mech. Engng.*, 157, 1998, pp. 69–94Michel J.C., Moulinec H., Suquet P., « A computational method for linear and nonlinear composites with arbitrary phase contrast », *Int. J. Numer. Meth. Engng.*, 52, 2001, p. 139–160Moulinec H., P. Suquet and G. Milton, « Convergence of iterative methods based on Neumann series for composite materials : Theory and practice », *Int. J. Numer. Meth. Engng.*, 2018 (lire en ligne) introduced a numerical method using massively the Fast [Fourier Transform](/wiki/Fourier_transform \"Fourier transform\") (FFT) using only a pixelized image of the study microstructure (without mesh size). By introducing a homogeneous reference medium, the heterogeneity of the medium is transformed into a polarization constraint. The Green operator of the reference medium, known explicitly in Fourier space, can be used to iteratively update the polarization field. Several improvements and accelerations have been made to this method, which is now used internationally in dedicated codes.",
"### Homogenization and reduction of models.",
"Since 2003, J.C. Michel and P. SuquetMichel J.C., Suquet P., « Nonuniform Transformation Field Analysis », *Int. J. Solids and Struct.*, 40, 2003, pp. 6937–6955Michel JC. and P. Suquet, « A model\\-reduction approach in micromechanics of materials preserving the variational structure of constitutive relations », *J. Mech. Phys. Solids*, 90, 2016, pp. 254–285 (lire en ligne) have been developing a method to reduce the number of internal variables of homogenized behavioural laws. This Nonuniform Transformation Field Analysis (NTFA) model uses the structuring of microscopic plastic deformation fields. A mode base is first built by the \"snapshot POD\" method along learning paths. Then the reduced kinetic equations for the field components in these modes are constructed by approaching the effective potentials by techniques derived from non\\-linear homogenization.",
""
] |
Description
-----------
The park is known for its large [bur oak](/wiki/Bur_oak "Bur oak"), [eastern cottonwood](/wiki/Eastern_cottonwood "Eastern cottonwood"), [box elder](/wiki/Box_elder "Box elder") and [silver maple](/wiki/Silver_maple "Silver maple") trees. There are over 7 miles of walking trails at the park. There is a 2\.5\-mile paved bike trail that connects with the city of Brandon bike trail. The Prairie Vista Trail is a horseback riding and mountain bike trail that is over 2 miles long. The Jay Heath Canoe and Kayak Trail goes through the park via the [Big Sioux River](/wiki/Big_Sioux_River "Big Sioux River").
The park is located in the southern section of the [Coteau des Prairies](/wiki/Coteau_des_Prairies "Coteau des Prairies") land formation. Rolling hills are very common in the Coteau des Prairies. Big Sioux Recreation Area has a large hill located on the west side of the park that offers great views of the park as well as the city of the [Brandon, South Dakota](/wiki/Brandon%2C_South_Dakota "Brandon, South Dakota"). The Prairie Vista Trail goes up to the summit of this hill.
Just like other areas along the Big Sioux River corridor, there are 200 different kinds of bird species that will migrate through and near the park. [Bald eagles](/wiki/Bald_eagles "Bald eagles") are common to see during the winter months. [Deer](/wiki/Deer "Deer"), [turkeys](/wiki/Turkeys "Turkeys"), [coyotes](/wiki/Coyotes "Coyotes"), [snapping turtles](/wiki/Snapping_turtles "Snapping turtles") and [woodchucks](/wiki/Woodchucks "Woodchucks") can be found in some of the remote areas of the park. [River otters](/wiki/North_American_river_otter "North American river otter") can sometimes be found in secluded areas along the Big Sioux River. [Catfish](/wiki/Catfish "Catfish") can be found throughout the Big Sioux River.
The [March 2019 North American blizzard](/wiki/March_2019_North_American_blizzard "March 2019 North American blizzard") caused severe flooding at the park. This weather event brought heavy rainfall that melted ground snow rapidly while the ground was still frozen. Heavy snow amounts were found upstream in the Big Sioux River [drainage basin](/wiki/Drainage_basin "Drainage basin"), which melted and intensified the flood event. Later on in September 2019 the park experienced historic flooding that was caused from excess rain in the area as well as areas upstream of the park. These events may be caused by the effects of [Climate change in South Dakota](/wiki/Climate_change_in_South_Dakota "Climate change in South Dakota"). See [2019 Midwestern U.S. floods](/wiki/2019_Midwestern_U.S._floods "2019 Midwestern U.S. floods") for more information.
A [log cabin](/wiki/Log_cabin "Log cabin") that was built in 1869 by [Norwegian](/wiki/Norwegians "Norwegians") immigrants can be found at the park. The timber for the cabin came from the [forests](/wiki/Forests "Forests") along the Big Sioux River.
|
[
"Description\n-----------",
"The park is known for its large [bur oak](/wiki/Bur_oak \"Bur oak\"), [eastern cottonwood](/wiki/Eastern_cottonwood \"Eastern cottonwood\"), [box elder](/wiki/Box_elder \"Box elder\") and [silver maple](/wiki/Silver_maple \"Silver maple\") trees. There are over 7 miles of walking trails at the park. There is a 2\\.5\\-mile paved bike trail that connects with the city of Brandon bike trail. The Prairie Vista Trail is a horseback riding and mountain bike trail that is over 2 miles long. The Jay Heath Canoe and Kayak Trail goes through the park via the [Big Sioux River](/wiki/Big_Sioux_River \"Big Sioux River\").",
"The park is located in the southern section of the [Coteau des Prairies](/wiki/Coteau_des_Prairies \"Coteau des Prairies\") land formation. Rolling hills are very common in the Coteau des Prairies. Big Sioux Recreation Area has a large hill located on the west side of the park that offers great views of the park as well as the city of the [Brandon, South Dakota](/wiki/Brandon%2C_South_Dakota \"Brandon, South Dakota\"). The Prairie Vista Trail goes up to the summit of this hill.",
"Just like other areas along the Big Sioux River corridor, there are 200 different kinds of bird species that will migrate through and near the park. [Bald eagles](/wiki/Bald_eagles \"Bald eagles\") are common to see during the winter months. [Deer](/wiki/Deer \"Deer\"), [turkeys](/wiki/Turkeys \"Turkeys\"), [coyotes](/wiki/Coyotes \"Coyotes\"), [snapping turtles](/wiki/Snapping_turtles \"Snapping turtles\") and [woodchucks](/wiki/Woodchucks \"Woodchucks\") can be found in some of the remote areas of the park. [River otters](/wiki/North_American_river_otter \"North American river otter\") can sometimes be found in secluded areas along the Big Sioux River. [Catfish](/wiki/Catfish \"Catfish\") can be found throughout the Big Sioux River.",
"The [March 2019 North American blizzard](/wiki/March_2019_North_American_blizzard \"March 2019 North American blizzard\") caused severe flooding at the park. This weather event brought heavy rainfall that melted ground snow rapidly while the ground was still frozen. Heavy snow amounts were found upstream in the Big Sioux River [drainage basin](/wiki/Drainage_basin \"Drainage basin\"), which melted and intensified the flood event. Later on in September 2019 the park experienced historic flooding that was caused from excess rain in the area as well as areas upstream of the park. These events may be caused by the effects of [Climate change in South Dakota](/wiki/Climate_change_in_South_Dakota \"Climate change in South Dakota\"). See [2019 Midwestern U.S. floods](/wiki/2019_Midwestern_U.S._floods \"2019 Midwestern U.S. floods\") for more information.",
"A [log cabin](/wiki/Log_cabin \"Log cabin\") that was built in 1869 by [Norwegian](/wiki/Norwegians \"Norwegians\") immigrants can be found at the park. The timber for the cabin came from the [forests](/wiki/Forests \"Forests\") along the Big Sioux River.",
""
] |
Management
----------
The mainstay of therapy for both acute and chronic hives is education, avoiding triggers and using antihistamines.
Chronic hives can be difficult to treat and lead to significant disability. Unlike the acute form, 50–80% of people with chronic hives have no identifiable triggers. But 50% of people with chronic hives will experience remission within 1 year.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Kozel MM, Mekkes JR, Bossuyt PM, Bos JD \| year \= 2001 \| title \= Natural course of physical and chronic urticaria and angioedema in 220 patients \| journal \= J Am Acad Dermatol \| volume \= 45 \| issue \= 3\| pages \= 387–391 \| doi\=10\.1067/mjd.2001\.116217\| pmid \= 11511835 }} Overall, treatment is geared towards symptomatic management. Individuals with chronic hives may need other medications in addition to antihistamines to control symptoms. People who experience hives with angioedema require emergency treatment as this is a life\-threatening condition.
Treatment guidelines for the management of chronic hives have been published.{{cite journal\|last1\=Maurer\|first1\=M\|title\=Revisions to the international guidelines on the diagnosis and therapy of chronic urticaria\|journal\=J Dtsch Dermatol Ges\|volume\=11\|issue\=10\|pages\=971–978\|date\=2013\|doi\=10\.1111/ddg.12194\|pmid\=24034140\|s2cid\=22110680\|doi\-access\=free}}{{cite journal\|last1\=Bernstein\|first1\=J\|title\=The diagnosis and management of acute and chronic urticaria: 2014 update.\|journal\=J Allergy Clin Immunol\|date\=2014\|volume\=133\|issue\=5\|pages\=1270–1277\.e66\|doi\=10\.1016/j.jaci.2014\.02\.036\|pmid\=24766875\|doi\-access\=free}} According to the 2014 American practice parameters, treatment involves a stepwise approach. Step 1 consists of second generation, H1 receptor blocking antihistamines. Systemic glucocorticoids can also be used for episodes of severe disease but should not be used for long term due to their long list of side effects. Step 2 consists of increasing the dose of the current antihistamine, adding other antihistamines, or adding a leukotriene receptor antagonist such as montelukast. Step 3 consists of adding or replacing the current treatment with hydroxyzine or doxepin. If the individual doesn't respond to steps 1–3 then they are considered to have refractory symptoms. At this point, anti\-inflammatory medications (dapsone, sulfasalazine), immunosuppressants (cyclosporin, sirolimus) or other medications like [omalizumab](/wiki/Omalizumab "Omalizumab") can be used. These options are explained in more detail below.
First generation antihistamines, such as [diphenhydramine](/wiki/Diphenhydramine "Diphenhydramine") or [hydroxyzine](/wiki/Hydroxyzine "Hydroxyzine"), are not recommended as a first line therapy as they block both brain and peripheral H1 receptors, causing sedation. [Second\-generation antihistamines](/wiki/H1_antagonist%23Second-generation_and_third-generation_%28selective%29 "H1 antagonist#Second-generation and third-generation (selective)"), such as [loratadine](/wiki/Loratadine "Loratadine"), [cetirizine](/wiki/Cetirizine "Cetirizine"), [fexofenadine](/wiki/Fexofenadine "Fexofenadine") or [desloratadine](/wiki/Desloratadine "Desloratadine"), selectively antagonize peripheral H1 receptors, and are less sedating, less [anticholinergic](/wiki/Anticholinergic "Anticholinergic"), and generally preferred over the first\-generation antihistamines.{{cite journal\|last1\=Zuberbier\|first1\=T\|title\=A Summary of the New International EAACI/GA2LEN/EDF/WAO Guidelines in Urticaria.\|journal\=The World Allergy Organization Journal\|date\=January 2012\|volume\=5\|issue\=Suppl 1\|pages\=S1\-5\|doi\=10\.1097/WOX.0b013e3181f13432\|pmc\=3488932 \|pmid\=23282889\|doi\-access\=free}}{{cite journal\|last1\=Sharma\|first1\=M\|last2\=Bennett\|first2\=C\|last3\=Cohen\|first3\=SN\|last4\=Carter\|first4\=B\|title\=H1\-antihistamines for chronic spontaneous urticaria.\|journal\=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews\|date\=14 November 2014\|volume\=2017\|issue\=11\|pages\=CD006137\|doi\=10\.1002/14651858\.CD006137\.pub2\|pmid\=25397904\|pmc\=6481497}} Fexofenadine, a new\-generation antihistamine that blocks histamine H1 receptors, may be less sedating than some second\-generation antihistamines.{{cite journal \| last1\=Huang \| first1\=Cheng\-zhi \| last2\=Jiang \| first2\=Zhi\-hui \| last3\=Wang \| first3\=Jian \| last4\=Luo \| first4\=Yue \| last5\=Peng \| first5\=Hua \| title\=Antihistamine effects and safety of fexofenadine: a systematic review and meta\-analysis of randomized controlled trials \| journal\=BMC Pharmacology and Toxicology \| volume\=20 \| issue\=1 \| date\=29 November 2019 \| pages\=72 \| issn\=2050\-6511 \| pmid\=31783781 \| pmc\=6884918 \| doi\=10\.1186/s40360\-019\-0363\-1 \| doi\-access\=free }}
People who do not respond to the maximum dose of H1 antihistamines may benefit from increasing the dose further, then to switching to another non\-sedating antihistamine, then to adding a [leukotriene antagonist](/wiki/Leukotriene_antagonist "Leukotriene antagonist"), then to using an older antihistamine, then to using systemic steroids and finally to using [ciclosporin](/wiki/Ciclosporin "Ciclosporin") or [omalizumab](/wiki/Omalizumab "Omalizumab"). Steroids are often associated with rebound hives once discontinued.
[H2\-receptor antagonists](/wiki/H2-receptor_antagonists "H2-receptor antagonists") are sometimes used in addition to H1\-antagonists to treat urticaria, but there is limited evidence for their efficacy.{{cite journal \|last1\=Fedorowicz \|first1\=Zbys \|last2\=van Zuuren \|first2\=Esther J \|last3\=Hu \|first3\=Nianfang \|title\=Histamine H2\-receptor antagonists for urticaria \|journal\=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \|date\=14 March 2012 \|volume\=2015 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=CD008596 \|doi\=10\.1002/14651858\.CD008596\.pub2 \|pmid\=22419335 \|pmc\=7390502 }}
### Systemic steroids
Oral glucocorticoids are effective in controlling symptoms of chronic hives. However, they have an extensive list of adverse effects, such as adrenal suppression, weight gain, osteoporosis, hyperglycemia, etc. Therefore, their use should be limited to a couple of weeks. In addition, one study found that systemic glucocorticoids combined with antihistamines did not hasten the time to symptom control compared with antihistamines alone.{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Kim S, Baek S, Shin B, Yoon SY, Park SY, Lee T, Lee YS, Bae YJ, Kwon HS, Cho YS, Moon HB, Kim TB \| year \= 2013 \| title \= Influence of initial treatment modality on long\-term control of chronic idiopathic urticaria \| journal \= PLOS ONE \| volume \= 8 \| issue \= 7\| page \= e69345 \| doi\=10\.1371/journal.pone.0069345 \| pmid\=23935990 \| pmc\=3720657\| bibcode \= 2013PLoSO...869345K \| doi\-access \= free }}
### Leukotriene\-receptor antagonists
Leukotrienes are released from mast cells along with histamine. The medications, montelukast and zafirlukast block leukotriene receptors and can be used as add on treatment or in isolation for people with CU. It is important to note that these medications may be more beneficial for people with NSAID induced CU.{{cite journal \| author \= AU Erbagci Z SO \| year \= 2002 \| title \= The leukotriene receptor antagonist montelukast in the treatment of chronic idiopathic urticaria: a single\-blind, placebo\-controlled, crossover clinical study \| journal \= J Allergy Clin Immunol \| volume \= 110 \| issue \= 3\| pages \= 484–488 \| doi\=10\.1067/mai.2002\.126676\| pmid \= 12209099 }}{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Pacor ML, Di Lorenzo G, Corrocher R \| year \= 2001 \| title \= Efficacy of leukotriene receptor antagonist in chronic urticaria. A double\-blind, placebo\-controlled comparison of treatment with montelukast and cetirizine in patients with chronic urticaria with intolerance to food additive and/or acetylsalicylic acid \| journal \= Clin Exp Allergy \| volume \= 31 \| issue \= 10\| pages \= 1607–1614 \| doi\=10\.1046/j.1365\-2222\.2001\.01189\.x\| pmid \= 11678862 \| s2cid \= 33770584 }}
### Other
Other options for refractory symptoms of chronic hives include anti\-inflammatory medications, omalizumab, and immunosuppressants.
Potential anti\-inflammatory agents include dapsone, sulfasalazine, and hydroxychloroquine. Dapsone is a sulfone antimicrobial agent and is thought to suppress prostaglandin and leukotriene activity. It is helpful in therapy\-refractory cases{{cite journal \|vauthors\=Boehm I, etal \| date \= Jul 1999 \| title \= Urticaria treated with dapsone \| journal \= Allergy \| volume \= 54 \| issue \= 7\| pages \= 765–6 \| doi\=10\.1034/j.1398\-9995\.1999\.00187\.x\| pmid \= 10442538 \| s2cid \= 40767363 }} and is contraindicated in people with G6PD deficiency. Sulfasalazine, a 5\-ASA derivative, is thought to alter adenosine release and inhibit IgE mediated mast cell degranulation, Sulfasalazine is a good option for people with anemia who cannot take dapsone. Hydroxychloroquine is an antimalarial agent that suppresses T lymphocytes. It has a low cost however it takes longer than dapsone or sulfasalazine to work.
[Omalizumab](/wiki/Omalizumab "Omalizumab") was approved by the FDA in 2014 for people with hives 12 years old and above with chronic hives. It is a monoclonal antibody directed against IgE. Significant improvement in pruritus and quality of life was observed in a phase III, multicenter, randomized control trial.{{cite journal \|doi\=10\.1056/NEJMoa1215372 \|title\=Omalizumab for the Treatment of Chronic Idiopathic or Spontaneous Urticaria \|year\=2013 \|last1\=Maurer \|first1\=Marcus \|last2\=Rosén \|first2\=Karin \|last3\=Hsieh \|first3\=Hsin\-Ju \|last4\=Saini \|first4\=Sarbjit \|last5\=Grattan \|first5\=Clive \|last6\=Gimenéz\-Arnau \|first6\=Ana \|last7\=Agarwal \|first7\=Sunil \|last8\=Doyle \|first8\=Ramona \|last9\=Canvin \|first9\=Janice \|last10\=Kaplan \|first10\=Allen \|last11\=Casale \|first11\=Thomas \|journal\=New England Journal of Medicine \|volume\=368 \|issue\=10 \|pages\=924–35 \|pmid\=23432142\|doi\-access\=free }}
Immunosuppressants used for CU include cyclosporine, tacrolimus, sirolimus, and mycophenolate. Calcineurin inhibitors, such as cyclosporine and tacrolimus, inhibit cell responsiveness to mast cell products and inhibit T cell activity. They are preferred by some experts to treat severe symptoms.{{cite journal \| author \= Kaplan AP \| year \= 2009 \| title \= What the first 10,000 patients with chronic urticaria have taught me: a personal journey \| journal \= J Allergy Clin Immunol \| volume \= 123 \| issue \= 3\| pages \= 713–717 \| doi\=10\.1016/j.jaci.2008\.10\.050\| pmid \= 19081615 \| doi\-access \= free }} Sirolimus and mycophenolate have less evidence for their use in the treatment of chronic hives but reports have shown them to be efficacious.{{cite journal \| author \= Morgan M \| year \= 2009 \| title \= Treatment of refractory chronic urticaria with sirolimus \| journal \= Arch Dermatol \| volume \= 145 \| issue \= 6\| pages \= 637–9 \| doi\=10\.1001/archdermatol.2009\.13 \| pmid\=19528416}}{{cite journal \|vauthors\=AU Shahar E, Bergman R, Guttman\-Yassky E, Pollack S \| year \= 2006 \| title \= Treatment of severe chronic idiopathic urticaria with oral mycophenolate mofetil in patients not responding to antihistamines and/or corticosteroids \| journal \= Int J Dermatol \| volume \= 45 \| issue \= 10\| pages \= 1224–1227 \| doi\=10\.1111/j.1365\-4632\.2006\.02655\.x\| pmid \= 17040448 \| s2cid \= 19744425 }} Immunosuppressants are generally reserved as the last line of therapy for severe cases due to their potential for serious adverse effects.
|
[
"Management\n----------",
"The mainstay of therapy for both acute and chronic hives is education, avoiding triggers and using antihistamines.",
"Chronic hives can be difficult to treat and lead to significant disability. Unlike the acute form, 50–80% of people with chronic hives have no identifiable triggers. But 50% of people with chronic hives will experience remission within 1 year.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Kozel MM, Mekkes JR, Bossuyt PM, Bos JD \\| year \\= 2001 \\| title \\= Natural course of physical and chronic urticaria and angioedema in 220 patients \\| journal \\= J Am Acad Dermatol \\| volume \\= 45 \\| issue \\= 3\\| pages \\= 387–391 \\| doi\\=10\\.1067/mjd.2001\\.116217\\| pmid \\= 11511835 }} Overall, treatment is geared towards symptomatic management. Individuals with chronic hives may need other medications in addition to antihistamines to control symptoms. People who experience hives with angioedema require emergency treatment as this is a life\\-threatening condition.",
"Treatment guidelines for the management of chronic hives have been published.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Maurer\\|first1\\=M\\|title\\=Revisions to the international guidelines on the diagnosis and therapy of chronic urticaria\\|journal\\=J Dtsch Dermatol Ges\\|volume\\=11\\|issue\\=10\\|pages\\=971–978\\|date\\=2013\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/ddg.12194\\|pmid\\=24034140\\|s2cid\\=22110680\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Bernstein\\|first1\\=J\\|title\\=The diagnosis and management of acute and chronic urticaria: 2014 update.\\|journal\\=J Allergy Clin Immunol\\|date\\=2014\\|volume\\=133\\|issue\\=5\\|pages\\=1270–1277\\.e66\\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jaci.2014\\.02\\.036\\|pmid\\=24766875\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} According to the 2014 American practice parameters, treatment involves a stepwise approach. Step 1 consists of second generation, H1 receptor blocking antihistamines. Systemic glucocorticoids can also be used for episodes of severe disease but should not be used for long term due to their long list of side effects. Step 2 consists of increasing the dose of the current antihistamine, adding other antihistamines, or adding a leukotriene receptor antagonist such as montelukast. Step 3 consists of adding or replacing the current treatment with hydroxyzine or doxepin. If the individual doesn't respond to steps 1–3 then they are considered to have refractory symptoms. At this point, anti\\-inflammatory medications (dapsone, sulfasalazine), immunosuppressants (cyclosporin, sirolimus) or other medications like [omalizumab](/wiki/Omalizumab \"Omalizumab\") can be used. These options are explained in more detail below.",
"First generation antihistamines, such as [diphenhydramine](/wiki/Diphenhydramine \"Diphenhydramine\") or [hydroxyzine](/wiki/Hydroxyzine \"Hydroxyzine\"), are not recommended as a first line therapy as they block both brain and peripheral H1 receptors, causing sedation. [Second\\-generation antihistamines](/wiki/H1_antagonist%23Second-generation_and_third-generation_%28selective%29 \"H1 antagonist#Second-generation and third-generation (selective)\"), such as [loratadine](/wiki/Loratadine \"Loratadine\"), [cetirizine](/wiki/Cetirizine \"Cetirizine\"), [fexofenadine](/wiki/Fexofenadine \"Fexofenadine\") or [desloratadine](/wiki/Desloratadine \"Desloratadine\"), selectively antagonize peripheral H1 receptors, and are less sedating, less [anticholinergic](/wiki/Anticholinergic \"Anticholinergic\"), and generally preferred over the first\\-generation antihistamines.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Zuberbier\\|first1\\=T\\|title\\=A Summary of the New International EAACI/GA2LEN/EDF/WAO Guidelines in Urticaria.\\|journal\\=The World Allergy Organization Journal\\|date\\=January 2012\\|volume\\=5\\|issue\\=Suppl 1\\|pages\\=S1\\-5\\|doi\\=10\\.1097/WOX.0b013e3181f13432\\|pmc\\=3488932 \\|pmid\\=23282889\\|doi\\-access\\=free}}{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Sharma\\|first1\\=M\\|last2\\=Bennett\\|first2\\=C\\|last3\\=Cohen\\|first3\\=SN\\|last4\\=Carter\\|first4\\=B\\|title\\=H1\\-antihistamines for chronic spontaneous urticaria.\\|journal\\=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews\\|date\\=14 November 2014\\|volume\\=2017\\|issue\\=11\\|pages\\=CD006137\\|doi\\=10\\.1002/14651858\\.CD006137\\.pub2\\|pmid\\=25397904\\|pmc\\=6481497}} Fexofenadine, a new\\-generation antihistamine that blocks histamine H1 receptors, may be less sedating than some second\\-generation antihistamines.{{cite journal \\| last1\\=Huang \\| first1\\=Cheng\\-zhi \\| last2\\=Jiang \\| first2\\=Zhi\\-hui \\| last3\\=Wang \\| first3\\=Jian \\| last4\\=Luo \\| first4\\=Yue \\| last5\\=Peng \\| first5\\=Hua \\| title\\=Antihistamine effects and safety of fexofenadine: a systematic review and meta\\-analysis of randomized controlled trials \\| journal\\=BMC Pharmacology and Toxicology \\| volume\\=20 \\| issue\\=1 \\| date\\=29 November 2019 \\| pages\\=72 \\| issn\\=2050\\-6511 \\| pmid\\=31783781 \\| pmc\\=6884918 \\| doi\\=10\\.1186/s40360\\-019\\-0363\\-1 \\| doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"People who do not respond to the maximum dose of H1 antihistamines may benefit from increasing the dose further, then to switching to another non\\-sedating antihistamine, then to adding a [leukotriene antagonist](/wiki/Leukotriene_antagonist \"Leukotriene antagonist\"), then to using an older antihistamine, then to using systemic steroids and finally to using [ciclosporin](/wiki/Ciclosporin \"Ciclosporin\") or [omalizumab](/wiki/Omalizumab \"Omalizumab\"). Steroids are often associated with rebound hives once discontinued.",
"[H2\\-receptor antagonists](/wiki/H2-receptor_antagonists \"H2-receptor antagonists\") are sometimes used in addition to H1\\-antagonists to treat urticaria, but there is limited evidence for their efficacy.{{cite journal \\|last1\\=Fedorowicz \\|first1\\=Zbys \\|last2\\=van Zuuren \\|first2\\=Esther J \\|last3\\=Hu \\|first3\\=Nianfang \\|title\\=Histamine H2\\-receptor antagonists for urticaria \\|journal\\=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews \\|date\\=14 March 2012 \\|volume\\=2015 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=CD008596 \\|doi\\=10\\.1002/14651858\\.CD008596\\.pub2 \\|pmid\\=22419335 \\|pmc\\=7390502 }}",
"### Systemic steroids",
"Oral glucocorticoids are effective in controlling symptoms of chronic hives. However, they have an extensive list of adverse effects, such as adrenal suppression, weight gain, osteoporosis, hyperglycemia, etc. Therefore, their use should be limited to a couple of weeks. In addition, one study found that systemic glucocorticoids combined with antihistamines did not hasten the time to symptom control compared with antihistamines alone.{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Kim S, Baek S, Shin B, Yoon SY, Park SY, Lee T, Lee YS, Bae YJ, Kwon HS, Cho YS, Moon HB, Kim TB \\| year \\= 2013 \\| title \\= Influence of initial treatment modality on long\\-term control of chronic idiopathic urticaria \\| journal \\= PLOS ONE \\| volume \\= 8 \\| issue \\= 7\\| page \\= e69345 \\| doi\\=10\\.1371/journal.pone.0069345 \\| pmid\\=23935990 \\| pmc\\=3720657\\| bibcode \\= 2013PLoSO...869345K \\| doi\\-access \\= free }}",
"### Leukotriene\\-receptor antagonists",
"Leukotrienes are released from mast cells along with histamine. The medications, montelukast and zafirlukast block leukotriene receptors and can be used as add on treatment or in isolation for people with CU. It is important to note that these medications may be more beneficial for people with NSAID induced CU.{{cite journal \\| author \\= AU Erbagci Z SO \\| year \\= 2002 \\| title \\= The leukotriene receptor antagonist montelukast in the treatment of chronic idiopathic urticaria: a single\\-blind, placebo\\-controlled, crossover clinical study \\| journal \\= J Allergy Clin Immunol \\| volume \\= 110 \\| issue \\= 3\\| pages \\= 484–488 \\| doi\\=10\\.1067/mai.2002\\.126676\\| pmid \\= 12209099 }}{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Pacor ML, Di Lorenzo G, Corrocher R \\| year \\= 2001 \\| title \\= Efficacy of leukotriene receptor antagonist in chronic urticaria. A double\\-blind, placebo\\-controlled comparison of treatment with montelukast and cetirizine in patients with chronic urticaria with intolerance to food additive and/or acetylsalicylic acid \\| journal \\= Clin Exp Allergy \\| volume \\= 31 \\| issue \\= 10\\| pages \\= 1607–1614 \\| doi\\=10\\.1046/j.1365\\-2222\\.2001\\.01189\\.x\\| pmid \\= 11678862 \\| s2cid \\= 33770584 }}",
"### Other",
"Other options for refractory symptoms of chronic hives include anti\\-inflammatory medications, omalizumab, and immunosuppressants.\nPotential anti\\-inflammatory agents include dapsone, sulfasalazine, and hydroxychloroquine. Dapsone is a sulfone antimicrobial agent and is thought to suppress prostaglandin and leukotriene activity. It is helpful in therapy\\-refractory cases{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=Boehm I, etal \\| date \\= Jul 1999 \\| title \\= Urticaria treated with dapsone \\| journal \\= Allergy \\| volume \\= 54 \\| issue \\= 7\\| pages \\= 765–6 \\| doi\\=10\\.1034/j.1398\\-9995\\.1999\\.00187\\.x\\| pmid \\= 10442538 \\| s2cid \\= 40767363 }} and is contraindicated in people with G6PD deficiency. Sulfasalazine, a 5\\-ASA derivative, is thought to alter adenosine release and inhibit IgE mediated mast cell degranulation, Sulfasalazine is a good option for people with anemia who cannot take dapsone. Hydroxychloroquine is an antimalarial agent that suppresses T lymphocytes. It has a low cost however it takes longer than dapsone or sulfasalazine to work.",
"[Omalizumab](/wiki/Omalizumab \"Omalizumab\") was approved by the FDA in 2014 for people with hives 12 years old and above with chronic hives. It is a monoclonal antibody directed against IgE. Significant improvement in pruritus and quality of life was observed in a phase III, multicenter, randomized control trial.{{cite journal \\|doi\\=10\\.1056/NEJMoa1215372 \\|title\\=Omalizumab for the Treatment of Chronic Idiopathic or Spontaneous Urticaria \\|year\\=2013 \\|last1\\=Maurer \\|first1\\=Marcus \\|last2\\=Rosén \\|first2\\=Karin \\|last3\\=Hsieh \\|first3\\=Hsin\\-Ju \\|last4\\=Saini \\|first4\\=Sarbjit \\|last5\\=Grattan \\|first5\\=Clive \\|last6\\=Gimenéz\\-Arnau \\|first6\\=Ana \\|last7\\=Agarwal \\|first7\\=Sunil \\|last8\\=Doyle \\|first8\\=Ramona \\|last9\\=Canvin \\|first9\\=Janice \\|last10\\=Kaplan \\|first10\\=Allen \\|last11\\=Casale \\|first11\\=Thomas \\|journal\\=New England Journal of Medicine \\|volume\\=368 \\|issue\\=10 \\|pages\\=924–35 \\|pmid\\=23432142\\|doi\\-access\\=free }}",
"Immunosuppressants used for CU include cyclosporine, tacrolimus, sirolimus, and mycophenolate. Calcineurin inhibitors, such as cyclosporine and tacrolimus, inhibit cell responsiveness to mast cell products and inhibit T cell activity. They are preferred by some experts to treat severe symptoms.{{cite journal \\| author \\= Kaplan AP \\| year \\= 2009 \\| title \\= What the first 10,000 patients with chronic urticaria have taught me: a personal journey \\| journal \\= J Allergy Clin Immunol \\| volume \\= 123 \\| issue \\= 3\\| pages \\= 713–717 \\| doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jaci.2008\\.10\\.050\\| pmid \\= 19081615 \\| doi\\-access \\= free }} Sirolimus and mycophenolate have less evidence for their use in the treatment of chronic hives but reports have shown them to be efficacious.{{cite journal \\| author \\= Morgan M \\| year \\= 2009 \\| title \\= Treatment of refractory chronic urticaria with sirolimus \\| journal \\= Arch Dermatol \\| volume \\= 145 \\| issue \\= 6\\| pages \\= 637–9 \\| doi\\=10\\.1001/archdermatol.2009\\.13 \\| pmid\\=19528416}}{{cite journal \\|vauthors\\=AU Shahar E, Bergman R, Guttman\\-Yassky E, Pollack S \\| year \\= 2006 \\| title \\= Treatment of severe chronic idiopathic urticaria with oral mycophenolate mofetil in patients not responding to antihistamines and/or corticosteroids \\| journal \\= Int J Dermatol \\| volume \\= 45 \\| issue \\= 10\\| pages \\= 1224–1227 \\| doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1365\\-4632\\.2006\\.02655\\.x\\| pmid \\= 17040448 \\| s2cid \\= 19744425 }} Immunosuppressants are generally reserved as the last line of therapy for severe cases due to their potential for serious adverse effects.",
""
] |
Process
-------
[thumb\|Diagram of internal mechanism and paper flow in a Risograph](/wiki/File:Riso_animacia2.jpg "Riso animacia2.jpg")
The underlying technology is very similar to a [mimeograph](/wiki/Mimeograph "Mimeograph"). It brings together several processes which were previously carried out manually, for example using the Riso Print [Gocco](/wiki/Gocco "Gocco") system or the [Gestetner](/wiki/Gestetner "Gestetner") system.
This simple technology is highly reliable compared to a standard photocopier and can achieve both very high speed (typically 150 pages per minute) and very low costs per copy when copying more than 100 copies.{{citation\|last\=Romano\|first\=Frank J.\|title\=Digital Printing\|pages\=165–169\|year\=2000\|chapter\=Stencil Duplicating\|isbn\=978\-1\-893190\-01\-6}} A good lifespan for a risograph might involve making 100,000 masters and 5,000,000 copies.
Risograph printers use a [soy ink](/wiki/Soy_ink "Soy ink") made from vegetable soybean oil. One disadvantage of this soy based ink printing medium is that all paper stock has to be uncoated for the ink to dry and adhere to the paper stock.
Because the process involves real ink like in [offset printing](/wiki/Offset_printing "Offset printing"), and does not require heat to fix the image on the paper that a photocopier or laser printer does, the output from a risograph can be treated like any offset\-printed material. This means that sheets which have been through a risograph may be fed through a laser printer afterwards and vice versa.
Risographs have typically had interchangeable color inks and drums allowing for printing in different colors or using spot color in a single print job. The Riso MZ series models have two ink drums, thereby allowing two colors to be printed in one pass.
|
[
"Process\n-------",
"[thumb\\|Diagram of internal mechanism and paper flow in a Risograph](/wiki/File:Riso_animacia2.jpg \"Riso animacia2.jpg\")",
"The underlying technology is very similar to a [mimeograph](/wiki/Mimeograph \"Mimeograph\"). It brings together several processes which were previously carried out manually, for example using the Riso Print [Gocco](/wiki/Gocco \"Gocco\") system or the [Gestetner](/wiki/Gestetner \"Gestetner\") system.",
"This simple technology is highly reliable compared to a standard photocopier and can achieve both very high speed (typically 150 pages per minute) and very low costs per copy when copying more than 100 copies.{{citation\\|last\\=Romano\\|first\\=Frank J.\\|title\\=Digital Printing\\|pages\\=165–169\\|year\\=2000\\|chapter\\=Stencil Duplicating\\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-893190\\-01\\-6}} A good lifespan for a risograph might involve making 100,000 masters and 5,000,000 copies.",
"Risograph printers use a [soy ink](/wiki/Soy_ink \"Soy ink\") made from vegetable soybean oil. One disadvantage of this soy based ink printing medium is that all paper stock has to be uncoated for the ink to dry and adhere to the paper stock.",
"Because the process involves real ink like in [offset printing](/wiki/Offset_printing \"Offset printing\"), and does not require heat to fix the image on the paper that a photocopier or laser printer does, the output from a risograph can be treated like any offset\\-printed material. This means that sheets which have been through a risograph may be fed through a laser printer afterwards and vice versa.",
"Risographs have typically had interchangeable color inks and drums allowing for printing in different colors or using spot color in a single print job. The Riso MZ series models have two ink drums, thereby allowing two colors to be printed in one pass.",
""
] |
Plot
----
In 1871, William Blake, a wealthy man suffering from [leprosy](/wiki/Leprosy "Leprosy") arranges to purchase half of Antonio Island, off the coast of [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon "Oregon"), to establish a [leper colony](/wiki/Leper_colony "Leper colony") for his afflicted people. However, island residents Patrick Malone, Norman Castle, Richard Wayne and David Williams [double cross](/wiki/Betrayal%23Double_cross "Betrayal#Double cross") Blake. During a foggy night, they loot his [clipper ship](/wiki/Clipper "Clipper"), the *Elizabeth Dane*, and set it on fire, killing all aboard. As they escape, Williams is dragged into the sea by a spirit, much to the shock of the other men.
134 years later, the residents of Antonio Island prepare to honor their founding fathers \- unaware they were the same men who burned the *Elizabeth Dane* – and a statue of them is to be unveiled on the town's anniversary. During a boating trip, Nick Castle and his friend Spooner unwittingly disturb a bag containing a [pocket watch](/wiki/Pocket_watch "Pocket watch") and a hairbrush from the *Elizabeth Dane* lying on the seabed.
That night, Nick meets his former girlfriend, Elizabeth Williams, who has returned after six months. Elizabeth is shown the antique pocket watch by Machen, an old man who found it washed up on the beach. He warns her ominously "*if you touch it, things will change*". The watch begins ticking as Elizabeth holds it. She sees a [hallmark](/wiki/Hallmark "Hallmark") on it, which includes a set of scales. Later, supernatural occurrences start to plague the town. Objects move by themselves, power outages occur, and the windows in Nick's truck inexplicably shatter.
Nick and Elizabeth then encounter drunken priest Father Malone, who is ranting about murderers and retribution. Meanwhile, at the local radio station, host Stevie Wayne gets a phone call from weatherman Dan about a large fog bank off the coast. Out at sea on Nick's boat, Spooner and Nick's cousin Sean are partying with two young women, Mandi and Jennifer. As the fog reaches them, the boat's engine stops, and the instruments break. An old clipper ship appears in the fog next to them. Seemingly possessed, Jennifer draws a set of scales on a misted window inside the boat. Unseen forces then kill Mandi, Jennifer, and Sean. At Nick's beach house, Elizabeth has been dreaming about the *Elizabeth Dane*. She searches the Internet for information about the hallmark symbol she saw earlier, but her computer malfunctions, and the word "Dane" appears on the screen. She hears a knock at the front door, goes outside but finds nothing. As she walks down to the beach, the fog begins approaching, but Nick brings her back inside.
The next day, Nick's Uncle Hank telephones him about the disappearance of his boat. Nick and Elizabeth sail out and find the vessel and the three corpses. Elizabeth goes into the hold and finds Spooner alive in a freezer. They return to the island where Mayor Tom Malone – Father Malone's father – suspects Spooner of the murders. In the morgue, Sean's corpse briefly rises up and accosts Elizabeth. At the library, Elizabeth researches the scales symbol seen on the watch's hallmark. It represented an old [trading colony](/wiki/Trading_post "Trading post") north of Antonio Island, which generated substantial wealth through intercontinental trade but was abandoned due to a leprosy outbreak. At the docks, Elizabeth finds the buried journal of Patrick Malone from 1871\. She and Nick learn the story of the *Elizabeth Dane* and realize the founders built the town with the fortune they had stolen from the ship, but kept this secret from their families and the townsfolk.
The ghosts of the *Elizabeth Dane* seek revenge against Antonio Island's residents for the past crimes of its founding fathers. After killing Machen on the beach and Dan at the weather station, they pursue Stevie's son Andy and his Aunt Connie at home. Connie is killed, but Nick and Elizabeth rescue Andy. In her car, Stevie is also attacked, but she escapes. They travel to the Town Hall where they discover the founding father’s crimes against the people on the *Elizabeth Dane*.
The spirits attack the hall, and kill Hank Castle, Kathy Williams, and the Malones. The ghost of Blake then sees Elizabeth. Despite being a descendant of David Williams, Elizabeth is the reincarnation of Blake's wife and was one of her ancestor's victims, hence her mysterious dreams about the *Elizabeth Dane*. Blake kisses Elizabeth, she transforms into a spirit and disappears as Nick watches helplessly. The next day, the survivors try to cope with their traumatic experiences and the truth about their ancestors. As Stevie reflects on the night's events with her listeners, Nick throws Patrick Malone's journal into the sea.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In 1871, William Blake, a wealthy man suffering from [leprosy](/wiki/Leprosy \"Leprosy\") arranges to purchase half of Antonio Island, off the coast of [Oregon](/wiki/Oregon \"Oregon\"), to establish a [leper colony](/wiki/Leper_colony \"Leper colony\") for his afflicted people. However, island residents Patrick Malone, Norman Castle, Richard Wayne and David Williams [double cross](/wiki/Betrayal%23Double_cross \"Betrayal#Double cross\") Blake. During a foggy night, they loot his [clipper ship](/wiki/Clipper \"Clipper\"), the *Elizabeth Dane*, and set it on fire, killing all aboard. As they escape, Williams is dragged into the sea by a spirit, much to the shock of the other men.",
"134 years later, the residents of Antonio Island prepare to honor their founding fathers \\- unaware they were the same men who burned the *Elizabeth Dane* – and a statue of them is to be unveiled on the town's anniversary. During a boating trip, Nick Castle and his friend Spooner unwittingly disturb a bag containing a [pocket watch](/wiki/Pocket_watch \"Pocket watch\") and a hairbrush from the *Elizabeth Dane* lying on the seabed.",
"That night, Nick meets his former girlfriend, Elizabeth Williams, who has returned after six months. Elizabeth is shown the antique pocket watch by Machen, an old man who found it washed up on the beach. He warns her ominously \"*if you touch it, things will change*\". The watch begins ticking as Elizabeth holds it. She sees a [hallmark](/wiki/Hallmark \"Hallmark\") on it, which includes a set of scales. Later, supernatural occurrences start to plague the town. Objects move by themselves, power outages occur, and the windows in Nick's truck inexplicably shatter.",
"Nick and Elizabeth then encounter drunken priest Father Malone, who is ranting about murderers and retribution. Meanwhile, at the local radio station, host Stevie Wayne gets a phone call from weatherman Dan about a large fog bank off the coast. Out at sea on Nick's boat, Spooner and Nick's cousin Sean are partying with two young women, Mandi and Jennifer. As the fog reaches them, the boat's engine stops, and the instruments break. An old clipper ship appears in the fog next to them. Seemingly possessed, Jennifer draws a set of scales on a misted window inside the boat. Unseen forces then kill Mandi, Jennifer, and Sean. At Nick's beach house, Elizabeth has been dreaming about the *Elizabeth Dane*. She searches the Internet for information about the hallmark symbol she saw earlier, but her computer malfunctions, and the word \"Dane\" appears on the screen. She hears a knock at the front door, goes outside but finds nothing. As she walks down to the beach, the fog begins approaching, but Nick brings her back inside.",
"The next day, Nick's Uncle Hank telephones him about the disappearance of his boat. Nick and Elizabeth sail out and find the vessel and the three corpses. Elizabeth goes into the hold and finds Spooner alive in a freezer. They return to the island where Mayor Tom Malone – Father Malone's father – suspects Spooner of the murders. In the morgue, Sean's corpse briefly rises up and accosts Elizabeth. At the library, Elizabeth researches the scales symbol seen on the watch's hallmark. It represented an old [trading colony](/wiki/Trading_post \"Trading post\") north of Antonio Island, which generated substantial wealth through intercontinental trade but was abandoned due to a leprosy outbreak. At the docks, Elizabeth finds the buried journal of Patrick Malone from 1871\\. She and Nick learn the story of the *Elizabeth Dane* and realize the founders built the town with the fortune they had stolen from the ship, but kept this secret from their families and the townsfolk.",
"The ghosts of the *Elizabeth Dane* seek revenge against Antonio Island's residents for the past crimes of its founding fathers. After killing Machen on the beach and Dan at the weather station, they pursue Stevie's son Andy and his Aunt Connie at home. Connie is killed, but Nick and Elizabeth rescue Andy. In her car, Stevie is also attacked, but she escapes. They travel to the Town Hall where they discover the founding father’s crimes against the people on the *Elizabeth Dane*.",
"The spirits attack the hall, and kill Hank Castle, Kathy Williams, and the Malones. The ghost of Blake then sees Elizabeth. Despite being a descendant of David Williams, Elizabeth is the reincarnation of Blake's wife and was one of her ancestor's victims, hence her mysterious dreams about the *Elizabeth Dane*. Blake kisses Elizabeth, she transforms into a spirit and disappears as Nick watches helplessly. The next day, the survivors try to cope with their traumatic experiences and the truth about their ancestors. As Stevie reflects on the night's events with her listeners, Nick throws Patrick Malone's journal into the sea.",
""
] |
Early career
------------
After early partnerships with Australians Kiah Pilz and Rachael Reading, Guerreiro competed on the Russian regional level with Daria Panfilova. He teamed up with [Ekaterina Riazanova](/wiki/Ekaterina_Riazanova "Ekaterina Riazanova") in the summer of 2006\. They competed together for three seasons and won the bronze medal at the [2009 World Junior Championships](/wiki/2009_World_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships "2009 World Junior Figure Skating Championships"). They were coached by [Elena Kustarova](/wiki/Elena_Kustarova "Elena Kustarova") and [Svetlana Alexeeva](/wiki/Svetlana_Alekseeva_%28figure_skater%29 "Svetlana Alekseeva (figure skater)") at Blue Bird FSC in Moscow. Shortly after the 2009 Junior Worlds, Riazanova ended the partnership to skate with [Ilia Tkachenko](/wiki/Ilia_Tkachenko "Ilia Tkachenko").
### Partnership with Pushkash
#### Junior career
Coaches [Irina Zhuk](/wiki/Irina_Zhuk "Irina Zhuk") and [Alexander Svinin](/wiki/Alexander_Svinin "Alexander Svinin") arranged a tryout with [Ekaterina Pushkash](/wiki/Ekaterina_Pushkash "Ekaterina Pushkash") and they teamed up in May 2009\. They finished fifth at the [2009–10 Junior Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2009–10 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final") and won the bronze medal at the [2010 Russian Junior Championships](/wiki/2010_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships "2010 Russian Figure Skating Championships"). At the end of the season, they switched coaches to [Natalia Linichuk](/wiki/Natalia_Linichuk "Natalia Linichuk") and [Gennadi Karponossov](/wiki/Gennadi_Karponossov "Gennadi Karponossov"), which required them to move to [Aston, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Aston_Township%2C_Pennsylvania "Aston Township, Pennsylvania") in the United States.
During the 2010–11 season, they finished fourth at the [JGP Final](/wiki/2010%E2%80%932011_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2010–2011 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final"). At the [2011 Russian Junior Championships](/wiki/2011_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships "2011 Russian Figure Skating Championships"), they won the silver medal and were assigned to the [World Junior Championships](/wiki/2011_World_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships "2011 World Junior Figure Skating Championships") where they won silver.
#### Senior career
Pushkash and Guerreiro moved up to the senior level for the [2011–12 season](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_figure_skating_season "2011–12 figure skating season"). Guerreiro fractured his left foot in training in June 2011, causing them to miss a few weeks of training. They competed at two [Grand Prix](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "2011–12 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating") events, [2011 Skate Canada](/wiki/2011_Skate_Canada_International "2011 Skate Canada International") and [2011 Cup of Russia](/wiki/2011_Cup_of_Russia "2011 Cup of Russia"). At the end of the season, they changed coaches to [Nikolai Morozov](/wiki/Nikolai_Morozov_%28figure_skater%29 "Nikolai Morozov (figure skater)") in Moscow.
Prior to the 2013–14 season, Pushkash and Guerreiro began training with [Anjelika Krylova](/wiki/Anjelika_Krylova "Anjelika Krylova") and [Pasquale Camerlengo](/wiki/Pasquale_Camerlengo "Pasquale Camerlengo") in [Bloomfield Hills, Michigan](/wiki/Bloomfield_Hills%2C_Michigan "Bloomfield Hills, Michigan"). They ended their partnership at the end of the season.
|
[
"Early career\n------------",
"After early partnerships with Australians Kiah Pilz and Rachael Reading, Guerreiro competed on the Russian regional level with Daria Panfilova. He teamed up with [Ekaterina Riazanova](/wiki/Ekaterina_Riazanova \"Ekaterina Riazanova\") in the summer of 2006\\. They competed together for three seasons and won the bronze medal at the [2009 World Junior Championships](/wiki/2009_World_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2009 World Junior Figure Skating Championships\"). They were coached by [Elena Kustarova](/wiki/Elena_Kustarova \"Elena Kustarova\") and [Svetlana Alexeeva](/wiki/Svetlana_Alekseeva_%28figure_skater%29 \"Svetlana Alekseeva (figure skater)\") at Blue Bird FSC in Moscow. Shortly after the 2009 Junior Worlds, Riazanova ended the partnership to skate with [Ilia Tkachenko](/wiki/Ilia_Tkachenko \"Ilia Tkachenko\").",
"### Partnership with Pushkash",
"#### Junior career",
"Coaches [Irina Zhuk](/wiki/Irina_Zhuk \"Irina Zhuk\") and [Alexander Svinin](/wiki/Alexander_Svinin \"Alexander Svinin\") arranged a tryout with [Ekaterina Pushkash](/wiki/Ekaterina_Pushkash \"Ekaterina Pushkash\") and they teamed up in May 2009\\. They finished fifth at the [2009–10 Junior Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2009%E2%80%9310_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2009–10 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\") and won the bronze medal at the [2010 Russian Junior Championships](/wiki/2010_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2010 Russian Figure Skating Championships\"). At the end of the season, they switched coaches to [Natalia Linichuk](/wiki/Natalia_Linichuk \"Natalia Linichuk\") and [Gennadi Karponossov](/wiki/Gennadi_Karponossov \"Gennadi Karponossov\"), which required them to move to [Aston, Pennsylvania](/wiki/Aston_Township%2C_Pennsylvania \"Aston Township, Pennsylvania\") in the United States.",
"During the 2010–11 season, they finished fourth at the [JGP Final](/wiki/2010%E2%80%932011_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2010–2011 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\"). At the [2011 Russian Junior Championships](/wiki/2011_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2011 Russian Figure Skating Championships\"), they won the silver medal and were assigned to the [World Junior Championships](/wiki/2011_World_Junior_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2011 World Junior Figure Skating Championships\") where they won silver.",
"#### Senior career",
"Pushkash and Guerreiro moved up to the senior level for the [2011–12 season](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_figure_skating_season \"2011–12 figure skating season\"). Guerreiro fractured his left foot in training in June 2011, causing them to miss a few weeks of training. They competed at two [Grand Prix](/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"2011–12 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") events, [2011 Skate Canada](/wiki/2011_Skate_Canada_International \"2011 Skate Canada International\") and [2011 Cup of Russia](/wiki/2011_Cup_of_Russia \"2011 Cup of Russia\"). At the end of the season, they changed coaches to [Nikolai Morozov](/wiki/Nikolai_Morozov_%28figure_skater%29 \"Nikolai Morozov (figure skater)\") in Moscow.",
"Prior to the 2013–14 season, Pushkash and Guerreiro began training with [Anjelika Krylova](/wiki/Anjelika_Krylova \"Anjelika Krylova\") and [Pasquale Camerlengo](/wiki/Pasquale_Camerlengo \"Pasquale Camerlengo\") in [Bloomfield Hills, Michigan](/wiki/Bloomfield_Hills%2C_Michigan \"Bloomfield Hills, Michigan\"). They ended their partnership at the end of the season.",
""
] |
Partnership with Zahorski
-------------------------
### 2014–15 season
In 2014, Guerreiro formed a partnership with French ice dancer [Tiffany Zahorski](/wiki/Tiffany_Zahorski "Tiffany Zahorski"), coached by [Alexander Zhulin](/wiki/Alexander_Zhulin "Alexander Zhulin"). In July 2014, the Russian Federation asked the French Skating Federation (FFSG) to release her to skate for Russia. They placed fifth at the [2015 Russian Championships](/wiki/2015_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships "2015 Russian Figure Skating Championships").
### 2015–16 season
The FFSG released Zahorski in October 2015, three years and nine months after her last competition for France, allowing Zahorski/Guerreiro to appear for Russia internationally. The two made their international debut at the 2015 [Santa Claus Cup](/wiki/Santa_Claus_Cup "Santa Claus Cup"), winning the gold medal. They finished fifth at the [2016 Russian Championships](/wiki/2016_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships "2016 Russian Figure Skating Championships").
### 2016–17 season
In the 2016–17 season, Zahorski/Guerreiro won the bronze medal at the [2016 CS Ondrej Nepela Memorial](/wiki/2016_CS_Ondrej_Nepela_Memorial "2016 CS Ondrej Nepela Memorial") after placing third in both segments and earning a new personal best total score of 165\.64 points. They received another bronze medal in their next event, the [2016 CS Finlandia Trophy](/wiki/2016_CS_Finlandia_Trophy "2016 CS Finlandia Trophy"). They then made their [Grand Prix](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "2016–17 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating") series debut at the [2016 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2016_Rostelecom_Cup "2016 Rostelecom Cup") where they placed fifth. A few weeks later they won their third CS medal of the season, the silver at the [2016 CS Warsaw Cup](/wiki/2016_CS_Warsaw_Cup "2016 CS Warsaw Cup") with a personal best score of 173\.02 points.
For the third consecutive year, they finished fifth at the [Russian Championships](/wiki/2017_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships "2017 Russian Figure Skating Championships"). Zahorski competed in the free dance after developing a fever.
In mid\-May 2017 Zahorski/Guerreiro changed coaches to [Elena Kustarova](/wiki/Elena_Kustarova "Elena Kustarova") and [Svetlana Alexeeva](/wiki/Svetlana_Alekseeva_%28figure_skater%29 "Svetlana Alekseeva (figure skater)"){{cite web\|url\=https://www.sports.ru/figure\-skating/1051317630\.html\|title\=Загорски и Гурейро перешли от Жулина к Кустаровой и Алексеевой\|access\-date\=21 January 2018}}
### 2017–18 season: Pyeongchang Olympics
Zahorski/Guerreiro started their season by winning the silver medal at the [2017 CS Minsk\-Arena Ice Star](/wiki/2017_CS_Minsk-Arena_Ice_Star "2017 CS Minsk-Arena Ice Star"). Competing on the [Grand Prix](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "2017–18 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating") series, they placed fourth at the [2017 Cup of China](/wiki/2017_Cup_of_China "2017 Cup of China") and sixth at the [2017 Skate America](/wiki/2017_Skate_America "2017 Skate America").
In December 2017 they won the bronze medal at the [2018 Russian Championships](/wiki/2018_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships "2018 Russian Figure Skating Championships"). A month later they placed 6th at the [2018 European Championships](/wiki/2018_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2018 European Figure Skating Championships") after placing eighth in the short dance and sixth in the free dance.
It was announced by the Russian Figure Skating Federation on 23 January 2018 that Ivan Bukin was not invited to the [2018 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2018_Winter_Olympics "2018 Winter Olympics").{{cite web\| url \= https://www.olympic.org/news/reduced\-pool\-of\-russian\-athletes\-and\-officials\-who\-can\-be\-considered\-for\-invitation\-to\-pyeongchang\-2018\-determined\| title \= Reduced pool of Russian athletes and officials who can be considered for invitation to PyeongChang 2018 determined \- Olympic News}} Because of this, Zahorski/Guerreiro were sent instead. Zahorski/Guerreiro placed thirteenth at the [2018 Winter Olympics](/wiki/Figure_skating_at_the_2018_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Ice_dancing "Figure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics – Ice dancing"). Later they placed eighth at the [2018 World Championships](/wiki/2018_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2018 World Figure Skating Championships") with a personal best score of 180\.42 points.
### 2018–19 season
Zahorski suffered from a recurrence of a knee injury over the summer that limited the duo's training time leading up to the new season. Zahorski/Guerreiro started their season at the [2018 Skate America](/wiki/2018_Skate_America "2018 Skate America"). They ranked third in the rhythm dance and fourth in the free dance, placing third overall. The bronze medal was their first [Grand Prix](/wiki/ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating") medal. Guerreiro said: "We haven't had this many free dance run\-throughs under our belts, so we just kind of prayed and hoped for the best. Overall, it's a good start." In early November Zahorski/Guerreiro competed at their second [Grand Prix](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "2018–19 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating") event of the season, the [2018 NHK Trophy](/wiki/2018_NHK_Trophy "2018 NHK Trophy"), where they won the silver medal with a personal best score of 183\.05 points.
With one Grand Prix silver medal and one bronze medal they qualified for the [2018–19 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2018%E2%80%932019_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final "2018–2019 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final"), where they finished fifth.
At the [2019 Russian Championships](/wiki/2019_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships "2019 Russian Figure Skating Championships"), Zahorski/Guerreiro placed third in the rhythm dance, several points behind the top two teams but more than three points ahead of fourth\-place finishers [Sofia Evdokimova](/wiki/Sofia_Evdokimova "Sofia Evdokimova") / [Egor Bazin](/wiki/Egor_Bazin "Egor Bazin"). The team had major problems in the free dance, with Guerreiro's boot laces coming undone early on, and Zahorski making errors on both her twizzles and the one\-foot step sequence. Consequently, they dropped to seventh place in the free dance and overall, and were not named to the Russian team to the [European Championships](/wiki/2019_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2019 European Figure Skating Championships").
### 2019–20 season
Zahorski tore the [meniscus](/wiki/Meniscus_%28anatomy%29 "Meniscus (anatomy)") in her knee late in the summer, causing the team to lose significant training time.
Zahorski/Guerreiro debuted their programs at the Russian test skates, citing their "[Survivor](/wiki/Survivor_%28Destiny%27s_Child_song%29 "Survivor (Destiny's Child song)")" free dance as having been chosen to differentiate themselves from the prevailing lyrical style of skating. They did not compete a [Challenger](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_ISU_Challenger_Series "2019–20 ISU Challenger Series") event, and made their return to the [Grand Prix](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "2019–20 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating") at [2019 Skate America](/wiki/2019_Skate_America "2019 Skate America"), where they placed fifth. They were fifth as well at the [2019 Internationaux de France](/wiki/2019_Internationaux_de_France "2019 Internationaux de France").
Competing at the [2020 Russian Championships](/wiki/2020_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships "2020 Russian Figure Skating Championships"), Zahorski/Guerreiro placed third in the rhythm dance. Third in the free dance as well, they returned to the national podium as bronze medalists. Zahorski said "before this competition, we actually got in training. We had a good two and a half weeks of training, so hopefully, going into Europeans, we'll add more and it will be much better." At the [2020 European Championships](/wiki/2020_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2020 European Figure Skating Championships"), they placed fourth in the fifth in the rhythm dance, but dropped to sixth place after the free dance. They had been assigned to compete at the [World Championships](/wiki/2020_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2020 World Figure Skating Championships") in [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal "Montreal"), but these were cancelled as a result of the [COVID\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic "COVID-19 pandemic").
### 2020–21 season
Zahorski contracted a mild case of [COVID\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 "COVID-19") in the off\-season, but the team nevertheless debuted at the senior test skates. They competed in the third stage of the Cup of Russia series in [Sochi](/wiki/Sochi "Sochi"), beating [Khudaiberdieva](/wiki/Elizaveta_Khudaiberdieva "Elizaveta Khudaiberdieva")/[Bazin](/wiki/Egor_Bazin "Egor Bazin") for gold by 4\.02 points.
With the [Grand Prix](/wiki/2020-21_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "2020-21 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating") assigned based primarily on geographic location, Zahorski/Guerreiro competed at the [2020 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2020_Rostelecom_Cup "2020 Rostelecom Cup"), coming second in the short program. They were second in the free dance as well, taking the silver medal.
Two\-time defending national champions [Sinitsina](/wiki/Victoria_Sinitsina "Victoria Sinitsina")/[Katsalapov](/wiki/Nikita_Katsalapov "Nikita Katsalapov") sat out the [2021 Russian Championships](/wiki/2021_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships "2021 Russian Figure Skating Championships"), making Zahorski/Guerreiro the presumptive silver medalists behind [Stepanova](/wiki/Alexandra_Stepanova "Alexandra Stepanova")/[Bukin](/wiki/Ivan_Bukin "Ivan Bukin"). They indeed placed second in both programs, taking another silver medal. While the [2021 European Championships](/wiki/2021_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2021 European Figure Skating Championships") had already been cancelled due to the pandemic, and assignments for the [2021 World Championships](/wiki/2021_World_Figure_Skating_Championships "2021 World Figure Skating Championships") other than the national champions were withheld pending later domestic results.
Following the national championships, Zahorski/Guerreiro participated in the [2021 Channel One Trophy](/wiki/2021_Channel_One_Trophy "2021 Channel One Trophy"), a televised team competition held in lieu of the cancelled [European Championships](/wiki/2021_European_Figure_Skating_Championships "2021 European Figure Skating Championships"). They were selected for the Red Machine team captained by [Alina Zagitova](/wiki/Alina_Zagitova "Alina Zagitova"). They placed second in both their segments of the competition, while their team finished in first overall. They did not participate in the Russian Cup Final.
### 2021–22 season
The team's preparations for the new season were hindered by Guerreiro contracting COVID\-19 over the summer. As a result of this, their new free dance was not ready for debut by the Russian test skates, and they performed their rhythm dance twice. They subsequently withdrew from their first [Grand Prix](/wiki/2021-22_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating "2021-22 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating") assignment, the [2021 Skate America](/wiki/2021_Skate_America "2021 Skate America"). On October 14, Guerreiro and Zahorski's coach Svetlana Alekseeva told [TASS](/wiki/TASS "TASS") that Zahorski was in an infectious diseases hospital.
Returning to competition for the [2022 Russian Championships](/wiki/2022_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships "2022 Russian Figure Skating Championships"), Zahorski/Guerreiro were fourth in the rhythm dance, 4\.60 points behind the newcomers [Davis](/wiki/Diana_Davis "Diana Davis")/[Smolkin](/wiki/Gleb_Smolkin "Gleb Smolkin"), a result which attracted audible boos from audience members in [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg "Saint Petersburg"). However, they struggled through the free dance, with Zahorski immediately going to the medical room upon leaving the ice, and dropped to eighth position overall. Guerreiro said afterward "we wanted to fight for a spot on the Olympic team and we knew it would be a hard competition. Tiffani skated well in the rhythm dance, but today it was just physically not possible."
In the fall of 2022, Guerreiro announced that he and Zahorski would take indefinite time off from competing to allow Zahorski to recover from her longstanding illness.
Zahorski/Guerreiro officially announced their retirement on July 17, 2023\.
|
[
"Partnership with Zahorski\n-------------------------",
"### 2014–15 season",
"In 2014, Guerreiro formed a partnership with French ice dancer [Tiffany Zahorski](/wiki/Tiffany_Zahorski \"Tiffany Zahorski\"), coached by [Alexander Zhulin](/wiki/Alexander_Zhulin \"Alexander Zhulin\"). In July 2014, the Russian Federation asked the French Skating Federation (FFSG) to release her to skate for Russia. They placed fifth at the [2015 Russian Championships](/wiki/2015_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2015 Russian Figure Skating Championships\").",
"### 2015–16 season",
"The FFSG released Zahorski in October 2015, three years and nine months after her last competition for France, allowing Zahorski/Guerreiro to appear for Russia internationally. The two made their international debut at the 2015 [Santa Claus Cup](/wiki/Santa_Claus_Cup \"Santa Claus Cup\"), winning the gold medal. They finished fifth at the [2016 Russian Championships](/wiki/2016_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2016 Russian Figure Skating Championships\").",
"### 2016–17 season",
"In the 2016–17 season, Zahorski/Guerreiro won the bronze medal at the [2016 CS Ondrej Nepela Memorial](/wiki/2016_CS_Ondrej_Nepela_Memorial \"2016 CS Ondrej Nepela Memorial\") after placing third in both segments and earning a new personal best total score of 165\\.64 points. They received another bronze medal in their next event, the [2016 CS Finlandia Trophy](/wiki/2016_CS_Finlandia_Trophy \"2016 CS Finlandia Trophy\"). They then made their [Grand Prix](/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"2016–17 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") series debut at the [2016 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2016_Rostelecom_Cup \"2016 Rostelecom Cup\") where they placed fifth. A few weeks later they won their third CS medal of the season, the silver at the [2016 CS Warsaw Cup](/wiki/2016_CS_Warsaw_Cup \"2016 CS Warsaw Cup\") with a personal best score of 173\\.02 points.",
"For the third consecutive year, they finished fifth at the [Russian Championships](/wiki/2017_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2017 Russian Figure Skating Championships\"). Zahorski competed in the free dance after developing a fever.",
"In mid\\-May 2017 Zahorski/Guerreiro changed coaches to [Elena Kustarova](/wiki/Elena_Kustarova \"Elena Kustarova\") and [Svetlana Alexeeva](/wiki/Svetlana_Alekseeva_%28figure_skater%29 \"Svetlana Alekseeva (figure skater)\"){{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.sports.ru/figure\\-skating/1051317630\\.html\\|title\\=Загорски и Гурейро перешли от Жулина к Кустаровой и Алексеевой\\|access\\-date\\=21 January 2018}}",
"### 2017–18 season: Pyeongchang Olympics",
"Zahorski/Guerreiro started their season by winning the silver medal at the [2017 CS Minsk\\-Arena Ice Star](/wiki/2017_CS_Minsk-Arena_Ice_Star \"2017 CS Minsk-Arena Ice Star\"). Competing on the [Grand Prix](/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"2017–18 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") series, they placed fourth at the [2017 Cup of China](/wiki/2017_Cup_of_China \"2017 Cup of China\") and sixth at the [2017 Skate America](/wiki/2017_Skate_America \"2017 Skate America\").",
"In December 2017 they won the bronze medal at the [2018 Russian Championships](/wiki/2018_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2018 Russian Figure Skating Championships\"). A month later they placed 6th at the [2018 European Championships](/wiki/2018_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2018 European Figure Skating Championships\") after placing eighth in the short dance and sixth in the free dance.",
"It was announced by the Russian Figure Skating Federation on 23 January 2018 that Ivan Bukin was not invited to the [2018 Winter Olympics](/wiki/2018_Winter_Olympics \"2018 Winter Olympics\").{{cite web\\| url \\= https://www.olympic.org/news/reduced\\-pool\\-of\\-russian\\-athletes\\-and\\-officials\\-who\\-can\\-be\\-considered\\-for\\-invitation\\-to\\-pyeongchang\\-2018\\-determined\\| title \\= Reduced pool of Russian athletes and officials who can be considered for invitation to PyeongChang 2018 determined \\- Olympic News}} Because of this, Zahorski/Guerreiro were sent instead. Zahorski/Guerreiro placed thirteenth at the [2018 Winter Olympics](/wiki/Figure_skating_at_the_2018_Winter_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Ice_dancing \"Figure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics – Ice dancing\"). Later they placed eighth at the [2018 World Championships](/wiki/2018_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2018 World Figure Skating Championships\") with a personal best score of 180\\.42 points.",
"### 2018–19 season",
"Zahorski suffered from a recurrence of a knee injury over the summer that limited the duo's training time leading up to the new season. Zahorski/Guerreiro started their season at the [2018 Skate America](/wiki/2018_Skate_America \"2018 Skate America\"). They ranked third in the rhythm dance and fourth in the free dance, placing third overall. The bronze medal was their first [Grand Prix](/wiki/ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") medal. Guerreiro said: \"We haven't had this many free dance run\\-throughs under our belts, so we just kind of prayed and hoped for the best. Overall, it's a good start.\" In early November Zahorski/Guerreiro competed at their second [Grand Prix](/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"2018–19 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") event of the season, the [2018 NHK Trophy](/wiki/2018_NHK_Trophy \"2018 NHK Trophy\"), where they won the silver medal with a personal best score of 183\\.05 points.",
"With one Grand Prix silver medal and one bronze medal they qualified for the [2018–19 Grand Prix Final](/wiki/2018%E2%80%932019_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating_Final \"2018–2019 Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final\"), where they finished fifth.",
"At the [2019 Russian Championships](/wiki/2019_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2019 Russian Figure Skating Championships\"), Zahorski/Guerreiro placed third in the rhythm dance, several points behind the top two teams but more than three points ahead of fourth\\-place finishers [Sofia Evdokimova](/wiki/Sofia_Evdokimova \"Sofia Evdokimova\") / [Egor Bazin](/wiki/Egor_Bazin \"Egor Bazin\"). The team had major problems in the free dance, with Guerreiro's boot laces coming undone early on, and Zahorski making errors on both her twizzles and the one\\-foot step sequence. Consequently, they dropped to seventh place in the free dance and overall, and were not named to the Russian team to the [European Championships](/wiki/2019_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2019 European Figure Skating Championships\").",
"### 2019–20 season",
"Zahorski tore the [meniscus](/wiki/Meniscus_%28anatomy%29 \"Meniscus (anatomy)\") in her knee late in the summer, causing the team to lose significant training time.",
"Zahorski/Guerreiro debuted their programs at the Russian test skates, citing their \"[Survivor](/wiki/Survivor_%28Destiny%27s_Child_song%29 \"Survivor (Destiny's Child song)\")\" free dance as having been chosen to differentiate themselves from the prevailing lyrical style of skating. They did not compete a [Challenger](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_ISU_Challenger_Series \"2019–20 ISU Challenger Series\") event, and made their return to the [Grand Prix](/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"2019–20 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") at [2019 Skate America](/wiki/2019_Skate_America \"2019 Skate America\"), where they placed fifth. They were fifth as well at the [2019 Internationaux de France](/wiki/2019_Internationaux_de_France \"2019 Internationaux de France\").",
"Competing at the [2020 Russian Championships](/wiki/2020_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2020 Russian Figure Skating Championships\"), Zahorski/Guerreiro placed third in the rhythm dance. Third in the free dance as well, they returned to the national podium as bronze medalists. Zahorski said \"before this competition, we actually got in training. We had a good two and a half weeks of training, so hopefully, going into Europeans, we'll add more and it will be much better.\" At the [2020 European Championships](/wiki/2020_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2020 European Figure Skating Championships\"), they placed fourth in the fifth in the rhythm dance, but dropped to sixth place after the free dance. They had been assigned to compete at the [World Championships](/wiki/2020_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2020 World Figure Skating Championships\") in [Montreal](/wiki/Montreal \"Montreal\"), but these were cancelled as a result of the [COVID\\-19 pandemic](/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic \"COVID-19 pandemic\").",
"### 2020–21 season",
"Zahorski contracted a mild case of [COVID\\-19](/wiki/COVID-19 \"COVID-19\") in the off\\-season, but the team nevertheless debuted at the senior test skates. They competed in the third stage of the Cup of Russia series in [Sochi](/wiki/Sochi \"Sochi\"), beating [Khudaiberdieva](/wiki/Elizaveta_Khudaiberdieva \"Elizaveta Khudaiberdieva\")/[Bazin](/wiki/Egor_Bazin \"Egor Bazin\") for gold by 4\\.02 points.",
"With the [Grand Prix](/wiki/2020-21_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"2020-21 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") assigned based primarily on geographic location, Zahorski/Guerreiro competed at the [2020 Rostelecom Cup](/wiki/2020_Rostelecom_Cup \"2020 Rostelecom Cup\"), coming second in the short program. They were second in the free dance as well, taking the silver medal.",
"Two\\-time defending national champions [Sinitsina](/wiki/Victoria_Sinitsina \"Victoria Sinitsina\")/[Katsalapov](/wiki/Nikita_Katsalapov \"Nikita Katsalapov\") sat out the [2021 Russian Championships](/wiki/2021_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2021 Russian Figure Skating Championships\"), making Zahorski/Guerreiro the presumptive silver medalists behind [Stepanova](/wiki/Alexandra_Stepanova \"Alexandra Stepanova\")/[Bukin](/wiki/Ivan_Bukin \"Ivan Bukin\"). They indeed placed second in both programs, taking another silver medal. While the [2021 European Championships](/wiki/2021_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2021 European Figure Skating Championships\") had already been cancelled due to the pandemic, and assignments for the [2021 World Championships](/wiki/2021_World_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2021 World Figure Skating Championships\") other than the national champions were withheld pending later domestic results.",
"Following the national championships, Zahorski/Guerreiro participated in the [2021 Channel One Trophy](/wiki/2021_Channel_One_Trophy \"2021 Channel One Trophy\"), a televised team competition held in lieu of the cancelled [European Championships](/wiki/2021_European_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2021 European Figure Skating Championships\"). They were selected for the Red Machine team captained by [Alina Zagitova](/wiki/Alina_Zagitova \"Alina Zagitova\"). They placed second in both their segments of the competition, while their team finished in first overall. They did not participate in the Russian Cup Final.",
"### 2021–22 season",
"The team's preparations for the new season were hindered by Guerreiro contracting COVID\\-19 over the summer. As a result of this, their new free dance was not ready for debut by the Russian test skates, and they performed their rhythm dance twice. They subsequently withdrew from their first [Grand Prix](/wiki/2021-22_ISU_Grand_Prix_of_Figure_Skating \"2021-22 ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating\") assignment, the [2021 Skate America](/wiki/2021_Skate_America \"2021 Skate America\"). On October 14, Guerreiro and Zahorski's coach Svetlana Alekseeva told [TASS](/wiki/TASS \"TASS\") that Zahorski was in an infectious diseases hospital.",
"Returning to competition for the [2022 Russian Championships](/wiki/2022_Russian_Figure_Skating_Championships \"2022 Russian Figure Skating Championships\"), Zahorski/Guerreiro were fourth in the rhythm dance, 4\\.60 points behind the newcomers [Davis](/wiki/Diana_Davis \"Diana Davis\")/[Smolkin](/wiki/Gleb_Smolkin \"Gleb Smolkin\"), a result which attracted audible boos from audience members in [Saint Petersburg](/wiki/Saint_Petersburg \"Saint Petersburg\"). However, they struggled through the free dance, with Zahorski immediately going to the medical room upon leaving the ice, and dropped to eighth position overall. Guerreiro said afterward \"we wanted to fight for a spot on the Olympic team and we knew it would be a hard competition. Tiffani skated well in the rhythm dance, but today it was just physically not possible.\"",
"In the fall of 2022, Guerreiro announced that he and Zahorski would take indefinite time off from competing to allow Zahorski to recover from her longstanding illness.",
"Zahorski/Guerreiro officially announced their retirement on July 17, 2023\\.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Mayor [Wilson Fisk](/wiki/Kingpin_%28character%29 "Kingpin (character)") discovers physical evidence proving that he once knew [Daredevil](/wiki/Daredevil_%28Marvel_Comics_character%29 "Daredevil (Marvel Comics character)")'s true identity, noticing gaps in his own memory after the fact. Outraged, Mayor Fisk confronts Daredevil, who taunts him. Consequently, Mayor Fisk outlaws vigilantism in the city.
To enforce his new law, Mayor Fisk sets up Thunderbolts units. [Moon Knight](/wiki/Moon_Knight "Moon Knight"), [Danny Rand](/wiki/Iron_Fist_%28character%29 "Iron Fist (character)"), [Reed Richards](/wiki/Reed_Richards "Reed Richards"), and [Sue Storm](/wiki/Invisible_Woman "Invisible Woman") are apprehended by members of the Thunderbolts and incarcerated in the Myrmidon. [Luke Cage](/wiki/Luke_Cage "Luke Cage") speaks out against Mayor Fisk while being filmed by onlookers. Fisk visits a captured [Purple Man](/wiki/Purple_Man "Purple Man"), cutting off the latter's finger to create a staff with mind\-controlling abilities. At their estate, the elite Stromwyns plan to have Fisk run for [President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States "President of the United States").*Devil's Reign* \#1\. Marvel Comics.
The remaining heroes gather at [Avengers Mansion](/wiki/Avengers_Mansion "Avengers Mansion"), where [Tony Stark](/wiki/Iron_Man "Iron Man") announces he plans to run for mayor opposite Fisk. The other heroes decide that Cage is a better candidate, angering Stark. At City Hall, Fisk and [Doctor Octopus](/wiki/Doctor_Octopus "Doctor Octopus") discuss their plans to sway the populace of New York into reelecting Fisk by amplifying the Purple Man's powers. Doc Ock then uses Reed Richards's inter\-dimensional gateway to summon alternate\-universe Octopus versions of [Hulk](/wiki/Hulk "Hulk"), [Ghost Rider](/wiki/Ghost_Rider "Ghost Rider"), and [Wolverine](/wiki/Wolverine_%28character%29 "Wolverine (character)"), considering his plans "Superior". Meanwhile, Taskmaster fights [Spider\-Man](/wiki/Ben_Reilly "Ben Reilly"), leaving the latter severely injured.*Devil's Reign* \#2\. Marvel Comics.
Spider\-Man is then brought to the police station, where he is rescued by the [Thing](/wiki/Ben_Grimm "Ben Grimm") and [Human Torch](/wiki/Human_Torch "Human Torch"). Luke Cage holds a rally to announce his mayoral campaign. At the Myrmidon, Sue Storm discusses the situation with her lawyer, Kirsten McDuffie, who gives Sue a paperclip. Fisk discusses his plans with the Purple Man, who notes that the Purple Children were the ones who erased their memories of Daredevil's identity. [Jessica Jones](/wiki/Jessica_Jones "Jessica Jones") realizes that Fisk is using the Purple Man to influence the city, prompting the Avengers to act immediately. They are intercepted by Doctor Octopus and his alternate selves; Stark is revealed to be the [Chameleon](/wiki/Chameleon_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Chameleon (Marvel Comics)") in disguise and in league with Doc Ock while Foggy Nelson is attacked in his office by Fisk's men.*Devil's Reign* \#3\. Marvel Comics.
Two weeks later, Doctor Octopus has released thousands of Octobot drones in order to enforce Mayor Wilson Fisk's zero\-tolerance policy, effectively wiping out all crime in the city. Daredevil visits Nelson, who is recovering in the hospital. Sue Storm uses the paperclip to remove her power\-dampening collar, meeting with Reed Richards and breaking out of the Myrmidon with the other jailed heroes. The [Champions](/wiki/Champions_%282016_team%29 "Champions (2016 team)") battle Rhino, who saves the team from incoming Octobots. He explains that Fisk ordered the Thunderbolts to hunt down a group of children, who [Miles Morales](/wiki/Miles_Morales "Miles Morales") identifies as the Purple Children. Fisk discovers that his staff can restore memories, and uses it on himself, rediscovering Daredevil's secret identity of Matt Murdock.*Devil's Reign* \#4\. Marvel Comics.
As the Purple Children are apprehended by the Thunderbolts, Jessica arrives with the Champions in an attempt to rescue them. They are driven away by [Abomination](/wiki/Abomination_%28character%29 "Abomination (character)"), but are able to rescue one of the Purple Children, Joseph. The remaining Purple Children's' powers are given to their father in order to increase his power. Fisk then orders the Purple Man to kill the superheroes. While Spider\-Man works on reverse\-engineering neural disruptors in order to protect the heroes from the Purple Man, Joseph tells them that their only option to stop him is to kill him. The Avengers then go out to search for the Purple Man, before discovering that he has taken control of the Thunderbolts and the general populace. Meanwhile, Fisk beats Matt's identical twin Mike Murdock to death, mistaking him for Matt as McDuffie watches.*Devil's Reign* \#5\. Marvel Comics.
McDuffie informs Daredevil of "Matt's" death, causing him to leave the main battle and hunt down Fisk, who is confronted by [Elektra](/wiki/Elektra_%28character%29 "Elektra (character)"). Daredevil arrives, angering Fisk. The real Iron Man, Moon Knight, and the Fantastic Four arrive at the battle, while Joseph seeks out the Purple Man. Luke Cage gives his neural disruptor to Joseph, who attempts to counter the Purple Man. Cage is able to fight off the Purple Man's control and encourage Joseph, who defeats his father and is reunited with his siblings. At the same time, Daredevil uses Fisk's staff, forcing Fisk to hesitate while Daredevil subdues him. Daredevil then attempts to kill Fisk, but is stopped by Elektra who asks him what kind of symbol he wants to be. They leave Fisk to the authorities, automatically making Cage the new mayor. Fisk is taken to the Stromwyns, choosing to refuse their offer and fighting through their robots, leaving the role of Kingpin to his son, Butch Pharris.
One week later, Daredevil discusses the idea of finally taking down [the Hand](/wiki/The_Hand_%28comics%29 "The Hand (comics)") with Elektra now that he no longer has to worry about his civilian identity. Fisk and his wife, [Mary](/wiki/Typhoid_Mary_%28character%29 "Typhoid Mary (character)"), go sailing into the sunset together.*Devil's Reign* \#6\. Marvel Comics.
### Subplots
#### Daredevil: Woman Without Fear
After her visit to Mayor Wilson Fisk, Elektra in her Daredevil attire meets up with Matt Murdock where he learns about her visit. After making out with Matt while recalling her training with [Stick](/wiki/Stick_%28comics%29 "Stick (comics)"), meeting Aka of the [Hand](/wiki/The_Hand_%28comics%29 "The Hand (comics)"), and training with the Hand where she finished off one Hand ninja with one of her sais, Elektra has coffee with Robert 'Goldy' Goldman as she sees Aka in the streets. Upon making it to the forest, Elektra in her Daredevil attire encounters Aka as jumps off a cliff. Back on the road, Elektra swerves off the road due to a deer appearing on the road. After recovering, Elektra finds a dart in one of the tires, puts on her mask, and goes hunting for what appears to be Aka only to avoid a trap. She finds the culprit responsible in the form of Kraven the Hunter who is looking for a challenge.*Daredevil: Woman Without Fear* \#1\. Marvel Comics.
Kraven mentions that he is looking for a challenge and wants to take on Elektra who holds the title of "World's Deadliest Assassin". As Elektra states to Kraven that he is being used, Kraven states that he knows that she took her file from Mayor Wilson Fisk and it will benefit them both. Kraven mentions how Mayor Fisk told him about how Elektra betrayed Daredevil once and was associated with the Hand. After Kraven intercepts one of Elektra's attacks, the police arrive responding to the car accident. Kraven the Hunter flees to obtain something golden to keep up his insurance policy while Elektra subdues the police and makes off in their police car. After a flashback with Aka, Elektra finds that Kraven got to Goldy as she is attacked by the Thunderbolts unit. After fighting them off, Elektra catches up to Kraven and Goldy as Aka is shown watching from the rooftops. When the Thunderbolts agents catches up, Kraven quotes to Elektra that Mayor Fisk also gave him the law.*Daredevil: Woman Without Fear* \#2\. Marvel Comics.
Elektra engages Kraven in battle as Goldy and the Thunderbolts agents stand back. When Kraven manages to punch Elektra, Goldy throws a snowball at him as the Thunderbolts agents restrain him. Elektra manages to kick Kraven before entering a school. He pursues Elektra and is defeated by her as Aka appears noting that Elektra is still trying to recruit Matt Murdock. Aka then disappears as Elektra notices that the Thunderbolts agents are clearing the school. Borrowing a jacket from a student, Elektra meets up with Goldy who states that Matt Murdock was killed in his apartment. She vows to make Mayor Fisk pay for this as Goldy notes that it's always part of the plan.*Daredevil: Woman Without Fear* \#3\. Marvel Comics.
#### Devil's Reign: Superior Four
Doctor Octopus has formed the Superior Four with his Multiverse counterparts in the form of Hulk of Earth\-8816 (whose real identity is [Otto Banner](/wiki/Alternative_versions_of_the_Hulk%23Otto_Banner "Alternative versions of the Hulk#Otto Banner")), Ghost Rider of Earth\-1666 (whose real identity is [Otto Blaze](/wiki/Ghost_Rider%23Otto_Blaze "Ghost Rider#Otto Blaze")), and Wolverine of Earth\-9712 (whose real identity is [Otto Howlett](/wiki/Wolverine_%28character%29%23Earth-9712 "Wolverine (character)#Earth-9712")). He mentions that he has gone through an evolution after his tenure as [Superior Spider\-Man](/wiki/The_Superior_Spider-Man "The Superior Spider-Man") and that he plans to span the Multiverse and establish a Council of Ocks from every version of Doctor Octopus he can find. The other three Ottos claim that the result can cause a paradox as Doctor Octopus claims that they are a fixed variant like the ones for Spider\-Man, Iron Man, and [Doctor Strange](/wiki/Doctor_Strange "Doctor Strange"). Doctor Octopus takes his Superior Four to Earth\-5069 where they encounter Iron Scab who demands that they leave his universe. The Superior Four do away with Iron Scab. Doctor Octopus' tentacles failing to work causes the Superior Four to flee Earth\-5069\. Back on Earth\-616, Otto Blaze claims to Doctor Octopus that magic was responsible with Doctor Octopus forgetting his deal with [Mephisto](/wiki/Mephisto_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Mephisto (Marvel Comics)"). As Doctor Octopus continues his research in order to find a better solution, Otto Banner, Otto Blaze, and Otto Howlett talk about how their fates will intertwine with the other Ottos. Doctor Octopus and Otto Banner state that they should get some insight on their Multiverse counterparts. Doctor Octopus then states that out of the 3,409 variants of himself, there is one out of all realities that knows how to defeat the Superior Four. Arriving on Earth\-2902, the Superior Four arrive in its forested city area and cause a disturbance to draw out Doctor Octopus' variant in this reality. They encounter a variant of Otto in recolored Spider\-Man\-like attire named TJ. He operates as Spider\-Ock and is familiar with Earth\-616 and the history of each of his variants. They beat him badly as Spider\-Ock states that they had tormented pasts while his father died. Doctor Octopus uses a synthetic blood\-parasite from Earth\-5069 on Spider\-Ock to claim his knowledge enough to disintegrate him. Doctor Octopus tells the rest of the Superior Four that they got a several thousand to go. On Earth\-7214, Doctor Octopus leads the Superior Four in attacking its Atlantis where they encounter Supreme Octopus.*Devil's Reign: Superior Four* \#1\. Marvel Comics.
There are views of different versions of Otto Octavius who were died. One died of an accident that Norman Osborn covered up. One was beheaded by a laser from President MODOK. One was addicted to gamma radiation where his brain failed at puberty. One got lost in the forest and was found eaten by a wolf. This was viewed by Supreme Octopus who is tasked with keeping his counterparts in line. At the Baxter Building, Doctor Octopus gazes into the different parts of the Multiverse when he is contacted by Supreme Octopus to cease and desist. Hulk of Earth\-8816 interrupts Doctor Octopus as he, Ghost Rider of Earth\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\-9712 argue with him about the paradox that Doctor Octopus caused. The portal suddenly sucks the Superior Four to Earth\-7212 where some type of mass\-extinction event occurred due to sulfur being in the air. A tsunami then occurs as the Superior Four are caught in it. Ghost Rider of Earth\-1666 claims that the Multiverse is seeking atonement for the Superior Four's meddling. Doctor Octopus is then teleported to the [Savage Land](/wiki/Savage_Land "Savage Land") on Earth\-8969 where he is ensnared by Supreme Octopus who considers himself superior to Doctor Octopus where he mentioned that he liquefied [Shuma\-Gorath](/wiki/Shuma-Gorath "Shuma-Gorath"), made [Dormammu](/wiki/Dormammu "Dormammu") grovel, and burned [Knull](/wiki/Knull_%28character%29 "Knull (character)") to ashes. The rest of the Superior Four are brought to Earth\-8969 where neither of them want to follow Supreme Octopus. Despite what the Superior do, they are unable to beat Supreme Octopus. Hulk of Earth\-8816, Ghost Rider of Earth\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\-9712 turn against Doctor Octopus and help Supreme Octopus to rip off Doctor Octopus' tentacles. Doctor Octopus is then locked up with a skeleton and carnivorous plants in Supreme Octopus' mobile base called the Supreme Sanctorum.*Devil's Reign: Superior Four* \#2\. Marvel Comics.
There is a brief history of the creation of a [Man\-Thing](/wiki/Man-Thing "Man-Thing") with tentacles that end with the heads of [carnivorous plants](/wiki/Carnivorous_plant "Carnivorous plant"). In his cell on Earth\-8969, Doctor Octopus is confronted by a tentacled Man\-Thing who frees Doctor Octopus. He figures out that this Man\-Thing is a variation of himself. Meanwhile, Supreme Octopus shares some of his history with Hulk of Earth\-8816, Ghost Rider of Earth\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\-9712 claiming that an army of Ocks is both a success and a failure. He reveals that his real name is Otto Werner von Strange and that he is the last and remaining variant of a long and tireless war. Having maintained a Multiversal balance, Supreme Octopus is in need of an heir or some heirs as he has stopped a Doctor Octopus while having obtained an army of Ocks. Meanwhile, Doctor Octopus tries to get his Man\-Thing counterpart to help him as the Man\-Thing bonds to him and serves as his guide through the Sanctum Supreme. Supreme Octopus explains that every Doctor Octopus variant has tried to ruin what he has built. Supreme Octopus has Hulk of Earth\-8816, Ghost Rider of Earth\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\-9712 see the Multiverse as it is like how a version of Doctor Octopus from Earth\-7214 is an Atlantean whose kingdom Supreme Octopus sunk to keep his bio\-weapon from being complete as well as their flaws. As Supreme Octopus uses his magic to restrain Hulk of Earth\-8816, Ghost Rider of Earth\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\-9712 so that their worlds can be reset, Doctor Octopus and Man\-Thing arrive as Supreme Octopus states that he done the impossible while claiming that he can remake him into the [Superior Spider\-Man](/wiki/The_Superior_Spider-Man "The Superior Spider-Man"). He stated that he was the one who whispered in Doctor Octopus' ears on how to summon Mephisto and that he can grant him his Superior Spider\-Man life back. As Doctor Octopus restrains Supreme Octopus, he explains that his Man\-Thing counterpart traveled the Multiverse and freed him from his cell. Supreme Octopus summons his armor. Hulk of Earth\-8816 breaks free as he is advised by Ghost Rider of Earth\-1666 and Wolverine of Earth\-9712 to force Supreme Octopus to send them home. They break free and help Doctor Octopus into knocking out Octopus Supreme. The Man\-Thing variant then detaches from Doctor Octopus as it is introduced by Doctor Octopus as the source of his paradox. Using Supreme Octopus' body, the Man\-Thing variant opens a portal back to Earth\-616\. Back in the Baxter Building, Doctor Octopus heads off to build himself a new set of tentacles while Hulk of Earth\-8816 beings to work on rebuilding the portal. Using a translation device, the Man\-Thing variant wants its agreement honored. When the rest of the Superior Four ask what agreement it is talking about, Doctor Octopus states that it wants to euthanized naturally so that it would sever the paradoxes. After building another set of arms, Doctor Octopus enters the rebuilt portal to euthanize the Man\-Thing variant alone. Once that was done and having noted to himself that Supreme Octopus would one day seek revenge on him, Doctor Octopus returns to Earth\-616 and makes a counter\-offer with the Superior Four by stating that they can rid New York City of crime better than the police and the superheroes where he gives Hulk of Earth\-8816 a special pill to devolve his Hulk form, travel to Hell with Ghost Rider of Earth\-1666 and retrieve his soul while finding out what happened to Doctor Octopus' mind, and arrange for Wolverine of Earth\-9712 to be a citizen on Krakoa. The Superior Four are seen attacking a smuggling operation involving Savage Land biotech. On Earth\-2902, it was discovered that Doctor Octopus actually released the Man\-Thing variant in Fresh Frond City as it starts to evolve into a form similar to Spider\-Ock as the civilians mistake him for Spider\-Ock in a new look.*Devil's Reign: Superior Four* \#3\. Marvel Comics.
#### Spider\-Woman
After her longtime friend and former fellow private investigator Lindsay McCabe is hurt, [Spider\-Woman](/wiki/Spider-Woman_%28Jessica_Drew%29 "Spider-Woman (Jessica Drew)") fights the Thunderbolts agents and Thunderbolts members [Coachwhip](/wiki/Coachwhip_%28character%29 "Coachwhip (character)") and [Puff Adder](/wiki/Puff_Adder_%28character%29 "Puff Adder (character)"). Despite having a broken arm, Spider\-Woman fights them off to get Lindsay to safety. Later, a Thunderbolts agent visits Lindsay McCabe's hospital room in order to get the details on who attacked her. This turns out to be Jessica Drew in disguise as she tells the doctors to take care of her. Spider\-Woman then interrogates the captive Thunderbolts agent whose outfit she borrowed. He claims that Lindsay was like that when they found her as Spider\-Woman prepares to use her broken arm to attack. At Gracie Mansion, Mayor Wilson Fisk is given a status update before Spider\-Woman arrives. Both of them engage each other in a fight. He states that someone else has been dealing with her. In a flashback to Ravencroft, Mayor Fisk visits a cell to find out about Spider\-Man. As the Thunderbolts agents arrive, Spider\-Woman figures out who Mayor Fisk is talking about as Spider\-Woman claims that she's supposed to be dead. Mayor Fisk states that [Norman Osborn](/wiki/Norman_Osborn "Norman Osborn") kept his "trophy" where Mayor Fisk provided a storage place. Spider\-Woman then flees the area. The captive Thunderbolts unit member then breaks free from the ropes and is revealed to be a thought\-to\-be\-dead [Veranke](/wiki/Veranke "Veranke"). In the form of Spider\-Woman, Veranke visits [Linda Carter](/wiki/Night_Nurse_%28comics%29 "Night Nurse (comics)") wanting to see her "child" Gerry.*Spider\-Woman* Vol. 7 \#18\. Marvel Comics.
Gerry figures out that the Jessica Drew at the door isn't her real mother as Linda Carter also asks about the cast that she is supposed to be wearing. Spider\-Woman catches up to Veranke as a Thunderbolts unit truck escapes with Gerry. Spider\-Woman instructs Linda to help Lindsay. As Veranke still has the same powers as Spider\-Woman, she has become out of practice due to how long she was locked up by Norman Osborn after using her death as a cover\-up. When Spider\-Woman catches up to the Thunderbolts unit truck, Iron Man shows up to help only for Spider\-Woman to see that it is Veranke in disguise. After Gerry escaped, Spider\-Woman encounters the real Carol Danvers and Spider\-Man with Gerry identifying the imposter Danvers. Spider\-Woman uses a point blank venom blast in Veranke's face as she advises Carol to lock her up somewhere on the garbage scow. At the hospital, Jessica apologizes to Lindsay about what happened. Somewhere across the street, a sniper named Mr. O'Nay informs [Octavia Vermis](/wiki/Octavia_Vermis "Octavia Vermis") that he has Spider\-Woman in his sight. Vermis instructs Mr. O'Nay not to attack Jessica after having found out about her fight with Veranke. She wants to give Spider\-Woman a break before she can attack with her group called the [Anti\-Arach9](/wiki/Anti-Arach9 "Anti-Arach9") that also consists of Aeturnum, Rose Roché, and the Los Espadas Gemelas De Toledo.*Spider\-Woman* Vol. 7 \#19\. Marvel Comics.
#### Devil's Reign: Villains for Hire
At a [Met Gala](/wiki/Met_Gala "Met Gala"), the Humanity Liberation Front attacks in retaliation for what is happening with the world. Just then, Thunderbolts members Agony, Electro II, Rhino, Taskmaster, and Whiplash arrive where they defeat the Humanity Liberation Front. Later at the police department, the Thunderbolts members get impatient waiting for their next assignment. They get into a fight with each other until Mayor Wilson Fisk arrives to break it up. He sends them to find the person responsible for the attack on the gala where the suspect is hiding somewhere in Gowanus. The Thunderbolts raid a warehouse where some of its members are hiding and badly defeat them as the culprit claims that the law has gone soft back when [J. Jonah Jameson](/wiki/J._Jonah_Jameson "J. Jonah Jameson") was the Mayor of New York City. Afterwards, the Thunderbolts are in Mayor Fisk's office as U.S. Agent shows up stating that he reporting for duty.*Devil's Reign: Villains for Hire* \#1\. Marvel Comics.
Mayor Wilson Fisk sends the Thunderbolts out of his office as U.S. Agent informs him that he wants to be part of the Thunderbolts to keep its members in line while claiming "I don't walk the line. I don't cross the line. I am the line". When the Thunderbolts attack jewelry store robbers in animal masks, some of them are killed or badly beaten up until U.S. Agent arrives stating that he is now in charge of them as he beats up Electro II, Rhino, Taskmaster, and Whiplash to serve as his only warning to them. Then he confronts Agony who is suspicious of him. While in the alley, U.S. Agent is revealed to be secretly working with the FBI to find anything incriminating on Mayor Fisk. At Mayor Fisk's rally, U.S. Agent and the Thunderbolts deal with a mind\-controlled crowd. As Agony advises Mayor Fisk to leave before the crowd attacks him, Mayor Fisk notices that the crowd has changed. The culprit is one of the Purple Children as Electro II gets mind\-controlled. As a lot of people are shocked, Rhino subdues Electro II as anyone not mind\-controlled films the incident.*Devil's Reign: Villains for Hire* \#2\. Marvel Comics.
U.S. Agent advises the Thunderbolts to get Electro II away from the area before she goes nuclear. Mayor Wilson Fisk is loaded into his limo as he advises U.S. Agent to keep the Thunderbolts in line and clean up the mess. U.S. Agent and Agony encounter the culprit called Conviction who claimed that Mayor Fisk kept her trapped in Ravencroft trying to reproduce the Purple Children's power. After a brief scuffle where Conviction got away, U.S. Agent and Agony meet up with Mayor Fisk and the rest of the Thunderbolts to mention about their encounter with Conviction. Mayor Fisk then assigns them to find the Purple Children as James Wesley gives them trackers. As Rhino doesn't want to hunt children, Mayor Fisk brings in Abomination as his replacement and mind\-controls U.S. Agent to oversee the assignment as the Thunderbolts hunt down the Purple Children. When they are found, they are confronted by Jessica Jones and the Champions.*Devil's Reign: Villains for Hire* \#3\. Marvel Comics.
#### Devil's Reign: X\-Men
In the past, Kingpin has killed some men in the shower as he instructs James Wesley to send Elektra as the person he wants dead is out for [Emma Frost](/wiki/Emma_Frost "Emma Frost"). At a nightclub, Emma Frost mind\-controls her way to Mr. Loufex to speak about their mutual friend Kingpin. In the present at Seneca Park, U.S. Agent and the Thunderbolts agents are outside the New York hideout of the X\-Men as [Rogue](/wiki/Rogue_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Rogue (Marvel Comics)") contacts all points about who is at their door as U.S. Agent demands the X\-Men's surrender. As Emma Frost goes to the [United Nations building](/wiki/Headquarters_of_the_United_Nations "Headquarters of the United Nations"), U.S. Agent is met with resistance from [Polaris](/wiki/Polaris_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Polaris (Marvel Comics)"). Mayor Fisk is informed of the situation with the X\-Men and their diplomatic immunity. Cyclops in his Captain Krakoa attire, [Jean Grey](/wiki/Jean_Grey "Jean Grey"), Rogue, [Synch](/wiki/Synch_%28comics%29 "Synch (comics)"), and [Wolverine](/wiki/X-23 "X-23") prepare to head to give up the Seneca Gardens and face the music. Captain Krakoa, Jean Grey, and Rogue state to U.S. Agent that they are not going to fight them in front of the cameras. Just then, Thunderbolts members Agony, Electro II, Rhino, and Taskmaster arrive as backup for U.S. Agent where Electro II shocks Polaris when U.S. Agent asks which way his shield went. As Rogue asks Rhino what [Gambit](/wiki/Gambit_%28comics%29 "Gambit (comics)") would think of him working for Mayor Fisk, Jean Grey stops Polaris from retaliating against Electro II as Taskmaster offends Wolverine by calling her a pretender. Jean Grey then speaks to U.S. Agent who wants to report the X\-Men's "illegal structure" to the Parks Department. Just then, Emma Frost shows up with an order from the U.N. to not violate a structure from Krakoa. Wesley informs Mayor Fisk on what U.S. Agent informed him as he tells Wesley to send a message to the Thunderbolts to leave the X\-Men to him. U.S. Agent withdraws the Thunderbolts from Seneca Park. Mayor Fisk has Wesley summon the chief of detectives about a murder of a young woman where they can implicate a "rich and powerful woman of privilege".*Devil's Reign: X\-Men* \#1\. Marvel Comics.
A news bulletin states that Emma Frost has been connected with a cold case murder. At the law offices of Harris, Oppenheim \& Gallagher, Emma Frost is told by her lawyers that the case against her is not great as Emma states that she has never committed child abuse. Emma Frost then takes the time to recap on using an illusion of Invisible Woman, having a drink with Tony Stark, sending a telepathic message to She\-Hulk that her client is guilty, and a visit to [Nick Fury](/wiki/Nick_Fury "Nick Fury"). She plans to settle the case. Years ago at the [Hellfire Club](/wiki/Hellfire_Club_%28comics%29 "Hellfire Club (comics)"), Emma Frost is visited by Elektra who needs help with a witness to one of Elektra's missions. She takes Emma Frost to the witness's apartment. In the next apartment over, some criminals are attacked by a black\-suited [Spider\-Man](/wiki/Spider-Man "Spider-Man"). Emma Frost evacuates the witness Isabelle as Elektra and Spider\-Man fight the criminals. After reading Spider\-Man's mind, Emma Frost advises him to help Elektra. Loading Isabelle into her limousine, Kingpin's men take some pictures as the newspaper states "Frost's Cold Case? Missing Girl Last Seen Alive With White Queen". In London, Emma Frost brainwashes some police officer into going for a swim in the river. She gets ambushed by [Union Jack](/wiki/Union_Jack_%28Joseph_Chapman%29 "Union Jack (Joseph Chapman)") who plans to have her extradited back to New York City while asking if she did kill an orphan.*Devil's Reign: X\-Men* \#2\. Marvel Comics.
As Union Jack hands Emma Frost over the police, she turns the tide against them by throwing the power\-dampener collar on a police officer and having two dogs attack Union Jack. She proceeds to break free and make the police officers spar with each other. After Emma Frost releases the dogs and makes her way underground, Union Jack tells the police officers that he knows where she is heading. Emma Frost arrives at the London Hellfire Club where she meets up with Isabelle. After learning from Emma Frost on why she cannot mind\-wipe Mayor Wilson Fisk, Isabelle mentioned that Elektra trained her in some combat skills before disappearing. Union Jack then raids the building with a SWAT Team as Isabelle starts fighting Union Jack. Isabelle then stabs a SWAT officer in the leg as she meets up with Emma Frost in the basement. Moments later, Emma Frost and Isabelle arrive on Krakoa. After a spa day, Emma Frost meets up with [Ben Urich](/wiki/Ben_Urich "Ben Urich") where the [Daily Bugle](/wiki/Daily_Bugle "Daily Bugle") prints out an article stating "Mayor smears Frost". Mayor Fisk states to the press that Isabelle is alive and well. At the offices of Harris, Oppenheim \& Gallagher, Emma is informed that she still has arrest warrants in countries that do not recognize the Krakoa amnesty deal until further notice. She instructs them to have the finance team slowly and quietly buy stock in the insurance company. Then Emma mind\-controls Typhoid Mary when she confronts Mayor Fisk where she claims that his life will come crashing down one day. She then takes her leave stating that Typhoid Mary will awaken with no memory of this encounter.*Devil's Reign: X\-Men* \#3\. Marvel Comics.
#### Devil's Reign: Winter Soldier
Mayor Wilson Fisk is informed by James Wesley that Gracie Mansion is secured and Typhoid Mary is away. He has been having sleepless nights since the new law has passed. [Winter Soldier](/wiki/Bucky_Barnes "Bucky Barnes") infiltrates Gracie Mansion to steal some files when he is confronted by Mayor Fisk. As Mayor Fisk goes on the attack, Winter Soldier works to dodge his attacks while holding his file. As Gracie Mansion is partially\-collapsed, James Wesley returns with the NYPD and finds Mayor Fisk near the rubble stating that he had a wonderful dream. After burning some files, a wounded Winter Soldier makes his way to an alley with his own file. Now that he has a purpose, Winter Soldier vows that whoever wrote this file won't survive the year and states that he'll "sleep when they're dead".*Devil's Reign: Winter Soldier* \#1\. Marvel Comics.
#### Moon Knight
In light of Moon Knight getting arrested by the Thunderbolts, Dr. Badr meets with the Moonlight Mission where he substitutes as "Doctor Moon". He and Mr. Flint find that several people were slain by crossbows which leads them to suspect that [Stained Glass Scarlet](/wiki/Stained_Glass_Scarlet "Stained Glass Scarlet") is responsible. While it was claimed that Stained Glass Scarlet was dead and that someone might've inherited her legacy. Reaching the church in the South Bronx where Stained Glass Scarlet was supposedly killed, Doctor Moon encounters Stained Glass Scarlet who claims that she is reborn as she goes on the attack. After a brief fight, Doctor Moon manages to get away. Back at the Midnight Mission, Dr. Badr informs Reese about these recent events. At Ravencroft, it is discovered that a patient is not in their cell as a guard tells his co\-worker that the inmate is an ex\-[Hydra](/wiki/Hydra_%28comics%29 "Hydra (comics)") assassin/terrorist with a four digit count and nearly turned Taipei into glass before his' defeat. Knowing the description of the inmate, the guard initiates a red alert that states that Rutherford Winner is on the loose.*Moon Knight* Vol. 9 \#8\. Marvel Comics.
#### Devil's Reign: Spider\-Man
At the police department, Marcus Momplaiser of Beyond Corporation has been informed by Commissioner Kyle that Spider\-Man has been sprung from their custody by Human Torch and Thing. After being sprung out by Human Torch and Thing, Ben Reilly as Spider\-Man is ambushed by a Thunderbolts agent who places a power dampener collar on him in order to easily transport him to the Myrmidon. After breaking out of the transport, Ben contacts [Janine Godbe](/wiki/Elizabeth_Tyne "Elizabeth Tyne") while Marcus Momplaiser has been ambushed by [Richard Fisk](/wiki/Richard_Fisk "Richard Fisk") in his [Rose](/wiki/Rose_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Rose (Marvel Comics)") alias. Rose is confronted by two Thunderbolts agents who state that Spider\-Man got away. After driving away the Thunderbolts agents, Rose goes to Plan B and prepares to torture his Marcus. Maxine Danger comes in where he tells Ben Reilly that the weapon he recovered from the Thunderbolts agents was stolen [S.H.I.E.L.D.](/wiki/S.H.I.E.L.D. "S.H.I.E.L.D.") technology. After being told about Rose, Ben is approached by [Misty Knight](/wiki/Misty_Knight "Misty Knight") and [Colleen Wing](/wiki/Colleen_Wing "Colleen Wing") who state that Rose has been selling the stolen S.H.I.E.L.D. technology on the streets and that Marcus Momplaiser has been abducted. Rose has been unable to get any useful information out of Marcus and will still have a use for him. Becoming Spider\-Man, Ben Reilly finds the Thunderbolts agents arresting someone dressed as Spider\-Man. Spider\-Man defeats the Thunderbolts agents and finds out that Marcus was dressed as Spider\-Man as he advises Spider\-Man to get away. Just then, Rose appears with the same S.H.I.E.L.D. weapon and attacks Spider\-Man where he reveals that he spiked Marcus' Spider\-Man costume with electrodes which he uses to shock them. Before Rose can finish of Spider\-Man, Marcus uses one of the Thunderbolts agents electric sticks which helps him to knock out Rose. Back at Beyond Tower, a recuperating Ben is visited by Marcus who advises him to take the time to recuperate. The Thunderbolts agents bring to the NYPD someone in a Spider\-Man outfit. He is unmasked by Commissioner Kyle to be a gagged Rose with the words "Here's Johnny" on the tape that's over his mouth.*Devil's Reign: Spider\-Man* \#1\. Marvel Comics.
#### Devil's Reign: Moon Knight
At the Myrmidon, [8\-Ball](/wiki/8-Ball_%28comics%29 "8-Ball (comics)") is in his cell mentioning on how he has fought Moon Knight, She\-Hulk, Sleepwalker, and Spider\-Man and also recalls how he died and was revived by [Hood](/wiki/Hood_%28comics%29 "Hood (comics)"). This information he reveals to his cellmate. In the cafeteria, 8\-Ball is unable to get a seat with the [Wrecking Crew](/wiki/Wrecking_Crew_%28comics%29 "Wrecking Crew (comics)"), the [Enforcers](/wiki/Enforcers_%28comics%29 "Enforcers (comics)"), and the [Death\-Throws](/wiki/Death-Throws "Death-Throws"). When sitting at a table alone, he is confronted by one inmates. He causes 8\-Ball some trouble before being fended off by 8\-Ball's cellmate who gives a statement that causes the inmate to run. 8\-Ball figures out that his cellmate is Moon Knight who is not sitting with his fellow incarcerated superheroes. Moon Knight is informed by 8\-Ball that [Man Mountain Marko](/wiki/Man_Mountain_Marko "Man Mountain Marko") is the "king of the cage". Moon Knight then attacks the inmates that he had engraved the moon icon on and advises them to remind him later what names they went by. Later on, Moon Knight is grabbed by a Thunderbolts agent who drags him to the showers. He is thrown in and confronted by the inmates. When the Thunderbolts agent opens the door, Moon Knight comes out having defeated the inmates and that he wants a shot at the title. His first bout is against [Boomslang](/wiki/Boomslang_%28comics%29 "Boomslang (comics)") who he defeats. Bout \#3 shows his victory against [Mr. Fish](/wiki/Mr._Fish "Mr. Fish"). Bout \#5 has him victorious against [Killer Shrike](/wiki/Killer_Shrike "Killer Shrike") and [Cactus](/wiki/Cactus_%28comics%29 "Cactus (comics)"). Bout \#6 is against [Massacre](/wiki/Massacre_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Massacre (Marvel Comics)") where Moon Knight is victorious. Then it comes to the title match in Bout \#7 against Man Mountain Marko. When Man Mountain Marko asks if Moon Knight is ready to die, Moon Knight stated that [Raoul Bushman](/wiki/Bushman_%28character%29 "Bushman (character)") did that first. Man Mountain Marko gives Moon Knight a hard time as Moon Knight recalls his Mr. Knight alias meeting Man Mountain Marko's ex\-wife Judith Cort and how their daughter has started taking after her father powers and all. After that flashback while not wanting Man Mountain Marko to go after his daughter, Moon Knight beats Man Mountain Marko into surrender as he advises him not to go after his ex\-wife or his daughter if he gets out as he won't see them again. Moon Knight proceeds to induce blindness on Man Mountain Marko as the Thunderbolts agents come in. After an altercation, Moon Knight is placed in solitary confinement in chains as 8\-Ball mops up outside his cell. Moon Knight states that the incarcerated superheroes will go after Mayor Wilson Fisk when they get out.*Devil's Reign: Moon Knight* \#1\. Marvel Comics.
### Aftermath
Mister Fantastic has been tracking the travels of Kingpin and Typhoid Mary with their latest stop being in [Latveria](/wiki/Latveria "Latveria") which he mentions to Daredevil. As Daredevil states that they got to find him and make him pay for what he's done, Mister Fantastic states that he will pick up the search tomorrow as he has to prepare for "Matt Murdock's funeral". The Thing, Foggy Nelson, J. Jonah Jameson, Mayor Luke Cage, Jessica Jones, Danny Rand and Danielle Cage are in attendance. After the funeral, Jameson talks to Nelson who he has recorded the funeral for his podcast. Jones meets Ben Hochberg who states that he will be working with Mayor Cage. Their discussion is interrupted when Cage gets angered at Butch Pharris showing up to pay his respects. While Rand keeps them from getting into a fight, Butch mentions that it was his father who killed "Matt". Butch tells Foggy that the man in the casket is actually Mike and that he was pretending to be Matt as a favor. After Butch leaves, Cage and Rand confront Daredevil and Elektra on a rooftop for Matt's callousness towards Mike's death. Daredevil explains that he wants the world to think that Matt Murdock is dead and that Mike never had many friends growing up; he and Elektra are going to use that opportunity destroy the Hand. Their discussion is interrupted by some bank robbers as they head out and defeat them. The Thunderbolts units arrive as Mayor Cage is surprised that they are still operating after what Kingpin made them do. A Thunderbolts agent informs Cage that they don't work for him as vigilantism is still illegal in New York City. Jones and Danielle visit Joseph at an orphanage where Jones removes his power dampening collar. She brings Joseph to her and Luke's home as Luke finishes a call with his legal expert Harris about a repeal of the vigilantism ban as they would have to convince the councilors. At the cemetery, Kristin has a final moment with "Matt" as he places the stone that was found on him at the time of his death in the casket. What Kristin doesn't know is that the stone in question is a Norn Stone. Mayor Cage later meets with [Spectrum](/wiki/Monica_Rambeau "Monica Rambeau") as they tie up the loose end with Kingpin's Thunderbolts as they take down Crossbones and the Thunderbolts agents with him. Upon defeating them, Mayor Cage and Spectrum are approached by the press and a public relations specialist named Helen Astrantia who has been tasked with re\-framing the Thunderbolts brand in a positive way with Spectrum leading them. As Spectrum doesn't want the job and flies off, Helen suggests [Clint Barton](/wiki/Hawkeye_%28Clint_Barton%29 "Hawkeye (Clint Barton)") since [Dane Whitman](/wiki/Black_Knight_%28Dane_Whitman%29 "Black Knight (Dane Whitman)"), [Sam Wilson](/wiki/Falcon_%28comics%29 "Falcon (comics)"), [Barbra Morse](/wiki/Mockingbird_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Mockingbird (Marvel Comics)"), and [Jane van Dyne](/wiki/Wasp_%28character%29 "Wasp (character)") don't want the job either. The next morning, Mayor Cage has his first press conference where there are some Fisk supporters present as the police work to keep the crowd in line. Mayor Cage does some workouts while recalling his history and taking down Taskmaster and Whiplash. After his workout, Mayor Cage begins his press conference where he states that he will work to restore order in New York City.*Devil's Reign: Omega* \#1\. Marvel Comics.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Mayor [Wilson Fisk](/wiki/Kingpin_%28character%29 \"Kingpin (character)\") discovers physical evidence proving that he once knew [Daredevil](/wiki/Daredevil_%28Marvel_Comics_character%29 \"Daredevil (Marvel Comics character)\")'s true identity, noticing gaps in his own memory after the fact. Outraged, Mayor Fisk confronts Daredevil, who taunts him. Consequently, Mayor Fisk outlaws vigilantism in the city.\nTo enforce his new law, Mayor Fisk sets up Thunderbolts units. [Moon Knight](/wiki/Moon_Knight \"Moon Knight\"), [Danny Rand](/wiki/Iron_Fist_%28character%29 \"Iron Fist (character)\"), [Reed Richards](/wiki/Reed_Richards \"Reed Richards\"), and [Sue Storm](/wiki/Invisible_Woman \"Invisible Woman\") are apprehended by members of the Thunderbolts and incarcerated in the Myrmidon. [Luke Cage](/wiki/Luke_Cage \"Luke Cage\") speaks out against Mayor Fisk while being filmed by onlookers. Fisk visits a captured [Purple Man](/wiki/Purple_Man \"Purple Man\"), cutting off the latter's finger to create a staff with mind\\-controlling abilities. At their estate, the elite Stromwyns plan to have Fisk run for [President](/wiki/President_of_the_United_States \"President of the United States\").*Devil's Reign* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
"The remaining heroes gather at [Avengers Mansion](/wiki/Avengers_Mansion \"Avengers Mansion\"), where [Tony Stark](/wiki/Iron_Man \"Iron Man\") announces he plans to run for mayor opposite Fisk. The other heroes decide that Cage is a better candidate, angering Stark. At City Hall, Fisk and [Doctor Octopus](/wiki/Doctor_Octopus \"Doctor Octopus\") discuss their plans to sway the populace of New York into reelecting Fisk by amplifying the Purple Man's powers. Doc Ock then uses Reed Richards's inter\\-dimensional gateway to summon alternate\\-universe Octopus versions of [Hulk](/wiki/Hulk \"Hulk\"), [Ghost Rider](/wiki/Ghost_Rider \"Ghost Rider\"), and [Wolverine](/wiki/Wolverine_%28character%29 \"Wolverine (character)\"), considering his plans \"Superior\". Meanwhile, Taskmaster fights [Spider\\-Man](/wiki/Ben_Reilly \"Ben Reilly\"), leaving the latter severely injured.*Devil's Reign* \\#2\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Spider\\-Man is then brought to the police station, where he is rescued by the [Thing](/wiki/Ben_Grimm \"Ben Grimm\") and [Human Torch](/wiki/Human_Torch \"Human Torch\"). Luke Cage holds a rally to announce his mayoral campaign. At the Myrmidon, Sue Storm discusses the situation with her lawyer, Kirsten McDuffie, who gives Sue a paperclip. Fisk discusses his plans with the Purple Man, who notes that the Purple Children were the ones who erased their memories of Daredevil's identity. [Jessica Jones](/wiki/Jessica_Jones \"Jessica Jones\") realizes that Fisk is using the Purple Man to influence the city, prompting the Avengers to act immediately. They are intercepted by Doctor Octopus and his alternate selves; Stark is revealed to be the [Chameleon](/wiki/Chameleon_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Chameleon (Marvel Comics)\") in disguise and in league with Doc Ock while Foggy Nelson is attacked in his office by Fisk's men.*Devil's Reign* \\#3\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Two weeks later, Doctor Octopus has released thousands of Octobot drones in order to enforce Mayor Wilson Fisk's zero\\-tolerance policy, effectively wiping out all crime in the city. Daredevil visits Nelson, who is recovering in the hospital. Sue Storm uses the paperclip to remove her power\\-dampening collar, meeting with Reed Richards and breaking out of the Myrmidon with the other jailed heroes. The [Champions](/wiki/Champions_%282016_team%29 \"Champions (2016 team)\") battle Rhino, who saves the team from incoming Octobots. He explains that Fisk ordered the Thunderbolts to hunt down a group of children, who [Miles Morales](/wiki/Miles_Morales \"Miles Morales\") identifies as the Purple Children. Fisk discovers that his staff can restore memories, and uses it on himself, rediscovering Daredevil's secret identity of Matt Murdock.*Devil's Reign* \\#4\\. Marvel Comics.",
"As the Purple Children are apprehended by the Thunderbolts, Jessica arrives with the Champions in an attempt to rescue them. They are driven away by [Abomination](/wiki/Abomination_%28character%29 \"Abomination (character)\"), but are able to rescue one of the Purple Children, Joseph. The remaining Purple Children's' powers are given to their father in order to increase his power. Fisk then orders the Purple Man to kill the superheroes. While Spider\\-Man works on reverse\\-engineering neural disruptors in order to protect the heroes from the Purple Man, Joseph tells them that their only option to stop him is to kill him. The Avengers then go out to search for the Purple Man, before discovering that he has taken control of the Thunderbolts and the general populace. Meanwhile, Fisk beats Matt's identical twin Mike Murdock to death, mistaking him for Matt as McDuffie watches.*Devil's Reign* \\#5\\. Marvel Comics.",
"McDuffie informs Daredevil of \"Matt's\" death, causing him to leave the main battle and hunt down Fisk, who is confronted by [Elektra](/wiki/Elektra_%28character%29 \"Elektra (character)\"). Daredevil arrives, angering Fisk. The real Iron Man, Moon Knight, and the Fantastic Four arrive at the battle, while Joseph seeks out the Purple Man. Luke Cage gives his neural disruptor to Joseph, who attempts to counter the Purple Man. Cage is able to fight off the Purple Man's control and encourage Joseph, who defeats his father and is reunited with his siblings. At the same time, Daredevil uses Fisk's staff, forcing Fisk to hesitate while Daredevil subdues him. Daredevil then attempts to kill Fisk, but is stopped by Elektra who asks him what kind of symbol he wants to be. They leave Fisk to the authorities, automatically making Cage the new mayor. Fisk is taken to the Stromwyns, choosing to refuse their offer and fighting through their robots, leaving the role of Kingpin to his son, Butch Pharris.",
"One week later, Daredevil discusses the idea of finally taking down [the Hand](/wiki/The_Hand_%28comics%29 \"The Hand (comics)\") with Elektra now that he no longer has to worry about his civilian identity. Fisk and his wife, [Mary](/wiki/Typhoid_Mary_%28character%29 \"Typhoid Mary (character)\"), go sailing into the sunset together.*Devil's Reign* \\#6\\. Marvel Comics.",
"### Subplots",
"#### Daredevil: Woman Without Fear",
"After her visit to Mayor Wilson Fisk, Elektra in her Daredevil attire meets up with Matt Murdock where he learns about her visit. After making out with Matt while recalling her training with [Stick](/wiki/Stick_%28comics%29 \"Stick (comics)\"), meeting Aka of the [Hand](/wiki/The_Hand_%28comics%29 \"The Hand (comics)\"), and training with the Hand where she finished off one Hand ninja with one of her sais, Elektra has coffee with Robert 'Goldy' Goldman as she sees Aka in the streets. Upon making it to the forest, Elektra in her Daredevil attire encounters Aka as jumps off a cliff. Back on the road, Elektra swerves off the road due to a deer appearing on the road. After recovering, Elektra finds a dart in one of the tires, puts on her mask, and goes hunting for what appears to be Aka only to avoid a trap. She finds the culprit responsible in the form of Kraven the Hunter who is looking for a challenge.*Daredevil: Woman Without Fear* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Kraven mentions that he is looking for a challenge and wants to take on Elektra who holds the title of \"World's Deadliest Assassin\". As Elektra states to Kraven that he is being used, Kraven states that he knows that she took her file from Mayor Wilson Fisk and it will benefit them both. Kraven mentions how Mayor Fisk told him about how Elektra betrayed Daredevil once and was associated with the Hand. After Kraven intercepts one of Elektra's attacks, the police arrive responding to the car accident. Kraven the Hunter flees to obtain something golden to keep up his insurance policy while Elektra subdues the police and makes off in their police car. After a flashback with Aka, Elektra finds that Kraven got to Goldy as she is attacked by the Thunderbolts unit. After fighting them off, Elektra catches up to Kraven and Goldy as Aka is shown watching from the rooftops. When the Thunderbolts agents catches up, Kraven quotes to Elektra that Mayor Fisk also gave him the law.*Daredevil: Woman Without Fear* \\#2\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Elektra engages Kraven in battle as Goldy and the Thunderbolts agents stand back. When Kraven manages to punch Elektra, Goldy throws a snowball at him as the Thunderbolts agents restrain him. Elektra manages to kick Kraven before entering a school. He pursues Elektra and is defeated by her as Aka appears noting that Elektra is still trying to recruit Matt Murdock. Aka then disappears as Elektra notices that the Thunderbolts agents are clearing the school. Borrowing a jacket from a student, Elektra meets up with Goldy who states that Matt Murdock was killed in his apartment. She vows to make Mayor Fisk pay for this as Goldy notes that it's always part of the plan.*Daredevil: Woman Without Fear* \\#3\\. Marvel Comics.",
"#### Devil's Reign: Superior Four",
"Doctor Octopus has formed the Superior Four with his Multiverse counterparts in the form of Hulk of Earth\\-8816 (whose real identity is [Otto Banner](/wiki/Alternative_versions_of_the_Hulk%23Otto_Banner \"Alternative versions of the Hulk#Otto Banner\")), Ghost Rider of Earth\\-1666 (whose real identity is [Otto Blaze](/wiki/Ghost_Rider%23Otto_Blaze \"Ghost Rider#Otto Blaze\")), and Wolverine of Earth\\-9712 (whose real identity is [Otto Howlett](/wiki/Wolverine_%28character%29%23Earth-9712 \"Wolverine (character)#Earth-9712\")). He mentions that he has gone through an evolution after his tenure as [Superior Spider\\-Man](/wiki/The_Superior_Spider-Man \"The Superior Spider-Man\") and that he plans to span the Multiverse and establish a Council of Ocks from every version of Doctor Octopus he can find. The other three Ottos claim that the result can cause a paradox as Doctor Octopus claims that they are a fixed variant like the ones for Spider\\-Man, Iron Man, and [Doctor Strange](/wiki/Doctor_Strange \"Doctor Strange\"). Doctor Octopus takes his Superior Four to Earth\\-5069 where they encounter Iron Scab who demands that they leave his universe. The Superior Four do away with Iron Scab. Doctor Octopus' tentacles failing to work causes the Superior Four to flee Earth\\-5069\\. Back on Earth\\-616, Otto Blaze claims to Doctor Octopus that magic was responsible with Doctor Octopus forgetting his deal with [Mephisto](/wiki/Mephisto_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Mephisto (Marvel Comics)\"). As Doctor Octopus continues his research in order to find a better solution, Otto Banner, Otto Blaze, and Otto Howlett talk about how their fates will intertwine with the other Ottos. Doctor Octopus and Otto Banner state that they should get some insight on their Multiverse counterparts. Doctor Octopus then states that out of the 3,409 variants of himself, there is one out of all realities that knows how to defeat the Superior Four. Arriving on Earth\\-2902, the Superior Four arrive in its forested city area and cause a disturbance to draw out Doctor Octopus' variant in this reality. They encounter a variant of Otto in recolored Spider\\-Man\\-like attire named TJ. He operates as Spider\\-Ock and is familiar with Earth\\-616 and the history of each of his variants. They beat him badly as Spider\\-Ock states that they had tormented pasts while his father died. Doctor Octopus uses a synthetic blood\\-parasite from Earth\\-5069 on Spider\\-Ock to claim his knowledge enough to disintegrate him. Doctor Octopus tells the rest of the Superior Four that they got a several thousand to go. On Earth\\-7214, Doctor Octopus leads the Superior Four in attacking its Atlantis where they encounter Supreme Octopus.*Devil's Reign: Superior Four* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
"There are views of different versions of Otto Octavius who were died. One died of an accident that Norman Osborn covered up. One was beheaded by a laser from President MODOK. One was addicted to gamma radiation where his brain failed at puberty. One got lost in the forest and was found eaten by a wolf. This was viewed by Supreme Octopus who is tasked with keeping his counterparts in line. At the Baxter Building, Doctor Octopus gazes into the different parts of the Multiverse when he is contacted by Supreme Octopus to cease and desist. Hulk of Earth\\-8816 interrupts Doctor Octopus as he, Ghost Rider of Earth\\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\\-9712 argue with him about the paradox that Doctor Octopus caused. The portal suddenly sucks the Superior Four to Earth\\-7212 where some type of mass\\-extinction event occurred due to sulfur being in the air. A tsunami then occurs as the Superior Four are caught in it. Ghost Rider of Earth\\-1666 claims that the Multiverse is seeking atonement for the Superior Four's meddling. Doctor Octopus is then teleported to the [Savage Land](/wiki/Savage_Land \"Savage Land\") on Earth\\-8969 where he is ensnared by Supreme Octopus who considers himself superior to Doctor Octopus where he mentioned that he liquefied [Shuma\\-Gorath](/wiki/Shuma-Gorath \"Shuma-Gorath\"), made [Dormammu](/wiki/Dormammu \"Dormammu\") grovel, and burned [Knull](/wiki/Knull_%28character%29 \"Knull (character)\") to ashes. The rest of the Superior Four are brought to Earth\\-8969 where neither of them want to follow Supreme Octopus. Despite what the Superior do, they are unable to beat Supreme Octopus. Hulk of Earth\\-8816, Ghost Rider of Earth\\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\\-9712 turn against Doctor Octopus and help Supreme Octopus to rip off Doctor Octopus' tentacles. Doctor Octopus is then locked up with a skeleton and carnivorous plants in Supreme Octopus' mobile base called the Supreme Sanctorum.*Devil's Reign: Superior Four* \\#2\\. Marvel Comics.",
"There is a brief history of the creation of a [Man\\-Thing](/wiki/Man-Thing \"Man-Thing\") with tentacles that end with the heads of [carnivorous plants](/wiki/Carnivorous_plant \"Carnivorous plant\"). In his cell on Earth\\-8969, Doctor Octopus is confronted by a tentacled Man\\-Thing who frees Doctor Octopus. He figures out that this Man\\-Thing is a variation of himself. Meanwhile, Supreme Octopus shares some of his history with Hulk of Earth\\-8816, Ghost Rider of Earth\\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\\-9712 claiming that an army of Ocks is both a success and a failure. He reveals that his real name is Otto Werner von Strange and that he is the last and remaining variant of a long and tireless war. Having maintained a Multiversal balance, Supreme Octopus is in need of an heir or some heirs as he has stopped a Doctor Octopus while having obtained an army of Ocks. Meanwhile, Doctor Octopus tries to get his Man\\-Thing counterpart to help him as the Man\\-Thing bonds to him and serves as his guide through the Sanctum Supreme. Supreme Octopus explains that every Doctor Octopus variant has tried to ruin what he has built. Supreme Octopus has Hulk of Earth\\-8816, Ghost Rider of Earth\\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\\-9712 see the Multiverse as it is like how a version of Doctor Octopus from Earth\\-7214 is an Atlantean whose kingdom Supreme Octopus sunk to keep his bio\\-weapon from being complete as well as their flaws. As Supreme Octopus uses his magic to restrain Hulk of Earth\\-8816, Ghost Rider of Earth\\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\\-9712 so that their worlds can be reset, Doctor Octopus and Man\\-Thing arrive as Supreme Octopus states that he done the impossible while claiming that he can remake him into the [Superior Spider\\-Man](/wiki/The_Superior_Spider-Man \"The Superior Spider-Man\"). He stated that he was the one who whispered in Doctor Octopus' ears on how to summon Mephisto and that he can grant him his Superior Spider\\-Man life back. As Doctor Octopus restrains Supreme Octopus, he explains that his Man\\-Thing counterpart traveled the Multiverse and freed him from his cell. Supreme Octopus summons his armor. Hulk of Earth\\-8816 breaks free as he is advised by Ghost Rider of Earth\\-1666 and Wolverine of Earth\\-9712 to force Supreme Octopus to send them home. They break free and help Doctor Octopus into knocking out Octopus Supreme. The Man\\-Thing variant then detaches from Doctor Octopus as it is introduced by Doctor Octopus as the source of his paradox. Using Supreme Octopus' body, the Man\\-Thing variant opens a portal back to Earth\\-616\\. Back in the Baxter Building, Doctor Octopus heads off to build himself a new set of tentacles while Hulk of Earth\\-8816 beings to work on rebuilding the portal. Using a translation device, the Man\\-Thing variant wants its agreement honored. When the rest of the Superior Four ask what agreement it is talking about, Doctor Octopus states that it wants to euthanized naturally so that it would sever the paradoxes. After building another set of arms, Doctor Octopus enters the rebuilt portal to euthanize the Man\\-Thing variant alone. Once that was done and having noted to himself that Supreme Octopus would one day seek revenge on him, Doctor Octopus returns to Earth\\-616 and makes a counter\\-offer with the Superior Four by stating that they can rid New York City of crime better than the police and the superheroes where he gives Hulk of Earth\\-8816 a special pill to devolve his Hulk form, travel to Hell with Ghost Rider of Earth\\-1666 and retrieve his soul while finding out what happened to Doctor Octopus' mind, and arrange for Wolverine of Earth\\-9712 to be a citizen on Krakoa. The Superior Four are seen attacking a smuggling operation involving Savage Land biotech. On Earth\\-2902, it was discovered that Doctor Octopus actually released the Man\\-Thing variant in Fresh Frond City as it starts to evolve into a form similar to Spider\\-Ock as the civilians mistake him for Spider\\-Ock in a new look.*Devil's Reign: Superior Four* \\#3\\. Marvel Comics.",
"#### Spider\\-Woman",
"After her longtime friend and former fellow private investigator Lindsay McCabe is hurt, [Spider\\-Woman](/wiki/Spider-Woman_%28Jessica_Drew%29 \"Spider-Woman (Jessica Drew)\") fights the Thunderbolts agents and Thunderbolts members [Coachwhip](/wiki/Coachwhip_%28character%29 \"Coachwhip (character)\") and [Puff Adder](/wiki/Puff_Adder_%28character%29 \"Puff Adder (character)\"). Despite having a broken arm, Spider\\-Woman fights them off to get Lindsay to safety. Later, a Thunderbolts agent visits Lindsay McCabe's hospital room in order to get the details on who attacked her. This turns out to be Jessica Drew in disguise as she tells the doctors to take care of her. Spider\\-Woman then interrogates the captive Thunderbolts agent whose outfit she borrowed. He claims that Lindsay was like that when they found her as Spider\\-Woman prepares to use her broken arm to attack. At Gracie Mansion, Mayor Wilson Fisk is given a status update before Spider\\-Woman arrives. Both of them engage each other in a fight. He states that someone else has been dealing with her. In a flashback to Ravencroft, Mayor Fisk visits a cell to find out about Spider\\-Man. As the Thunderbolts agents arrive, Spider\\-Woman figures out who Mayor Fisk is talking about as Spider\\-Woman claims that she's supposed to be dead. Mayor Fisk states that [Norman Osborn](/wiki/Norman_Osborn \"Norman Osborn\") kept his \"trophy\" where Mayor Fisk provided a storage place. Spider\\-Woman then flees the area. The captive Thunderbolts unit member then breaks free from the ropes and is revealed to be a thought\\-to\\-be\\-dead [Veranke](/wiki/Veranke \"Veranke\"). In the form of Spider\\-Woman, Veranke visits [Linda Carter](/wiki/Night_Nurse_%28comics%29 \"Night Nurse (comics)\") wanting to see her \"child\" Gerry.*Spider\\-Woman* Vol. 7 \\#18\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Gerry figures out that the Jessica Drew at the door isn't her real mother as Linda Carter also asks about the cast that she is supposed to be wearing. Spider\\-Woman catches up to Veranke as a Thunderbolts unit truck escapes with Gerry. Spider\\-Woman instructs Linda to help Lindsay. As Veranke still has the same powers as Spider\\-Woman, she has become out of practice due to how long she was locked up by Norman Osborn after using her death as a cover\\-up. When Spider\\-Woman catches up to the Thunderbolts unit truck, Iron Man shows up to help only for Spider\\-Woman to see that it is Veranke in disguise. After Gerry escaped, Spider\\-Woman encounters the real Carol Danvers and Spider\\-Man with Gerry identifying the imposter Danvers. Spider\\-Woman uses a point blank venom blast in Veranke's face as she advises Carol to lock her up somewhere on the garbage scow. At the hospital, Jessica apologizes to Lindsay about what happened. Somewhere across the street, a sniper named Mr. O'Nay informs [Octavia Vermis](/wiki/Octavia_Vermis \"Octavia Vermis\") that he has Spider\\-Woman in his sight. Vermis instructs Mr. O'Nay not to attack Jessica after having found out about her fight with Veranke. She wants to give Spider\\-Woman a break before she can attack with her group called the [Anti\\-Arach9](/wiki/Anti-Arach9 \"Anti-Arach9\") that also consists of Aeturnum, Rose Roché, and the Los Espadas Gemelas De Toledo.*Spider\\-Woman* Vol. 7 \\#19\\. Marvel Comics.",
"#### Devil's Reign: Villains for Hire",
"At a [Met Gala](/wiki/Met_Gala \"Met Gala\"), the Humanity Liberation Front attacks in retaliation for what is happening with the world. Just then, Thunderbolts members Agony, Electro II, Rhino, Taskmaster, and Whiplash arrive where they defeat the Humanity Liberation Front. Later at the police department, the Thunderbolts members get impatient waiting for their next assignment. They get into a fight with each other until Mayor Wilson Fisk arrives to break it up. He sends them to find the person responsible for the attack on the gala where the suspect is hiding somewhere in Gowanus. The Thunderbolts raid a warehouse where some of its members are hiding and badly defeat them as the culprit claims that the law has gone soft back when [J. Jonah Jameson](/wiki/J._Jonah_Jameson \"J. Jonah Jameson\") was the Mayor of New York City. Afterwards, the Thunderbolts are in Mayor Fisk's office as U.S. Agent shows up stating that he reporting for duty.*Devil's Reign: Villains for Hire* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Mayor Wilson Fisk sends the Thunderbolts out of his office as U.S. Agent informs him that he wants to be part of the Thunderbolts to keep its members in line while claiming \"I don't walk the line. I don't cross the line. I am the line\". When the Thunderbolts attack jewelry store robbers in animal masks, some of them are killed or badly beaten up until U.S. Agent arrives stating that he is now in charge of them as he beats up Electro II, Rhino, Taskmaster, and Whiplash to serve as his only warning to them. Then he confronts Agony who is suspicious of him. While in the alley, U.S. Agent is revealed to be secretly working with the FBI to find anything incriminating on Mayor Fisk. At Mayor Fisk's rally, U.S. Agent and the Thunderbolts deal with a mind\\-controlled crowd. As Agony advises Mayor Fisk to leave before the crowd attacks him, Mayor Fisk notices that the crowd has changed. The culprit is one of the Purple Children as Electro II gets mind\\-controlled. As a lot of people are shocked, Rhino subdues Electro II as anyone not mind\\-controlled films the incident.*Devil's Reign: Villains for Hire* \\#2\\. Marvel Comics.",
"U.S. Agent advises the Thunderbolts to get Electro II away from the area before she goes nuclear. Mayor Wilson Fisk is loaded into his limo as he advises U.S. Agent to keep the Thunderbolts in line and clean up the mess. U.S. Agent and Agony encounter the culprit called Conviction who claimed that Mayor Fisk kept her trapped in Ravencroft trying to reproduce the Purple Children's power. After a brief scuffle where Conviction got away, U.S. Agent and Agony meet up with Mayor Fisk and the rest of the Thunderbolts to mention about their encounter with Conviction. Mayor Fisk then assigns them to find the Purple Children as James Wesley gives them trackers. As Rhino doesn't want to hunt children, Mayor Fisk brings in Abomination as his replacement and mind\\-controls U.S. Agent to oversee the assignment as the Thunderbolts hunt down the Purple Children. When they are found, they are confronted by Jessica Jones and the Champions.*Devil's Reign: Villains for Hire* \\#3\\. Marvel Comics.",
"#### Devil's Reign: X\\-Men",
"In the past, Kingpin has killed some men in the shower as he instructs James Wesley to send Elektra as the person he wants dead is out for [Emma Frost](/wiki/Emma_Frost \"Emma Frost\"). At a nightclub, Emma Frost mind\\-controls her way to Mr. Loufex to speak about their mutual friend Kingpin. In the present at Seneca Park, U.S. Agent and the Thunderbolts agents are outside the New York hideout of the X\\-Men as [Rogue](/wiki/Rogue_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Rogue (Marvel Comics)\") contacts all points about who is at their door as U.S. Agent demands the X\\-Men's surrender. As Emma Frost goes to the [United Nations building](/wiki/Headquarters_of_the_United_Nations \"Headquarters of the United Nations\"), U.S. Agent is met with resistance from [Polaris](/wiki/Polaris_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Polaris (Marvel Comics)\"). Mayor Fisk is informed of the situation with the X\\-Men and their diplomatic immunity. Cyclops in his Captain Krakoa attire, [Jean Grey](/wiki/Jean_Grey \"Jean Grey\"), Rogue, [Synch](/wiki/Synch_%28comics%29 \"Synch (comics)\"), and [Wolverine](/wiki/X-23 \"X-23\") prepare to head to give up the Seneca Gardens and face the music. Captain Krakoa, Jean Grey, and Rogue state to U.S. Agent that they are not going to fight them in front of the cameras. Just then, Thunderbolts members Agony, Electro II, Rhino, and Taskmaster arrive as backup for U.S. Agent where Electro II shocks Polaris when U.S. Agent asks which way his shield went. As Rogue asks Rhino what [Gambit](/wiki/Gambit_%28comics%29 \"Gambit (comics)\") would think of him working for Mayor Fisk, Jean Grey stops Polaris from retaliating against Electro II as Taskmaster offends Wolverine by calling her a pretender. Jean Grey then speaks to U.S. Agent who wants to report the X\\-Men's \"illegal structure\" to the Parks Department. Just then, Emma Frost shows up with an order from the U.N. to not violate a structure from Krakoa. Wesley informs Mayor Fisk on what U.S. Agent informed him as he tells Wesley to send a message to the Thunderbolts to leave the X\\-Men to him. U.S. Agent withdraws the Thunderbolts from Seneca Park. Mayor Fisk has Wesley summon the chief of detectives about a murder of a young woman where they can implicate a \"rich and powerful woman of privilege\".*Devil's Reign: X\\-Men* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
"A news bulletin states that Emma Frost has been connected with a cold case murder. At the law offices of Harris, Oppenheim \\& Gallagher, Emma Frost is told by her lawyers that the case against her is not great as Emma states that she has never committed child abuse. Emma Frost then takes the time to recap on using an illusion of Invisible Woman, having a drink with Tony Stark, sending a telepathic message to She\\-Hulk that her client is guilty, and a visit to [Nick Fury](/wiki/Nick_Fury \"Nick Fury\"). She plans to settle the case. Years ago at the [Hellfire Club](/wiki/Hellfire_Club_%28comics%29 \"Hellfire Club (comics)\"), Emma Frost is visited by Elektra who needs help with a witness to one of Elektra's missions. She takes Emma Frost to the witness's apartment. In the next apartment over, some criminals are attacked by a black\\-suited [Spider\\-Man](/wiki/Spider-Man \"Spider-Man\"). Emma Frost evacuates the witness Isabelle as Elektra and Spider\\-Man fight the criminals. After reading Spider\\-Man's mind, Emma Frost advises him to help Elektra. Loading Isabelle into her limousine, Kingpin's men take some pictures as the newspaper states \"Frost's Cold Case? Missing Girl Last Seen Alive With White Queen\". In London, Emma Frost brainwashes some police officer into going for a swim in the river. She gets ambushed by [Union Jack](/wiki/Union_Jack_%28Joseph_Chapman%29 \"Union Jack (Joseph Chapman)\") who plans to have her extradited back to New York City while asking if she did kill an orphan.*Devil's Reign: X\\-Men* \\#2\\. Marvel Comics.",
"As Union Jack hands Emma Frost over the police, she turns the tide against them by throwing the power\\-dampener collar on a police officer and having two dogs attack Union Jack. She proceeds to break free and make the police officers spar with each other. After Emma Frost releases the dogs and makes her way underground, Union Jack tells the police officers that he knows where she is heading. Emma Frost arrives at the London Hellfire Club where she meets up with Isabelle. After learning from Emma Frost on why she cannot mind\\-wipe Mayor Wilson Fisk, Isabelle mentioned that Elektra trained her in some combat skills before disappearing. Union Jack then raids the building with a SWAT Team as Isabelle starts fighting Union Jack. Isabelle then stabs a SWAT officer in the leg as she meets up with Emma Frost in the basement. Moments later, Emma Frost and Isabelle arrive on Krakoa. After a spa day, Emma Frost meets up with [Ben Urich](/wiki/Ben_Urich \"Ben Urich\") where the [Daily Bugle](/wiki/Daily_Bugle \"Daily Bugle\") prints out an article stating \"Mayor smears Frost\". Mayor Fisk states to the press that Isabelle is alive and well. At the offices of Harris, Oppenheim \\& Gallagher, Emma is informed that she still has arrest warrants in countries that do not recognize the Krakoa amnesty deal until further notice. She instructs them to have the finance team slowly and quietly buy stock in the insurance company. Then Emma mind\\-controls Typhoid Mary when she confronts Mayor Fisk where she claims that his life will come crashing down one day. She then takes her leave stating that Typhoid Mary will awaken with no memory of this encounter.*Devil's Reign: X\\-Men* \\#3\\. Marvel Comics.",
"#### Devil's Reign: Winter Soldier",
"Mayor Wilson Fisk is informed by James Wesley that Gracie Mansion is secured and Typhoid Mary is away. He has been having sleepless nights since the new law has passed. [Winter Soldier](/wiki/Bucky_Barnes \"Bucky Barnes\") infiltrates Gracie Mansion to steal some files when he is confronted by Mayor Fisk. As Mayor Fisk goes on the attack, Winter Soldier works to dodge his attacks while holding his file. As Gracie Mansion is partially\\-collapsed, James Wesley returns with the NYPD and finds Mayor Fisk near the rubble stating that he had a wonderful dream. After burning some files, a wounded Winter Soldier makes his way to an alley with his own file. Now that he has a purpose, Winter Soldier vows that whoever wrote this file won't survive the year and states that he'll \"sleep when they're dead\".*Devil's Reign: Winter Soldier* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
"#### Moon Knight",
"In light of Moon Knight getting arrested by the Thunderbolts, Dr. Badr meets with the Moonlight Mission where he substitutes as \"Doctor Moon\". He and Mr. Flint find that several people were slain by crossbows which leads them to suspect that [Stained Glass Scarlet](/wiki/Stained_Glass_Scarlet \"Stained Glass Scarlet\") is responsible. While it was claimed that Stained Glass Scarlet was dead and that someone might've inherited her legacy. Reaching the church in the South Bronx where Stained Glass Scarlet was supposedly killed, Doctor Moon encounters Stained Glass Scarlet who claims that she is reborn as she goes on the attack. After a brief fight, Doctor Moon manages to get away. Back at the Midnight Mission, Dr. Badr informs Reese about these recent events. At Ravencroft, it is discovered that a patient is not in their cell as a guard tells his co\\-worker that the inmate is an ex\\-[Hydra](/wiki/Hydra_%28comics%29 \"Hydra (comics)\") assassin/terrorist with a four digit count and nearly turned Taipei into glass before his' defeat. Knowing the description of the inmate, the guard initiates a red alert that states that Rutherford Winner is on the loose.*Moon Knight* Vol. 9 \\#8\\. Marvel Comics.",
"#### Devil's Reign: Spider\\-Man",
"At the police department, Marcus Momplaiser of Beyond Corporation has been informed by Commissioner Kyle that Spider\\-Man has been sprung from their custody by Human Torch and Thing. After being sprung out by Human Torch and Thing, Ben Reilly as Spider\\-Man is ambushed by a Thunderbolts agent who places a power dampener collar on him in order to easily transport him to the Myrmidon. After breaking out of the transport, Ben contacts [Janine Godbe](/wiki/Elizabeth_Tyne \"Elizabeth Tyne\") while Marcus Momplaiser has been ambushed by [Richard Fisk](/wiki/Richard_Fisk \"Richard Fisk\") in his [Rose](/wiki/Rose_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Rose (Marvel Comics)\") alias. Rose is confronted by two Thunderbolts agents who state that Spider\\-Man got away. After driving away the Thunderbolts agents, Rose goes to Plan B and prepares to torture his Marcus. Maxine Danger comes in where he tells Ben Reilly that the weapon he recovered from the Thunderbolts agents was stolen [S.H.I.E.L.D.](/wiki/S.H.I.E.L.D. \"S.H.I.E.L.D.\") technology. After being told about Rose, Ben is approached by [Misty Knight](/wiki/Misty_Knight \"Misty Knight\") and [Colleen Wing](/wiki/Colleen_Wing \"Colleen Wing\") who state that Rose has been selling the stolen S.H.I.E.L.D. technology on the streets and that Marcus Momplaiser has been abducted. Rose has been unable to get any useful information out of Marcus and will still have a use for him. Becoming Spider\\-Man, Ben Reilly finds the Thunderbolts agents arresting someone dressed as Spider\\-Man. Spider\\-Man defeats the Thunderbolts agents and finds out that Marcus was dressed as Spider\\-Man as he advises Spider\\-Man to get away. Just then, Rose appears with the same S.H.I.E.L.D. weapon and attacks Spider\\-Man where he reveals that he spiked Marcus' Spider\\-Man costume with electrodes which he uses to shock them. Before Rose can finish of Spider\\-Man, Marcus uses one of the Thunderbolts agents electric sticks which helps him to knock out Rose. Back at Beyond Tower, a recuperating Ben is visited by Marcus who advises him to take the time to recuperate. The Thunderbolts agents bring to the NYPD someone in a Spider\\-Man outfit. He is unmasked by Commissioner Kyle to be a gagged Rose with the words \"Here's Johnny\" on the tape that's over his mouth.*Devil's Reign: Spider\\-Man* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
"#### Devil's Reign: Moon Knight",
"At the Myrmidon, [8\\-Ball](/wiki/8-Ball_%28comics%29 \"8-Ball (comics)\") is in his cell mentioning on how he has fought Moon Knight, She\\-Hulk, Sleepwalker, and Spider\\-Man and also recalls how he died and was revived by [Hood](/wiki/Hood_%28comics%29 \"Hood (comics)\"). This information he reveals to his cellmate. In the cafeteria, 8\\-Ball is unable to get a seat with the [Wrecking Crew](/wiki/Wrecking_Crew_%28comics%29 \"Wrecking Crew (comics)\"), the [Enforcers](/wiki/Enforcers_%28comics%29 \"Enforcers (comics)\"), and the [Death\\-Throws](/wiki/Death-Throws \"Death-Throws\"). When sitting at a table alone, he is confronted by one inmates. He causes 8\\-Ball some trouble before being fended off by 8\\-Ball's cellmate who gives a statement that causes the inmate to run. 8\\-Ball figures out that his cellmate is Moon Knight who is not sitting with his fellow incarcerated superheroes. Moon Knight is informed by 8\\-Ball that [Man Mountain Marko](/wiki/Man_Mountain_Marko \"Man Mountain Marko\") is the \"king of the cage\". Moon Knight then attacks the inmates that he had engraved the moon icon on and advises them to remind him later what names they went by. Later on, Moon Knight is grabbed by a Thunderbolts agent who drags him to the showers. He is thrown in and confronted by the inmates. When the Thunderbolts agent opens the door, Moon Knight comes out having defeated the inmates and that he wants a shot at the title. His first bout is against [Boomslang](/wiki/Boomslang_%28comics%29 \"Boomslang (comics)\") who he defeats. Bout \\#3 shows his victory against [Mr. Fish](/wiki/Mr._Fish \"Mr. Fish\"). Bout \\#5 has him victorious against [Killer Shrike](/wiki/Killer_Shrike \"Killer Shrike\") and [Cactus](/wiki/Cactus_%28comics%29 \"Cactus (comics)\"). Bout \\#6 is against [Massacre](/wiki/Massacre_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Massacre (Marvel Comics)\") where Moon Knight is victorious. Then it comes to the title match in Bout \\#7 against Man Mountain Marko. When Man Mountain Marko asks if Moon Knight is ready to die, Moon Knight stated that [Raoul Bushman](/wiki/Bushman_%28character%29 \"Bushman (character)\") did that first. Man Mountain Marko gives Moon Knight a hard time as Moon Knight recalls his Mr. Knight alias meeting Man Mountain Marko's ex\\-wife Judith Cort and how their daughter has started taking after her father powers and all. After that flashback while not wanting Man Mountain Marko to go after his daughter, Moon Knight beats Man Mountain Marko into surrender as he advises him not to go after his ex\\-wife or his daughter if he gets out as he won't see them again. Moon Knight proceeds to induce blindness on Man Mountain Marko as the Thunderbolts agents come in. After an altercation, Moon Knight is placed in solitary confinement in chains as 8\\-Ball mops up outside his cell. Moon Knight states that the incarcerated superheroes will go after Mayor Wilson Fisk when they get out.*Devil's Reign: Moon Knight* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
"### Aftermath",
"Mister Fantastic has been tracking the travels of Kingpin and Typhoid Mary with their latest stop being in [Latveria](/wiki/Latveria \"Latveria\") which he mentions to Daredevil. As Daredevil states that they got to find him and make him pay for what he's done, Mister Fantastic states that he will pick up the search tomorrow as he has to prepare for \"Matt Murdock's funeral\". The Thing, Foggy Nelson, J. Jonah Jameson, Mayor Luke Cage, Jessica Jones, Danny Rand and Danielle Cage are in attendance. After the funeral, Jameson talks to Nelson who he has recorded the funeral for his podcast. Jones meets Ben Hochberg who states that he will be working with Mayor Cage. Their discussion is interrupted when Cage gets angered at Butch Pharris showing up to pay his respects. While Rand keeps them from getting into a fight, Butch mentions that it was his father who killed \"Matt\". Butch tells Foggy that the man in the casket is actually Mike and that he was pretending to be Matt as a favor. After Butch leaves, Cage and Rand confront Daredevil and Elektra on a rooftop for Matt's callousness towards Mike's death. Daredevil explains that he wants the world to think that Matt Murdock is dead and that Mike never had many friends growing up; he and Elektra are going to use that opportunity destroy the Hand. Their discussion is interrupted by some bank robbers as they head out and defeat them. The Thunderbolts units arrive as Mayor Cage is surprised that they are still operating after what Kingpin made them do. A Thunderbolts agent informs Cage that they don't work for him as vigilantism is still illegal in New York City. Jones and Danielle visit Joseph at an orphanage where Jones removes his power dampening collar. She brings Joseph to her and Luke's home as Luke finishes a call with his legal expert Harris about a repeal of the vigilantism ban as they would have to convince the councilors. At the cemetery, Kristin has a final moment with \"Matt\" as he places the stone that was found on him at the time of his death in the casket. What Kristin doesn't know is that the stone in question is a Norn Stone. Mayor Cage later meets with [Spectrum](/wiki/Monica_Rambeau \"Monica Rambeau\") as they tie up the loose end with Kingpin's Thunderbolts as they take down Crossbones and the Thunderbolts agents with him. Upon defeating them, Mayor Cage and Spectrum are approached by the press and a public relations specialist named Helen Astrantia who has been tasked with re\\-framing the Thunderbolts brand in a positive way with Spectrum leading them. As Spectrum doesn't want the job and flies off, Helen suggests [Clint Barton](/wiki/Hawkeye_%28Clint_Barton%29 \"Hawkeye (Clint Barton)\") since [Dane Whitman](/wiki/Black_Knight_%28Dane_Whitman%29 \"Black Knight (Dane Whitman)\"), [Sam Wilson](/wiki/Falcon_%28comics%29 \"Falcon (comics)\"), [Barbra Morse](/wiki/Mockingbird_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Mockingbird (Marvel Comics)\"), and [Jane van Dyne](/wiki/Wasp_%28character%29 \"Wasp (character)\") don't want the job either. The next morning, Mayor Cage has his first press conference where there are some Fisk supporters present as the police work to keep the crowd in line. Mayor Cage does some workouts while recalling his history and taking down Taskmaster and Whiplash. After his workout, Mayor Cage begins his press conference where he states that he will work to restore order in New York City.*Devil's Reign: Omega* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
""
] |
### Subplots
#### Daredevil: Woman Without Fear
After her visit to Mayor Wilson Fisk, Elektra in her Daredevil attire meets up with Matt Murdock where he learns about her visit. After making out with Matt while recalling her training with [Stick](/wiki/Stick_%28comics%29 "Stick (comics)"), meeting Aka of the [Hand](/wiki/The_Hand_%28comics%29 "The Hand (comics)"), and training with the Hand where she finished off one Hand ninja with one of her sais, Elektra has coffee with Robert 'Goldy' Goldman as she sees Aka in the streets. Upon making it to the forest, Elektra in her Daredevil attire encounters Aka as jumps off a cliff. Back on the road, Elektra swerves off the road due to a deer appearing on the road. After recovering, Elektra finds a dart in one of the tires, puts on her mask, and goes hunting for what appears to be Aka only to avoid a trap. She finds the culprit responsible in the form of Kraven the Hunter who is looking for a challenge.*Daredevil: Woman Without Fear* \#1\. Marvel Comics.
Kraven mentions that he is looking for a challenge and wants to take on Elektra who holds the title of "World's Deadliest Assassin". As Elektra states to Kraven that he is being used, Kraven states that he knows that she took her file from Mayor Wilson Fisk and it will benefit them both. Kraven mentions how Mayor Fisk told him about how Elektra betrayed Daredevil once and was associated with the Hand. After Kraven intercepts one of Elektra's attacks, the police arrive responding to the car accident. Kraven the Hunter flees to obtain something golden to keep up his insurance policy while Elektra subdues the police and makes off in their police car. After a flashback with Aka, Elektra finds that Kraven got to Goldy as she is attacked by the Thunderbolts unit. After fighting them off, Elektra catches up to Kraven and Goldy as Aka is shown watching from the rooftops. When the Thunderbolts agents catches up, Kraven quotes to Elektra that Mayor Fisk also gave him the law.*Daredevil: Woman Without Fear* \#2\. Marvel Comics.
Elektra engages Kraven in battle as Goldy and the Thunderbolts agents stand back. When Kraven manages to punch Elektra, Goldy throws a snowball at him as the Thunderbolts agents restrain him. Elektra manages to kick Kraven before entering a school. He pursues Elektra and is defeated by her as Aka appears noting that Elektra is still trying to recruit Matt Murdock. Aka then disappears as Elektra notices that the Thunderbolts agents are clearing the school. Borrowing a jacket from a student, Elektra meets up with Goldy who states that Matt Murdock was killed in his apartment. She vows to make Mayor Fisk pay for this as Goldy notes that it's always part of the plan.*Daredevil: Woman Without Fear* \#3\. Marvel Comics.
#### Devil's Reign: Superior Four
Doctor Octopus has formed the Superior Four with his Multiverse counterparts in the form of Hulk of Earth\-8816 (whose real identity is [Otto Banner](/wiki/Alternative_versions_of_the_Hulk%23Otto_Banner "Alternative versions of the Hulk#Otto Banner")), Ghost Rider of Earth\-1666 (whose real identity is [Otto Blaze](/wiki/Ghost_Rider%23Otto_Blaze "Ghost Rider#Otto Blaze")), and Wolverine of Earth\-9712 (whose real identity is [Otto Howlett](/wiki/Wolverine_%28character%29%23Earth-9712 "Wolverine (character)#Earth-9712")). He mentions that he has gone through an evolution after his tenure as [Superior Spider\-Man](/wiki/The_Superior_Spider-Man "The Superior Spider-Man") and that he plans to span the Multiverse and establish a Council of Ocks from every version of Doctor Octopus he can find. The other three Ottos claim that the result can cause a paradox as Doctor Octopus claims that they are a fixed variant like the ones for Spider\-Man, Iron Man, and [Doctor Strange](/wiki/Doctor_Strange "Doctor Strange"). Doctor Octopus takes his Superior Four to Earth\-5069 where they encounter Iron Scab who demands that they leave his universe. The Superior Four do away with Iron Scab. Doctor Octopus' tentacles failing to work causes the Superior Four to flee Earth\-5069\. Back on Earth\-616, Otto Blaze claims to Doctor Octopus that magic was responsible with Doctor Octopus forgetting his deal with [Mephisto](/wiki/Mephisto_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Mephisto (Marvel Comics)"). As Doctor Octopus continues his research in order to find a better solution, Otto Banner, Otto Blaze, and Otto Howlett talk about how their fates will intertwine with the other Ottos. Doctor Octopus and Otto Banner state that they should get some insight on their Multiverse counterparts. Doctor Octopus then states that out of the 3,409 variants of himself, there is one out of all realities that knows how to defeat the Superior Four. Arriving on Earth\-2902, the Superior Four arrive in its forested city area and cause a disturbance to draw out Doctor Octopus' variant in this reality. They encounter a variant of Otto in recolored Spider\-Man\-like attire named TJ. He operates as Spider\-Ock and is familiar with Earth\-616 and the history of each of his variants. They beat him badly as Spider\-Ock states that they had tormented pasts while his father died. Doctor Octopus uses a synthetic blood\-parasite from Earth\-5069 on Spider\-Ock to claim his knowledge enough to disintegrate him. Doctor Octopus tells the rest of the Superior Four that they got a several thousand to go. On Earth\-7214, Doctor Octopus leads the Superior Four in attacking its Atlantis where they encounter Supreme Octopus.*Devil's Reign: Superior Four* \#1\. Marvel Comics.
There are views of different versions of Otto Octavius who were died. One died of an accident that Norman Osborn covered up. One was beheaded by a laser from President MODOK. One was addicted to gamma radiation where his brain failed at puberty. One got lost in the forest and was found eaten by a wolf. This was viewed by Supreme Octopus who is tasked with keeping his counterparts in line. At the Baxter Building, Doctor Octopus gazes into the different parts of the Multiverse when he is contacted by Supreme Octopus to cease and desist. Hulk of Earth\-8816 interrupts Doctor Octopus as he, Ghost Rider of Earth\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\-9712 argue with him about the paradox that Doctor Octopus caused. The portal suddenly sucks the Superior Four to Earth\-7212 where some type of mass\-extinction event occurred due to sulfur being in the air. A tsunami then occurs as the Superior Four are caught in it. Ghost Rider of Earth\-1666 claims that the Multiverse is seeking atonement for the Superior Four's meddling. Doctor Octopus is then teleported to the [Savage Land](/wiki/Savage_Land "Savage Land") on Earth\-8969 where he is ensnared by Supreme Octopus who considers himself superior to Doctor Octopus where he mentioned that he liquefied [Shuma\-Gorath](/wiki/Shuma-Gorath "Shuma-Gorath"), made [Dormammu](/wiki/Dormammu "Dormammu") grovel, and burned [Knull](/wiki/Knull_%28character%29 "Knull (character)") to ashes. The rest of the Superior Four are brought to Earth\-8969 where neither of them want to follow Supreme Octopus. Despite what the Superior do, they are unable to beat Supreme Octopus. Hulk of Earth\-8816, Ghost Rider of Earth\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\-9712 turn against Doctor Octopus and help Supreme Octopus to rip off Doctor Octopus' tentacles. Doctor Octopus is then locked up with a skeleton and carnivorous plants in Supreme Octopus' mobile base called the Supreme Sanctorum.*Devil's Reign: Superior Four* \#2\. Marvel Comics.
There is a brief history of the creation of a [Man\-Thing](/wiki/Man-Thing "Man-Thing") with tentacles that end with the heads of [carnivorous plants](/wiki/Carnivorous_plant "Carnivorous plant"). In his cell on Earth\-8969, Doctor Octopus is confronted by a tentacled Man\-Thing who frees Doctor Octopus. He figures out that this Man\-Thing is a variation of himself. Meanwhile, Supreme Octopus shares some of his history with Hulk of Earth\-8816, Ghost Rider of Earth\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\-9712 claiming that an army of Ocks is both a success and a failure. He reveals that his real name is Otto Werner von Strange and that he is the last and remaining variant of a long and tireless war. Having maintained a Multiversal balance, Supreme Octopus is in need of an heir or some heirs as he has stopped a Doctor Octopus while having obtained an army of Ocks. Meanwhile, Doctor Octopus tries to get his Man\-Thing counterpart to help him as the Man\-Thing bonds to him and serves as his guide through the Sanctum Supreme. Supreme Octopus explains that every Doctor Octopus variant has tried to ruin what he has built. Supreme Octopus has Hulk of Earth\-8816, Ghost Rider of Earth\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\-9712 see the Multiverse as it is like how a version of Doctor Octopus from Earth\-7214 is an Atlantean whose kingdom Supreme Octopus sunk to keep his bio\-weapon from being complete as well as their flaws. As Supreme Octopus uses his magic to restrain Hulk of Earth\-8816, Ghost Rider of Earth\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\-9712 so that their worlds can be reset, Doctor Octopus and Man\-Thing arrive as Supreme Octopus states that he done the impossible while claiming that he can remake him into the [Superior Spider\-Man](/wiki/The_Superior_Spider-Man "The Superior Spider-Man"). He stated that he was the one who whispered in Doctor Octopus' ears on how to summon Mephisto and that he can grant him his Superior Spider\-Man life back. As Doctor Octopus restrains Supreme Octopus, he explains that his Man\-Thing counterpart traveled the Multiverse and freed him from his cell. Supreme Octopus summons his armor. Hulk of Earth\-8816 breaks free as he is advised by Ghost Rider of Earth\-1666 and Wolverine of Earth\-9712 to force Supreme Octopus to send them home. They break free and help Doctor Octopus into knocking out Octopus Supreme. The Man\-Thing variant then detaches from Doctor Octopus as it is introduced by Doctor Octopus as the source of his paradox. Using Supreme Octopus' body, the Man\-Thing variant opens a portal back to Earth\-616\. Back in the Baxter Building, Doctor Octopus heads off to build himself a new set of tentacles while Hulk of Earth\-8816 beings to work on rebuilding the portal. Using a translation device, the Man\-Thing variant wants its agreement honored. When the rest of the Superior Four ask what agreement it is talking about, Doctor Octopus states that it wants to euthanized naturally so that it would sever the paradoxes. After building another set of arms, Doctor Octopus enters the rebuilt portal to euthanize the Man\-Thing variant alone. Once that was done and having noted to himself that Supreme Octopus would one day seek revenge on him, Doctor Octopus returns to Earth\-616 and makes a counter\-offer with the Superior Four by stating that they can rid New York City of crime better than the police and the superheroes where he gives Hulk of Earth\-8816 a special pill to devolve his Hulk form, travel to Hell with Ghost Rider of Earth\-1666 and retrieve his soul while finding out what happened to Doctor Octopus' mind, and arrange for Wolverine of Earth\-9712 to be a citizen on Krakoa. The Superior Four are seen attacking a smuggling operation involving Savage Land biotech. On Earth\-2902, it was discovered that Doctor Octopus actually released the Man\-Thing variant in Fresh Frond City as it starts to evolve into a form similar to Spider\-Ock as the civilians mistake him for Spider\-Ock in a new look.*Devil's Reign: Superior Four* \#3\. Marvel Comics.
#### Spider\-Woman
After her longtime friend and former fellow private investigator Lindsay McCabe is hurt, [Spider\-Woman](/wiki/Spider-Woman_%28Jessica_Drew%29 "Spider-Woman (Jessica Drew)") fights the Thunderbolts agents and Thunderbolts members [Coachwhip](/wiki/Coachwhip_%28character%29 "Coachwhip (character)") and [Puff Adder](/wiki/Puff_Adder_%28character%29 "Puff Adder (character)"). Despite having a broken arm, Spider\-Woman fights them off to get Lindsay to safety. Later, a Thunderbolts agent visits Lindsay McCabe's hospital room in order to get the details on who attacked her. This turns out to be Jessica Drew in disguise as she tells the doctors to take care of her. Spider\-Woman then interrogates the captive Thunderbolts agent whose outfit she borrowed. He claims that Lindsay was like that when they found her as Spider\-Woman prepares to use her broken arm to attack. At Gracie Mansion, Mayor Wilson Fisk is given a status update before Spider\-Woman arrives. Both of them engage each other in a fight. He states that someone else has been dealing with her. In a flashback to Ravencroft, Mayor Fisk visits a cell to find out about Spider\-Man. As the Thunderbolts agents arrive, Spider\-Woman figures out who Mayor Fisk is talking about as Spider\-Woman claims that she's supposed to be dead. Mayor Fisk states that [Norman Osborn](/wiki/Norman_Osborn "Norman Osborn") kept his "trophy" where Mayor Fisk provided a storage place. Spider\-Woman then flees the area. The captive Thunderbolts unit member then breaks free from the ropes and is revealed to be a thought\-to\-be\-dead [Veranke](/wiki/Veranke "Veranke"). In the form of Spider\-Woman, Veranke visits [Linda Carter](/wiki/Night_Nurse_%28comics%29 "Night Nurse (comics)") wanting to see her "child" Gerry.*Spider\-Woman* Vol. 7 \#18\. Marvel Comics.
Gerry figures out that the Jessica Drew at the door isn't her real mother as Linda Carter also asks about the cast that she is supposed to be wearing. Spider\-Woman catches up to Veranke as a Thunderbolts unit truck escapes with Gerry. Spider\-Woman instructs Linda to help Lindsay. As Veranke still has the same powers as Spider\-Woman, she has become out of practice due to how long she was locked up by Norman Osborn after using her death as a cover\-up. When Spider\-Woman catches up to the Thunderbolts unit truck, Iron Man shows up to help only for Spider\-Woman to see that it is Veranke in disguise. After Gerry escaped, Spider\-Woman encounters the real Carol Danvers and Spider\-Man with Gerry identifying the imposter Danvers. Spider\-Woman uses a point blank venom blast in Veranke's face as she advises Carol to lock her up somewhere on the garbage scow. At the hospital, Jessica apologizes to Lindsay about what happened. Somewhere across the street, a sniper named Mr. O'Nay informs [Octavia Vermis](/wiki/Octavia_Vermis "Octavia Vermis") that he has Spider\-Woman in his sight. Vermis instructs Mr. O'Nay not to attack Jessica after having found out about her fight with Veranke. She wants to give Spider\-Woman a break before she can attack with her group called the [Anti\-Arach9](/wiki/Anti-Arach9 "Anti-Arach9") that also consists of Aeturnum, Rose Roché, and the Los Espadas Gemelas De Toledo.*Spider\-Woman* Vol. 7 \#19\. Marvel Comics.
#### Devil's Reign: Villains for Hire
At a [Met Gala](/wiki/Met_Gala "Met Gala"), the Humanity Liberation Front attacks in retaliation for what is happening with the world. Just then, Thunderbolts members Agony, Electro II, Rhino, Taskmaster, and Whiplash arrive where they defeat the Humanity Liberation Front. Later at the police department, the Thunderbolts members get impatient waiting for their next assignment. They get into a fight with each other until Mayor Wilson Fisk arrives to break it up. He sends them to find the person responsible for the attack on the gala where the suspect is hiding somewhere in Gowanus. The Thunderbolts raid a warehouse where some of its members are hiding and badly defeat them as the culprit claims that the law has gone soft back when [J. Jonah Jameson](/wiki/J._Jonah_Jameson "J. Jonah Jameson") was the Mayor of New York City. Afterwards, the Thunderbolts are in Mayor Fisk's office as U.S. Agent shows up stating that he reporting for duty.*Devil's Reign: Villains for Hire* \#1\. Marvel Comics.
Mayor Wilson Fisk sends the Thunderbolts out of his office as U.S. Agent informs him that he wants to be part of the Thunderbolts to keep its members in line while claiming "I don't walk the line. I don't cross the line. I am the line". When the Thunderbolts attack jewelry store robbers in animal masks, some of them are killed or badly beaten up until U.S. Agent arrives stating that he is now in charge of them as he beats up Electro II, Rhino, Taskmaster, and Whiplash to serve as his only warning to them. Then he confronts Agony who is suspicious of him. While in the alley, U.S. Agent is revealed to be secretly working with the FBI to find anything incriminating on Mayor Fisk. At Mayor Fisk's rally, U.S. Agent and the Thunderbolts deal with a mind\-controlled crowd. As Agony advises Mayor Fisk to leave before the crowd attacks him, Mayor Fisk notices that the crowd has changed. The culprit is one of the Purple Children as Electro II gets mind\-controlled. As a lot of people are shocked, Rhino subdues Electro II as anyone not mind\-controlled films the incident.*Devil's Reign: Villains for Hire* \#2\. Marvel Comics.
U.S. Agent advises the Thunderbolts to get Electro II away from the area before she goes nuclear. Mayor Wilson Fisk is loaded into his limo as he advises U.S. Agent to keep the Thunderbolts in line and clean up the mess. U.S. Agent and Agony encounter the culprit called Conviction who claimed that Mayor Fisk kept her trapped in Ravencroft trying to reproduce the Purple Children's power. After a brief scuffle where Conviction got away, U.S. Agent and Agony meet up with Mayor Fisk and the rest of the Thunderbolts to mention about their encounter with Conviction. Mayor Fisk then assigns them to find the Purple Children as James Wesley gives them trackers. As Rhino doesn't want to hunt children, Mayor Fisk brings in Abomination as his replacement and mind\-controls U.S. Agent to oversee the assignment as the Thunderbolts hunt down the Purple Children. When they are found, they are confronted by Jessica Jones and the Champions.*Devil's Reign: Villains for Hire* \#3\. Marvel Comics.
#### Devil's Reign: X\-Men
In the past, Kingpin has killed some men in the shower as he instructs James Wesley to send Elektra as the person he wants dead is out for [Emma Frost](/wiki/Emma_Frost "Emma Frost"). At a nightclub, Emma Frost mind\-controls her way to Mr. Loufex to speak about their mutual friend Kingpin. In the present at Seneca Park, U.S. Agent and the Thunderbolts agents are outside the New York hideout of the X\-Men as [Rogue](/wiki/Rogue_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Rogue (Marvel Comics)") contacts all points about who is at their door as U.S. Agent demands the X\-Men's surrender. As Emma Frost goes to the [United Nations building](/wiki/Headquarters_of_the_United_Nations "Headquarters of the United Nations"), U.S. Agent is met with resistance from [Polaris](/wiki/Polaris_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Polaris (Marvel Comics)"). Mayor Fisk is informed of the situation with the X\-Men and their diplomatic immunity. Cyclops in his Captain Krakoa attire, [Jean Grey](/wiki/Jean_Grey "Jean Grey"), Rogue, [Synch](/wiki/Synch_%28comics%29 "Synch (comics)"), and [Wolverine](/wiki/X-23 "X-23") prepare to head to give up the Seneca Gardens and face the music. Captain Krakoa, Jean Grey, and Rogue state to U.S. Agent that they are not going to fight them in front of the cameras. Just then, Thunderbolts members Agony, Electro II, Rhino, and Taskmaster arrive as backup for U.S. Agent where Electro II shocks Polaris when U.S. Agent asks which way his shield went. As Rogue asks Rhino what [Gambit](/wiki/Gambit_%28comics%29 "Gambit (comics)") would think of him working for Mayor Fisk, Jean Grey stops Polaris from retaliating against Electro II as Taskmaster offends Wolverine by calling her a pretender. Jean Grey then speaks to U.S. Agent who wants to report the X\-Men's "illegal structure" to the Parks Department. Just then, Emma Frost shows up with an order from the U.N. to not violate a structure from Krakoa. Wesley informs Mayor Fisk on what U.S. Agent informed him as he tells Wesley to send a message to the Thunderbolts to leave the X\-Men to him. U.S. Agent withdraws the Thunderbolts from Seneca Park. Mayor Fisk has Wesley summon the chief of detectives about a murder of a young woman where they can implicate a "rich and powerful woman of privilege".*Devil's Reign: X\-Men* \#1\. Marvel Comics.
A news bulletin states that Emma Frost has been connected with a cold case murder. At the law offices of Harris, Oppenheim \& Gallagher, Emma Frost is told by her lawyers that the case against her is not great as Emma states that she has never committed child abuse. Emma Frost then takes the time to recap on using an illusion of Invisible Woman, having a drink with Tony Stark, sending a telepathic message to She\-Hulk that her client is guilty, and a visit to [Nick Fury](/wiki/Nick_Fury "Nick Fury"). She plans to settle the case. Years ago at the [Hellfire Club](/wiki/Hellfire_Club_%28comics%29 "Hellfire Club (comics)"), Emma Frost is visited by Elektra who needs help with a witness to one of Elektra's missions. She takes Emma Frost to the witness's apartment. In the next apartment over, some criminals are attacked by a black\-suited [Spider\-Man](/wiki/Spider-Man "Spider-Man"). Emma Frost evacuates the witness Isabelle as Elektra and Spider\-Man fight the criminals. After reading Spider\-Man's mind, Emma Frost advises him to help Elektra. Loading Isabelle into her limousine, Kingpin's men take some pictures as the newspaper states "Frost's Cold Case? Missing Girl Last Seen Alive With White Queen". In London, Emma Frost brainwashes some police officer into going for a swim in the river. She gets ambushed by [Union Jack](/wiki/Union_Jack_%28Joseph_Chapman%29 "Union Jack (Joseph Chapman)") who plans to have her extradited back to New York City while asking if she did kill an orphan.*Devil's Reign: X\-Men* \#2\. Marvel Comics.
As Union Jack hands Emma Frost over the police, she turns the tide against them by throwing the power\-dampener collar on a police officer and having two dogs attack Union Jack. She proceeds to break free and make the police officers spar with each other. After Emma Frost releases the dogs and makes her way underground, Union Jack tells the police officers that he knows where she is heading. Emma Frost arrives at the London Hellfire Club where she meets up with Isabelle. After learning from Emma Frost on why she cannot mind\-wipe Mayor Wilson Fisk, Isabelle mentioned that Elektra trained her in some combat skills before disappearing. Union Jack then raids the building with a SWAT Team as Isabelle starts fighting Union Jack. Isabelle then stabs a SWAT officer in the leg as she meets up with Emma Frost in the basement. Moments later, Emma Frost and Isabelle arrive on Krakoa. After a spa day, Emma Frost meets up with [Ben Urich](/wiki/Ben_Urich "Ben Urich") where the [Daily Bugle](/wiki/Daily_Bugle "Daily Bugle") prints out an article stating "Mayor smears Frost". Mayor Fisk states to the press that Isabelle is alive and well. At the offices of Harris, Oppenheim \& Gallagher, Emma is informed that she still has arrest warrants in countries that do not recognize the Krakoa amnesty deal until further notice. She instructs them to have the finance team slowly and quietly buy stock in the insurance company. Then Emma mind\-controls Typhoid Mary when she confronts Mayor Fisk where she claims that his life will come crashing down one day. She then takes her leave stating that Typhoid Mary will awaken with no memory of this encounter.*Devil's Reign: X\-Men* \#3\. Marvel Comics.
#### Devil's Reign: Winter Soldier
Mayor Wilson Fisk is informed by James Wesley that Gracie Mansion is secured and Typhoid Mary is away. He has been having sleepless nights since the new law has passed. [Winter Soldier](/wiki/Bucky_Barnes "Bucky Barnes") infiltrates Gracie Mansion to steal some files when he is confronted by Mayor Fisk. As Mayor Fisk goes on the attack, Winter Soldier works to dodge his attacks while holding his file. As Gracie Mansion is partially\-collapsed, James Wesley returns with the NYPD and finds Mayor Fisk near the rubble stating that he had a wonderful dream. After burning some files, a wounded Winter Soldier makes his way to an alley with his own file. Now that he has a purpose, Winter Soldier vows that whoever wrote this file won't survive the year and states that he'll "sleep when they're dead".*Devil's Reign: Winter Soldier* \#1\. Marvel Comics.
#### Moon Knight
In light of Moon Knight getting arrested by the Thunderbolts, Dr. Badr meets with the Moonlight Mission where he substitutes as "Doctor Moon". He and Mr. Flint find that several people were slain by crossbows which leads them to suspect that [Stained Glass Scarlet](/wiki/Stained_Glass_Scarlet "Stained Glass Scarlet") is responsible. While it was claimed that Stained Glass Scarlet was dead and that someone might've inherited her legacy. Reaching the church in the South Bronx where Stained Glass Scarlet was supposedly killed, Doctor Moon encounters Stained Glass Scarlet who claims that she is reborn as she goes on the attack. After a brief fight, Doctor Moon manages to get away. Back at the Midnight Mission, Dr. Badr informs Reese about these recent events. At Ravencroft, it is discovered that a patient is not in their cell as a guard tells his co\-worker that the inmate is an ex\-[Hydra](/wiki/Hydra_%28comics%29 "Hydra (comics)") assassin/terrorist with a four digit count and nearly turned Taipei into glass before his' defeat. Knowing the description of the inmate, the guard initiates a red alert that states that Rutherford Winner is on the loose.*Moon Knight* Vol. 9 \#8\. Marvel Comics.
#### Devil's Reign: Spider\-Man
At the police department, Marcus Momplaiser of Beyond Corporation has been informed by Commissioner Kyle that Spider\-Man has been sprung from their custody by Human Torch and Thing. After being sprung out by Human Torch and Thing, Ben Reilly as Spider\-Man is ambushed by a Thunderbolts agent who places a power dampener collar on him in order to easily transport him to the Myrmidon. After breaking out of the transport, Ben contacts [Janine Godbe](/wiki/Elizabeth_Tyne "Elizabeth Tyne") while Marcus Momplaiser has been ambushed by [Richard Fisk](/wiki/Richard_Fisk "Richard Fisk") in his [Rose](/wiki/Rose_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Rose (Marvel Comics)") alias. Rose is confronted by two Thunderbolts agents who state that Spider\-Man got away. After driving away the Thunderbolts agents, Rose goes to Plan B and prepares to torture his Marcus. Maxine Danger comes in where he tells Ben Reilly that the weapon he recovered from the Thunderbolts agents was stolen [S.H.I.E.L.D.](/wiki/S.H.I.E.L.D. "S.H.I.E.L.D.") technology. After being told about Rose, Ben is approached by [Misty Knight](/wiki/Misty_Knight "Misty Knight") and [Colleen Wing](/wiki/Colleen_Wing "Colleen Wing") who state that Rose has been selling the stolen S.H.I.E.L.D. technology on the streets and that Marcus Momplaiser has been abducted. Rose has been unable to get any useful information out of Marcus and will still have a use for him. Becoming Spider\-Man, Ben Reilly finds the Thunderbolts agents arresting someone dressed as Spider\-Man. Spider\-Man defeats the Thunderbolts agents and finds out that Marcus was dressed as Spider\-Man as he advises Spider\-Man to get away. Just then, Rose appears with the same S.H.I.E.L.D. weapon and attacks Spider\-Man where he reveals that he spiked Marcus' Spider\-Man costume with electrodes which he uses to shock them. Before Rose can finish of Spider\-Man, Marcus uses one of the Thunderbolts agents electric sticks which helps him to knock out Rose. Back at Beyond Tower, a recuperating Ben is visited by Marcus who advises him to take the time to recuperate. The Thunderbolts agents bring to the NYPD someone in a Spider\-Man outfit. He is unmasked by Commissioner Kyle to be a gagged Rose with the words "Here's Johnny" on the tape that's over his mouth.*Devil's Reign: Spider\-Man* \#1\. Marvel Comics.
#### Devil's Reign: Moon Knight
At the Myrmidon, [8\-Ball](/wiki/8-Ball_%28comics%29 "8-Ball (comics)") is in his cell mentioning on how he has fought Moon Knight, She\-Hulk, Sleepwalker, and Spider\-Man and also recalls how he died and was revived by [Hood](/wiki/Hood_%28comics%29 "Hood (comics)"). This information he reveals to his cellmate. In the cafeteria, 8\-Ball is unable to get a seat with the [Wrecking Crew](/wiki/Wrecking_Crew_%28comics%29 "Wrecking Crew (comics)"), the [Enforcers](/wiki/Enforcers_%28comics%29 "Enforcers (comics)"), and the [Death\-Throws](/wiki/Death-Throws "Death-Throws"). When sitting at a table alone, he is confronted by one inmates. He causes 8\-Ball some trouble before being fended off by 8\-Ball's cellmate who gives a statement that causes the inmate to run. 8\-Ball figures out that his cellmate is Moon Knight who is not sitting with his fellow incarcerated superheroes. Moon Knight is informed by 8\-Ball that [Man Mountain Marko](/wiki/Man_Mountain_Marko "Man Mountain Marko") is the "king of the cage". Moon Knight then attacks the inmates that he had engraved the moon icon on and advises them to remind him later what names they went by. Later on, Moon Knight is grabbed by a Thunderbolts agent who drags him to the showers. He is thrown in and confronted by the inmates. When the Thunderbolts agent opens the door, Moon Knight comes out having defeated the inmates and that he wants a shot at the title. His first bout is against [Boomslang](/wiki/Boomslang_%28comics%29 "Boomslang (comics)") who he defeats. Bout \#3 shows his victory against [Mr. Fish](/wiki/Mr._Fish "Mr. Fish"). Bout \#5 has him victorious against [Killer Shrike](/wiki/Killer_Shrike "Killer Shrike") and [Cactus](/wiki/Cactus_%28comics%29 "Cactus (comics)"). Bout \#6 is against [Massacre](/wiki/Massacre_%28Marvel_Comics%29 "Massacre (Marvel Comics)") where Moon Knight is victorious. Then it comes to the title match in Bout \#7 against Man Mountain Marko. When Man Mountain Marko asks if Moon Knight is ready to die, Moon Knight stated that [Raoul Bushman](/wiki/Bushman_%28character%29 "Bushman (character)") did that first. Man Mountain Marko gives Moon Knight a hard time as Moon Knight recalls his Mr. Knight alias meeting Man Mountain Marko's ex\-wife Judith Cort and how their daughter has started taking after her father powers and all. After that flashback while not wanting Man Mountain Marko to go after his daughter, Moon Knight beats Man Mountain Marko into surrender as he advises him not to go after his ex\-wife or his daughter if he gets out as he won't see them again. Moon Knight proceeds to induce blindness on Man Mountain Marko as the Thunderbolts agents come in. After an altercation, Moon Knight is placed in solitary confinement in chains as 8\-Ball mops up outside his cell. Moon Knight states that the incarcerated superheroes will go after Mayor Wilson Fisk when they get out.*Devil's Reign: Moon Knight* \#1\. Marvel Comics.
|
[
"### Subplots",
"#### Daredevil: Woman Without Fear",
"After her visit to Mayor Wilson Fisk, Elektra in her Daredevil attire meets up with Matt Murdock where he learns about her visit. After making out with Matt while recalling her training with [Stick](/wiki/Stick_%28comics%29 \"Stick (comics)\"), meeting Aka of the [Hand](/wiki/The_Hand_%28comics%29 \"The Hand (comics)\"), and training with the Hand where she finished off one Hand ninja with one of her sais, Elektra has coffee with Robert 'Goldy' Goldman as she sees Aka in the streets. Upon making it to the forest, Elektra in her Daredevil attire encounters Aka as jumps off a cliff. Back on the road, Elektra swerves off the road due to a deer appearing on the road. After recovering, Elektra finds a dart in one of the tires, puts on her mask, and goes hunting for what appears to be Aka only to avoid a trap. She finds the culprit responsible in the form of Kraven the Hunter who is looking for a challenge.*Daredevil: Woman Without Fear* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Kraven mentions that he is looking for a challenge and wants to take on Elektra who holds the title of \"World's Deadliest Assassin\". As Elektra states to Kraven that he is being used, Kraven states that he knows that she took her file from Mayor Wilson Fisk and it will benefit them both. Kraven mentions how Mayor Fisk told him about how Elektra betrayed Daredevil once and was associated with the Hand. After Kraven intercepts one of Elektra's attacks, the police arrive responding to the car accident. Kraven the Hunter flees to obtain something golden to keep up his insurance policy while Elektra subdues the police and makes off in their police car. After a flashback with Aka, Elektra finds that Kraven got to Goldy as she is attacked by the Thunderbolts unit. After fighting them off, Elektra catches up to Kraven and Goldy as Aka is shown watching from the rooftops. When the Thunderbolts agents catches up, Kraven quotes to Elektra that Mayor Fisk also gave him the law.*Daredevil: Woman Without Fear* \\#2\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Elektra engages Kraven in battle as Goldy and the Thunderbolts agents stand back. When Kraven manages to punch Elektra, Goldy throws a snowball at him as the Thunderbolts agents restrain him. Elektra manages to kick Kraven before entering a school. He pursues Elektra and is defeated by her as Aka appears noting that Elektra is still trying to recruit Matt Murdock. Aka then disappears as Elektra notices that the Thunderbolts agents are clearing the school. Borrowing a jacket from a student, Elektra meets up with Goldy who states that Matt Murdock was killed in his apartment. She vows to make Mayor Fisk pay for this as Goldy notes that it's always part of the plan.*Daredevil: Woman Without Fear* \\#3\\. Marvel Comics.",
"#### Devil's Reign: Superior Four",
"Doctor Octopus has formed the Superior Four with his Multiverse counterparts in the form of Hulk of Earth\\-8816 (whose real identity is [Otto Banner](/wiki/Alternative_versions_of_the_Hulk%23Otto_Banner \"Alternative versions of the Hulk#Otto Banner\")), Ghost Rider of Earth\\-1666 (whose real identity is [Otto Blaze](/wiki/Ghost_Rider%23Otto_Blaze \"Ghost Rider#Otto Blaze\")), and Wolverine of Earth\\-9712 (whose real identity is [Otto Howlett](/wiki/Wolverine_%28character%29%23Earth-9712 \"Wolverine (character)#Earth-9712\")). He mentions that he has gone through an evolution after his tenure as [Superior Spider\\-Man](/wiki/The_Superior_Spider-Man \"The Superior Spider-Man\") and that he plans to span the Multiverse and establish a Council of Ocks from every version of Doctor Octopus he can find. The other three Ottos claim that the result can cause a paradox as Doctor Octopus claims that they are a fixed variant like the ones for Spider\\-Man, Iron Man, and [Doctor Strange](/wiki/Doctor_Strange \"Doctor Strange\"). Doctor Octopus takes his Superior Four to Earth\\-5069 where they encounter Iron Scab who demands that they leave his universe. The Superior Four do away with Iron Scab. Doctor Octopus' tentacles failing to work causes the Superior Four to flee Earth\\-5069\\. Back on Earth\\-616, Otto Blaze claims to Doctor Octopus that magic was responsible with Doctor Octopus forgetting his deal with [Mephisto](/wiki/Mephisto_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Mephisto (Marvel Comics)\"). As Doctor Octopus continues his research in order to find a better solution, Otto Banner, Otto Blaze, and Otto Howlett talk about how their fates will intertwine with the other Ottos. Doctor Octopus and Otto Banner state that they should get some insight on their Multiverse counterparts. Doctor Octopus then states that out of the 3,409 variants of himself, there is one out of all realities that knows how to defeat the Superior Four. Arriving on Earth\\-2902, the Superior Four arrive in its forested city area and cause a disturbance to draw out Doctor Octopus' variant in this reality. They encounter a variant of Otto in recolored Spider\\-Man\\-like attire named TJ. He operates as Spider\\-Ock and is familiar with Earth\\-616 and the history of each of his variants. They beat him badly as Spider\\-Ock states that they had tormented pasts while his father died. Doctor Octopus uses a synthetic blood\\-parasite from Earth\\-5069 on Spider\\-Ock to claim his knowledge enough to disintegrate him. Doctor Octopus tells the rest of the Superior Four that they got a several thousand to go. On Earth\\-7214, Doctor Octopus leads the Superior Four in attacking its Atlantis where they encounter Supreme Octopus.*Devil's Reign: Superior Four* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
"There are views of different versions of Otto Octavius who were died. One died of an accident that Norman Osborn covered up. One was beheaded by a laser from President MODOK. One was addicted to gamma radiation where his brain failed at puberty. One got lost in the forest and was found eaten by a wolf. This was viewed by Supreme Octopus who is tasked with keeping his counterparts in line. At the Baxter Building, Doctor Octopus gazes into the different parts of the Multiverse when he is contacted by Supreme Octopus to cease and desist. Hulk of Earth\\-8816 interrupts Doctor Octopus as he, Ghost Rider of Earth\\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\\-9712 argue with him about the paradox that Doctor Octopus caused. The portal suddenly sucks the Superior Four to Earth\\-7212 where some type of mass\\-extinction event occurred due to sulfur being in the air. A tsunami then occurs as the Superior Four are caught in it. Ghost Rider of Earth\\-1666 claims that the Multiverse is seeking atonement for the Superior Four's meddling. Doctor Octopus is then teleported to the [Savage Land](/wiki/Savage_Land \"Savage Land\") on Earth\\-8969 where he is ensnared by Supreme Octopus who considers himself superior to Doctor Octopus where he mentioned that he liquefied [Shuma\\-Gorath](/wiki/Shuma-Gorath \"Shuma-Gorath\"), made [Dormammu](/wiki/Dormammu \"Dormammu\") grovel, and burned [Knull](/wiki/Knull_%28character%29 \"Knull (character)\") to ashes. The rest of the Superior Four are brought to Earth\\-8969 where neither of them want to follow Supreme Octopus. Despite what the Superior do, they are unable to beat Supreme Octopus. Hulk of Earth\\-8816, Ghost Rider of Earth\\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\\-9712 turn against Doctor Octopus and help Supreme Octopus to rip off Doctor Octopus' tentacles. Doctor Octopus is then locked up with a skeleton and carnivorous plants in Supreme Octopus' mobile base called the Supreme Sanctorum.*Devil's Reign: Superior Four* \\#2\\. Marvel Comics.",
"There is a brief history of the creation of a [Man\\-Thing](/wiki/Man-Thing \"Man-Thing\") with tentacles that end with the heads of [carnivorous plants](/wiki/Carnivorous_plant \"Carnivorous plant\"). In his cell on Earth\\-8969, Doctor Octopus is confronted by a tentacled Man\\-Thing who frees Doctor Octopus. He figures out that this Man\\-Thing is a variation of himself. Meanwhile, Supreme Octopus shares some of his history with Hulk of Earth\\-8816, Ghost Rider of Earth\\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\\-9712 claiming that an army of Ocks is both a success and a failure. He reveals that his real name is Otto Werner von Strange and that he is the last and remaining variant of a long and tireless war. Having maintained a Multiversal balance, Supreme Octopus is in need of an heir or some heirs as he has stopped a Doctor Octopus while having obtained an army of Ocks. Meanwhile, Doctor Octopus tries to get his Man\\-Thing counterpart to help him as the Man\\-Thing bonds to him and serves as his guide through the Sanctum Supreme. Supreme Octopus explains that every Doctor Octopus variant has tried to ruin what he has built. Supreme Octopus has Hulk of Earth\\-8816, Ghost Rider of Earth\\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\\-9712 see the Multiverse as it is like how a version of Doctor Octopus from Earth\\-7214 is an Atlantean whose kingdom Supreme Octopus sunk to keep his bio\\-weapon from being complete as well as their flaws. As Supreme Octopus uses his magic to restrain Hulk of Earth\\-8816, Ghost Rider of Earth\\-1666, and Wolverine of Earth\\-9712 so that their worlds can be reset, Doctor Octopus and Man\\-Thing arrive as Supreme Octopus states that he done the impossible while claiming that he can remake him into the [Superior Spider\\-Man](/wiki/The_Superior_Spider-Man \"The Superior Spider-Man\"). He stated that he was the one who whispered in Doctor Octopus' ears on how to summon Mephisto and that he can grant him his Superior Spider\\-Man life back. As Doctor Octopus restrains Supreme Octopus, he explains that his Man\\-Thing counterpart traveled the Multiverse and freed him from his cell. Supreme Octopus summons his armor. Hulk of Earth\\-8816 breaks free as he is advised by Ghost Rider of Earth\\-1666 and Wolverine of Earth\\-9712 to force Supreme Octopus to send them home. They break free and help Doctor Octopus into knocking out Octopus Supreme. The Man\\-Thing variant then detaches from Doctor Octopus as it is introduced by Doctor Octopus as the source of his paradox. Using Supreme Octopus' body, the Man\\-Thing variant opens a portal back to Earth\\-616\\. Back in the Baxter Building, Doctor Octopus heads off to build himself a new set of tentacles while Hulk of Earth\\-8816 beings to work on rebuilding the portal. Using a translation device, the Man\\-Thing variant wants its agreement honored. When the rest of the Superior Four ask what agreement it is talking about, Doctor Octopus states that it wants to euthanized naturally so that it would sever the paradoxes. After building another set of arms, Doctor Octopus enters the rebuilt portal to euthanize the Man\\-Thing variant alone. Once that was done and having noted to himself that Supreme Octopus would one day seek revenge on him, Doctor Octopus returns to Earth\\-616 and makes a counter\\-offer with the Superior Four by stating that they can rid New York City of crime better than the police and the superheroes where he gives Hulk of Earth\\-8816 a special pill to devolve his Hulk form, travel to Hell with Ghost Rider of Earth\\-1666 and retrieve his soul while finding out what happened to Doctor Octopus' mind, and arrange for Wolverine of Earth\\-9712 to be a citizen on Krakoa. The Superior Four are seen attacking a smuggling operation involving Savage Land biotech. On Earth\\-2902, it was discovered that Doctor Octopus actually released the Man\\-Thing variant in Fresh Frond City as it starts to evolve into a form similar to Spider\\-Ock as the civilians mistake him for Spider\\-Ock in a new look.*Devil's Reign: Superior Four* \\#3\\. Marvel Comics.",
"#### Spider\\-Woman",
"After her longtime friend and former fellow private investigator Lindsay McCabe is hurt, [Spider\\-Woman](/wiki/Spider-Woman_%28Jessica_Drew%29 \"Spider-Woman (Jessica Drew)\") fights the Thunderbolts agents and Thunderbolts members [Coachwhip](/wiki/Coachwhip_%28character%29 \"Coachwhip (character)\") and [Puff Adder](/wiki/Puff_Adder_%28character%29 \"Puff Adder (character)\"). Despite having a broken arm, Spider\\-Woman fights them off to get Lindsay to safety. Later, a Thunderbolts agent visits Lindsay McCabe's hospital room in order to get the details on who attacked her. This turns out to be Jessica Drew in disguise as she tells the doctors to take care of her. Spider\\-Woman then interrogates the captive Thunderbolts agent whose outfit she borrowed. He claims that Lindsay was like that when they found her as Spider\\-Woman prepares to use her broken arm to attack. At Gracie Mansion, Mayor Wilson Fisk is given a status update before Spider\\-Woman arrives. Both of them engage each other in a fight. He states that someone else has been dealing with her. In a flashback to Ravencroft, Mayor Fisk visits a cell to find out about Spider\\-Man. As the Thunderbolts agents arrive, Spider\\-Woman figures out who Mayor Fisk is talking about as Spider\\-Woman claims that she's supposed to be dead. Mayor Fisk states that [Norman Osborn](/wiki/Norman_Osborn \"Norman Osborn\") kept his \"trophy\" where Mayor Fisk provided a storage place. Spider\\-Woman then flees the area. The captive Thunderbolts unit member then breaks free from the ropes and is revealed to be a thought\\-to\\-be\\-dead [Veranke](/wiki/Veranke \"Veranke\"). In the form of Spider\\-Woman, Veranke visits [Linda Carter](/wiki/Night_Nurse_%28comics%29 \"Night Nurse (comics)\") wanting to see her \"child\" Gerry.*Spider\\-Woman* Vol. 7 \\#18\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Gerry figures out that the Jessica Drew at the door isn't her real mother as Linda Carter also asks about the cast that she is supposed to be wearing. Spider\\-Woman catches up to Veranke as a Thunderbolts unit truck escapes with Gerry. Spider\\-Woman instructs Linda to help Lindsay. As Veranke still has the same powers as Spider\\-Woman, she has become out of practice due to how long she was locked up by Norman Osborn after using her death as a cover\\-up. When Spider\\-Woman catches up to the Thunderbolts unit truck, Iron Man shows up to help only for Spider\\-Woman to see that it is Veranke in disguise. After Gerry escaped, Spider\\-Woman encounters the real Carol Danvers and Spider\\-Man with Gerry identifying the imposter Danvers. Spider\\-Woman uses a point blank venom blast in Veranke's face as she advises Carol to lock her up somewhere on the garbage scow. At the hospital, Jessica apologizes to Lindsay about what happened. Somewhere across the street, a sniper named Mr. O'Nay informs [Octavia Vermis](/wiki/Octavia_Vermis \"Octavia Vermis\") that he has Spider\\-Woman in his sight. Vermis instructs Mr. O'Nay not to attack Jessica after having found out about her fight with Veranke. She wants to give Spider\\-Woman a break before she can attack with her group called the [Anti\\-Arach9](/wiki/Anti-Arach9 \"Anti-Arach9\") that also consists of Aeturnum, Rose Roché, and the Los Espadas Gemelas De Toledo.*Spider\\-Woman* Vol. 7 \\#19\\. Marvel Comics.",
"#### Devil's Reign: Villains for Hire",
"At a [Met Gala](/wiki/Met_Gala \"Met Gala\"), the Humanity Liberation Front attacks in retaliation for what is happening with the world. Just then, Thunderbolts members Agony, Electro II, Rhino, Taskmaster, and Whiplash arrive where they defeat the Humanity Liberation Front. Later at the police department, the Thunderbolts members get impatient waiting for their next assignment. They get into a fight with each other until Mayor Wilson Fisk arrives to break it up. He sends them to find the person responsible for the attack on the gala where the suspect is hiding somewhere in Gowanus. The Thunderbolts raid a warehouse where some of its members are hiding and badly defeat them as the culprit claims that the law has gone soft back when [J. Jonah Jameson](/wiki/J._Jonah_Jameson \"J. Jonah Jameson\") was the Mayor of New York City. Afterwards, the Thunderbolts are in Mayor Fisk's office as U.S. Agent shows up stating that he reporting for duty.*Devil's Reign: Villains for Hire* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
"Mayor Wilson Fisk sends the Thunderbolts out of his office as U.S. Agent informs him that he wants to be part of the Thunderbolts to keep its members in line while claiming \"I don't walk the line. I don't cross the line. I am the line\". When the Thunderbolts attack jewelry store robbers in animal masks, some of them are killed or badly beaten up until U.S. Agent arrives stating that he is now in charge of them as he beats up Electro II, Rhino, Taskmaster, and Whiplash to serve as his only warning to them. Then he confronts Agony who is suspicious of him. While in the alley, U.S. Agent is revealed to be secretly working with the FBI to find anything incriminating on Mayor Fisk. At Mayor Fisk's rally, U.S. Agent and the Thunderbolts deal with a mind\\-controlled crowd. As Agony advises Mayor Fisk to leave before the crowd attacks him, Mayor Fisk notices that the crowd has changed. The culprit is one of the Purple Children as Electro II gets mind\\-controlled. As a lot of people are shocked, Rhino subdues Electro II as anyone not mind\\-controlled films the incident.*Devil's Reign: Villains for Hire* \\#2\\. Marvel Comics.",
"U.S. Agent advises the Thunderbolts to get Electro II away from the area before she goes nuclear. Mayor Wilson Fisk is loaded into his limo as he advises U.S. Agent to keep the Thunderbolts in line and clean up the mess. U.S. Agent and Agony encounter the culprit called Conviction who claimed that Mayor Fisk kept her trapped in Ravencroft trying to reproduce the Purple Children's power. After a brief scuffle where Conviction got away, U.S. Agent and Agony meet up with Mayor Fisk and the rest of the Thunderbolts to mention about their encounter with Conviction. Mayor Fisk then assigns them to find the Purple Children as James Wesley gives them trackers. As Rhino doesn't want to hunt children, Mayor Fisk brings in Abomination as his replacement and mind\\-controls U.S. Agent to oversee the assignment as the Thunderbolts hunt down the Purple Children. When they are found, they are confronted by Jessica Jones and the Champions.*Devil's Reign: Villains for Hire* \\#3\\. Marvel Comics.",
"#### Devil's Reign: X\\-Men",
"In the past, Kingpin has killed some men in the shower as he instructs James Wesley to send Elektra as the person he wants dead is out for [Emma Frost](/wiki/Emma_Frost \"Emma Frost\"). At a nightclub, Emma Frost mind\\-controls her way to Mr. Loufex to speak about their mutual friend Kingpin. In the present at Seneca Park, U.S. Agent and the Thunderbolts agents are outside the New York hideout of the X\\-Men as [Rogue](/wiki/Rogue_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Rogue (Marvel Comics)\") contacts all points about who is at their door as U.S. Agent demands the X\\-Men's surrender. As Emma Frost goes to the [United Nations building](/wiki/Headquarters_of_the_United_Nations \"Headquarters of the United Nations\"), U.S. Agent is met with resistance from [Polaris](/wiki/Polaris_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Polaris (Marvel Comics)\"). Mayor Fisk is informed of the situation with the X\\-Men and their diplomatic immunity. Cyclops in his Captain Krakoa attire, [Jean Grey](/wiki/Jean_Grey \"Jean Grey\"), Rogue, [Synch](/wiki/Synch_%28comics%29 \"Synch (comics)\"), and [Wolverine](/wiki/X-23 \"X-23\") prepare to head to give up the Seneca Gardens and face the music. Captain Krakoa, Jean Grey, and Rogue state to U.S. Agent that they are not going to fight them in front of the cameras. Just then, Thunderbolts members Agony, Electro II, Rhino, and Taskmaster arrive as backup for U.S. Agent where Electro II shocks Polaris when U.S. Agent asks which way his shield went. As Rogue asks Rhino what [Gambit](/wiki/Gambit_%28comics%29 \"Gambit (comics)\") would think of him working for Mayor Fisk, Jean Grey stops Polaris from retaliating against Electro II as Taskmaster offends Wolverine by calling her a pretender. Jean Grey then speaks to U.S. Agent who wants to report the X\\-Men's \"illegal structure\" to the Parks Department. Just then, Emma Frost shows up with an order from the U.N. to not violate a structure from Krakoa. Wesley informs Mayor Fisk on what U.S. Agent informed him as he tells Wesley to send a message to the Thunderbolts to leave the X\\-Men to him. U.S. Agent withdraws the Thunderbolts from Seneca Park. Mayor Fisk has Wesley summon the chief of detectives about a murder of a young woman where they can implicate a \"rich and powerful woman of privilege\".*Devil's Reign: X\\-Men* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
"A news bulletin states that Emma Frost has been connected with a cold case murder. At the law offices of Harris, Oppenheim \\& Gallagher, Emma Frost is told by her lawyers that the case against her is not great as Emma states that she has never committed child abuse. Emma Frost then takes the time to recap on using an illusion of Invisible Woman, having a drink with Tony Stark, sending a telepathic message to She\\-Hulk that her client is guilty, and a visit to [Nick Fury](/wiki/Nick_Fury \"Nick Fury\"). She plans to settle the case. Years ago at the [Hellfire Club](/wiki/Hellfire_Club_%28comics%29 \"Hellfire Club (comics)\"), Emma Frost is visited by Elektra who needs help with a witness to one of Elektra's missions. She takes Emma Frost to the witness's apartment. In the next apartment over, some criminals are attacked by a black\\-suited [Spider\\-Man](/wiki/Spider-Man \"Spider-Man\"). Emma Frost evacuates the witness Isabelle as Elektra and Spider\\-Man fight the criminals. After reading Spider\\-Man's mind, Emma Frost advises him to help Elektra. Loading Isabelle into her limousine, Kingpin's men take some pictures as the newspaper states \"Frost's Cold Case? Missing Girl Last Seen Alive With White Queen\". In London, Emma Frost brainwashes some police officer into going for a swim in the river. She gets ambushed by [Union Jack](/wiki/Union_Jack_%28Joseph_Chapman%29 \"Union Jack (Joseph Chapman)\") who plans to have her extradited back to New York City while asking if she did kill an orphan.*Devil's Reign: X\\-Men* \\#2\\. Marvel Comics.",
"As Union Jack hands Emma Frost over the police, she turns the tide against them by throwing the power\\-dampener collar on a police officer and having two dogs attack Union Jack. She proceeds to break free and make the police officers spar with each other. After Emma Frost releases the dogs and makes her way underground, Union Jack tells the police officers that he knows where she is heading. Emma Frost arrives at the London Hellfire Club where she meets up with Isabelle. After learning from Emma Frost on why she cannot mind\\-wipe Mayor Wilson Fisk, Isabelle mentioned that Elektra trained her in some combat skills before disappearing. Union Jack then raids the building with a SWAT Team as Isabelle starts fighting Union Jack. Isabelle then stabs a SWAT officer in the leg as she meets up with Emma Frost in the basement. Moments later, Emma Frost and Isabelle arrive on Krakoa. After a spa day, Emma Frost meets up with [Ben Urich](/wiki/Ben_Urich \"Ben Urich\") where the [Daily Bugle](/wiki/Daily_Bugle \"Daily Bugle\") prints out an article stating \"Mayor smears Frost\". Mayor Fisk states to the press that Isabelle is alive and well. At the offices of Harris, Oppenheim \\& Gallagher, Emma is informed that she still has arrest warrants in countries that do not recognize the Krakoa amnesty deal until further notice. She instructs them to have the finance team slowly and quietly buy stock in the insurance company. Then Emma mind\\-controls Typhoid Mary when she confronts Mayor Fisk where she claims that his life will come crashing down one day. She then takes her leave stating that Typhoid Mary will awaken with no memory of this encounter.*Devil's Reign: X\\-Men* \\#3\\. Marvel Comics.",
"#### Devil's Reign: Winter Soldier",
"Mayor Wilson Fisk is informed by James Wesley that Gracie Mansion is secured and Typhoid Mary is away. He has been having sleepless nights since the new law has passed. [Winter Soldier](/wiki/Bucky_Barnes \"Bucky Barnes\") infiltrates Gracie Mansion to steal some files when he is confronted by Mayor Fisk. As Mayor Fisk goes on the attack, Winter Soldier works to dodge his attacks while holding his file. As Gracie Mansion is partially\\-collapsed, James Wesley returns with the NYPD and finds Mayor Fisk near the rubble stating that he had a wonderful dream. After burning some files, a wounded Winter Soldier makes his way to an alley with his own file. Now that he has a purpose, Winter Soldier vows that whoever wrote this file won't survive the year and states that he'll \"sleep when they're dead\".*Devil's Reign: Winter Soldier* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
"#### Moon Knight",
"In light of Moon Knight getting arrested by the Thunderbolts, Dr. Badr meets with the Moonlight Mission where he substitutes as \"Doctor Moon\". He and Mr. Flint find that several people were slain by crossbows which leads them to suspect that [Stained Glass Scarlet](/wiki/Stained_Glass_Scarlet \"Stained Glass Scarlet\") is responsible. While it was claimed that Stained Glass Scarlet was dead and that someone might've inherited her legacy. Reaching the church in the South Bronx where Stained Glass Scarlet was supposedly killed, Doctor Moon encounters Stained Glass Scarlet who claims that she is reborn as she goes on the attack. After a brief fight, Doctor Moon manages to get away. Back at the Midnight Mission, Dr. Badr informs Reese about these recent events. At Ravencroft, it is discovered that a patient is not in their cell as a guard tells his co\\-worker that the inmate is an ex\\-[Hydra](/wiki/Hydra_%28comics%29 \"Hydra (comics)\") assassin/terrorist with a four digit count and nearly turned Taipei into glass before his' defeat. Knowing the description of the inmate, the guard initiates a red alert that states that Rutherford Winner is on the loose.*Moon Knight* Vol. 9 \\#8\\. Marvel Comics.",
"#### Devil's Reign: Spider\\-Man",
"At the police department, Marcus Momplaiser of Beyond Corporation has been informed by Commissioner Kyle that Spider\\-Man has been sprung from their custody by Human Torch and Thing. After being sprung out by Human Torch and Thing, Ben Reilly as Spider\\-Man is ambushed by a Thunderbolts agent who places a power dampener collar on him in order to easily transport him to the Myrmidon. After breaking out of the transport, Ben contacts [Janine Godbe](/wiki/Elizabeth_Tyne \"Elizabeth Tyne\") while Marcus Momplaiser has been ambushed by [Richard Fisk](/wiki/Richard_Fisk \"Richard Fisk\") in his [Rose](/wiki/Rose_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Rose (Marvel Comics)\") alias. Rose is confronted by two Thunderbolts agents who state that Spider\\-Man got away. After driving away the Thunderbolts agents, Rose goes to Plan B and prepares to torture his Marcus. Maxine Danger comes in where he tells Ben Reilly that the weapon he recovered from the Thunderbolts agents was stolen [S.H.I.E.L.D.](/wiki/S.H.I.E.L.D. \"S.H.I.E.L.D.\") technology. After being told about Rose, Ben is approached by [Misty Knight](/wiki/Misty_Knight \"Misty Knight\") and [Colleen Wing](/wiki/Colleen_Wing \"Colleen Wing\") who state that Rose has been selling the stolen S.H.I.E.L.D. technology on the streets and that Marcus Momplaiser has been abducted. Rose has been unable to get any useful information out of Marcus and will still have a use for him. Becoming Spider\\-Man, Ben Reilly finds the Thunderbolts agents arresting someone dressed as Spider\\-Man. Spider\\-Man defeats the Thunderbolts agents and finds out that Marcus was dressed as Spider\\-Man as he advises Spider\\-Man to get away. Just then, Rose appears with the same S.H.I.E.L.D. weapon and attacks Spider\\-Man where he reveals that he spiked Marcus' Spider\\-Man costume with electrodes which he uses to shock them. Before Rose can finish of Spider\\-Man, Marcus uses one of the Thunderbolts agents electric sticks which helps him to knock out Rose. Back at Beyond Tower, a recuperating Ben is visited by Marcus who advises him to take the time to recuperate. The Thunderbolts agents bring to the NYPD someone in a Spider\\-Man outfit. He is unmasked by Commissioner Kyle to be a gagged Rose with the words \"Here's Johnny\" on the tape that's over his mouth.*Devil's Reign: Spider\\-Man* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
"#### Devil's Reign: Moon Knight",
"At the Myrmidon, [8\\-Ball](/wiki/8-Ball_%28comics%29 \"8-Ball (comics)\") is in his cell mentioning on how he has fought Moon Knight, She\\-Hulk, Sleepwalker, and Spider\\-Man and also recalls how he died and was revived by [Hood](/wiki/Hood_%28comics%29 \"Hood (comics)\"). This information he reveals to his cellmate. In the cafeteria, 8\\-Ball is unable to get a seat with the [Wrecking Crew](/wiki/Wrecking_Crew_%28comics%29 \"Wrecking Crew (comics)\"), the [Enforcers](/wiki/Enforcers_%28comics%29 \"Enforcers (comics)\"), and the [Death\\-Throws](/wiki/Death-Throws \"Death-Throws\"). When sitting at a table alone, he is confronted by one inmates. He causes 8\\-Ball some trouble before being fended off by 8\\-Ball's cellmate who gives a statement that causes the inmate to run. 8\\-Ball figures out that his cellmate is Moon Knight who is not sitting with his fellow incarcerated superheroes. Moon Knight is informed by 8\\-Ball that [Man Mountain Marko](/wiki/Man_Mountain_Marko \"Man Mountain Marko\") is the \"king of the cage\". Moon Knight then attacks the inmates that he had engraved the moon icon on and advises them to remind him later what names they went by. Later on, Moon Knight is grabbed by a Thunderbolts agent who drags him to the showers. He is thrown in and confronted by the inmates. When the Thunderbolts agent opens the door, Moon Knight comes out having defeated the inmates and that he wants a shot at the title. His first bout is against [Boomslang](/wiki/Boomslang_%28comics%29 \"Boomslang (comics)\") who he defeats. Bout \\#3 shows his victory against [Mr. Fish](/wiki/Mr._Fish \"Mr. Fish\"). Bout \\#5 has him victorious against [Killer Shrike](/wiki/Killer_Shrike \"Killer Shrike\") and [Cactus](/wiki/Cactus_%28comics%29 \"Cactus (comics)\"). Bout \\#6 is against [Massacre](/wiki/Massacre_%28Marvel_Comics%29 \"Massacre (Marvel Comics)\") where Moon Knight is victorious. Then it comes to the title match in Bout \\#7 against Man Mountain Marko. When Man Mountain Marko asks if Moon Knight is ready to die, Moon Knight stated that [Raoul Bushman](/wiki/Bushman_%28character%29 \"Bushman (character)\") did that first. Man Mountain Marko gives Moon Knight a hard time as Moon Knight recalls his Mr. Knight alias meeting Man Mountain Marko's ex\\-wife Judith Cort and how their daughter has started taking after her father powers and all. After that flashback while not wanting Man Mountain Marko to go after his daughter, Moon Knight beats Man Mountain Marko into surrender as he advises him not to go after his ex\\-wife or his daughter if he gets out as he won't see them again. Moon Knight proceeds to induce blindness on Man Mountain Marko as the Thunderbolts agents come in. After an altercation, Moon Knight is placed in solitary confinement in chains as 8\\-Ball mops up outside his cell. Moon Knight states that the incarcerated superheroes will go after Mayor Wilson Fisk when they get out.*Devil's Reign: Moon Knight* \\#1\\. Marvel Comics.",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
### Texas Rangers
Garcés signed with the [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 "Texas Rangers (baseball)") organization as an international free agent on May 29, 2009\.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/players/g/garcefr01\.shtml\|title\=Frank Garces Statistics and History\|work\=\[\[Baseball\-Reference.com]]\|accessdate\=November 17, 2016}} He was assigned to the [Dominican Summer League Rangers](/wiki/Dominican_Summer_League_Rangers "Dominican Summer League Rangers") and appeared in eight games, posting a 0–2 [win–loss record](/wiki/Win%E2%80%93loss_record_%28pitching%29 "Win–loss record (pitching)"), 4\.96 [earned run average](/wiki/Earned_run_average "Earned run average") (ERA), and 12 [strikeouts](/wiki/Strikeout "Strikeout") in 16{{frac\|1\|3}} [innings pitched](/wiki/Inning "Inning").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.baseball\-reference.com/register/player.cgi?id\=garces001fra\|title\=Frank Garces Register Statistics \& History\|work\=\[\[Baseball\-Reference.com]]\|accessdate\=November 17, 2016}}
### San Diego Padres
Garcés was released by the Rangers organization on September 26, 2009, and signed with the [San Diego Padres](/wiki/San_Diego_Padres "San Diego Padres") organization on May 12, 2011\. Assigned to the [Dominican Summer League Padres](/wiki/Dominican_Summer_League_Padres "Dominican Summer League Padres") for the 2011 season, Garcés pitched to a 4–3 record, 2\.51 ERA, and 115 strikeouts in 71{{frac\|2\|3}} innings.
In 2012, Garcés was promoted to the [Class\-A](/wiki/Class_A_%28baseball%29 "Class A (baseball)") [Fort Wayne TinCaps](/wiki/Fort_Wayne_TinCaps "Fort Wayne TinCaps") and made 25 starts for the team. In a career\-high 121{{frac\|2\|3}} innings, he posted a 9–6 record, 2\.81 ERA, and 112 strikeouts. Garcés continued to progress through the Padres minor league organization, pitching the entire 2013 season with the [Advanced\-A](/wiki/Class_A-Advanced "Class A-Advanced") [Lake Elsinore Storm](/wiki/Lake_Elsinore_Storm "Lake Elsinore Storm"). He struggled in his 26 starts, going 7–9 with a 5\.67 ERA and 126 strikeouts. In the offseason, Garcés played with the [Toros del Este](/wiki/Toros_del_Este "Toros del Este") of the [Dominican Winter League](/wiki/Dominican_Winter_League "Dominican Winter League"). He was assigned to the [Double\-A](/wiki/Double-A_%28baseball%29 "Double-A (baseball)") [San Antonio Missions](/wiki/San_Antonio_Missions "San Antonio Missions") in 2014, where he posted a 2–5 record, 1\.94 ERA, and 74 strikeouts in 51 relief appearances.
#### Major Leagues
Garcés was called up to MLB for the first time on August 19, 2014\.{{cite web\|url\=http://sandiego.padres.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20140819\&content\_id\=90453594\¬ebook\_id\=90455304\&vkey\=notebook\_sd\&c\_id\=sd\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821201443/http://sandiego.padres.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\=20140819\&content\_id\=90453594\¬ebook\_id\=90455304\&vkey\=notebook\_sd\&c\_id\=sd\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=August 21, 2014\|title\=Hahn sent down to ease workload; Garces called up\|last\=Brock\|first\=Corey\|work\=MLB.com\|date\=August 14, 2014\|accessdate\=November 17, 2016}} He was optioned to Double\-A on August 23, after making two scoreless appearances for San Diego.{{cite web\|url\=http://padres.mlblogs.com/2014/08/23/padres\-roster\-move\-82314/\|title\=Padres Roster Move, 8/23/14\|last\=Center\|first\=Bill\|work\=padres.mlblogs.com\|date\=August 23, 2014\|accessdate\=November 17, 2016}} Garcés was recalled in September and made 15 relief appearances for the Padres in 2014, with a 2\.00 ERA and 10 strikeouts. Garcés returned to the Toros del Este in the offseason. In 2015, he made 40 appearances for the Padres, and posted a 0–1 win–loss record, 5\.21 ERA, and 30 strikeouts in 38 innings. He also made 19 appearances for the [Triple\-A](/wiki/Triple-A_%28baseball%29 "Triple-A (baseball)") [El Paso Chihuahuas](/wiki/El_Paso_Chihuahuas "El Paso Chihuahuas") in 2015, going 1–0 with a 2\.91 ERA and 17 strikeouts. On December 2, 2015, Garcés was non–tendered by the Padres, making him a free agent.
On December 6, 2015, Garces re–signed with Padres organization on a minor league contract. He spent the entire 2016 season in Triple–A El Paso, working to a 6–8 record and 4\.41 ERA with 98 strikeouts over 114{{frac\|1\|3}} innings pitched. Garces elected free agency following the season on November 7, 2016\.{{Cite web\|title\=Minor League Free Agents 2016\|url\=https://www.baseballamerica.com/stories/minor\-league\-free\-agents\-2016/\|access\-date\=August 4, 2024\|website\=baseballamerica.com\|language\=en}}
### Saitama Seibu Lions
On November 17, 2016, Garcés signed a minor league contract with the [Miami Marlins](/wiki/Miami_Marlins "Miami Marlins") organization.{{cite web\|url\=http://m.marlins.mlb.com/news/article/209056868/marlins\-ink\-five\-to\-minor\-league\-deals/\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118040805/http://m.marlins.mlb.com/news/article/209056868/marlins\-ink\-five\-to\-minor\-league\-deals/\|url\-status\=dead\|archive\-date\=November 18, 2016\|title\=Marlins sign 5, including 3 lefty relievers\|last\=Frisaro\|first\=Joe\|work\=MLB.com\|date\=November 17, 2016\|accessdate\=November 17, 2016}}
On December 14, 2016, Garcés signed a one\-year, 60 million yen contract with the [Saitama Seibu Lions](/wiki/Saitama_Seibu_Lions "Saitama Seibu Lions") of [Nippon Professional Baseball](/wiki/Nippon_Professional_Baseball "Nippon Professional Baseball").{{Cite web \| url\=http://yakyudb.com/2016/12/14/12142016\-seibu\-lions\-reach\-agreement\-with\-frank\-garces/ \|title \= \[12/14/2016] Seibu Lions reach agreement with Frank Garces\|date \= 2016\-12\-14}} Garcés recorded a 2\-2 record and 6\.39 ERA in 18 appearances for the Lions in 2017\. On October 25, 2017, he became a free agent.{{cite web\|url\=http://npb.jp/announcement/2017/pn\_released.html \|title\=2017年度 自由契約選手 \|work\=NPB.jp 日本野球機構 \|language\=Japanese \|date\=October 25, 2017 \|accessdate\=March 8, 2018}}
### Barrie Baycats
On June 14, 2018, Garcés made his debut with the [Barrie Baycats](/wiki/Barrie_Baycats "Barrie Baycats") of the [Intercounty Baseball League](/wiki/Intercounty_Baseball_League "Intercounty Baseball League").{{cite web\|url\=https://twitter.com/ryan\_eaky/status/1007402465074073600}}
### Algodoneros de Unión Laguna
On April 3, 2019, Garcés signed with the [Algodoneros de Unión Laguna](/wiki/Algodoneros_de_Uni%C3%B3n_Laguna "Algodoneros de Unión Laguna") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League "Mexican League"). He was released on July 15, 2019\.
### Piratas de Campeche
On July 17, 2019, Garcés signed with the [Piratas de Campeche](/wiki/Piratas_de_Campeche "Piratas de Campeche") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League "Mexican League"). He was released by the Piratas on February 11, 2020\.
### Barrie Baycats (second stint)
On March 1, 2021, Garcés signed with the [Barrie Baycats](/wiki/Barrie_Baycats "Barrie Baycats") of the [Intercounty Baseball League](/wiki/Intercounty_Baseball_League "Intercounty Baseball League"), joining the team for the 2021 season.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.theibl.ca/news/baycats\-sign\-garces\-for\-2021\-season\|title \= Baycats Sign Garces for 2021 Season\| date\=March 2021 }}
### Pericos de Puebla
On July 8, 2021, Garcés signed with the [Pericos de Puebla](/wiki/Pericos_de_Puebla "Pericos de Puebla") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League "Mexican League").[Frank Garcés Stats, Highlights, Bio \| MiLB.com Stats \| The Official Site of Minor League Baseball](https://www.milb.com/player/frank-garces-571057) He was released by the team on October 20, 2021\.
### Barrie Baycats (third stint)
On December 23, 2021, Garcés signed with the [Barrie Baycats](/wiki/Barrie_Baycats "Barrie Baycats") of the [Intercounty Baseball League](/wiki/Intercounty_Baseball_League "Intercounty Baseball League") for the 2022 season.[IBL Transactions](https://www.theibl.ca/transactions1)
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"### Texas Rangers",
"Garcés signed with the [Texas Rangers](/wiki/Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29 \"Texas Rangers (baseball)\") organization as an international free agent on May 29, 2009\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/players/g/garcefr01\\.shtml\\|title\\=Frank Garces Statistics and History\\|work\\=\\[\\[Baseball\\-Reference.com]]\\|accessdate\\=November 17, 2016}} He was assigned to the [Dominican Summer League Rangers](/wiki/Dominican_Summer_League_Rangers \"Dominican Summer League Rangers\") and appeared in eight games, posting a 0–2 [win–loss record](/wiki/Win%E2%80%93loss_record_%28pitching%29 \"Win–loss record (pitching)\"), 4\\.96 [earned run average](/wiki/Earned_run_average \"Earned run average\") (ERA), and 12 [strikeouts](/wiki/Strikeout \"Strikeout\") in 16{{frac\\|1\\|3}} [innings pitched](/wiki/Inning \"Inning\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.baseball\\-reference.com/register/player.cgi?id\\=garces001fra\\|title\\=Frank Garces Register Statistics \\& History\\|work\\=\\[\\[Baseball\\-Reference.com]]\\|accessdate\\=November 17, 2016}}",
"### San Diego Padres",
"Garcés was released by the Rangers organization on September 26, 2009, and signed with the [San Diego Padres](/wiki/San_Diego_Padres \"San Diego Padres\") organization on May 12, 2011\\. Assigned to the [Dominican Summer League Padres](/wiki/Dominican_Summer_League_Padres \"Dominican Summer League Padres\") for the 2011 season, Garcés pitched to a 4–3 record, 2\\.51 ERA, and 115 strikeouts in 71{{frac\\|2\\|3}} innings.",
"In 2012, Garcés was promoted to the [Class\\-A](/wiki/Class_A_%28baseball%29 \"Class A (baseball)\") [Fort Wayne TinCaps](/wiki/Fort_Wayne_TinCaps \"Fort Wayne TinCaps\") and made 25 starts for the team. In a career\\-high 121{{frac\\|2\\|3}} innings, he posted a 9–6 record, 2\\.81 ERA, and 112 strikeouts. Garcés continued to progress through the Padres minor league organization, pitching the entire 2013 season with the [Advanced\\-A](/wiki/Class_A-Advanced \"Class A-Advanced\") [Lake Elsinore Storm](/wiki/Lake_Elsinore_Storm \"Lake Elsinore Storm\"). He struggled in his 26 starts, going 7–9 with a 5\\.67 ERA and 126 strikeouts. In the offseason, Garcés played with the [Toros del Este](/wiki/Toros_del_Este \"Toros del Este\") of the [Dominican Winter League](/wiki/Dominican_Winter_League \"Dominican Winter League\"). He was assigned to the [Double\\-A](/wiki/Double-A_%28baseball%29 \"Double-A (baseball)\") [San Antonio Missions](/wiki/San_Antonio_Missions \"San Antonio Missions\") in 2014, where he posted a 2–5 record, 1\\.94 ERA, and 74 strikeouts in 51 relief appearances.",
"#### Major Leagues",
"Garcés was called up to MLB for the first time on August 19, 2014\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://sandiego.padres.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20140819\\&content\\_id\\=90453594\\¬ebook\\_id\\=90455304\\&vkey\\=notebook\\_sd\\&c\\_id\\=sd\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821201443/http://sandiego.padres.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd\\=20140819\\&content\\_id\\=90453594\\¬ebook\\_id\\=90455304\\&vkey\\=notebook\\_sd\\&c\\_id\\=sd\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=August 21, 2014\\|title\\=Hahn sent down to ease workload; Garces called up\\|last\\=Brock\\|first\\=Corey\\|work\\=MLB.com\\|date\\=August 14, 2014\\|accessdate\\=November 17, 2016}} He was optioned to Double\\-A on August 23, after making two scoreless appearances for San Diego.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://padres.mlblogs.com/2014/08/23/padres\\-roster\\-move\\-82314/\\|title\\=Padres Roster Move, 8/23/14\\|last\\=Center\\|first\\=Bill\\|work\\=padres.mlblogs.com\\|date\\=August 23, 2014\\|accessdate\\=November 17, 2016}} Garcés was recalled in September and made 15 relief appearances for the Padres in 2014, with a 2\\.00 ERA and 10 strikeouts. Garcés returned to the Toros del Este in the offseason. In 2015, he made 40 appearances for the Padres, and posted a 0–1 win–loss record, 5\\.21 ERA, and 30 strikeouts in 38 innings. He also made 19 appearances for the [Triple\\-A](/wiki/Triple-A_%28baseball%29 \"Triple-A (baseball)\") [El Paso Chihuahuas](/wiki/El_Paso_Chihuahuas \"El Paso Chihuahuas\") in 2015, going 1–0 with a 2\\.91 ERA and 17 strikeouts. On December 2, 2015, Garcés was non–tendered by the Padres, making him a free agent.",
"On December 6, 2015, Garces re–signed with Padres organization on a minor league contract. He spent the entire 2016 season in Triple–A El Paso, working to a 6–8 record and 4\\.41 ERA with 98 strikeouts over 114{{frac\\|1\\|3}} innings pitched. Garces elected free agency following the season on November 7, 2016\\.{{Cite web\\|title\\=Minor League Free Agents 2016\\|url\\=https://www.baseballamerica.com/stories/minor\\-league\\-free\\-agents\\-2016/\\|access\\-date\\=August 4, 2024\\|website\\=baseballamerica.com\\|language\\=en}}",
"### Saitama Seibu Lions",
"On November 17, 2016, Garcés signed a minor league contract with the [Miami Marlins](/wiki/Miami_Marlins \"Miami Marlins\") organization.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://m.marlins.mlb.com/news/article/209056868/marlins\\-ink\\-five\\-to\\-minor\\-league\\-deals/\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118040805/http://m.marlins.mlb.com/news/article/209056868/marlins\\-ink\\-five\\-to\\-minor\\-league\\-deals/\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|archive\\-date\\=November 18, 2016\\|title\\=Marlins sign 5, including 3 lefty relievers\\|last\\=Frisaro\\|first\\=Joe\\|work\\=MLB.com\\|date\\=November 17, 2016\\|accessdate\\=November 17, 2016}}",
"On December 14, 2016, Garcés signed a one\\-year, 60 million yen contract with the [Saitama Seibu Lions](/wiki/Saitama_Seibu_Lions \"Saitama Seibu Lions\") of [Nippon Professional Baseball](/wiki/Nippon_Professional_Baseball \"Nippon Professional Baseball\").{{Cite web \\| url\\=http://yakyudb.com/2016/12/14/12142016\\-seibu\\-lions\\-reach\\-agreement\\-with\\-frank\\-garces/ \\|title \\= \\[12/14/2016] Seibu Lions reach agreement with Frank Garces\\|date \\= 2016\\-12\\-14}} Garcés recorded a 2\\-2 record and 6\\.39 ERA in 18 appearances for the Lions in 2017\\. On October 25, 2017, he became a free agent.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://npb.jp/announcement/2017/pn\\_released.html \\|title\\=2017年度 自由契約選手 \\|work\\=NPB.jp 日本野球機構 \\|language\\=Japanese \\|date\\=October 25, 2017 \\|accessdate\\=March 8, 2018}}",
"### Barrie Baycats",
"On June 14, 2018, Garcés made his debut with the [Barrie Baycats](/wiki/Barrie_Baycats \"Barrie Baycats\") of the [Intercounty Baseball League](/wiki/Intercounty_Baseball_League \"Intercounty Baseball League\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://twitter.com/ryan\\_eaky/status/1007402465074073600}}",
"### Algodoneros de Unión Laguna",
"On April 3, 2019, Garcés signed with the [Algodoneros de Unión Laguna](/wiki/Algodoneros_de_Uni%C3%B3n_Laguna \"Algodoneros de Unión Laguna\") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League \"Mexican League\"). He was released on July 15, 2019\\.",
"### Piratas de Campeche",
"On July 17, 2019, Garcés signed with the [Piratas de Campeche](/wiki/Piratas_de_Campeche \"Piratas de Campeche\") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League \"Mexican League\"). He was released by the Piratas on February 11, 2020\\.",
"### Barrie Baycats (second stint)",
"On March 1, 2021, Garcés signed with the [Barrie Baycats](/wiki/Barrie_Baycats \"Barrie Baycats\") of the [Intercounty Baseball League](/wiki/Intercounty_Baseball_League \"Intercounty Baseball League\"), joining the team for the 2021 season.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.theibl.ca/news/baycats\\-sign\\-garces\\-for\\-2021\\-season\\|title \\= Baycats Sign Garces for 2021 Season\\| date\\=March 2021 }}",
"### Pericos de Puebla",
"On July 8, 2021, Garcés signed with the [Pericos de Puebla](/wiki/Pericos_de_Puebla \"Pericos de Puebla\") of the [Mexican League](/wiki/Mexican_League \"Mexican League\").[Frank Garcés Stats, Highlights, Bio \\| MiLB.com Stats \\| The Official Site of Minor League Baseball](https://www.milb.com/player/frank-garces-571057) He was released by the team on October 20, 2021\\.",
"### Barrie Baycats (third stint)",
"On December 23, 2021, Garcés signed with the [Barrie Baycats](/wiki/Barrie_Baycats \"Barrie Baycats\") of the [Intercounty Baseball League](/wiki/Intercounty_Baseball_League \"Intercounty Baseball League\") for the 2022 season.[IBL Transactions](https://www.theibl.ca/transactions1)",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb \|upright\=1\.5
\|{{center\|Submarine Electric Lamp, with and without Reflector}}
A. Metal case containing electrical fittings.
B. Glass globe and incandescent lamp.
C. Stand, which also protects the globe.
D. Ring for suspending lamp.
E. Reflector.](/wiki/File:Britannica_Divers_5.jpg "Britannica Divers 5.jpg")
Early underwater lights were fixed electric flood lamps or portable lamps with dry batteries for use by divers in [standard diving dress](/wiki/Standard_diving_dress "Standard diving dress"). [Siebe Gorman \& Company Ltd](/wiki/Siebe_Gorman "Siebe Gorman") developed a model of portable lamp with a parabolic lens and attached to the divers corselet via a ball and socket joint allowing the diver to use both hands while working.
In 1906, the [tungsten](/wiki/Tungsten "Tungsten") filament was introduced and used to produce 200 to 3,000 [candlepower](/wiki/Candlepower "Candlepower") incandescent dive lights. The Siebe Gorman \& Company introduced a 250\-watt mercury vapor hand lamp in 1919 that could produce as much as 18,000 candles. For diving in turbid water, 45\-watt Sodium hand lamps became the preferred choice. These early lights had to be turned on underwater to avoid cracking the heated glass as it entered cold water.
The first lantern available to the US Navy had 150 candlepower. The early testing showed a need to increase the length of cable on the US Navy Standard Lantern from 125 feet to 250 feet in 1915 to allow for greater operational range. The [United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit](/wiki/United_States_Navy_Experimental_Diving_Unit "United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit") continues to evaluate dive lights for wet and dry [illumination output](/wiki/Lighting "Lighting"), battery duration, watertight integrity, as well as maximum operating depth.
[Halogen bulbs](/wiki/Halogen_bulb "Halogen bulb") came into use in the latter decades of the 20th century as they produced more light for the power used. They were followed by [high intensity discharge](/wiki/High_intensity_discharge "High intensity discharge") lamps and later, light emitting diodes, both singly and in arrays. Surface supplied divers could use power from a cable in the umbilical, but scuba divers need lights that are independent of a connection to the surface to make best use of their mobility advantage. The portable power sources progressed from [lead–acid batteries](/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_batteries "Lead–acid batteries") for rechargeable lights and [zinc–carbon batteries](/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93carbon_batteries "Zinc–carbon batteries") for disposable power supplies, to [alkaline batteries](/wiki/Alkaline_batteries "Alkaline batteries"), [Nickel–cadmium](/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93cadmium "Nickel–cadmium") (NiCad), [Nickel\-metal hydride](/wiki/Nickel-metal_hydride "Nickel-metal hydride") (NiMH), and most recently, rechargeable [lithium–ion batteries](/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery "Lithium-ion battery")
Waterproof miners lights were found to be suitable for moderate depths and were popular for cave diving. For greater depths, home made, and later professionally manufactured canister lights continued the tradition of a powerful but heavy and bulky power supply, connected to a lightweight, easily carried light\-head, which could be carried in the hand or suspended from a clip or round the neck when both hands were needed for a task. The Goodman handle was developed to allow the light head to be carried on the back of the hand, which freed up the fingers for other tasks. This was later developed into the Goodman glove, a soft partial glove which supports the light in the same way as a Goodman handle. As of 2000, canister lights with sealed lead\-acid batteries(12V 7AH) were standard for primary cave lights, with HID also popular for caving as they were more efficient, using lower wattage for equivalent lumens – an 18W HID would be brighter and burn longer than 50W halogen. The disadvantage of HID was that it could not be turned off then immediately on again and was much more expensive.
There has been a continuous increase in lumen output for lower power of light sources, and increased power density of batteries. By the second decade of the 21st century compact hand held lights with several thousand lumens output were available in wide and narrow beam configurations, sometimes combined and sometimes combined with red LEDs and flashing sequences similar to strobes. These lights are often also suitable for use as video lights and can substitute for strobes for still photography, at a price.
Some LED lights are also available with ultraviolet output for viewing and photography of [fluorescent organisms](/wiki/Fluorescence "Fluorescence").
Both narrow beam spotlights and wide beam flood lights and combinations have been available since the early years. Some of the light heads had reflectors which could be slid along the axis to focus the beam, but more recent lights simply provide a separate set of LEDs for narrow and wide beam, and switch from one to the other as needed. Variable power output is also common on these lights and the power selected allows low brightness for a long burn time or higher brightness and shorted burn.
An early canister light attributed to Frank Martz around 1965 used sealed beam automotive lights. Later cave lights used test tube light heads. These were made commercially in the early 1970s by Lamar English (English Engineering), and later Mark Leonard produced a range of canister lights with both circular and rectangular section canisters in acrylic and aluminium. Mark Leonard co\-founded Dive\-Rite, and American Underwater Lighting took over from English Engineering, Bill Gavin modified the English light with quick disconnect cables, which AUL produced as the Spectrum 1000 Extreme Exposure. NiCad batteries were in use in a few canister lights by 2000\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb \\|upright\\=1\\.5\n\\|{{center\\|Submarine Electric Lamp, with and without Reflector}}\nA. Metal case containing electrical fittings.\nB. Glass globe and incandescent lamp.\nC. Stand, which also protects the globe.\nD. Ring for suspending lamp.\nE. Reflector.](/wiki/File:Britannica_Divers_5.jpg \"Britannica Divers 5.jpg\")",
"Early underwater lights were fixed electric flood lamps or portable lamps with dry batteries for use by divers in [standard diving dress](/wiki/Standard_diving_dress \"Standard diving dress\"). [Siebe Gorman \\& Company Ltd](/wiki/Siebe_Gorman \"Siebe Gorman\") developed a model of portable lamp with a parabolic lens and attached to the divers corselet via a ball and socket joint allowing the diver to use both hands while working.",
"In 1906, the [tungsten](/wiki/Tungsten \"Tungsten\") filament was introduced and used to produce 200 to 3,000 [candlepower](/wiki/Candlepower \"Candlepower\") incandescent dive lights. The Siebe Gorman \\& Company introduced a 250\\-watt mercury vapor hand lamp in 1919 that could produce as much as 18,000 candles. For diving in turbid water, 45\\-watt Sodium hand lamps became the preferred choice. These early lights had to be turned on underwater to avoid cracking the heated glass as it entered cold water.",
"The first lantern available to the US Navy had 150 candlepower. The early testing showed a need to increase the length of cable on the US Navy Standard Lantern from 125 feet to 250 feet in 1915 to allow for greater operational range. The [United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit](/wiki/United_States_Navy_Experimental_Diving_Unit \"United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit\") continues to evaluate dive lights for wet and dry [illumination output](/wiki/Lighting \"Lighting\"), battery duration, watertight integrity, as well as maximum operating depth.",
"[Halogen bulbs](/wiki/Halogen_bulb \"Halogen bulb\") came into use in the latter decades of the 20th century as they produced more light for the power used. They were followed by [high intensity discharge](/wiki/High_intensity_discharge \"High intensity discharge\") lamps and later, light emitting diodes, both singly and in arrays. Surface supplied divers could use power from a cable in the umbilical, but scuba divers need lights that are independent of a connection to the surface to make best use of their mobility advantage. The portable power sources progressed from [lead–acid batteries](/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_batteries \"Lead–acid batteries\") for rechargeable lights and [zinc–carbon batteries](/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93carbon_batteries \"Zinc–carbon batteries\") for disposable power supplies, to [alkaline batteries](/wiki/Alkaline_batteries \"Alkaline batteries\"), [Nickel–cadmium](/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93cadmium \"Nickel–cadmium\") (NiCad), [Nickel\\-metal hydride](/wiki/Nickel-metal_hydride \"Nickel-metal hydride\") (NiMH), and most recently, rechargeable [lithium–ion batteries](/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery \"Lithium-ion battery\")",
"Waterproof miners lights were found to be suitable for moderate depths and were popular for cave diving. For greater depths, home made, and later professionally manufactured canister lights continued the tradition of a powerful but heavy and bulky power supply, connected to a lightweight, easily carried light\\-head, which could be carried in the hand or suspended from a clip or round the neck when both hands were needed for a task. The Goodman handle was developed to allow the light head to be carried on the back of the hand, which freed up the fingers for other tasks. This was later developed into the Goodman glove, a soft partial glove which supports the light in the same way as a Goodman handle. As of 2000, canister lights with sealed lead\\-acid batteries(12V 7AH) were standard for primary cave lights, with HID also popular for caving as they were more efficient, using lower wattage for equivalent lumens – an 18W HID would be brighter and burn longer than 50W halogen. The disadvantage of HID was that it could not be turned off then immediately on again and was much more expensive.",
"There has been a continuous increase in lumen output for lower power of light sources, and increased power density of batteries. By the second decade of the 21st century compact hand held lights with several thousand lumens output were available in wide and narrow beam configurations, sometimes combined and sometimes combined with red LEDs and flashing sequences similar to strobes. These lights are often also suitable for use as video lights and can substitute for strobes for still photography, at a price.\nSome LED lights are also available with ultraviolet output for viewing and photography of [fluorescent organisms](/wiki/Fluorescence \"Fluorescence\").",
"Both narrow beam spotlights and wide beam flood lights and combinations have been available since the early years. Some of the light heads had reflectors which could be slid along the axis to focus the beam, but more recent lights simply provide a separate set of LEDs for narrow and wide beam, and switch from one to the other as needed. Variable power output is also common on these lights and the power selected allows low brightness for a long burn time or higher brightness and shorted burn.",
"An early canister light attributed to Frank Martz around 1965 used sealed beam automotive lights. Later cave lights used test tube light heads. These were made commercially in the early 1970s by Lamar English (English Engineering), and later Mark Leonard produced a range of canister lights with both circular and rectangular section canisters in acrylic and aluminium. Mark Leonard co\\-founded Dive\\-Rite, and American Underwater Lighting took over from English Engineering, Bill Gavin modified the English light with quick disconnect cables, which AUL produced as the Spectrum 1000 Extreme Exposure. NiCad batteries were in use in a few canister lights by 2000\\.",
""
] |
Configuration
-------------
[thumb\|handheld 1000\-lumen LED dive light](/wiki/File:Tauchlampe_mb.sub_Photon.JPG "Tauchlampe mb.sub Photon.JPG")
[thumb\|50W halogen canister light](/wiki/File:Diving-torch.jpg "Diving-torch.jpg")
[thumb\|Surface supplied light head and closed circuit video camera mounted on Kirby\-Morgan 17 helmet.](/wiki/File:US_Navy_070811-N-3093M-021_Chief_Navy_Diver_Scott_Maynard_attached_to_Mobile_Diving_and_Salvage_Unit_%28MDSU%29_2%2C_readies_for_a_dive_into_the_Mississippi_river_in_support_of_ongoing_search_and_recovery_operations.jpg "US Navy 070811-N-3093M-021 Chief Navy Diver Scott Maynard attached to Mobile Diving and Salvage Unit (MDSU) 2, readies for a dive into the Mississippi river in support of ongoing search and recovery operations.jpg")
### Hand held (Integral)
The light source and the power supply are housed in the same water and pressure resistant housing. The light is switched on and off by a mechanism built into the housing
### Canister light
Canister lights originated when the battery size required for sufficient burn time of a high output light was too large to be conveniently carried in the diver's hand. The work\-around was to use a light\-head with the light source, which is small and light enough to easily carry in the hand or on a head mount, and provide power through a cable from a waterproof battery canister, which is carried on the diver's harness. The cable also functions as a tether for the light\-head, and allows it to be hung round the diver's neck to illuminate work where both hands are needed.
### Head mount
Head mount lights are used by divers who need to use both hands for other purposes. This can be underwater work by a commercial diver, or getting through tight restrictions for a cave or wreck diver. With a head mount there is a greater risk of dazzling other divers in the vicinity, as the lights move with the diver's head, and this arrangement is more appropriate for divers who work or explore alone.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2013}} Helmet mounts are common for commercial work which is often monitored by a helmet mount closed circuit video camera.
Both one piece lights intended to be hand held, and light heads powered from canisters or surface supplied cables are used for head mount lights. There are also a few one piece lights specifically made for head mounting, and a full face mask made by Ocean Reef which has integrated lighting.
Caving head lights are sometimes usable as head mount lights for shallow cave dives, as they are waterproof, but they are generally not designed to be used under much pressure.{{Citation needed\|date\=July 2013}}
Use of a head mountrd light temporarily to accomplish a tak needing both hands can help the diver illuminate the task, or keep track of the guideline in a penetration dive. the light may be switched on for the duration of the task, or the primary light may be temporarily placed on the helmet. A head mounted light is also immediately available if a hand held primary light fails and the main backup is stowed where it cannot easily be reached at the time. Head mounted lights also cause more prominent backscatter, reducing visibility in turbid water.
### Surface supplied
If the diver is supplied with breathing gas from the surface, it is convenient to supply power for lights from the surface through the same umbilical. An extra cable is generally used for this purpose. The light head is functionally the same as for a canister light, and is usually mounted on the helmet, where it may be referred to as a hat light.
|
[
"Configuration\n-------------",
"[thumb\\|handheld 1000\\-lumen LED dive light](/wiki/File:Tauchlampe_mb.sub_Photon.JPG \"Tauchlampe mb.sub Photon.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|50W halogen canister light](/wiki/File:Diving-torch.jpg \"Diving-torch.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Surface supplied light head and closed circuit video camera mounted on Kirby\\-Morgan 17 helmet.](/wiki/File:US_Navy_070811-N-3093M-021_Chief_Navy_Diver_Scott_Maynard_attached_to_Mobile_Diving_and_Salvage_Unit_%28MDSU%29_2%2C_readies_for_a_dive_into_the_Mississippi_river_in_support_of_ongoing_search_and_recovery_operations.jpg \"US Navy 070811-N-3093M-021 Chief Navy Diver Scott Maynard attached to Mobile Diving and Salvage Unit (MDSU) 2, readies for a dive into the Mississippi river in support of ongoing search and recovery operations.jpg\")",
"### Hand held (Integral)",
"The light source and the power supply are housed in the same water and pressure resistant housing. The light is switched on and off by a mechanism built into the housing",
"### Canister light",
"Canister lights originated when the battery size required for sufficient burn time of a high output light was too large to be conveniently carried in the diver's hand. The work\\-around was to use a light\\-head with the light source, which is small and light enough to easily carry in the hand or on a head mount, and provide power through a cable from a waterproof battery canister, which is carried on the diver's harness. The cable also functions as a tether for the light\\-head, and allows it to be hung round the diver's neck to illuminate work where both hands are needed.",
"### Head mount",
"Head mount lights are used by divers who need to use both hands for other purposes. This can be underwater work by a commercial diver, or getting through tight restrictions for a cave or wreck diver. With a head mount there is a greater risk of dazzling other divers in the vicinity, as the lights move with the diver's head, and this arrangement is more appropriate for divers who work or explore alone.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2013}} Helmet mounts are common for commercial work which is often monitored by a helmet mount closed circuit video camera.",
"Both one piece lights intended to be hand held, and light heads powered from canisters or surface supplied cables are used for head mount lights. There are also a few one piece lights specifically made for head mounting, and a full face mask made by Ocean Reef which has integrated lighting.",
"Caving head lights are sometimes usable as head mount lights for shallow cave dives, as they are waterproof, but they are generally not designed to be used under much pressure.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=July 2013}}",
"Use of a head mountrd light temporarily to accomplish a tak needing both hands can help the diver illuminate the task, or keep track of the guideline in a penetration dive. the light may be switched on for the duration of the task, or the primary light may be temporarily placed on the helmet. A head mounted light is also immediately available if a hand held primary light fails and the main backup is stowed where it cannot easily be reached at the time. Head mounted lights also cause more prominent backscatter, reducing visibility in turbid water.",
"### Surface supplied",
"If the diver is supplied with breathing gas from the surface, it is convenient to supply power for lights from the surface through the same umbilical. An extra cable is generally used for this purpose. The light head is functionally the same as for a canister light, and is usually mounted on the helmet, where it may be referred to as a hat light.",
""
] |
Beam angle
----------
Narrow beam (spotlight) vs wide beam (floodlight), vs focusing (by adjustable lens or reflector):
[thumb\|upright\=1\.5\|Dive flashlight with different reflectors and collimator for LED XHP70\.2](/wiki/File:Reflectors.jpg "Reflectors.jpg")
Beam angle is chosen to suit the conditions and activities of the planned dive. Cave divers frequently choose narrow beam lights when diving in good visibility as these provide good illumination over relatively long distances, which is useful when navigating into an unfamiliar space where it is actually possible to see a fairly long distance ahead. Some feel that in poor visibility, or at short range, a narrow beam is not much use, and a wider beam spreads the light over a more useful area. Others feel that in low visibility settings a wide beam angle is distracting as it tends to reflect back to much light from floating particulates (back\-scatter). Video lighting usually requires a wider beam as the view angle of the video camera must be accommodated for good results. In the case of very wide angle video, such as the GoPro and similar, an extremely wide angle beam is necessary.
Beam angle may be as tight as 8 to 10 degrees in extreme cases, or as wide as around 140° with a plain flat glass port. Even wider angles are possible (exceeding 180°) with a domed port on the light, or a "test tube" light without reflector. LED lights usually use an internal "lens" to produce a focused beam. This actually focuses the beam by internal reflection on a parabolic surface. Several lens options may be available for different beam angles for a given LED, but most models of light use only the one chosen by the manufacturer.
A few underwater lights have a focusing facility by which the beam angle can be adjusted. There are two ways this can be done, depending on the basic emission pattern of the light source. HID lights, which generally produce non\-directional light, are usually focused by a reflector, which can be slid longitudinally over the light. They produce a beam with a central bright area and a diffuse general illumination around it. This is good for illuminating a combination of near and far areas at the same time, but not good for wide angle video, as the hot\-spot will confuse the automatic exposure software and the result is generally overexposure in the hot spot and underexposure around it.
Other lights use a lens system over the front of the light, which may be focused by axial movement of the lens, which may be on a screw thread for fine control.
File:Beam angle comparison between two dive lights with the same LED P4177471\.JPG\|Beam angle comparison between two dive lights with the same LED; with lens on left and without lens on right
File:Comparison between two dive lights with the same LED P4177476\.JPG\|Comparison between two dive lights with the same LED; with lens on left and without lens on right
File:Comparison between two dive lights with the same LED P4177477\.JPG\|Two dive lights with the same LED; with lens upper and without lens lower. Both are switched on by screwing the back end cover clockwise to close an internal contact.
|
[
"Beam angle\n----------",
"Narrow beam (spotlight) vs wide beam (floodlight), vs focusing (by adjustable lens or reflector):\n[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.5\\|Dive flashlight with different reflectors and collimator for LED XHP70\\.2](/wiki/File:Reflectors.jpg \"Reflectors.jpg\")\nBeam angle is chosen to suit the conditions and activities of the planned dive. Cave divers frequently choose narrow beam lights when diving in good visibility as these provide good illumination over relatively long distances, which is useful when navigating into an unfamiliar space where it is actually possible to see a fairly long distance ahead. Some feel that in poor visibility, or at short range, a narrow beam is not much use, and a wider beam spreads the light over a more useful area. Others feel that in low visibility settings a wide beam angle is distracting as it tends to reflect back to much light from floating particulates (back\\-scatter). Video lighting usually requires a wider beam as the view angle of the video camera must be accommodated for good results. In the case of very wide angle video, such as the GoPro and similar, an extremely wide angle beam is necessary.",
"Beam angle may be as tight as 8 to 10 degrees in extreme cases, or as wide as around 140° with a plain flat glass port. Even wider angles are possible (exceeding 180°) with a domed port on the light, or a \"test tube\" light without reflector. LED lights usually use an internal \"lens\" to produce a focused beam. This actually focuses the beam by internal reflection on a parabolic surface. Several lens options may be available for different beam angles for a given LED, but most models of light use only the one chosen by the manufacturer.",
"A few underwater lights have a focusing facility by which the beam angle can be adjusted. There are two ways this can be done, depending on the basic emission pattern of the light source. HID lights, which generally produce non\\-directional light, are usually focused by a reflector, which can be slid longitudinally over the light. They produce a beam with a central bright area and a diffuse general illumination around it. This is good for illuminating a combination of near and far areas at the same time, but not good for wide angle video, as the hot\\-spot will confuse the automatic exposure software and the result is generally overexposure in the hot spot and underexposure around it.",
"Other lights use a lens system over the front of the light, which may be focused by axial movement of the lens, which may be on a screw thread for fine control.",
"",
"File:Beam angle comparison between two dive lights with the same LED P4177471\\.JPG\\|Beam angle comparison between two dive lights with the same LED; with lens on left and without lens on right\nFile:Comparison between two dive lights with the same LED P4177476\\.JPG\\|Comparison between two dive lights with the same LED; with lens on left and without lens on right\nFile:Comparison between two dive lights with the same LED P4177477\\.JPG\\|Two dive lights with the same LED; with lens upper and without lens lower. Both are switched on by screwing the back end cover clockwise to close an internal contact.",
"",
""
] |
Max\-solvable games
-------------------
### Definition
A game G is said to be **max\-solvable** if by [iterated elimination of max\-dominated strategies](/wiki/Dominance_%28game_theory%29%23Iterated_elimination_of_dominated_strategies_%28IEDS%29 "Dominance (game theory)#Iterated elimination of dominated strategies (IEDS)") only one strategy profile is left at the end.
More formally we say that G is max\-solvable if there exists a sequence of games G\_0, ..., G\_r such that:
* G\_0 \= G
* G\_{k\+1} is obtained by removing a single max\-dominated strategy from the strategy space of a single player in G\_k.
* There is only one strategy profile left in G\_r.
Obviously every max\-solvable game has a unique pure [Nash equilibrium](/wiki/Nash_equilibrium "Nash equilibrium") which is the strategy profile left in G\_r.
As in the previous part one can define respectively the notion of **weakly max\-solvable games**, which are games for which a game with a single strategy profile can be reached by eliminating **weakly max\-dominated strategies**. The main difference would be that weakly max\-dominated games may have more than one pure [Nash equilibrium](/wiki/Nash_equilibrium "Nash equilibrium"), and that the order of elimination might result in different Nash equilibria.
### Example
{{Payoff matrix \| Name \= Fig. 1: \[\[payoff matrix]] of the \[\[prisoner's dilemma]]
\| 2L \= Cooperate \| 2R \= Defect \|
1U \= Cooperate \| UL \= \-1, \-1\| UR \= \-5, 0 \|
1D \= Defect \| DL \= 0, \-5 \| DR \= \-3, \-3}}
The prisoner's dilemma is an example of a max\-solvable game (as it is also dominance solvable). The strategy cooperate is max\-dominated by the strategy defect for both players, since playing defect always gives the player a higher utility, no matter what the other player plays. To see this note that if the row player plays cooperate then the column player would prefer playing defect and go free than playing cooperate and serving one year in jail. If the row player plays defect then the column player would prefer playing defect and serve three years in jail rather than playing cooperate and serving five years in jail.
### Max\-solvable games and best\-reply dynamics
In any max\-solvable game, best\-reply dynamics ultimately leads to the unique pure [Nash equilibrium](/wiki/Nash_equilibrium "Nash equilibrium") of the game. In order to see this, all we need to do is notice that if s\_1, s\_2, s\_3, ..., s\_k is an elimination sequence of the game (meaning that first s\_1 is eliminated from the strategy space of some player since it is max\-dominated, then s\_2 is eliminated, and so on), then in the best\-response dynamics s\_1 will be never played by its player after one iteration of best responses, s\_2 will never be played by its player after two iterations of best responses and so on. The reason for this is that s\_1 is not a best response to any strategy profile of the other players s\_{\-i} so after one iteration of best responses its player must have chosen a different strategy. Since we understand that we will never return to s\_1 in any iteration of the best responses, we can treat the game after one iteration of best responses as if s\_1 has been eliminated from the game, and complete the proof by induction.
|*A weakly max\-solvable game*
| |
|1, 1
0, 0
|1, 0
0, 1
|0, 1
1, 0
It may come by surprise then that **weakly max\-solvable games** do not necessarily converge to a pure [Nash equilibrium](/wiki/Nash_equilibrium "Nash equilibrium") when using the [best\-reply dynamics](/wiki/Best_response%23Best_response_dynamics "Best response#Best response dynamics"), as can be seen in the game on the right. If the game starts of the bottom left cell of the matrix, then the following best replay dynamics is possible: the row player moves one row up to the center row, the column player moves to the right column, the row player moves back to the bottom row, the column player moves back to the left column and so on. This obviously never converges to the unique pure Nash equilibrium of the game (which is the upper left cell in the [payoff matrix](/wiki/Payoff_matrix "Payoff matrix")).
|
[
"Max\\-solvable games\n-------------------",
"### Definition",
"A game G is said to be **max\\-solvable** if by [iterated elimination of max\\-dominated strategies](/wiki/Dominance_%28game_theory%29%23Iterated_elimination_of_dominated_strategies_%28IEDS%29 \"Dominance (game theory)#Iterated elimination of dominated strategies (IEDS)\") only one strategy profile is left at the end.",
"More formally we say that G is max\\-solvable if there exists a sequence of games G\\_0, ..., G\\_r such that:\n* G\\_0 \\= G\n* G\\_{k\\+1} is obtained by removing a single max\\-dominated strategy from the strategy space of a single player in G\\_k.\n* There is only one strategy profile left in G\\_r.",
"Obviously every max\\-solvable game has a unique pure [Nash equilibrium](/wiki/Nash_equilibrium \"Nash equilibrium\") which is the strategy profile left in G\\_r.",
"As in the previous part one can define respectively the notion of **weakly max\\-solvable games**, which are games for which a game with a single strategy profile can be reached by eliminating **weakly max\\-dominated strategies**. The main difference would be that weakly max\\-dominated games may have more than one pure [Nash equilibrium](/wiki/Nash_equilibrium \"Nash equilibrium\"), and that the order of elimination might result in different Nash equilibria.",
"### Example",
"{{Payoff matrix \\| Name \\= Fig. 1: \\[\\[payoff matrix]] of the \\[\\[prisoner's dilemma]]\n \\| 2L \\= Cooperate \\| 2R \\= Defect \\|\n1U \\= Cooperate \\| UL \\= \\-1, \\-1\\| UR \\= \\-5, 0 \\|\n1D \\= Defect \\| DL \\= 0, \\-5 \\| DR \\= \\-3, \\-3}}",
"The prisoner's dilemma is an example of a max\\-solvable game (as it is also dominance solvable). The strategy cooperate is max\\-dominated by the strategy defect for both players, since playing defect always gives the player a higher utility, no matter what the other player plays. To see this note that if the row player plays cooperate then the column player would prefer playing defect and go free than playing cooperate and serving one year in jail. If the row player plays defect then the column player would prefer playing defect and serve three years in jail rather than playing cooperate and serving five years in jail.",
"### Max\\-solvable games and best\\-reply dynamics",
"In any max\\-solvable game, best\\-reply dynamics ultimately leads to the unique pure [Nash equilibrium](/wiki/Nash_equilibrium \"Nash equilibrium\") of the game. In order to see this, all we need to do is notice that if s\\_1, s\\_2, s\\_3, ..., s\\_k is an elimination sequence of the game (meaning that first s\\_1 is eliminated from the strategy space of some player since it is max\\-dominated, then s\\_2 is eliminated, and so on), then in the best\\-response dynamics s\\_1 will be never played by its player after one iteration of best responses, s\\_2 will never be played by its player after two iterations of best responses and so on. The reason for this is that s\\_1 is not a best response to any strategy profile of the other players s\\_{\\-i} so after one iteration of best responses its player must have chosen a different strategy. Since we understand that we will never return to s\\_1 in any iteration of the best responses, we can treat the game after one iteration of best responses as if s\\_1 has been eliminated from the game, and complete the proof by induction.",
"",
"|*A weakly max\\-solvable game*",
"| |\n|1, 1",
"0, 0",
"|1, 0",
"0, 1",
"|0, 1",
"1, 0",
"",
"It may come by surprise then that **weakly max\\-solvable games** do not necessarily converge to a pure [Nash equilibrium](/wiki/Nash_equilibrium \"Nash equilibrium\") when using the [best\\-reply dynamics](/wiki/Best_response%23Best_response_dynamics \"Best response#Best response dynamics\"), as can be seen in the game on the right. If the game starts of the bottom left cell of the matrix, then the following best replay dynamics is possible: the row player moves one row up to the center row, the column player moves to the right column, the row player moves back to the bottom row, the column player moves back to the left column and so on. This obviously never converges to the unique pure Nash equilibrium of the game (which is the upper left cell in the [payoff matrix](/wiki/Payoff_matrix \"Payoff matrix\")).",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1910\= 294
\|1920\= 336
\|1930\= 187
\|1940\= 214
\|1950\= 145
\|1960\= 99
\|1970\= 94
\|1980\= 83
\|1990\= 71
\|2000\= 59
\|2010\= 59
\|2020\= 47
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=Census.gov\|accessdate\=June 4, 2015}}{{cite web\|url\=https://api.census.gov/data/2020/dec/pl?get\=P1\_001N,NAME\&for\=place:\*∈\=state:46\&key\=5ccd0821c15d9f4520e2dcc0f8d92b2ec9336108\|title\=Census Population API\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=October 15, 2022}}
}}
### 2010 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census"){{cite web\|title\=U.S. Census website\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|accessdate\=June 21, 2012}} of 2010, there were 59 people, 27 households, and 15 families residing in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|125\.5\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 37 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|78\.7\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 100\.0% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"). [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 3\.4% of the population.
There were 27 households, of which 29\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44\.4% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 11\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44\.4% were non\-families. 44\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.19 and the average family size was 3\.00\.
The median age in the town was 37\.6 years. 27\.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 5\.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27\.2% were from 25 to 44; 27\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 13\.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 54\.2% male and 45\.8% female.
### 2000 census
As of the [census](/wiki/Census "Census") of 2000, there were 59 people, 30 households, and 18 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\|126\.3\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 34 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|72\.8\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 96\.61% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), and 3\.39% from two or more races.
There were 30 households, out of which 20\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43\.3% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 20\.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36\.7% were non\-families. 33\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1\.97 and the average family size was 2\.42\.
In the town, the population was spread out, with 15\.3% under the age of 18, 6\.8% from 18 to 24, 30\.5% from 25 to 44, 27\.1% from 45 to 64, and 20\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females, there were 110\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 108\.3 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $14,464, and the median income for a family was $18,750\. Males had a median income of $16,667 versus $15,625 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the town was $13,750\. There were 8\.3% of families and 5\.0% of the population living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 33\.3% of under eighteens and none of those over 64\.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1910\\= 294\n\\|1920\\= 336\n\\|1930\\= 187\n\\|1940\\= 214\n\\|1950\\= 145\n\\|1960\\= 99\n\\|1970\\= 94\n\\|1980\\= 83\n\\|1990\\= 71\n\\|2000\\= 59\n\\|2010\\= 59\n\\|2020\\= 47\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=Census.gov\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2015}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://api.census.gov/data/2020/dec/pl?get\\=P1\\_001N,NAME\\&for\\=place:\\*∈\\=state:46\\&key\\=5ccd0821c15d9f4520e2dcc0f8d92b2ec9336108\\|title\\=Census Population API\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=October 15, 2022}}\n}}",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\"){{cite web\\|title\\=U.S. Census website\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|accessdate\\=June 21, 2012}} of 2010, there were 59 people, 27 households, and 15 families residing in the town. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|125\\.5\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 37 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|78\\.7\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the town was 100\\.0% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"). [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 3\\.4% of the population.",
"There were 27 households, of which 29\\.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44\\.4% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 11\\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44\\.4% were non\\-families. 44\\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14\\.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.19 and the average family size was 3\\.00\\.",
"The median age in the town was 37\\.6 years. 27\\.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 5\\.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27\\.2% were from 25 to 44; 27\\.2% were from 45 to 64; and 13\\.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 54\\.2% male and 45\\.8% female.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [census](/wiki/Census \"Census\") of 2000, there were 59 people, 30 households, and 18 families residing in the town. The population density was {{convert\\|126\\.3\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 34 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|72\\.8\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the town was 96\\.61% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), and 3\\.39% from two or more races.",
"There were 30 households, out of which 20\\.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43\\.3% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 20\\.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36\\.7% were non\\-families. 33\\.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13\\.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1\\.97 and the average family size was 2\\.42\\.",
"In the town, the population was spread out, with 15\\.3% under the age of 18, 6\\.8% from 18 to 24, 30\\.5% from 25 to 44, 27\\.1% from 45 to 64, and 20\\.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females, there were 110\\.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 108\\.3 males.",
"The median income for a household in the town was $14,464, and the median income for a family was $18,750\\. Males had a median income of $16,667 versus $15,625 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the town was $13,750\\. There were 8\\.3% of families and 5\\.0% of the population living below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 33\\.3% of under eighteens and none of those over 64\\.",
""
] |
Professional career
-------------------
### Early fights and Welsh bantamweight title
Owen turned [professional](/wiki/Professional_boxing "Professional boxing") on 1 September 1976, signing with [New Tredegar](/wiki/New_Tredegar "New Tredegar")\-based manager Dai Gardiner along with another fighter, Billy Vivian. The decision to turn professional prompted a change of name; Owen had been fighting under his given name as an amateur but was advised by his new management that a [ring name](/wiki/Ring_name "Ring name") would benefit his career. Owen's initial suggestion was Sion Rhisart Owain, the Welsh translation of his given name, although he was dissuaded from this option as it was deemed too political. His brother Kelvin instead suggested adopting the name Johnny Owen.{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|pp\=80–82}} Owen's initial aspirations were low, Kelvin stated how Owen had turned professional with the ultimate aim of claiming a British title or a [Lonsdale Belt](/wiki/Lonsdale_Belt "Lonsdale Belt"). Nonetheless, Owen was driven to turn professional by a desire to support his family and escape his relatively poor upbringing. One of his former youth coaches stated his belief that Owen understood he could "fight and make money for his family. He wanted to buy them a house but, really, {{nbsp}}... the reason he boxed was because he had to."
His debut match ended with a one\-point victory over fellow Welshman George Sutton, at Pontypool Leisure Centre, on 30 September; at the time, Sutton was ranked as the number three contender for the British title and had needed a challenger on short notice.{{harvnb\|Jones\|2012\|pp\=75–76}} His victory earned him his first professional purse of £125 (around £920 in 2021\).{{harvnb\|Broadbent\|2006\|pp\=120–123}} The decision to fight an already established opponent proved astute as victory immediately saw Owen's standing rise in the boxing community. After his debut bout, Owen and his team agreed that he would not date during his professional career, with Owen believing that the dedication required to his career would be unfair on both him and his partner.{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|pp\=83–85}} His second fight was against Northern Irishman [Neil McLaughlin](/wiki/Neil_McLaughlin "Neil McLaughlin") in his opponent's home nation during the height of [The Troubles](/wiki/The_Troubles "The Troubles"). The [card](/wiki/Card_%28sports%29 "Card (sports)") suffered several interruptions: there were angry outbursts when British soldiers entered the arena, a bomb threat was phoned in against the site and, during Owen's bout, the lights failed for several minutes. The fight ended in a controversial draw.{{harvnb\|Broadbent\|2006\|pp\=125–126}} Owen finished his first year as a professional by comfortably defeating Englishman Ian Murray in [Tonypandy](/wiki/Tonypandy "Tonypandy"). He knocked Murray down twice before the [referee](/wiki/Referee_%28boxing%29 "Referee (boxing)") stopped the fight in the seventh round.
At the start of the following year, Owen met McLaughlin in a rematch in [West Bromwich](/wiki/West_Bromwich "West Bromwich"). Away from his opponent's home nation, the fight proved a more one\-sided affair as Owen secured an 80–76 points victory. This led promoter Heddwyn Taylor to raise the idea of Owen challenging reigning champion George Sutton for the Welsh bantamweight title. Although Owen had already beaten Sutton as a professional, the request was denied by the Welsh Area Boxing Council who deemed that he was too inexperienced. Unable to challenge for the title, Owen's promoters found themselves in need of an opponent and could only secure another rematch with McLaughlin. Even though Owen and his trainers voiced their displeasure over the bout, he went on to defeat McLaughlin for a second time in February. The Welsh Area Boxing Council reconsidered its decision and allowed a title fight between Owen and Sutton to go ahead on 29 March,{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|pp\=86–88}} with the bout regarded as an eliminator for the British title. The fight was an even contest in the early rounds until Owen rocked Sutton in the fifth with a right hook.{{harvnb\|Broadbent\|2006\|pp\=129–130}} Owen's stamina gave him a distinct advantage as the fight wore on and he emerged victorious with a 99–97 points victory to become Welsh bantamweight champion. It was from his Welsh title win that Owen gained another of his nicknames, the "Bionic Bantam", after a reporter for the [*Western Mail*](/wiki/Western_Mail_%28Wales%29 "Western Mail (Wales)") likened him to [Steve Austin](/wiki/Steve_Austin_%28character%29 "Steve Austin (character)") from *[The Six Million Dollar Man](/wiki/The_Six_Million_Dollar_Man "The Six Million Dollar Man")*.{{harvnb\|Broadbent\|2006\|pp\=131–132}}
### British bantamweight title
Owen's championship win resulted in him becoming a possible challenger for the British bantamweight champion [Paddy Maguire](/wiki/Paddy_Maguire_%28boxer%29 "Paddy Maguire (boxer)").{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|pp\=99–101}} To move into contention, Owen was booked to fight Scottish bantamweight champion Johnny Kellie at the Albany Hotel in [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow "Glasgow"). It was widely believed that the winner would be booked as Maguire's next opponent. During the fight Owen became infuriated with Kellie's tactics as his opponent relied on holding to waste time, when Owen was gaining the advantage, and he believed the referee was not penalising Kellie for it. Further issues were raised when Owen lost his [gumshield](/wiki/Gumshield "Gumshield") and the referee forced him to continue without it. Owen was spurred on by these irritations and knocked Kellie down twice in quick succession before the referee stopped the fight in the sixth round. When the offer of a British title fight with Maguire failed to materialise, Owen instead fought debutant fighter Terry Hanna at Ebbw Vale Leisure Centre in June 1977, defeating him with a fourth\-round [knockout](/wiki/Knockout "Knockout").{{cite web \|url\=https://boxrec.com/en/event/39711/66120 \|title\=Johnny Owen V Terry Hanna \|publisher\=BoxRec \|access\-date\=1 December 2019 \|archive\-date\=3 August 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803024623/https://boxrec.com/en/event/39711/66120 \|url\-status\=live }} Further disappointment followed as Maguire took a fight against [Franco Zurlo](/wiki/Franco_Zurlo "Franco Zurlo") in September of the same year,{{cite web \|url\=https://boxrec.com/en/proboxer/31469 \|title\=Paddy Maguire \|publisher\=BoxRec \|access\-date\=1 December 2019 \|archive\-date\=2 August 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802190334/https://boxrec.com/en/proboxer/31469 \|url\-status\=live }} leaving Owen with an offer of a second rematch against George Sutton on only three days' notice. The fight took place at Midland Social Club in [Solihull](/wiki/Solihull "Solihull") and Sutton proved a sterner test than most had anticipated in the early rounds, landing a
strong punch to Owen's jaw that wobbled him. Owen was able to recover and won the fight on points.{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|pp\=102–103}}
Despite Owen's victories, it still seemed likely that he would be forced to wait for a match with Maguire. However, when the official challenger Wayne Evans declined the opportunity to fight Maguire, stating that he needed more experience,{{harvnb\|Broadbent\|2006\|pp\=144–145}} Owen stepped in and the fight was scheduled for November 1977 at the [National Sporting Club](/wiki/National_Sporting_Club "National Sporting Club") in London. Maguire was entering the fight on a three\-fight losing streak, having suffered defeats to Heleno Ferreira and [Alberto Sandoval](/wiki/Alberto_Sandoval "Alberto Sandoval") before unsuccessfully challenging Zurlo for the European bantamweight championship, and Owen was expected to be a serious threat to the Irishman's two\-year reign.{{cite news \|url\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CPbJE0 \|url\-access\=subscription \|title\=Owen may pose problems \|newspaper\=The Times \|date\=29 November 1977 \|page\=12 \|access\-date\=1 December 2019 \|via\=The Times Digital Archive \|archive\-date\=5 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100805/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\=TTDA\&u\=wikipedia\&v\=2\.1\=r\&id\=GALE%7CCS202473853\&asid\=1622952000000\~512f12c9 \|url\-status\=live }} Owen edged the early rounds of the fight as his longer reach caused Maguire problems and the champion was warned on more than one occasion for use of the head and [low blows](/wiki/Groin_attack "Groin attack").{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|pp\=104–107}} Already ahead on points, Owen dominated the eighth round and nearly knocked down Maguire. Such was Owen's dominance, Maguire's promoter [Mickey Duff](/wiki/Mickey_Duff "Mickey Duff") threatened to end the fight. The champion rallied in the ninth round but the referee stopped the fight in the eleventh after Owen had opened a large cut above Maguire's eye. In only his tenth professional bout, Owen was crowned the British bantamweight champion at the age of 21, becoming the first Welsh fighter to hold the title since [Bill Beynon](/wiki/Bill_Beynon "Bill Beynon") in 1913\. He was awarded the belt by [Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester](/wiki/Prince_Henry%2C_Duke_of_Gloucester "Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester"), while Maguire subsequently announced his retirement from boxing.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002135/19771130/373/0014 \|url\-access\=subscription \|title\=Owen Stops Maguire in 11th \|newspaper\=Birmingham Daily Post \|page\=14 \|date\=30 November 1977 \|access\-date\=9 February 2021 \|via\=British Newspaper Archive }}
Owen's victory brought him a new found level of fame to which the young fighter was unaccustomed. On his return to Merthyr the day after the fight, he met with the town's mayor and two parties were held in his honour in local clubs. He was named Welsh Boxer of the Year for 1977 and finished fourth in voting for the 1977 [BBC Wales Sports Personality of the Year](/wiki/BBC_Wales_Sports_Personality_of_the_Year "BBC Wales Sports Personality of the Year").{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|pp\=110–111}} Owen returned to the ring in January 1978 in a non\-title fight against Scottish boxer Alan Oag, defeating his opponent in the eighth round. A month later, Owen fought Antonio Medina at Marton Country Club near [Newcastle](/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne "Newcastle upon Tyne") and was surprised early on when his opponent emerged as a [southpaw](/wiki/Southpaw_stance "Southpaw stance"), the first time he had faced a fighter using the stance in his career. Owen's team had neglected to research their opponent ahead of the bout and the initial surprise caught Owen off\-guard. Even so, he emerged victorious on points.
Owen's first defence of his British title was booked for 6 April 1978 at Ebbw Vale Leisure Centre against fellow Welshman Wayne Evans. The two fighters possessed near identical records; both entered the bout 11–0 with Owen also recording a draw. The fight was eagerly anticipated as it was both the first time the British bantamweight title had been contested in Wales and the first time it had featured two Welsh fighters.{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|pp\=114–116}}{{cite news \|url\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CPbwY5 \|url\-access\=subscription \|title\=Boxing \|newspaper\=The Times \|date\=26 April 1978 \|page\=14 \|access\-date\=1 December 2019 \|via\=The Times Digital Archive \|archive\-date\=5 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100827/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\=TTDA\&u\=wikipedia\&v\=2\.1\=r\&id\=GALE%7CCS235504262\&asid\=1622952000000\~cafeef88 \|url\-status\=live }} Owen was the stronger of the pair in the opening four rounds and Evans was hampered by a knuckle injury that had plagued his career.{{harvnb\|Jones\|2012\|p\=77}} In the fifth round, Evans caught Owen with a punch that ruptured his eardrum and caused bleeding from the ear.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.portsmouth.co.uk/lifestyle/heritage/remembering\-the\-might\-of\-wayne\-the\-wallop\-1\-6640647 \|title\=Remembering the might of Wayne the Wallop! \|newspaper\=The Portsmouth News \|last\=Hind \|first\=Bob \|date\=21 March 2015 \|access\-date\=1 December 2019 \|archive\-date\=23 December 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223212254/https://www.portsmouth.co.uk/lifestyle/heritage/remembering\-the\-might\-of\-wayne\-the\-wallop\-1\-6640647 \|url\-status\=live }} Despite being almost unable to hear on one side, Owen took control of the fight after the fifth round and wore Evans down, eventually knocking him down in the ninth. Evans made it back to his feet for the end of the round but the start of the tenth saw Owen continue his assault,{{harvnb\|Broadbent\|2006\|pp\=186–187}} stopping Evans early in the round to successfully defend his title.
### Commonwealth bantamweight title
In June 1978 Owen fought twice, defeating Dave Smith on points at the National Sporting Club before stopping [Davy Larmour](/wiki/Davy_Larmour_%28boxer%29 "Davy Larmour (boxer)") in the seventh round of a fight at the Double Diamond Club in [Caerphilly](/wiki/Caerphilly "Caerphilly") two weeks later.{{cite web \|url\=https://boxrec.com/en/event/42633/66132 \|title\=Johnny Owen V Davy Larmour \|publisher\=BoxRec \|access\-date\=1 December 2019 \|archive\-date\=2 August 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802194427/https://boxrec.com/en/event/42633/66132 \|url\-status\=live }} The possibility of Owen competing for either the Commonwealth or European bantamweight titles was being raised and he received an offer of between £2000–2500 to fight the reigning Commonwealth champion, Ghanaian [Sulley Shittu](/wiki/Sulley_Shittu "Sulley Shittu"), in his opponent's home country. Shittu, however, was stripped of the title by the Commonwealth Championship Committee soon after having failed to meet a challenger in the required time.{{cite news \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=umGR4Wc4deMC\&q\=sulley\+shuttu\+stripped\+bantamweight\&pg\=PT3 \|title\=GBA Makes Appeal \|newspaper\=The Daily Graphic \|date\=7 September 1978 \|access\-date\=1 December 2019 \|last1\=Addo\-Twum \|first1\=J. K. \|archive\-date\=5 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100808/https://books.google.com/books?id\=umGR4Wc4deMC\&q\=sulley\+shuttu\+stripped\+bantamweight\&pg\=PT3 \|url\-status\=live }} Australian [Paul Ferreri](/wiki/Paul_Ferreri "Paul Ferreri"), who had lost the belt to Shittu in January 1977,{{cite web \|url\=https://boxrec.com/en/proboxer/13989 \|title\=Paul Ferreri \|publisher\=BoxRec \|access\-date\=1 December 2019 \|archive\-date\=17 October 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017182114/https://boxrec.com/en/proboxer/13989 \|url\-status\=live }} stated his willingness to contest the vacant Commonwealth title with Owen, offering the Welshman £4,000,{{harvnb\|Broadbent\|2006\|pp\=188–189}} on the stipulation that the fight be held in his home country. Owen rejected the offer over the distance and fears that partisan Australian judges could make the fight unwinnable.{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|pp\=117–120}} He instead met Englishman Wally Angliss, stopping him in the third round after Angliss had suffered a deep cut above his left eye.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/259556868/?terms\=Johnny%2BOwen\&match\=1 \|url\-access\=subscription \|title\=Sport in brief \|newspaper\=The Guardian \|page\=20 \|date\=27 September 1978 \|access\-date\=5 December 2019 \|via\=Newspapers.com \|archive\-date\=3 August 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803034923/https://www.newspapers.com/image/259556868/?terms\=Johnny%2BOwen\&match\=1 \|url\-status\=live }}
Eager for the fight to go ahead, Ferreri dropped his request for the fight to be based in Australia and accepted a bout with Owen in [Ebbw Vale](/wiki/Ebbw_Vale "Ebbw Vale") on 2 November 1978\. Ferreri was described by *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times "The Times")* as "world class opposition, such as Owen has never faced before."{{cite news \|url\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CPdHm6 \|url\-access\=subscription \|title\=Owen comes from behind to win title \|newspaper\=The Times \|date\=3 November 1978 \|page\=22 \|access\-date\=1 December 2019 \|via\=The Times Digital Archive \|archive\-date\=5 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100833/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\=TTDA\&u\=wikipedia\&v\=2\.1\=r\&id\=GALE%7CCS369722211\&asid\=1622952000000\~7992cfc8 \|url\-status\=live }} A former holder of the Commonwealth title, he entered the fight with nearly 70 professional bouts to Owen's 16 and had never been beaten by a British fighter. Ferreri proved a stern test for Owen, with his counter\-punching style causing the Welshman problems in the opening rounds. By the eleventh round of the fifteen\-round contest, *The Times* judged the fight to be "fascinatingly poised" but Owen's renowned stamina and the eight\-year age gap proved telling as he was described as "covering the last four rounds of the fight like a sprinter". The referee awarded the fight 148–145 in Owen's favour and both fighters received plaudits from the capacity crowd; Ferreri was given a standing ovation by the largely Welsh crowd and Owen was carried to the dressing room on the shoulders of his team in celebration. Both Owen and the fight received several plaudits in annual award ceremonies, including Owen being named Best Young Fighter by the Boxing Writers' Club, becoming only the third Welshman after [Howard Winstone](/wiki/Howard_Winstone "Howard Winstone") and [Dai Dower](/wiki/Dai_Dower "Dai Dower") to receive the award. Owen was also named BBC Wales Sports Personality of the Year for 1978, becoming the first boxer to win the award since Winstone more than a decade earlier.{{cite news \|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/wales/2525091\.stm \|title\=BBC Wales Sport Personality winners \|publisher\=BBC Sport \|access\-date\=2 December 2019 \|archive\-date\=6 June 2004 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040606155334/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/wales/2525091\.stm \|url\-status\=live }}
### European bantamweight title challenge
[thumb\|upright\|[Juan Francisco Rodríguez](/wiki/Juan_Francisco_Rodr%C3%ADguez "Juan Francisco Rodríguez"), whom Owen fought twice for the European bantamweight title\|alt\=A headshot of a boxer wearing a red vest.](/wiki/File:Juan_Francisco_Rodr%C3%ADguez_%28cropped%29.jpg "Juan Francisco Rodríguez (cropped).jpg")
Owen's victory led him to challenge for the division's European title, held by [Juan Francisco Rodríguez](/wiki/Juan_Francisco_Rodr%C3%ADguez "Juan Francisco Rodríguez") of Spain. The fight was originally scheduled for the end of 1978 but Rodríguez withdrew from the bout due to a case of flu,{{cite news \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/259707044/?terms\=Johnny%2BOwen\&match\=1 \|url\-access\=subscription \|title\=Owen wins writers' vote \|newspaper\=The Guardian \|last\=Rodda \|page\=16 \|first\=John \|date\=3 January 1979 \|access\-date\=5 December 2019 \|via\=Newspapers.com \|archive\-date\=2 August 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802190209/https://www.newspapers.com/image/259707044/?terms\=Johnny%2BOwen\&match\=1 \|url\-status\=live }} and it was rearranged for three months later. It was Owen's eighteenth contest and his first overseas, taking place in the champion's hometown of [Almería](/wiki/Almer%C3%ADa "Almería"). The fight was preceded by a series of allegations of foul play by Owen's camp. He was promised the use of the same training facilities as the champion in the afternoons, once Rodríguez had finished his sessions. In practice, however, Owen and his team often found themselves waiting at the gym for Rodríguez to finish his training, taking up hours of Owen's sessions. At the [weigh\-in](/wiki/Weight_class_%28boxing%29 "Weight class (boxing)"), Owen was marginally overweight, prompting a last minute training session involving running up and down the hotel stairs until he hit the {{convert\|118\|lb}} limit. Rodríguez also exceeded the weight limit by a larger margin, more than could be lost in the allowed time. Owen and his team returned to the hotel with the intent of returning to Britain, believing the fight would be called off. However, Owen's manager Dai Gardiner returned to announce that the Spanish officials had passed Rodríguez fit to fight despite having weighed in {{convert\|3\|oz}} overweight.{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|pp\=136–137}} Owen decided to go ahead with the bout, eager not to return to Britain empty\-handed. Gardiner also held concerns over local judges heading into the fight and predicted that, in order to win, Owen would have to stop his opponent.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000445/19790302/230/0032 \|url\-access\=subscription \|title\=Owen to Win Title – By K.O. \|newspaper\=Aberdeen Evening Express \|page\=32 \|date\=2 March 1979 \|access\-date\=9 February 2021 \|via\=British Newspaper Archive }}
The fight was held in the town's [bullring](/wiki/Bullring "Bullring") in front of a capacity crowd and Owen entered the arena to loud jeers. The first round was relatively uneventful as both fighters settled. When Owen returned to his corner, his father was infuriated after smelling [wintergreen oil](/wiki/Methyl_salicylate "Methyl salicylate") on Owen. Believing the substance came from Rodríguez's gloves, he approached the referee who ignored Dick Owens' complaints. The [British Boxing Board of Control](/wiki/British_Boxing_Board_of_Control "British Boxing Board of Control")'s (BBBofC) representative at the fight, Harry Vines, attempted to approach Owen's team to find out what was causing commotion and found himself being pushed and shoved by members of the crowd before Spanish police ordered him to return to his seat. Rodríguez used several underhand manoeuvres against Owen, including illegal use of the head and elbows and attempted to screw his thumb into Owen's eye,{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|pp\=139–141}} eventually receiving an official warning from the referee in the twelfth round after being reprimanded on several occasions.{{harvnb\|Jones\|2012\|p\=78}} At the start of the tenth round, Owen returned to the middle of the ring but was forced to wait as Rodríguez took several extra minutes to leave his corner before standing to taunt his opponent in front of the home crowd.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/sport/boxing/johnny\-owen\-champion\-half\-word\-2339890 \|title\=Johnny Owen: Champion of half the word \|work\=WalesOnline \|publisher\=Media Wales \|date\=20 May 2006 \|access\-date\=2 December 2019 \|archive\-date\=2 January 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102225828/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/sport/boxing/johnny\-owen\-champion\-half\-word\-2339890 \|url\-status\=live }} Rodríguez was awarded the victory on points in a decision that [Steve Bunce](/wiki/Steve_Bunce "Steve Bunce") later declared: "In what has been regarded as a 'home\-town decision travesty', Rodríguez was awarded a fight he had so obviously lost."{{cite news \|url\=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/sport/boxing/johnny\-owen\-welsh\-matchstick\-man\-15340770 \|title\=Johnny Owen: The Welsh 'Matchstick Man' who changed the face of boxing forever \|work\=WalesOnline \|publisher\=Media Wales \|last\=Lewis \|first\=Anna \|date\=8 November 2018 \|access\-date\=2 December 2019 \|archive\-date\=22 August 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822052154/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/sport/boxing/johnny\-owen\-welsh\-matchstick\-man\-15340770 \|url\-status\=live }} The *[Dictionary of Welsh Biography](/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography "Dictionary of Welsh Biography")* went further and described the decision as "an insult to the good name of boxing".
Owen and his team returned to Wales despondent and infuriated. Their ire was further increased when the Spanish Boxing Federation withheld £1,200 from Owen's fee in retaliation for an incident the previous year when a Spanish boxer had been deducted pay for retiring from a fight in Britain.{{harvnb\|Broadbent\|2006\|pp\=207–208}} The Welsh Area Boxing Council held an investigation into the fight, during which Vines described the incident as "the worst decision he'd ever experienced". However, the council had no power over Spanish promoters and there was no alternative for Owen other than to accept the loss,{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|pp\=144–145}} although the BBBofC did refund Owen the money that been deducted from his paycheck. Gardiner arranged a high\-profile bout with American Jose Gonzalez in an attempt to immediately showcase Owen internationally again but the fight was postponed when Gonzalez failed to make weight. With Owen ready to fight, Lee Graham was named as a late replacement but was little match for Owen who won on points. A more experienced opponent was arranged a month later, Frenchman Guy Caudron who had won 35 of his 49 career fights proved more of a test for Owen. Caudron lasted 12 rounds but was defeated 99–97 on points. Despite having fought in 19 professional bouts, it was only after the Caudron fight that Owen left his job at the Suko factory as his boxing schedule became too hectic to continue working. Owen made his first defence of his Commonwealth title and his third of his British title in June 1979 against Dave Smith, an opponent he had beaten the previous year, at the Double Diamond Club in Caerphilly.{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|pp\=146–148}} Owen was eager to impress in the fight as victory would also see him achieve a lifelong ambition of retaining a Lonsdale Belt, which became the permanent property of a fighter once they had completed three successful defences.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/259861527/?terms\=Johnny%2BOwen\&match\=1 \|url\-access\=subscription \|title\=Owen's money belt \|newspaper\=The Guardian \|last\=Rodda \|first\=John \|date\=13 June 1979 \|page\=25 \|access\-date\=5 December 2019 \|via\=Newspapers.com \|archive\-date\=2 August 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802191941/https://www.newspapers.com/image/259861527/?terms\=Johnny%2BOwen\&match\=1 \|url\-status\=live }} From the first round he dominated Smith, whose trainer eventually [threw in the towel](/wiki/Submission_%28combat_sports%29 "Submission (combat sports)") during the twelfth round. By now, Owen had set his sights on a rematch with Rodríguez for the European title. He met Neil McLaughlin for a fourth time on 17 September 1979 at the Albany Hotel in Glasgow and recorded a comfortable 100–95 points victory to secure his 20th professional win.
A fight against American Isaac Vega was booked for 4 October of the same year. When Owen and his team arrived at Ebbw Vale Leisure Centre for the bout they found that Vega had pulled out of the contest without warning and the American promoters instead offered a replacement, Jose Garcia. Owen's camp knew nothing of the new opponent but went along with the change to provide Owen with much needed competition. Garcia had only fought professionally once before, losing by knockout in the first round more than a year before.{{cite web \|url\=https://boxrec.com/en/proboxer/8391 \|title\=Jose Luis Garcia \|publisher\=BoxRec \|access\-date\=2 December 2019 \|archive\-date\=2 August 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802194753/https://boxrec.com/en/proboxer/8391 \|url\-status\=live }} Garcia provided little competition for Owen with the referee stopping the fight in the fifth round.
### Rematch with Rodríguez
Owen ended 1979 with one further victory over American [David Vasquez](/wiki/David_Vasquez "David Vasquez"), a fighter who had unsuccessfully challenged world champion [Lupe Pintor](/wiki/Lupe_Pintor "Lupe Pintor") a year earlier and had been in line to meet [Wilfredo Gómez](/wiki/Wilfredo_G%C3%B3mez "Wilfredo Gómez").{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|p\=149}}{{cite news \|url\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CQEzs7 \|url\-access\=subscription \|title\=Owen thrives on work rate and greater durability \|newspaper\=The Times \|date\=30 November 1979 \|page\=19 \|last\=Walker \|first\=Peter \|access\-date\=2 December 2019 \|via\=The Times Digital Archive \|archive\-date\=5 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100745/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\=TTDA\&u\=wikipedia\&v\=2\.1\=r\&id\=GALE%7CCS319128958\&asid\=1622952000000\~67e50698 \|url\-status\=live }} Although he provided a challenge for Owen, Vasquez ultimately lost to the Welshman on points. The victory put Owen in contention for a rematch against Rodríguez and the fight was confirmed at the start of 1980, due for the early months of the year.{{cite news \|url\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CQFFD0 \|url\-access\=subscription \|title\=Boxing \|newspaper\=The Times \|date\=9 January 1980 \|page\=8 \|access\-date\=2 December 2019 \|via\=The Times Digital Archive \|archive\-date\=5 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100845/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\=TTDA\&u\=wikipedia\&v\=2\.1\=r\&id\=GALE%7CCS134579753\&asid\=1622952000000\~14f4ba9a \|url\-status\=live }} Two weeks later Owen fought fellow Welshman Glyn Davies at the National Sporting Club. Davies was described as a "tough old pro" who had fought over 40 times professionally but he lasted only five rounds before the referee stopped the fight in Owen's favour. After the bout, Davies remarked: "I have been beaten by the next world champion." Owen decided to invest some of his earnings by purchasing a shop on Galon Uchaf housing estate in his hometown of Merthyr.
Owen and his camp were enthusiastic when their promoter offered them a rematch with Rodríguez for the European title. Rodríguez was short of competitors willing to fight in his home country and was forced to accept the Ebbw Vale Leisure Centre to secure a large prize fund.{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|pp\=150–151}} The venue was filled to capacity, with more than 1,800 spectators. The fight started slowly and Rodríguez restricted the early pace of the opening rounds by holding Owen on the blindside of the referee. Rodríguez continued a defensive, counter\-punching style and caught Owen several times as the Welshman continually advanced,{{cite news \|url\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CRbk20 \|url\-access\=subscription \|title\=The matchstick man wins but path to world title is still dark \|newspaper\=The Times \|last\=Sen \|first\=Srikumar \|date\=29 February 1980 \|page\=10 \|access\-date\=4 December 2019 \|via\=The Times Digital Archive \|archive\-date\=5 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100809/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\=TTDA\&u\=wikipedia\&v\=2\.1\=r\&id\=GALE%7CCS168527453\&asid\=1622952000000\~8b658e99 \|url\-status\=live }} attempting to push the pace between the fifth and eighth rounds. Owen did cause damage to his opponent after trapping him on the ropes during the sixth. As Rodríguez tired, Owen continued his pattern of pressing him around the ring and controlled the remaining rounds of the fight. The three judges awarded Owen a unanimous victory to crown him European bantamweight champion.
### Final bout
With Owen the European champion, a fight against the WBC title holder, Mexican Lupe Pintor was reported to be under consideration. However, Owen's next fight was confirmed as a British and Commonwealth title defence against Englishman [John Feeney](/wiki/John_Feeney_%28boxer%29 "John Feeney (boxer)") at [Empire Pool](/wiki/Wembley_Arena "Wembley Arena") in London. Owen did not consider Feeney at the same level as Ferreri or Rodríguez, but with an 18–0 record, Feeney was an upcoming prospect in British boxing. Feeney started spritely in the opening rounds but Owen's relentless pressure wore down the opposition fighter and he emerged victorious with a comfortable win on points.{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|p\=152}} In its report of the fight, *The Times* described fighting Owen as like "trying to beat a carpet, so resilient is he{{nbsp}}... the carpet ends up by giving you a dusting."{{cite news \|url\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CRbk20 \|url\-access\=subscription \|title\=Minter by a mile – Now for the Hagler footage \|newspaper\=The Times \|last\=Sen \|first\=Srikumar \|date\=30 June 1980 \|page\=8 \|access\-date\=4 December 2019 \|via\=The Times Digital Archive \|archive\-date\=5 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100749/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\=TTDA\&u\=wikipedia\&v\=2\.1\=r\&id\=GALE%7CCS168527453\&asid\=1622952000000\~8b658e99 \|url\-status\=live }}
Ranked as the number four bantamweight in the world by the WBC,{{cite news \|url\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CRdiU6 \|url\-access\=subscription \|title\=Ali – Holmes title fight will be held in Cairo \|newspaper\=The Times \|date\=2 July 1980 \|page\=12 \|access\-date\=4 December 2019 \|via\=The Times Digital Archive \|archive\-date\=5 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100745/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\=TTDA\&u\=wikipedia\&v\=2\.1\=r\&id\=GALE%7CCS184911586\&asid\=1622952000000\~911c1bfc \|url\-status\=live }} Owen was offered a lucrative title fight against Pintor by promoter Mickey Duff. The two parties had discussed a potential meeting in Wales, an option to which Pintor was open, but promoters in the country could not match the purse offered by American promoters and the fight was held in Los Angeles.{{harvnb\|Broadbent\|2006\|p\=232}} Owen stated that, should he win the fight, his plan was to defend the belt three times before retiring to Merthyr.{{cite news \|url\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CSPG27 \|url\-access\=subscription \|title\=Owen is storing up his animosity \|newspaper\=The Times \|last\=Davis \|first\=Ivor \|date\=19 September 1980 \|page\=11 \|access\-date\=5 December 2019 \|via\=The Times Digital Archive \|archive\-date\=5 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100838/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\=TTDA\&u\=wikipedia\&v\=2\.1\=r\&id\=GALE%7CCS185173811\&asid\=1622952000000\~dbf8626d \|url\-status\=live }} Pintor had edged a highly controversial split decision over stablemate and long\-time champion [Carlos Zárate](/wiki/Carlos_Z%C3%A1rate_Serna "Carlos Zárate Serna") to win his world bantamweight title in June 1978\. Zárate retired in disgust following the decision,{{cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=b9cIRPetE88C\&q\=lupe\+pintor\+zarate\&pg\=PA1984 \|title\=Boxing's Most Wanted: The Top 10 Book of Champs, Chumps, and Punch\-Drunk Palookas \|last1\=Fitzgerald \|first1\=Mike \|last2\=Hudson \|first2\=David L. \|publisher\=Potomac Books Ltd \|location\=Nebraska \|page\=1984 \|year\=2014 \|isbn\=978\-1\-57488\-714\-3 \|access\-date\=28 November 2020 \|archive\-date\=5 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100743/https://books.google.com/books?id\=b9cIRPetE88C\&q\=lupe\+pintor\+zarate\&pg\=PA1984 \|url\-status\=live }} but Pintor proved to be an able successor and had defended his title twice heading into the fight.{{cite web \|url\=https://boxrec.com/en/proboxer/166 \|title\=Lupe Pintor \|publisher\=BoxRec \|access\-date\=5 December 2019 \|archive\-date\=17 August 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817021810/https://boxrec.com/en/proboxer/166 \|url\-status\=live }} Owen arrived in Los Angeles a week before the fight to acclimatise to the humidity. Both Owen and Pintor would go for early morning runs in the local area and would sometimes pass in a nearby park without acknowledging each other.{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|p\=172}} Both fighters trained at the gym facilities in the [Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Memorial_Sports_Arena "Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena"). Owen found the press intrusion from the Mexican reporters difficult to deal with; he was hounded everywhere during the day and his motel room phone rang so often that Dai Gardiner requested the motel block any incoming calls. Eventually, Owen snapped and threatened to disrupt the fight schedule unless action was taken. The fight promoter promptly intervened and the press backed off.{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|p\=174}}
The bout was held at the [Grand Olympic Auditorium](/wiki/Grand_Olympic_Auditorium "Grand Olympic Auditorium"), Los Angeles, on 19 September 1980\. The arena had a capacity of 10,000 but estimates have put the crowd at well beyond that. The crowd was predominantly Mexican, with Pintor receiving fervent support. While some Welsh fans had travelled to support Owen they were said to be "outnumbered 100 to 1 at least".{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|p\=181}} Owen was considered the underdog with [odds](/wiki/Odds "Odds") on his victory being offered at 6–1 before the fight, but he surprised many in the opening round by actively pursuing Pintor around the ring, seeking to engage with the champion. His pressure was rewarded in the third and fourth rounds, both of which he won on most observers' scorecards, although Pintor responded with some strong right hands. Pintor began to realise that Owen was a considerable threat, perhaps more than he had anticipated, and responded in the fourth by landing a strong shot to Owen, although the Welshman quickly shook it off. In the fifth round, Owen suffered a large cut to the inside of his bottom lip that began to bleed profusely, leaving him swallowing blood for the remainder of the fight. The ringside doctor and the referee inspected the cut but deemed Owen was fit to continue.{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|p\=185}}
Pintor looked to take control of the fight and was the stronger through rounds six to eight,{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|pp\=186–187}} although he did receive cuts to both eyes. By this stage in the fight most observers judged the fight to be evenly poised, with some even giving Owen a slight lead.{{cite news \|url\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CSPQTX \|url\-access\=subscription \|title\=Owen's valiant fight to stay alive \|newspaper\=The Times \|last\=Davis \|first\=Ivor \|date\=22 September 1980 \|page\=10 \|access\-date\=5 December 2019 \|via\=The Times Digital Archive \|archive\-date\=5 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100835/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\=TTDA\&u\=wikipedia\&v\=2\.1\=r\&id\=GALE%7CCS168003382\&asid\=1622952000000\~72404b01 \|url\-status\=live }} Pintor began to fight more aggressively in the ninth round and his approach paid off when he caught Owen with a punch that knocked the Welshman down for the first time in his professional career. Owen got to his feet quickly and assured the referee that he was fine but the momentum of the fight moved in the champion's direction and from the tenth round Pintor was in the ascendency. An exhausted Owen battled on through the eleventh round and referee Marty Denkin approached Owen's corner to end the fight but was told he was fine to continue. Owen returned for the twelfth and was knocked down a second time but again got to his feet. With 25 seconds remaining in the round, Pintor caught Owen with a strong right hand to the head and Owen crumpled to the floor. The referee immediately called an end to the fight rather than count Owen out, stating he had seen Owen's pupils go up into his head, indicating he was unconscious before he fell to the floor. Owen suffered convulsions in the ring as doctors treated him and blood poured from his mouth. The crowd showed little sympathy for Owen's condition; beer and other debris were thrown into the ring and Owen's corner men were shoved and pushed as they attempted to aid their fighter. Ken Bryant, a member of Owen's team, had his wallet pickpocketed from his coat as he attended to the stricken fighter.{{cite journal\|last1\=Johnes\|first1\=Martin\|title\=Stories of a Post\-industrial Hero: The Death of Johnny Owen\|journal\=Sport in History\|date\=2011\|volume\=31\|issue\=4\|pages\=443–463\|doi\=10\.1080/17460263\.2011\.646832\|s2cid\=161822113\|url\=https://www.academia.edu/1800300\|access\-date\=8 July 2017\|archive\-date\=5 June 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100817/https://www.academia.edu/1800300/Stories\_of\_a\_Post\_industrial\_Hero\_The\_Death\_of\_Johnny\_Owen\|url\-status\=live}}{{harvnb\|Broadbent\|2006\|p\=254}} Owen was loaded onto a stretcher and carried out of the arena before being taken to [California Hospital Medical Center](/wiki/California_Hospital_Medical_Center "California Hospital Medical Center").{{harvnb\|Murphy\|2004\|pp\=193–194}} He was taken into surgery, where doctors removed a blood clot from his brain after a three\-hour operation. The BBC regarded the knockout as so disturbing that it cancelled its replay broadcast of the fight in the UK and instead aired an edited highlights segment.
|
[
"Professional career\n-------------------",
"### Early fights and Welsh bantamweight title",
"Owen turned [professional](/wiki/Professional_boxing \"Professional boxing\") on 1 September 1976, signing with [New Tredegar](/wiki/New_Tredegar \"New Tredegar\")\\-based manager Dai Gardiner along with another fighter, Billy Vivian. The decision to turn professional prompted a change of name; Owen had been fighting under his given name as an amateur but was advised by his new management that a [ring name](/wiki/Ring_name \"Ring name\") would benefit his career. Owen's initial suggestion was Sion Rhisart Owain, the Welsh translation of his given name, although he was dissuaded from this option as it was deemed too political. His brother Kelvin instead suggested adopting the name Johnny Owen.{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|pp\\=80–82}} Owen's initial aspirations were low, Kelvin stated how Owen had turned professional with the ultimate aim of claiming a British title or a [Lonsdale Belt](/wiki/Lonsdale_Belt \"Lonsdale Belt\"). Nonetheless, Owen was driven to turn professional by a desire to support his family and escape his relatively poor upbringing. One of his former youth coaches stated his belief that Owen understood he could \"fight and make money for his family. He wanted to buy them a house but, really, {{nbsp}}... the reason he boxed was because he had to.\"",
"His debut match ended with a one\\-point victory over fellow Welshman George Sutton, at Pontypool Leisure Centre, on 30 September; at the time, Sutton was ranked as the number three contender for the British title and had needed a challenger on short notice.{{harvnb\\|Jones\\|2012\\|pp\\=75–76}} His victory earned him his first professional purse of £125 (around £920 in 2021\\).{{harvnb\\|Broadbent\\|2006\\|pp\\=120–123}} The decision to fight an already established opponent proved astute as victory immediately saw Owen's standing rise in the boxing community. After his debut bout, Owen and his team agreed that he would not date during his professional career, with Owen believing that the dedication required to his career would be unfair on both him and his partner.{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|pp\\=83–85}} His second fight was against Northern Irishman [Neil McLaughlin](/wiki/Neil_McLaughlin \"Neil McLaughlin\") in his opponent's home nation during the height of [The Troubles](/wiki/The_Troubles \"The Troubles\"). The [card](/wiki/Card_%28sports%29 \"Card (sports)\") suffered several interruptions: there were angry outbursts when British soldiers entered the arena, a bomb threat was phoned in against the site and, during Owen's bout, the lights failed for several minutes. The fight ended in a controversial draw.{{harvnb\\|Broadbent\\|2006\\|pp\\=125–126}} Owen finished his first year as a professional by comfortably defeating Englishman Ian Murray in [Tonypandy](/wiki/Tonypandy \"Tonypandy\"). He knocked Murray down twice before the [referee](/wiki/Referee_%28boxing%29 \"Referee (boxing)\") stopped the fight in the seventh round.",
"At the start of the following year, Owen met McLaughlin in a rematch in [West Bromwich](/wiki/West_Bromwich \"West Bromwich\"). Away from his opponent's home nation, the fight proved a more one\\-sided affair as Owen secured an 80–76 points victory. This led promoter Heddwyn Taylor to raise the idea of Owen challenging reigning champion George Sutton for the Welsh bantamweight title. Although Owen had already beaten Sutton as a professional, the request was denied by the Welsh Area Boxing Council who deemed that he was too inexperienced. Unable to challenge for the title, Owen's promoters found themselves in need of an opponent and could only secure another rematch with McLaughlin. Even though Owen and his trainers voiced their displeasure over the bout, he went on to defeat McLaughlin for a second time in February. The Welsh Area Boxing Council reconsidered its decision and allowed a title fight between Owen and Sutton to go ahead on 29 March,{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|pp\\=86–88}} with the bout regarded as an eliminator for the British title. The fight was an even contest in the early rounds until Owen rocked Sutton in the fifth with a right hook.{{harvnb\\|Broadbent\\|2006\\|pp\\=129–130}} Owen's stamina gave him a distinct advantage as the fight wore on and he emerged victorious with a 99–97 points victory to become Welsh bantamweight champion. It was from his Welsh title win that Owen gained another of his nicknames, the \"Bionic Bantam\", after a reporter for the [*Western Mail*](/wiki/Western_Mail_%28Wales%29 \"Western Mail (Wales)\") likened him to [Steve Austin](/wiki/Steve_Austin_%28character%29 \"Steve Austin (character)\") from *[The Six Million Dollar Man](/wiki/The_Six_Million_Dollar_Man \"The Six Million Dollar Man\")*.{{harvnb\\|Broadbent\\|2006\\|pp\\=131–132}}",
"### British bantamweight title",
"Owen's championship win resulted in him becoming a possible challenger for the British bantamweight champion [Paddy Maguire](/wiki/Paddy_Maguire_%28boxer%29 \"Paddy Maguire (boxer)\").{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|pp\\=99–101}} To move into contention, Owen was booked to fight Scottish bantamweight champion Johnny Kellie at the Albany Hotel in [Glasgow](/wiki/Glasgow \"Glasgow\"). It was widely believed that the winner would be booked as Maguire's next opponent. During the fight Owen became infuriated with Kellie's tactics as his opponent relied on holding to waste time, when Owen was gaining the advantage, and he believed the referee was not penalising Kellie for it. Further issues were raised when Owen lost his [gumshield](/wiki/Gumshield \"Gumshield\") and the referee forced him to continue without it. Owen was spurred on by these irritations and knocked Kellie down twice in quick succession before the referee stopped the fight in the sixth round. When the offer of a British title fight with Maguire failed to materialise, Owen instead fought debutant fighter Terry Hanna at Ebbw Vale Leisure Centre in June 1977, defeating him with a fourth\\-round [knockout](/wiki/Knockout \"Knockout\").{{cite web \\|url\\=https://boxrec.com/en/event/39711/66120 \\|title\\=Johnny Owen V Terry Hanna \\|publisher\\=BoxRec \\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=3 August 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803024623/https://boxrec.com/en/event/39711/66120 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Further disappointment followed as Maguire took a fight against [Franco Zurlo](/wiki/Franco_Zurlo \"Franco Zurlo\") in September of the same year,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://boxrec.com/en/proboxer/31469 \\|title\\=Paddy Maguire \\|publisher\\=BoxRec \\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 August 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802190334/https://boxrec.com/en/proboxer/31469 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} leaving Owen with an offer of a second rematch against George Sutton on only three days' notice. The fight took place at Midland Social Club in [Solihull](/wiki/Solihull \"Solihull\") and Sutton proved a sterner test than most had anticipated in the early rounds, landing a\nstrong punch to Owen's jaw that wobbled him. Owen was able to recover and won the fight on points.{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|pp\\=102–103}}",
"Despite Owen's victories, it still seemed likely that he would be forced to wait for a match with Maguire. However, when the official challenger Wayne Evans declined the opportunity to fight Maguire, stating that he needed more experience,{{harvnb\\|Broadbent\\|2006\\|pp\\=144–145}} Owen stepped in and the fight was scheduled for November 1977 at the [National Sporting Club](/wiki/National_Sporting_Club \"National Sporting Club\") in London. Maguire was entering the fight on a three\\-fight losing streak, having suffered defeats to Heleno Ferreira and [Alberto Sandoval](/wiki/Alberto_Sandoval \"Alberto Sandoval\") before unsuccessfully challenging Zurlo for the European bantamweight championship, and Owen was expected to be a serious threat to the Irishman's two\\-year reign.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CPbJE0 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|title\\=Owen may pose problems \\|newspaper\\=The Times \\|date\\=29 November 1977 \\|page\\=12 \\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2019 \\|via\\=The Times Digital Archive \\|archive\\-date\\=5 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100805/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\\=TTDA\\&u\\=wikipedia\\&v\\=2\\.1\\=r\\&id\\=GALE%7CCS202473853\\&asid\\=1622952000000\\~512f12c9 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Owen edged the early rounds of the fight as his longer reach caused Maguire problems and the champion was warned on more than one occasion for use of the head and [low blows](/wiki/Groin_attack \"Groin attack\").{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|pp\\=104–107}} Already ahead on points, Owen dominated the eighth round and nearly knocked down Maguire. Such was Owen's dominance, Maguire's promoter [Mickey Duff](/wiki/Mickey_Duff \"Mickey Duff\") threatened to end the fight. The champion rallied in the ninth round but the referee stopped the fight in the eleventh after Owen had opened a large cut above Maguire's eye. In only his tenth professional bout, Owen was crowned the British bantamweight champion at the age of 21, becoming the first Welsh fighter to hold the title since [Bill Beynon](/wiki/Bill_Beynon \"Bill Beynon\") in 1913\\. He was awarded the belt by [Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester](/wiki/Prince_Henry%2C_Duke_of_Gloucester \"Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester\"), while Maguire subsequently announced his retirement from boxing.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002135/19771130/373/0014 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|title\\=Owen Stops Maguire in 11th \\|newspaper\\=Birmingham Daily Post \\|page\\=14 \\|date\\=30 November 1977 \\|access\\-date\\=9 February 2021 \\|via\\=British Newspaper Archive }}",
"Owen's victory brought him a new found level of fame to which the young fighter was unaccustomed. On his return to Merthyr the day after the fight, he met with the town's mayor and two parties were held in his honour in local clubs. He was named Welsh Boxer of the Year for 1977 and finished fourth in voting for the 1977 [BBC Wales Sports Personality of the Year](/wiki/BBC_Wales_Sports_Personality_of_the_Year \"BBC Wales Sports Personality of the Year\").{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|pp\\=110–111}} Owen returned to the ring in January 1978 in a non\\-title fight against Scottish boxer Alan Oag, defeating his opponent in the eighth round. A month later, Owen fought Antonio Medina at Marton Country Club near [Newcastle](/wiki/Newcastle_upon_Tyne \"Newcastle upon Tyne\") and was surprised early on when his opponent emerged as a [southpaw](/wiki/Southpaw_stance \"Southpaw stance\"), the first time he had faced a fighter using the stance in his career. Owen's team had neglected to research their opponent ahead of the bout and the initial surprise caught Owen off\\-guard. Even so, he emerged victorious on points.",
"Owen's first defence of his British title was booked for 6 April 1978 at Ebbw Vale Leisure Centre against fellow Welshman Wayne Evans. The two fighters possessed near identical records; both entered the bout 11–0 with Owen also recording a draw. The fight was eagerly anticipated as it was both the first time the British bantamweight title had been contested in Wales and the first time it had featured two Welsh fighters.{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|pp\\=114–116}}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CPbwY5 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|title\\=Boxing \\|newspaper\\=The Times \\|date\\=26 April 1978 \\|page\\=14 \\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2019 \\|via\\=The Times Digital Archive \\|archive\\-date\\=5 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100827/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\\=TTDA\\&u\\=wikipedia\\&v\\=2\\.1\\=r\\&id\\=GALE%7CCS235504262\\&asid\\=1622952000000\\~cafeef88 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Owen was the stronger of the pair in the opening four rounds and Evans was hampered by a knuckle injury that had plagued his career.{{harvnb\\|Jones\\|2012\\|p\\=77}} In the fifth round, Evans caught Owen with a punch that ruptured his eardrum and caused bleeding from the ear.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.portsmouth.co.uk/lifestyle/heritage/remembering\\-the\\-might\\-of\\-wayne\\-the\\-wallop\\-1\\-6640647 \\|title\\=Remembering the might of Wayne the Wallop! \\|newspaper\\=The Portsmouth News \\|last\\=Hind \\|first\\=Bob \\|date\\=21 March 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223212254/https://www.portsmouth.co.uk/lifestyle/heritage/remembering\\-the\\-might\\-of\\-wayne\\-the\\-wallop\\-1\\-6640647 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Despite being almost unable to hear on one side, Owen took control of the fight after the fifth round and wore Evans down, eventually knocking him down in the ninth. Evans made it back to his feet for the end of the round but the start of the tenth saw Owen continue his assault,{{harvnb\\|Broadbent\\|2006\\|pp\\=186–187}} stopping Evans early in the round to successfully defend his title.",
"### Commonwealth bantamweight title",
"In June 1978 Owen fought twice, defeating Dave Smith on points at the National Sporting Club before stopping [Davy Larmour](/wiki/Davy_Larmour_%28boxer%29 \"Davy Larmour (boxer)\") in the seventh round of a fight at the Double Diamond Club in [Caerphilly](/wiki/Caerphilly \"Caerphilly\") two weeks later.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://boxrec.com/en/event/42633/66132 \\|title\\=Johnny Owen V Davy Larmour \\|publisher\\=BoxRec \\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 August 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802194427/https://boxrec.com/en/event/42633/66132 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The possibility of Owen competing for either the Commonwealth or European bantamweight titles was being raised and he received an offer of between £2000–2500 to fight the reigning Commonwealth champion, Ghanaian [Sulley Shittu](/wiki/Sulley_Shittu \"Sulley Shittu\"), in his opponent's home country. Shittu, however, was stripped of the title by the Commonwealth Championship Committee soon after having failed to meet a challenger in the required time.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=umGR4Wc4deMC\\&q\\=sulley\\+shuttu\\+stripped\\+bantamweight\\&pg\\=PT3 \\|title\\=GBA Makes Appeal \\|newspaper\\=The Daily Graphic \\|date\\=7 September 1978 \\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2019 \\|last1\\=Addo\\-Twum \\|first1\\=J. K. \\|archive\\-date\\=5 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100808/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=umGR4Wc4deMC\\&q\\=sulley\\+shuttu\\+stripped\\+bantamweight\\&pg\\=PT3 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Australian [Paul Ferreri](/wiki/Paul_Ferreri \"Paul Ferreri\"), who had lost the belt to Shittu in January 1977,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://boxrec.com/en/proboxer/13989 \\|title\\=Paul Ferreri \\|publisher\\=BoxRec \\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 October 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017182114/https://boxrec.com/en/proboxer/13989 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} stated his willingness to contest the vacant Commonwealth title with Owen, offering the Welshman £4,000,{{harvnb\\|Broadbent\\|2006\\|pp\\=188–189}} on the stipulation that the fight be held in his home country. Owen rejected the offer over the distance and fears that partisan Australian judges could make the fight unwinnable.{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|pp\\=117–120}} He instead met Englishman Wally Angliss, stopping him in the third round after Angliss had suffered a deep cut above his left eye.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/259556868/?terms\\=Johnny%2BOwen\\&match\\=1 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|title\\=Sport in brief \\|newspaper\\=The Guardian \\|page\\=20 \\|date\\=27 September 1978 \\|access\\-date\\=5 December 2019 \\|via\\=Newspapers.com \\|archive\\-date\\=3 August 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803034923/https://www.newspapers.com/image/259556868/?terms\\=Johnny%2BOwen\\&match\\=1 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Eager for the fight to go ahead, Ferreri dropped his request for the fight to be based in Australia and accepted a bout with Owen in [Ebbw Vale](/wiki/Ebbw_Vale \"Ebbw Vale\") on 2 November 1978\\. Ferreri was described by *[The Times](/wiki/The_Times \"The Times\")* as \"world class opposition, such as Owen has never faced before.\"{{cite news \\|url\\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CPdHm6 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|title\\=Owen comes from behind to win title \\|newspaper\\=The Times \\|date\\=3 November 1978 \\|page\\=22 \\|access\\-date\\=1 December 2019 \\|via\\=The Times Digital Archive \\|archive\\-date\\=5 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100833/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\\=TTDA\\&u\\=wikipedia\\&v\\=2\\.1\\=r\\&id\\=GALE%7CCS369722211\\&asid\\=1622952000000\\~7992cfc8 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} A former holder of the Commonwealth title, he entered the fight with nearly 70 professional bouts to Owen's 16 and had never been beaten by a British fighter. Ferreri proved a stern test for Owen, with his counter\\-punching style causing the Welshman problems in the opening rounds. By the eleventh round of the fifteen\\-round contest, *The Times* judged the fight to be \"fascinatingly poised\" but Owen's renowned stamina and the eight\\-year age gap proved telling as he was described as \"covering the last four rounds of the fight like a sprinter\". The referee awarded the fight 148–145 in Owen's favour and both fighters received plaudits from the capacity crowd; Ferreri was given a standing ovation by the largely Welsh crowd and Owen was carried to the dressing room on the shoulders of his team in celebration. Both Owen and the fight received several plaudits in annual award ceremonies, including Owen being named Best Young Fighter by the Boxing Writers' Club, becoming only the third Welshman after [Howard Winstone](/wiki/Howard_Winstone \"Howard Winstone\") and [Dai Dower](/wiki/Dai_Dower \"Dai Dower\") to receive the award. Owen was also named BBC Wales Sports Personality of the Year for 1978, becoming the first boxer to win the award since Winstone more than a decade earlier.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/wales/2525091\\.stm \\|title\\=BBC Wales Sport Personality winners \\|publisher\\=BBC Sport \\|access\\-date\\=2 December 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=6 June 2004 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20040606155334/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/wales/2525091\\.stm \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### European bantamweight title challenge",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|[Juan Francisco Rodríguez](/wiki/Juan_Francisco_Rodr%C3%ADguez \"Juan Francisco Rodríguez\"), whom Owen fought twice for the European bantamweight title\\|alt\\=A headshot of a boxer wearing a red vest.](/wiki/File:Juan_Francisco_Rodr%C3%ADguez_%28cropped%29.jpg \"Juan Francisco Rodríguez (cropped).jpg\")\nOwen's victory led him to challenge for the division's European title, held by [Juan Francisco Rodríguez](/wiki/Juan_Francisco_Rodr%C3%ADguez \"Juan Francisco Rodríguez\") of Spain. The fight was originally scheduled for the end of 1978 but Rodríguez withdrew from the bout due to a case of flu,{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/259707044/?terms\\=Johnny%2BOwen\\&match\\=1 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|title\\=Owen wins writers' vote \\|newspaper\\=The Guardian \\|last\\=Rodda \\|page\\=16 \\|first\\=John \\|date\\=3 January 1979 \\|access\\-date\\=5 December 2019 \\|via\\=Newspapers.com \\|archive\\-date\\=2 August 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802190209/https://www.newspapers.com/image/259707044/?terms\\=Johnny%2BOwen\\&match\\=1 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and it was rearranged for three months later. It was Owen's eighteenth contest and his first overseas, taking place in the champion's hometown of [Almería](/wiki/Almer%C3%ADa \"Almería\"). The fight was preceded by a series of allegations of foul play by Owen's camp. He was promised the use of the same training facilities as the champion in the afternoons, once Rodríguez had finished his sessions. In practice, however, Owen and his team often found themselves waiting at the gym for Rodríguez to finish his training, taking up hours of Owen's sessions. At the [weigh\\-in](/wiki/Weight_class_%28boxing%29 \"Weight class (boxing)\"), Owen was marginally overweight, prompting a last minute training session involving running up and down the hotel stairs until he hit the {{convert\\|118\\|lb}} limit. Rodríguez also exceeded the weight limit by a larger margin, more than could be lost in the allowed time. Owen and his team returned to the hotel with the intent of returning to Britain, believing the fight would be called off. However, Owen's manager Dai Gardiner returned to announce that the Spanish officials had passed Rodríguez fit to fight despite having weighed in {{convert\\|3\\|oz}} overweight.{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|pp\\=136–137}} Owen decided to go ahead with the bout, eager not to return to Britain empty\\-handed. Gardiner also held concerns over local judges heading into the fight and predicted that, in order to win, Owen would have to stop his opponent.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000445/19790302/230/0032 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|title\\=Owen to Win Title – By K.O. \\|newspaper\\=Aberdeen Evening Express \\|page\\=32 \\|date\\=2 March 1979 \\|access\\-date\\=9 February 2021 \\|via\\=British Newspaper Archive }}",
"The fight was held in the town's [bullring](/wiki/Bullring \"Bullring\") in front of a capacity crowd and Owen entered the arena to loud jeers. The first round was relatively uneventful as both fighters settled. When Owen returned to his corner, his father was infuriated after smelling [wintergreen oil](/wiki/Methyl_salicylate \"Methyl salicylate\") on Owen. Believing the substance came from Rodríguez's gloves, he approached the referee who ignored Dick Owens' complaints. The [British Boxing Board of Control](/wiki/British_Boxing_Board_of_Control \"British Boxing Board of Control\")'s (BBBofC) representative at the fight, Harry Vines, attempted to approach Owen's team to find out what was causing commotion and found himself being pushed and shoved by members of the crowd before Spanish police ordered him to return to his seat. Rodríguez used several underhand manoeuvres against Owen, including illegal use of the head and elbows and attempted to screw his thumb into Owen's eye,{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|pp\\=139–141}} eventually receiving an official warning from the referee in the twelfth round after being reprimanded on several occasions.{{harvnb\\|Jones\\|2012\\|p\\=78}} At the start of the tenth round, Owen returned to the middle of the ring but was forced to wait as Rodríguez took several extra minutes to leave his corner before standing to taunt his opponent in front of the home crowd.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/sport/boxing/johnny\\-owen\\-champion\\-half\\-word\\-2339890 \\|title\\=Johnny Owen: Champion of half the word \\|work\\=WalesOnline \\|publisher\\=Media Wales \\|date\\=20 May 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=2 December 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 January 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102225828/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/sport/boxing/johnny\\-owen\\-champion\\-half\\-word\\-2339890 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Rodríguez was awarded the victory on points in a decision that [Steve Bunce](/wiki/Steve_Bunce \"Steve Bunce\") later declared: \"In what has been regarded as a 'home\\-town decision travesty', Rodríguez was awarded a fight he had so obviously lost.\"{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.walesonline.co.uk/sport/boxing/johnny\\-owen\\-welsh\\-matchstick\\-man\\-15340770 \\|title\\=Johnny Owen: The Welsh 'Matchstick Man' who changed the face of boxing forever \\|work\\=WalesOnline \\|publisher\\=Media Wales \\|last\\=Lewis \\|first\\=Anna \\|date\\=8 November 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=2 December 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 August 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822052154/https://www.walesonline.co.uk/sport/boxing/johnny\\-owen\\-welsh\\-matchstick\\-man\\-15340770 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The *[Dictionary of Welsh Biography](/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography \"Dictionary of Welsh Biography\")* went further and described the decision as \"an insult to the good name of boxing\".",
"Owen and his team returned to Wales despondent and infuriated. Their ire was further increased when the Spanish Boxing Federation withheld £1,200 from Owen's fee in retaliation for an incident the previous year when a Spanish boxer had been deducted pay for retiring from a fight in Britain.{{harvnb\\|Broadbent\\|2006\\|pp\\=207–208}} The Welsh Area Boxing Council held an investigation into the fight, during which Vines described the incident as \"the worst decision he'd ever experienced\". However, the council had no power over Spanish promoters and there was no alternative for Owen other than to accept the loss,{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|pp\\=144–145}} although the BBBofC did refund Owen the money that been deducted from his paycheck. Gardiner arranged a high\\-profile bout with American Jose Gonzalez in an attempt to immediately showcase Owen internationally again but the fight was postponed when Gonzalez failed to make weight. With Owen ready to fight, Lee Graham was named as a late replacement but was little match for Owen who won on points. A more experienced opponent was arranged a month later, Frenchman Guy Caudron who had won 35 of his 49 career fights proved more of a test for Owen. Caudron lasted 12 rounds but was defeated 99–97 on points. Despite having fought in 19 professional bouts, it was only after the Caudron fight that Owen left his job at the Suko factory as his boxing schedule became too hectic to continue working. Owen made his first defence of his Commonwealth title and his third of his British title in June 1979 against Dave Smith, an opponent he had beaten the previous year, at the Double Diamond Club in Caerphilly.{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|pp\\=146–148}} Owen was eager to impress in the fight as victory would also see him achieve a lifelong ambition of retaining a Lonsdale Belt, which became the permanent property of a fighter once they had completed three successful defences.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.newspapers.com/image/259861527/?terms\\=Johnny%2BOwen\\&match\\=1 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|title\\=Owen's money belt \\|newspaper\\=The Guardian \\|last\\=Rodda \\|first\\=John \\|date\\=13 June 1979 \\|page\\=25 \\|access\\-date\\=5 December 2019 \\|via\\=Newspapers.com \\|archive\\-date\\=2 August 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802191941/https://www.newspapers.com/image/259861527/?terms\\=Johnny%2BOwen\\&match\\=1 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} From the first round he dominated Smith, whose trainer eventually [threw in the towel](/wiki/Submission_%28combat_sports%29 \"Submission (combat sports)\") during the twelfth round. By now, Owen had set his sights on a rematch with Rodríguez for the European title. He met Neil McLaughlin for a fourth time on 17 September 1979 at the Albany Hotel in Glasgow and recorded a comfortable 100–95 points victory to secure his 20th professional win.",
"A fight against American Isaac Vega was booked for 4 October of the same year. When Owen and his team arrived at Ebbw Vale Leisure Centre for the bout they found that Vega had pulled out of the contest without warning and the American promoters instead offered a replacement, Jose Garcia. Owen's camp knew nothing of the new opponent but went along with the change to provide Owen with much needed competition. Garcia had only fought professionally once before, losing by knockout in the first round more than a year before.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://boxrec.com/en/proboxer/8391 \\|title\\=Jose Luis Garcia \\|publisher\\=BoxRec \\|access\\-date\\=2 December 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 August 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802194753/https://boxrec.com/en/proboxer/8391 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Garcia provided little competition for Owen with the referee stopping the fight in the fifth round.",
"### Rematch with Rodríguez",
"Owen ended 1979 with one further victory over American [David Vasquez](/wiki/David_Vasquez \"David Vasquez\"), a fighter who had unsuccessfully challenged world champion [Lupe Pintor](/wiki/Lupe_Pintor \"Lupe Pintor\") a year earlier and had been in line to meet [Wilfredo Gómez](/wiki/Wilfredo_G%C3%B3mez \"Wilfredo Gómez\").{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|p\\=149}}{{cite news \\|url\\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CQEzs7 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|title\\=Owen thrives on work rate and greater durability \\|newspaper\\=The Times \\|date\\=30 November 1979 \\|page\\=19 \\|last\\=Walker \\|first\\=Peter \\|access\\-date\\=2 December 2019 \\|via\\=The Times Digital Archive \\|archive\\-date\\=5 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100745/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\\=TTDA\\&u\\=wikipedia\\&v\\=2\\.1\\=r\\&id\\=GALE%7CCS319128958\\&asid\\=1622952000000\\~67e50698 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Although he provided a challenge for Owen, Vasquez ultimately lost to the Welshman on points. The victory put Owen in contention for a rematch against Rodríguez and the fight was confirmed at the start of 1980, due for the early months of the year.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CQFFD0 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|title\\=Boxing \\|newspaper\\=The Times \\|date\\=9 January 1980 \\|page\\=8 \\|access\\-date\\=2 December 2019 \\|via\\=The Times Digital Archive \\|archive\\-date\\=5 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100845/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\\=TTDA\\&u\\=wikipedia\\&v\\=2\\.1\\=r\\&id\\=GALE%7CCS134579753\\&asid\\=1622952000000\\~14f4ba9a \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Two weeks later Owen fought fellow Welshman Glyn Davies at the National Sporting Club. Davies was described as a \"tough old pro\" who had fought over 40 times professionally but he lasted only five rounds before the referee stopped the fight in Owen's favour. After the bout, Davies remarked: \"I have been beaten by the next world champion.\" Owen decided to invest some of his earnings by purchasing a shop on Galon Uchaf housing estate in his hometown of Merthyr.",
"Owen and his camp were enthusiastic when their promoter offered them a rematch with Rodríguez for the European title. Rodríguez was short of competitors willing to fight in his home country and was forced to accept the Ebbw Vale Leisure Centre to secure a large prize fund.{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|pp\\=150–151}} The venue was filled to capacity, with more than 1,800 spectators. The fight started slowly and Rodríguez restricted the early pace of the opening rounds by holding Owen on the blindside of the referee. Rodríguez continued a defensive, counter\\-punching style and caught Owen several times as the Welshman continually advanced,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CRbk20 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|title\\=The matchstick man wins but path to world title is still dark \\|newspaper\\=The Times \\|last\\=Sen \\|first\\=Srikumar \\|date\\=29 February 1980 \\|page\\=10 \\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2019 \\|via\\=The Times Digital Archive \\|archive\\-date\\=5 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100809/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\\=TTDA\\&u\\=wikipedia\\&v\\=2\\.1\\=r\\&id\\=GALE%7CCS168527453\\&asid\\=1622952000000\\~8b658e99 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} attempting to push the pace between the fifth and eighth rounds. Owen did cause damage to his opponent after trapping him on the ropes during the sixth. As Rodríguez tired, Owen continued his pattern of pressing him around the ring and controlled the remaining rounds of the fight. The three judges awarded Owen a unanimous victory to crown him European bantamweight champion.",
"### Final bout",
"With Owen the European champion, a fight against the WBC title holder, Mexican Lupe Pintor was reported to be under consideration. However, Owen's next fight was confirmed as a British and Commonwealth title defence against Englishman [John Feeney](/wiki/John_Feeney_%28boxer%29 \"John Feeney (boxer)\") at [Empire Pool](/wiki/Wembley_Arena \"Wembley Arena\") in London. Owen did not consider Feeney at the same level as Ferreri or Rodríguez, but with an 18–0 record, Feeney was an upcoming prospect in British boxing. Feeney started spritely in the opening rounds but Owen's relentless pressure wore down the opposition fighter and he emerged victorious with a comfortable win on points.{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|p\\=152}} In its report of the fight, *The Times* described fighting Owen as like \"trying to beat a carpet, so resilient is he{{nbsp}}... the carpet ends up by giving you a dusting.\"{{cite news \\|url\\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CRbk20 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|title\\=Minter by a mile – Now for the Hagler footage \\|newspaper\\=The Times \\|last\\=Sen \\|first\\=Srikumar \\|date\\=30 June 1980 \\|page\\=8 \\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2019 \\|via\\=The Times Digital Archive \\|archive\\-date\\=5 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100749/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\\=TTDA\\&u\\=wikipedia\\&v\\=2\\.1\\=r\\&id\\=GALE%7CCS168527453\\&asid\\=1622952000000\\~8b658e99 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Ranked as the number four bantamweight in the world by the WBC,{{cite news \\|url\\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CRdiU6 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|title\\=Ali – Holmes title fight will be held in Cairo \\|newspaper\\=The Times \\|date\\=2 July 1980 \\|page\\=12 \\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2019 \\|via\\=The Times Digital Archive \\|archive\\-date\\=5 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100745/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\\=TTDA\\&u\\=wikipedia\\&v\\=2\\.1\\=r\\&id\\=GALE%7CCS184911586\\&asid\\=1622952000000\\~911c1bfc \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Owen was offered a lucrative title fight against Pintor by promoter Mickey Duff. The two parties had discussed a potential meeting in Wales, an option to which Pintor was open, but promoters in the country could not match the purse offered by American promoters and the fight was held in Los Angeles.{{harvnb\\|Broadbent\\|2006\\|p\\=232}} Owen stated that, should he win the fight, his plan was to defend the belt three times before retiring to Merthyr.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CSPG27 \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|title\\=Owen is storing up his animosity \\|newspaper\\=The Times \\|last\\=Davis \\|first\\=Ivor \\|date\\=19 September 1980 \\|page\\=11 \\|access\\-date\\=5 December 2019 \\|via\\=The Times Digital Archive \\|archive\\-date\\=5 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100838/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\\=TTDA\\&u\\=wikipedia\\&v\\=2\\.1\\=r\\&id\\=GALE%7CCS185173811\\&asid\\=1622952000000\\~dbf8626d \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Pintor had edged a highly controversial split decision over stablemate and long\\-time champion [Carlos Zárate](/wiki/Carlos_Z%C3%A1rate_Serna \"Carlos Zárate Serna\") to win his world bantamweight title in June 1978\\. Zárate retired in disgust following the decision,{{cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=b9cIRPetE88C\\&q\\=lupe\\+pintor\\+zarate\\&pg\\=PA1984 \\|title\\=Boxing's Most Wanted: The Top 10 Book of Champs, Chumps, and Punch\\-Drunk Palookas \\|last1\\=Fitzgerald \\|first1\\=Mike \\|last2\\=Hudson \\|first2\\=David L. \\|publisher\\=Potomac Books Ltd \\|location\\=Nebraska \\|page\\=1984 \\|year\\=2014 \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-57488\\-714\\-3 \\|access\\-date\\=28 November 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=5 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100743/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=b9cIRPetE88C\\&q\\=lupe\\+pintor\\+zarate\\&pg\\=PA1984 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} but Pintor proved to be an able successor and had defended his title twice heading into the fight.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://boxrec.com/en/proboxer/166 \\|title\\=Lupe Pintor \\|publisher\\=BoxRec \\|access\\-date\\=5 December 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 August 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817021810/https://boxrec.com/en/proboxer/166 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Owen arrived in Los Angeles a week before the fight to acclimatise to the humidity. Both Owen and Pintor would go for early morning runs in the local area and would sometimes pass in a nearby park without acknowledging each other.{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|p\\=172}} Both fighters trained at the gym facilities in the [Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena](/wiki/Los_Angeles_Memorial_Sports_Arena \"Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena\"). Owen found the press intrusion from the Mexican reporters difficult to deal with; he was hounded everywhere during the day and his motel room phone rang so often that Dai Gardiner requested the motel block any incoming calls. Eventually, Owen snapped and threatened to disrupt the fight schedule unless action was taken. The fight promoter promptly intervened and the press backed off.{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|p\\=174}}",
"The bout was held at the [Grand Olympic Auditorium](/wiki/Grand_Olympic_Auditorium \"Grand Olympic Auditorium\"), Los Angeles, on 19 September 1980\\. The arena had a capacity of 10,000 but estimates have put the crowd at well beyond that. The crowd was predominantly Mexican, with Pintor receiving fervent support. While some Welsh fans had travelled to support Owen they were said to be \"outnumbered 100 to 1 at least\".{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|p\\=181}} Owen was considered the underdog with [odds](/wiki/Odds \"Odds\") on his victory being offered at 6–1 before the fight, but he surprised many in the opening round by actively pursuing Pintor around the ring, seeking to engage with the champion. His pressure was rewarded in the third and fourth rounds, both of which he won on most observers' scorecards, although Pintor responded with some strong right hands. Pintor began to realise that Owen was a considerable threat, perhaps more than he had anticipated, and responded in the fourth by landing a strong shot to Owen, although the Welshman quickly shook it off. In the fifth round, Owen suffered a large cut to the inside of his bottom lip that began to bleed profusely, leaving him swallowing blood for the remainder of the fight. The ringside doctor and the referee inspected the cut but deemed Owen was fit to continue.{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|p\\=185}}",
"Pintor looked to take control of the fight and was the stronger through rounds six to eight,{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|pp\\=186–187}} although he did receive cuts to both eyes. By this stage in the fight most observers judged the fight to be evenly poised, with some even giving Owen a slight lead.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://tinyurl.gale.com/tinyurl/CSPQTX \\|url\\-access\\=subscription \\|title\\=Owen's valiant fight to stay alive \\|newspaper\\=The Times \\|last\\=Davis \\|first\\=Ivor \\|date\\=22 September 1980 \\|page\\=10 \\|access\\-date\\=5 December 2019 \\|via\\=The Times Digital Archive \\|archive\\-date\\=5 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100835/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p\\=TTDA\\&u\\=wikipedia\\&v\\=2\\.1\\=r\\&id\\=GALE%7CCS168003382\\&asid\\=1622952000000\\~72404b01 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Pintor began to fight more aggressively in the ninth round and his approach paid off when he caught Owen with a punch that knocked the Welshman down for the first time in his professional career. Owen got to his feet quickly and assured the referee that he was fine but the momentum of the fight moved in the champion's direction and from the tenth round Pintor was in the ascendency. An exhausted Owen battled on through the eleventh round and referee Marty Denkin approached Owen's corner to end the fight but was told he was fine to continue. Owen returned for the twelfth and was knocked down a second time but again got to his feet. With 25 seconds remaining in the round, Pintor caught Owen with a strong right hand to the head and Owen crumpled to the floor. The referee immediately called an end to the fight rather than count Owen out, stating he had seen Owen's pupils go up into his head, indicating he was unconscious before he fell to the floor. Owen suffered convulsions in the ring as doctors treated him and blood poured from his mouth. The crowd showed little sympathy for Owen's condition; beer and other debris were thrown into the ring and Owen's corner men were shoved and pushed as they attempted to aid their fighter. Ken Bryant, a member of Owen's team, had his wallet pickpocketed from his coat as he attended to the stricken fighter.{{cite journal\\|last1\\=Johnes\\|first1\\=Martin\\|title\\=Stories of a Post\\-industrial Hero: The Death of Johnny Owen\\|journal\\=Sport in History\\|date\\=2011\\|volume\\=31\\|issue\\=4\\|pages\\=443–463\\|doi\\=10\\.1080/17460263\\.2011\\.646832\\|s2cid\\=161822113\\|url\\=https://www.academia.edu/1800300\\|access\\-date\\=8 July 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=5 June 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605100817/https://www.academia.edu/1800300/Stories\\_of\\_a\\_Post\\_industrial\\_Hero\\_The\\_Death\\_of\\_Johnny\\_Owen\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{harvnb\\|Broadbent\\|2006\\|p\\=254}} Owen was loaded onto a stretcher and carried out of the arena before being taken to [California Hospital Medical Center](/wiki/California_Hospital_Medical_Center \"California Hospital Medical Center\").{{harvnb\\|Murphy\\|2004\\|pp\\=193–194}} He was taken into surgery, where doctors removed a blood clot from his brain after a three\\-hour operation. The BBC regarded the knockout as so disturbing that it cancelled its replay broadcast of the fight in the UK and instead aired an edited highlights segment.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early days
Born in [Albemarle County, Virginia](/wiki/Albemarle_County%2C_Virginia "Albemarle County, Virginia") in 1827, Ficklin had a reputation for misbehaving. So in 1845, his father sent young Ficklin to attend the [Virginia Military Institute](/wiki/Virginia_Military_Institute "Virginia Military Institute"). As a cadet, Ficklin was known for his pranks, and he often got in trouble for them. One night, he filled a howitzer with gunpowder, turned it toward the cadet barracks, and discharged it (Virginia Military Institute Archives, 2005\). This action resulted in his suspension in 1846\.
### Career
With his suspension, Ficklin entered the Army. He ultimately served as a corporal in the [Mexican–American War](/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War "Mexican–American War"), where he was injured but recovered. Ficklin requested to be readmitted into the corps of cadets at the Virginia Military Institute, and his request was approved. Upon graduation, Ficklin attempted to work as a teacher. Dissatisfied, he sought employment with an express company in [Alabama](/wiki/Alabama "Alabama"). Later, he worked as a surveyor for varied freight lines.
Ficklin was ubiquitous at a number of important moments during the [Utah War](/wiki/Utah_War "Utah War"), including the raid on [Fort Lemhi](/wiki/Fort_Lemhi "Fort Lemhi") which signaled [Deseret](/wiki/State_of_Deseret "State of Deseret")'s demise.
In 1859, Ficklin returned to the express and stage business which now boomed with the western expansion precipitated in the wave of [Gold Rush](/wiki/Gold_Rush "Gold Rush") fever. In 1860, some credit him with the idea of the [Pony Express](/wiki/Pony_Express "Pony Express"). Yet, [William Hepburn Russell](/wiki/William_Hepburn_Russell "William Hepburn Russell"), [Alexander Majors](/wiki/Alexander_Majors "Alexander Majors"), and [William B. Waddell](/wiki/William_B._Waddell_%28Pony_Express_founder%29 "William B. Waddell (Pony Express founder)") are more often credited as the founders, owners, and operators of the Pony Express. Ficklin did serve as general manager for the venture, until a disagreement with Russell. Russell allegedly became jealous of Ficklin's popularity and suspicious of Ficklin's loyalties. Learning of this, Ficklin immediately resigned.
In 1860, the [Pacific Telegraph Act of 1860](/wiki/Pacific_Telegraph_Act_of_1860 "Pacific Telegraph Act of 1860") called for the facilitation of communication between the east and west coasts of the United States of America. [Hiram Sibley](/wiki/Hiram_Sibley "Hiram Sibley") of the [Western Union](/wiki/Western_Union "Western Union") Telegraph Company won the contract. In 1861, Ficklin joined Hiram Sibley in helping to form the [Pacific Telegraph Company](/wiki/Pacific_Telegraph_Company "Pacific Telegraph Company") of [Nebraska](/wiki/Nebraska "Nebraska"). At the same time, [Jeptha Wade](/wiki/Jeptha_Wade "Jeptha Wade") was asked by Hiram Sibley to consolidate smaller telegraph companies in [California](/wiki/California "California"). While the Pacific Telegraph Company built west from [Omaha, Nebraska](/wiki/Omaha%2C_Nebraska "Omaha, Nebraska"), the [Overland Telegraph Company](/wiki/Overland_Telegraph_Company "Overland Telegraph Company") of California was thus formed and built east from [Carson City, Nevada](/wiki/Carson_City%2C_Nevada "Carson City, Nevada"). With their connection in [Salt Lake City, Utah](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City%2C_Utah "Salt Lake City, Utah") on October 24, 1861, the final link between the east and west coasts of the United States of America was made. The [First Transcontinental Telegraph](/wiki/First_Transcontinental_Telegraph "First Transcontinental Telegraph") would ironically lead to the immediate demise of the Pony Express. The Pacific Telegraph Company and Overland Telegraph Company of California were eventually absorbed into the Western Union Telegraph Company.
During the [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"), Ficklin joined the [Confederate States of America](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America "Confederate States of America")'s war effort in Virginia. He eventually served as a [Confederate](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America "Confederate States of America") purchasing agent in Europe and as an intelligence officer. During the war, he achieved some status. In 1864, he even bought [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson "Thomas Jefferson")’s [Monticello](/wiki/Monticello "Monticello"), but it would be stripped from him under [Reconstruction](/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States "Reconstruction era of the United States"). In 1865, Ficklin was sent on a secret peace mission to [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") While there, [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln "Abraham Lincoln") was assassinated, and Ficklin was arrested. He was cleared of suspicion and released upon his swearing a loyalty oath to the [Union](/wiki/Union_%28American_Civil_War%29 "Union (American Civil War)").
After the Civil War, Major Ficklin opened an express [stagecoach](/wiki/Stagecoach "Stagecoach") business in [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas"). The route served from [Fort Smith, Arkansas](/wiki/Fort_Smith%2C_Arkansas "Fort Smith, Arkansas"), to California. He founded a town in Texas to serve his enterprise. After his death, the town was named after him. Today, [Ben Ficklin, Texas](/wiki/Ben_Ficklin%2C_Texas "Ben Ficklin, Texas"), is a [ghost town](/wiki/Ghost_town "Ghost town").
In the course of his final business venture, which included a U.S. Post Office [subcontract](/wiki/Subcontractor "Subcontractor"), Ficklin frequently visited Washington, DC.
### Personal life
In March 1871, he was dining at the Willard hotel in Washington, D.C. when a fishbone lodged in his throat. He died a few days later, after a physician cut an artery while trying to remove the bone.
He is buried in Maplewood Cemetery in [Charlottesville, Virginia](/wiki/Charlottesville%2C_Virginia "Charlottesville, Virginia").
Benjamin Franklin Ficklin died childless. However, a descendant of William Franklin Ficklin, a sibling of Benjamin Franklin Ficklin's grandfather, Benjamin Ficklin; Jared Ficklin, (2nd cousin 6 times removed to B. F. Ficklin) a future technologist and for a brief time a cowboy, would later appear on the [PBS](/wiki/PBS "PBS") reality show [Texas Ranch House](/wiki/Texas_Ranch_House "Texas Ranch House").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early days",
"Born in [Albemarle County, Virginia](/wiki/Albemarle_County%2C_Virginia \"Albemarle County, Virginia\") in 1827, Ficklin had a reputation for misbehaving. So in 1845, his father sent young Ficklin to attend the [Virginia Military Institute](/wiki/Virginia_Military_Institute \"Virginia Military Institute\"). As a cadet, Ficklin was known for his pranks, and he often got in trouble for them. One night, he filled a howitzer with gunpowder, turned it toward the cadet barracks, and discharged it (Virginia Military Institute Archives, 2005\\). This action resulted in his suspension in 1846\\.",
"### Career",
"With his suspension, Ficklin entered the Army. He ultimately served as a corporal in the [Mexican–American War](/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War \"Mexican–American War\"), where he was injured but recovered. Ficklin requested to be readmitted into the corps of cadets at the Virginia Military Institute, and his request was approved. Upon graduation, Ficklin attempted to work as a teacher. Dissatisfied, he sought employment with an express company in [Alabama](/wiki/Alabama \"Alabama\"). Later, he worked as a surveyor for varied freight lines.",
"Ficklin was ubiquitous at a number of important moments during the [Utah War](/wiki/Utah_War \"Utah War\"), including the raid on [Fort Lemhi](/wiki/Fort_Lemhi \"Fort Lemhi\") which signaled [Deseret](/wiki/State_of_Deseret \"State of Deseret\")'s demise.",
"In 1859, Ficklin returned to the express and stage business which now boomed with the western expansion precipitated in the wave of [Gold Rush](/wiki/Gold_Rush \"Gold Rush\") fever. In 1860, some credit him with the idea of the [Pony Express](/wiki/Pony_Express \"Pony Express\"). Yet, [William Hepburn Russell](/wiki/William_Hepburn_Russell \"William Hepburn Russell\"), [Alexander Majors](/wiki/Alexander_Majors \"Alexander Majors\"), and [William B. Waddell](/wiki/William_B._Waddell_%28Pony_Express_founder%29 \"William B. Waddell (Pony Express founder)\") are more often credited as the founders, owners, and operators of the Pony Express. Ficklin did serve as general manager for the venture, until a disagreement with Russell. Russell allegedly became jealous of Ficklin's popularity and suspicious of Ficklin's loyalties. Learning of this, Ficklin immediately resigned.",
"In 1860, the [Pacific Telegraph Act of 1860](/wiki/Pacific_Telegraph_Act_of_1860 \"Pacific Telegraph Act of 1860\") called for the facilitation of communication between the east and west coasts of the United States of America. [Hiram Sibley](/wiki/Hiram_Sibley \"Hiram Sibley\") of the [Western Union](/wiki/Western_Union \"Western Union\") Telegraph Company won the contract. In 1861, Ficklin joined Hiram Sibley in helping to form the [Pacific Telegraph Company](/wiki/Pacific_Telegraph_Company \"Pacific Telegraph Company\") of [Nebraska](/wiki/Nebraska \"Nebraska\"). At the same time, [Jeptha Wade](/wiki/Jeptha_Wade \"Jeptha Wade\") was asked by Hiram Sibley to consolidate smaller telegraph companies in [California](/wiki/California \"California\"). While the Pacific Telegraph Company built west from [Omaha, Nebraska](/wiki/Omaha%2C_Nebraska \"Omaha, Nebraska\"), the [Overland Telegraph Company](/wiki/Overland_Telegraph_Company \"Overland Telegraph Company\") of California was thus formed and built east from [Carson City, Nevada](/wiki/Carson_City%2C_Nevada \"Carson City, Nevada\"). With their connection in [Salt Lake City, Utah](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City%2C_Utah \"Salt Lake City, Utah\") on October 24, 1861, the final link between the east and west coasts of the United States of America was made. The [First Transcontinental Telegraph](/wiki/First_Transcontinental_Telegraph \"First Transcontinental Telegraph\") would ironically lead to the immediate demise of the Pony Express. The Pacific Telegraph Company and Overland Telegraph Company of California were eventually absorbed into the Western Union Telegraph Company.",
"During the [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"), Ficklin joined the [Confederate States of America](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America \"Confederate States of America\")'s war effort in Virginia. He eventually served as a [Confederate](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America \"Confederate States of America\") purchasing agent in Europe and as an intelligence officer. During the war, he achieved some status. In 1864, he even bought [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson \"Thomas Jefferson\")’s [Monticello](/wiki/Monticello \"Monticello\"), but it would be stripped from him under [Reconstruction](/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States \"Reconstruction era of the United States\"). In 1865, Ficklin was sent on a secret peace mission to [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") While there, [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln \"Abraham Lincoln\") was assassinated, and Ficklin was arrested. He was cleared of suspicion and released upon his swearing a loyalty oath to the [Union](/wiki/Union_%28American_Civil_War%29 \"Union (American Civil War)\").",
"After the Civil War, Major Ficklin opened an express [stagecoach](/wiki/Stagecoach \"Stagecoach\") business in [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\"). The route served from [Fort Smith, Arkansas](/wiki/Fort_Smith%2C_Arkansas \"Fort Smith, Arkansas\"), to California. He founded a town in Texas to serve his enterprise. After his death, the town was named after him. Today, [Ben Ficklin, Texas](/wiki/Ben_Ficklin%2C_Texas \"Ben Ficklin, Texas\"), is a [ghost town](/wiki/Ghost_town \"Ghost town\").",
"In the course of his final business venture, which included a U.S. Post Office [subcontract](/wiki/Subcontractor \"Subcontractor\"), Ficklin frequently visited Washington, DC.",
"### Personal life",
"In March 1871, he was dining at the Willard hotel in Washington, D.C. when a fishbone lodged in his throat. He died a few days later, after a physician cut an artery while trying to remove the bone.",
"He is buried in Maplewood Cemetery in [Charlottesville, Virginia](/wiki/Charlottesville%2C_Virginia \"Charlottesville, Virginia\").",
"Benjamin Franklin Ficklin died childless. However, a descendant of William Franklin Ficklin, a sibling of Benjamin Franklin Ficklin's grandfather, Benjamin Ficklin; Jared Ficklin, (2nd cousin 6 times removed to B. F. Ficklin) a future technologist and for a brief time a cowboy, would later appear on the [PBS](/wiki/PBS \"PBS\") reality show [Texas Ranch House](/wiki/Texas_Ranch_House \"Texas Ranch House\").",
""
] |
### Career
With his suspension, Ficklin entered the Army. He ultimately served as a corporal in the [Mexican–American War](/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War "Mexican–American War"), where he was injured but recovered. Ficklin requested to be readmitted into the corps of cadets at the Virginia Military Institute, and his request was approved. Upon graduation, Ficklin attempted to work as a teacher. Dissatisfied, he sought employment with an express company in [Alabama](/wiki/Alabama "Alabama"). Later, he worked as a surveyor for varied freight lines.
Ficklin was ubiquitous at a number of important moments during the [Utah War](/wiki/Utah_War "Utah War"), including the raid on [Fort Lemhi](/wiki/Fort_Lemhi "Fort Lemhi") which signaled [Deseret](/wiki/State_of_Deseret "State of Deseret")'s demise.
In 1859, Ficklin returned to the express and stage business which now boomed with the western expansion precipitated in the wave of [Gold Rush](/wiki/Gold_Rush "Gold Rush") fever. In 1860, some credit him with the idea of the [Pony Express](/wiki/Pony_Express "Pony Express"). Yet, [William Hepburn Russell](/wiki/William_Hepburn_Russell "William Hepburn Russell"), [Alexander Majors](/wiki/Alexander_Majors "Alexander Majors"), and [William B. Waddell](/wiki/William_B._Waddell_%28Pony_Express_founder%29 "William B. Waddell (Pony Express founder)") are more often credited as the founders, owners, and operators of the Pony Express. Ficklin did serve as general manager for the venture, until a disagreement with Russell. Russell allegedly became jealous of Ficklin's popularity and suspicious of Ficklin's loyalties. Learning of this, Ficklin immediately resigned.
In 1860, the [Pacific Telegraph Act of 1860](/wiki/Pacific_Telegraph_Act_of_1860 "Pacific Telegraph Act of 1860") called for the facilitation of communication between the east and west coasts of the United States of America. [Hiram Sibley](/wiki/Hiram_Sibley "Hiram Sibley") of the [Western Union](/wiki/Western_Union "Western Union") Telegraph Company won the contract. In 1861, Ficklin joined Hiram Sibley in helping to form the [Pacific Telegraph Company](/wiki/Pacific_Telegraph_Company "Pacific Telegraph Company") of [Nebraska](/wiki/Nebraska "Nebraska"). At the same time, [Jeptha Wade](/wiki/Jeptha_Wade "Jeptha Wade") was asked by Hiram Sibley to consolidate smaller telegraph companies in [California](/wiki/California "California"). While the Pacific Telegraph Company built west from [Omaha, Nebraska](/wiki/Omaha%2C_Nebraska "Omaha, Nebraska"), the [Overland Telegraph Company](/wiki/Overland_Telegraph_Company "Overland Telegraph Company") of California was thus formed and built east from [Carson City, Nevada](/wiki/Carson_City%2C_Nevada "Carson City, Nevada"). With their connection in [Salt Lake City, Utah](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City%2C_Utah "Salt Lake City, Utah") on October 24, 1861, the final link between the east and west coasts of the United States of America was made. The [First Transcontinental Telegraph](/wiki/First_Transcontinental_Telegraph "First Transcontinental Telegraph") would ironically lead to the immediate demise of the Pony Express. The Pacific Telegraph Company and Overland Telegraph Company of California were eventually absorbed into the Western Union Telegraph Company.
During the [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War "American Civil War"), Ficklin joined the [Confederate States of America](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America "Confederate States of America")'s war effort in Virginia. He eventually served as a [Confederate](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America "Confederate States of America") purchasing agent in Europe and as an intelligence officer. During the war, he achieved some status. In 1864, he even bought [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson "Thomas Jefferson")’s [Monticello](/wiki/Monticello "Monticello"), but it would be stripped from him under [Reconstruction](/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States "Reconstruction era of the United States"). In 1865, Ficklin was sent on a secret peace mission to [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. "Washington, D.C.") While there, [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln "Abraham Lincoln") was assassinated, and Ficklin was arrested. He was cleared of suspicion and released upon his swearing a loyalty oath to the [Union](/wiki/Union_%28American_Civil_War%29 "Union (American Civil War)").
After the Civil War, Major Ficklin opened an express [stagecoach](/wiki/Stagecoach "Stagecoach") business in [Texas](/wiki/Texas "Texas"). The route served from [Fort Smith, Arkansas](/wiki/Fort_Smith%2C_Arkansas "Fort Smith, Arkansas"), to California. He founded a town in Texas to serve his enterprise. After his death, the town was named after him. Today, [Ben Ficklin, Texas](/wiki/Ben_Ficklin%2C_Texas "Ben Ficklin, Texas"), is a [ghost town](/wiki/Ghost_town "Ghost town").
In the course of his final business venture, which included a U.S. Post Office [subcontract](/wiki/Subcontractor "Subcontractor"), Ficklin frequently visited Washington, DC.
|
[
"### Career",
"With his suspension, Ficklin entered the Army. He ultimately served as a corporal in the [Mexican–American War](/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War \"Mexican–American War\"), where he was injured but recovered. Ficklin requested to be readmitted into the corps of cadets at the Virginia Military Institute, and his request was approved. Upon graduation, Ficklin attempted to work as a teacher. Dissatisfied, he sought employment with an express company in [Alabama](/wiki/Alabama \"Alabama\"). Later, he worked as a surveyor for varied freight lines.",
"Ficklin was ubiquitous at a number of important moments during the [Utah War](/wiki/Utah_War \"Utah War\"), including the raid on [Fort Lemhi](/wiki/Fort_Lemhi \"Fort Lemhi\") which signaled [Deseret](/wiki/State_of_Deseret \"State of Deseret\")'s demise.",
"In 1859, Ficklin returned to the express and stage business which now boomed with the western expansion precipitated in the wave of [Gold Rush](/wiki/Gold_Rush \"Gold Rush\") fever. In 1860, some credit him with the idea of the [Pony Express](/wiki/Pony_Express \"Pony Express\"). Yet, [William Hepburn Russell](/wiki/William_Hepburn_Russell \"William Hepburn Russell\"), [Alexander Majors](/wiki/Alexander_Majors \"Alexander Majors\"), and [William B. Waddell](/wiki/William_B._Waddell_%28Pony_Express_founder%29 \"William B. Waddell (Pony Express founder)\") are more often credited as the founders, owners, and operators of the Pony Express. Ficklin did serve as general manager for the venture, until a disagreement with Russell. Russell allegedly became jealous of Ficklin's popularity and suspicious of Ficklin's loyalties. Learning of this, Ficklin immediately resigned.",
"In 1860, the [Pacific Telegraph Act of 1860](/wiki/Pacific_Telegraph_Act_of_1860 \"Pacific Telegraph Act of 1860\") called for the facilitation of communication between the east and west coasts of the United States of America. [Hiram Sibley](/wiki/Hiram_Sibley \"Hiram Sibley\") of the [Western Union](/wiki/Western_Union \"Western Union\") Telegraph Company won the contract. In 1861, Ficklin joined Hiram Sibley in helping to form the [Pacific Telegraph Company](/wiki/Pacific_Telegraph_Company \"Pacific Telegraph Company\") of [Nebraska](/wiki/Nebraska \"Nebraska\"). At the same time, [Jeptha Wade](/wiki/Jeptha_Wade \"Jeptha Wade\") was asked by Hiram Sibley to consolidate smaller telegraph companies in [California](/wiki/California \"California\"). While the Pacific Telegraph Company built west from [Omaha, Nebraska](/wiki/Omaha%2C_Nebraska \"Omaha, Nebraska\"), the [Overland Telegraph Company](/wiki/Overland_Telegraph_Company \"Overland Telegraph Company\") of California was thus formed and built east from [Carson City, Nevada](/wiki/Carson_City%2C_Nevada \"Carson City, Nevada\"). With their connection in [Salt Lake City, Utah](/wiki/Salt_Lake_City%2C_Utah \"Salt Lake City, Utah\") on October 24, 1861, the final link between the east and west coasts of the United States of America was made. The [First Transcontinental Telegraph](/wiki/First_Transcontinental_Telegraph \"First Transcontinental Telegraph\") would ironically lead to the immediate demise of the Pony Express. The Pacific Telegraph Company and Overland Telegraph Company of California were eventually absorbed into the Western Union Telegraph Company.",
"During the [Civil War](/wiki/American_Civil_War \"American Civil War\"), Ficklin joined the [Confederate States of America](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America \"Confederate States of America\")'s war effort in Virginia. He eventually served as a [Confederate](/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America \"Confederate States of America\") purchasing agent in Europe and as an intelligence officer. During the war, he achieved some status. In 1864, he even bought [Thomas Jefferson](/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson \"Thomas Jefferson\")’s [Monticello](/wiki/Monticello \"Monticello\"), but it would be stripped from him under [Reconstruction](/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States \"Reconstruction era of the United States\"). In 1865, Ficklin was sent on a secret peace mission to [Washington, D.C.](/wiki/Washington%2C_D.C. \"Washington, D.C.\") While there, [Abraham Lincoln](/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln \"Abraham Lincoln\") was assassinated, and Ficklin was arrested. He was cleared of suspicion and released upon his swearing a loyalty oath to the [Union](/wiki/Union_%28American_Civil_War%29 \"Union (American Civil War)\").",
"After the Civil War, Major Ficklin opened an express [stagecoach](/wiki/Stagecoach \"Stagecoach\") business in [Texas](/wiki/Texas \"Texas\"). The route served from [Fort Smith, Arkansas](/wiki/Fort_Smith%2C_Arkansas \"Fort Smith, Arkansas\"), to California. He founded a town in Texas to serve his enterprise. After his death, the town was named after him. Today, [Ben Ficklin, Texas](/wiki/Ben_Ficklin%2C_Texas \"Ben Ficklin, Texas\"), is a [ghost town](/wiki/Ghost_town \"Ghost town\").",
"In the course of his final business venture, which included a U.S. Post Office [subcontract](/wiki/Subcontractor \"Subcontractor\"), Ficklin frequently visited Washington, DC.",
""
] |
Game summaries
--------------
### Tulsa
{{Linescore Amfootball\|
\|Road\='''Golden Gophers'''
\|R1\=17
\|R2\=7
\|R3\=3
\|R4\=14
\|RT\=41
\|Home\=Golden Hurricanes
\|H1\=0
\|H2\=3
\|H3\=0
\|H4\=7
\|HT\=10
}}
*All\-time record against [Tulsa](/wiki/University_of_Tulsa "University of Tulsa"): 2–0–0*
The Gophers open the 2005 season in dominating fashion. Laurence Maroney rushed for 203 yards and 2 touchdowns. Bryan Cupito added 235 yards passing and 1 touchdown. Gary Russell had only six carries but two touchdowns, both coming in the fourth quarter.
### Colorado State
{{Linescore Amfootball\|
\|Road\=Rams
\|R1\=0
\|R2\=10
\|R3\=0
\|R4\=14
\|RT\=24
\|Home\='''Golden Gophers'''
\|H1\=3
\|H2\=19
\|H3\=20
\|H4\=14
\|HT\=56
}}
*All\-time record against [Colorado State](/wiki/Colorado_State_University "Colorado State University"): 2–0–0*
The Gophers continued their high scoring ways to open the season, romping over Colorado State. Laurence Maroney had another big day, rushing for 133 yards and 2 touchdowns. Gary Russell had 2 touchdowns on seven carries. The Golden Gophers had fantastic average field position, starting at their own 40\-yard line, but Tulsa averaged their starting at their own 21\-yard line.
### Florida Atlantic
{{Linescore Amfootball\|
\|Road\=Owls
\|R1\=0
\|R2\=0
\|R3\=7
\|R4\=0
\|RT\=7
\|Home\='''Golden Gophers'''
\|H1\=20
\|H2\=20
\|H3\=6
\|H4\=0
\|HT\=46
}}
*All\-time record against [Florida Atlantic](/wiki/Florida_Atlantic_University "Florida Atlantic University"): 1–0–0*
The Golden Gophers won the third game of the season, defeating the Florida Atlantic Owls. Bryan Cupito passed 10 for 17 and 230 yards, with 2 touchdowns. Laurence Maroney and Gary Russell each scored two touchdowns on the day. The Minnesota rushing attack accumulated 349 yards on the ground. The Gophers once again had better field position than their opponents, as the Gophers were 16 yards better than the Owls, starting at the 37\-yard line.
### Purdue
{{Linescore Amfootball\|
\|Road\=No. 11 Boilermakers
\|R1\=0
\|R2\=7
\|R3\=7
\|R4\=14
\|R5\=7
\|R6\=0
\|RT\=35
\|Home\='''Golden Gophers'''
\|H1\=3
\|H2\=7
\|H3\=10
\|H4\=8
\|H5\=7
\|H6\=7
\|HT\=42
}}
*All\-time record against [Purdue](/wiki/Purdue_University "Purdue University"): 31–28–3 (as of 2005\)*
The Golden Gophers won their fourth game of the season, winning in double overtime of Purdue. Laurence Maroney had another big day for the Golden Gophers, rushing for 217 yards. Bryan Cupito passed for 271 yards and three touchdowns. He also rushed for a two\-point conversion in the waning time of the fourth quarter, giving a tying score that would eventually force overtime. [Logan Payne](/wiki/Logan_Payne "Logan Payne") caught a touchdown in the first overtime, and Gary Russell scored the go\-ahead touchdown in the second overtime, giving Minnesota the victory.
### Penn State
{{Linescore Amfootball\|
\|Road\=No. 18 Golden Gophers
\|R1\=0
\|R2\=7
\|R3\=0
\|R4\=7
\|RT\=14
\|Home\='''Nittany Lions'''
\|H1\=10
\|H2\=10
\|H3\=17
\|H4\=7
\|HT\=44
}}
*All\-time record against [Penn State](/wiki/Pennsylvania_State_University "Pennsylvania State University"): 4–5–0 (as of 2005\)*
Penn State raced out to a 20\-point lead on the way to a 30\-point victory over the Golden Gophers. Minnesota's normally potent ground game was held to 113 yards. Bryan Cupito passed for 174 yards on the day. The Golden Gophers turned the ball over twice, compared to no turnovers for the Nittany Lions. The Nittany Lions regained the Governor's Victory Bell for the first time since 1998\.
### Michigan
{{AFB game box start
\|Title\=Minnesota at \#21 Michigan
\|Visitor\='''Minnesota'''
\|V1\=0 \|V2\=10 \|V3\=10 \|V4\=3
\|Host\=No. 21 Michigan
\|H1\=3 \|H2\=10 \|H3\=7 \|H4\=0
\|Date\=Saturday, October 8
\|Location\=\[\[Michigan Stadium]], \[\[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]
\|StartTime\=1:00 P.M.
\|TimeZone\=EST
\|ElapsedTime\=
\|Attendance\=
\|Weather\=
\|Referee\=
\|TVAnnouncers\=\[\[Brad Nessler]] (play by play), \[\[Bob Griese]] (analyst), \[\[Lynn Swann]] (sideline)
\|TVStation\=\[\[American Broadcasting Company\|ABC]]
}}
* **Source:** [ESPN](https://web.archive.org/web/20160304105214/http://espn.go.com/ncf/recap?gameId=252810130)
{{AFB Game Box Scoring Entry \|FirstEntry\=yes \|Quarter\=1 \|Time\=10:26\|Team\=Michigan \|Event\=\[\[Garrett Rivas]] 23\-yard field goal \|Score\= Michigan 3–0}}
{{AFB Game Box Scoring Entry \|Quarter\=2 \|Time\=12:40 \|Team\=Minnesota \|Event\=Jason Giannini 29\-yard field goal \|Score\= Tie 3–3}}
{{AFB Game Box Scoring Entry \|Quarter\=2 \|Time\=5:50 \|Team\=Michigan \|Event\=Garrett Rivas 47\-yard field goal \|Score\= MICH 6–3}}
{{AFB Game Box Scoring Entry \|Quarter\=2 \|Time\=3:10 \|Team\=Michigan \|Event\=\[\[Mike Hart (American football)\|Mike Hart]] 1\-yard run (Garrett Rivas kick) \|Score\= Michigan 13–3}}
{{AFB Game Box Scoring Entry \|Quarter\=2 \|Time\=0:58 \|Team\=Minnesota \|Event\=\[\[Ernie Wheelwright]] 20\-yard pass from \[\[Bryan Cupito]] (Jason Giannini kick) \|Score\= Michigan 13–10}}
{{AFB Game Box Scoring Entry \|Quarter\=3 \|Time\=12:40 \|Team\=Minnesota \|Event\=Jason Giannini 26\-yard field goal \|Score\= Tie 13–13}}
{{AFB Game Box Scoring Entry \|Quarter\=3 \|Time\=12:25 \|Team\=Michigan \|Event\=\[\[Steve Breaston]] 95\-yard kickoff return (Garrett Rivas kick) \|Score\= Michigan 20–13}}
{{AFB Game Box Scoring Entry \|Quarter\=3 \|Time\= 6:12\|Team\=Minnesota \|Event\=\[\[Laurence Maroney]] 1\-yard run (Jason Giannini kick) \|Score\= Tie 20–20}}
{{AFB Game Box Scoring Entry \|Quarter\=4 \|Time\=0:01 \|Team\=Minnesota \|Event\=Jason Giannini 30\-yard field goal \|Score\=Minnesota 23–20 \|LastEntry\=yes}}
{{AFB game box end}}
*All\-time record against [Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan "University of Michigan"): 24–67–3 (as of 2005\)*
The Minnesota Golden Gophers won the [Little Brown Jug](/wiki/Little_Brown_Jug_%28college_football_trophy%29 "Little Brown Jug (college football trophy)") for the first time since 1986\. Laurence Maroney rushed for 129 yards on the day. Gary Russell ran for 128 yards on the day, nearly half the yards coming from one rush with under two minutes left in the game. That rush set up a final field goal by Jason Giannini. It was the first win for the Golden Gophers under Glen Mason. It was Michigan's was third loss on the season.
{{Clear}}
### Wisconsin
{{Linescore Amfootball\|
\|Road\='''No. 23 Badgers'''
\|R1\=7
\|R2\=3
\|R3\=7
\|R4\=21
\|RT\=38
\|Home\=No. 22 Golden Gophers
\|H1\=0
\|H2\=10
\|H3\=17
\|H4\=7
\|HT\=34
}}
*All\-time record against [Wisconsin](/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison "University of Wisconsin–Madison"): 59–48–8 (as of 2005\)*
Coming off one of the biggest wins in recent memory, the Golden Gophers faced off against border rival, Wisconsin. The two teams traded the lead through the first half. With 3:27 left in the game, the Golden Gophers stretched the lead to 34–24\. The Badgers then scored a touchdown, bringing the lead back down to a three\-point gap. With 30 seconds left, the Badgers blocked a punt and recovered it for a touchdown. The Badgers kept [Paul Bunyan's Axe](/wiki/Paul_Bunyan%27s_Axe "Paul Bunyan's Axe") for the second straight year.
### Ohio State
{{Linescore Amfootball\|
\|Road\='''No. 12 Buckeyes'''
\|R1\=17
\|R2\=0
\|R3\=14
\|R4\=14
\|RT\=45
\|Home\=Golden Gophers
\|H1\=10
\|H2\=7
\|H3\=7
\|H4\=7
\|HT\=31
}}
*All\-time record against [Ohio State](/wiki/Ohio_State_University "Ohio State University"): 7–38–0 (as of 2005\)*
Minnesota dropped the game to Ohio State, despite a solid performance from the Golden Gophers offense. Bryan Cupito had 26 completions on 35 attempts, and had 395 yards passing. Laurence Maroney rushed for 125 yards. The Golden Gophers out gained the Buckeyes by 130 yards on offense, but had several drives stall. Twice the ball was turned over on downs, once on a missed field goal, and the Gophers had one fumble.
### Indiana
{{Linescore Amfootball\|
\|Road\='''Golden Gophers'''
\|R1\=7
\|R2\=0
\|R3\=27
\|R4\=8
\|RT\=42
\|Home\=Hoosiers
\|H1\=0
\|H2\=14
\|H3\=0
\|H4\=7
\|HT\=21
}}
*All\-time record against [Indiana](/wiki/Indiana_University_Bloomington "Indiana University Bloomington"): 35–25–3 (as of 2005\)*
Minnesota's Gary Russell rushed for 188 yards and three touchdowns on the way to the first Gopher victory in Indiana since 1985\. The Golden Gophers had 200 more yards of offensive production on the day. The Golden Gophers broke the game open, scoring four touchdowns. Gary Russell had three touchdowns on the day. Minnesota had no turnovers on the day. The Gophers were successful on seven of the twelve third\-down attempts. The win made the Golden Gophers bowl eligible.
### Michigan State
{{Linescore Amfootball\|
\|Road\=Spartans
\|R1\=0
\|R2\=3
\|R3\=0
\|R4\=15
\|RT\=18
\|Home\='''Golden Gophers'''
\|H1\=7
\|H2\=14
\|H3\=7
\|H4\=13
\|HT\=41
}}
*All\-time record against [Michigan State](/wiki/Michigan_State_University "Michigan State University"): 15–25–0 (as of 2005\)*
[Amir Pinnix](/wiki/Amir_Pinnix "Amir Pinnix") rushed for 206 yards as the Golden Gophers won, 41–18\. Bryan Cupito only passed 13 times, but connected on eight of those passes, and two touchdowns. The Golden Gophers had only two drives on the game that didn't result in a score. In addition, the Gophers dominated the time of possession, having offensive control for 36 minutes in the game. The Spartans missed two field goal attempts on the game.
### Iowa
{{Linescore Amfootball\|
\|Road\=Golden Gophers
\|R1\=0
\|R2\=7
\|R3\=0
\|R4\=21
\|RT\=28
\|Home\='''Hawkeyes'''
\|H1\=14
\|H2\=24
\|H3\=7
\|H4\=7
\|HT\=52
}}
*All\-time record against [Iowa](/wiki/University_of_Iowa "University of Iowa"): 58–39–2 (as of 2005\)*
In the 99th addition of the Minnesota\-Iowa rivalry, the Golden Gophers dropped their fifth straight game to the Hawkeyes. Bryan Cupito passed for 315 yards, but had two interceptions and barely more than a 50 percent passing completion. Defensively, the Golden Gophers gave up 615 yards of offense. Two different Hawkeye running backs eclipsed 100 yards rushing, and Iowa's Drew Tate threw for 351 yards passing and four touchdowns. Iowa continued to retain the [Floyd of Rosedale](/wiki/Floyd_of_Rosedale "Floyd of Rosedale") trophy.
### Virginia
{{Linescore Amfootball\|
\|Road\='''Cavaliers'''
\|R1\=7
\|R2\=3
\|R3\=14
\|R4\=10
\|RT\=34
\|Home\=Golden Gophers
\|H1\=14
\|H2\=7
\|H3\=3
\|H4\=7
\|HT\=31
}}
*All\-time record against [Virginia](/wiki/University_of_Virginia "University of Virginia"): 0–1–0*
In the Golden Gophers' third appearance in the [Music City Bowl](/wiki/Music_City_Bowl "Music City Bowl"), the Gophers dropped a close game against Virginia. Bryan Cupito passed for 263 yards and 4 touchdowns on the day. Running back Laurence Maroney rushed for 109 yards. The Gophers lost the lead for the first time with 1:08 remaining as they gave up a 39\-yard field goal try. The loss was the Gophers' first loss in a bowl game since 2000\.
|
[
"Game summaries\n--------------",
"### Tulsa",
"{{Linescore Amfootball\\|\n\\|Road\\='''Golden Gophers'''\n\\|R1\\=17\n\\|R2\\=7\n\\|R3\\=3\n\\|R4\\=14\n\\|RT\\=41\n\\|Home\\=Golden Hurricanes\n\\|H1\\=0\n\\|H2\\=3\n\\|H3\\=0\n\\|H4\\=7\n\\|HT\\=10\n}}\n*All\\-time record against [Tulsa](/wiki/University_of_Tulsa \"University of Tulsa\"): 2–0–0*",
"The Gophers open the 2005 season in dominating fashion. Laurence Maroney rushed for 203 yards and 2 touchdowns. Bryan Cupito added 235 yards passing and 1 touchdown. Gary Russell had only six carries but two touchdowns, both coming in the fourth quarter.",
"### Colorado State",
"{{Linescore Amfootball\\|\n\\|Road\\=Rams\n\\|R1\\=0\n\\|R2\\=10\n\\|R3\\=0\n\\|R4\\=14\n\\|RT\\=24\n\\|Home\\='''Golden Gophers'''\n\\|H1\\=3\n\\|H2\\=19\n\\|H3\\=20\n\\|H4\\=14\n\\|HT\\=56\n}}\n*All\\-time record against [Colorado State](/wiki/Colorado_State_University \"Colorado State University\"): 2–0–0*",
"The Gophers continued their high scoring ways to open the season, romping over Colorado State. Laurence Maroney had another big day, rushing for 133 yards and 2 touchdowns. Gary Russell had 2 touchdowns on seven carries. The Golden Gophers had fantastic average field position, starting at their own 40\\-yard line, but Tulsa averaged their starting at their own 21\\-yard line.",
"### Florida Atlantic",
"{{Linescore Amfootball\\|\n\\|Road\\=Owls\n\\|R1\\=0\n\\|R2\\=0\n\\|R3\\=7\n\\|R4\\=0\n\\|RT\\=7\n\\|Home\\='''Golden Gophers'''\n\\|H1\\=20\n\\|H2\\=20\n\\|H3\\=6\n\\|H4\\=0\n\\|HT\\=46\n}}\n*All\\-time record against [Florida Atlantic](/wiki/Florida_Atlantic_University \"Florida Atlantic University\"): 1–0–0*",
"The Golden Gophers won the third game of the season, defeating the Florida Atlantic Owls. Bryan Cupito passed 10 for 17 and 230 yards, with 2 touchdowns. Laurence Maroney and Gary Russell each scored two touchdowns on the day. The Minnesota rushing attack accumulated 349 yards on the ground. The Gophers once again had better field position than their opponents, as the Gophers were 16 yards better than the Owls, starting at the 37\\-yard line.",
"### Purdue",
"{{Linescore Amfootball\\|\n\\|Road\\=No. 11 Boilermakers\n\\|R1\\=0\n\\|R2\\=7\n\\|R3\\=7\n\\|R4\\=14\n\\|R5\\=7\n\\|R6\\=0\n\\|RT\\=35\n\\|Home\\='''Golden Gophers'''\n\\|H1\\=3\n\\|H2\\=7\n\\|H3\\=10\n\\|H4\\=8\n\\|H5\\=7\n\\|H6\\=7\n\\|HT\\=42\n}}\n*All\\-time record against [Purdue](/wiki/Purdue_University \"Purdue University\"): 31–28–3 (as of 2005\\)*",
"The Golden Gophers won their fourth game of the season, winning in double overtime of Purdue. Laurence Maroney had another big day for the Golden Gophers, rushing for 217 yards. Bryan Cupito passed for 271 yards and three touchdowns. He also rushed for a two\\-point conversion in the waning time of the fourth quarter, giving a tying score that would eventually force overtime. [Logan Payne](/wiki/Logan_Payne \"Logan Payne\") caught a touchdown in the first overtime, and Gary Russell scored the go\\-ahead touchdown in the second overtime, giving Minnesota the victory.",
"### Penn State",
"{{Linescore Amfootball\\|\n\\|Road\\=No. 18 Golden Gophers\n\\|R1\\=0\n\\|R2\\=7\n\\|R3\\=0\n\\|R4\\=7\n\\|RT\\=14\n\\|Home\\='''Nittany Lions'''\n\\|H1\\=10\n\\|H2\\=10\n\\|H3\\=17\n\\|H4\\=7\n\\|HT\\=44\n}}\n*All\\-time record against [Penn State](/wiki/Pennsylvania_State_University \"Pennsylvania State University\"): 4–5–0 (as of 2005\\)*",
"Penn State raced out to a 20\\-point lead on the way to a 30\\-point victory over the Golden Gophers. Minnesota's normally potent ground game was held to 113 yards. Bryan Cupito passed for 174 yards on the day. The Golden Gophers turned the ball over twice, compared to no turnovers for the Nittany Lions. The Nittany Lions regained the Governor's Victory Bell for the first time since 1998\\.",
"### Michigan",
"{{AFB game box start\n\\|Title\\=Minnesota at \\#21 Michigan\n\\|Visitor\\='''Minnesota'''\n\\|V1\\=0 \\|V2\\=10 \\|V3\\=10 \\|V4\\=3\n\\|Host\\=No. 21 Michigan\n\\|H1\\=3 \\|H2\\=10 \\|H3\\=7 \\|H4\\=0\n\\|Date\\=Saturday, October 8\n\\|Location\\=\\[\\[Michigan Stadium]], \\[\\[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]\n\\|StartTime\\=1:00 P.M.\n\\|TimeZone\\=EST\n\\|ElapsedTime\\=\n\\|Attendance\\=\n\\|Weather\\=\n\\|Referee\\=\n\\|TVAnnouncers\\=\\[\\[Brad Nessler]] (play by play), \\[\\[Bob Griese]] (analyst), \\[\\[Lynn Swann]] (sideline)\n\\|TVStation\\=\\[\\[American Broadcasting Company\\|ABC]]\n}}\n* **Source:** [ESPN](https://web.archive.org/web/20160304105214/http://espn.go.com/ncf/recap?gameId=252810130)\n {{AFB Game Box Scoring Entry \\|FirstEntry\\=yes \\|Quarter\\=1 \\|Time\\=10:26\\|Team\\=Michigan \\|Event\\=\\[\\[Garrett Rivas]] 23\\-yard field goal \\|Score\\= Michigan 3–0}}\n {{AFB Game Box Scoring Entry \\|Quarter\\=2 \\|Time\\=12:40 \\|Team\\=Minnesota \\|Event\\=Jason Giannini 29\\-yard field goal \\|Score\\= Tie 3–3}}\n {{AFB Game Box Scoring Entry \\|Quarter\\=2 \\|Time\\=5:50 \\|Team\\=Michigan \\|Event\\=Garrett Rivas 47\\-yard field goal \\|Score\\= MICH 6–3}}\n {{AFB Game Box Scoring Entry \\|Quarter\\=2 \\|Time\\=3:10 \\|Team\\=Michigan \\|Event\\=\\[\\[Mike Hart (American football)\\|Mike Hart]] 1\\-yard run (Garrett Rivas kick) \\|Score\\= Michigan 13–3}}\n {{AFB Game Box Scoring Entry \\|Quarter\\=2 \\|Time\\=0:58 \\|Team\\=Minnesota \\|Event\\=\\[\\[Ernie Wheelwright]] 20\\-yard pass from \\[\\[Bryan Cupito]] (Jason Giannini kick) \\|Score\\= Michigan 13–10}}\n {{AFB Game Box Scoring Entry \\|Quarter\\=3 \\|Time\\=12:40 \\|Team\\=Minnesota \\|Event\\=Jason Giannini 26\\-yard field goal \\|Score\\= Tie 13–13}}\n {{AFB Game Box Scoring Entry \\|Quarter\\=3 \\|Time\\=12:25 \\|Team\\=Michigan \\|Event\\=\\[\\[Steve Breaston]] 95\\-yard kickoff return (Garrett Rivas kick) \\|Score\\= Michigan 20–13}}\n {{AFB Game Box Scoring Entry \\|Quarter\\=3 \\|Time\\= 6:12\\|Team\\=Minnesota \\|Event\\=\\[\\[Laurence Maroney]] 1\\-yard run (Jason Giannini kick) \\|Score\\= Tie 20–20}}\n {{AFB Game Box Scoring Entry \\|Quarter\\=4 \\|Time\\=0:01 \\|Team\\=Minnesota \\|Event\\=Jason Giannini 30\\-yard field goal \\|Score\\=Minnesota 23–20 \\|LastEntry\\=yes}}\n{{AFB game box end}}",
"*All\\-time record against [Michigan](/wiki/University_of_Michigan \"University of Michigan\"): 24–67–3 (as of 2005\\)*",
"The Minnesota Golden Gophers won the [Little Brown Jug](/wiki/Little_Brown_Jug_%28college_football_trophy%29 \"Little Brown Jug (college football trophy)\") for the first time since 1986\\. Laurence Maroney rushed for 129 yards on the day. Gary Russell ran for 128 yards on the day, nearly half the yards coming from one rush with under two minutes left in the game. That rush set up a final field goal by Jason Giannini. It was the first win for the Golden Gophers under Glen Mason. It was Michigan's was third loss on the season.",
"{{Clear}}",
"### Wisconsin",
"{{Linescore Amfootball\\|\n\\|Road\\='''No. 23 Badgers'''\n\\|R1\\=7\n\\|R2\\=3\n\\|R3\\=7\n\\|R4\\=21\n\\|RT\\=38\n\\|Home\\=No. 22 Golden Gophers\n\\|H1\\=0\n\\|H2\\=10\n\\|H3\\=17\n\\|H4\\=7\n\\|HT\\=34\n}}\n*All\\-time record against [Wisconsin](/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison \"University of Wisconsin–Madison\"): 59–48–8 (as of 2005\\)*",
"Coming off one of the biggest wins in recent memory, the Golden Gophers faced off against border rival, Wisconsin. The two teams traded the lead through the first half. With 3:27 left in the game, the Golden Gophers stretched the lead to 34–24\\. The Badgers then scored a touchdown, bringing the lead back down to a three\\-point gap. With 30 seconds left, the Badgers blocked a punt and recovered it for a touchdown. The Badgers kept [Paul Bunyan's Axe](/wiki/Paul_Bunyan%27s_Axe \"Paul Bunyan's Axe\") for the second straight year.",
"### Ohio State",
"{{Linescore Amfootball\\|\n\\|Road\\='''No. 12 Buckeyes'''\n\\|R1\\=17\n\\|R2\\=0\n\\|R3\\=14\n\\|R4\\=14\n\\|RT\\=45\n\\|Home\\=Golden Gophers\n\\|H1\\=10\n\\|H2\\=7\n\\|H3\\=7\n\\|H4\\=7\n\\|HT\\=31\n}}\n*All\\-time record against [Ohio State](/wiki/Ohio_State_University \"Ohio State University\"): 7–38–0 (as of 2005\\)*",
"Minnesota dropped the game to Ohio State, despite a solid performance from the Golden Gophers offense. Bryan Cupito had 26 completions on 35 attempts, and had 395 yards passing. Laurence Maroney rushed for 125 yards. The Golden Gophers out gained the Buckeyes by 130 yards on offense, but had several drives stall. Twice the ball was turned over on downs, once on a missed field goal, and the Gophers had one fumble.",
"### Indiana",
"{{Linescore Amfootball\\|\n\\|Road\\='''Golden Gophers'''\n\\|R1\\=7\n\\|R2\\=0\n\\|R3\\=27\n\\|R4\\=8\n\\|RT\\=42\n\\|Home\\=Hoosiers\n\\|H1\\=0\n\\|H2\\=14\n\\|H3\\=0\n\\|H4\\=7\n\\|HT\\=21\n}}\n*All\\-time record against [Indiana](/wiki/Indiana_University_Bloomington \"Indiana University Bloomington\"): 35–25–3 (as of 2005\\)*",
"Minnesota's Gary Russell rushed for 188 yards and three touchdowns on the way to the first Gopher victory in Indiana since 1985\\. The Golden Gophers had 200 more yards of offensive production on the day. The Golden Gophers broke the game open, scoring four touchdowns. Gary Russell had three touchdowns on the day. Minnesota had no turnovers on the day. The Gophers were successful on seven of the twelve third\\-down attempts. The win made the Golden Gophers bowl eligible.",
"### Michigan State",
"{{Linescore Amfootball\\|\n\\|Road\\=Spartans\n\\|R1\\=0\n\\|R2\\=3\n\\|R3\\=0\n\\|R4\\=15\n\\|RT\\=18\n\\|Home\\='''Golden Gophers'''\n\\|H1\\=7\n\\|H2\\=14\n\\|H3\\=7\n\\|H4\\=13\n\\|HT\\=41\n}}\n*All\\-time record against [Michigan State](/wiki/Michigan_State_University \"Michigan State University\"): 15–25–0 (as of 2005\\)*",
"[Amir Pinnix](/wiki/Amir_Pinnix \"Amir Pinnix\") rushed for 206 yards as the Golden Gophers won, 41–18\\. Bryan Cupito only passed 13 times, but connected on eight of those passes, and two touchdowns. The Golden Gophers had only two drives on the game that didn't result in a score. In addition, the Gophers dominated the time of possession, having offensive control for 36 minutes in the game. The Spartans missed two field goal attempts on the game.",
"### Iowa",
"{{Linescore Amfootball\\|\n\\|Road\\=Golden Gophers\n\\|R1\\=0\n\\|R2\\=7\n\\|R3\\=0\n\\|R4\\=21\n\\|RT\\=28\n\\|Home\\='''Hawkeyes'''\n\\|H1\\=14\n\\|H2\\=24\n\\|H3\\=7\n\\|H4\\=7\n\\|HT\\=52\n}}\n*All\\-time record against [Iowa](/wiki/University_of_Iowa \"University of Iowa\"): 58–39–2 (as of 2005\\)*",
"In the 99th addition of the Minnesota\\-Iowa rivalry, the Golden Gophers dropped their fifth straight game to the Hawkeyes. Bryan Cupito passed for 315 yards, but had two interceptions and barely more than a 50 percent passing completion. Defensively, the Golden Gophers gave up 615 yards of offense. Two different Hawkeye running backs eclipsed 100 yards rushing, and Iowa's Drew Tate threw for 351 yards passing and four touchdowns. Iowa continued to retain the [Floyd of Rosedale](/wiki/Floyd_of_Rosedale \"Floyd of Rosedale\") trophy.",
"### Virginia",
"{{Linescore Amfootball\\|\n\\|Road\\='''Cavaliers'''\n\\|R1\\=7\n\\|R2\\=3\n\\|R3\\=14\n\\|R4\\=10\n\\|RT\\=34\n\\|Home\\=Golden Gophers\n\\|H1\\=14\n\\|H2\\=7\n\\|H3\\=3\n\\|H4\\=7\n\\|HT\\=31\n}}\n*All\\-time record against [Virginia](/wiki/University_of_Virginia \"University of Virginia\"): 0–1–0*",
"In the Golden Gophers' third appearance in the [Music City Bowl](/wiki/Music_City_Bowl \"Music City Bowl\"), the Gophers dropped a close game against Virginia. Bryan Cupito passed for 263 yards and 4 touchdowns on the day. Running back Laurence Maroney rushed for 109 yards. The Gophers lost the lead for the first time with 1:08 remaining as they gave up a 39\\-yard field goal try. The loss was the Gophers' first loss in a bowl game since 2000\\.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
Joseph Thomas Taylor was born on February 11, 1913, in [Rolling Fork, Mississippi](/wiki/Rolling_Fork%2C_Mississippi "Rolling Fork, Mississippi"), to Joseph and Willie Ann Taylor. He spent his youth in [Memphis, Tennessee](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Tennessee "Memphis, Tennessee") and [East St. Louis, Illinois](/wiki/East_St._Louis%2C_Illinois "East St. Louis, Illinois"). [Segregation](/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States "Racial segregation in the United States") was in effect in that region and he went to an all\-black school until he attended college at [Wiley College](/wiki/Wiley_College "Wiley College") in [Marshall, Texas](/wiki/Marshall%2C_Texas "Marshall, Texas"), where he excelled as a member of the Wiley National Championship Football Team and as a pitcher on the baseball team.
After transferring to the [University of Illinois at Urbana\-Champaign](/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana-Champaign "University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign"), Taylor graduated with his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1936 and a Master of Arts degree in 1937\. Between the years of 1939 and 1941, he was an instructor at [Florida A\&M University](/wiki/Florida_A%26M_University "Florida A&M University") in [Tallahassee](/wiki/Tallahassee "Tallahassee"). His career continued with his appointment as Area Director for the National Youth Administration from 1941 to 1942\.Moore, W. ({{\#dateformat:2008 May 21}}). Joseph T. Taylor Essay (World Methodist Conference), 1986\.
Taylor was not only a scholar, but also a soldier who fought for his country in [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"). His battalion was committed to combat in the [European Theatre of Operations](/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II "European theatre of World War II") and he fought at the [Battle of the Bulge](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge "Battle of the Bulge"). During his deployment, he documented many of his observations about the horrors of war and detailed his experiences with institutionalized bigotry, [racism](/wiki/Racism "Racism"), and segregation. Soon after he was discharged from the military he married Hertha Mae Ward on February 16, 1944\. Their union produced three children: Judith, Hussain, and actor [Meshach Taylor](/wiki/Meshach_Taylor "Meshach Taylor") (born 1947 – died 2014\).
From 1946 to 1950, Taylor worked as assistant to the president at [Florida A\&M College](/wiki/Florida_A%26M_College "Florida A&M College"), a teacher, and an administrator. He received a professorship of Sociology and becoming the Director of the Arts and Sciences at [Albany State University](/wiki/Albany_State_University "Albany State University") in [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 "Georgia (U.S. state)") from 1950 to 1951\. After leaving this position, he became the chairman for the division of the Social Sciences Department as a professor of sociology at [Dillard University](/wiki/Dillard_University "Dillard University") until 1957\. Throughout his career and appointments to various committees, Taylor was studying to receive his PhD from Indiana University and did so in 1952\. After earning his PhD, he became the acting dean and professor of sociology at Dillard.
On {{\#dateformat:September 23, 2000}}, Dr. Taylor died. When asked how he managed to serve so many groups in Indianapolis, Taylor replied "I don't know how I manage all that, but I know that if the freedom to assemble is ever taken away, I won't know what to do with myself."({{\#dateformat:May 2, 1983}}). Re: Joseph Taylor. News Bureau Indiana University\-Purdue University at Indianapolis. Joseph T. Taylor Clippings File. Ruth Lilly Special Collections and Archives, University Library, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI).
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"Joseph Thomas Taylor was born on February 11, 1913, in [Rolling Fork, Mississippi](/wiki/Rolling_Fork%2C_Mississippi \"Rolling Fork, Mississippi\"), to Joseph and Willie Ann Taylor. He spent his youth in [Memphis, Tennessee](/wiki/Memphis%2C_Tennessee \"Memphis, Tennessee\") and [East St. Louis, Illinois](/wiki/East_St._Louis%2C_Illinois \"East St. Louis, Illinois\"). [Segregation](/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States \"Racial segregation in the United States\") was in effect in that region and he went to an all\\-black school until he attended college at [Wiley College](/wiki/Wiley_College \"Wiley College\") in [Marshall, Texas](/wiki/Marshall%2C_Texas \"Marshall, Texas\"), where he excelled as a member of the Wiley National Championship Football Team and as a pitcher on the baseball team.",
"After transferring to the [University of Illinois at Urbana\\-Champaign](/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana-Champaign \"University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign\"), Taylor graduated with his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1936 and a Master of Arts degree in 1937\\. Between the years of 1939 and 1941, he was an instructor at [Florida A\\&M University](/wiki/Florida_A%26M_University \"Florida A&M University\") in [Tallahassee](/wiki/Tallahassee \"Tallahassee\"). His career continued with his appointment as Area Director for the National Youth Administration from 1941 to 1942\\.Moore, W. ({{\\#dateformat:2008 May 21}}). Joseph T. Taylor Essay (World Methodist Conference), 1986\\.",
"Taylor was not only a scholar, but also a soldier who fought for his country in [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"). His battalion was committed to combat in the [European Theatre of Operations](/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II \"European theatre of World War II\") and he fought at the [Battle of the Bulge](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge \"Battle of the Bulge\"). During his deployment, he documented many of his observations about the horrors of war and detailed his experiences with institutionalized bigotry, [racism](/wiki/Racism \"Racism\"), and segregation. Soon after he was discharged from the military he married Hertha Mae Ward on February 16, 1944\\. Their union produced three children: Judith, Hussain, and actor [Meshach Taylor](/wiki/Meshach_Taylor \"Meshach Taylor\") (born 1947 – died 2014\\).",
"From 1946 to 1950, Taylor worked as assistant to the president at [Florida A\\&M College](/wiki/Florida_A%26M_College \"Florida A&M College\"), a teacher, and an administrator. He received a professorship of Sociology and becoming the Director of the Arts and Sciences at [Albany State University](/wiki/Albany_State_University \"Albany State University\") in [Georgia](/wiki/Georgia_%28U.S._state%29 \"Georgia (U.S. state)\") from 1950 to 1951\\. After leaving this position, he became the chairman for the division of the Social Sciences Department as a professor of sociology at [Dillard University](/wiki/Dillard_University \"Dillard University\") until 1957\\. Throughout his career and appointments to various committees, Taylor was studying to receive his PhD from Indiana University and did so in 1952\\. After earning his PhD, he became the acting dean and professor of sociology at Dillard.",
"On {{\\#dateformat:September 23, 2000}}, Dr. Taylor died. When asked how he managed to serve so many groups in Indianapolis, Taylor replied \"I don't know how I manage all that, but I know that if the freedom to assemble is ever taken away, I won't know what to do with myself.\"({{\\#dateformat:May 2, 1983}}). Re: Joseph Taylor. News Bureau Indiana University\\-Purdue University at Indianapolis. Joseph T. Taylor Clippings File. Ruth Lilly Special Collections and Archives, University Library, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI).",
""
] |
Tournament format
-----------------
Each year, the EHF publishes a ranking list of its member federations. The first nine nations are allowed to participate in the tournament with their national champion. In addition, the tenth spot is reserved for the best ranked national federation of the EHF European League Men. The national federations are allowed to request upgrades for their teams eligible to play in the EHF European League and based on the criteria list the EHF Executive Committee approves six upgrades.
The EHF Champions League is divided into four stages. All participating teams enter the competition in the group phase.
The current playing system has been introduced before the 2020/21 season.
### Group phase
Since the 2020/21 season, the format sees two groups formed, with eight teams each in Group A and B. All the teams in each group play each other twice, in home and away matches (14 rounds in total). The first two teams in Groups A and B advance directly to the quarter\-finals, while teams from positions three to six in each of these groups proceed to the playoff. The season is over for the last two teams in each group after the completion of the group phase.
### Play off
The pairings for the playoff are decided by the placement of the teams at the end of the group phase (A6 vs B3, B6 vs A3, A5 vs B4 and B5 vs A4\). Each pairing is decided via a home and away format, with the aggregate winners over the two legs advancing to the quarter\-finals. The higher ranked teams in the group phase have the home right advantage in the second leg.
### Quarter\-finals
The pairings for the quarter\-finals are also decided by the placement in the group phase (Winner of A5/B4 vs A1, Winner B5/A4 vs B1, Winner A6/B3 vs A2, Winner B6/A3 vs B2\). The ties are decided through a home and away format, with the four winners over the two legs played in each pairing advancing to the EHF FINAL4\. The higher ranked teams in the group phase have the home right advantage in the second leg.
### EHF FINAL4
The official name for the men's EHF FINAL4 is the EHF FINAL4 Men. The participating EHF FINAL4 teams are paired for the semifinals through a draw and play the last two matches of the season over a single weekend at one venue. The two semi\-finals are played on a Saturday, with the third\-place game and final on a Sunday.
|
[
"Tournament format\n-----------------",
"Each year, the EHF publishes a ranking list of its member federations. The first nine nations are allowed to participate in the tournament with their national champion. In addition, the tenth spot is reserved for the best ranked national federation of the EHF European League Men. The national federations are allowed to request upgrades for their teams eligible to play in the EHF European League and based on the criteria list the EHF Executive Committee approves six upgrades.",
"The EHF Champions League is divided into four stages. All participating teams enter the competition in the group phase.",
"The current playing system has been introduced before the 2020/21 season.",
"### Group phase",
"Since the 2020/21 season, the format sees two groups formed, with eight teams each in Group A and B. All the teams in each group play each other twice, in home and away matches (14 rounds in total). The first two teams in Groups A and B advance directly to the quarter\\-finals, while teams from positions three to six in each of these groups proceed to the playoff. The season is over for the last two teams in each group after the completion of the group phase.",
"### Play off",
"The pairings for the playoff are decided by the placement of the teams at the end of the group phase (A6 vs B3, B6 vs A3, A5 vs B4 and B5 vs A4\\). Each pairing is decided via a home and away format, with the aggregate winners over the two legs advancing to the quarter\\-finals. The higher ranked teams in the group phase have the home right advantage in the second leg.",
"### Quarter\\-finals",
"The pairings for the quarter\\-finals are also decided by the placement in the group phase (Winner of A5/B4 vs A1, Winner B5/A4 vs B1, Winner A6/B3 vs A2, Winner B6/A3 vs B2\\). The ties are decided through a home and away format, with the four winners over the two legs played in each pairing advancing to the EHF FINAL4\\. The higher ranked teams in the group phase have the home right advantage in the second leg.",
"### EHF FINAL4",
"The official name for the men's EHF FINAL4 is the EHF FINAL4 Men. The participating EHF FINAL4 teams are paired for the semifinals through a draw and play the last two matches of the season over a single weekend at one venue. The two semi\\-finals are played on a Saturday, with the third\\-place game and final on a Sunday.",
""
] |
History
-------
In early [Han dynasty](/wiki/Han_dynasty "Han dynasty"), Hejian was part of the [Zhao Kingdom](/wiki/Zhao_Kingdom_%28Han_dynasty%29 "Zhao Kingdom (Han dynasty)"). The kingdom was created in 178 BC when it was granted to Liu Piqiang (劉辟彊), son of [Liu You](/wiki/Liu_You "Liu You"), King You of Zhao (趙幽王) and brother of [Liu Sui](/wiki/Liu_Sui "Liu Sui"), King of Zhao. After Piqiang's death, the territory passed to his son Liu Fu (劉福). Fu died without an heir and the kingdom was dissolved.
In 155 BC, [Emperor Jing](/wiki/Emperor_Jing_of_Han "Emperor Jing of Han") granted the title King of Hejian to Liu De (劉德), his third son. De's descendants held the title to the end of [Western Han dynasty](/wiki/Han_dynasty "Han dynasty").*[Book of Han](/wiki/Book_of_Han "Book of Han")*, Chapter 14\. The kingdom was briefly restored under [Emperor Guangwu](/wiki/Emperor_Guangwu_of_Han "Emperor Guangwu of Han")'s reign.*[Book of Later Han](/wiki/Book_of_Later_Han "Book of Later Han")*, Chapter 2\.
In 90 AD, [Emperor Zhang](/wiki/Emperor_Zhang_of_Han "Emperor Zhang of Han") reestablished Hejian on the territories of [Lecheng](/wiki/Lecheng_Commandery "Lecheng Commandery"), [Bohai](/wiki/Bohai_Commandery "Bohai Commandery") and [Zhuo](/wiki/Zhuo_Commandery "Zhuo Commandery") [commanderies](/wiki/Commandery_%28China%29 "Commandery (China)"). Liu Kai (劉開), the sixth son of the emperor, became the King of Hejian. Kai's lineage held Hejian until the foundation of [Cao Wei dynasty](/wiki/Cao_Wei "Cao Wei"). [Emperor Huan](/wiki/Emperor_Huan_of_Han "Emperor Huan of Han") and his successors all came from this branch of the imperial family.*[Book of Later Han](/wiki/Book_of_Later_Han "Book of Later Han")*, Chapter 55\.
Hejian became a commandery under Cao Wei. In early [Western Jin dynasty](/wiki/Western_Jin_dynasty "Western Jin dynasty"), Hejian became the fief of [Sima Yong](/wiki/Sima_Yong "Sima Yong"), brother of [Sima Yi](/wiki/Sima_Yi "Sima Yi").
In 140 AD, the kingdom administered 11 counties, namely Lecheng (樂成), Gonggao (弓高), Yi (易), Wuyuan (武垣), Zhongshui (中水), Mao (鄚), Gaoyang (高陽), Wen'an (文安), Shuzhou (束州), Chengping (成平) and Dongpingshu (東平舒). The total population was 634,421, or 93,754 households.*[Book of Later Han](/wiki/Book_of_Later_Han "Book of Later Han")*, Chapter 111\.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"In early [Han dynasty](/wiki/Han_dynasty \"Han dynasty\"), Hejian was part of the [Zhao Kingdom](/wiki/Zhao_Kingdom_%28Han_dynasty%29 \"Zhao Kingdom (Han dynasty)\"). The kingdom was created in 178 BC when it was granted to Liu Piqiang (劉辟彊), son of [Liu You](/wiki/Liu_You \"Liu You\"), King You of Zhao (趙幽王) and brother of [Liu Sui](/wiki/Liu_Sui \"Liu Sui\"), King of Zhao. After Piqiang's death, the territory passed to his son Liu Fu (劉福). Fu died without an heir and the kingdom was dissolved.",
"In 155 BC, [Emperor Jing](/wiki/Emperor_Jing_of_Han \"Emperor Jing of Han\") granted the title King of Hejian to Liu De (劉德), his third son. De's descendants held the title to the end of [Western Han dynasty](/wiki/Han_dynasty \"Han dynasty\").*[Book of Han](/wiki/Book_of_Han \"Book of Han\")*, Chapter 14\\. The kingdom was briefly restored under [Emperor Guangwu](/wiki/Emperor_Guangwu_of_Han \"Emperor Guangwu of Han\")'s reign.*[Book of Later Han](/wiki/Book_of_Later_Han \"Book of Later Han\")*, Chapter 2\\.",
"In 90 AD, [Emperor Zhang](/wiki/Emperor_Zhang_of_Han \"Emperor Zhang of Han\") reestablished Hejian on the territories of [Lecheng](/wiki/Lecheng_Commandery \"Lecheng Commandery\"), [Bohai](/wiki/Bohai_Commandery \"Bohai Commandery\") and [Zhuo](/wiki/Zhuo_Commandery \"Zhuo Commandery\") [commanderies](/wiki/Commandery_%28China%29 \"Commandery (China)\"). Liu Kai (劉開), the sixth son of the emperor, became the King of Hejian. Kai's lineage held Hejian until the foundation of [Cao Wei dynasty](/wiki/Cao_Wei \"Cao Wei\"). [Emperor Huan](/wiki/Emperor_Huan_of_Han \"Emperor Huan of Han\") and his successors all came from this branch of the imperial family.*[Book of Later Han](/wiki/Book_of_Later_Han \"Book of Later Han\")*, Chapter 55\\.",
"Hejian became a commandery under Cao Wei. In early [Western Jin dynasty](/wiki/Western_Jin_dynasty \"Western Jin dynasty\"), Hejian became the fief of [Sima Yong](/wiki/Sima_Yong \"Sima Yong\"), brother of [Sima Yi](/wiki/Sima_Yi \"Sima Yi\").",
"In 140 AD, the kingdom administered 11 counties, namely Lecheng (樂成), Gonggao (弓高), Yi (易), Wuyuan (武垣), Zhongshui (中水), Mao (鄚), Gaoyang (高陽), Wen'an (文安), Shuzhou (束州), Chengping (成平) and Dongpingshu (東平舒). The total population was 634,421, or 93,754 households.*[Book of Later Han](/wiki/Book_of_Later_Han \"Book of Later Han\")*, Chapter 111\\.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
[thumb\|left\|Anna Johnson Dupree in 1913\.](/wiki/File:Annajohnsondupree.png "Annajohnsondupree.png")
[thumb\|Anna and Clarence Dupree in 1949](/wiki/File:Anna_and_Clarence_Dupree_in_1949.jpg "Anna and Clarence Dupree in 1949.jpg")
Dupree was born in [Carthage](/wiki/Carthage%2C_Texas "Carthage, Texas") and grew up in a family where they picked [cotton](/wiki/Cotton "Cotton") to make a living.{{Cite book\|title \= Houston Bound: Culture and Color in a Jim Crow City\|last \= Steptoe\|first \= Tyina\|publisher \= University of California Press\|year \= 2015\|isbn \= 9780520958531\|pages \= 170\|url \= https://books.google.com/books?id\=30\-bCgAAQBAJ\&dq\=anna\+johnson\+dupree\&pg\=PA170}} She was the "great\-grandchild of a [slaveholder](/wiki/Slavery "Slavery") and the grandchild of former slaves," and stories she heard about life in [slavery](/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States "Slavery in the United States") had a deep effect on her.{{Cite web\|url \= https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fdu39\|title \= Dupree, Anna Johnson\|date \= 12 June 2010\|access\-date \= 13 February 2016\|website \= Handbook of Texas Online\|publisher \= Texas State Historical Association\|last \= Jones\|first \= Nancy Baker}} Dupree grew up poor, living in a two\-room house with her five siblings, her parents, and her grandmother.{{Cite journal\|url \= http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth391307/\|title \= Seeds of Compassion\|last \= Jones\|first \= Yvette\|date \= November 1976\|journal \= The Texas Historian\|access\-date \= 13 February 2016\|volume \= 37\|pages \= 16–21}} Dupree's mother "never permitted her to complain" of their poverty and "reminded her there were other children 'worse off' than she."
As a young woman in 1904, she moved to [Galveston](/wiki/Galveston%2C_Texas "Galveston, Texas") where she earned a living as a [domestic worker](/wiki/Domestic_worker "Domestic worker").{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/houpub/00141/hpub\-00141\.html\|title \= Anna Dupree Collection MSS.0110\|access\-date \= 13 February 2016\|website \= Texas Archival Resources Online}} She was noticed for her sewing skills by a Mrs. Zula Kyle, who hired Dupree to work for her in Houston in 1911\. Dupree would return home to Galveston often to visit her family.
She met her husband, Clarence Dupree, who was from [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana "Louisiana"), in Galveston. Anna Dupree would call Clarence a "very unusual person." They were married in 1914, and moved to Houston in 1916\. The Duprees saved money by "living simply" and they began to invest what they could into [real estate](/wiki/Real_estate "Real estate"). During [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), Clarence was sent overseas to fight and during the conflict, he saved his money, returning to the [United States](/wiki/United_States "United States") with $1,000\.
During World War I, Anna Dupree continued to work and save money. She worked as a beautician and manicurist, and later, worked on her own, making beauty "house calls" which were so successful, white beauticians in Houston banded together to stop her. Dupree was stopped from making house calls, but she vowed to create her own shop. Dupree built her own [beauty salon](/wiki/Beauty_salon "Beauty salon") which also had a [Turkish bath](/wiki/Turkish_bath "Turkish bath"), a sweatbox and [massage parlor](/wiki/Massage_parlor "Massage parlor") in 1936\.
Together, the couple invested in other businesses and opened the Eldorado Ballroom in the [Third Ward](/wiki/Third_Ward%2C_Houston "Third Ward, Houston"). The Eldorado was built in 1939 and was one of the first black clubs and entertainment venues in Houston. Previously, they had also opened the Pastime Theater in 1929\. Other businesses that they opened included a [pharmacy](/wiki/Pharmacy "Pharmacy"), men's apparel store, paint store and a [nightclub](/wiki/Nightclub "Nightclub").{{Cite book\|title \= The Other Great Migration: The Movement of Rural African Americans to Houston, 1900\-1941\|last \= Pruitt\|first \= Bernadette\|publisher \= Texas A\&M University Press\|year \= 2013\|isbn \= 9781603449489\|pages \= 277\|url \= https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-YSzAQAAQBAJ\&dq\=anna\+johnson\+dupree\&pg\=PA277}}
Dupree "startled not only the community, but the whole United States with a gift of $20,000 (equivalent to $283,000 in 2018\) for the construction of a building for underprivileged Negro children" in March 1944\.{{Cite book\|title \= Black Texas Women: A Sourcebook\|last1 \= Winegarten\|first1 \= Ruthe\|publisher \= University of Texas Press\|year \= 1996\|isbn \= 9780292791008\|pages \= 173–174\|url \= https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-tSBBAAAQBAJ\&dq\=anna\+johnson\+dupree\&pg\=PA173\|last2 \= Humphrey\|first2 \= Janet G.\|last3 \= Werden\|first3 \= Frieda}} This was considered one of the largest gifts ever given by a Southern black person at the time. The place was named the Anna Dupree Cottage of the Negro Child Center and was located in the [Fifth Ward](/wiki/Fifth_Ward%2C_Houston "Fifth Ward, Houston").
In 1952, the Duprees opened the Eliza Johnson Home for Aged Negros. The home was named in memory of Dupree's mother. Anna Dupree donated property in Highland Heights for the Eliza Johnson Home. Dupree would make [fruit cobblers](/wiki/Cobbler_%28food%29 "Cobbler (food)") and fruit and boiled [dumplings](/wiki/Dumpling "Dumpling") for the "old timers."
Dupree and her husband gave money to the Houston College of Negroes (Now [Texas Southern University](/wiki/Texas_Southern_University "Texas Southern University")) and the [United Negro College Fund](/wiki/United_Negro_College_Fund "United Negro College Fund"). The couple gave $11,000 in 1946 to the Houston College of Negroes so that the college could construct its first permanent building. They also raised money for Camp Robinhood, the first black [Girl Scout](/wiki/Girl_Scouts_of_the_USA "Girl Scouts of the USA") camp, and sponsored the first [Little League baseball](/wiki/Little_League_Baseball "Little League Baseball") team for blacks in Houston.
When her husband died in 1959, Dupree's health declined and eventually she moved into the Eliza Johnson Home. She died there on February 19, 1977, and her body was donated to medical research.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Anna Johnson Dupree in 1913\\.](/wiki/File:Annajohnsondupree.png \"Annajohnsondupree.png\")\n[thumb\\|Anna and Clarence Dupree in 1949](/wiki/File:Anna_and_Clarence_Dupree_in_1949.jpg \"Anna and Clarence Dupree in 1949.jpg\")\nDupree was born in [Carthage](/wiki/Carthage%2C_Texas \"Carthage, Texas\") and grew up in a family where they picked [cotton](/wiki/Cotton \"Cotton\") to make a living.{{Cite book\\|title \\= Houston Bound: Culture and Color in a Jim Crow City\\|last \\= Steptoe\\|first \\= Tyina\\|publisher \\= University of California Press\\|year \\= 2015\\|isbn \\= 9780520958531\\|pages \\= 170\\|url \\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=30\\-bCgAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=anna\\+johnson\\+dupree\\&pg\\=PA170}} She was the \"great\\-grandchild of a [slaveholder](/wiki/Slavery \"Slavery\") and the grandchild of former slaves,\" and stories she heard about life in [slavery](/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States \"Slavery in the United States\") had a deep effect on her.{{Cite web\\|url \\= https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fdu39\\|title \\= Dupree, Anna Johnson\\|date \\= 12 June 2010\\|access\\-date \\= 13 February 2016\\|website \\= Handbook of Texas Online\\|publisher \\= Texas State Historical Association\\|last \\= Jones\\|first \\= Nancy Baker}} Dupree grew up poor, living in a two\\-room house with her five siblings, her parents, and her grandmother.{{Cite journal\\|url \\= http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth391307/\\|title \\= Seeds of Compassion\\|last \\= Jones\\|first \\= Yvette\\|date \\= November 1976\\|journal \\= The Texas Historian\\|access\\-date \\= 13 February 2016\\|volume \\= 37\\|pages \\= 16–21}} Dupree's mother \"never permitted her to complain\" of their poverty and \"reminded her there were other children 'worse off' than she.\"",
"As a young woman in 1904, she moved to [Galveston](/wiki/Galveston%2C_Texas \"Galveston, Texas\") where she earned a living as a [domestic worker](/wiki/Domestic_worker \"Domestic worker\").{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/houpub/00141/hpub\\-00141\\.html\\|title \\= Anna Dupree Collection MSS.0110\\|access\\-date \\= 13 February 2016\\|website \\= Texas Archival Resources Online}} She was noticed for her sewing skills by a Mrs. Zula Kyle, who hired Dupree to work for her in Houston in 1911\\. Dupree would return home to Galveston often to visit her family.",
"She met her husband, Clarence Dupree, who was from [Louisiana](/wiki/Louisiana \"Louisiana\"), in Galveston. Anna Dupree would call Clarence a \"very unusual person.\" They were married in 1914, and moved to Houston in 1916\\. The Duprees saved money by \"living simply\" and they began to invest what they could into [real estate](/wiki/Real_estate \"Real estate\"). During [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), Clarence was sent overseas to fight and during the conflict, he saved his money, returning to the [United States](/wiki/United_States \"United States\") with $1,000\\.",
"During World War I, Anna Dupree continued to work and save money. She worked as a beautician and manicurist, and later, worked on her own, making beauty \"house calls\" which were so successful, white beauticians in Houston banded together to stop her. Dupree was stopped from making house calls, but she vowed to create her own shop. Dupree built her own [beauty salon](/wiki/Beauty_salon \"Beauty salon\") which also had a [Turkish bath](/wiki/Turkish_bath \"Turkish bath\"), a sweatbox and [massage parlor](/wiki/Massage_parlor \"Massage parlor\") in 1936\\.",
"Together, the couple invested in other businesses and opened the Eldorado Ballroom in the [Third Ward](/wiki/Third_Ward%2C_Houston \"Third Ward, Houston\"). The Eldorado was built in 1939 and was one of the first black clubs and entertainment venues in Houston. Previously, they had also opened the Pastime Theater in 1929\\. Other businesses that they opened included a [pharmacy](/wiki/Pharmacy \"Pharmacy\"), men's apparel store, paint store and a [nightclub](/wiki/Nightclub \"Nightclub\").{{Cite book\\|title \\= The Other Great Migration: The Movement of Rural African Americans to Houston, 1900\\-1941\\|last \\= Pruitt\\|first \\= Bernadette\\|publisher \\= Texas A\\&M University Press\\|year \\= 2013\\|isbn \\= 9781603449489\\|pages \\= 277\\|url \\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-YSzAQAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=anna\\+johnson\\+dupree\\&pg\\=PA277}}",
"Dupree \"startled not only the community, but the whole United States with a gift of $20,000 (equivalent to $283,000 in 2018\\) for the construction of a building for underprivileged Negro children\" in March 1944\\.{{Cite book\\|title \\= Black Texas Women: A Sourcebook\\|last1 \\= Winegarten\\|first1 \\= Ruthe\\|publisher \\= University of Texas Press\\|year \\= 1996\\|isbn \\= 9780292791008\\|pages \\= 173–174\\|url \\= https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-tSBBAAAQBAJ\\&dq\\=anna\\+johnson\\+dupree\\&pg\\=PA173\\|last2 \\= Humphrey\\|first2 \\= Janet G.\\|last3 \\= Werden\\|first3 \\= Frieda}} This was considered one of the largest gifts ever given by a Southern black person at the time. The place was named the Anna Dupree Cottage of the Negro Child Center and was located in the [Fifth Ward](/wiki/Fifth_Ward%2C_Houston \"Fifth Ward, Houston\").",
"In 1952, the Duprees opened the Eliza Johnson Home for Aged Negros. The home was named in memory of Dupree's mother. Anna Dupree donated property in Highland Heights for the Eliza Johnson Home. Dupree would make [fruit cobblers](/wiki/Cobbler_%28food%29 \"Cobbler (food)\") and fruit and boiled [dumplings](/wiki/Dumpling \"Dumpling\") for the \"old timers.\"",
"Dupree and her husband gave money to the Houston College of Negroes (Now [Texas Southern University](/wiki/Texas_Southern_University \"Texas Southern University\")) and the [United Negro College Fund](/wiki/United_Negro_College_Fund \"United Negro College Fund\"). The couple gave $11,000 in 1946 to the Houston College of Negroes so that the college could construct its first permanent building. They also raised money for Camp Robinhood, the first black [Girl Scout](/wiki/Girl_Scouts_of_the_USA \"Girl Scouts of the USA\") camp, and sponsored the first [Little League baseball](/wiki/Little_League_Baseball \"Little League Baseball\") team for blacks in Houston.",
"When her husband died in 1959, Dupree's health declined and eventually she moved into the Eliza Johnson Home. She died there on February 19, 1977, and her body was donated to medical research.",
""
] |
*The Eyre Affair*
-----------------
### Victor Analogy
In his seventies, Analogy is the head of the Swindon branch of [SO\-27](/wiki/SpecOps "SpecOps"), the LiteraTecs, and is therefore Thursday's immediate superior.
### Bowden Cable
An operative for [SO\-27](/wiki/SpecOps "SpecOps"), the LiteraTecs, assigned to the Swindon branch, and Thursday's partner after her transfer. In his thirties and with a slightly fussy, nervous edge to him, Bowden is intelligent and, at times, quite sly and cunning. He was responsible for thwarting the plans of Jack Schitt and the Goliath Corporation when he substituted a copy of [Edgar Allan Poe](/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe "Edgar Allan Poe")'s poem "[The Raven](/wiki/The_Raven "The Raven")" in place of the weapons manual that Schitt thought he was accessing. He shares his name with [the braking cable on bicycles](/wiki/Bowden_cable "Bowden cable"). Another character is called **Sturmey Archer**, also a manufacturer of [bicycle gears](/wiki/Sturmey-Archer "Sturmey-Archer").
### Acheron Hades
Hugely intelligent and equally immoral (believes in doing what is morally evil, as opposed to [amorality](/wiki/Amorality "Amorality"), which would mean not believing in a moral good or evil), Acheron Hades started out as a lecturer in English, teaching, among others, Thursday Next, before he turned to a life of crime. Believed by some to be only half\-human, the other half being allegedly demonic or vampiric in nature (he casts no shadow), Acheron possesses a number of mysterious powers (as, indeed, do most of his siblings). He cannot be photographed or recorded in any way, and has shown the ability to know when his name is uttered within a considerable distance (a radius of 1000 yards, and possible further), hence his name is not often spoken aloud (compare [Lord Voldemort](/wiki/Lord_Voldemort "Lord Voldemort"), or [The Chandrian](/wiki/The_Kingkiller_Chronicle%23The_Chandrian "The Kingkiller Chronicle#The Chandrian")). He has shown an immunity to the effects of most weapons, his only confirmed vulnerability being to silver. Said to have the ability to "lie in thought, word, action and appearance" he also possesses formidable powers of deception, including the ability to assume the shape of others and hypnotic persuasive abilities on the "weaker minded" (he is unable to hypnotise Thursday). Another ability that possibly follows in this vein is his ability to pass through glass barriers by making the glass soft and pliable through heated touch; after he withdraws his hand the glass reverts to its original state, the only sign of his trespass being the slightly mottled surface of the glass where his hand passed through (shown when Thursday examines the empty Chuzzlewit glass security casing). He appears to possess great strength, at one point easily smashing his way through a wall, although inertia still has an effect on him. Time does not seem to have a proper hold on him either, as when it is stopped around him by Colonel Next, he remains unaffected (this might possibly be why he does not seem to age). He is either very good at guessing or possesses some form of telepathy as he can figure out the personality faults and mental weaknesses of a person within moments.
Hades appears as the principal villain of *The Eyre Affair*. He kidnaps Mycroft Next and steals his Prose Portal, using it to enter stolen original manuscripts of such classic tales as *[Martin Chuzzlewit](/wiki/Martin_Chuzzlewit "Martin Chuzzlewit")* and *[Jane Eyre](/wiki/Jane_Eyre "Jane Eyre")*, with the aim of extracting characters from them and holding them to ransom. When Thursday rescued the extracted Jane Eyre, Hades escaped into the book, pursued by Thursday. Ultimately, they confronted each other in [Thornfield Hall](/wiki/Thornfield_Hall "Thornfield Hall"), where Thursday was finally able to eliminate her opponent once and for all.
Acheron is the eldest child of the Hades Family, which is apparently evil as a whole (only one member is mentioned as not really being evil, Lethe, the apparent "white sheep" of the family; another brother, **Styx Hades**, is shown to be more of a nuisance than really evil, committing pranks and not possessing any actual powers). It is also implied that they have been evil for generations; as Acheron's sister Aornis puts it, "No member of the Hades family has been captured alive for eighty\-eight generations."
Hades has made the occasional appearance in the later books, showing up within Thursday's memories.
Both '[Acheron](/wiki/Acheron "Acheron")' and '[Hades](/wiki/Hades "Hades")' refer to places in the mythical [Greek underworld](/wiki/Greek_underworld "Greek underworld"), as do '[Styx](/wiki/Styx "Styx")' and '[Lethe](/wiki/Lethe "Lethe")'.
### Braxton Hicks
Hicks is in charge of several divisions of [SpecOps](/wiki/SpecOps "SpecOps") in Swindon, including the Literary Detectives to whom Thursday transfers. He is perpetually concerned with the budget and seemingly nothing else. He allows Jack Schitt to have his way at first and seemingly faces up poorly to higher authority, but in *Something Rotten* he invents an elaborate cover story for Thursday after her return. He is often practising his putting in his office and coaxes Thursday to join him for a round of golf; she accepts out of gratitude for his alibi. Hicks has several grown children and by *Something Rotten* is planning to retire shortly. The name is an allusion to [Braxton Hicks contractions](/wiki/Braxton_Hicks_contractions "Braxton Hicks contractions") near the end of pregnancy.
### Mrs. Nakajima
A Japanese literary tourist and member of JurisFiction. In *[Lost in a Good Book](/wiki/Lost_in_a_Good_Book "Lost in a Good Book")*, she gives Thursday the tools to become a JurisFiction agent herself. After her husband retires, the couple moved into [Thornfield Hall](/wiki/Thornfield_Hall "Thornfield Hall") in the novel *[Jane Eyre](/wiki/Jane_Eyre "Jane Eyre")*, where they manage the house, carefully avoiding any appearances in the narrative.
### Anton Next
Brother to Thursday and Joffy Next and best friend of Landen Parke\-Laine. He fought in the [Crimean War](/wiki/Crimean_War "Crimean War") and died there during a disastrous battle which occurred after he accidentally sent his unit off in the wrong direction (this mimics the role of Captain [Louis Nolan](/wiki/Louis_Nolan "Louis Nolan") in the [Charge of the Light Brigade](/wiki/Charge_of_the_Light_Brigade "Charge of the Light Brigade") in 1854; Anton directs the Light Armoured Brigade into the teeth of the Russian artillery). After much agonising over whether to tell the truth, Landen finally gave evidence to the inquest about Anton's error, which drove a wedge between him and Thursday, until the two reconciled during the events of *The Eyre Afair*.
### Colonel Next
Thursday's father and ex\-member of SO\-12, the ChronoGuard. Went rogue, leading the ChronoGuard to delete him from history by interrupting his conception; however, due to his skills at time manipulation, still exists and drops in on his family from time to time to assist or pass on advice. By the events of *Something Rotten*, he has rejoined the ChronoGuard, albeit in a reduced capacity. In the end of *First Among Sequels*, he's reactualised.
### Joffy Next
Brother of Thursday and Anton Next. He is a minister for the Global Standard Deity, which aims to represent all of the others equally and without prejudice, with the laudable aim of attempting to prevent religious conflict. Cheerful, frequently irreverent almost but (usually) not quite to the point of being irritating and laid\-back, he nevertheless has an extremely caring nature and a great deal of wisdom, which serves him well in his chosen vocation. He generally calls Thursday 'Doofus' and used to slap her on the back of the head on a daily basis until she broke his nose to get him to stop, but the two are very close. As of *Lost in a Good Book* he is in a relationship with Miles Hawke, an operative with [SpecOps](/wiki/SpecOps "SpecOps")\-14\.
### Mycroft Next
Thursday's uncle and husband of Polly. Mycroft is an inventor of strange and unusual devices of varying degrees of use. Some have proved to be important plot devices throughout the series, such as his Prose Portal, which allowed real\-world individuals to enter books and the Ovinator, which encourages cooperation. Others, such as his device for erasing memories (which he has no recollection of ever inventing) serve purely as running gags. He has been hunted by the Goliath Corporation, who wished to use his Prose Portal to retrieve fictional weaponry from the Bookworld to sell in the real world. He retired into the Bookworld, living within the [Sherlock Holmes](/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes "Sherlock Holmes") series of books, where he occasionally interfered with the narrative, appearing as Holmes' [brother](/wiki/Mycroft_Holmes "Mycroft Holmes"). By the time of *Something Rotten* he and Polly had returned safely to the real world, having used the memory erasure device to ensure that they were of no use to Goliath.
### Polly Next
A brilliant mathematician, Thursday's aunt, and wife of Mycroft. She generally serves as Mycroft's assistant, as she possesses far more common sense than her husband. She was temporarily held hostage within the [William Wordsworth](/wiki/William_Wordsworth "William Wordsworth") poem *[I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud](/wiki/I_Wandered_Lonely_as_a_Cloud "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud")* by Acheron Hades during the events of *The Eyre Affair*. Enjoys tormenting door\-to\-door salesmen along with Thursday's mother.
### Thursday Next
{{Main\|Thursday Next}}
### Wednesday Next
Mother to Thursday Next and her brothers. She used to work for [SpecOps 3](/wiki/SpecOps "SpecOps") (and claims to still do so on occasion), but has now become something of a homebody, and is generally found there throughout the novels. She loves her husband, despite his eradication, but has occasional suspicions about his fidelity, particularly regarding his dealings with [Lady Emma Hamilton](/wiki/Emma%2C_Lady_Hamilton "Emma, Lady Hamilton"). She herself is not immune to other men, it transpires, as she develops an apparent interest in [Otto Bismarck](/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck "Otto von Bismarck") when he stays with her for a few days. On the other hand, having no official husband, she is believed by most to have conceived three children outside of wedlock, something that affects her social life.
### Landen Parke\-Laine
Thursday's husband, Landen is an award\-winning novelist whose books include *Bad Sofa*, *Memoirs of A Crimean Veteran* and *Once Were Scoundrels*. He served as an officer in the [Crimean War](/wiki/Crimean_War "Crimean War") (still raging in Fforde's alternate 1985\), during which he came into contact with Thursday, with whom he fell in love, and her brother Anton, who became his best friend. During the disastrous battle which became known as the "[Charge of the Light\-Armoured Brigade](/wiki/Charge_of_the_Light_Brigade "Charge of the Light Brigade")", Anton was killed and Landen lost a leg. During the subsequent inquest, Landen, after much agonizing, admitted that Anton had made an error that had led to the destruction of their unit. As a result, Thursday left him and refused to speak to him for ten years. They came back into contact during the events of *The Eyre Affair*, during which Thursday was finally able to forgive Landen and agreed to marry him. Despite his missing leg, he is relied upon in dangerous situations.
During the events of *Lost in a Good Book*, Landen is eradicated from history by a rogue member of the Chronoguard, acting on behalf of the Goliath Corporation, who wish to blackmail Thursday into returning their operative Jack Schitt. He then appears only in Thursday's memories until reactualised during *Something Rotten*.
His name is one of Fforde's trademark puns: in the British edition of the board game [Monopoly](/wiki/Monopoly_%28game%29 "Monopoly (game)"), [Park Lane](/wiki/Park_Lane_%28road%29 "Park Lane (road)") is the second\-to\-last street on the board and consequently one of the most expensive. As additions to this pun, Landen's late father is named **Billden Parke\-Laine** and his mother is named **Houson Parke\-Laine**.
### Pickwick
Thursday's pet [dodo](/wiki/Dodo "Dodo"), brought to life by genetic engineering. Originally she was believed to be male, but revealed to be female during the events of *Lost in a Good Book*, when she lays an egg. This ultimately hatches, producing her son, Alan. The name is a reference to Dickens's *[Pickwick Papers](/wiki/The_Pickwick_Papers "The Pickwick Papers")*.
### Jack Schitt
Head of the Goliath Corporation's internal security service and their Advanced Weapons Division, and thus a man of great power. He showed great interest in Mycroft Next's Prose Portal, hoping to use it to retrieve fictional weaponry, having utterly failed to make the equivalent weapon work in the real world, to the extent that he was willing to work with the criminal Acheron Hades in order to gain access. Once Hades was defeated within *[Jane Eyre](/wiki/Jane_Eyre "Jane Eyre")*, Schitt used the Prose Portal to enter what he thought was the manual for the plasma rifle that he wanted to retrieve, only to discover that Bowden Cable had slipped a copy of "[The Raven](/wiki/The_Raven "The Raven")" by [Edgar Allan Poe](/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe "Edgar Allan Poe") inside the manual's dust cover instead. The Portal closed behind him, trapping him there.
He was ultimately retrieved by Thursday during the events of *Lost in a Good Book*, after Goliath arranged to have her husband Landen eradicated from history by the [Chronoguard](/wiki/SpecOps "SpecOps") in order to blackmail her. She cooperated, only to find herself double\-crossed. Schitt, however, never returned to his original position in the corporation; when next seen, during the events of *Something Rotten*, he has been demoted to a far lesser role within Goliath and makes only a brief appearance.
His name is a pun on '[jack shit](/wiki/wikt:Jack_shit "Jack shit")', meaning 'nothing'.
### Filbert Snood
A member of SpecOps 12, the ChronoGuard, Filbert dated Thursday until he experienced a mishap in the timestream and was too embarrassed to tell her. Thursday runs into him again while both are working for SpecOps 5 in pursuit of Acheron Hades. When introduced to "Snood," Thursday assumes he is his father and doesn't discover his true identity until he is killed by Hades.
### Spike Stoker
Spike works for [SO\-17](/wiki/SpecOps "SpecOps") and is the sole agent for that department assigned to the Reading area. He deals with undead paranormals and the capturing of Supreme Evil Beings, and occasionally enlists Thursday Next to assist with his work in exchange for money. Later in the series, he marries a woman named Cindy, who he believes to be a librarian, but is in fact an assassin. "Stoker" is a reference to [Bram Stoker](/wiki/Bram_Stoker "Bram Stoker"), author of *[Dracula](/wiki/Dracula "Dracula")*; "Spike" may be a reference to the shape of the wooden stakes that he uses in his line of work.
Spike is almost on his own against the forces of darkness, yet is arguably the cheeriest person seen in the books: he is jocular, easy\-going and is rarely serious or distressed in his work. He loses his cool only rarely; and although he once, seemingly in a fit of depression, considered the possibility of self\-sacrifice/[suicide](/wiki/Suicide "Suicide"), admitting that "[battling the undead was never a bowl of cherries](/wiki/Litotes "Litotes")," he was in fact trying to trick both Thursday and a Supreme Evil Being. In *Something Rotten* he offers to take Thursday's place in the afterworld when she is about to die, now knowing that his wife is an assassin, but Thursday persuades him to stay for the sake of their daughter Betty. Ultimately, his wife gives *her* life to save Thursday. He is described as a tall, muscular man with blond dreadlocks and sunglasses. It was once hinted that he suffers from either [lycanthropy](/wiki/Lycanthropy "Lycanthropy") or [vampirism](/wiki/Vampire "Vampire") and requires regular "medication"; without it he will sometimes lose control of himself and exhibit wolflike behavior, such as eating live mice.
### Other Minor Characters
Other members of staff at the Swindon branch of [SO\-27](/wiki/SpecOps "SpecOps"), appear from time to time and are notable chiefly because their names are puns on Sea Areas known to UK radio listeners from the [Shipping Forecast](/wiki/Shipping_Forecast "Shipping Forecast") on [BBC Radio 4](/wiki/BBC_Radio_4 "BBC Radio 4"). These characters include Jim Crometty (named after the Sea Area '[Cromarty](/wiki/Cromarty_Firth "Cromarty Firth")'); Sergeant Ross ('Ross'); Finisterre ('Finisterre', which was renamed '[FitzRoy](/wiki/Robert_FitzRoy%23Memorials "Robert FitzRoy#Memorials")' in 2002\); Fisher ('[Fisher](/wiki/Fisher_Bank "Fisher Bank")'); Helmut Bight ('[German Bight](/wiki/German_Bight "German Bight")'); Malin ('[Malin](/wiki/Malin_Head "Malin Head")'); Sole ('[Sole](/wiki/Sole_Bank "Sole Bank")'); and the Forty brothers, Jeff and Geoff ('[Forties](/wiki/Long_Forties "Long Forties")'). Strictly speaking, Crometty does not appear in the book \- having been murdered and replaced in the Swindon LiteraTecs team by Thursday.
Dr. Runcible Spoon (Professor of English Literature at Swindon University) is named after the utensil with which [The Owl and the Pussycat](/wiki/The_Owl_and_the_Pussycat "The Owl and the Pussycat") dine on "mince and slices of quince" in a nonsense rhyme by [Edward Lear](/wiki/Edward_Lear "Edward Lear").
Detective Inspector Oswald Mandias of Yorkshire CID (the policeman investigating the theft of the [Jane Eyre](/wiki/Jane_Eyre "Jane Eyre") manuscript from the [Brontë Parsonage Museum](/wiki/Bront%C3%AB_Parsonage_Museum "Brontë Parsonage Museum") in [Haworth](/wiki/Haworth "Haworth")) is named after [Ozymandias](/wiki/Ozymandias "Ozymandias"), the eponymous subject of [Shelley](/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley "Percy Bysshe Shelley")'s 1818 sonnet.
|
[
"*The Eyre Affair*\n-----------------",
"### Victor Analogy",
"In his seventies, Analogy is the head of the Swindon branch of [SO\\-27](/wiki/SpecOps \"SpecOps\"), the LiteraTecs, and is therefore Thursday's immediate superior.",
"### Bowden Cable",
"An operative for [SO\\-27](/wiki/SpecOps \"SpecOps\"), the LiteraTecs, assigned to the Swindon branch, and Thursday's partner after her transfer. In his thirties and with a slightly fussy, nervous edge to him, Bowden is intelligent and, at times, quite sly and cunning. He was responsible for thwarting the plans of Jack Schitt and the Goliath Corporation when he substituted a copy of [Edgar Allan Poe](/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe \"Edgar Allan Poe\")'s poem \"[The Raven](/wiki/The_Raven \"The Raven\")\" in place of the weapons manual that Schitt thought he was accessing. He shares his name with [the braking cable on bicycles](/wiki/Bowden_cable \"Bowden cable\"). Another character is called **Sturmey Archer**, also a manufacturer of [bicycle gears](/wiki/Sturmey-Archer \"Sturmey-Archer\").",
"### Acheron Hades",
"Hugely intelligent and equally immoral (believes in doing what is morally evil, as opposed to [amorality](/wiki/Amorality \"Amorality\"), which would mean not believing in a moral good or evil), Acheron Hades started out as a lecturer in English, teaching, among others, Thursday Next, before he turned to a life of crime. Believed by some to be only half\\-human, the other half being allegedly demonic or vampiric in nature (he casts no shadow), Acheron possesses a number of mysterious powers (as, indeed, do most of his siblings). He cannot be photographed or recorded in any way, and has shown the ability to know when his name is uttered within a considerable distance (a radius of 1000 yards, and possible further), hence his name is not often spoken aloud (compare [Lord Voldemort](/wiki/Lord_Voldemort \"Lord Voldemort\"), or [The Chandrian](/wiki/The_Kingkiller_Chronicle%23The_Chandrian \"The Kingkiller Chronicle#The Chandrian\")). He has shown an immunity to the effects of most weapons, his only confirmed vulnerability being to silver. Said to have the ability to \"lie in thought, word, action and appearance\" he also possesses formidable powers of deception, including the ability to assume the shape of others and hypnotic persuasive abilities on the \"weaker minded\" (he is unable to hypnotise Thursday). Another ability that possibly follows in this vein is his ability to pass through glass barriers by making the glass soft and pliable through heated touch; after he withdraws his hand the glass reverts to its original state, the only sign of his trespass being the slightly mottled surface of the glass where his hand passed through (shown when Thursday examines the empty Chuzzlewit glass security casing). He appears to possess great strength, at one point easily smashing his way through a wall, although inertia still has an effect on him. Time does not seem to have a proper hold on him either, as when it is stopped around him by Colonel Next, he remains unaffected (this might possibly be why he does not seem to age). He is either very good at guessing or possesses some form of telepathy as he can figure out the personality faults and mental weaknesses of a person within moments.",
"Hades appears as the principal villain of *The Eyre Affair*. He kidnaps Mycroft Next and steals his Prose Portal, using it to enter stolen original manuscripts of such classic tales as *[Martin Chuzzlewit](/wiki/Martin_Chuzzlewit \"Martin Chuzzlewit\")* and *[Jane Eyre](/wiki/Jane_Eyre \"Jane Eyre\")*, with the aim of extracting characters from them and holding them to ransom. When Thursday rescued the extracted Jane Eyre, Hades escaped into the book, pursued by Thursday. Ultimately, they confronted each other in [Thornfield Hall](/wiki/Thornfield_Hall \"Thornfield Hall\"), where Thursday was finally able to eliminate her opponent once and for all.",
"Acheron is the eldest child of the Hades Family, which is apparently evil as a whole (only one member is mentioned as not really being evil, Lethe, the apparent \"white sheep\" of the family; another brother, **Styx Hades**, is shown to be more of a nuisance than really evil, committing pranks and not possessing any actual powers). It is also implied that they have been evil for generations; as Acheron's sister Aornis puts it, \"No member of the Hades family has been captured alive for eighty\\-eight generations.\"",
"Hades has made the occasional appearance in the later books, showing up within Thursday's memories.",
"Both '[Acheron](/wiki/Acheron \"Acheron\")' and '[Hades](/wiki/Hades \"Hades\")' refer to places in the mythical [Greek underworld](/wiki/Greek_underworld \"Greek underworld\"), as do '[Styx](/wiki/Styx \"Styx\")' and '[Lethe](/wiki/Lethe \"Lethe\")'.",
"### Braxton Hicks",
"Hicks is in charge of several divisions of [SpecOps](/wiki/SpecOps \"SpecOps\") in Swindon, including the Literary Detectives to whom Thursday transfers. He is perpetually concerned with the budget and seemingly nothing else. He allows Jack Schitt to have his way at first and seemingly faces up poorly to higher authority, but in *Something Rotten* he invents an elaborate cover story for Thursday after her return. He is often practising his putting in his office and coaxes Thursday to join him for a round of golf; she accepts out of gratitude for his alibi. Hicks has several grown children and by *Something Rotten* is planning to retire shortly. The name is an allusion to [Braxton Hicks contractions](/wiki/Braxton_Hicks_contractions \"Braxton Hicks contractions\") near the end of pregnancy.",
"### Mrs. Nakajima",
"A Japanese literary tourist and member of JurisFiction. In *[Lost in a Good Book](/wiki/Lost_in_a_Good_Book \"Lost in a Good Book\")*, she gives Thursday the tools to become a JurisFiction agent herself. After her husband retires, the couple moved into [Thornfield Hall](/wiki/Thornfield_Hall \"Thornfield Hall\") in the novel *[Jane Eyre](/wiki/Jane_Eyre \"Jane Eyre\")*, where they manage the house, carefully avoiding any appearances in the narrative.",
"### Anton Next",
"Brother to Thursday and Joffy Next and best friend of Landen Parke\\-Laine. He fought in the [Crimean War](/wiki/Crimean_War \"Crimean War\") and died there during a disastrous battle which occurred after he accidentally sent his unit off in the wrong direction (this mimics the role of Captain [Louis Nolan](/wiki/Louis_Nolan \"Louis Nolan\") in the [Charge of the Light Brigade](/wiki/Charge_of_the_Light_Brigade \"Charge of the Light Brigade\") in 1854; Anton directs the Light Armoured Brigade into the teeth of the Russian artillery). After much agonising over whether to tell the truth, Landen finally gave evidence to the inquest about Anton's error, which drove a wedge between him and Thursday, until the two reconciled during the events of *The Eyre Afair*.",
"### Colonel Next",
"Thursday's father and ex\\-member of SO\\-12, the ChronoGuard. Went rogue, leading the ChronoGuard to delete him from history by interrupting his conception; however, due to his skills at time manipulation, still exists and drops in on his family from time to time to assist or pass on advice. By the events of *Something Rotten*, he has rejoined the ChronoGuard, albeit in a reduced capacity. In the end of *First Among Sequels*, he's reactualised.",
"### Joffy Next",
"Brother of Thursday and Anton Next. He is a minister for the Global Standard Deity, which aims to represent all of the others equally and without prejudice, with the laudable aim of attempting to prevent religious conflict. Cheerful, frequently irreverent almost but (usually) not quite to the point of being irritating and laid\\-back, he nevertheless has an extremely caring nature and a great deal of wisdom, which serves him well in his chosen vocation. He generally calls Thursday 'Doofus' and used to slap her on the back of the head on a daily basis until she broke his nose to get him to stop, but the two are very close. As of *Lost in a Good Book* he is in a relationship with Miles Hawke, an operative with [SpecOps](/wiki/SpecOps \"SpecOps\")\\-14\\.",
"### Mycroft Next",
"Thursday's uncle and husband of Polly. Mycroft is an inventor of strange and unusual devices of varying degrees of use. Some have proved to be important plot devices throughout the series, such as his Prose Portal, which allowed real\\-world individuals to enter books and the Ovinator, which encourages cooperation. Others, such as his device for erasing memories (which he has no recollection of ever inventing) serve purely as running gags. He has been hunted by the Goliath Corporation, who wished to use his Prose Portal to retrieve fictional weaponry from the Bookworld to sell in the real world. He retired into the Bookworld, living within the [Sherlock Holmes](/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes \"Sherlock Holmes\") series of books, where he occasionally interfered with the narrative, appearing as Holmes' [brother](/wiki/Mycroft_Holmes \"Mycroft Holmes\"). By the time of *Something Rotten* he and Polly had returned safely to the real world, having used the memory erasure device to ensure that they were of no use to Goliath.",
"### Polly Next",
"A brilliant mathematician, Thursday's aunt, and wife of Mycroft. She generally serves as Mycroft's assistant, as she possesses far more common sense than her husband. She was temporarily held hostage within the [William Wordsworth](/wiki/William_Wordsworth \"William Wordsworth\") poem *[I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud](/wiki/I_Wandered_Lonely_as_a_Cloud \"I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud\")* by Acheron Hades during the events of *The Eyre Affair*. Enjoys tormenting door\\-to\\-door salesmen along with Thursday's mother.",
"### Thursday Next",
"{{Main\\|Thursday Next}}",
"### Wednesday Next",
"Mother to Thursday Next and her brothers. She used to work for [SpecOps 3](/wiki/SpecOps \"SpecOps\") (and claims to still do so on occasion), but has now become something of a homebody, and is generally found there throughout the novels. She loves her husband, despite his eradication, but has occasional suspicions about his fidelity, particularly regarding his dealings with [Lady Emma Hamilton](/wiki/Emma%2C_Lady_Hamilton \"Emma, Lady Hamilton\"). She herself is not immune to other men, it transpires, as she develops an apparent interest in [Otto Bismarck](/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck \"Otto von Bismarck\") when he stays with her for a few days. On the other hand, having no official husband, she is believed by most to have conceived three children outside of wedlock, something that affects her social life.",
"### Landen Parke\\-Laine",
"Thursday's husband, Landen is an award\\-winning novelist whose books include *Bad Sofa*, *Memoirs of A Crimean Veteran* and *Once Were Scoundrels*. He served as an officer in the [Crimean War](/wiki/Crimean_War \"Crimean War\") (still raging in Fforde's alternate 1985\\), during which he came into contact with Thursday, with whom he fell in love, and her brother Anton, who became his best friend. During the disastrous battle which became known as the \"[Charge of the Light\\-Armoured Brigade](/wiki/Charge_of_the_Light_Brigade \"Charge of the Light Brigade\")\", Anton was killed and Landen lost a leg. During the subsequent inquest, Landen, after much agonizing, admitted that Anton had made an error that had led to the destruction of their unit. As a result, Thursday left him and refused to speak to him for ten years. They came back into contact during the events of *The Eyre Affair*, during which Thursday was finally able to forgive Landen and agreed to marry him. Despite his missing leg, he is relied upon in dangerous situations.",
"During the events of *Lost in a Good Book*, Landen is eradicated from history by a rogue member of the Chronoguard, acting on behalf of the Goliath Corporation, who wish to blackmail Thursday into returning their operative Jack Schitt. He then appears only in Thursday's memories until reactualised during *Something Rotten*.",
"His name is one of Fforde's trademark puns: in the British edition of the board game [Monopoly](/wiki/Monopoly_%28game%29 \"Monopoly (game)\"), [Park Lane](/wiki/Park_Lane_%28road%29 \"Park Lane (road)\") is the second\\-to\\-last street on the board and consequently one of the most expensive. As additions to this pun, Landen's late father is named **Billden Parke\\-Laine** and his mother is named **Houson Parke\\-Laine**.",
"### Pickwick",
"Thursday's pet [dodo](/wiki/Dodo \"Dodo\"), brought to life by genetic engineering. Originally she was believed to be male, but revealed to be female during the events of *Lost in a Good Book*, when she lays an egg. This ultimately hatches, producing her son, Alan. The name is a reference to Dickens's *[Pickwick Papers](/wiki/The_Pickwick_Papers \"The Pickwick Papers\")*.",
"### Jack Schitt",
"Head of the Goliath Corporation's internal security service and their Advanced Weapons Division, and thus a man of great power. He showed great interest in Mycroft Next's Prose Portal, hoping to use it to retrieve fictional weaponry, having utterly failed to make the equivalent weapon work in the real world, to the extent that he was willing to work with the criminal Acheron Hades in order to gain access. Once Hades was defeated within *[Jane Eyre](/wiki/Jane_Eyre \"Jane Eyre\")*, Schitt used the Prose Portal to enter what he thought was the manual for the plasma rifle that he wanted to retrieve, only to discover that Bowden Cable had slipped a copy of \"[The Raven](/wiki/The_Raven \"The Raven\")\" by [Edgar Allan Poe](/wiki/Edgar_Allan_Poe \"Edgar Allan Poe\") inside the manual's dust cover instead. The Portal closed behind him, trapping him there.",
"He was ultimately retrieved by Thursday during the events of *Lost in a Good Book*, after Goliath arranged to have her husband Landen eradicated from history by the [Chronoguard](/wiki/SpecOps \"SpecOps\") in order to blackmail her. She cooperated, only to find herself double\\-crossed. Schitt, however, never returned to his original position in the corporation; when next seen, during the events of *Something Rotten*, he has been demoted to a far lesser role within Goliath and makes only a brief appearance.",
"His name is a pun on '[jack shit](/wiki/wikt:Jack_shit \"Jack shit\")', meaning 'nothing'.",
"### Filbert Snood",
"A member of SpecOps 12, the ChronoGuard, Filbert dated Thursday until he experienced a mishap in the timestream and was too embarrassed to tell her. Thursday runs into him again while both are working for SpecOps 5 in pursuit of Acheron Hades. When introduced to \"Snood,\" Thursday assumes he is his father and doesn't discover his true identity until he is killed by Hades.",
"### Spike Stoker",
"Spike works for [SO\\-17](/wiki/SpecOps \"SpecOps\") and is the sole agent for that department assigned to the Reading area. He deals with undead paranormals and the capturing of Supreme Evil Beings, and occasionally enlists Thursday Next to assist with his work in exchange for money. Later in the series, he marries a woman named Cindy, who he believes to be a librarian, but is in fact an assassin. \"Stoker\" is a reference to [Bram Stoker](/wiki/Bram_Stoker \"Bram Stoker\"), author of *[Dracula](/wiki/Dracula \"Dracula\")*; \"Spike\" may be a reference to the shape of the wooden stakes that he uses in his line of work.",
"Spike is almost on his own against the forces of darkness, yet is arguably the cheeriest person seen in the books: he is jocular, easy\\-going and is rarely serious or distressed in his work. He loses his cool only rarely; and although he once, seemingly in a fit of depression, considered the possibility of self\\-sacrifice/[suicide](/wiki/Suicide \"Suicide\"), admitting that \"[battling the undead was never a bowl of cherries](/wiki/Litotes \"Litotes\"),\" he was in fact trying to trick both Thursday and a Supreme Evil Being. In *Something Rotten* he offers to take Thursday's place in the afterworld when she is about to die, now knowing that his wife is an assassin, but Thursday persuades him to stay for the sake of their daughter Betty. Ultimately, his wife gives *her* life to save Thursday. He is described as a tall, muscular man with blond dreadlocks and sunglasses. It was once hinted that he suffers from either [lycanthropy](/wiki/Lycanthropy \"Lycanthropy\") or [vampirism](/wiki/Vampire \"Vampire\") and requires regular \"medication\"; without it he will sometimes lose control of himself and exhibit wolflike behavior, such as eating live mice.",
"### Other Minor Characters",
"Other members of staff at the Swindon branch of [SO\\-27](/wiki/SpecOps \"SpecOps\"), appear from time to time and are notable chiefly because their names are puns on Sea Areas known to UK radio listeners from the [Shipping Forecast](/wiki/Shipping_Forecast \"Shipping Forecast\") on [BBC Radio 4](/wiki/BBC_Radio_4 \"BBC Radio 4\"). These characters include Jim Crometty (named after the Sea Area '[Cromarty](/wiki/Cromarty_Firth \"Cromarty Firth\")'); Sergeant Ross ('Ross'); Finisterre ('Finisterre', which was renamed '[FitzRoy](/wiki/Robert_FitzRoy%23Memorials \"Robert FitzRoy#Memorials\")' in 2002\\); Fisher ('[Fisher](/wiki/Fisher_Bank \"Fisher Bank\")'); Helmut Bight ('[German Bight](/wiki/German_Bight \"German Bight\")'); Malin ('[Malin](/wiki/Malin_Head \"Malin Head\")'); Sole ('[Sole](/wiki/Sole_Bank \"Sole Bank\")'); and the Forty brothers, Jeff and Geoff ('[Forties](/wiki/Long_Forties \"Long Forties\")'). Strictly speaking, Crometty does not appear in the book \\- having been murdered and replaced in the Swindon LiteraTecs team by Thursday.",
"Dr. Runcible Spoon (Professor of English Literature at Swindon University) is named after the utensil with which [The Owl and the Pussycat](/wiki/The_Owl_and_the_Pussycat \"The Owl and the Pussycat\") dine on \"mince and slices of quince\" in a nonsense rhyme by [Edward Lear](/wiki/Edward_Lear \"Edward Lear\").",
"Detective Inspector Oswald Mandias of Yorkshire CID (the policeman investigating the theft of the [Jane Eyre](/wiki/Jane_Eyre \"Jane Eyre\") manuscript from the [Brontë Parsonage Museum](/wiki/Bront%C3%AB_Parsonage_Museum \"Brontë Parsonage Museum\") in [Haworth](/wiki/Haworth \"Haworth\")) is named after [Ozymandias](/wiki/Ozymandias \"Ozymandias\"), the eponymous subject of [Shelley](/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley \"Percy Bysshe Shelley\")'s 1818 sonnet.",
""
] |
*Lost in a Good Book*
---------------------
### The Bellman
The head of JurisFiction. During the events of *Lost in a Good Book* and *The Well of Lost Plots*, this position is filled by an unnamed individual who is only ever referred to by his title. He was murdered in the latter, by Libris, weeks from retirement, and replaced by an obedient clone of himself. Following the successful intervention of [The Great Panjandrum](/wiki/%23The_Great_Panjandrum "#The Great Panjandrum"), the clone was demoted, and Thursday was then asked to assume the role, which she accepted, holding the position for around two years before resigning during the events of *Something Rotten*. The Bellman is hinted to be the lead character in Lewis Carroll's *[The Hunting of the Snark](/wiki/The_Hunting_of_the_Snark "The Hunting of the Snark")*. He urges the PROs to "be careful out there", quoting the roll\-call sergeant from *[Hill Street Blues](/wiki/Hill_Street_Blues "Hill Street Blues")*.
### The Cheshire Cat
Due to boundary changes (a reference to the [Local Government Commissions](/wiki/Local_Government_Commission_for_England_%281992%29 "Local Government Commission for England (1992)")) the [Cheshire Cat](/wiki/Cheshire_Cat "Cheshire Cat") is now technically referred to as the [Unitary Authority](/wiki/Unitary_Authority "Unitary Authority") of [Warrington](/wiki/Warrington "Warrington") Cat, but still generally known by his original appellation. He serves as an über\-librarian to the Grand Library, as well as a high\-ranking JurisFiction official. His work is especially significant in *Something Rotten*, where after years of searching he finds Yorrick Kaine's origin—a self\-published novel not even in the Library—and engages Kaine in a [Merlin](/wiki/Merlin "Merlin")\-versus\-[Madame Mim](/wiki/Madame_Mim "Madame Mim")\-esque battle of summoning literary warriors, eventually calling upon the [Blue Fairy](/wiki/Blue_Fairy "Blue Fairy") from *[Pinocchio](/wiki/Pinocchio "Pinocchio")* to turn Kaine into a real person.
### Vernham Deane
Resident cad within Daphne Farquitt's *The Squire of High Potternews*, Deane is an accomplished JurisFiction agent who in reality is nothing like his character in his novel. He is a potential target in *The Well of Lost Plots* along with Perkins and Havisham, but his disappearance makes him a suspect instead. He is revealed to have been hiding for his own safety with the serving girl he ravishes, with whom he is actually in love. They and [Quasimodo](/wiki/Quasimodo "Quasimodo") help Thursday foil Harris Tweed and his cohorts, and *Potternews* is finally granted an Internal Plot Readjustment to allow Vernham and his lover to marry happily. His name presumably derives from the Hampshire village of [Vernham Dean](/wiki/Vernhams_Dean "Vernhams Dean").
### Daphne Farquitt
A reclusive septuagenarian author of trashy romances, Farquitt began writing in the 1930s and has little real variation in plot between her novels. Vernham Deane is one of her characters. Because she is the author of the vanity\-published *At Long Last Lust*, origin of Yorrick Kaine, Kaine starts a campaign against all things Danish in an attempt to destroy every remaining copy of his book (Farquitt having been born in Copenhagen) so he cannot be deleted from within. Hamlet claims to have brought her and tens of thousands of her fans to the Superhoop to stop Kaine's interference, but in reality it was only nine fans and Farquitt remains as elusive as ever.
### Cordelia Flakk
Cordelia is an attractive senior SpecOps agent who works in [Public Relations](/wiki/Public_Relations "Public Relations"). She spends the whole of *Lost in a Good Book* persistently trying to get Thursday to do press interviews regarding the alterations made to the storyline of *[Jane Eyre](/wiki/Jane_Eyre "Jane Eyre")* during the events of *The Eyre Affair*.
### Aornis Hades
The younger sister of Acheron Hades, who appeared as a villain in *Lost in a Good Book*. Aornis Hades is a mnemonomorph, a person who can alter memories at will; she can also apparently alter [entropy](/wiki/Entropy "Entropy"), a concept of science. The general law of entropy, as presented in the book, states that reactions can only become more chaotic; a plate can fall to the ground and shatter, but it cannot reassemble. Aornis lowers entropy, causing extremely large\-scale and bizarre coincidences to occur. She held the world to ransom in *Lost*, giving Thursday the ultimatum that she would stop her plan if Thursday takes her own life. With her plan thwarted at the last minute by the intervention of Colonel Next, Aornis escaped. In *First Among Sequels*, she is seen imprisoned by the Chronoguard, in a time\-loop inside the [T.K. Maxx](/wiki/T.K._Maxx "T.K. Maxx") department store.
A mental copy of Aornis, embedded in Thursday's memories, made several appearances during the events of *The Well of Lost Plots*, often interacting with other 'personas' as recalled by Next. This copy was capable of altering Thursday's memories to suit her own purposes, but was finally defeated when she summoned Thursday's worst memory, which turned out to be a childhood nightmare. The Aornis copy was unable to control it and it destroyed her, and Thursday was left with the reassurance that defeating the real Aornis would now be easy. (Aornis and Thursday do not have their final confrontation until *[The Woman Who Died a Lot](/wiki/The_Woman_Who_Died_a_Lot "The Woman Who Died a Lot")*.)
Thursday claims that Aornis's name is derived from the fact that the [Acheron](/wiki/Acheron "Acheron"), [Lethe](/wiki/Lethe "Lethe"), [Cocytus](/wiki/Cocytus "Cocytus"), [Phlegethon](/wiki/Phlegethon "Phlegethon"), and Aornis rivers are all tributaries to the river [Styx](/wiki/Styx_%28mythology%29 "Styx (mythology)"). However, in canonical descriptions of the underworld, there is no river by the name Aornis, nor are the other rivers tributary to the Styx\- however they do all flow through the Greek Underworld and separate its different regions.
### Miss Havisham
[Miss Havisham](/wiki/Miss_Havisham "Miss Havisham") is a member of the JurisFiction originating in the novel *[Great Expectations](/wiki/Great_Expectations "Great Expectations")* by [Charles Dickens](/wiki/Charles_Dickens "Charles Dickens"). She was assigned as Thursday Next's mentor when the younger woman first joined JurisFiction and tutored her through her examinations to become a fully fledged agent. A highly respected member of JurisFiction and one of their best operatives, her hobbies included driving powerful cars at terrifyingly high speeds. This hobby was eventually used against her during the events of *The Well of Lost Plots*, when a car she was driving was sabotaged, causing her to crash. Badly burned, she returned to her novel, where she and Pip staged her death within the novel. She is replaced by a generic understudy, which is understood by all to be 'not the same'.
### Yorrick Kaine
Yorrick Kaine is a fictional character, originating in a highly limited self\-published early novel by the author Daphne Farquitt. Kaine became a {{Not a typo\|pagerunner}}, a character who escapes his or her own book and ultimately left the Bookworld altogether for the real world, where he ran for high political office during the events of *Lost in a Good Book*, only to be thwarted by Thursday and JurisFiction.
By the events of *Something Rotten*, Kaine had advanced to the office of Chancellor, making him the second most powerful man in the land. He was using Mycroft Next's invention, the Ovinator, to manipulate Parliament into doing what he wanted. During the events of that novel, where he was made real and ultimately lost the Ovinator, he was removed from power. *First Among Sequels* reveals he has been arrested and imprisoned.
### Lavoisier
Member of the ChronoGuard and former partner of Colonel Next. Appears briefly at the end of *Eyre Affair*, questioning Thursday about her father. He plays a much larger role in *Lost in a Good Book*, where he is hired by Goliath to eradicate Landen Parke\-Laine. He holds a strong grudge against Thursday Next, and refuses to honor his part of the deal between her and Goliath as revenge for "what she did to him." This action has yet to occur in Thursday's timeline.
### Gran Next
Always clad in blue gingham, 108\-year\-old Gran Next claims not to be able to die until she's read the ten most boring classics. She helps Thursday realize her {{Not a typo\|bookjumping}} abilities by having her read *The Flopsy Bunnies* aloud over and over. In *The Well of Lost Plots* she comes to stay with Thursday in *Caversham Heights* and helps her to remember Landen and defeat Aornis's mindworm, assuring her that the real Aornis will be much easier.
Gran's identity comes into question later on when Thursday realizes that both her grandmothers are long dead and she's only known Gran Next for about three years. Finally, when Thursday is sentenced for her *Jane Eyre* fiction infraction—twenty years in blue gingham and having to read the ten most boring classics before she can die—she realizes that Gran is herself seventy years in the future. As friends and yet\-unborn family members gather, Thursday reads the last paragraph of *[The Faerie Queene](/wiki/The_Faerie_Queene "The Faerie Queene")* to Gran, who dies peacefully.
Gran's long life includes many interesting jobs, such as working in many divisions of [SpecOps](/wiki/SpecOps "SpecOps"), spending twenty\-four hours as a man and ruling as God Emperor of the Universe.
### Perkins and Snell
David "Pinky" Perkins and Akrid Snell were the lead characters in a set of detective novels and both worked as JurisFiction agents.
Perkins headed up the Grammasite Research facility, in a land appropriated from an unpublished fantasy novel (*The Sword of the Zenobians*), which is populated by many fictional creatures who were unable to live safely within their own novels. He was slain when the Minotaur, held captive within the fantasy, was deliberately released to kill him.
Snell worked as the lawyer for JurisFiction. He is the first to contact Thursday by Footnoterphone in *Lost in a Good Book*, and as head of the JurisFiction legal team defends her at her first hearing in [Franz Kafka](/wiki/Franz_Kafka "Franz Kafka")'s *[The Trial](/wiki/The_Trial "The Trial")*. When contact was lost with Perkins, he, accompanied by Thursday Next, Miss Havisham and Commander Bradshaw, entered the research facility to investigate. When a sample of the misspelling vyrus was released within Perkin's laboratory, Snell stayed behind to attempt to deal with it. He died from his injuries shortly afterwards.
### Brik Schitt\-Hawse
A senior Goliath employee and half\-brother of Jack Schitt. Schitt\-Hawse is primarily responsible for the eradication from history of Landen Parke\-Laine during the events of *Lost in a Good Book*, in order to blackmail Thursday into retrieving Jack Schitt from inside Poe's *The Raven*. Thursday agreed to retrieve Schitt, only for Schitt\-Hawse to subsequently imprison her, intending to study her {{Not a typo\|bookjumping}} ability in order to open up new potential markets for the Goliath Corporation within fiction. Thursday was able to escape with the assistance of Miss Havisham and went to live in the Bookworld in order to hide from Goliath.
Schitt\-Hawse reappeared briefly in *Something Rotten*, when Thursday visited the CEO of the Goliath Corporation during a board meeting.
He is almost invariably accompanied by his henchmen, Mr. Chalk and Mr. Cheese, although by the time of *Something Rotten* Cheese has been reassigned to work at a Goliath\-owned café.
His name is a [homonym](/wiki/Homonym "Homonym") of 'brick shithouse', from the phrase '[built like a brick shithouse](/wiki/wikt:Built_like_a_brick_shithouse "Built like a brick shithouse")'.
### Bartholomew Stiggins
Bartholomew Stiggins is a [Neanderthal](/wiki/Neanderthal "Neanderthal") and head of the Swindon branch of [SpecOps](/wiki/SpecOps "SpecOps")\-13\. He helped Thursday out during the events of *Lost in a Good Book* when she has a run\-in, engineered by Aornis Hades, with another Neanderthal. He reappears during *Something Rotten*, when he accompanies her to the old Goliath laboratory facilities in the hope of finding information that would allow his race to breed successfully, something that was left out when their race was brought back to life through genetic engineering. In return for Thursday's assistance, Stiggins helps her win a critical [croquet](/wiki/Croquet "Croquet") game by providing a number of Neanderthal players to fill gaps on the team. His name is a reference to [Stig of the Dump](/wiki/Stig_of_the_Dump "Stig of the Dump").
### Cindy Stoker
Cindy is a professional assassin known as the Windowmaker (the first use of that name was due to a typographical error in a newspaper) who has finished off sixty\-seven people (sixty\-eight if you count Samuel Pring, but she later admits that was a fluke). In *Something Rotten* she has a contract to exterminate Thursday. Cindy is aware that Thursday knows she is an assassin, while Thursday knows Cindy wants to kill her. Spike is oblivious to both of these facts, and is happily married to her. After she is hit on the head by a falling piano stool she offers to replace a dying Thursday on her way to the afterlife, knowing she will never leave prison if she survives or be with Spike or their daughter again, and making up partly for her crimes.
### Harris Tweed
A JurisFiction agent from the real world. He is revealed as being a villain towards the end of *The Well of Lost Plots*. As a result of his actions, Tweed was banished from the Bookworld and now lives in Swindon. His name is a pun on both a type of rugged woollen cloth called [Harris Tweed](/wiki/Harris_Tweed "Harris Tweed"), and on the [*Eagle* comics](/wiki/Eagle_%28comic%29 "Eagle (comic)")' similar character, [Harris Tweed](/wiki/Harris_Tweed_%28character%29 "Harris Tweed (character)").
|
[
"*Lost in a Good Book*\n---------------------",
"### The Bellman",
"The head of JurisFiction. During the events of *Lost in a Good Book* and *The Well of Lost Plots*, this position is filled by an unnamed individual who is only ever referred to by his title. He was murdered in the latter, by Libris, weeks from retirement, and replaced by an obedient clone of himself. Following the successful intervention of [The Great Panjandrum](/wiki/%23The_Great_Panjandrum \"#The Great Panjandrum\"), the clone was demoted, and Thursday was then asked to assume the role, which she accepted, holding the position for around two years before resigning during the events of *Something Rotten*. The Bellman is hinted to be the lead character in Lewis Carroll's *[The Hunting of the Snark](/wiki/The_Hunting_of_the_Snark \"The Hunting of the Snark\")*. He urges the PROs to \"be careful out there\", quoting the roll\\-call sergeant from *[Hill Street Blues](/wiki/Hill_Street_Blues \"Hill Street Blues\")*.",
"### The Cheshire Cat",
"Due to boundary changes (a reference to the [Local Government Commissions](/wiki/Local_Government_Commission_for_England_%281992%29 \"Local Government Commission for England (1992)\")) the [Cheshire Cat](/wiki/Cheshire_Cat \"Cheshire Cat\") is now technically referred to as the [Unitary Authority](/wiki/Unitary_Authority \"Unitary Authority\") of [Warrington](/wiki/Warrington \"Warrington\") Cat, but still generally known by his original appellation. He serves as an über\\-librarian to the Grand Library, as well as a high\\-ranking JurisFiction official. His work is especially significant in *Something Rotten*, where after years of searching he finds Yorrick Kaine's origin—a self\\-published novel not even in the Library—and engages Kaine in a [Merlin](/wiki/Merlin \"Merlin\")\\-versus\\-[Madame Mim](/wiki/Madame_Mim \"Madame Mim\")\\-esque battle of summoning literary warriors, eventually calling upon the [Blue Fairy](/wiki/Blue_Fairy \"Blue Fairy\") from *[Pinocchio](/wiki/Pinocchio \"Pinocchio\")* to turn Kaine into a real person.",
"### Vernham Deane",
"Resident cad within Daphne Farquitt's *The Squire of High Potternews*, Deane is an accomplished JurisFiction agent who in reality is nothing like his character in his novel. He is a potential target in *The Well of Lost Plots* along with Perkins and Havisham, but his disappearance makes him a suspect instead. He is revealed to have been hiding for his own safety with the serving girl he ravishes, with whom he is actually in love. They and [Quasimodo](/wiki/Quasimodo \"Quasimodo\") help Thursday foil Harris Tweed and his cohorts, and *Potternews* is finally granted an Internal Plot Readjustment to allow Vernham and his lover to marry happily. His name presumably derives from the Hampshire village of [Vernham Dean](/wiki/Vernhams_Dean \"Vernhams Dean\").",
"### Daphne Farquitt",
"A reclusive septuagenarian author of trashy romances, Farquitt began writing in the 1930s and has little real variation in plot between her novels. Vernham Deane is one of her characters. Because she is the author of the vanity\\-published *At Long Last Lust*, origin of Yorrick Kaine, Kaine starts a campaign against all things Danish in an attempt to destroy every remaining copy of his book (Farquitt having been born in Copenhagen) so he cannot be deleted from within. Hamlet claims to have brought her and tens of thousands of her fans to the Superhoop to stop Kaine's interference, but in reality it was only nine fans and Farquitt remains as elusive as ever.",
"### Cordelia Flakk",
"Cordelia is an attractive senior SpecOps agent who works in [Public Relations](/wiki/Public_Relations \"Public Relations\"). She spends the whole of *Lost in a Good Book* persistently trying to get Thursday to do press interviews regarding the alterations made to the storyline of *[Jane Eyre](/wiki/Jane_Eyre \"Jane Eyre\")* during the events of *The Eyre Affair*.",
"### Aornis Hades",
"The younger sister of Acheron Hades, who appeared as a villain in *Lost in a Good Book*. Aornis Hades is a mnemonomorph, a person who can alter memories at will; she can also apparently alter [entropy](/wiki/Entropy \"Entropy\"), a concept of science. The general law of entropy, as presented in the book, states that reactions can only become more chaotic; a plate can fall to the ground and shatter, but it cannot reassemble. Aornis lowers entropy, causing extremely large\\-scale and bizarre coincidences to occur. She held the world to ransom in *Lost*, giving Thursday the ultimatum that she would stop her plan if Thursday takes her own life. With her plan thwarted at the last minute by the intervention of Colonel Next, Aornis escaped. In *First Among Sequels*, she is seen imprisoned by the Chronoguard, in a time\\-loop inside the [T.K. Maxx](/wiki/T.K._Maxx \"T.K. Maxx\") department store.",
"A mental copy of Aornis, embedded in Thursday's memories, made several appearances during the events of *The Well of Lost Plots*, often interacting with other 'personas' as recalled by Next. This copy was capable of altering Thursday's memories to suit her own purposes, but was finally defeated when she summoned Thursday's worst memory, which turned out to be a childhood nightmare. The Aornis copy was unable to control it and it destroyed her, and Thursday was left with the reassurance that defeating the real Aornis would now be easy. (Aornis and Thursday do not have their final confrontation until *[The Woman Who Died a Lot](/wiki/The_Woman_Who_Died_a_Lot \"The Woman Who Died a Lot\")*.)",
"Thursday claims that Aornis's name is derived from the fact that the [Acheron](/wiki/Acheron \"Acheron\"), [Lethe](/wiki/Lethe \"Lethe\"), [Cocytus](/wiki/Cocytus \"Cocytus\"), [Phlegethon](/wiki/Phlegethon \"Phlegethon\"), and Aornis rivers are all tributaries to the river [Styx](/wiki/Styx_%28mythology%29 \"Styx (mythology)\"). However, in canonical descriptions of the underworld, there is no river by the name Aornis, nor are the other rivers tributary to the Styx\\- however they do all flow through the Greek Underworld and separate its different regions.",
"### Miss Havisham",
"[Miss Havisham](/wiki/Miss_Havisham \"Miss Havisham\") is a member of the JurisFiction originating in the novel *[Great Expectations](/wiki/Great_Expectations \"Great Expectations\")* by [Charles Dickens](/wiki/Charles_Dickens \"Charles Dickens\"). She was assigned as Thursday Next's mentor when the younger woman first joined JurisFiction and tutored her through her examinations to become a fully fledged agent. A highly respected member of JurisFiction and one of their best operatives, her hobbies included driving powerful cars at terrifyingly high speeds. This hobby was eventually used against her during the events of *The Well of Lost Plots*, when a car she was driving was sabotaged, causing her to crash. Badly burned, she returned to her novel, where she and Pip staged her death within the novel. She is replaced by a generic understudy, which is understood by all to be 'not the same'.",
"### Yorrick Kaine",
"Yorrick Kaine is a fictional character, originating in a highly limited self\\-published early novel by the author Daphne Farquitt. Kaine became a {{Not a typo\\|pagerunner}}, a character who escapes his or her own book and ultimately left the Bookworld altogether for the real world, where he ran for high political office during the events of *Lost in a Good Book*, only to be thwarted by Thursday and JurisFiction.",
"By the events of *Something Rotten*, Kaine had advanced to the office of Chancellor, making him the second most powerful man in the land. He was using Mycroft Next's invention, the Ovinator, to manipulate Parliament into doing what he wanted. During the events of that novel, where he was made real and ultimately lost the Ovinator, he was removed from power. *First Among Sequels* reveals he has been arrested and imprisoned.",
"### Lavoisier",
"Member of the ChronoGuard and former partner of Colonel Next. Appears briefly at the end of *Eyre Affair*, questioning Thursday about her father. He plays a much larger role in *Lost in a Good Book*, where he is hired by Goliath to eradicate Landen Parke\\-Laine. He holds a strong grudge against Thursday Next, and refuses to honor his part of the deal between her and Goliath as revenge for \"what she did to him.\" This action has yet to occur in Thursday's timeline.",
"### Gran Next",
"Always clad in blue gingham, 108\\-year\\-old Gran Next claims not to be able to die until she's read the ten most boring classics. She helps Thursday realize her {{Not a typo\\|bookjumping}} abilities by having her read *The Flopsy Bunnies* aloud over and over. In *The Well of Lost Plots* she comes to stay with Thursday in *Caversham Heights* and helps her to remember Landen and defeat Aornis's mindworm, assuring her that the real Aornis will be much easier.",
"Gran's identity comes into question later on when Thursday realizes that both her grandmothers are long dead and she's only known Gran Next for about three years. Finally, when Thursday is sentenced for her *Jane Eyre* fiction infraction—twenty years in blue gingham and having to read the ten most boring classics before she can die—she realizes that Gran is herself seventy years in the future. As friends and yet\\-unborn family members gather, Thursday reads the last paragraph of *[The Faerie Queene](/wiki/The_Faerie_Queene \"The Faerie Queene\")* to Gran, who dies peacefully.",
"Gran's long life includes many interesting jobs, such as working in many divisions of [SpecOps](/wiki/SpecOps \"SpecOps\"), spending twenty\\-four hours as a man and ruling as God Emperor of the Universe.",
"### Perkins and Snell",
"David \"Pinky\" Perkins and Akrid Snell were the lead characters in a set of detective novels and both worked as JurisFiction agents.",
"Perkins headed up the Grammasite Research facility, in a land appropriated from an unpublished fantasy novel (*The Sword of the Zenobians*), which is populated by many fictional creatures who were unable to live safely within their own novels. He was slain when the Minotaur, held captive within the fantasy, was deliberately released to kill him.",
"Snell worked as the lawyer for JurisFiction. He is the first to contact Thursday by Footnoterphone in *Lost in a Good Book*, and as head of the JurisFiction legal team defends her at her first hearing in [Franz Kafka](/wiki/Franz_Kafka \"Franz Kafka\")'s *[The Trial](/wiki/The_Trial \"The Trial\")*. When contact was lost with Perkins, he, accompanied by Thursday Next, Miss Havisham and Commander Bradshaw, entered the research facility to investigate. When a sample of the misspelling vyrus was released within Perkin's laboratory, Snell stayed behind to attempt to deal with it. He died from his injuries shortly afterwards.",
"### Brik Schitt\\-Hawse",
"A senior Goliath employee and half\\-brother of Jack Schitt. Schitt\\-Hawse is primarily responsible for the eradication from history of Landen Parke\\-Laine during the events of *Lost in a Good Book*, in order to blackmail Thursday into retrieving Jack Schitt from inside Poe's *The Raven*. Thursday agreed to retrieve Schitt, only for Schitt\\-Hawse to subsequently imprison her, intending to study her {{Not a typo\\|bookjumping}} ability in order to open up new potential markets for the Goliath Corporation within fiction. Thursday was able to escape with the assistance of Miss Havisham and went to live in the Bookworld in order to hide from Goliath.",
"Schitt\\-Hawse reappeared briefly in *Something Rotten*, when Thursday visited the CEO of the Goliath Corporation during a board meeting.",
"He is almost invariably accompanied by his henchmen, Mr. Chalk and Mr. Cheese, although by the time of *Something Rotten* Cheese has been reassigned to work at a Goliath\\-owned café.",
"His name is a [homonym](/wiki/Homonym \"Homonym\") of 'brick shithouse', from the phrase '[built like a brick shithouse](/wiki/wikt:Built_like_a_brick_shithouse \"Built like a brick shithouse\")'.",
"### Bartholomew Stiggins",
"Bartholomew Stiggins is a [Neanderthal](/wiki/Neanderthal \"Neanderthal\") and head of the Swindon branch of [SpecOps](/wiki/SpecOps \"SpecOps\")\\-13\\. He helped Thursday out during the events of *Lost in a Good Book* when she has a run\\-in, engineered by Aornis Hades, with another Neanderthal. He reappears during *Something Rotten*, when he accompanies her to the old Goliath laboratory facilities in the hope of finding information that would allow his race to breed successfully, something that was left out when their race was brought back to life through genetic engineering. In return for Thursday's assistance, Stiggins helps her win a critical [croquet](/wiki/Croquet \"Croquet\") game by providing a number of Neanderthal players to fill gaps on the team. His name is a reference to [Stig of the Dump](/wiki/Stig_of_the_Dump \"Stig of the Dump\").",
"### Cindy Stoker",
"Cindy is a professional assassin known as the Windowmaker (the first use of that name was due to a typographical error in a newspaper) who has finished off sixty\\-seven people (sixty\\-eight if you count Samuel Pring, but she later admits that was a fluke). In *Something Rotten* she has a contract to exterminate Thursday. Cindy is aware that Thursday knows she is an assassin, while Thursday knows Cindy wants to kill her. Spike is oblivious to both of these facts, and is happily married to her. After she is hit on the head by a falling piano stool she offers to replace a dying Thursday on her way to the afterlife, knowing she will never leave prison if she survives or be with Spike or their daughter again, and making up partly for her crimes.",
"### Harris Tweed",
"A JurisFiction agent from the real world. He is revealed as being a villain towards the end of *The Well of Lost Plots*. As a result of his actions, Tweed was banished from the Bookworld and now lives in Swindon. His name is a pun on both a type of rugged woollen cloth called [Harris Tweed](/wiki/Harris_Tweed \"Harris Tweed\"), and on the [*Eagle* comics](/wiki/Eagle_%28comic%29 \"Eagle (comic)\")' similar character, [Harris Tweed](/wiki/Harris_Tweed_%28character%29 \"Harris Tweed (character)\").",
""
] |
*The Well of Lost Plots*
------------------------
### Melanie Bradshaw
Wife of Trafford Bradshaw, to whom she has now been married for fifty years (the pair celebrate their golden wedding anniversary at the end of *Something Rotten*). As the books never describe her character to any great degree, Melanie remains in the background. Hence, no reader ever discovers that she is, in fact, a gorilla, although she often attempts to dress in standard female clothing, with varying degrees of success. Melanie often babysits Friday Next when Thursday is off on assignment and the two are very close.
### Commander Trafford Bradshaw
The main character of a series of 1920s adventure stories for boys. An early Booksplorer, Bradshaw now works as an agent for JurisFiction (he is a former Bellman as well) and is considered to be one of their best operatives; his maps, while sometimes incomplete, are a most trusted resource for Bookworld explorers.
### The Great Panjandrum
The supposed creator of the BookWorld, and is worshipped as a god. Appears at the end of *Well* as a literal [deus ex machina](/wiki/Deus_ex_machina "Deus ex machina"), as it is summoned by Thursday through an emergency glass box inside her standard issue equipment. It is unclear of the Great Panjandrum's true nature, and its appearance is based on the appearance of whoever views it; for example, Thursday sees it as a woman in her mid\-thirties, like herself, while a noted Jurisfiction sculptor perceived the entity as a fellow stonemason. The Great Panjandrum is a reference to a [line of nonsense verse](/wiki/The_Great_Panjandrum_Himself "The Great Panjandrum Himself") by Samuel Foote.
### The Minotaur
Wanted murderer in the Book World, he escapes and works under the alias of Norman Johnson. In *Something Rotten* he is tainted with Slapstick to help track him across fiction, but he uses it to try to kill Thursday several times. Based on the [minotaur](/wiki/Minotaur "Minotaur") from [Greek mythology](/wiki/Greek_mythology "Greek mythology").
### Randolph and Lola
Assigned to stay with Thursday in the unpublished novel *Caversham Heights* during the events of *Lost in a Good Book*, Randolph and Lola started out as truly generic characters, being sexless, ageless, nameless and with no distinguishing features of any kind. Under Thursday's influence, the pair gradually began to take on more distinctive characteristics, developing personalities, choosing genders, apparent ages and final names, Thursday having initially dubbed them as *obb* and *ibb* respectively, just to distinguish between them. The two later gained capital letters before changing names. Randolph took on the persona and appearance of a gentleman in his fifties, hoping to be cast in the role of a father figure or kindly mentor. Lola developed as an attractive young woman, aiming for a position as heroine in an adventure\-style tale. Although the pair argued constantly, they ultimately realized that they were in love and were instrumental in the reorganization of *Caversham Heights* into a book where characters from other novels could take holidays away from the rather repetitious nature of their roles.
### DCI Jack Spratt
[Jack Spratt](/wiki/Jack_Spratt "Jack Spratt") is the main character in the unpublished novel *Caversham Heights* where Thursday stays as part of the Character Exchange Program during the events of *The Well of Lost Plots*. He is also the protagonist in his own series of books written by Fforde.
### Mrs. Tiggy\-Winkle
[Mrs. Tiggy\-Winkle](/wiki/The_Tale_of_Mrs._Tiggy-Winkle "The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle") is an active JurisFiction agent and their washerwoman. She trains Emperor Zhark and advocates for the appearances of hedgehogs in other works such as mentions in [Shakespeare's](/wiki/William_Shakespeare "William Shakespeare") plays. After Thursday's retirement she helps to run JurisFiction and visits Thursday asking for help.
### Emperor Zhark
A ruthless tyrant from a series of sci\-fi novels, Zhark begins work at JurisFiction around the same time as Thursday and is apprenticed to Mrs. Tiggy\-Winkle. His conquests within his books, often involving the lives of millions, are a point of contention requiring the Judgement of [Solomon](/wiki/Solomon "Solomon"). Often punished for overdoing it, such as when he invades a Western with his armies to save Thursday, accidentally killing the main character. When he learns that his author, Handley Paige, is planning to kill him off, he manages to track him down and convince him otherwise.
|
[
"*The Well of Lost Plots*\n------------------------",
"### Melanie Bradshaw",
"Wife of Trafford Bradshaw, to whom she has now been married for fifty years (the pair celebrate their golden wedding anniversary at the end of *Something Rotten*). As the books never describe her character to any great degree, Melanie remains in the background. Hence, no reader ever discovers that she is, in fact, a gorilla, although she often attempts to dress in standard female clothing, with varying degrees of success. Melanie often babysits Friday Next when Thursday is off on assignment and the two are very close.",
"### Commander Trafford Bradshaw",
"The main character of a series of 1920s adventure stories for boys. An early Booksplorer, Bradshaw now works as an agent for JurisFiction (he is a former Bellman as well) and is considered to be one of their best operatives; his maps, while sometimes incomplete, are a most trusted resource for Bookworld explorers.",
"### The Great Panjandrum",
"The supposed creator of the BookWorld, and is worshipped as a god. Appears at the end of *Well* as a literal [deus ex machina](/wiki/Deus_ex_machina \"Deus ex machina\"), as it is summoned by Thursday through an emergency glass box inside her standard issue equipment. It is unclear of the Great Panjandrum's true nature, and its appearance is based on the appearance of whoever views it; for example, Thursday sees it as a woman in her mid\\-thirties, like herself, while a noted Jurisfiction sculptor perceived the entity as a fellow stonemason. The Great Panjandrum is a reference to a [line of nonsense verse](/wiki/The_Great_Panjandrum_Himself \"The Great Panjandrum Himself\") by Samuel Foote.",
"### The Minotaur",
"Wanted murderer in the Book World, he escapes and works under the alias of Norman Johnson. In *Something Rotten* he is tainted with Slapstick to help track him across fiction, but he uses it to try to kill Thursday several times. Based on the [minotaur](/wiki/Minotaur \"Minotaur\") from [Greek mythology](/wiki/Greek_mythology \"Greek mythology\").",
"### Randolph and Lola",
"Assigned to stay with Thursday in the unpublished novel *Caversham Heights* during the events of *Lost in a Good Book*, Randolph and Lola started out as truly generic characters, being sexless, ageless, nameless and with no distinguishing features of any kind. Under Thursday's influence, the pair gradually began to take on more distinctive characteristics, developing personalities, choosing genders, apparent ages and final names, Thursday having initially dubbed them as *obb* and *ibb* respectively, just to distinguish between them. The two later gained capital letters before changing names. Randolph took on the persona and appearance of a gentleman in his fifties, hoping to be cast in the role of a father figure or kindly mentor. Lola developed as an attractive young woman, aiming for a position as heroine in an adventure\\-style tale. Although the pair argued constantly, they ultimately realized that they were in love and were instrumental in the reorganization of *Caversham Heights* into a book where characters from other novels could take holidays away from the rather repetitious nature of their roles.",
"### DCI Jack Spratt",
"[Jack Spratt](/wiki/Jack_Spratt \"Jack Spratt\") is the main character in the unpublished novel *Caversham Heights* where Thursday stays as part of the Character Exchange Program during the events of *The Well of Lost Plots*. He is also the protagonist in his own series of books written by Fforde.",
"### Mrs. Tiggy\\-Winkle",
"[Mrs. Tiggy\\-Winkle](/wiki/The_Tale_of_Mrs._Tiggy-Winkle \"The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle\") is an active JurisFiction agent and their washerwoman. She trains Emperor Zhark and advocates for the appearances of hedgehogs in other works such as mentions in [Shakespeare's](/wiki/William_Shakespeare \"William Shakespeare\") plays. After Thursday's retirement she helps to run JurisFiction and visits Thursday asking for help.",
"### Emperor Zhark",
"A ruthless tyrant from a series of sci\\-fi novels, Zhark begins work at JurisFiction around the same time as Thursday and is apprenticed to Mrs. Tiggy\\-Winkle. His conquests within his books, often involving the lives of millions, are a point of contention requiring the Judgement of [Solomon](/wiki/Solomon \"Solomon\"). Often punished for overdoing it, such as when he invades a Western with his armies to save Thursday, accidentally killing the main character. When he learns that his author, Handley Paige, is planning to kill him off, he manages to track him down and convince him otherwise.",
""
] |
*Something Rotten*
------------------
### Millon de Floss
Millon is a member of the Amalgamated Union of Stalkers, authorised by [SpecOps](/wiki/SpecOps "SpecOps")\-33\. He has something of a talent for spotting rising stars, having started stalking the legendary actress Lola Vavoom when she was just a bit part player. He is now a Grade 1 stalker, allowed to stalk the very highest level of celebrity, but has, instead, chosen to become Thursday's officially licensed stalker, feeling that she, while not at the highest level as yet, is destined for great things. Having published his autobiography *A Stalk on the Wild Side*, Millon has attained a not\-inconsiderable level of celebrity himself and has his own stalker, Adam Gnusense (who, as an experienced stalker himself, having risen to Grade 3, has recently acquired his own stalker, who he describes as being a Grade 34 loser after catching him rummaging through his dustbins).
Millon is intelligent, polite and has considerable knowledge of conspiracy theories, a resource that Thursday draws upon when trying to locate a clone of [William Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare "William Shakespeare"). He accompanied her to Area 21, an area in mid\-Wales where the Goliath Corporation had their laboratories, to help out. As this was technically outside the remit of his stalker activities, he asked, in return, if he could be her official biographer, something to which Thursday readily agreed.
Many of the excerpts from fictional works found at the beginning of each chapter have ostensibly been written by de Floss. His name is an allusion to the novel *[The Mill on the Floss](/wiki/The_Mill_on_the_Floss "The Mill on the Floss")* by [George Eliot](/wiki/George_Eliot "George Eliot"), which Thursday and Miss Havisham visit on assignment in *The Well of Lost Plots*.
### George Formby
Made England's President\-for\-life after his resistance work during the German Occupation, and his song "[When I'm Washing Windows](/wiki/The_Window_Cleaner "The Window Cleaner")" becomes the national anthem. In 1988, he is still entertaining whenever possible, and he is the only politician who avoids Yorrick Kaine enough to remain immune to the {{Proper name\|Ovinator}} and thus oppose Kaine's schemes. He dies of natural causes two days after the Swindon Mallets win the Superhoop croquet championship and serenades the ferryman on his final journey. In real life, [George Formby](/wiki/George_Formby "George Formby") died in 1961, at the age of 56\.
### John Henry Goliath V
Named after two giants and quite tall himself, [John Henry](/wiki/John_Henry_%28folklore%29 "John Henry (folklore)") [Goliath](/wiki/Goliath "Goliath") V is the great\-great\-grandson of the founder of the Goliath Corporation and its current CEO. He meets with Thursday personally to apologize to her, but in reality he used Goliath's {{Proper name\|Ovinator}} to convince her to forgive them. His fate after Goliath's loss to the Toast Marketing Board is unknown.
### Hamlet
The Prince of Denmark, from the [Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare "William Shakespeare") [play](/wiki/Hamlet "Hamlet"). He accompanied Thursday on her return to the real world at the beginning of *Something Rotten*, as he was concerned at the perception in the Outland that he was an indecisive character. During his time there, he became romantically involved with [Lady Emma Hamilton](/wiki/Emma%2C_Lady_Hamilton "Emma, Lady Hamilton") and found a new decisiveness within himself, one that he originally planned to take back into his play and rewrite it from within, portraying himself as a much more dynamic character. Ultimately, however, he came to realise that the flaws in his character are what make his play memorable and much loved, and elected to leave his play as it was. He chose to focus his energies elsewhere, joining JurisFiction as their agent for the Shakespearean and [Marlowe](/wiki/Christopher_Marlowe "Christopher Marlowe") plays.
Hamlet's Danish origins are a point of contention during Kaine's anti\-Denmark campaign, but he bluffs Kaine into thinking he has gathered an army of Daphne Farquitt fans and the [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen "Copenhagen")\-born author herself to save Thursday at a critical moment. As a parting gift, Thursday gave Hamlet Alan the dodo, the tearaway son of her own dodo, Pickwick, to take with him, as Hamlet had proven to be the only one able to get Alan to behave himself.
### Tuesday Next
Daughter of Thursday Next. She first appeared at the very end of *Something Rotten*, when many of Thursday's as\-yet unborn descendants appear. In *[First Among Sequels](/wiki/First_Among_Sequels "First Among Sequels")*, she is shown to be a mathematical genius, having solved [Fermat's Last Theorem](/wiki/Fermat%27s_Last_Theorem "Fermat's Last Theorem") at the age of nine.
### Friday Next
Friday is the son of Thursday and Landen Parke\-Laine. While he is an infant during the chronology of the novels, Friday later joins SO\-12, the Chronoguard, rising to become head of the department and, according to his grandfather, Colonel Next, a time manipulator of extraordinary skill. As such, he appears as an adult on a couple of occasions in the books, although is unidentified until the end of *Something Rotten*. As a baby, Friday speaks only [Lorem Ipsum](/wiki/Lorem_Ipsum "Lorem Ipsum"), due to his upbringing in the Bookworld. He is close to Melanie Bradshaw, who frequently baby\-sat for him.
In *[First Among Sequels](/wiki/First_Among_Sequels "First Among Sequels")*, Friday is apparently a lazy, slovenly adolescent whom Thursday calls a "tedious teenage cliché: grunting, sighing at any request, and staying in bed until past midday." In actuality, this indolence is a cover for his secret agenda to overthrow Chronoguard, which his future self has found to be corrupt.
### William Shgakespeafe
The only surviving clone of [William Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare "William Shakespeare"), created in a secret long\-abandoned project by Goliath. He is rescued by Thursday, Bowden, Stig, and Spike, and is recruited by JurisFiction to rewrite *Hamlet* and *The Merry Wives of Windsor*, which merged in Hamlet's absence. Shgakespeafe appears to be just as talented a writer as Shakespeare; indeed, all of his lines in *Something Rotten* are quotes from Shakespeare's plays. He is athletically skilled, having lived much of his life avoiding cloned creatures. His name developed from a typo at Jasper Fforde's keyboard, which he subsequently loved.
### St Zvlkx
A thirteenth\-century prophet from Swindon, St Zvlkx's sixth Revealment was a prediction of his own resurrection in 1988, which Joffy Next prepares for by learning Old English to communicate with the saint. Joffy and the Idolatry Friends of St Zvlkx had sold the seer's wisdom to the Toast Marketing Board, which Zvlkx approved of. Over his stay in the twentieth century he is revealed to live nothing like a saintly life, and he is killed by a bus on the way to a bookie's. After Thursday helps the Swindon Mallets [croquet](/wiki/Croquet "Croquet") team win the Superhoop, fulfilling the seventh and final Revealment, Thursday's father explains that Zvlkx had travelled through time himself, and that his Revealments were in fact bets now worth billions of pounds. Because the bookie's was owned ultimately by Goliath, the Toast Marketing Board took control of the majority of the multinational and ended their reign over England.
|
[
"*Something Rotten*\n------------------",
"### Millon de Floss",
"Millon is a member of the Amalgamated Union of Stalkers, authorised by [SpecOps](/wiki/SpecOps \"SpecOps\")\\-33\\. He has something of a talent for spotting rising stars, having started stalking the legendary actress Lola Vavoom when she was just a bit part player. He is now a Grade 1 stalker, allowed to stalk the very highest level of celebrity, but has, instead, chosen to become Thursday's officially licensed stalker, feeling that she, while not at the highest level as yet, is destined for great things. Having published his autobiography *A Stalk on the Wild Side*, Millon has attained a not\\-inconsiderable level of celebrity himself and has his own stalker, Adam Gnusense (who, as an experienced stalker himself, having risen to Grade 3, has recently acquired his own stalker, who he describes as being a Grade 34 loser after catching him rummaging through his dustbins).",
"Millon is intelligent, polite and has considerable knowledge of conspiracy theories, a resource that Thursday draws upon when trying to locate a clone of [William Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare \"William Shakespeare\"). He accompanied her to Area 21, an area in mid\\-Wales where the Goliath Corporation had their laboratories, to help out. As this was technically outside the remit of his stalker activities, he asked, in return, if he could be her official biographer, something to which Thursday readily agreed.",
"Many of the excerpts from fictional works found at the beginning of each chapter have ostensibly been written by de Floss. His name is an allusion to the novel *[The Mill on the Floss](/wiki/The_Mill_on_the_Floss \"The Mill on the Floss\")* by [George Eliot](/wiki/George_Eliot \"George Eliot\"), which Thursday and Miss Havisham visit on assignment in *The Well of Lost Plots*.",
"### George Formby",
"Made England's President\\-for\\-life after his resistance work during the German Occupation, and his song \"[When I'm Washing Windows](/wiki/The_Window_Cleaner \"The Window Cleaner\")\" becomes the national anthem. In 1988, he is still entertaining whenever possible, and he is the only politician who avoids Yorrick Kaine enough to remain immune to the {{Proper name\\|Ovinator}} and thus oppose Kaine's schemes. He dies of natural causes two days after the Swindon Mallets win the Superhoop croquet championship and serenades the ferryman on his final journey. In real life, [George Formby](/wiki/George_Formby \"George Formby\") died in 1961, at the age of 56\\.",
"### John Henry Goliath V",
"Named after two giants and quite tall himself, [John Henry](/wiki/John_Henry_%28folklore%29 \"John Henry (folklore)\") [Goliath](/wiki/Goliath \"Goliath\") V is the great\\-great\\-grandson of the founder of the Goliath Corporation and its current CEO. He meets with Thursday personally to apologize to her, but in reality he used Goliath's {{Proper name\\|Ovinator}} to convince her to forgive them. His fate after Goliath's loss to the Toast Marketing Board is unknown.",
"### Hamlet",
"The Prince of Denmark, from the [Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare \"William Shakespeare\") [play](/wiki/Hamlet \"Hamlet\"). He accompanied Thursday on her return to the real world at the beginning of *Something Rotten*, as he was concerned at the perception in the Outland that he was an indecisive character. During his time there, he became romantically involved with [Lady Emma Hamilton](/wiki/Emma%2C_Lady_Hamilton \"Emma, Lady Hamilton\") and found a new decisiveness within himself, one that he originally planned to take back into his play and rewrite it from within, portraying himself as a much more dynamic character. Ultimately, however, he came to realise that the flaws in his character are what make his play memorable and much loved, and elected to leave his play as it was. He chose to focus his energies elsewhere, joining JurisFiction as their agent for the Shakespearean and [Marlowe](/wiki/Christopher_Marlowe \"Christopher Marlowe\") plays.",
"Hamlet's Danish origins are a point of contention during Kaine's anti\\-Denmark campaign, but he bluffs Kaine into thinking he has gathered an army of Daphne Farquitt fans and the [Copenhagen](/wiki/Copenhagen \"Copenhagen\")\\-born author herself to save Thursday at a critical moment. As a parting gift, Thursday gave Hamlet Alan the dodo, the tearaway son of her own dodo, Pickwick, to take with him, as Hamlet had proven to be the only one able to get Alan to behave himself.",
"### Tuesday Next",
"Daughter of Thursday Next. She first appeared at the very end of *Something Rotten*, when many of Thursday's as\\-yet unborn descendants appear. In *[First Among Sequels](/wiki/First_Among_Sequels \"First Among Sequels\")*, she is shown to be a mathematical genius, having solved [Fermat's Last Theorem](/wiki/Fermat%27s_Last_Theorem \"Fermat's Last Theorem\") at the age of nine.",
"### Friday Next",
"Friday is the son of Thursday and Landen Parke\\-Laine. While he is an infant during the chronology of the novels, Friday later joins SO\\-12, the Chronoguard, rising to become head of the department and, according to his grandfather, Colonel Next, a time manipulator of extraordinary skill. As such, he appears as an adult on a couple of occasions in the books, although is unidentified until the end of *Something Rotten*. As a baby, Friday speaks only [Lorem Ipsum](/wiki/Lorem_Ipsum \"Lorem Ipsum\"), due to his upbringing in the Bookworld. He is close to Melanie Bradshaw, who frequently baby\\-sat for him.",
"In *[First Among Sequels](/wiki/First_Among_Sequels \"First Among Sequels\")*, Friday is apparently a lazy, slovenly adolescent whom Thursday calls a \"tedious teenage cliché: grunting, sighing at any request, and staying in bed until past midday.\" In actuality, this indolence is a cover for his secret agenda to overthrow Chronoguard, which his future self has found to be corrupt.",
"### William Shgakespeafe",
"The only surviving clone of [William Shakespeare](/wiki/William_Shakespeare \"William Shakespeare\"), created in a secret long\\-abandoned project by Goliath. He is rescued by Thursday, Bowden, Stig, and Spike, and is recruited by JurisFiction to rewrite *Hamlet* and *The Merry Wives of Windsor*, which merged in Hamlet's absence. Shgakespeafe appears to be just as talented a writer as Shakespeare; indeed, all of his lines in *Something Rotten* are quotes from Shakespeare's plays. He is athletically skilled, having lived much of his life avoiding cloned creatures. His name developed from a typo at Jasper Fforde's keyboard, which he subsequently loved.",
"### St Zvlkx",
"A thirteenth\\-century prophet from Swindon, St Zvlkx's sixth Revealment was a prediction of his own resurrection in 1988, which Joffy Next prepares for by learning Old English to communicate with the saint. Joffy and the Idolatry Friends of St Zvlkx had sold the seer's wisdom to the Toast Marketing Board, which Zvlkx approved of. Over his stay in the twentieth century he is revealed to live nothing like a saintly life, and he is killed by a bus on the way to a bookie's. After Thursday helps the Swindon Mallets [croquet](/wiki/Croquet \"Croquet\") team win the Superhoop, fulfilling the seventh and final Revealment, Thursday's father explains that Zvlkx had travelled through time himself, and that his Revealments were in fact bets now worth billions of pounds. Because the bookie's was owned ultimately by Goliath, the Toast Marketing Board took control of the majority of the multinational and ended their reign over England.",
""
] |
Pro career
----------
Sam is best known as "the discoverer of the right hand [uppercut](/wiki/Uppercut "Uppercut"). In Sam's day it was called an undercut. He created havoc with the new blow until a new way was found to block it."*Tacoma News Tribune* (Tacoma, WA, USA) 1 January 1924 An essential element of the modern boxer's arsenal, it is one of the two main punches that count in statistics as power punches. Sam's downfall was his habitual reliance on alcohol. He bragged of downing as much as three glasses of gin three times a day, and whether his drinking was this frequent or not, it gradually robbed him of his strength and stamina.
It is generally believed Sam had his first fight in Enfield, England on 12 October 1801\. Little is known of the match, and though according to the *Boxing Register* of the International Boxing Hall of Fame, records show that Sam met Harry Lee for five Guineas and defeated him.Robert, James B., and Skutt, Alexander, *The Boxing Register*, IBHOF Record Book, McBooks Press, Ithaca, New York, pg. 25
Sam's second and less well\-publicized fight was against a Shipley, known as the "Champion of the Broadway", and though he won against the heavier 196 pound boxer, he received less for the fight.
### Caleb Baldwin fight
On 7 August 1804, he fought Caleb Baldwin, the pride of Westminster, a more experienced boxer who was at least seven pounds heavier and around seven years older. They fought for a more substantial stake of 25 English Guineas. For the first nineteen rounds, Caleb had the advantage, having landed a dangerous blow to Sam's temple in the ninth, which caused the odds on Baldwin to increase to 4\-1\. By the 20th round, Sam turned the tide of the battle using his signature upper cut, inflicting serious damage on Baldwin. In the 37th round, Baldwin was rendered unconscious by a flurry of uppercuts dealt by Sam and had to be carried from the ring.
### Three bouts with Tom Belcher
On 8 February 1806, he fought one of a series of three bouts with Tom Belcher, at Virginia Water in Northern Surrey. In a match that was described as "one of the best contested and most skillful battles ever witnessed," In a close match, the betting first turned to Sam's favor as 7\-4 in the tenth."Grand Boxing Match", *The London Chronicle*, London, England, pg. 4, 8 February 1806 Sam's strength, stamina, and endurance prevailed in the later stages of the bout, and Belcher had to yield in the 57th round. Belcher, an accomplished boxer, was the brother of Jem Belcher, a London heavyweight champion. In a second bout with Belcher on 28 July 1807, at Mouley Hurst, the match was declared a draw when Belcher's seconds declared a foul in the 34th round, though no decision was made. The *London Morning Chronicle* wrote that Sam appeared to increase in strength in the later rounds."Boxing, the Battle", *The London Morning Chronicle*, London, England, pg. 3, 29 July 1807 Apparently Sam had accidentally hit Belcher in the face as he was falling over with a hand just touching the ring, a violation of the London Prize Rules. In their third and last fight, on 21 August 1807, at Crawley Common, Sam was seconded by Daniel Mendoza, as he had been in the first two fights. The match lasted 36 rounds and Sam's superior punching power and endurance led to Belcher's defeat. In the cruel, unregulated rules of the London Prize Ring, in the eighteenth round, Sam punched Belcher in the head while holding him by the neck, causing him to drop to the ground. The tactic, then known as fibbing, is illegal in modern boxing rules. Sam used his right expertly and with strength according to the *London Times*, but his left was used primarily for stopping his opponent and feinting."Boxing", *The Times*, London, England, pg. 3, 21 August 1807 While Belcher left the ring nearly unconscious, Sam's most notable injury was a black eye.
More controversial than his victories over Belcher, Sam met a Wandsworth butcher, James Brown at Wimbledon common, in an impromptu battle where Sam finally met his match with a stronger boxer. Though Sam was knocked down twelve times, [Pierce Egan](/wiki/Pierce_Egan "Pierce Egan"), the most noted boxing historian of the era, defended Sam, believing he had fought mostly a defensive battle and might have dominated his opponent if he had had a financial stake in the outcome of the match.[upright\=.8\|left\|thumb\|1810s Artist depiction of Dutch Sam vs. Bill Medley](/wiki/File:Dutch_Sam_Ben_Medley_Fight_1861.jpeg "Dutch Sam Ben Medley Fight 1861.jpeg") After his defeats of Belcher, he had spectacular victories over Bill Cropley in 1808 and Ben Medley in 1810\. The first battle was fought at around 154 pounds, and though Cropley was the slightly heavier opponent by around fourteen pounds, Sam persevered and seemed to have the upper hand throughout the match. The bout lasted around 25 minutes."Dutch Sam and Cropley", *Morning Chronicle*, *London England*, pg. 3, 12 May 1808 Sam then defeated Ben Medley for a purse of 200 Guineas on 31 May 1810 in 39 rounds at Moulsey Hurst near Hampton in the London borough of Richmond.
On 21–23 December 1812, Sam performed in a sparring exhibition, with the boxer Bill Cropley and two others in the Theatre Royal Pavilion on Newcastle Street."Theatre Royal Pavilion", *The Observer*, London, England, pg.3, 20 Dec 1812
|
[
"Pro career\n----------",
"Sam is best known as \"the discoverer of the right hand [uppercut](/wiki/Uppercut \"Uppercut\"). In Sam's day it was called an undercut. He created havoc with the new blow until a new way was found to block it.\"*Tacoma News Tribune* (Tacoma, WA, USA) 1 January 1924 An essential element of the modern boxer's arsenal, it is one of the two main punches that count in statistics as power punches. Sam's downfall was his habitual reliance on alcohol. He bragged of downing as much as three glasses of gin three times a day, and whether his drinking was this frequent or not, it gradually robbed him of his strength and stamina.",
"It is generally believed Sam had his first fight in Enfield, England on 12 October 1801\\. Little is known of the match, and though according to the *Boxing Register* of the International Boxing Hall of Fame, records show that Sam met Harry Lee for five Guineas and defeated him.Robert, James B., and Skutt, Alexander, *The Boxing Register*, IBHOF Record Book, McBooks Press, Ithaca, New York, pg. 25",
"Sam's second and less well\\-publicized fight was against a Shipley, known as the \"Champion of the Broadway\", and though he won against the heavier 196 pound boxer, he received less for the fight.",
"### Caleb Baldwin fight",
"On 7 August 1804, he fought Caleb Baldwin, the pride of Westminster, a more experienced boxer who was at least seven pounds heavier and around seven years older. They fought for a more substantial stake of 25 English Guineas. For the first nineteen rounds, Caleb had the advantage, having landed a dangerous blow to Sam's temple in the ninth, which caused the odds on Baldwin to increase to 4\\-1\\. By the 20th round, Sam turned the tide of the battle using his signature upper cut, inflicting serious damage on Baldwin. In the 37th round, Baldwin was rendered unconscious by a flurry of uppercuts dealt by Sam and had to be carried from the ring.",
"### Three bouts with Tom Belcher",
"On 8 February 1806, he fought one of a series of three bouts with Tom Belcher, at Virginia Water in Northern Surrey. In a match that was described as \"one of the best contested and most skillful battles ever witnessed,\" In a close match, the betting first turned to Sam's favor as 7\\-4 in the tenth.\"Grand Boxing Match\", *The London Chronicle*, London, England, pg. 4, 8 February 1806 Sam's strength, stamina, and endurance prevailed in the later stages of the bout, and Belcher had to yield in the 57th round. Belcher, an accomplished boxer, was the brother of Jem Belcher, a London heavyweight champion. In a second bout with Belcher on 28 July 1807, at Mouley Hurst, the match was declared a draw when Belcher's seconds declared a foul in the 34th round, though no decision was made. The *London Morning Chronicle* wrote that Sam appeared to increase in strength in the later rounds.\"Boxing, the Battle\", *The London Morning Chronicle*, London, England, pg. 3, 29 July 1807 Apparently Sam had accidentally hit Belcher in the face as he was falling over with a hand just touching the ring, a violation of the London Prize Rules. In their third and last fight, on 21 August 1807, at Crawley Common, Sam was seconded by Daniel Mendoza, as he had been in the first two fights. The match lasted 36 rounds and Sam's superior punching power and endurance led to Belcher's defeat. In the cruel, unregulated rules of the London Prize Ring, in the eighteenth round, Sam punched Belcher in the head while holding him by the neck, causing him to drop to the ground. The tactic, then known as fibbing, is illegal in modern boxing rules. Sam used his right expertly and with strength according to the *London Times*, but his left was used primarily for stopping his opponent and feinting.\"Boxing\", *The Times*, London, England, pg. 3, 21 August 1807 While Belcher left the ring nearly unconscious, Sam's most notable injury was a black eye.",
"More controversial than his victories over Belcher, Sam met a Wandsworth butcher, James Brown at Wimbledon common, in an impromptu battle where Sam finally met his match with a stronger boxer. Though Sam was knocked down twelve times, [Pierce Egan](/wiki/Pierce_Egan \"Pierce Egan\"), the most noted boxing historian of the era, defended Sam, believing he had fought mostly a defensive battle and might have dominated his opponent if he had had a financial stake in the outcome of the match.[upright\\=.8\\|left\\|thumb\\|1810s Artist depiction of Dutch Sam vs. Bill Medley](/wiki/File:Dutch_Sam_Ben_Medley_Fight_1861.jpeg \"Dutch Sam Ben Medley Fight 1861.jpeg\") After his defeats of Belcher, he had spectacular victories over Bill Cropley in 1808 and Ben Medley in 1810\\. The first battle was fought at around 154 pounds, and though Cropley was the slightly heavier opponent by around fourteen pounds, Sam persevered and seemed to have the upper hand throughout the match. The bout lasted around 25 minutes.\"Dutch Sam and Cropley\", *Morning Chronicle*, *London England*, pg. 3, 12 May 1808 Sam then defeated Ben Medley for a purse of 200 Guineas on 31 May 1810 in 39 rounds at Moulsey Hurst near Hampton in the London borough of Richmond.",
"On 21–23 December 1812, Sam performed in a sparring exhibition, with the boxer Bill Cropley and two others in the Theatre Royal Pavilion on Newcastle Street.\"Theatre Royal Pavilion\", *The Observer*, London, England, pg.3, 20 Dec 1812",
""
] |
Service
-------
The 84th Indiana Infantry was organized at [Indianapolis](/wiki/Indianapolis%2C_Indiana "Indianapolis, Indiana") and [Richmond, Indiana](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Indiana "Richmond, Indiana") and mustered in for a three\-year enlistment on September 3, 1862, under the command of [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel_%28United_States%29 "Colonel (United States)") Nelson Trusler.
The regiment was attached to 3rd Brigade, Kanawha Division, District of West Virginia, [Department of the Ohio](/wiki/Department_of_the_Ohio "Department of the Ohio"), October 1862\. District of Eastern Kentucky, Department of the Ohio, to February 18, 1863\. 2nd Brigade, Baird's 3rd Division, Army of Kentucky, Department of the Ohio, February 1863\. Baird's Division, Franklin, Tennessee, [Department of the Cumberland](/wiki/Department_of_the_Cumberland "Department of the Cumberland"), to June 1863\. 1st Brigade, 1st Division, Reserve Corps, Department of the Cumberland, to October 1863\. 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, [IV Corps](/wiki/IV_Corps_%28Union_Army%29 "IV Corps (Union Army)"), [Army of the Cumberland](/wiki/Army_of_the_Cumberland "Army of the Cumberland"), to August 1864\. 3rd Brigade, 3rd Division, IV Corps, Army of the Cumberland, to June 1865\.
The 84th Indiana Infantry mustered out of service on June 14, 1865\. Non\-veterans and recruits were transferred to the [57th Indiana Infantry](/wiki/57th_Regiment_Indiana_Infantry "57th Regiment Indiana Infantry").
### Service summary
This regiment was organized at Richmond and was mustered in September 3, 1862\. It left the state on the 8th for Covington, Kentucky, where it was assigned to the defenses against the threatened invasion of Kirby Smith's forces.
On October 1 it moved by rail for Point Pleasant, West Virginia, and moved from there on the 13th for Guyandotte where it remained until November 14\. It was then in the vicinity of Cassville and Catlettsburg, Kentucky, until February 7, 1863, when it left Catlettsburg for Louisville, which place was reached on the 17th and the regiment was assigned to the 2nd brigade, 3d division, Army of Kentucky.
It was first ordered to Nashville, then to Franklin, where it remained until June 3, being engaged in several skirmishes, including the pursuit of Van Dorn, March 9–12 and the repulse of Van Dorn's attack on Franklin April 10\. June 3, it marched for Triune and was assigned to the 1st brigade, 1st division, reserve corps, Gen. Granger commanding.
Tullahoma Campaign June 23 – July 7\. It was in the fight at Triune and pursuit of Bragg, the regiment marching to Middleton, Shelbyville and Wartrace, remaining there until August 12\. It moved to Estill Springs on the 20th thence to Tullahoma, Stevenson, Bridgeport and Chattanooga, arriving at the latter place September 13\.
It participated in the battle of Chickamauga, where its division held the extreme left, on the first day, repeatedly repulsing desperate assaults, and on the next day materially aided Gen. Thomas in saving his army from the massed assault of the enemy, losing in the two days 125 in killed, wounded and missing.
The regiment moved to Lookout Mountain, thence to Moccasin point, and on November 1, to Shell Mound, where it remained until January 26, 1864\. It was then assigned to the 2nd brigade, 1st division, 4th army corps, and moved towards Georgia via Cleveland, being engaged at Buzzard Roost.
It returned to Cleveland and remained there until May 3, when it moved with the army for Atlanta. It was engaged at Tunnel Hill, Rocky Face Ridge, Dalton, Resaca, Kingston, Pumpkin Vine Creek, Pine Mountain, Kennesaw Mountain, Kolb's farm and Peachtree Creek.
It participated in the operations about Atlanta and in the battles of Jonesboro and Lovejoy's Station, afterward being transferred to the 2nd brigade, 3rd division, and left Atlanta on October 3, for Chattanooga, moving thence to Athens, Ala., and thence to Pulaski, Tenn., Columbia and Franklin, being present at the battle at the latter place on November 30\.
It moved to Nashville, and in the battle there participated in a charge on the enemy's skirmish line, and later in a charge upon the main works of the enemy, carrying his position and driving him from the field. It moved in pursuit as far as Huntsville, Ala., and remained there until March 13, when it was ordered to eastern Tennessee, operating about Knoxville, Strawberry plains and Bull's Gap, until it moved to Nashville on April 18\.
It was mustered out June 14, 1865, when the recruits were transferred to the 57th Indiana, with which they served until its muster out in November.
|
[
"Service\n-------",
"The 84th Indiana Infantry was organized at [Indianapolis](/wiki/Indianapolis%2C_Indiana \"Indianapolis, Indiana\") and [Richmond, Indiana](/wiki/Richmond%2C_Indiana \"Richmond, Indiana\") and mustered in for a three\\-year enlistment on September 3, 1862, under the command of [Colonel](/wiki/Colonel_%28United_States%29 \"Colonel (United States)\") Nelson Trusler.",
"The regiment was attached to 3rd Brigade, Kanawha Division, District of West Virginia, [Department of the Ohio](/wiki/Department_of_the_Ohio \"Department of the Ohio\"), October 1862\\. District of Eastern Kentucky, Department of the Ohio, to February 18, 1863\\. 2nd Brigade, Baird's 3rd Division, Army of Kentucky, Department of the Ohio, February 1863\\. Baird's Division, Franklin, Tennessee, [Department of the Cumberland](/wiki/Department_of_the_Cumberland \"Department of the Cumberland\"), to June 1863\\. 1st Brigade, 1st Division, Reserve Corps, Department of the Cumberland, to October 1863\\. 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, [IV Corps](/wiki/IV_Corps_%28Union_Army%29 \"IV Corps (Union Army)\"), [Army of the Cumberland](/wiki/Army_of_the_Cumberland \"Army of the Cumberland\"), to August 1864\\. 3rd Brigade, 3rd Division, IV Corps, Army of the Cumberland, to June 1865\\.",
"The 84th Indiana Infantry mustered out of service on June 14, 1865\\. Non\\-veterans and recruits were transferred to the [57th Indiana Infantry](/wiki/57th_Regiment_Indiana_Infantry \"57th Regiment Indiana Infantry\").",
"### Service summary",
"This regiment was organized at Richmond and was mustered in September 3, 1862\\. It left the state on the 8th for Covington, Kentucky, where it was assigned to the defenses against the threatened invasion of Kirby Smith's forces.",
"On October 1 it moved by rail for Point Pleasant, West Virginia, and moved from there on the 13th for Guyandotte where it remained until November 14\\. It was then in the vicinity of Cassville and Catlettsburg, Kentucky, until February 7, 1863, when it left Catlettsburg for Louisville, which place was reached on the 17th and the regiment was assigned to the 2nd brigade, 3d division, Army of Kentucky.",
"It was first ordered to Nashville, then to Franklin, where it remained until June 3, being engaged in several skirmishes, including the pursuit of Van Dorn, March 9–12 and the repulse of Van Dorn's attack on Franklin April 10\\. June 3, it marched for Triune and was assigned to the 1st brigade, 1st division, reserve corps, Gen. Granger commanding.",
"Tullahoma Campaign June 23 – July 7\\. It was in the fight at Triune and pursuit of Bragg, the regiment marching to Middleton, Shelbyville and Wartrace, remaining there until August 12\\. It moved to Estill Springs on the 20th thence to Tullahoma, Stevenson, Bridgeport and Chattanooga, arriving at the latter place September 13\\.",
"It participated in the battle of Chickamauga, where its division held the extreme left, on the first day, repeatedly repulsing desperate assaults, and on the next day materially aided Gen. Thomas in saving his army from the massed assault of the enemy, losing in the two days 125 in killed, wounded and missing.",
"The regiment moved to Lookout Mountain, thence to Moccasin point, and on November 1, to Shell Mound, where it remained until January 26, 1864\\. It was then assigned to the 2nd brigade, 1st division, 4th army corps, and moved towards Georgia via Cleveland, being engaged at Buzzard Roost.",
"It returned to Cleveland and remained there until May 3, when it moved with the army for Atlanta. It was engaged at Tunnel Hill, Rocky Face Ridge, Dalton, Resaca, Kingston, Pumpkin Vine Creek, Pine Mountain, Kennesaw Mountain, Kolb's farm and Peachtree Creek.",
"It participated in the operations about Atlanta and in the battles of Jonesboro and Lovejoy's Station, afterward being transferred to the 2nd brigade, 3rd division, and left Atlanta on October 3, for Chattanooga, moving thence to Athens, Ala., and thence to Pulaski, Tenn., Columbia and Franklin, being present at the battle at the latter place on November 30\\.",
"It moved to Nashville, and in the battle there participated in a charge on the enemy's skirmish line, and later in a charge upon the main works of the enemy, carrying his position and driving him from the field. It moved in pursuit as far as Huntsville, Ala., and remained there until March 13, when it was ordered to eastern Tennessee, operating about Knoxville, Strawberry plains and Bull's Gap, until it moved to Nashville on April 18\\.",
"It was mustered out June 14, 1865, when the recruits were transferred to the 57th Indiana, with which they served until its muster out in November.",
""
] |
### Service summary
This regiment was organized at Richmond and was mustered in September 3, 1862\. It left the state on the 8th for Covington, Kentucky, where it was assigned to the defenses against the threatened invasion of Kirby Smith's forces.
On October 1 it moved by rail for Point Pleasant, West Virginia, and moved from there on the 13th for Guyandotte where it remained until November 14\. It was then in the vicinity of Cassville and Catlettsburg, Kentucky, until February 7, 1863, when it left Catlettsburg for Louisville, which place was reached on the 17th and the regiment was assigned to the 2nd brigade, 3d division, Army of Kentucky.
It was first ordered to Nashville, then to Franklin, where it remained until June 3, being engaged in several skirmishes, including the pursuit of Van Dorn, March 9–12 and the repulse of Van Dorn's attack on Franklin April 10\. June 3, it marched for Triune and was assigned to the 1st brigade, 1st division, reserve corps, Gen. Granger commanding.
Tullahoma Campaign June 23 – July 7\. It was in the fight at Triune and pursuit of Bragg, the regiment marching to Middleton, Shelbyville and Wartrace, remaining there until August 12\. It moved to Estill Springs on the 20th thence to Tullahoma, Stevenson, Bridgeport and Chattanooga, arriving at the latter place September 13\.
It participated in the battle of Chickamauga, where its division held the extreme left, on the first day, repeatedly repulsing desperate assaults, and on the next day materially aided Gen. Thomas in saving his army from the massed assault of the enemy, losing in the two days 125 in killed, wounded and missing.
The regiment moved to Lookout Mountain, thence to Moccasin point, and on November 1, to Shell Mound, where it remained until January 26, 1864\. It was then assigned to the 2nd brigade, 1st division, 4th army corps, and moved towards Georgia via Cleveland, being engaged at Buzzard Roost.
It returned to Cleveland and remained there until May 3, when it moved with the army for Atlanta. It was engaged at Tunnel Hill, Rocky Face Ridge, Dalton, Resaca, Kingston, Pumpkin Vine Creek, Pine Mountain, Kennesaw Mountain, Kolb's farm and Peachtree Creek.
It participated in the operations about Atlanta and in the battles of Jonesboro and Lovejoy's Station, afterward being transferred to the 2nd brigade, 3rd division, and left Atlanta on October 3, for Chattanooga, moving thence to Athens, Ala., and thence to Pulaski, Tenn., Columbia and Franklin, being present at the battle at the latter place on November 30\.
It moved to Nashville, and in the battle there participated in a charge on the enemy's skirmish line, and later in a charge upon the main works of the enemy, carrying his position and driving him from the field. It moved in pursuit as far as Huntsville, Ala., and remained there until March 13, when it was ordered to eastern Tennessee, operating about Knoxville, Strawberry plains and Bull's Gap, until it moved to Nashville on April 18\.
It was mustered out June 14, 1865, when the recruits were transferred to the 57th Indiana, with which they served until its muster out in November.
|
[
"### Service summary",
"This regiment was organized at Richmond and was mustered in September 3, 1862\\. It left the state on the 8th for Covington, Kentucky, where it was assigned to the defenses against the threatened invasion of Kirby Smith's forces.",
"On October 1 it moved by rail for Point Pleasant, West Virginia, and moved from there on the 13th for Guyandotte where it remained until November 14\\. It was then in the vicinity of Cassville and Catlettsburg, Kentucky, until February 7, 1863, when it left Catlettsburg for Louisville, which place was reached on the 17th and the regiment was assigned to the 2nd brigade, 3d division, Army of Kentucky.",
"It was first ordered to Nashville, then to Franklin, where it remained until June 3, being engaged in several skirmishes, including the pursuit of Van Dorn, March 9–12 and the repulse of Van Dorn's attack on Franklin April 10\\. June 3, it marched for Triune and was assigned to the 1st brigade, 1st division, reserve corps, Gen. Granger commanding.",
"Tullahoma Campaign June 23 – July 7\\. It was in the fight at Triune and pursuit of Bragg, the regiment marching to Middleton, Shelbyville and Wartrace, remaining there until August 12\\. It moved to Estill Springs on the 20th thence to Tullahoma, Stevenson, Bridgeport and Chattanooga, arriving at the latter place September 13\\.",
"It participated in the battle of Chickamauga, where its division held the extreme left, on the first day, repeatedly repulsing desperate assaults, and on the next day materially aided Gen. Thomas in saving his army from the massed assault of the enemy, losing in the two days 125 in killed, wounded and missing.",
"The regiment moved to Lookout Mountain, thence to Moccasin point, and on November 1, to Shell Mound, where it remained until January 26, 1864\\. It was then assigned to the 2nd brigade, 1st division, 4th army corps, and moved towards Georgia via Cleveland, being engaged at Buzzard Roost.",
"It returned to Cleveland and remained there until May 3, when it moved with the army for Atlanta. It was engaged at Tunnel Hill, Rocky Face Ridge, Dalton, Resaca, Kingston, Pumpkin Vine Creek, Pine Mountain, Kennesaw Mountain, Kolb's farm and Peachtree Creek.",
"It participated in the operations about Atlanta and in the battles of Jonesboro and Lovejoy's Station, afterward being transferred to the 2nd brigade, 3rd division, and left Atlanta on October 3, for Chattanooga, moving thence to Athens, Ala., and thence to Pulaski, Tenn., Columbia and Franklin, being present at the battle at the latter place on November 30\\.",
"It moved to Nashville, and in the battle there participated in a charge on the enemy's skirmish line, and later in a charge upon the main works of the enemy, carrying his position and driving him from the field. It moved in pursuit as far as Huntsville, Ala., and remained there until March 13, when it was ordered to eastern Tennessee, operating about Knoxville, Strawberry plains and Bull's Gap, until it moved to Nashville on April 18\\.",
"It was mustered out June 14, 1865, when the recruits were transferred to the 57th Indiana, with which they served until its muster out in November.",
""
] |
Initial Movements
-----------------
### September 1862
On September 8 the regiment left on the cars for Covington, Kentucky, under command of General Morris, no fixed officer having reached the regiment. The rebel General Kirby Smith was threatening Cincinnati, and troops were being concentrated to repel him. Upon arriving in front of the enemy, the command had neither arms, ammunition, accoutrements or uniform.
At two o'clock, on the morning of September 10, the regiment was furnished with arms and ten rounds of ammunition to the man; but the cartridges were too large for the guns. The result was that the regiment was marched two miles to the right on the Lexington Pike, where cartridges of proper caliber were procured. Captain Erwin, Sixth Ohio, was placed in command. Major Neff was present, but was not posted in military maneuvers. The command was formed in line of battle by Captain Erwin, on the southwestern side of a hill, one mile to the right of the Lexington pike. The heat of the sun was terrible, and water scarce. The men chewed cornstalks to allay their thirst. In a short time picks and shovels were furnished the regiment, and, being familiar with those tools, they soon intrenched themselves. Captain Erwin showed his sagacity in this respect. He knew the men were not prepared to fight, yet they could dig.
The command was assigned to the First Brigade, First Division, United States forces. General Judah commanded the division, and General Love the brigade. Lieutenant Colonel Orr took command of the regiment on September 15, and was relieved on the 20th by Colonel Nelson Trusler. In the meantime the rebel troops had fallen back. The regiment remained in camp among the hills of Kentucky until October first. The Eighty\-Fourth was then ordered to report to Point Pleasant, Virginia. Transported by rail from Cincinnati to Portland, Ohio, it marched to Galliapolis, arriving on the 4th. Here the command remained until October fifteenth, and then left for Guyandotte, Virginia. The brigade consisted of the Fortieth Ohio, Eighty\-Fourth Indiana, a squadron of cavalry, and a battery of four twelve\-pounders, under command of Colonel Cramer, of the Fortieth Ohio. Arrived at Guyandotte on the next day. Here it remained until November 14\. In the meantime a detachment of the Eighty\-Fourth, two pieces of artillery and a squadron of cavalry was sent on a reconnaissance mission to Catlettsburg, Kentucky, at the mouth of the Big Sandy River. No enemy being found the command returned to camp. Company K joined the regiment during the last of October.
### November 1862
Adjutant Wood resigned on November 9\.
On the morning of November 9, the command started for Catlettsburg, arriving the same evening. Here the time was passed in drill and picket duty, until December 12, when the command moved to Louisa, Kentucky, thirty miles up the Big Sandy, arriving on the 14th and going into camp. The roads were deep with mud. The men went to social gatherings and parties to while away the time. The first paymaster appeared about this time, and made every man feel rich for a little while. And so, with song and dance, and mud, the year of 1862 went out, and 1863 found the regiment still in winter quarters on the banks of the Big Sandy.
### February 1863
On February 7, 1863, orders were received to report at Cincinnati. The command proceeded by steamer down the Big Sandy and Ohio rivers, arriving at Cincinnati on the 13th. From there the regiment proceeded to Louisville, and thence to Nashville, arriving on the 17th. The Eighty\-Fourth was now assigned to the Second Brigade, Third Division, Army of Kentucky, and went into camp three miles south of Nashville, on the Franklin pike.
### March 1863
On March 5 the command left for Franklin, arriving the same evening. On the 9th they drew five days' rations and started on a reconnaissance, in force, in the direction of Duck River. Marched fourteen miles the first day, and bivouacked in the midst of a rain storm. Next day reached Rutherford's creek and bivouacked on the north bank. There was some fighting with a portion of the expedition and the enemy, but the Eighty\-Fourth was not engaged. On the 12th the regiment returned to its camp on the north bank of the Harpeth River, near Franklin, making a march of twenty miles in six hours and a half. The day was warm; the men heavily loaded; yet all arrived safe in camp.
### June 1863
The regiment remained at Franklin until June 3, assisting in building Fort Granger, when it was ordered to move to Trinne, Tennessee. The command arrived at Triune on the evening of June third, and went into camp in a large clover field. The men were in good spirits and condition, and felt that soon there would be hot work with the enemy, as his cavalry was constantly skirmishing in the front, driving in the videttes, and being checked by our reserve of infantry on picket.
On June 11 the enemy made an attack upon our position. The affair lasted one hour and a half, the rebels being driven back. The Eighty\-Fourth occupied the extreme left of the front line, and was among the foremost in pursuit, which was continued until dark, without loss to the regiment. The command then returned to camp at Triune.
On June 23 the command, with five days' rations, moved in the direction of Murfreesboro'. Arriving at Middletown during the afternoon of the 25th, it halted.
On the morning of the 27th the command was ordered to advance on Guy's Gap, where the enemy appeared to be in force. Upon the approach of our cavalry, with infantry supports, however, they retired in the direction of Shelbyville, our columns following in close pursuit. Reached Guy's Gap and bivouacked, having had no encounter with the enemy. Early next morning the Eighty\-Fourth was detailed to guard five hundred rebel prisoners and convey them to Murfreesboro'. Upon reaching Middletown the prisoners were placed in custody of troops stationed there, and the regiment bivouacked.
### July and August 1863
The next day they marched to Shelbyville and camped three miles north. While in this vicinity the camp was moved several times.
On July 3 it marched to Wartrace, Tennessee, where the regiment rested until August twelfth, living upon the fat of the land. Chickens, green corn, potatoes, peaches and other luxuries were plentiful, and the men improved in health upon the change of diet.
On August 12 the command took up the line of march for Rossville, reaching Tullahoma next day, and in the afternoon marched to Estell Springs, crossed the Elk River and went into camp.
### September 1863
On August 21 the regiment returned to Tullahoma, and remained in camp there until September 7, at which time it was ordered to march for Stevenson, Alabama. Passing through various small towns the regiment arrived at Stevenson at sundown on the 9h, and bivouacked in the southern suburbs of the place. The next day they marched to Bridgeport, reaching there at noon, tired, hungry and thirsty.
On the 12th they crossed the Tennessee River and camped, and the next morning received orders to draw twelve days' rations and march for Chattanooga—distant some thirty miles.
After a toilsome march, during which they climbed the steep and rugged sides of Lookout Mountain, they reached Rossville next morning.
On the 18th the regiment received orders to march for the front. General Whittaker was at the head of the column. The command had marched five miles in the direction of Ringgold, when it came suddenly upon the rebel pickets, who fired upon the General and staff, but with no result, except to hasten forward our skirmishers. A detail was at once sent forward and skirmished with the enemy till dark. The Eighty\-Fourth was formed in line of battle on the left of the Ringgold road, near a small stream called Pea Vine, or Little Chickamauga. The rebel batteries threw several shells over and around them, but did no damage, the command being protected by a slight elevation in front. After dark the regiment moved one hundred yards in advance, where the men lay down in line of battle, on their arms, for the night. Next morning they fell back to McAfee church, distant one mile, where the men prepared breakfast. Two companies were thrown forward as skirmishers, and were soon reinforced by a third; all under command of Major Neff. Three scouts being called for to act as videttes, E. D. Baugh, C. N. Taylor and John Wall, of Company E, tendered their service, and started for the front. They had hardly disappeared from view when the sharp crack of the rebel rifles was heard, answered at once by the fire of the scouts. Our skirmishers at once advanced, became sharply engaged with those of the enemy, and drove them back upon his main line. The reserve of the regiment then moved to the support of the skirmishers. The Eighty\-Fourth was formed on the right of the Ringgold road behind a fence. A brisk fight ensued, lasting an hour and a half, the regiment losing twenty\-two killed, wounded and missing. No support arriving, the command was forced back. They had been fighting a brigade of the rebel General Longstreet's command. In fact, owing to the heavy woods and thick underbrush obstructing the vision, and the enemy's familiarity with the country, the regiment was nearly surrounded before they were aware of their situation. The Fortieth Ohio and the One Hundred and Fifteenth Illinois, however, covered their flanks and rear, and saved them from being captured. They bivouacked that night near the McAfee church. The weather was extremely cold, a heavy frost covering the surface of the earth. Many of the men were compelled to build fires to keep from freezing, having no blankets. Drawing rations, and eating supper, the men lay down, little dreaming of the dreadful shock of arms on the battle\-field of Chickamauga, which followed on the morrow.
|
[
"Initial Movements\n-----------------",
"### September 1862",
"On September 8 the regiment left on the cars for Covington, Kentucky, under command of General Morris, no fixed officer having reached the regiment. The rebel General Kirby Smith was threatening Cincinnati, and troops were being concentrated to repel him. Upon arriving in front of the enemy, the command had neither arms, ammunition, accoutrements or uniform.",
"At two o'clock, on the morning of September 10, the regiment was furnished with arms and ten rounds of ammunition to the man; but the cartridges were too large for the guns. The result was that the regiment was marched two miles to the right on the Lexington Pike, where cartridges of proper caliber were procured. Captain Erwin, Sixth Ohio, was placed in command. Major Neff was present, but was not posted in military maneuvers. The command was formed in line of battle by Captain Erwin, on the southwestern side of a hill, one mile to the right of the Lexington pike. The heat of the sun was terrible, and water scarce. The men chewed cornstalks to allay their thirst. In a short time picks and shovels were furnished the regiment, and, being familiar with those tools, they soon intrenched themselves. Captain Erwin showed his sagacity in this respect. He knew the men were not prepared to fight, yet they could dig.",
"The command was assigned to the First Brigade, First Division, United States forces. General Judah commanded the division, and General Love the brigade. Lieutenant Colonel Orr took command of the regiment on September 15, and was relieved on the 20th by Colonel Nelson Trusler. In the meantime the rebel troops had fallen back. The regiment remained in camp among the hills of Kentucky until October first. The Eighty\\-Fourth was then ordered to report to Point Pleasant, Virginia. Transported by rail from Cincinnati to Portland, Ohio, it marched to Galliapolis, arriving on the 4th. Here the command remained until October fifteenth, and then left for Guyandotte, Virginia. The brigade consisted of the Fortieth Ohio, Eighty\\-Fourth Indiana, a squadron of cavalry, and a battery of four twelve\\-pounders, under command of Colonel Cramer, of the Fortieth Ohio. Arrived at Guyandotte on the next day. Here it remained until November 14\\. In the meantime a detachment of the Eighty\\-Fourth, two pieces of artillery and a squadron of cavalry was sent on a reconnaissance mission to Catlettsburg, Kentucky, at the mouth of the Big Sandy River. No enemy being found the command returned to camp. Company K joined the regiment during the last of October.",
"### November 1862",
"Adjutant Wood resigned on November 9\\.\nOn the morning of November 9, the command started for Catlettsburg, arriving the same evening. Here the time was passed in drill and picket duty, until December 12, when the command moved to Louisa, Kentucky, thirty miles up the Big Sandy, arriving on the 14th and going into camp. The roads were deep with mud. The men went to social gatherings and parties to while away the time. The first paymaster appeared about this time, and made every man feel rich for a little while. And so, with song and dance, and mud, the year of 1862 went out, and 1863 found the regiment still in winter quarters on the banks of the Big Sandy.",
"### February 1863",
"On February 7, 1863, orders were received to report at Cincinnati. The command proceeded by steamer down the Big Sandy and Ohio rivers, arriving at Cincinnati on the 13th. From there the regiment proceeded to Louisville, and thence to Nashville, arriving on the 17th. The Eighty\\-Fourth was now assigned to the Second Brigade, Third Division, Army of Kentucky, and went into camp three miles south of Nashville, on the Franklin pike.",
"### March 1863",
"On March 5 the command left for Franklin, arriving the same evening. On the 9th they drew five days' rations and started on a reconnaissance, in force, in the direction of Duck River. Marched fourteen miles the first day, and bivouacked in the midst of a rain storm. Next day reached Rutherford's creek and bivouacked on the north bank. There was some fighting with a portion of the expedition and the enemy, but the Eighty\\-Fourth was not engaged. On the 12th the regiment returned to its camp on the north bank of the Harpeth River, near Franklin, making a march of twenty miles in six hours and a half. The day was warm; the men heavily loaded; yet all arrived safe in camp.",
"### June 1863",
"The regiment remained at Franklin until June 3, assisting in building Fort Granger, when it was ordered to move to Trinne, Tennessee. The command arrived at Triune on the evening of June third, and went into camp in a large clover field. The men were in good spirits and condition, and felt that soon there would be hot work with the enemy, as his cavalry was constantly skirmishing in the front, driving in the videttes, and being checked by our reserve of infantry on picket.",
"On June 11 the enemy made an attack upon our position. The affair lasted one hour and a half, the rebels being driven back. The Eighty\\-Fourth occupied the extreme left of the front line, and was among the foremost in pursuit, which was continued until dark, without loss to the regiment. The command then returned to camp at Triune.",
"On June 23 the command, with five days' rations, moved in the direction of Murfreesboro'. Arriving at Middletown during the afternoon of the 25th, it halted.",
"On the morning of the 27th the command was ordered to advance on Guy's Gap, where the enemy appeared to be in force. Upon the approach of our cavalry, with infantry supports, however, they retired in the direction of Shelbyville, our columns following in close pursuit. Reached Guy's Gap and bivouacked, having had no encounter with the enemy. Early next morning the Eighty\\-Fourth was detailed to guard five hundred rebel prisoners and convey them to Murfreesboro'. Upon reaching Middletown the prisoners were placed in custody of troops stationed there, and the regiment bivouacked.",
"### July and August 1863",
"The next day they marched to Shelbyville and camped three miles north. While in this vicinity the camp was moved several times.\nOn July 3 it marched to Wartrace, Tennessee, where the regiment rested until August twelfth, living upon the fat of the land. Chickens, green corn, potatoes, peaches and other luxuries were plentiful, and the men improved in health upon the change of diet.\nOn August 12 the command took up the line of march for Rossville, reaching Tullahoma next day, and in the afternoon marched to Estell Springs, crossed the Elk River and went into camp.",
"### September 1863",
"On August 21 the regiment returned to Tullahoma, and remained in camp there until September 7, at which time it was ordered to march for Stevenson, Alabama. Passing through various small towns the regiment arrived at Stevenson at sundown on the 9h, and bivouacked in the southern suburbs of the place. The next day they marched to Bridgeport, reaching there at noon, tired, hungry and thirsty.",
"On the 12th they crossed the Tennessee River and camped, and the next morning received orders to draw twelve days' rations and march for Chattanooga—distant some thirty miles.",
"After a toilsome march, during which they climbed the steep and rugged sides of Lookout Mountain, they reached Rossville next morning.",
"On the 18th the regiment received orders to march for the front. General Whittaker was at the head of the column. The command had marched five miles in the direction of Ringgold, when it came suddenly upon the rebel pickets, who fired upon the General and staff, but with no result, except to hasten forward our skirmishers. A detail was at once sent forward and skirmished with the enemy till dark. The Eighty\\-Fourth was formed in line of battle on the left of the Ringgold road, near a small stream called Pea Vine, or Little Chickamauga. The rebel batteries threw several shells over and around them, but did no damage, the command being protected by a slight elevation in front. After dark the regiment moved one hundred yards in advance, where the men lay down in line of battle, on their arms, for the night. Next morning they fell back to McAfee church, distant one mile, where the men prepared breakfast. Two companies were thrown forward as skirmishers, and were soon reinforced by a third; all under command of Major Neff. Three scouts being called for to act as videttes, E. D. Baugh, C. N. Taylor and John Wall, of Company E, tendered their service, and started for the front. They had hardly disappeared from view when the sharp crack of the rebel rifles was heard, answered at once by the fire of the scouts. Our skirmishers at once advanced, became sharply engaged with those of the enemy, and drove them back upon his main line. The reserve of the regiment then moved to the support of the skirmishers. The Eighty\\-Fourth was formed on the right of the Ringgold road behind a fence. A brisk fight ensued, lasting an hour and a half, the regiment losing twenty\\-two killed, wounded and missing. No support arriving, the command was forced back. They had been fighting a brigade of the rebel General Longstreet's command. In fact, owing to the heavy woods and thick underbrush obstructing the vision, and the enemy's familiarity with the country, the regiment was nearly surrounded before they were aware of their situation. The Fortieth Ohio and the One Hundred and Fifteenth Illinois, however, covered their flanks and rear, and saved them from being captured. They bivouacked that night near the McAfee church. The weather was extremely cold, a heavy frost covering the surface of the earth. Many of the men were compelled to build fires to keep from freezing, having no blankets. Drawing rations, and eating supper, the men lay down, little dreaming of the dreadful shock of arms on the battle\\-field of Chickamauga, which followed on the morrow.",
""
] |
Siege of Chattanooga
--------------------
On the morning of the 21st the command was ordered to fall back towards Chattanooga, and at one o'clock p.m., they took position on Missionary Ridge, on the left of the Army of the Cumberland. Here they threw up a line of works, and held the position until ten o'clock at night, when they quietly retired towards Chattanooga, reaching that town at four o'clock a.m., having marched slowly all night. Next day they crossed the Tennessee River and bivouacked on the magnificent hills on the north bank of that stream, which bear the general name of Waldron's Ridge. On the 24th they moved down the Tennessee River opposite Lookout Mountain. The Eighty\-Fourth was sent down the river on picket duty, where it remained for nine consecutive days and nights, keeping up an almost constant fire upon the rebels who were posted on the opposite shore, behind the rocks, in a small stockade they had built. The Eighty\-Fourth lost but one man killed. Upon being relieved they marched to Moccasin Point and went into camp. Soon received orders to move camp half a mile and erect winter quarters. They went to work at once, and notwithstanding the daily shellings from a rebel battery planted upon the point of Lookout Mountain, soon had their log houses complete. The suffering was terrible at this place. Having no tents or blankets, the weather being wet and cold, with short rations, it was strange that the soldiers survived the exposure. Sometimes they would be seen gathering grains of corn out of the mud, where the mules and horses had been fed, so long before that the grains had sprouted, and eagerly devouring them. Twenty\-five cents was freely given by the hungry soldiers for a single ear of corn. But the men were cheerful and patient, and willing to endure all for the cause in which they were engaged.
### October 1863
Early in October the Eighty\-Fourth was assigned to the Second Brigade, First Division, Fourth Army Corps. Colonel Trusler resigned on October 19\.
### November 1863
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=December 2017}}On November 1 the command was ordered to cross the Tennessee River and march in the direction of Bridgeport. The column moved around the base of Lookout Mountain—the rebel battery, upon its crown, throwing shells in proximity as it passed—bivouacking that night in Wauhatchee Valley. Next day they reached Shell Mound, Tennessee, at sundown, hungry and cold, not a mouthful to eat having been given them during the whole day's march. General Whittaker rode along the line and told the men that they should have rations, which announcement was received with hearty cheers. Five days' full rations were at once issued. Most of the men sat up and cooked and ate all night.
On the morning of November 3, the command went into camp on the south bank of the Tennessee River, near Nickajack cave, and put up winter quarters. Major General Stanley took command of the First Division, to which the brigade was attached. The Eighty\-Fourth Indiana was left in camp at Shell Mound to guard that point, while the rest of the brigade was sent to participate in the battles at Lookout Mountain and Mission Ridge. They were detailed for this purpose on account of having neither tents nor blankets, those articles having been captured and burned by the enemy at Waldron's Ridge, on October 4, while being transported from Bridgeport to Camp Clark, Tennessee.
A Sgt in company H Smoked Reefer and beat his meat and sprayed hard tack everywhere.
### December 1863
On December 9, Lieutenant Colonel Orr resigned. A recruiting party had been sent to Indiana and returned with fifty\-four men.
### January 1864
On January 26, 1864, the command marched to the Narrows, a distance of three miles. Here it was detailed to build the road to enable teams to pass. The next day they marched to Whiteside Station; thence to Lookout Creek, at the foot of Lookout Mountain.
On the 29th the regiment marched over Lookout Mountain to Chattanooga; thence through the town to Mission Ridge. On the 30th it crossed the waters of Chickamauga Creek, and went into camp near Tiner's Station.
### February 1864
On February 3 they moved to Ottawa Station, and thence, on the 6th, to Blue Springs, Tennessee. On the 22nd they marched to Red Clay, and reached Chickasaw Creek on the 23rd, where the division joined the left of the Fourteenth Corps. Next day they fell back three miles, and, taking another road, moved in the direction of Tunnel Hill to the support of the Fourteenth Corps. On the 25th it marched in the direction of Dalton, Georgia. After marching eight miles they found the rebel army drawn up in line of battle. Preparations were at once made for an attack. The Eighty\-Fourth was formed in the center of the second line, to support the Fortieth Ohio. The charge was made at eleven a.m., resulting in driving the rebels two miles through the dense thickets of undergrowth near Buzzard Roost. Our forces skirmished with the enemy during the remainder of the day. The Eighty\-Fourth was ordered to remain under cover of a small hill that afforded but little protection. The rebels kept up a furious fire of artillery during the day, doing considerable damage. The Eighty\-Fourth lost in this engagement one man killed and two wounded. At nine o'clock a.m., they retired from the field, and reached the camp they had left in the morning, at two a.m., of the 26th.
During the afternoon of the same day they marched to Tunnel Hill, arriving at sunset, and ate supper in sight of the rebel camp fires. At eight p.m., they countermarched to Tiger's creek, arriving at one a.m., of the 27th, when, after a few hours, the command moved, leaving the Eighty\-Fourth as rear guard to protect the train. After proceeding half a mile, the rebel cavalry fired upon the regiment from a hill to the left. The regiment at once formed in line of battle, and threw out skirmishers. Two pieces of artillery were posted at the Stone Church, and fired several rounds, checking the rebel advance, when the foe retired. Skirmishers were called in, and the command marched in the direction of Blue Springs, bivouacking that night on the rebel Colonel Ewing's farm; reached Blue Springs next day. The soldiers were now much worn down by the constant marching and skirmishing.
### March 1864
On March 10, Major A. J. Neff was promoted to the Lieutenant Colonel, and Captain William A. Boyd appointed Major. The command remained at Blue Springs, drilling and performing the usual duties of camp life for two months.
|
[
"Siege of Chattanooga\n--------------------",
"On the morning of the 21st the command was ordered to fall back towards Chattanooga, and at one o'clock p.m., they took position on Missionary Ridge, on the left of the Army of the Cumberland. Here they threw up a line of works, and held the position until ten o'clock at night, when they quietly retired towards Chattanooga, reaching that town at four o'clock a.m., having marched slowly all night. Next day they crossed the Tennessee River and bivouacked on the magnificent hills on the north bank of that stream, which bear the general name of Waldron's Ridge. On the 24th they moved down the Tennessee River opposite Lookout Mountain. The Eighty\\-Fourth was sent down the river on picket duty, where it remained for nine consecutive days and nights, keeping up an almost constant fire upon the rebels who were posted on the opposite shore, behind the rocks, in a small stockade they had built. The Eighty\\-Fourth lost but one man killed. Upon being relieved they marched to Moccasin Point and went into camp. Soon received orders to move camp half a mile and erect winter quarters. They went to work at once, and notwithstanding the daily shellings from a rebel battery planted upon the point of Lookout Mountain, soon had their log houses complete. The suffering was terrible at this place. Having no tents or blankets, the weather being wet and cold, with short rations, it was strange that the soldiers survived the exposure. Sometimes they would be seen gathering grains of corn out of the mud, where the mules and horses had been fed, so long before that the grains had sprouted, and eagerly devouring them. Twenty\\-five cents was freely given by the hungry soldiers for a single ear of corn. But the men were cheerful and patient, and willing to endure all for the cause in which they were engaged.",
"### October 1863",
"Early in October the Eighty\\-Fourth was assigned to the Second Brigade, First Division, Fourth Army Corps. Colonel Trusler resigned on October 19\\.",
"### November 1863",
"{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=December 2017}}On November 1 the command was ordered to cross the Tennessee River and march in the direction of Bridgeport. The column moved around the base of Lookout Mountain—the rebel battery, upon its crown, throwing shells in proximity as it passed—bivouacking that night in Wauhatchee Valley. Next day they reached Shell Mound, Tennessee, at sundown, hungry and cold, not a mouthful to eat having been given them during the whole day's march. General Whittaker rode along the line and told the men that they should have rations, which announcement was received with hearty cheers. Five days' full rations were at once issued. Most of the men sat up and cooked and ate all night.",
"On the morning of November 3, the command went into camp on the south bank of the Tennessee River, near Nickajack cave, and put up winter quarters. Major General Stanley took command of the First Division, to which the brigade was attached. The Eighty\\-Fourth Indiana was left in camp at Shell Mound to guard that point, while the rest of the brigade was sent to participate in the battles at Lookout Mountain and Mission Ridge. They were detailed for this purpose on account of having neither tents nor blankets, those articles having been captured and burned by the enemy at Waldron's Ridge, on October 4, while being transported from Bridgeport to Camp Clark, Tennessee.",
"A Sgt in company H Smoked Reefer and beat his meat and sprayed hard tack everywhere.",
"### December 1863",
"On December 9, Lieutenant Colonel Orr resigned. A recruiting party had been sent to Indiana and returned with fifty\\-four men.",
"### January 1864",
"On January 26, 1864, the command marched to the Narrows, a distance of three miles. Here it was detailed to build the road to enable teams to pass. The next day they marched to Whiteside Station; thence to Lookout Creek, at the foot of Lookout Mountain.",
"On the 29th the regiment marched over Lookout Mountain to Chattanooga; thence through the town to Mission Ridge. On the 30th it crossed the waters of Chickamauga Creek, and went into camp near Tiner's Station.",
"### February 1864",
"On February 3 they moved to Ottawa Station, and thence, on the 6th, to Blue Springs, Tennessee. On the 22nd they marched to Red Clay, and reached Chickasaw Creek on the 23rd, where the division joined the left of the Fourteenth Corps. Next day they fell back three miles, and, taking another road, moved in the direction of Tunnel Hill to the support of the Fourteenth Corps. On the 25th it marched in the direction of Dalton, Georgia. After marching eight miles they found the rebel army drawn up in line of battle. Preparations were at once made for an attack. The Eighty\\-Fourth was formed in the center of the second line, to support the Fortieth Ohio. The charge was made at eleven a.m., resulting in driving the rebels two miles through the dense thickets of undergrowth near Buzzard Roost. Our forces skirmished with the enemy during the remainder of the day. The Eighty\\-Fourth was ordered to remain under cover of a small hill that afforded but little protection. The rebels kept up a furious fire of artillery during the day, doing considerable damage. The Eighty\\-Fourth lost in this engagement one man killed and two wounded. At nine o'clock a.m., they retired from the field, and reached the camp they had left in the morning, at two a.m., of the 26th.",
"During the afternoon of the same day they marched to Tunnel Hill, arriving at sunset, and ate supper in sight of the rebel camp fires. At eight p.m., they countermarched to Tiger's creek, arriving at one a.m., of the 27th, when, after a few hours, the command moved, leaving the Eighty\\-Fourth as rear guard to protect the train. After proceeding half a mile, the rebel cavalry fired upon the regiment from a hill to the left. The regiment at once formed in line of battle, and threw out skirmishers. Two pieces of artillery were posted at the Stone Church, and fired several rounds, checking the rebel advance, when the foe retired. Skirmishers were called in, and the command marched in the direction of Blue Springs, bivouacking that night on the rebel Colonel Ewing's farm; reached Blue Springs next day. The soldiers were now much worn down by the constant marching and skirmishing.",
"### March 1864",
"On March 10, Major A. J. Neff was promoted to the Lieutenant Colonel, and Captain William A. Boyd appointed Major. The command remained at Blue Springs, drilling and performing the usual duties of camp life for two months.",
""
] |
Atlanta Campaign
----------------
### May 1864
That campaign, resulting in the capture of Atlanta, which has rendered the name of General W. T. Sherman famous in history, was commenced on May 3, 1864\. The part taken by the Eighty\-Fourth Indiana will be told in simple language.
At twelve o'clock on May 3, the command broke camp and marched to Red Clay. The next day they reached Catoosa Springs, and threw up a temporary line of works, behind which the Eighty\-Fourth laid for the night. On the morning of the 5th they moved northeast of the Catoosa Springs, remaining there until the seventh, when they marched towards Tunnel Hill. When within two miles of the Hill the advance skirmished with the enemy. Two companies of the Eighty\-Fourth were deployed as skirmishers. The brigade was ordered to march to the left and charge upon the enemy, who were in position upon an elevation east of the Tunnel. The movement was successful, the rebels being driven from the hill, with no loss to the regiment. The Eighty\-Fourth was on the left of the front line. The brigade was the first upon Tunnel Hill, and the Eighty\-Fourth the second regiment.
On the 8th instant they moved in line of battle towards Rocky Faced Ridge. Some skirmishing took place, with no loss. At night, the brigade fell hack to Tunnel Hill and bivouacked.
On the 9h the command advanced in the direction of the gap in Rocky Faced Ridge. After marching two miles the Eighty\-Fourth Indiana and [Ninety\-Sixth Illinois](/wiki/96th_Illinois_Volunteer_Infantry_Regiment "96th Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment") were ordered to unsling knapsacks and prepare for an assault on the enemy's works. Three companies of the Eighty\-Fourth, under Major Boyd, were thrown forward as skirmishers, with orders to press up the hill as far as possible, the regiment following in close support. The skirmishers became warmly engaged, and, being pressed by the heavy skirmish line of the enemy, two companies, under Captain Miller, were sent to reinforce them. The rebels had a decided advantage in position and shelter, and, as our men pressed forward, they took advantage of every rock and tree to cover them from the deadly fire blazing forth from the summit of the Ridge. At six p.m., the Eighty\-Fourth charged the enemy's works, but were met by such a fierce and deadly fire as to be repulsed, with a loss of fourteen killed and wounded. Major William A. Boyd was mortally wounded while gallantly leading his companies. The main portion of the command retired a short distance and bivouacked, leaving four companies on the skirmish line till morning. On the 10th, the command moved to the left in support of a battery, and remained until night of the next day, when they moved to the right of the gap to relieve a portion of the Fourteenth Corps. The Eighty\-Fourth took position behind temporary works on the front line. One company of fifty\-two men, under Captain Carter, was advanced as skirmishers. The skirmishing was quite brisk during the twelfth. On the 13th it was ascertained by our advance that the rebels had evacuated Rocky Faced Ridge during the night, and the Eighty\-Fourth moved through the Gap, passing through Dalton, and halting for the night nine miles south. The next morning they advanced towards Resacca, and found the enemy in force. The regiment at once formed in line of battle on the right of the road, forming the right of the Second Brigade. The Third Brigade was in front, and they moved forward to their support, taking a hill in front of the enemy's works. They then started to reform the Second Brigade, but while making the movement the enemy made an assault upon our front line, driving part of the Second Brigade in confusion from its position. The Eighty\-Fourth, however, stood firm, and was soon formed in a strong position by General Stanley in person. The enemy was approaching in heavy force, four columns deep. The command was in a critical situation. The weight of the enemy's columns was irresistible. Yet the command awaited the shock with the calmness of heroes. At this thrilling moment, rescue came. New columns of Union troops marched through the woods, and the fighting Twentieth Corps of General Hooker fell upon the rebel columns like an avalanche, hurling them back in dismay and confusion.
The Fifth Indiana Battery did glorious work that day among the wild hills of Resacca. The rebel ranks were decimated by the skillful practice of its gunners. Though the firing was terrific the Eighty\-Fourth met with no loss, owing to the protection afforded by the hill. The loss was heavy in other portions of the field. At night a strong line of works was built on the hill upon which the Eighty\-Fourth was posted. Here the command remained until the morning of the 15th, when they moved, by the right flank, half a mile, where another line of works was built by the command, and one\-half the regiment stood at arms during the night. On the night of the 15th the rebels evacuated Resacca and the works covering it, leaving many of their killed and wounded on the field of battle; also, arms, ammunition and army stores; indicating a precipitate retreat. The command entered Resacca at noon of the 16th, and baited until a pontoon bridge was laid across the Coosa River. Crossing the river they marched three miles toward Calhoun and bivouacked. The next day passed through Calhoun. and pushed on for Adairsville. Upon nearing that place the command was formed in line of battle, in expectation of meeting the enemy. The rebel force left during the night, falling back on Kingston. Our column at once pursued, halting on the 18th three miles from Kingston. At sunrise the next day, the eighty\-fourth in advance, passed on in pursuit, and soon encountered the rebel pickets. One company deployed as skirmishers, under Lieutenant McLellan, briskly advanced. The rebel skirmishers fell back before our advance, until our column passed through Kingston. A short distance south the enemy showed a bold front. Two additional companies of the Eighty\-Fourth, under Lieutenant Lemons, reinforced the skirmish line. The enemy still retreated; our forces slowly following. Soon the rebel force was encountered, formed in three lines of battle, across a large open field, threatening an immediate attack. It proved, however, to be only a feint of the rebel rear guard, covering the passage of their wagon train. Our batteries were soon in position, pouring shot and shell into their ranks. The rebel lines retired. The column moved to Cassville, and halted. The command rested here four days. For sixteen days they had listened to the roar of cannon and rattle of musketry, had marched and fought almost constantly. The whiz of bullets and screaming of shells had been their daily and nightly music. The men rested and drew clothing and rations.
On May 23 the command broke camp, and again moved forward to hunt the enemy amid the hills, valleys and forests of Northern Georgia. They crossed the Etowah River at sunset, marched until midnight, and camped. Next day they still pressed forward. On the 25th they crossed Pumpkin Vine Creek. On the 29th they were in the front line and built works, losing a few men, wounded. So for four days the skirmishing and marching continued. One man was killed on the 29th. All who participated in Sherman's advance upon Atlanta, know of the constant toil, both day and night, performed by the whole army.
### June 1864
On June 1 one hundred men worked all night on the breastworks. Working and fighting, halting and marching, the soldiers of the Eighty\-Fourth kept mind and body busy, and reached Ackworth, Georgia, on June 6\. Four days were passed here. On the 10th, they marched eight miles south, through rain and mud, and camped. On the 15th, they moved towards Marietta. After marching two miles the whole corps was formed in double column at half distance, and pushed through the woods and underbrush for some distance. But no enemy being encountered in force, the column deployed in line of battle, threw up slight defenses, and rested for the night. On the 17th they took possession of a line of works abandoned by the enemy. Next day the brigade moved to the right and joined the Twentieth Corps. And so, with continued advances, building works, skirmishing, artillery roaring, musketry crashing, the army advanced, like the sure and steady tread of Fate, until June 19, when the base of Kenesaw Mountain was reached, and upon its towering summit, in an impregnable position from the front, the rebels were found in. heavy force.
The Eighty\-Fourth built a line of works across a corn field in the afternoon. At dark they relieved the Twenty\-First Kentucky on the skirmish line; advanced after dark, approaching so close to the enemy's lines that the rebels quarreled with our men about the rails we were making breastworks with. In fact, the darkness of the night prevented the color of the uniform being detected, and the belligerents became mixed together, each party industriously building temporary defenses from the material furnished by the same rail fence. Early next morning the Eighty\-Fourth advanced its main line, under a galling fire, losing six killed and wounded. Two regiments of the "Iron Brigade" made a charge in our front, captured the rebel skirmish line, and established a line of breastworks. Upon these the rebels made several unsuccessful charges during the night.
On the 21st the rebel batteries were very annoying. Lieutenant Gregory and two men were wounded by a tree top falling on them, which had been cut off by a solid shot. At dark 6f the twenty\-second the command was relieved by the Eighteenth Regulars. They at once moved by the right flank three miles, and halted at daylight. The Eighty\-Fourth, with other regiments, was now sent on the front line, to relieve a portion of the Twentieth Corps. The regiment held the center of the brigade line; sending out skirmishers. In the afternoon, orders were given the Eighty\-Fourth to reinforce the skirmish line with three companies, preparatory to making a charge. The rebel line was near the summit of a hill, beyond a small wheat field. The signal was given, and amid a perfect storm of bullets, the Eighty\-Fourth rushed across the wheat field, up the hill, capturing, on the skirmish line, thirty\-seven prisoners, and penetrating within thirty paces of the main line of the enemy. The timber and thick underbrush through which they advanced, prevented the enemy from discovering their numbers, and protected them from his fire. They held the position one hour and a half, keeping up a brisk fire on the enemy. Meantime the rebels, learning that their right flank was unprotected, massed for an assault, and drove them back to their main line. The loss of the regiment in this affair was five killed, twenty\-five wounded, and eleven prisoners. The regiment fortified during the night, and remained on the front line. One man was killed and one wounded on the 24th. Lieutenant Burres and one man were wounded on the 26th. At daylight on the 27th they were relieved by the Fourteenth Corps, and retired to the rear and left, where they were held in reserve during the unsuccessful charge which followed, upon the enemy's position on Kenesaw Mountain. That terrible and fatal assault is familiar to readers of military history. The position was soon afterwards turned by a flank movement, and the rebels evacuated in the night The Eighty\-Fourth joined in the pursuit, and early on the morning of July 4 they were again drawn up in line of battle, and advanced nearly a mile, when the rebels were found in force behind a line of works. The regiment was again sent on the skirmish line, where they lost one man killed and four wounded. During the following night the enemy abandoned the works, and were pursued to Vining's Station, on the Chattahoochee, where the Eighty\-Fourth went into camp.
They were now in sight of the doomed city of Atlanta, and commenced throwing up works.
On the morning of the 10th the command was ordered to march up the river about nine miles. The march was made on the double quick, as the Union forces had commenced to cross, and determined resistance was expected. The day being hot, hardly one hundred men were left in the brigade on arriving at their destination; many being sunstruck, and others giving out from fatigue and exhaustion. The Eighty\-Fourth had about thirty representatives.
The regiment went into camp in the evening, where they remained till the twelfth instant, when they moved about two and a half miles on the south bank of the Cbattahoochee. Remaining there till the eighteenth, they again moved about five miles in the direction of Atlanta. On the 19th they took up the line of march in advance of the entire column. Moving forward about three miles, the brigade, with the exception of the Eighty\-Fourth, went into camp. This regiment was sent as an escort to General Howard's Inspector General to ascertain the location of the right of the Twenty\-Third Corps. Returning at dark, having accomplished their mission, they bivouacked for the night.
On the 28th the line of march was taken up at eight o'clock p.m. The advance of the brigade were continually skirmishing with the enemy until evening, when they were considerably advanced, and built a line of works, while the bullets were whistling about their ears. But one man was killed, however. Next morning they moved to the right, and relieved the Ninety\-Sixth Illinois, throwing up another line of works. Five companies of the Eighty\-Fourth were sent on the skirmish line, where they remained until dark, when they were relieved by the Twenty\-First Kentucky, and retired to their line of works. The enemy evacuated and fell back to Atlanta during the night. Our forces advanced in pursuit, but had not pursued them more than one mile and a half when they came upon their outer line of works. The regiment went into position about noon, on the left of the front line of the brigade, and threw up a line of bomb\-proof entrenchment. They remained in these works until the night of the 26th, continually skirmishing with the enemy, when they were sent back with the brigade about three miles, and occupied a line of works previously built by the rebels. On the morning of the 27th they were placed in position on the extreme left of the entire line, in the immediate vicinity of Atlanta, where they built still another line of works, with abattis in front. Here they pitched tents and remained until the night of August 1, when they moved to the right a short distance, and relieved a portion of the Twenty\-Third Corps. Here they remained until the sixteenth, continually skirmishing, and occasionally making a feint on their lines, losing one man killed, instantly, and several severely wounded. Captain J. M. Taylor was slightly wounded in the arm.
The regiment was transferred, on the 15th instant, to the Third Brigade, same division, and was under command of General Grose. Nothing of importance, except skirmishing, occurred. Several officers and men, including Lieutenant J. S. Fisher, were wounded.
At dark, on the 25th, General Sherman commenced his grand flank movement around Atlanta. In this movement the Eighty\-Fourth bore an active and important part, being engaged in many of the battles and skirmishes, and assisting in the destruction of railroads, bridges, and other property belonging to the so\-called confederacy. At the engagement near Jonesboro, the regiment lost Captain Fellows and two privates, wounded.
At the battle of Lovejoy's Station, the Eighty\-Fourth was in the front line, where they made a gallant and desperate charge, carrying their front line of works and capturing about thirty prisoners. In this charge the regiment lost sixteen men, killed, and three wounded; among them Captain Taylor, commanding the regiment.
### September 1864
Nothing of unusual interest occurred until the evening of September 5, when the regiment, with the rest of the army, took up the line of march, and entered Atlanta on the 8th, going into camp near the spot where the lamented General McPherson was killed.
### October 1864
On October 3 the regiment left Atlanta and marched to Chattanooga, where it arrived on the 13th. The Fourth Corps, to which it was attached, was assigned to the command of General Thomas. The regiment moved by rail from Chattanooga to Athens, Alabama, and thence to Pulaski, Tennessee, arriving at the latter place on November 4\. It left Pulaski on the 23rd, and marched to Columbia, and on the 30th reached Franklin. Thence it marched to Nashville, where it arrived on December 1\.
### December 1864
On December 15 the army of General Thomas moved upon the forces of the rebel General Hood, then strongly entrenched, and holding the southern approaches to Nashville. The regiment did not participate in the action of the first day, but upon the second day it was engaged in a charge upon the enemy's skirmish line, and at three p.m., it took part in a general charge upon the enemy's works, resulting in carrying their strongly entrenched position, and driving them in confusion from the field. In this battle the regiment lost twenty\-three killed and wounded.
### January 1865
Joining in the pursuit of Hood, the regiment crossed the Tennessee River, when it was ordered to Huntsville, Alabama, where it arrived on January 5, 1865\. March thirteenth it moved to Knoxville, Tennessee, and thence to Strawberry Plains, Bull's Gap and Shield's Mills. Here it remained till April 13, when it moved back again to Nashville.
### June 1865
The Eighty\-Fourth was mustered out of the service on June 14, 1865, at Nashville, the remaining recruits being transferred to the [57th Regiment Indiana Infantry](/wiki/57th_Regiment_Indiana_Infantry "57th Regiment Indiana Infantry"), with which regiment they continued in service in Texas until its muster out, in November 1865\. The regiment left Nashville on June 15, for Indianapolis, where they arrived on the 17th.
They formed a portion of the returned heroes who had a public reception on the 26th, in the State House Grove, on which occasion they were welcomed in behalf of the State of Indiana, by Governor Morton, General Hovey, General Wilder, and others. They then returned to their peaceful homes, to reap the laurels so richly won.
The Eighty\-Fourth left for the field with an aggregate of nine hundred and forty\-four officers and men, and returned with three hundred and twenty\-seven men and twenty\-two officers.{{cite book
\|title\=Directory and Soldiers' Register of Wayne County, Indiana
\|publisher\=W. H. Lanthurn \& Co.
\|editor\=J. C. Power
\|year\=1865
\|url\=https://archive.org/details/directorysoldier01powe\|quote\=84th.
}}
|
[
"Atlanta Campaign\n----------------",
"### May 1864",
"That campaign, resulting in the capture of Atlanta, which has rendered the name of General W. T. Sherman famous in history, was commenced on May 3, 1864\\. The part taken by the Eighty\\-Fourth Indiana will be told in simple language.",
"At twelve o'clock on May 3, the command broke camp and marched to Red Clay. The next day they reached Catoosa Springs, and threw up a temporary line of works, behind which the Eighty\\-Fourth laid for the night. On the morning of the 5th they moved northeast of the Catoosa Springs, remaining there until the seventh, when they marched towards Tunnel Hill. When within two miles of the Hill the advance skirmished with the enemy. Two companies of the Eighty\\-Fourth were deployed as skirmishers. The brigade was ordered to march to the left and charge upon the enemy, who were in position upon an elevation east of the Tunnel. The movement was successful, the rebels being driven from the hill, with no loss to the regiment. The Eighty\\-Fourth was on the left of the front line. The brigade was the first upon Tunnel Hill, and the Eighty\\-Fourth the second regiment.",
"On the 8th instant they moved in line of battle towards Rocky Faced Ridge. Some skirmishing took place, with no loss. At night, the brigade fell hack to Tunnel Hill and bivouacked.",
"On the 9h the command advanced in the direction of the gap in Rocky Faced Ridge. After marching two miles the Eighty\\-Fourth Indiana and [Ninety\\-Sixth Illinois](/wiki/96th_Illinois_Volunteer_Infantry_Regiment \"96th Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment\") were ordered to unsling knapsacks and prepare for an assault on the enemy's works. Three companies of the Eighty\\-Fourth, under Major Boyd, were thrown forward as skirmishers, with orders to press up the hill as far as possible, the regiment following in close support. The skirmishers became warmly engaged, and, being pressed by the heavy skirmish line of the enemy, two companies, under Captain Miller, were sent to reinforce them. The rebels had a decided advantage in position and shelter, and, as our men pressed forward, they took advantage of every rock and tree to cover them from the deadly fire blazing forth from the summit of the Ridge. At six p.m., the Eighty\\-Fourth charged the enemy's works, but were met by such a fierce and deadly fire as to be repulsed, with a loss of fourteen killed and wounded. Major William A. Boyd was mortally wounded while gallantly leading his companies. The main portion of the command retired a short distance and bivouacked, leaving four companies on the skirmish line till morning. On the 10th, the command moved to the left in support of a battery, and remained until night of the next day, when they moved to the right of the gap to relieve a portion of the Fourteenth Corps. The Eighty\\-Fourth took position behind temporary works on the front line. One company of fifty\\-two men, under Captain Carter, was advanced as skirmishers. The skirmishing was quite brisk during the twelfth. On the 13th it was ascertained by our advance that the rebels had evacuated Rocky Faced Ridge during the night, and the Eighty\\-Fourth moved through the Gap, passing through Dalton, and halting for the night nine miles south. The next morning they advanced towards Resacca, and found the enemy in force. The regiment at once formed in line of battle on the right of the road, forming the right of the Second Brigade. The Third Brigade was in front, and they moved forward to their support, taking a hill in front of the enemy's works. They then started to reform the Second Brigade, but while making the movement the enemy made an assault upon our front line, driving part of the Second Brigade in confusion from its position. The Eighty\\-Fourth, however, stood firm, and was soon formed in a strong position by General Stanley in person. The enemy was approaching in heavy force, four columns deep. The command was in a critical situation. The weight of the enemy's columns was irresistible. Yet the command awaited the shock with the calmness of heroes. At this thrilling moment, rescue came. New columns of Union troops marched through the woods, and the fighting Twentieth Corps of General Hooker fell upon the rebel columns like an avalanche, hurling them back in dismay and confusion.",
"The Fifth Indiana Battery did glorious work that day among the wild hills of Resacca. The rebel ranks were decimated by the skillful practice of its gunners. Though the firing was terrific the Eighty\\-Fourth met with no loss, owing to the protection afforded by the hill. The loss was heavy in other portions of the field. At night a strong line of works was built on the hill upon which the Eighty\\-Fourth was posted. Here the command remained until the morning of the 15th, when they moved, by the right flank, half a mile, where another line of works was built by the command, and one\\-half the regiment stood at arms during the night. On the night of the 15th the rebels evacuated Resacca and the works covering it, leaving many of their killed and wounded on the field of battle; also, arms, ammunition and army stores; indicating a precipitate retreat. The command entered Resacca at noon of the 16th, and baited until a pontoon bridge was laid across the Coosa River. Crossing the river they marched three miles toward Calhoun and bivouacked. The next day passed through Calhoun. and pushed on for Adairsville. Upon nearing that place the command was formed in line of battle, in expectation of meeting the enemy. The rebel force left during the night, falling back on Kingston. Our column at once pursued, halting on the 18th three miles from Kingston. At sunrise the next day, the eighty\\-fourth in advance, passed on in pursuit, and soon encountered the rebel pickets. One company deployed as skirmishers, under Lieutenant McLellan, briskly advanced. The rebel skirmishers fell back before our advance, until our column passed through Kingston. A short distance south the enemy showed a bold front. Two additional companies of the Eighty\\-Fourth, under Lieutenant Lemons, reinforced the skirmish line. The enemy still retreated; our forces slowly following. Soon the rebel force was encountered, formed in three lines of battle, across a large open field, threatening an immediate attack. It proved, however, to be only a feint of the rebel rear guard, covering the passage of their wagon train. Our batteries were soon in position, pouring shot and shell into their ranks. The rebel lines retired. The column moved to Cassville, and halted. The command rested here four days. For sixteen days they had listened to the roar of cannon and rattle of musketry, had marched and fought almost constantly. The whiz of bullets and screaming of shells had been their daily and nightly music. The men rested and drew clothing and rations.",
"On May 23 the command broke camp, and again moved forward to hunt the enemy amid the hills, valleys and forests of Northern Georgia. They crossed the Etowah River at sunset, marched until midnight, and camped. Next day they still pressed forward. On the 25th they crossed Pumpkin Vine Creek. On the 29th they were in the front line and built works, losing a few men, wounded. So for four days the skirmishing and marching continued. One man was killed on the 29th. All who participated in Sherman's advance upon Atlanta, know of the constant toil, both day and night, performed by the whole army.",
"### June 1864",
"On June 1 one hundred men worked all night on the breastworks. Working and fighting, halting and marching, the soldiers of the Eighty\\-Fourth kept mind and body busy, and reached Ackworth, Georgia, on June 6\\. Four days were passed here. On the 10th, they marched eight miles south, through rain and mud, and camped. On the 15th, they moved towards Marietta. After marching two miles the whole corps was formed in double column at half distance, and pushed through the woods and underbrush for some distance. But no enemy being encountered in force, the column deployed in line of battle, threw up slight defenses, and rested for the night. On the 17th they took possession of a line of works abandoned by the enemy. Next day the brigade moved to the right and joined the Twentieth Corps. And so, with continued advances, building works, skirmishing, artillery roaring, musketry crashing, the army advanced, like the sure and steady tread of Fate, until June 19, when the base of Kenesaw Mountain was reached, and upon its towering summit, in an impregnable position from the front, the rebels were found in. heavy force.",
"The Eighty\\-Fourth built a line of works across a corn field in the afternoon. At dark they relieved the Twenty\\-First Kentucky on the skirmish line; advanced after dark, approaching so close to the enemy's lines that the rebels quarreled with our men about the rails we were making breastworks with. In fact, the darkness of the night prevented the color of the uniform being detected, and the belligerents became mixed together, each party industriously building temporary defenses from the material furnished by the same rail fence. Early next morning the Eighty\\-Fourth advanced its main line, under a galling fire, losing six killed and wounded. Two regiments of the \"Iron Brigade\" made a charge in our front, captured the rebel skirmish line, and established a line of breastworks. Upon these the rebels made several unsuccessful charges during the night.",
"On the 21st the rebel batteries were very annoying. Lieutenant Gregory and two men were wounded by a tree top falling on them, which had been cut off by a solid shot. At dark 6f the twenty\\-second the command was relieved by the Eighteenth Regulars. They at once moved by the right flank three miles, and halted at daylight. The Eighty\\-Fourth, with other regiments, was now sent on the front line, to relieve a portion of the Twentieth Corps. The regiment held the center of the brigade line; sending out skirmishers. In the afternoon, orders were given the Eighty\\-Fourth to reinforce the skirmish line with three companies, preparatory to making a charge. The rebel line was near the summit of a hill, beyond a small wheat field. The signal was given, and amid a perfect storm of bullets, the Eighty\\-Fourth rushed across the wheat field, up the hill, capturing, on the skirmish line, thirty\\-seven prisoners, and penetrating within thirty paces of the main line of the enemy. The timber and thick underbrush through which they advanced, prevented the enemy from discovering their numbers, and protected them from his fire. They held the position one hour and a half, keeping up a brisk fire on the enemy. Meantime the rebels, learning that their right flank was unprotected, massed for an assault, and drove them back to their main line. The loss of the regiment in this affair was five killed, twenty\\-five wounded, and eleven prisoners. The regiment fortified during the night, and remained on the front line. One man was killed and one wounded on the 24th. Lieutenant Burres and one man were wounded on the 26th. At daylight on the 27th they were relieved by the Fourteenth Corps, and retired to the rear and left, where they were held in reserve during the unsuccessful charge which followed, upon the enemy's position on Kenesaw Mountain. That terrible and fatal assault is familiar to readers of military history. The position was soon afterwards turned by a flank movement, and the rebels evacuated in the night The Eighty\\-Fourth joined in the pursuit, and early on the morning of July 4 they were again drawn up in line of battle, and advanced nearly a mile, when the rebels were found in force behind a line of works. The regiment was again sent on the skirmish line, where they lost one man killed and four wounded. During the following night the enemy abandoned the works, and were pursued to Vining's Station, on the Chattahoochee, where the Eighty\\-Fourth went into camp.",
"They were now in sight of the doomed city of Atlanta, and commenced throwing up works.",
"On the morning of the 10th the command was ordered to march up the river about nine miles. The march was made on the double quick, as the Union forces had commenced to cross, and determined resistance was expected. The day being hot, hardly one hundred men were left in the brigade on arriving at their destination; many being sunstruck, and others giving out from fatigue and exhaustion. The Eighty\\-Fourth had about thirty representatives.",
"The regiment went into camp in the evening, where they remained till the twelfth instant, when they moved about two and a half miles on the south bank of the Cbattahoochee. Remaining there till the eighteenth, they again moved about five miles in the direction of Atlanta. On the 19th they took up the line of march in advance of the entire column. Moving forward about three miles, the brigade, with the exception of the Eighty\\-Fourth, went into camp. This regiment was sent as an escort to General Howard's Inspector General to ascertain the location of the right of the Twenty\\-Third Corps. Returning at dark, having accomplished their mission, they bivouacked for the night.",
"On the 28th the line of march was taken up at eight o'clock p.m. The advance of the brigade were continually skirmishing with the enemy until evening, when they were considerably advanced, and built a line of works, while the bullets were whistling about their ears. But one man was killed, however. Next morning they moved to the right, and relieved the Ninety\\-Sixth Illinois, throwing up another line of works. Five companies of the Eighty\\-Fourth were sent on the skirmish line, where they remained until dark, when they were relieved by the Twenty\\-First Kentucky, and retired to their line of works. The enemy evacuated and fell back to Atlanta during the night. Our forces advanced in pursuit, but had not pursued them more than one mile and a half when they came upon their outer line of works. The regiment went into position about noon, on the left of the front line of the brigade, and threw up a line of bomb\\-proof entrenchment. They remained in these works until the night of the 26th, continually skirmishing with the enemy, when they were sent back with the brigade about three miles, and occupied a line of works previously built by the rebels. On the morning of the 27th they were placed in position on the extreme left of the entire line, in the immediate vicinity of Atlanta, where they built still another line of works, with abattis in front. Here they pitched tents and remained until the night of August 1, when they moved to the right a short distance, and relieved a portion of the Twenty\\-Third Corps. Here they remained until the sixteenth, continually skirmishing, and occasionally making a feint on their lines, losing one man killed, instantly, and several severely wounded. Captain J. M. Taylor was slightly wounded in the arm.",
"The regiment was transferred, on the 15th instant, to the Third Brigade, same division, and was under command of General Grose. Nothing of importance, except skirmishing, occurred. Several officers and men, including Lieutenant J. S. Fisher, were wounded.",
"At dark, on the 25th, General Sherman commenced his grand flank movement around Atlanta. In this movement the Eighty\\-Fourth bore an active and important part, being engaged in many of the battles and skirmishes, and assisting in the destruction of railroads, bridges, and other property belonging to the so\\-called confederacy. At the engagement near Jonesboro, the regiment lost Captain Fellows and two privates, wounded.",
"At the battle of Lovejoy's Station, the Eighty\\-Fourth was in the front line, where they made a gallant and desperate charge, carrying their front line of works and capturing about thirty prisoners. In this charge the regiment lost sixteen men, killed, and three wounded; among them Captain Taylor, commanding the regiment.",
"### September 1864",
"Nothing of unusual interest occurred until the evening of September 5, when the regiment, with the rest of the army, took up the line of march, and entered Atlanta on the 8th, going into camp near the spot where the lamented General McPherson was killed.",
"### October 1864",
"On October 3 the regiment left Atlanta and marched to Chattanooga, where it arrived on the 13th. The Fourth Corps, to which it was attached, was assigned to the command of General Thomas. The regiment moved by rail from Chattanooga to Athens, Alabama, and thence to Pulaski, Tennessee, arriving at the latter place on November 4\\. It left Pulaski on the 23rd, and marched to Columbia, and on the 30th reached Franklin. Thence it marched to Nashville, where it arrived on December 1\\.",
"### December 1864",
"On December 15 the army of General Thomas moved upon the forces of the rebel General Hood, then strongly entrenched, and holding the southern approaches to Nashville. The regiment did not participate in the action of the first day, but upon the second day it was engaged in a charge upon the enemy's skirmish line, and at three p.m., it took part in a general charge upon the enemy's works, resulting in carrying their strongly entrenched position, and driving them in confusion from the field. In this battle the regiment lost twenty\\-three killed and wounded.",
"### January 1865",
"Joining in the pursuit of Hood, the regiment crossed the Tennessee River, when it was ordered to Huntsville, Alabama, where it arrived on January 5, 1865\\. March thirteenth it moved to Knoxville, Tennessee, and thence to Strawberry Plains, Bull's Gap and Shield's Mills. Here it remained till April 13, when it moved back again to Nashville.",
"### June 1865",
"The Eighty\\-Fourth was mustered out of the service on June 14, 1865, at Nashville, the remaining recruits being transferred to the [57th Regiment Indiana Infantry](/wiki/57th_Regiment_Indiana_Infantry \"57th Regiment Indiana Infantry\"), with which regiment they continued in service in Texas until its muster out, in November 1865\\. The regiment left Nashville on June 15, for Indianapolis, where they arrived on the 17th.",
"They formed a portion of the returned heroes who had a public reception on the 26th, in the State House Grove, on which occasion they were welcomed in behalf of the State of Indiana, by Governor Morton, General Hovey, General Wilder, and others. They then returned to their peaceful homes, to reap the laurels so richly won.",
"The Eighty\\-Fourth left for the field with an aggregate of nine hundred and forty\\-four officers and men, and returned with three hundred and twenty\\-seven men and twenty\\-two officers.{{cite book\n\\|title\\=Directory and Soldiers' Register of Wayne County, Indiana\n\\|publisher\\=W. H. Lanthurn \\& Co.\n\\|editor\\=J. C. Power\n\\|year\\=1865\n\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/directorysoldier01powe\\|quote\\=84th.\n}}",
""
] |
### May 1864
That campaign, resulting in the capture of Atlanta, which has rendered the name of General W. T. Sherman famous in history, was commenced on May 3, 1864\. The part taken by the Eighty\-Fourth Indiana will be told in simple language.
At twelve o'clock on May 3, the command broke camp and marched to Red Clay. The next day they reached Catoosa Springs, and threw up a temporary line of works, behind which the Eighty\-Fourth laid for the night. On the morning of the 5th they moved northeast of the Catoosa Springs, remaining there until the seventh, when they marched towards Tunnel Hill. When within two miles of the Hill the advance skirmished with the enemy. Two companies of the Eighty\-Fourth were deployed as skirmishers. The brigade was ordered to march to the left and charge upon the enemy, who were in position upon an elevation east of the Tunnel. The movement was successful, the rebels being driven from the hill, with no loss to the regiment. The Eighty\-Fourth was on the left of the front line. The brigade was the first upon Tunnel Hill, and the Eighty\-Fourth the second regiment.
On the 8th instant they moved in line of battle towards Rocky Faced Ridge. Some skirmishing took place, with no loss. At night, the brigade fell hack to Tunnel Hill and bivouacked.
On the 9h the command advanced in the direction of the gap in Rocky Faced Ridge. After marching two miles the Eighty\-Fourth Indiana and [Ninety\-Sixth Illinois](/wiki/96th_Illinois_Volunteer_Infantry_Regiment "96th Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment") were ordered to unsling knapsacks and prepare for an assault on the enemy's works. Three companies of the Eighty\-Fourth, under Major Boyd, were thrown forward as skirmishers, with orders to press up the hill as far as possible, the regiment following in close support. The skirmishers became warmly engaged, and, being pressed by the heavy skirmish line of the enemy, two companies, under Captain Miller, were sent to reinforce them. The rebels had a decided advantage in position and shelter, and, as our men pressed forward, they took advantage of every rock and tree to cover them from the deadly fire blazing forth from the summit of the Ridge. At six p.m., the Eighty\-Fourth charged the enemy's works, but were met by such a fierce and deadly fire as to be repulsed, with a loss of fourteen killed and wounded. Major William A. Boyd was mortally wounded while gallantly leading his companies. The main portion of the command retired a short distance and bivouacked, leaving four companies on the skirmish line till morning. On the 10th, the command moved to the left in support of a battery, and remained until night of the next day, when they moved to the right of the gap to relieve a portion of the Fourteenth Corps. The Eighty\-Fourth took position behind temporary works on the front line. One company of fifty\-two men, under Captain Carter, was advanced as skirmishers. The skirmishing was quite brisk during the twelfth. On the 13th it was ascertained by our advance that the rebels had evacuated Rocky Faced Ridge during the night, and the Eighty\-Fourth moved through the Gap, passing through Dalton, and halting for the night nine miles south. The next morning they advanced towards Resacca, and found the enemy in force. The regiment at once formed in line of battle on the right of the road, forming the right of the Second Brigade. The Third Brigade was in front, and they moved forward to their support, taking a hill in front of the enemy's works. They then started to reform the Second Brigade, but while making the movement the enemy made an assault upon our front line, driving part of the Second Brigade in confusion from its position. The Eighty\-Fourth, however, stood firm, and was soon formed in a strong position by General Stanley in person. The enemy was approaching in heavy force, four columns deep. The command was in a critical situation. The weight of the enemy's columns was irresistible. Yet the command awaited the shock with the calmness of heroes. At this thrilling moment, rescue came. New columns of Union troops marched through the woods, and the fighting Twentieth Corps of General Hooker fell upon the rebel columns like an avalanche, hurling them back in dismay and confusion.
The Fifth Indiana Battery did glorious work that day among the wild hills of Resacca. The rebel ranks were decimated by the skillful practice of its gunners. Though the firing was terrific the Eighty\-Fourth met with no loss, owing to the protection afforded by the hill. The loss was heavy in other portions of the field. At night a strong line of works was built on the hill upon which the Eighty\-Fourth was posted. Here the command remained until the morning of the 15th, when they moved, by the right flank, half a mile, where another line of works was built by the command, and one\-half the regiment stood at arms during the night. On the night of the 15th the rebels evacuated Resacca and the works covering it, leaving many of their killed and wounded on the field of battle; also, arms, ammunition and army stores; indicating a precipitate retreat. The command entered Resacca at noon of the 16th, and baited until a pontoon bridge was laid across the Coosa River. Crossing the river they marched three miles toward Calhoun and bivouacked. The next day passed through Calhoun. and pushed on for Adairsville. Upon nearing that place the command was formed in line of battle, in expectation of meeting the enemy. The rebel force left during the night, falling back on Kingston. Our column at once pursued, halting on the 18th three miles from Kingston. At sunrise the next day, the eighty\-fourth in advance, passed on in pursuit, and soon encountered the rebel pickets. One company deployed as skirmishers, under Lieutenant McLellan, briskly advanced. The rebel skirmishers fell back before our advance, until our column passed through Kingston. A short distance south the enemy showed a bold front. Two additional companies of the Eighty\-Fourth, under Lieutenant Lemons, reinforced the skirmish line. The enemy still retreated; our forces slowly following. Soon the rebel force was encountered, formed in three lines of battle, across a large open field, threatening an immediate attack. It proved, however, to be only a feint of the rebel rear guard, covering the passage of their wagon train. Our batteries were soon in position, pouring shot and shell into their ranks. The rebel lines retired. The column moved to Cassville, and halted. The command rested here four days. For sixteen days they had listened to the roar of cannon and rattle of musketry, had marched and fought almost constantly. The whiz of bullets and screaming of shells had been their daily and nightly music. The men rested and drew clothing and rations.
On May 23 the command broke camp, and again moved forward to hunt the enemy amid the hills, valleys and forests of Northern Georgia. They crossed the Etowah River at sunset, marched until midnight, and camped. Next day they still pressed forward. On the 25th they crossed Pumpkin Vine Creek. On the 29th they were in the front line and built works, losing a few men, wounded. So for four days the skirmishing and marching continued. One man was killed on the 29th. All who participated in Sherman's advance upon Atlanta, know of the constant toil, both day and night, performed by the whole army.
|
[
"### May 1864",
"That campaign, resulting in the capture of Atlanta, which has rendered the name of General W. T. Sherman famous in history, was commenced on May 3, 1864\\. The part taken by the Eighty\\-Fourth Indiana will be told in simple language.",
"At twelve o'clock on May 3, the command broke camp and marched to Red Clay. The next day they reached Catoosa Springs, and threw up a temporary line of works, behind which the Eighty\\-Fourth laid for the night. On the morning of the 5th they moved northeast of the Catoosa Springs, remaining there until the seventh, when they marched towards Tunnel Hill. When within two miles of the Hill the advance skirmished with the enemy. Two companies of the Eighty\\-Fourth were deployed as skirmishers. The brigade was ordered to march to the left and charge upon the enemy, who were in position upon an elevation east of the Tunnel. The movement was successful, the rebels being driven from the hill, with no loss to the regiment. The Eighty\\-Fourth was on the left of the front line. The brigade was the first upon Tunnel Hill, and the Eighty\\-Fourth the second regiment.",
"On the 8th instant they moved in line of battle towards Rocky Faced Ridge. Some skirmishing took place, with no loss. At night, the brigade fell hack to Tunnel Hill and bivouacked.",
"On the 9h the command advanced in the direction of the gap in Rocky Faced Ridge. After marching two miles the Eighty\\-Fourth Indiana and [Ninety\\-Sixth Illinois](/wiki/96th_Illinois_Volunteer_Infantry_Regiment \"96th Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment\") were ordered to unsling knapsacks and prepare for an assault on the enemy's works. Three companies of the Eighty\\-Fourth, under Major Boyd, were thrown forward as skirmishers, with orders to press up the hill as far as possible, the regiment following in close support. The skirmishers became warmly engaged, and, being pressed by the heavy skirmish line of the enemy, two companies, under Captain Miller, were sent to reinforce them. The rebels had a decided advantage in position and shelter, and, as our men pressed forward, they took advantage of every rock and tree to cover them from the deadly fire blazing forth from the summit of the Ridge. At six p.m., the Eighty\\-Fourth charged the enemy's works, but were met by such a fierce and deadly fire as to be repulsed, with a loss of fourteen killed and wounded. Major William A. Boyd was mortally wounded while gallantly leading his companies. The main portion of the command retired a short distance and bivouacked, leaving four companies on the skirmish line till morning. On the 10th, the command moved to the left in support of a battery, and remained until night of the next day, when they moved to the right of the gap to relieve a portion of the Fourteenth Corps. The Eighty\\-Fourth took position behind temporary works on the front line. One company of fifty\\-two men, under Captain Carter, was advanced as skirmishers. The skirmishing was quite brisk during the twelfth. On the 13th it was ascertained by our advance that the rebels had evacuated Rocky Faced Ridge during the night, and the Eighty\\-Fourth moved through the Gap, passing through Dalton, and halting for the night nine miles south. The next morning they advanced towards Resacca, and found the enemy in force. The regiment at once formed in line of battle on the right of the road, forming the right of the Second Brigade. The Third Brigade was in front, and they moved forward to their support, taking a hill in front of the enemy's works. They then started to reform the Second Brigade, but while making the movement the enemy made an assault upon our front line, driving part of the Second Brigade in confusion from its position. The Eighty\\-Fourth, however, stood firm, and was soon formed in a strong position by General Stanley in person. The enemy was approaching in heavy force, four columns deep. The command was in a critical situation. The weight of the enemy's columns was irresistible. Yet the command awaited the shock with the calmness of heroes. At this thrilling moment, rescue came. New columns of Union troops marched through the woods, and the fighting Twentieth Corps of General Hooker fell upon the rebel columns like an avalanche, hurling them back in dismay and confusion.",
"The Fifth Indiana Battery did glorious work that day among the wild hills of Resacca. The rebel ranks were decimated by the skillful practice of its gunners. Though the firing was terrific the Eighty\\-Fourth met with no loss, owing to the protection afforded by the hill. The loss was heavy in other portions of the field. At night a strong line of works was built on the hill upon which the Eighty\\-Fourth was posted. Here the command remained until the morning of the 15th, when they moved, by the right flank, half a mile, where another line of works was built by the command, and one\\-half the regiment stood at arms during the night. On the night of the 15th the rebels evacuated Resacca and the works covering it, leaving many of their killed and wounded on the field of battle; also, arms, ammunition and army stores; indicating a precipitate retreat. The command entered Resacca at noon of the 16th, and baited until a pontoon bridge was laid across the Coosa River. Crossing the river they marched three miles toward Calhoun and bivouacked. The next day passed through Calhoun. and pushed on for Adairsville. Upon nearing that place the command was formed in line of battle, in expectation of meeting the enemy. The rebel force left during the night, falling back on Kingston. Our column at once pursued, halting on the 18th three miles from Kingston. At sunrise the next day, the eighty\\-fourth in advance, passed on in pursuit, and soon encountered the rebel pickets. One company deployed as skirmishers, under Lieutenant McLellan, briskly advanced. The rebel skirmishers fell back before our advance, until our column passed through Kingston. A short distance south the enemy showed a bold front. Two additional companies of the Eighty\\-Fourth, under Lieutenant Lemons, reinforced the skirmish line. The enemy still retreated; our forces slowly following. Soon the rebel force was encountered, formed in three lines of battle, across a large open field, threatening an immediate attack. It proved, however, to be only a feint of the rebel rear guard, covering the passage of their wagon train. Our batteries were soon in position, pouring shot and shell into their ranks. The rebel lines retired. The column moved to Cassville, and halted. The command rested here four days. For sixteen days they had listened to the roar of cannon and rattle of musketry, had marched and fought almost constantly. The whiz of bullets and screaming of shells had been their daily and nightly music. The men rested and drew clothing and rations.",
"On May 23 the command broke camp, and again moved forward to hunt the enemy amid the hills, valleys and forests of Northern Georgia. They crossed the Etowah River at sunset, marched until midnight, and camped. Next day they still pressed forward. On the 25th they crossed Pumpkin Vine Creek. On the 29th they were in the front line and built works, losing a few men, wounded. So for four days the skirmishing and marching continued. One man was killed on the 29th. All who participated in Sherman's advance upon Atlanta, know of the constant toil, both day and night, performed by the whole army.",
""
] |
### June 1864
On June 1 one hundred men worked all night on the breastworks. Working and fighting, halting and marching, the soldiers of the Eighty\-Fourth kept mind and body busy, and reached Ackworth, Georgia, on June 6\. Four days were passed here. On the 10th, they marched eight miles south, through rain and mud, and camped. On the 15th, they moved towards Marietta. After marching two miles the whole corps was formed in double column at half distance, and pushed through the woods and underbrush for some distance. But no enemy being encountered in force, the column deployed in line of battle, threw up slight defenses, and rested for the night. On the 17th they took possession of a line of works abandoned by the enemy. Next day the brigade moved to the right and joined the Twentieth Corps. And so, with continued advances, building works, skirmishing, artillery roaring, musketry crashing, the army advanced, like the sure and steady tread of Fate, until June 19, when the base of Kenesaw Mountain was reached, and upon its towering summit, in an impregnable position from the front, the rebels were found in. heavy force.
The Eighty\-Fourth built a line of works across a corn field in the afternoon. At dark they relieved the Twenty\-First Kentucky on the skirmish line; advanced after dark, approaching so close to the enemy's lines that the rebels quarreled with our men about the rails we were making breastworks with. In fact, the darkness of the night prevented the color of the uniform being detected, and the belligerents became mixed together, each party industriously building temporary defenses from the material furnished by the same rail fence. Early next morning the Eighty\-Fourth advanced its main line, under a galling fire, losing six killed and wounded. Two regiments of the "Iron Brigade" made a charge in our front, captured the rebel skirmish line, and established a line of breastworks. Upon these the rebels made several unsuccessful charges during the night.
On the 21st the rebel batteries were very annoying. Lieutenant Gregory and two men were wounded by a tree top falling on them, which had been cut off by a solid shot. At dark 6f the twenty\-second the command was relieved by the Eighteenth Regulars. They at once moved by the right flank three miles, and halted at daylight. The Eighty\-Fourth, with other regiments, was now sent on the front line, to relieve a portion of the Twentieth Corps. The regiment held the center of the brigade line; sending out skirmishers. In the afternoon, orders were given the Eighty\-Fourth to reinforce the skirmish line with three companies, preparatory to making a charge. The rebel line was near the summit of a hill, beyond a small wheat field. The signal was given, and amid a perfect storm of bullets, the Eighty\-Fourth rushed across the wheat field, up the hill, capturing, on the skirmish line, thirty\-seven prisoners, and penetrating within thirty paces of the main line of the enemy. The timber and thick underbrush through which they advanced, prevented the enemy from discovering their numbers, and protected them from his fire. They held the position one hour and a half, keeping up a brisk fire on the enemy. Meantime the rebels, learning that their right flank was unprotected, massed for an assault, and drove them back to their main line. The loss of the regiment in this affair was five killed, twenty\-five wounded, and eleven prisoners. The regiment fortified during the night, and remained on the front line. One man was killed and one wounded on the 24th. Lieutenant Burres and one man were wounded on the 26th. At daylight on the 27th they were relieved by the Fourteenth Corps, and retired to the rear and left, where they were held in reserve during the unsuccessful charge which followed, upon the enemy's position on Kenesaw Mountain. That terrible and fatal assault is familiar to readers of military history. The position was soon afterwards turned by a flank movement, and the rebels evacuated in the night The Eighty\-Fourth joined in the pursuit, and early on the morning of July 4 they were again drawn up in line of battle, and advanced nearly a mile, when the rebels were found in force behind a line of works. The regiment was again sent on the skirmish line, where they lost one man killed and four wounded. During the following night the enemy abandoned the works, and were pursued to Vining's Station, on the Chattahoochee, where the Eighty\-Fourth went into camp.
They were now in sight of the doomed city of Atlanta, and commenced throwing up works.
On the morning of the 10th the command was ordered to march up the river about nine miles. The march was made on the double quick, as the Union forces had commenced to cross, and determined resistance was expected. The day being hot, hardly one hundred men were left in the brigade on arriving at their destination; many being sunstruck, and others giving out from fatigue and exhaustion. The Eighty\-Fourth had about thirty representatives.
The regiment went into camp in the evening, where they remained till the twelfth instant, when they moved about two and a half miles on the south bank of the Cbattahoochee. Remaining there till the eighteenth, they again moved about five miles in the direction of Atlanta. On the 19th they took up the line of march in advance of the entire column. Moving forward about three miles, the brigade, with the exception of the Eighty\-Fourth, went into camp. This regiment was sent as an escort to General Howard's Inspector General to ascertain the location of the right of the Twenty\-Third Corps. Returning at dark, having accomplished their mission, they bivouacked for the night.
On the 28th the line of march was taken up at eight o'clock p.m. The advance of the brigade were continually skirmishing with the enemy until evening, when they were considerably advanced, and built a line of works, while the bullets were whistling about their ears. But one man was killed, however. Next morning they moved to the right, and relieved the Ninety\-Sixth Illinois, throwing up another line of works. Five companies of the Eighty\-Fourth were sent on the skirmish line, where they remained until dark, when they were relieved by the Twenty\-First Kentucky, and retired to their line of works. The enemy evacuated and fell back to Atlanta during the night. Our forces advanced in pursuit, but had not pursued them more than one mile and a half when they came upon their outer line of works. The regiment went into position about noon, on the left of the front line of the brigade, and threw up a line of bomb\-proof entrenchment. They remained in these works until the night of the 26th, continually skirmishing with the enemy, when they were sent back with the brigade about three miles, and occupied a line of works previously built by the rebels. On the morning of the 27th they were placed in position on the extreme left of the entire line, in the immediate vicinity of Atlanta, where they built still another line of works, with abattis in front. Here they pitched tents and remained until the night of August 1, when they moved to the right a short distance, and relieved a portion of the Twenty\-Third Corps. Here they remained until the sixteenth, continually skirmishing, and occasionally making a feint on their lines, losing one man killed, instantly, and several severely wounded. Captain J. M. Taylor was slightly wounded in the arm.
The regiment was transferred, on the 15th instant, to the Third Brigade, same division, and was under command of General Grose. Nothing of importance, except skirmishing, occurred. Several officers and men, including Lieutenant J. S. Fisher, were wounded.
At dark, on the 25th, General Sherman commenced his grand flank movement around Atlanta. In this movement the Eighty\-Fourth bore an active and important part, being engaged in many of the battles and skirmishes, and assisting in the destruction of railroads, bridges, and other property belonging to the so\-called confederacy. At the engagement near Jonesboro, the regiment lost Captain Fellows and two privates, wounded.
At the battle of Lovejoy's Station, the Eighty\-Fourth was in the front line, where they made a gallant and desperate charge, carrying their front line of works and capturing about thirty prisoners. In this charge the regiment lost sixteen men, killed, and three wounded; among them Captain Taylor, commanding the regiment.
|
[
"### June 1864",
"On June 1 one hundred men worked all night on the breastworks. Working and fighting, halting and marching, the soldiers of the Eighty\\-Fourth kept mind and body busy, and reached Ackworth, Georgia, on June 6\\. Four days were passed here. On the 10th, they marched eight miles south, through rain and mud, and camped. On the 15th, they moved towards Marietta. After marching two miles the whole corps was formed in double column at half distance, and pushed through the woods and underbrush for some distance. But no enemy being encountered in force, the column deployed in line of battle, threw up slight defenses, and rested for the night. On the 17th they took possession of a line of works abandoned by the enemy. Next day the brigade moved to the right and joined the Twentieth Corps. And so, with continued advances, building works, skirmishing, artillery roaring, musketry crashing, the army advanced, like the sure and steady tread of Fate, until June 19, when the base of Kenesaw Mountain was reached, and upon its towering summit, in an impregnable position from the front, the rebels were found in. heavy force.",
"The Eighty\\-Fourth built a line of works across a corn field in the afternoon. At dark they relieved the Twenty\\-First Kentucky on the skirmish line; advanced after dark, approaching so close to the enemy's lines that the rebels quarreled with our men about the rails we were making breastworks with. In fact, the darkness of the night prevented the color of the uniform being detected, and the belligerents became mixed together, each party industriously building temporary defenses from the material furnished by the same rail fence. Early next morning the Eighty\\-Fourth advanced its main line, under a galling fire, losing six killed and wounded. Two regiments of the \"Iron Brigade\" made a charge in our front, captured the rebel skirmish line, and established a line of breastworks. Upon these the rebels made several unsuccessful charges during the night.",
"On the 21st the rebel batteries were very annoying. Lieutenant Gregory and two men were wounded by a tree top falling on them, which had been cut off by a solid shot. At dark 6f the twenty\\-second the command was relieved by the Eighteenth Regulars. They at once moved by the right flank three miles, and halted at daylight. The Eighty\\-Fourth, with other regiments, was now sent on the front line, to relieve a portion of the Twentieth Corps. The regiment held the center of the brigade line; sending out skirmishers. In the afternoon, orders were given the Eighty\\-Fourth to reinforce the skirmish line with three companies, preparatory to making a charge. The rebel line was near the summit of a hill, beyond a small wheat field. The signal was given, and amid a perfect storm of bullets, the Eighty\\-Fourth rushed across the wheat field, up the hill, capturing, on the skirmish line, thirty\\-seven prisoners, and penetrating within thirty paces of the main line of the enemy. The timber and thick underbrush through which they advanced, prevented the enemy from discovering their numbers, and protected them from his fire. They held the position one hour and a half, keeping up a brisk fire on the enemy. Meantime the rebels, learning that their right flank was unprotected, massed for an assault, and drove them back to their main line. The loss of the regiment in this affair was five killed, twenty\\-five wounded, and eleven prisoners. The regiment fortified during the night, and remained on the front line. One man was killed and one wounded on the 24th. Lieutenant Burres and one man were wounded on the 26th. At daylight on the 27th they were relieved by the Fourteenth Corps, and retired to the rear and left, where they were held in reserve during the unsuccessful charge which followed, upon the enemy's position on Kenesaw Mountain. That terrible and fatal assault is familiar to readers of military history. The position was soon afterwards turned by a flank movement, and the rebels evacuated in the night The Eighty\\-Fourth joined in the pursuit, and early on the morning of July 4 they were again drawn up in line of battle, and advanced nearly a mile, when the rebels were found in force behind a line of works. The regiment was again sent on the skirmish line, where they lost one man killed and four wounded. During the following night the enemy abandoned the works, and were pursued to Vining's Station, on the Chattahoochee, where the Eighty\\-Fourth went into camp.",
"They were now in sight of the doomed city of Atlanta, and commenced throwing up works.",
"On the morning of the 10th the command was ordered to march up the river about nine miles. The march was made on the double quick, as the Union forces had commenced to cross, and determined resistance was expected. The day being hot, hardly one hundred men were left in the brigade on arriving at their destination; many being sunstruck, and others giving out from fatigue and exhaustion. The Eighty\\-Fourth had about thirty representatives.",
"The regiment went into camp in the evening, where they remained till the twelfth instant, when they moved about two and a half miles on the south bank of the Cbattahoochee. Remaining there till the eighteenth, they again moved about five miles in the direction of Atlanta. On the 19th they took up the line of march in advance of the entire column. Moving forward about three miles, the brigade, with the exception of the Eighty\\-Fourth, went into camp. This regiment was sent as an escort to General Howard's Inspector General to ascertain the location of the right of the Twenty\\-Third Corps. Returning at dark, having accomplished their mission, they bivouacked for the night.",
"On the 28th the line of march was taken up at eight o'clock p.m. The advance of the brigade were continually skirmishing with the enemy until evening, when they were considerably advanced, and built a line of works, while the bullets were whistling about their ears. But one man was killed, however. Next morning they moved to the right, and relieved the Ninety\\-Sixth Illinois, throwing up another line of works. Five companies of the Eighty\\-Fourth were sent on the skirmish line, where they remained until dark, when they were relieved by the Twenty\\-First Kentucky, and retired to their line of works. The enemy evacuated and fell back to Atlanta during the night. Our forces advanced in pursuit, but had not pursued them more than one mile and a half when they came upon their outer line of works. The regiment went into position about noon, on the left of the front line of the brigade, and threw up a line of bomb\\-proof entrenchment. They remained in these works until the night of the 26th, continually skirmishing with the enemy, when they were sent back with the brigade about three miles, and occupied a line of works previously built by the rebels. On the morning of the 27th they were placed in position on the extreme left of the entire line, in the immediate vicinity of Atlanta, where they built still another line of works, with abattis in front. Here they pitched tents and remained until the night of August 1, when they moved to the right a short distance, and relieved a portion of the Twenty\\-Third Corps. Here they remained until the sixteenth, continually skirmishing, and occasionally making a feint on their lines, losing one man killed, instantly, and several severely wounded. Captain J. M. Taylor was slightly wounded in the arm.",
"The regiment was transferred, on the 15th instant, to the Third Brigade, same division, and was under command of General Grose. Nothing of importance, except skirmishing, occurred. Several officers and men, including Lieutenant J. S. Fisher, were wounded.",
"At dark, on the 25th, General Sherman commenced his grand flank movement around Atlanta. In this movement the Eighty\\-Fourth bore an active and important part, being engaged in many of the battles and skirmishes, and assisting in the destruction of railroads, bridges, and other property belonging to the so\\-called confederacy. At the engagement near Jonesboro, the regiment lost Captain Fellows and two privates, wounded.",
"At the battle of Lovejoy's Station, the Eighty\\-Fourth was in the front line, where they made a gallant and desperate charge, carrying their front line of works and capturing about thirty prisoners. In this charge the regiment lost sixteen men, killed, and three wounded; among them Captain Taylor, commanding the regiment.",
""
] |
History
-------
[thumb\|left\|S\-Bahn train in [Essen\-Werden station](/wiki/Essen-Werden_station "Essen-Werden station")](/wiki/File:Essen_werden_s-bahn.jpg "Essen werden s-bahn.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|upright\=1\|[Hattingen (Ruhr) station](/wiki/Hattingen_%28Ruhr%29_station "Hattingen (Ruhr) station")](/wiki/File:Bahnhof_Hattingen01a.jpg "Bahnhof Hattingen01a.jpg")
### Trunk line
The main line of the Ruhr Valley line was opened on 1 February 1872, from Oberbilk BME (now Düsseldorf\-Oberbilk), through Düsseldorf BME (now [Düsseldorf Hbf](/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf_Hbf "Düsseldorf Hbf")), Düsseldorf\-Derendorf, Düsseldorf\-Rath and Ratingen Ost, passing through a tunnel through the Hösel mountain and across a bridge over the Ruhr valley—now the site of the Kettwig Reservoir (Kettwig Stausee)—to Kettwig, running on the northern side of the Ruhr to Essen\-Werden to Essen\-Heisingen and crossing the river again to Kupferdreh.{{Cite magazine \|url\=https://digital.ub.uni\-duesseldorf.de/ihd/periodical/pageview/271416 \|title\=Bau und Ausrüstung der Bahn \|magazine\=Jahres\-Bericht über die Verwaltung der Bergisch\-Märkischen\-Eisenbahn \|publisher\=Bergisch\-Märkische\-Eisenbahn \|year\=1872 \|page\=5 \|language\=de}} From there as far as Essen\-Überruhr it combined with the [Wuppertal\-Vohwinkel–Essen\-Überruhr line](/wiki/Wuppertal-Vohwinkel%E2%80%93Essen-%C3%9Cberruhr_railway "Wuppertal-Vohwinkel–Essen-Überruhr railway") opened in 1847, which was extended in 1863, after its takeover by the BME, over a new bridge over the Ruhr at Steele via Steele station to connect with the [Witten\-Dortmund–Oberhausen\-Duisburg](/wiki/Witten/Dortmund%E2%80%93Oberhausen/Duisburg_railway "Witten/Dortmund–Oberhausen/Duisburg railway") and the [Steele–Dahlhausen lines](/wiki/Essen-%C3%9Cberruhr%E2%80%93Bochum-Langendreer_railway "Essen-Überruhr–Bochum-Langendreer railway"). On 1 June 1874, the Ruhr Valley line was extended on the south side of the Ruhr via Altendorf to a new bridge over the Ruhr to [Dahlhausen](/wiki/Dahlhausen "Dahlhausen").{{Cite news \|date\=5 June 1874 \|title\=Verein Deutscher Eisenbahn\-Verwaltungen \|url\=https://www.digitale\-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11175343?page\=514,515 \|work\=Zeitung des Vereins Deutscher Eisenbahn\-Verwaltungen \|page\=483 \|language\=de \|issue\=44}} In 1877, a line was opened [from Werden to Essen](/wiki/Essen-Werden%E2%80%93Essen_railway "Essen-Werden–Essen railway").
In 1926, the [Niederberg line](/wiki/Niederberg_Railway "Niederberg Railway") was opened from near [Kettwig Stausee station](/wiki/Kettwig_Stausee_station "Kettwig Stausee station") to Wülfrath via [Heiligenhaus](/wiki/Heiligenhaus "Heiligenhaus") and [Velbert](/wiki/Velbert "Velbert"). The section to Heiligenhaus was closed in 1960\.
### Lower Ruhr Valley Railway
In 1876 the [Lower Ruhr Valley Railway](/wiki/Lower_Ruhr_Valley_Railway "Lower Ruhr Valley Railway") (*Untere Ruhrtalbahn*) was opened over a new bridge over the Ruhr at Kettwig Stausee, downstream of the Ruhr Valley line bridge, connecting to the Ruhr Valley line near [Kettwig station](/wiki/Kettwig_station "Kettwig station"). The line branched off the [main Duisburg–Essen–Witten line](/wiki/Witten/Dortmund%E2%80%93Oberhausen/Duisburg_railway "Witten/Dortmund–Oberhausen/Duisburg railway") in Styrum and ran on the south side of the Ruhr through Broich (Mülheim), Saarn, Mintard and Kettwig to the new bridge. In Broich a connecting curve was built to Speldorf station on the [Rhenish line](/wiki/Osterath%E2%80%93Dortmund_S%C3%BCd_railway "Osterath–Dortmund Süd railway").
At the end of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War "Second World War"), the two adjacent railway bridges over the Ruhr in Kettwig Stausee were blown up by the German Army along with the bridge at Styrum on the Lower Ruhr Valley line. Only the upstream bridge at Kettwig Stausee was rebuilt on the Ruhr Valley line between Kettwig and Düsseldorf. Passenger trains on the Lower Ruhr Valley line coming from Mülheim initially stopped at Kettwig vor der Brück station. In 1953 a new Kettwig Stausee station was opened near [Kettwig Stausee station](/wiki/Kettwig_Stausee_station "Kettwig Stausee station") on the Ruhr Valley line so that passenger could interchange between the two lines. The destroyed bridge was not rebuilt, and now only a pillar of it remains in Kettwig reservoir. As a result of the destruction of the bridge in Styrum, Speldorf station became the terminus of the Lower Ruhr Valley line instead of Styrum station.
### Middle Ruhr Valley Railway
The Middle Ruhr Valley Railway (*Mittlere Ruhrtalbahn*) was opened on 28 December 1869 from Dahlhausen via Hattingen, where it crossed to run on the south side of the Ruhr to the Henrichshütte steel works in Welper.{{Cite news \|date\=7 January 1870 \|title\=Officieller Anzeiger: Bergisch\-Märkische\-Eisenbahn \|url\=https://www.digitale\-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10934039?page\=28,29 \|work\=Zeitung des Vereins Deutscher Eisenbahn\-Verwaltungen \|pages\=10, 11 \|language\=de \|issue\=1}} On 1 June 1874, it was extended via Herbede and Wengern to Herdecke (now [Vorhalle](/wiki/Hagen-Vorhalle_station "Hagen-Vorhalle station")).
### Upper Ruhr Valley Railway
The [Upper Ruhr Valley Railway](/wiki/Upper_Ruhr_Valley_Railway "Upper Ruhr Valley Railway") (*Obere Ruhrtalbahn*) was opened in 1870 via Schwerte along the river through [Fröndenberg](/wiki/Fr%C3%B6ndenberg "Fröndenberg") to [Arnsberg](/wiki/Arnsberg "Arnsberg"). In 1871 it was extended to [Meschede](/wiki/Meschede "Meschede"), in 1872 to [Bestwig](/wiki/Bestwig "Bestwig") and in 1873 to [Brilon](/wiki/Brilon "Brilon")\-Wald and Warburg. It crosses the watershed between the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine "Rhine") and the [Weser](/wiki/Weser "Weser") in Elleringhausen tunnel near [Olsberg](/wiki/Olsberg%2C_Germany "Olsberg, Germany").
|
[
"History\n-------",
"[thumb\\|left\\|S\\-Bahn train in [Essen\\-Werden station](/wiki/Essen-Werden_station \"Essen-Werden station\")](/wiki/File:Essen_werden_s-bahn.jpg \"Essen werden s-bahn.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|upright\\=1\\|[Hattingen (Ruhr) station](/wiki/Hattingen_%28Ruhr%29_station \"Hattingen (Ruhr) station\")](/wiki/File:Bahnhof_Hattingen01a.jpg \"Bahnhof Hattingen01a.jpg\")",
"### Trunk line",
"The main line of the Ruhr Valley line was opened on 1 February 1872, from Oberbilk BME (now Düsseldorf\\-Oberbilk), through Düsseldorf BME (now [Düsseldorf Hbf](/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf_Hbf \"Düsseldorf Hbf\")), Düsseldorf\\-Derendorf, Düsseldorf\\-Rath and Ratingen Ost, passing through a tunnel through the Hösel mountain and across a bridge over the Ruhr valley—now the site of the Kettwig Reservoir (Kettwig Stausee)—to Kettwig, running on the northern side of the Ruhr to Essen\\-Werden to Essen\\-Heisingen and crossing the river again to Kupferdreh.{{Cite magazine \\|url\\=https://digital.ub.uni\\-duesseldorf.de/ihd/periodical/pageview/271416 \\|title\\=Bau und Ausrüstung der Bahn \\|magazine\\=Jahres\\-Bericht über die Verwaltung der Bergisch\\-Märkischen\\-Eisenbahn \\|publisher\\=Bergisch\\-Märkische\\-Eisenbahn \\|year\\=1872 \\|page\\=5 \\|language\\=de}} From there as far as Essen\\-Überruhr it combined with the [Wuppertal\\-Vohwinkel–Essen\\-Überruhr line](/wiki/Wuppertal-Vohwinkel%E2%80%93Essen-%C3%9Cberruhr_railway \"Wuppertal-Vohwinkel–Essen-Überruhr railway\") opened in 1847, which was extended in 1863, after its takeover by the BME, over a new bridge over the Ruhr at Steele via Steele station to connect with the [Witten\\-Dortmund–Oberhausen\\-Duisburg](/wiki/Witten/Dortmund%E2%80%93Oberhausen/Duisburg_railway \"Witten/Dortmund–Oberhausen/Duisburg railway\") and the [Steele–Dahlhausen lines](/wiki/Essen-%C3%9Cberruhr%E2%80%93Bochum-Langendreer_railway \"Essen-Überruhr–Bochum-Langendreer railway\"). On 1 June 1874, the Ruhr Valley line was extended on the south side of the Ruhr via Altendorf to a new bridge over the Ruhr to [Dahlhausen](/wiki/Dahlhausen \"Dahlhausen\").{{Cite news \\|date\\=5 June 1874 \\|title\\=Verein Deutscher Eisenbahn\\-Verwaltungen \\|url\\=https://www.digitale\\-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb11175343?page\\=514,515 \\|work\\=Zeitung des Vereins Deutscher Eisenbahn\\-Verwaltungen \\|page\\=483 \\|language\\=de \\|issue\\=44}} In 1877, a line was opened [from Werden to Essen](/wiki/Essen-Werden%E2%80%93Essen_railway \"Essen-Werden–Essen railway\").",
"In 1926, the [Niederberg line](/wiki/Niederberg_Railway \"Niederberg Railway\") was opened from near [Kettwig Stausee station](/wiki/Kettwig_Stausee_station \"Kettwig Stausee station\") to Wülfrath via [Heiligenhaus](/wiki/Heiligenhaus \"Heiligenhaus\") and [Velbert](/wiki/Velbert \"Velbert\"). The section to Heiligenhaus was closed in 1960\\.",
"### Lower Ruhr Valley Railway",
"In 1876 the [Lower Ruhr Valley Railway](/wiki/Lower_Ruhr_Valley_Railway \"Lower Ruhr Valley Railway\") (*Untere Ruhrtalbahn*) was opened over a new bridge over the Ruhr at Kettwig Stausee, downstream of the Ruhr Valley line bridge, connecting to the Ruhr Valley line near [Kettwig station](/wiki/Kettwig_station \"Kettwig station\"). The line branched off the [main Duisburg–Essen–Witten line](/wiki/Witten/Dortmund%E2%80%93Oberhausen/Duisburg_railway \"Witten/Dortmund–Oberhausen/Duisburg railway\") in Styrum and ran on the south side of the Ruhr through Broich (Mülheim), Saarn, Mintard and Kettwig to the new bridge. In Broich a connecting curve was built to Speldorf station on the [Rhenish line](/wiki/Osterath%E2%80%93Dortmund_S%C3%BCd_railway \"Osterath–Dortmund Süd railway\").",
"At the end of the [Second World War](/wiki/Second_World_War \"Second World War\"), the two adjacent railway bridges over the Ruhr in Kettwig Stausee were blown up by the German Army along with the bridge at Styrum on the Lower Ruhr Valley line. Only the upstream bridge at Kettwig Stausee was rebuilt on the Ruhr Valley line between Kettwig and Düsseldorf. Passenger trains on the Lower Ruhr Valley line coming from Mülheim initially stopped at Kettwig vor der Brück station. In 1953 a new Kettwig Stausee station was opened near [Kettwig Stausee station](/wiki/Kettwig_Stausee_station \"Kettwig Stausee station\") on the Ruhr Valley line so that passenger could interchange between the two lines. The destroyed bridge was not rebuilt, and now only a pillar of it remains in Kettwig reservoir. As a result of the destruction of the bridge in Styrum, Speldorf station became the terminus of the Lower Ruhr Valley line instead of Styrum station.",
"### Middle Ruhr Valley Railway",
"The Middle Ruhr Valley Railway (*Mittlere Ruhrtalbahn*) was opened on 28 December 1869 from Dahlhausen via Hattingen, where it crossed to run on the south side of the Ruhr to the Henrichshütte steel works in Welper.{{Cite news \\|date\\=7 January 1870 \\|title\\=Officieller Anzeiger: Bergisch\\-Märkische\\-Eisenbahn \\|url\\=https://www.digitale\\-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10934039?page\\=28,29 \\|work\\=Zeitung des Vereins Deutscher Eisenbahn\\-Verwaltungen \\|pages\\=10, 11 \\|language\\=de \\|issue\\=1}} On 1 June 1874, it was extended via Herbede and Wengern to Herdecke (now [Vorhalle](/wiki/Hagen-Vorhalle_station \"Hagen-Vorhalle station\")).",
"### Upper Ruhr Valley Railway",
"The [Upper Ruhr Valley Railway](/wiki/Upper_Ruhr_Valley_Railway \"Upper Ruhr Valley Railway\") (*Obere Ruhrtalbahn*) was opened in 1870 via Schwerte along the river through [Fröndenberg](/wiki/Fr%C3%B6ndenberg \"Fröndenberg\") to [Arnsberg](/wiki/Arnsberg \"Arnsberg\"). In 1871 it was extended to [Meschede](/wiki/Meschede \"Meschede\"), in 1872 to [Bestwig](/wiki/Bestwig \"Bestwig\") and in 1873 to [Brilon](/wiki/Brilon \"Brilon\")\\-Wald and Warburg. It crosses the watershed between the [Rhine](/wiki/Rhine \"Rhine\") and the [Weser](/wiki/Weser \"Weser\") in Elleringhausen tunnel near [Olsberg](/wiki/Olsberg%2C_Germany \"Olsberg, Germany\").",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1850\= 6922
\|1860\= 7801
\|1870\= 8315
\|1880\= 10505
\|1890\= 12136
\|1900\= 15220
\|1910\= 19909
\|1920\= 27429
\|1930\= 30216
\|1940\= 32834
\|1950\= 37130
\|1960\= 40873
\|1970\= 42822
\|1980\= 48517
\|1990\= 51765
\|2000\= 58100
\|2010\= 60600
\|2020\= 62504
\|estyear\=2023
\|estimate\=65699
\|estref\=
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=U.S. Decennial Census\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|access\-date\=February 7, 2015}}
1790–1960{{cite web\|url\=http://mapserver.lib.virginia.edu\|title\=Historical Census Browser\|publisher\=University of Virginia Library\|access\-date\=February 7, 2015}} 1900–1990{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/population/cencounts/oh190090\.txt\|title\=Population of Counties by Decennial Census: 1900 to 1990\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|editor\-last\=Forstall\|editor\-first\=Richard L.\|date\=March 27, 1995\|access\-date\=February 7, 2015}}
1990–2000{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2000/briefs/phc\-t4/tables/tab02\.pdf \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327165705/http://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2000/briefs/phc\-t4/tables/tab02\.pdf \|archive\-date\=March 27, 2010 \|url\-status\=live\|title\=Census 2000 PHC\-T\-4\. Ranking Tables for Counties: 1990 and 2000\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|date\=April 2, 2001\|access\-date\=February 7, 2015}} 2010–2020{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/stanlycountynorthcarolina\|title\=QuickFacts: Stanly County, North Carolina\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|access\-date\=March 22, 2024}}
}}
### 2020 census
| \+Stanly County racial composition{{Cite web\|title\=Explore Census Data\|url\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\=0500000US37167\&tid\=DECENNIALPL2020\.P2\|access\-date\=December 21, 2021\|website\=data.census.gov}} | Race
Number
Percentage
| --- |
| [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)") (non\-Hispanic)
48,645 |
77\.83% |
| [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)") (non\-Hispanic)
7,000 |
11\.2% |
| [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)")
210 |
0\.34% |
| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)")
1,140 |
1\.82% |
| [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)")
9 |
0\.01% |
| [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)")
2,414 |
3\.86% |
| [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)")
3,086 |
4\.94% |
As of the [2020 census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census "2020 United States census"), there were 62,504 people, 23,332 households, and 16,569 families residing in the county.
### 2010 census
At the [2010 census](/wiki/2010_United_States_census "2010 United States census"),{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov\|publisher\=\[\[United States Census Bureau]]\|access\-date\=January 31, 2008\|title\=U.S. Census website}} there were 60,585 people. In 2000 there were 22,223 households, and 16,156 families residing in the county. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|147\|/mi2\|/km2\|disp\=preunit\|people \|people}}. There were 24,582 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|62\|/mi2\|/km2\|disp\=preunit\|units \|units\|}}. The racial makeup of the county was 84\.67% [White](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 11\.46% [Black](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") or [African American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 0\.25% [Native American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 1\.81% [Asian](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 0\.02% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), 1\.01% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 0\.79% from two or more races. 2\.13% of the population were [Hispanic](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)") of any race.
There were 22,223 households, out of which 32\.60% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58\.30% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage "Marriage") living together, 10\.50% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27\.30% were non\-families. 24\.30% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\.80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.53 and the average family size was 3\.00\.
In the county, the population was spread out, with 25\.00% under the age of 18, 8\.40% from 18 to 24, 29\.00% from 25 to 44, 23\.40% from 45 to 64, and 14\.20% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 97\.40 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94\.70 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $36,898, and the median income for a family was $43,956\. Males had a median income of $31,444 versus $21,585 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the county was $17,825\. About 8\.10% of families and 10\.70% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 14\.10% of those under age 18 and 10\.30% of those age 65 or over.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1850\\= 6922\n\\|1860\\= 7801\n\\|1870\\= 8315\n\\|1880\\= 10505\n\\|1890\\= 12136\n\\|1900\\= 15220\n\\|1910\\= 19909\n\\|1920\\= 27429\n\\|1930\\= 30216\n\\|1940\\= 32834\n\\|1950\\= 37130\n\\|1960\\= 40873\n\\|1970\\= 42822\n\\|1980\\= 48517\n\\|1990\\= 51765\n\\|2000\\= 58100\n\\|2010\\= 60600\n\\|2020\\= 62504\n\\|estyear\\=2023\n\\|estimate\\=65699\n\\|estref\\=\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=U.S. Decennial Census\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=February 7, 2015}} \n1790–1960{{cite web\\|url\\=http://mapserver.lib.virginia.edu\\|title\\=Historical Census Browser\\|publisher\\=University of Virginia Library\\|access\\-date\\=February 7, 2015}} 1900–1990{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/population/cencounts/oh190090\\.txt\\|title\\=Population of Counties by Decennial Census: 1900 to 1990\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|editor\\-last\\=Forstall\\|editor\\-first\\=Richard L.\\|date\\=March 27, 1995\\|access\\-date\\=February 7, 2015}} \n1990–2000{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2000/briefs/phc\\-t4/tables/tab02\\.pdf \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327165705/http://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2000/briefs/phc\\-t4/tables/tab02\\.pdf \\|archive\\-date\\=March 27, 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=live\\|title\\=Census 2000 PHC\\-T\\-4\\. Ranking Tables for Counties: 1990 and 2000\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|date\\=April 2, 2001\\|access\\-date\\=February 7, 2015}} 2010–2020{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/stanlycountynorthcarolina\\|title\\=QuickFacts: Stanly County, North Carolina\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|access\\-date\\=March 22, 2024}}\n}}",
"### 2020 census",
"",
"| \\+Stanly County racial composition{{Cite web\\|title\\=Explore Census Data\\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?g\\=0500000US37167\\&tid\\=DECENNIALPL2020\\.P2\\|access\\-date\\=December 21, 2021\\|website\\=data.census.gov}} | Race",
"Number",
"Percentage",
"| --- |\n| [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\") (non\\-Hispanic)",
"48,645 |\n 77\\.83% |\n| [Black or African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\") (non\\-Hispanic)",
"7,000 |\n 11\\.2% |\n| [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\")",
"210 |\n 0\\.34% |\n| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\")",
"1,140 |\n 1\\.82% |\n| [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\")",
"9 |\n 0\\.01% |\n| [Other/Mixed](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\")",
"2,414 |\n 3\\.86% |\n| [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\")",
"3,086 |\n 4\\.94% |",
"As of the [2020 census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\"), there were 62,504 people, 23,332 households, and 16,569 families residing in the county.",
"### 2010 census",
"At the [2010 census](/wiki/2010_United_States_census \"2010 United States census\"),{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Census Bureau]]\\|access\\-date\\=January 31, 2008\\|title\\=U.S. Census website}} there were 60,585 people. In 2000 there were 22,223 households, and 16,156 families residing in the county. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|147\\|/mi2\\|/km2\\|disp\\=preunit\\|people \\|people}}. There were 24,582 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|62\\|/mi2\\|/km2\\|disp\\=preunit\\|units \\|units\\|}}. The racial makeup of the county was 84\\.67% [White](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 11\\.46% [Black](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") or [African American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.25% [Native American](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 1\\.81% [Asian](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 0\\.02% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), 1\\.01% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 0\\.79% from two or more races. 2\\.13% of the population were [Hispanic](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\") of any race.",
"There were 22,223 households, out of which 32\\.60% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58\\.30% were [married couples](/wiki/Marriage \"Marriage\") living together, 10\\.50% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27\\.30% were non\\-families. 24\\.30% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\\.80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.53 and the average family size was 3\\.00\\.",
"In the county, the population was spread out, with 25\\.00% under the age of 18, 8\\.40% from 18 to 24, 29\\.00% from 25 to 44, 23\\.40% from 45 to 64, and 14\\.20% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 97\\.40 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94\\.70 males.",
"The median income for a household in the county was $36,898, and the median income for a family was $43,956\\. Males had a median income of $31,444 versus $21,585 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the county was $17,825\\. About 8\\.10% of families and 10\\.70% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 14\\.10% of those under age 18 and 10\\.30% of those age 65 or over.",
""
] |
Plot summary
------------
Set on the island of [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily "Sicily"), the story shows a slightly older, more mature Saint. Although still a formidable opponent for any criminal, he will not storm into action but choose his moments more carefully.
On holiday in [Naples](/wiki/Naples "Naples"), Templar witnesses an argument in a restaurant; an English tourist greets an Italian businessman as an old friend, but the Italian claims never to have met him. When the businessman's bodyguard attacks the Englishman, the Saint intervenes. The Italians leave. Templar learns that the Englishman, Euston, is absolutely certain the Italian Businessman was his old friend Dino Cartelli.
Next morning, Templar sees an obituary for Euston in the local newspaper. Apparently the man had an unfortunate accident. Suspicious, the Saint starts an investigation. He discovers that Dino Cartelli was a faithful bank employee, brutally murdered by bank robbers years ago. His face and hands were mutilated beyond recognition. He also learns that the businessman is Alessandro Destamio.
Next day, a limousine arrives at the hotel and the Saint is courteously invited to have a meeting with Mr. Destamio. He is flown to Destamio's private island, and Destamio introduces himself as a businessman with many enemies who takes his privacy very seriously.
Back in Naples, the Saint is attacked by a street robber. The police arrive and take them to the police station for questioning, where the police accuse him of attacking the robber. Luckily a senior officer, Inspector Ponti, arrives, dismisses the Saint and even recommends him a good restaurant for lunch. The Saint understands it is a veiled invitation, and waits for Ponti at the restaurant. Ponti explains that the Saint is up against the Mafia. They will try to hunt him down and the police cannot be trusted. Ponti will be his only ally.
The Saint visits Destamio's family, including the lovely Gina. At night, he visits the mausoleum of the Destamio family, but before he can investigate the grave inscriptions he is clubbed unconscious.
Captured in a castle, at the mercy of the Mafia, the Saint is brought to the head of the Mafia, who is seriously ill. It appears Destamio aims to be his successor, but he has to defeat other candidates who wonder why Destamio has brought the Saint to their headquarters. It appears that Destamio claims to be from a worthy family, which the Saint might dispute.
Returned to his cell, the Saint manages to untie his ropes and climbs out of the dungeon. Pursued by gangsters, he descends from the castle hill and starts running through the Italian countryside. During the chase, the Saint has brief encounters with locals who help him, but their fear of the Mafia is all\-apparent. A local barber manages to conceal him and tells him to leave as soon as possible. Bus passengers on the Palermo bus stay clear of him, realizing he is on the Mafia's hit list.
The Saint manages to reach [Palermo](/wiki/Palermo "Palermo") and contacts Ponti. Then the tables can be turned. Ponti has mobilised a secret military strike force, ready for battle and very grateful to learn from the Saint the location of the Mafia headquarters.
The Saint joins the attack on the castle. Although the castle is surrounded, the Mafia succeeds in breaking through the perimeter with a bullet\-proof car. The army commander, the Saint and Ponti start the pursuit. When they cross through Palermo, they discover they have chased the car too long and the head men must have sneaked out. When driving back, the Saint leaves the car and sends Ponti to call reinforcements.
The Saint enters the house where the Mafia top men have gathered. He is able to corner them, but before he can thoroughly question Destamio he is again surprised by the wife of one of the mafiosi. After that the army troops arrive and although several top men are arrested, Destamio again escapes through a back garage.
The Saint realizes he can only go to one other place and sets off for the Destamio mansion. There he finally confronts Destamio. Confronted by the Saint, he admits his real name is Dino Cartelli. He offers the Saint a bribe in return for his freedom. The Saint lets him go, straight into the hands of arriving police troops.
|
[
"Plot summary\n------------",
"Set on the island of [Sicily](/wiki/Sicily \"Sicily\"), the story shows a slightly older, more mature Saint. Although still a formidable opponent for any criminal, he will not storm into action but choose his moments more carefully.",
"On holiday in [Naples](/wiki/Naples \"Naples\"), Templar witnesses an argument in a restaurant; an English tourist greets an Italian businessman as an old friend, but the Italian claims never to have met him. When the businessman's bodyguard attacks the Englishman, the Saint intervenes. The Italians leave. Templar learns that the Englishman, Euston, is absolutely certain the Italian Businessman was his old friend Dino Cartelli.",
"Next morning, Templar sees an obituary for Euston in the local newspaper. Apparently the man had an unfortunate accident. Suspicious, the Saint starts an investigation. He discovers that Dino Cartelli was a faithful bank employee, brutally murdered by bank robbers years ago. His face and hands were mutilated beyond recognition. He also learns that the businessman is Alessandro Destamio.",
"Next day, a limousine arrives at the hotel and the Saint is courteously invited to have a meeting with Mr. Destamio. He is flown to Destamio's private island, and Destamio introduces himself as a businessman with many enemies who takes his privacy very seriously.",
"Back in Naples, the Saint is attacked by a street robber. The police arrive and take them to the police station for questioning, where the police accuse him of attacking the robber. Luckily a senior officer, Inspector Ponti, arrives, dismisses the Saint and even recommends him a good restaurant for lunch. The Saint understands it is a veiled invitation, and waits for Ponti at the restaurant. Ponti explains that the Saint is up against the Mafia. They will try to hunt him down and the police cannot be trusted. Ponti will be his only ally.",
"The Saint visits Destamio's family, including the lovely Gina. At night, he visits the mausoleum of the Destamio family, but before he can investigate the grave inscriptions he is clubbed unconscious.",
"Captured in a castle, at the mercy of the Mafia, the Saint is brought to the head of the Mafia, who is seriously ill. It appears Destamio aims to be his successor, but he has to defeat other candidates who wonder why Destamio has brought the Saint to their headquarters. It appears that Destamio claims to be from a worthy family, which the Saint might dispute.",
"Returned to his cell, the Saint manages to untie his ropes and climbs out of the dungeon. Pursued by gangsters, he descends from the castle hill and starts running through the Italian countryside. During the chase, the Saint has brief encounters with locals who help him, but their fear of the Mafia is all\\-apparent. A local barber manages to conceal him and tells him to leave as soon as possible. Bus passengers on the Palermo bus stay clear of him, realizing he is on the Mafia's hit list.",
"The Saint manages to reach [Palermo](/wiki/Palermo \"Palermo\") and contacts Ponti. Then the tables can be turned. Ponti has mobilised a secret military strike force, ready for battle and very grateful to learn from the Saint the location of the Mafia headquarters.",
"The Saint joins the attack on the castle. Although the castle is surrounded, the Mafia succeeds in breaking through the perimeter with a bullet\\-proof car. The army commander, the Saint and Ponti start the pursuit. When they cross through Palermo, they discover they have chased the car too long and the head men must have sneaked out. When driving back, the Saint leaves the car and sends Ponti to call reinforcements.",
"The Saint enters the house where the Mafia top men have gathered. He is able to corner them, but before he can thoroughly question Destamio he is again surprised by the wife of one of the mafiosi. After that the army troops arrive and although several top men are arrested, Destamio again escapes through a back garage.",
"The Saint realizes he can only go to one other place and sets off for the Destamio mansion. There he finally confronts Destamio. Confronted by the Saint, he admits his real name is Dino Cartelli. He offers the Saint a bribe in return for his freedom. The Saint lets him go, straight into the hands of arriving police troops.",
""
] |
{{anchor\|Off\-road oriented models}} Heavy Duty series
-------------------------------------------------------
### {{anchor\|J\|BJ\|FJ}} BJ and FJ (1951\)
{{Infobox automobile
\|name\=BJ and FJ
\|aka\=Toyota Jeep BJ (1951–1954\)
\|production\=1951–1955
\|engine\={{unbulleted list
\| 3\.4 L ''\[\[Toyota Type B engine\|B]]'' \[\[Straight\-six engine\|I6]]
\| 3\.9 L ''\[\[Toyota F engine\#F\|F]]'' I6
}}
\|transmission\=4\-speed \[\[manual transmission\|manual]]
\|wheelbase\={{convert\|2400\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\|length\={{convert\|3793\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\|width\={{convert\|1575\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\|height\={{convert\|1900\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\|weight\={{convert\|1425\|kg\|lb\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\|layout \= \[\[Front\-engine, four\-wheel\-drive]]
\|body\_style\=2\-door \[\[softtop]]
\|assembly\=\[\[Toyota City]], Japan (\[\[Arakawa Auto Body]])
}}
#### History
In 1950, the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War "Korean War") created demand for a military light utility vehicle. The [United States government](/wiki/United_States_government "United States government") ordered 100 vehicles with the then\-new [Willys](/wiki/Willys "Willys") specifications and tasked [Toyota](/wiki/Toyota "Toyota") to manufacture them. The **Toyota "Jeep" BJ** prototype was developed in January 1951\. This came from the demand for military\-type utility vehicles, much like the British [Land Rover](/wiki/Land_Rover_Defender "Land Rover Defender") Series 1 that was developed in 1948\. The Jeep BJ was larger than the original U.S. Jeep and more powerful courtesy of its [Type B](/wiki/Toyota_Type_B_engine "Toyota Type B engine") 3\.4\-litre six\-cylinder [OHV](/wiki/Overhead_valve "Overhead valve") [Four\-stroke petrol engine](/wiki/Four-stroke_engine "Four-stroke engine") which generated a power output of {{convert\|85\|PS\|kW hp PS\|0\|abbr\=on\|order\=out}} at 3,600 rpm and {{convert\|215\|N·m\|lb·ft\|abbr\=on}} of torque at 1,600 rpm. It had a part\-time four\-wheel drive system like the Jeep. However, and unlike the Jeep, the Jeep BJ had no low\-range [transfer case](/wiki/Transfer_case "Transfer case"). In July 1951, Toyota's test driver Ichiro Taira drove the next generation of the Jeep BJ prototype up to the sixth stage of [Mount Fuji](/wiki/Mount_Fuji "Mount Fuji"), the first vehicle to climb that height. The test was overseen by the [National Police Agency](/wiki/National_Police_Agency_%28Japan%29 "National Police Agency (Japan)") (NPA). Impressed by this feat, the NPA quickly placed an order for 289 of these off\-road vehicles, making the Jeep BJ their official patrol car.{{cite book \|title\=The Story of Land Cruiser \|url\=http://forum.ih8mud.com/fj25\-owners\-group/241941\-toyota\-historical\-pictures\-3\.html \|year\=1985 \|publisher\=4×4 Magazine Co. \|location\=Tokyo \|access\-date\=9 November 2009 \|archive\-date\=1 December 2009 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091201022119/http://forum.ih8mud.com/fj25\-owners\-group/241941\-toyota\-historical\-pictures\-3\.html \|url\-status\=live }}
For the first two years, manufacture was exclusively to order and in small volumes.{{cite book \| ref \= ruizM \| last \= Ruiz \| first \= Marco \| title \= 'The Complete History of the Japanese Car: 1907 to the Present \| publisher \= ERVIN srl \| location \= Rome \| date \= 1986 \| page \= 186 \| isbn \= 0\-517\-61777\-3 }} In 1953, however, regular production of the "Toyota Jeep BJ" began at the Toyota Honsya Plant (rolling chassis assembly). The body assembly and painting was done at Arakawa Bankin Kogyo KK, later known as [ARACO](/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A9%E3%82%B3 "アラコ") (now an affiliate of Toyota Auto Body Company). The "Toyota Jeep BJ" Series was introduced in the following variants:
* BJ\-T (Touring),
* BJ\-R (Radio),
* BJ\-J (Cowl\-chassis for a fire\-engine).
In June 1954, the name "Land Cruiser" was coined by the technical director Hanji Umehara. "In England we had another competitor – [Land Rover](/wiki/Land_Rover "Land Rover"). I had to come up with a name for our car that would not sound less dignified than those of our competitors. That is why I decided to call it 'Land Cruiser'", he recalls. The name had already been used on the [Studebaker Land Cruiser](/wiki/Studebaker_Land_Cruiser "Studebaker Land Cruiser") which was produced from 1934 to 1954\. The {{convert\|125\|PS\|kW hp PS\|0\|abbr\=on\|order\=out}}, 3\.9 L [Type F](/wiki/Toyota_F_engine "Toyota F engine") petrol engine was added to the Land Cruiser range for the first time, originally only in the fire\-engine chassis. The models were renamed:
* BJ\-T (Touring),
* BJ\-R (Radio),
* BJ\-J (Cowl\-chassis for a fire\-engine),
* FJ\-J (Cowl\-chassis for a fire\-engine).
### {{anchor\|J20\|J30}} J20 (1955\)
{{Infobox automobile
\| name \= J20
\| image \= Toyota\_Landcruiser\_model\_FJ25L.jpg
\| aka \= Toyota Bandeirante (Brazil)
\| production \= {{unbulleted list
\| 1955–1960 (Japan)
\| 1958–1968 (Brazil)
}}
\| assembly \= {{unbulleted list
\| \[\[Toyota City]], Japan (\[\[Arakawa Auto Body]])
\| \[\[São Bernardo do Campo\|São Bernardo]], Brazil (Toyota do Brasil)
}}
\| body\_style \= {{unbulleted list
\| 2\-door \[\[softtop]]
\| 2\-door \[\[hardtop]]
\| 2\-door \[\[pickup truck]]
\| 5\-door \[\[station wagon]]
}}
\| layout \= \[\[Front\-engine, four\-wheel\-drive]]
\| engine \= {{unbulleted list
\|3\.4 L ''\[\[Toyota Type B engine\|B]]'' I6
\|3\.9 L ''\[\[Toyota F engine\#F\|F]]'' I6
}}
\| wheelbase \= {{unbulleted list
\| {{convert\|2285\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| {{convert\|2430\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| {{convert\|2650\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
}}
}}
#### History
* 1955{{snd}}The second generation of the Land Cruiser called the 20 Series was introduced. It was designed to have a more civilian appeal than the BJ for export reasons. It also had more stylish bodywork and a better ride courtesy of longer four\-plate leaf springs which had been adapted from the Toyota Light Truck. It had a more powerful {{convert\|99\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} 3\.9 L six\-cylinder [Type F](/wiki/Toyota_F_engine "Toyota F engine") petrol engine, but adopted the previous generation's three\-speed gearbox. The interior of the vehicles were made more comfortable by moving the engine {{convert\|120\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} forward. The 20 Series still had no low range transfer case, but had synchromesh on the third and fourth gears.{{Citation needed\|reason\=previous sentence states retention of 3\-speed gearbox, this one discusses a 4\-speed gearbox\|date\=October 2011}}
* 1957{{snd}}A 4\-door Station Wagon was added called the FJ35V which was based on a {{convert\|2650\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} [wheelbase](/wiki/Wheelbase "Wheelbase"). The Land Cruiser first imported into Australia by B\&D Motors as the FJ25/28 cab chassis with Australian made bodies.{{cite book \|title\=The Long Run{{snd}}Toyota: The first 40 years in Australia \|first\=Pedr \|last\=Davis \|location\=\[\[South Hurstville]] \|publisher\=Type Forty Pty Ltd \|year\=1999 \|isbn\=0\-947079\-99\-8 \|page\=24}} The Land Cruiser was the first Japanese vehicle to be regularly exported to the country.{{cite news \|title\=Land Cruisers from Japan \|work\=The Age \|date\=20 September 1957 \|page\=1}} A small number of Land Cruisers were initially used in the [Snowy Mountains Scheme](/wiki/Snowy_Mountains_Scheme "Snowy Mountains Scheme") by contractor [Theiss Constructions](/wiki/Thiess_Pty_Ltd "Thiess Pty Ltd").{{cite news \|url\=http://www.themotorreport.com.au/48703/2010\-toyota\-landcruiser\-76\-series\-gxl\-wagon\-road\-test\-and\-review/ \|title\=2010 Toyota Landcruiser 76 Series GXL Wagon Road Test and Review \|date\=18 January 2010 \|last\=O'Kane \|first\=Tony \|access\-date\=19 January 2010 \|work\=The Motor Report \|archive\-date\=19 January 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100119181723/http://www.themotorreport.com.au/48703/2010\-toyota\-landcruiser\-76\-series\-gxl\-wagon\-road\-test\-and\-review/ \|url\-status\=dead }}
* 1958{{snd}}FJ25 production commenced in [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil "Brazil"); this being the first Toyota vehicle built outside Japan. These were sold as the "Toyota Bandeirante" from January 1962 when the Toyota petrol engine was replaced with a [Mercedes\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz "Mercedes-Benz") diesel engine. The word "[bandeirante](/wiki/Bandeirante "Bandeirante")" means "flag carrier" in Portuguese. The FJ25 models were built until August 1968 in Brazil.{{cite web \|title\=Toyota's first production outside Japan at Toyota do Brasil \|work\=75 years of Toyota: Expansion into Latin America \|url\=http://www.toyota\-global.com/company/history\_of\_toyota/75years/text/taking\_on\_the\_automotive\_business/chapter2/section9/item3\_a.html \|publisher\=Toyota Motor Corporation \|access\-date\=19 December 2014 \|archive\-date\=31 July 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150731011638/http://www.toyota\-global.com/company/history\_of\_toyota/75years/text/taking\_on\_the\_automotive\_business/chapter2/section9/item3\_a.html \|url\-status\=live }} Production numbers were fairly low; in 1965, the production total was 961 vehicles.{{cite journal \|journal\=\[\[Stern (magazine)\|Der Stern]] \|title\=VW\-Tochter: Erfolg mit Fusca \|trans\-title\=VW\-daughter: Fusca success \|language\=de \|url\=http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d\-46414589\.html \|date\=19 September 1966 \|page\=134 \|ref\=stern \|publisher\=Rudolf Augstein \|number\=39 \|access\-date\=3 January 2015 \|archive\-date\=21 April 2017 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421065042/http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d\-46414589\.html \|url\-status\=live }}
#### Bandeirante timeline
* **1959**:
+ FJ25{{snd}}Short open (topless) bushdrive car{{Snd}}[Toyota](/wiki/Toyota "Toyota") F engine (May 1959 to 1960/61\){{snd}}new in 1959 (also referred to as FJ251\)
* **1960/1961**:
+ FJ25L{{snd}}Short soft top bushdrive car{{Snd}}[Toyota](/wiki/Toyota "Toyota") F engine (1960/1961 to 1960/1961\){{snd}}new in 1960/1961 (also referred to as FJ251L)
+ FJ151L{{snd}}Short soft top bushdrive car{{Snd}}[Toyota](/wiki/Toyota "Toyota") 2F engine (1960/1961 to December 1961\){{snd}}replaces the FJ25/FJ251 and the FJ25L/FJ251L (there are few mentions in literature and no preserved ones known; it could be even doubted if it's ever been actually built)
* **1962**:
+ TB25L{{snd}}Short soft top bushdrive car{{snd}}[Mercedes\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz "Mercedes-Benz") OM\-324 engine (January 1962 to{{snd}}1966?){{snd}}replaces the FJ151L (or FJ25L/FJ251L?)
+ TB25L{{snd}}Short hard top bushdrive car{{snd}}[Mercedes\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz "Mercedes-Benz") OM\-324 engine (January 1962 to{{snd}}1966?){{snd}}new in 1962
+ TB41L{{snd}}Long hard top bushdrive car {{snd}}[Mercedes\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz "Mercedes-Benz") OM\-324 engine (September 1962 to July 1968\){{snd}}new in 1962
+ TB51L{{snd}}Short pickup with native bed{{snd}}[Mercedes\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz "Mercedes-Benz") OM\-324 engine (September 1962 to January 1966\)
* **1965**:
+ TB51L3{{snd}}Short 3\-door double cabin pickup with native bed and steel bed cover{{snd}}[Mercedes\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz "Mercedes-Benz") OM\-324 engine (1965 to ?){{snd}}new in 1965; possibly only one unit was built
* **1962–1968**:
+ OJ32L{{snd}}Short soft top bushdrive car{{snd}}[Mercedes\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz "Mercedes-Benz") OM\-324 engine (1966?{{snd}}to August 1968\){{snd}}replaces the soft top TB25L
+ OJ31L{{snd}}Short hard top bushdrive car{{snd}}[Mercedes\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz "Mercedes-Benz") OM\-324 engine (1966?{{snd}}to August 1968\){{snd}}replaces the hard top TB25L
+ TB81L{{snd}}Short pickup with native bed{{snd}}[Mercedes\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz "Mercedes-Benz") OM\-324 engine (February 1966 to August 1968\){{snd}}replaces the TB51L
{{Clear}}
### {{anchor\|J40}} J40 (1960\)
{{Infobox automobile
\| name \= J40
\| image \= 1975 Toyota Land Cruiser FJ45 pickup (ZA).jpg
\| aka \= {{unbulleted list
\| Toyota Bandeirante (Brazil)
\| Toyota Macho (Venezuela)
}}
\| production \= {{unbulleted list
\| 1960–1984
\| 1968–2001 (Brazil)
}}
\| assembly \= {{unbulleted list
\| \[\[Toyota City]], Japan
\| \[\[São Bernardo do Campo\|São Bernardo]], Brazil (Toyota do Brasil)
\| \[\[Cumaná, Venezuela\|Cumaná]], Venezuela
\| \[\[Jakarta, Indonesia\|Jakarta]], Indonesia{{cite news \|url\=https://otomania.gridoto.com/amp/read/241184256/cerita\-karir\-perdana\-toyota\-land\-cruiser\-fj40\-di\-indonesia?page\=2 \|title\=Cerita Karir Perdana Toyota Land Cruiser FJ40 di Indonesia \|trans\-title\=Story of the First Toyota Land Cruiser FJ40 in Indonesia \|first\=Irsyaad \|last\=Wijaya \|work\=GridOto.com \|location\=Indonesia \|language\=id \|date\=19 February 2018 \|access\-date\=10 February 2020 \|archive\-date\=28 February 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228053808/https://otomania.gridoto.com/amp/read/241184256/cerita\-karir\-perdana\-toyota\-land\-cruiser\-fj40\-di\-indonesia?page\=2 \|url\-status\=live }}
}}
\| body\_style \= {{unbulleted list
\| 2\-door \[\[softtop]]
\| 2\-door \[\[hardtop]]
\| 2\-door \[\[pickup truck]]
\| 4\-door \[\[station wagon]]
}}
\| layout \= \[\[Front\-engine, four\-wheel\-drive]]
\| engine \= {{unbulleted list
\|'''Petrol:'''{{Ubl
\| 3\.9 L ''\[\[Toyota F engine\#F\|F]]'' \[\[Straight\-six engine\|I6]]
\| 4\.2 L ''\[\[Toyota F engine\#2F\|2F]]'' I6
}}
\|'''Diesel:'''{{Ubl
\| 3\.0 L ''\[\[Toyota B engine\#B\|B]]'' \[\[Diesel engine\|diesel]] \[\[Straight\-four engine\|I4]]{{cite book \|title\=Toyota Vehicle Identification Manual \|publisher\=Toyota Motor Corporation, Overseas Parts Department \|number\=Catalog No.97913–84 \|year\=1984 \|location\=Japan}}
\| 3\.2 L ''\[\[Toyota B engine\#2B\|2B]]'' diesel I4
\| 3\.4 L ''\[\[Toyota B engine\#3B\|3B]]'' I4
\| 3\.6 L ''\[\[Toyota H engine\#H\|H]]'' I6
\| 4\.0 L ''\[\[Toyota H engine\#2H\|2H]]'' I6
}}
}}
\| transmission \= {{unbulleted list
\| 3\-speed manual
\| 4\-speed manual (from 1974\)
\| 5\-speed manual (from 1984\)
}}
\| wheelbase \= {{unbulleted list
\| {{convert\|2285\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| {{convert\|2430\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| {{convert\|2650\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| {{convert\|2950\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
}}
\| length \= {{convert\|151\.2\|in\|mm\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}}
\| width \= {{convert\|65\.6\|in\|mm\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}}
\| height \= {{unbulleted list
\| {{convert\|76\.8\|in\|mm\|1\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} (softtop)
\| {{convert\|78\.8\|in\|mm\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} (hardtop)
}}
\| weight \= {{unbulleted list
\| {{convert\|3263\|lb\|kg\|0\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} (softtop)
\| {{convert\|3427\|lb\|kg\|\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} (hardtop)
}}
}}
{{main\|Toyota Land Cruiser (J40\)}}
#### History
* 1960{{Snd}}The 20 Series was upgraded to the now classic [40 Series](/wiki/Toyota_Land_Cruiser_40_Series "Toyota Land Cruiser 40 Series"). Toyota made many production changes by buying new steel presses. Mechanically, the FJ40 was given a new {{convert\|93\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}}, 3\.9 L [F](/wiki/Toyota_F_engine "Toyota F engine") engine and the Land Cruiser finally received low\-range gearing, but continued the three\-speed main gearbox.
* 1965{{Snd}}Global production surpassed 50,000 vehicles. The Land Cruiser was the best selling Toyota vehicle in the United States.
* 1968{{Snd}}The 100,000th Land Cruiser was sold worldwide. Brazilian J40 production, as the Bandeirante, commenced in September. The Bandeirante has a [Mercedes\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz "Mercedes-Benz") built [diesel engine](/wiki/Diesel_engine "Diesel engine") generating a power output of {{convert\|58\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}}.
* 1972{{Snd}}The 200,000th Land Cruiser was sold.
* 1973{{Snd}}The 300,000th Land Cruiser was sold. The first diesel Land Cruiser was introduced for export based on a long [wheelbase](/wiki/Wheelbase "Wheelbase") with a six\-cylinder [H](/wiki/Toyota_H_engine "Toyota H engine") engine.{{Citation needed\|date\=March 2009}}
* 1974{{snd}}A [four\-cylinder](/wiki/Inline-four_engine "Inline-four engine") 3\.0 L [B](/wiki/Toyota_B_engine "Toyota B engine") diesel engine was offered. The introduction of this engine boosted sales in Japan by putting the Land Cruiser in a lower tax compact freight\-car category as compared to the 3\.9 L [petrol](/wiki/Four-stroke_engine "Four-stroke engine") version.
**Note:** the new [B](/wiki/Toyota_B_engine "Toyota B engine") [diesel engine](/wiki/Diesel_engine "Diesel engine") was different from the [B](/wiki/Toyota_Type_B_engine "Toyota Type B engine") petrol engine used in the original BJ.
* 1975{{Snd}}The 3\.9 L petrol engine was replaced by a larger, more powerful 4\.2 L [2F](/wiki/Toyota_F_engine%232F "Toyota F engine#2F") unit and the FJ55 received front disc brakes. The 3\.6 L [H](/wiki/Toyota_H_engine%23H "Toyota H engine#H") diesel engine was optional in some markets in the HJ45\.
* 1976{{Snd}}FJ40 Land Cruiser (United States version) received front disc brakes like the FJ55\. The Toyota Land Cruiser Association was founded in [California](/wiki/California "California").
* 1977{{Snd}}The [Irish Army](/wiki/Irish_Army "Irish Army") took delivery of the first of 77 FJ45 Land Cruisers. Although fast, reliable, and with good off\-road performance, the vehicle tended to rust excessively in the wet Irish climate. A few which did not succumb to the effects of weather were repainted in gloss olive green and survive as ceremonial gun tractors at military funerals.
* 1978{{Snd}}The first BJ/FJ40 and FJ55 models were officially sold in West Germany with both diesel (BJ40\) and petrol engines (FJ40/55\).
* 1979{{Snd}}FJ40 (United States\-version) was updated this year with a new wider, square bezel surrounding the [headlights](/wiki/Headlight "Headlight"). [Power steering](/wiki/Power_steering "Power steering") and [cooler](/wiki/Air_conditioning "Air conditioning") were offered in FJ40 for the first time. The diesel engine was improved, evolving into the 3\.2 L [2B](/wiki/Toyota_B_engine%232B "Toyota B engine#2B") unit but only in Japanese markets.
* 1980{{Snd}}The H diesel engine (HJ45\) was replaced by the 4\.0 L [2H](/wiki/Toyota_H_engine%232H "Toyota H engine#2H") engine (now with chassis code HJ47\).
* 1981{{Snd}}The Diesel version received front disc brakes and the more powerful 3\.4 L [3B](/wiki/Toyota_B_engine%233B "Toyota B engine#3B") engine, and the LWB BJ45 with 3B engine was added to the range.
* 1983{{Snd}}The last FJ40s imported to the U.S. were 1983 models (mid\-1982 to mid\-1983\). It is unknown how many were imported by Toyota, but many guess the number to be around 300\. The 1983 FJ40s typically bring a premium for their rarity, though they are not much different from 1982 models (mid\-1981 to mid\-1982\).
* 1984{{Snd}}The North American market was limited to Canada with the BJ42, which had a 5\-speed (overdrive) transmission that was widely sought. The original cost was around {{CAD\|14000\|link\=yes}}.
#### Gallery
File:1980 Toyota Land Cruiser (FJ40\) hardtop (25439621823\).jpg\|1980 Toyota Land Cruiser hardtop (FJ40\)
File:1963 Toyota Land Cruiser Station Wagon (FJ45\).JPG\|1963 Toyota Land Cruiser Station Wagon (FJ45\)
File:1985 Toyota FJ45 Land Cruiser Pick\-Up (33891352184\).jpg\|Toyota Land Cruiser pickup (FJ45\)
{{clear}}
### {{anchor\|J70}} J70 (1984\)
{{main\|Toyota Land Cruiser (J70\)}}
{{Infobox automobile
\| name \= J70
\| image \= Toyota landcruiser70 semilonglx 1 f (cropped).jpg
\| aka \= {{unbulleted list
\| Toyota Machito (Venezuela)
}}
\| production \= 1984–present
\| assembly \= {{unbulleted list
\| Japan: \[\[Toyota, Aichi]] (\[\[Yoshiwara plant]]){{cite web \|url\=http://www.toyota\-global.com/company/history\_of\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\_business/production/production/japan/general\_status/toyota\_auto\_body.html \|title\=Affiliates (Toyota {{sic \|hide\=y\|wholly\|\-}}owned subsidiaries)\-Toyota Auto Body Co., Ltd. \|publisher\=Toyota Motor Corporation \|year\=2012 \|access\-date\=14 February 2014 \|archive\-date\=29 May 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529053503/http://www.toyota\-global.com/company/history\_of\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\_business/production/production/japan/general\_status/toyota\_auto\_body.html \|url\-status\=live }}
\| Colombia: \[\[SOFASA]], (\[\[Envigado]], \[\[Antioquia Department\|Antioquia]], \[\[Colombia]]){{cite news \|url\=https://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/MAM\-21709 \|title\=Oficializado Ensamble de Toyota \- Archivo Digital de Noticias de Colombia y el Mundo desde 1\.990 \|trans\-title\=Officialized Toyota Assembly \- Digital Archive of News from Colombia and the World since 1990 \|work\=eltiempo \|location\=Columbia \|language\=Spanish \|date\=8 February 1991 \|access\-date\=1 October 2021 \|archive\-date\=30 September 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930211141/https://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/MAM\-21709 \|url\-status\=live }}{{Cite web\|url \= https://www.elcarrocolombiano.com/clasicos/nada\-les\-pasa\-1992\-los\-toyota\-land\-cruiser\-colombianos\-y\-su\-eterna\-robustez/\|title \= "Nada les pasa" (1992\): Los Toyota Land Cruiser colombianos y su eterna robustez\|date \= 13 June 2021\|access\-date \= 30 September 2021\|archive\-date \= 30 September 2021\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20210930194618/https://www.elcarrocolombiano.com/clasicos/nada\-les\-pasa\-1992\-los\-toyota\-land\-cruiser\-colombianos\-y\-su\-eterna\-robustez/\|url\-status \= live}}
\| Venezuela: \[\[Cumaná, Venezuela\|Cumaná]]
\| Portugal: \[\[Ovar, Portugal\|Ovar]]{{cite news \|url\=https://www.razaoautomovel.com/2021/05/toyota\-celebra\-50\-anos\-de\-producao\-nacional\-da\-fabrica\-de\-ovar \|title\=Toyota celebra 50 anos de produção nacional da fábrica de Ovar \|trans\-title\=Toyota celebrates 50 years of national production at the Ovar factory \|first\=Miguel \|last\=Dias \|work\=Razao Automovel \|location\=Portugal \|language\=Portuguese \|date\=May 2021 \|access\-date\=11 August 2021 \|archive\-date\=10 August 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210810204252/https://www.razaoautomovel.com/2021/05/toyota\-celebra\-50\-anos\-de\-producao\-nacional\-da\-fabrica\-de\-ovar \|url\-status\=live }}
}}
\| body\_style \= {{unbulleted list
\| 2\-door \[\[pickup truck]]
\| 4\-door pickup truck
\| 2\-door \[\[cab chassis]]
\| 4\-door cab chassis
\| 2\-door \[\[hardtop]]
\| 2\-door \[\[softtop]]
\| 3\-door \[\[van]]
\| 3\-door \[\[station wagon\|wagon]]
\| 3\-door \[\[SUV]]
\| 5\-door \[\[SUV]]
}}
\| layout \= \[\[Front\-engine, four\-wheel\-drive]]
\| engine \= {{unbulleted list
\|'''Petrol:'''{{Ubl
\| 2\.4 L ''\[\[Toyota R engine\#22R\|22R]]'' \[\[Straight\-four engine\|I4]]
\| 4\.0 L ''\[\[Toyota F engine\#3F\|3F]]'' \[\[Straight\-six engine\|I6]]
\| 4\.5 L ''\[\[Toyota FZ engine\#1FZ\-FE\|1FZ\-FE]]'' I6
\| 4\.0 L ''\[\[Toyota GR engine\#1GR\-FE\|1GR\-FE]]'' V6
}}
\|'''Diesel:'''{{Ubl
\| 2\.4 L ''\[\[Toyota L engine\#2L\|2L]]'' I4
\| 2\.4 L ''\[\[Toyota L engine\#2L\-T\|2L\-T]]'' \[\[Turbo\-diesel\|turbo]] I4
\| 2\.5 L ''\[\[List of VM Motori engines\#HR 588 OHV\|VM HR588]]'' turbo \[\[Straight\-five engine\|I5]] (Italy only){{cite book \|title\=Quattroruote: Tutte le Auto del Mondo 1990 \|editor\=Mastrostefano, Raffaele \|publisher\=Editoriale Domus S.p.A \|year\=1990 \|pages\=1340–1341 \|language\=it \|location\=Milano}}
\| 2\.8 L ''\[\[Toyota GD engine\#1GD\-FTV\|1GD\-FTV]]'' turbo I4 (2023\-)
\| 3\.0 L ''\[\[Toyota KZ engine\#1KZ\-T\|1KZ\-T]]'' turbo I4
\| 3\.4 L ''\[\[Toyota B engine\#3B\|3B]]'' I4
\| 3\.4 L ''\[\[Toyota B engine\#13B\-T\|13B\-T]]'' turbo I4
\| 3\.4 L ''\[\[Toyota PZ engine\|PZ]]'' I5
\| 4\.0 L ''\[\[Toyota H engine\#2H\|2H]]'' I6
\| 4\.2 L ''\[\[Toyota HD engine\#1HD\-FTE\|1HD\-FTE]]'' turbo I6
\| 4\.2 L ''\[\[Toyota HZ engine\#1HZ\|1HZ]]'' I6
\| 4\.5 L ''\[\[Toyota VD engine\#1VD\-FTV\|1VD\-FTV]]'' turbo \[\[V8 engine\|V8]]
}}
}}
\| transmission \= {{unbulleted list
\| 5\-speed manual
\| 4\-speed automatic
\| 6\-speed automatic (2023–)
}}
\| wheelbase \= {{unbulleted list
\| {{convert\|2310\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| {{convert\|2600\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| {{convert\|2730\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| {{convert\|2980\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| {{convert\|3180\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
}}
\| length \= {{unbulleted list
\| Light: {{convert\|4060\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| Regular: {{convert\|4870\|–\|5230\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
}}
\| width \= {{unbulleted list
\| Light: {{convert\|1690\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| Regular: {{convert\|1790\|–\|1870\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
}}
\| height \= {{unbulleted list
\| Light: {{convert\|1895\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}{{Cite web \|title\=Toyota Bundera Dimensions 1985 \- Length, Width, Height, Turning Circle, Ground Clearance, Wheelbase \& Size \|url\=https://www.carsguide.com.au/toyota/bundera/car\-dimensions/1985 \|date\= \|access\-date\=30 March 2022 \|website\=CarsGuide \|location\=Australia \|archive\-date\=16 July 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716120249/https://www.carsguide.com.au/toyota/bundera/car\-dimensions/1985 \|url\-status\=live }}
\| Regular: {{convert\|1940\|–\|2115\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}{{cite web \|title\=LandCruiser 70 Specifications \|url\=https://www.toyota.com.au/\-/media/toyota/main\-site/vehicle\-hubs/lc70/files/lc70\_spec\_data\_jun2021\.pdf \|access\-date\=30 March 2022 \|archive\-date\=25 July 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725033522/https://www.toyota.com.au/\-/media/toyota/main\-site/vehicle\-hubs/lc70/files/lc70\_spec\_data\_jun2021\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }}
}}
}}
#### History
* 1984{{Snd}}[J70](/wiki/Toyota_Land_Cruiser_%28J70%29 "Toyota Land Cruiser (J70)") was introduced as a soft\-top, hard\-top, [Fibre\-reinforced plastic](/wiki/Fibre-reinforced_plastic "Fibre-reinforced plastic") top, utility, cab\-chassis, and Troop Carrier (inward facing rear seats). The petrol engine was replaced with a 4\.0 L **3F** engine. The 70 Light had a four\-wheel coil spring solid\-axle suspension for better ride quality. This lighter\-duty version of the Land Cruiser had the **22R** 2\.4 L [four\-stroke petrol engine](/wiki/Four-stroke_engine "Four-stroke engine"), which actually were the **2L** and **2L\-T** (turbocharged) 2\.4 L [diesel engines](/wiki/Diesel_engine "Diesel engine") commonly found in the [Toyota Hilux](/wiki/Toyota_Hilux "Toyota Hilux"). The 70 Light was sold in some markets as the **Bundera** or the **Landcruiser II**, later called **70 Prado**. The 70 Prado eventually became popular and evolved into the [Toyota Land Cruiser Prado (J90\)](/wiki/Toyota_Land_Cruiser_Prado_%28J90%29 "Toyota Land Cruiser Prado (J90)"). An [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission "Automatic transmission") (A440F) was introduced making it the first [four\-wheel drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive "Four-wheel drive") Japanese vehicle with an [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission "Automatic transmission").
* 1990{{Snd}}New generation of diesel engines was introduced for the Land Cruiser including a 3\.4 L five\-cylinder SOHC naturally aspirated engine (1PZ), and a 4\.2 L [six\-cylinder](/wiki/Straight-six_engine "Straight-six engine") [SOHC](/wiki/SOHC "SOHC") naturally aspirated engine (designated the [1 HZ](/wiki/Toyota_HZ_engine "Toyota HZ engine")).
* 1993 to 1996{{Snd}}The KZ 3\.0 L turbocharged diesel engine replaced the LJ in the 70 series in European markets where this model was known as the KZJ70\.
* 1993{{snd}}An advanced 24\-valve, 4\.5 L six\-cylinder petrol engine, **1FZ\-FE** was introduced.
* 1999{{snd}}Toyota updated the 70 series in several ways. The solid front axle received coil\-spring suspension. The rear leaf springs were lengthened for increased ride comfort and wheel travel. The six\-bolt wheels were replaced with five\-bolt wheels. Several smaller modifications to the drivetrain provided increased durability. The long\-wheel\-base models received new designations: 78 for the troop carrier, and 79 for the pickup.
* 2002{{Snd}}HDJ79 was introduced to Australia with the **1HD\-FTE** 4\.2 L six\-cylinder 24\-valve turbo\-diesel EFI engine.
* 2007{{Snd}}Toyota's first turbo\-diesel [V8 engine](/wiki/V8_engine "V8 engine"), the [1VD\-FTV](/wiki/Toyota_VD_engine "Toyota VD engine") was introduced in some countries for the 70 Series Land Cruiser. Other modifications include the addition of a 4\-door medium\-wheel\-base model (the 76\) and an updated front\-end on all models.
* 2012{{Snd}}The 79 Double Cab pickup was introduced in the South African markets (with the 4\.2 L diesel or 4\.0 L petrol engines) and in the Australian market (with 4\.5 L V8 Diesel engine).
* 2014 to 2015{{Snd}}The 30th Anniversary Series 70 sold in Japan as a 4\-door wagon or 4\-door pickup with the 1GR\-FE V6 petrol engine and 5\-speed manual transmission.{{Cite news \|url\=http://www.motortrend.com/roadtests/suvs/1412\_toyota\_land\_cruiser\_70\_30th\_anniversary\_edition\_first\_drive/ \|title\=First Drive: Toyota Land Cruiser 70 Series \|first\=Ron \|last\=Kino \|work\=Motor Trend \|date\=15 December 2014 \|access\-date\=5 January 2015 \|archive\-date\=10 January 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150110214417/http://www.motortrend.com/roadtests/suvs/1412\_toyota\_land\_cruiser\_70\_30th\_anniversary\_edition\_first\_drive/ \|url\-status\=live }}
* 2023 70 Series is re\-introduced to Japan. Sold with the 1GD 4 cylinder turbo diesel engine in similar configurations as before, including 4\-door wagon, 2\-door pickup, 4\-door pickup, and 3\-door troop carrier models.{{cite press release \|url\=https://global.toyota/en/newsroom/toyota/40139890\.html \|title\=Toyota Re\-introduces the Land Cruiser "70" in Japan \|publisher\=Toyota \|date\=2023\-11\-29 \|access\-date\=2024\-08\-31}}
The Sixth and Seventh generations of the Land Cruiser are still being produced and sold in African and Latin American regions. Production of the Land Cruiser in Venezuela ended in 2008\.
The 70 series is also still marketed in Australia as 4\-door wagon, 2\-door 'Troop Carrier', 2\-door cab\-chassis and 4\-door cab\-chassis.
The 70 series is also still being marketed in the Middle East as a 2\-door and 4\-door version as an SUV, and a 2\-door and 4\-door version as a pickup, and it is very popular there along with the regular Land Cruiser.
#### Gallery
{{gallery \| width \= 200 \| height \= 150
\| File:Toyota Land Cruiser 70 001\.JPG\|BJ74 Mid wheelbase FRP\-top 3\.4D\-T LX
\| File:2008 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ78R) WorkMate Troop Carrier 3\-door wagon (2009\-08\-21\).jpg\|VDJ78 Troop Carrier
\| File:2015 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ76R) GXL 5\-door wagon (19039611238\).jpg\|VDJ76 GXL 5\-door wagon
}}
{{clear right}}
|
[
"{{anchor\\|Off\\-road oriented models}} Heavy Duty series\n-------------------------------------------------------",
"### {{anchor\\|J\\|BJ\\|FJ}} BJ and FJ (1951\\)",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\|name\\=BJ and FJ\n\\|aka\\=Toyota Jeep BJ (1951–1954\\)\n\\|production\\=1951–1955\n\\|engine\\={{unbulleted list\n \\| 3\\.4 L ''\\[\\[Toyota Type B engine\\|B]]'' \\[\\[Straight\\-six engine\\|I6]]\n \\| 3\\.9 L ''\\[\\[Toyota F engine\\#F\\|F]]'' I6\n }}\n\\|transmission\\=4\\-speed \\[\\[manual transmission\\|manual]]\n\\|wheelbase\\={{convert\\|2400\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\|length\\={{convert\\|3793\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\|width\\={{convert\\|1575\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\|height\\={{convert\\|1900\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\|weight\\={{convert\\|1425\\|kg\\|lb\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\|layout \\= \\[\\[Front\\-engine, four\\-wheel\\-drive]]\n\\|body\\_style\\=2\\-door \\[\\[softtop]]\n\\|assembly\\=\\[\\[Toyota City]], Japan (\\[\\[Arakawa Auto Body]])\n}}",
"#### History",
"In 1950, the [Korean War](/wiki/Korean_War \"Korean War\") created demand for a military light utility vehicle. The [United States government](/wiki/United_States_government \"United States government\") ordered 100 vehicles with the then\\-new [Willys](/wiki/Willys \"Willys\") specifications and tasked [Toyota](/wiki/Toyota \"Toyota\") to manufacture them. The **Toyota \"Jeep\" BJ** prototype was developed in January 1951\\. This came from the demand for military\\-type utility vehicles, much like the British [Land Rover](/wiki/Land_Rover_Defender \"Land Rover Defender\") Series 1 that was developed in 1948\\. The Jeep BJ was larger than the original U.S. Jeep and more powerful courtesy of its [Type B](/wiki/Toyota_Type_B_engine \"Toyota Type B engine\") 3\\.4\\-litre six\\-cylinder [OHV](/wiki/Overhead_valve \"Overhead valve\") [Four\\-stroke petrol engine](/wiki/Four-stroke_engine \"Four-stroke engine\") which generated a power output of {{convert\\|85\\|PS\\|kW hp PS\\|0\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=out}} at 3,600 rpm and {{convert\\|215\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|abbr\\=on}} of torque at 1,600 rpm. It had a part\\-time four\\-wheel drive system like the Jeep. However, and unlike the Jeep, the Jeep BJ had no low\\-range [transfer case](/wiki/Transfer_case \"Transfer case\"). In July 1951, Toyota's test driver Ichiro Taira drove the next generation of the Jeep BJ prototype up to the sixth stage of [Mount Fuji](/wiki/Mount_Fuji \"Mount Fuji\"), the first vehicle to climb that height. The test was overseen by the [National Police Agency](/wiki/National_Police_Agency_%28Japan%29 \"National Police Agency (Japan)\") (NPA). Impressed by this feat, the NPA quickly placed an order for 289 of these off\\-road vehicles, making the Jeep BJ their official patrol car.{{cite book \\|title\\=The Story of Land Cruiser \\|url\\=http://forum.ih8mud.com/fj25\\-owners\\-group/241941\\-toyota\\-historical\\-pictures\\-3\\.html \\|year\\=1985 \\|publisher\\=4×4 Magazine Co. \\|location\\=Tokyo \\|access\\-date\\=9 November 2009 \\|archive\\-date\\=1 December 2009 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20091201022119/http://forum.ih8mud.com/fj25\\-owners\\-group/241941\\-toyota\\-historical\\-pictures\\-3\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"For the first two years, manufacture was exclusively to order and in small volumes.{{cite book \\| ref \\= ruizM \\| last \\= Ruiz \\| first \\= Marco \\| title \\= 'The Complete History of the Japanese Car: 1907 to the Present \\| publisher \\= ERVIN srl \\| location \\= Rome \\| date \\= 1986 \\| page \\= 186 \\| isbn \\= 0\\-517\\-61777\\-3 }} In 1953, however, regular production of the \"Toyota Jeep BJ\" began at the Toyota Honsya Plant (rolling chassis assembly). The body assembly and painting was done at Arakawa Bankin Kogyo KK, later known as [ARACO](/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A9%E3%82%B3 \"アラコ\") (now an affiliate of Toyota Auto Body Company). The \"Toyota Jeep BJ\" Series was introduced in the following variants:\n* BJ\\-T (Touring),\n* BJ\\-R (Radio),\n* BJ\\-J (Cowl\\-chassis for a fire\\-engine).",
"In June 1954, the name \"Land Cruiser\" was coined by the technical director Hanji Umehara. \"In England we had another competitor – [Land Rover](/wiki/Land_Rover \"Land Rover\"). I had to come up with a name for our car that would not sound less dignified than those of our competitors. That is why I decided to call it 'Land Cruiser'\", he recalls. The name had already been used on the [Studebaker Land Cruiser](/wiki/Studebaker_Land_Cruiser \"Studebaker Land Cruiser\") which was produced from 1934 to 1954\\. The {{convert\\|125\\|PS\\|kW hp PS\\|0\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=out}}, 3\\.9 L [Type F](/wiki/Toyota_F_engine \"Toyota F engine\") petrol engine was added to the Land Cruiser range for the first time, originally only in the fire\\-engine chassis. The models were renamed:\n* BJ\\-T (Touring),\n* BJ\\-R (Radio),\n* BJ\\-J (Cowl\\-chassis for a fire\\-engine),\n* FJ\\-J (Cowl\\-chassis for a fire\\-engine).",
"### {{anchor\\|J20\\|J30}} J20 (1955\\)",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= J20\n\\| image \\= Toyota\\_Landcruiser\\_model\\_FJ25L.jpg\n\\| aka \\= Toyota Bandeirante (Brazil)\n\\| production \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| 1955–1960 (Japan)\n \\| 1958–1968 (Brazil)\n }}\n\\| assembly \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| \\[\\[Toyota City]], Japan (\\[\\[Arakawa Auto Body]])\n \\| \\[\\[São Bernardo do Campo\\|São Bernardo]], Brazil (Toyota do Brasil)\n }}\n\\| body\\_style \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| 2\\-door \\[\\[softtop]]\n \\| 2\\-door \\[\\[hardtop]]\n \\| 2\\-door \\[\\[pickup truck]]\n \\| 5\\-door \\[\\[station wagon]]\n }}\n\\| layout \\= \\[\\[Front\\-engine, four\\-wheel\\-drive]]\n\\| engine \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\|3\\.4 L ''\\[\\[Toyota Type B engine\\|B]]'' I6\n \\|3\\.9 L ''\\[\\[Toyota F engine\\#F\\|F]]'' I6\n }}\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| {{convert\\|2285\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n \\| {{convert\\|2430\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n \\| {{convert\\|2650\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n }}\n}}",
"#### History",
"* 1955{{snd}}The second generation of the Land Cruiser called the 20 Series was introduced. It was designed to have a more civilian appeal than the BJ for export reasons. It also had more stylish bodywork and a better ride courtesy of longer four\\-plate leaf springs which had been adapted from the Toyota Light Truck. It had a more powerful {{convert\\|99\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} 3\\.9 L six\\-cylinder [Type F](/wiki/Toyota_F_engine \"Toyota F engine\") petrol engine, but adopted the previous generation's three\\-speed gearbox. The interior of the vehicles were made more comfortable by moving the engine {{convert\\|120\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} forward. The 20 Series still had no low range transfer case, but had synchromesh on the third and fourth gears.{{Citation needed\\|reason\\=previous sentence states retention of 3\\-speed gearbox, this one discusses a 4\\-speed gearbox\\|date\\=October 2011}}\n* 1957{{snd}}A 4\\-door Station Wagon was added called the FJ35V which was based on a {{convert\\|2650\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} [wheelbase](/wiki/Wheelbase \"Wheelbase\"). The Land Cruiser first imported into Australia by B\\&D Motors as the FJ25/28 cab chassis with Australian made bodies.{{cite book \\|title\\=The Long Run{{snd}}Toyota: The first 40 years in Australia \\|first\\=Pedr \\|last\\=Davis \\|location\\=\\[\\[South Hurstville]] \\|publisher\\=Type Forty Pty Ltd \\|year\\=1999 \\|isbn\\=0\\-947079\\-99\\-8 \\|page\\=24}} The Land Cruiser was the first Japanese vehicle to be regularly exported to the country.{{cite news \\|title\\=Land Cruisers from Japan \\|work\\=The Age \\|date\\=20 September 1957 \\|page\\=1}} A small number of Land Cruisers were initially used in the [Snowy Mountains Scheme](/wiki/Snowy_Mountains_Scheme \"Snowy Mountains Scheme\") by contractor [Theiss Constructions](/wiki/Thiess_Pty_Ltd \"Thiess Pty Ltd\").{{cite news \\|url\\=http://www.themotorreport.com.au/48703/2010\\-toyota\\-landcruiser\\-76\\-series\\-gxl\\-wagon\\-road\\-test\\-and\\-review/ \\|title\\=2010 Toyota Landcruiser 76 Series GXL Wagon Road Test and Review \\|date\\=18 January 2010 \\|last\\=O'Kane \\|first\\=Tony \\|access\\-date\\=19 January 2010 \\|work\\=The Motor Report \\|archive\\-date\\=19 January 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100119181723/http://www.themotorreport.com.au/48703/2010\\-toyota\\-landcruiser\\-76\\-series\\-gxl\\-wagon\\-road\\-test\\-and\\-review/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n* 1958{{snd}}FJ25 production commenced in [Brazil](/wiki/Brazil \"Brazil\"); this being the first Toyota vehicle built outside Japan. These were sold as the \"Toyota Bandeirante\" from January 1962 when the Toyota petrol engine was replaced with a [Mercedes\\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz \"Mercedes-Benz\") diesel engine. The word \"[bandeirante](/wiki/Bandeirante \"Bandeirante\")\" means \"flag carrier\" in Portuguese. The FJ25 models were built until August 1968 in Brazil.{{cite web \\|title\\=Toyota's first production outside Japan at Toyota do Brasil \\|work\\=75 years of Toyota: Expansion into Latin America \\|url\\=http://www.toyota\\-global.com/company/history\\_of\\_toyota/75years/text/taking\\_on\\_the\\_automotive\\_business/chapter2/section9/item3\\_a.html \\|publisher\\=Toyota Motor Corporation \\|access\\-date\\=19 December 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 July 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150731011638/http://www.toyota\\-global.com/company/history\\_of\\_toyota/75years/text/taking\\_on\\_the\\_automotive\\_business/chapter2/section9/item3\\_a.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Production numbers were fairly low; in 1965, the production total was 961 vehicles.{{cite journal \\|journal\\=\\[\\[Stern (magazine)\\|Der Stern]] \\|title\\=VW\\-Tochter: Erfolg mit Fusca \\|trans\\-title\\=VW\\-daughter: Fusca success \\|language\\=de \\|url\\=http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d\\-46414589\\.html \\|date\\=19 September 1966 \\|page\\=134 \\|ref\\=stern \\|publisher\\=Rudolf Augstein \\|number\\=39 \\|access\\-date\\=3 January 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=21 April 2017 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421065042/http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d\\-46414589\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### Bandeirante timeline",
"* **1959**:\n\t+ FJ25{{snd}}Short open (topless) bushdrive car{{Snd}}[Toyota](/wiki/Toyota \"Toyota\") F engine (May 1959 to 1960/61\\){{snd}}new in 1959 (also referred to as FJ251\\)\n* **1960/1961**:\n\t+ FJ25L{{snd}}Short soft top bushdrive car{{Snd}}[Toyota](/wiki/Toyota \"Toyota\") F engine (1960/1961 to 1960/1961\\){{snd}}new in 1960/1961 (also referred to as FJ251L)\n\t+ FJ151L{{snd}}Short soft top bushdrive car{{Snd}}[Toyota](/wiki/Toyota \"Toyota\") 2F engine (1960/1961 to December 1961\\){{snd}}replaces the FJ25/FJ251 and the FJ25L/FJ251L (there are few mentions in literature and no preserved ones known; it could be even doubted if it's ever been actually built)\n* **1962**:\n\t+ TB25L{{snd}}Short soft top bushdrive car{{snd}}[Mercedes\\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz \"Mercedes-Benz\") OM\\-324 engine (January 1962 to{{snd}}1966?){{snd}}replaces the FJ151L (or FJ25L/FJ251L?)\n\t+ TB25L{{snd}}Short hard top bushdrive car{{snd}}[Mercedes\\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz \"Mercedes-Benz\") OM\\-324 engine (January 1962 to{{snd}}1966?){{snd}}new in 1962\n\t+ TB41L{{snd}}Long hard top bushdrive car {{snd}}[Mercedes\\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz \"Mercedes-Benz\") OM\\-324 engine (September 1962 to July 1968\\){{snd}}new in 1962\n\t+ TB51L{{snd}}Short pickup with native bed{{snd}}[Mercedes\\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz \"Mercedes-Benz\") OM\\-324 engine (September 1962 to January 1966\\)\n* **1965**:\n\t+ TB51L3{{snd}}Short 3\\-door double cabin pickup with native bed and steel bed cover{{snd}}[Mercedes\\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz \"Mercedes-Benz\") OM\\-324 engine (1965 to ?){{snd}}new in 1965; possibly only one unit was built\n* **1962–1968**:\n\t+ OJ32L{{snd}}Short soft top bushdrive car{{snd}}[Mercedes\\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz \"Mercedes-Benz\") OM\\-324 engine (1966?{{snd}}to August 1968\\){{snd}}replaces the soft top TB25L\n\t+ OJ31L{{snd}}Short hard top bushdrive car{{snd}}[Mercedes\\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz \"Mercedes-Benz\") OM\\-324 engine (1966?{{snd}}to August 1968\\){{snd}}replaces the hard top TB25L\n\t+ TB81L{{snd}}Short pickup with native bed{{snd}}[Mercedes\\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz \"Mercedes-Benz\") OM\\-324 engine (February 1966 to August 1968\\){{snd}}replaces the TB51L",
"{{Clear}}",
"### {{anchor\\|J40}} J40 (1960\\)",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= J40\n\\| image \\= 1975 Toyota Land Cruiser FJ45 pickup (ZA).jpg\n\\| aka \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| Toyota Bandeirante (Brazil)\n \\| Toyota Macho (Venezuela)\n }}\n\\| production \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| 1960–1984\n \\| 1968–2001 (Brazil)\n }}\n\\| assembly \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| \\[\\[Toyota City]], Japan\n \\| \\[\\[São Bernardo do Campo\\|São Bernardo]], Brazil (Toyota do Brasil)\n \\| \\[\\[Cumaná, Venezuela\\|Cumaná]], Venezuela\n \\| \\[\\[Jakarta, Indonesia\\|Jakarta]], Indonesia{{cite news \\|url\\=https://otomania.gridoto.com/amp/read/241184256/cerita\\-karir\\-perdana\\-toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-fj40\\-di\\-indonesia?page\\=2 \\|title\\=Cerita Karir Perdana Toyota Land Cruiser FJ40 di Indonesia \\|trans\\-title\\=Story of the First Toyota Land Cruiser FJ40 in Indonesia \\|first\\=Irsyaad \\|last\\=Wijaya \\|work\\=GridOto.com \\|location\\=Indonesia \\|language\\=id \\|date\\=19 February 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=10 February 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=28 February 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228053808/https://otomania.gridoto.com/amp/read/241184256/cerita\\-karir\\-perdana\\-toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-fj40\\-di\\-indonesia?page\\=2 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n}}\n\\| body\\_style \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| 2\\-door \\[\\[softtop]]\n \\| 2\\-door \\[\\[hardtop]]\n \\| 2\\-door \\[\\[pickup truck]]\n \\| 4\\-door \\[\\[station wagon]]\n }}\n\\| layout \\= \\[\\[Front\\-engine, four\\-wheel\\-drive]]\n\\| engine \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\|'''Petrol:'''{{Ubl\n \\| 3\\.9 L ''\\[\\[Toyota F engine\\#F\\|F]]'' \\[\\[Straight\\-six engine\\|I6]]\n \\| 4\\.2 L ''\\[\\[Toyota F engine\\#2F\\|2F]]'' I6\n }}\n \\|'''Diesel:'''{{Ubl\n \\| 3\\.0 L ''\\[\\[Toyota B engine\\#B\\|B]]'' \\[\\[Diesel engine\\|diesel]] \\[\\[Straight\\-four engine\\|I4]]{{cite book \\|title\\=Toyota Vehicle Identification Manual \\|publisher\\=Toyota Motor Corporation, Overseas Parts Department \\|number\\=Catalog No.97913–84 \\|year\\=1984 \\|location\\=Japan}}\n \\| 3\\.2 L ''\\[\\[Toyota B engine\\#2B\\|2B]]'' diesel I4\n \\| 3\\.4 L ''\\[\\[Toyota B engine\\#3B\\|3B]]'' I4\n \\| 3\\.6 L ''\\[\\[Toyota H engine\\#H\\|H]]'' I6\n \\| 4\\.0 L ''\\[\\[Toyota H engine\\#2H\\|2H]]'' I6\n }}\n }}\n\\| transmission \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| 3\\-speed manual\n \\| 4\\-speed manual (from 1974\\)\n \\| 5\\-speed manual (from 1984\\)\n }}\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| {{convert\\|2285\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n \\| {{convert\\|2430\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n \\| {{convert\\|2650\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n \\| {{convert\\|2950\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n }}\n\\| length \\= {{convert\\|151\\.2\\|in\\|mm\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}}\n\\| width \\= {{convert\\|65\\.6\\|in\\|mm\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}}\n\\| height \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| {{convert\\|76\\.8\\|in\\|mm\\|1\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} (softtop)\n \\| {{convert\\|78\\.8\\|in\\|mm\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} (hardtop)\n }}\n\\| weight \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| {{convert\\|3263\\|lb\\|kg\\|0\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} (softtop)\n \\| {{convert\\|3427\\|lb\\|kg\\|\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} (hardtop)\n }}\n}}",
"{{main\\|Toyota Land Cruiser (J40\\)}}",
"#### History",
"* 1960{{Snd}}The 20 Series was upgraded to the now classic [40 Series](/wiki/Toyota_Land_Cruiser_40_Series \"Toyota Land Cruiser 40 Series\"). Toyota made many production changes by buying new steel presses. Mechanically, the FJ40 was given a new {{convert\\|93\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}, 3\\.9 L [F](/wiki/Toyota_F_engine \"Toyota F engine\") engine and the Land Cruiser finally received low\\-range gearing, but continued the three\\-speed main gearbox.\n* 1965{{Snd}}Global production surpassed 50,000 vehicles. The Land Cruiser was the best selling Toyota vehicle in the United States.\n* 1968{{Snd}}The 100,000th Land Cruiser was sold worldwide. Brazilian J40 production, as the Bandeirante, commenced in September. The Bandeirante has a [Mercedes\\-Benz](/wiki/Mercedes-Benz \"Mercedes-Benz\") built [diesel engine](/wiki/Diesel_engine \"Diesel engine\") generating a power output of {{convert\\|58\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}.\n* 1972{{Snd}}The 200,000th Land Cruiser was sold.\n* 1973{{Snd}}The 300,000th Land Cruiser was sold. The first diesel Land Cruiser was introduced for export based on a long [wheelbase](/wiki/Wheelbase \"Wheelbase\") with a six\\-cylinder [H](/wiki/Toyota_H_engine \"Toyota H engine\") engine.{{Citation needed\\|date\\=March 2009}}\n* 1974{{snd}}A [four\\-cylinder](/wiki/Inline-four_engine \"Inline-four engine\") 3\\.0 L [B](/wiki/Toyota_B_engine \"Toyota B engine\") diesel engine was offered. The introduction of this engine boosted sales in Japan by putting the Land Cruiser in a lower tax compact freight\\-car category as compared to the 3\\.9 L [petrol](/wiki/Four-stroke_engine \"Four-stroke engine\") version. \n**Note:** the new [B](/wiki/Toyota_B_engine \"Toyota B engine\") [diesel engine](/wiki/Diesel_engine \"Diesel engine\") was different from the [B](/wiki/Toyota_Type_B_engine \"Toyota Type B engine\") petrol engine used in the original BJ.\n* 1975{{Snd}}The 3\\.9 L petrol engine was replaced by a larger, more powerful 4\\.2 L [2F](/wiki/Toyota_F_engine%232F \"Toyota F engine#2F\") unit and the FJ55 received front disc brakes. The 3\\.6 L [H](/wiki/Toyota_H_engine%23H \"Toyota H engine#H\") diesel engine was optional in some markets in the HJ45\\.\n* 1976{{Snd}}FJ40 Land Cruiser (United States version) received front disc brakes like the FJ55\\. The Toyota Land Cruiser Association was founded in [California](/wiki/California \"California\").\n* 1977{{Snd}}The [Irish Army](/wiki/Irish_Army \"Irish Army\") took delivery of the first of 77 FJ45 Land Cruisers. Although fast, reliable, and with good off\\-road performance, the vehicle tended to rust excessively in the wet Irish climate. A few which did not succumb to the effects of weather were repainted in gloss olive green and survive as ceremonial gun tractors at military funerals.\n* 1978{{Snd}}The first BJ/FJ40 and FJ55 models were officially sold in West Germany with both diesel (BJ40\\) and petrol engines (FJ40/55\\).\n* 1979{{Snd}}FJ40 (United States\\-version) was updated this year with a new wider, square bezel surrounding the [headlights](/wiki/Headlight \"Headlight\"). [Power steering](/wiki/Power_steering \"Power steering\") and [cooler](/wiki/Air_conditioning \"Air conditioning\") were offered in FJ40 for the first time. The diesel engine was improved, evolving into the 3\\.2 L [2B](/wiki/Toyota_B_engine%232B \"Toyota B engine#2B\") unit but only in Japanese markets.\n* 1980{{Snd}}The H diesel engine (HJ45\\) was replaced by the 4\\.0 L [2H](/wiki/Toyota_H_engine%232H \"Toyota H engine#2H\") engine (now with chassis code HJ47\\).\n* 1981{{Snd}}The Diesel version received front disc brakes and the more powerful 3\\.4 L [3B](/wiki/Toyota_B_engine%233B \"Toyota B engine#3B\") engine, and the LWB BJ45 with 3B engine was added to the range.\n* 1983{{Snd}}The last FJ40s imported to the U.S. were 1983 models (mid\\-1982 to mid\\-1983\\). It is unknown how many were imported by Toyota, but many guess the number to be around 300\\. The 1983 FJ40s typically bring a premium for their rarity, though they are not much different from 1982 models (mid\\-1981 to mid\\-1982\\).\n* 1984{{Snd}}The North American market was limited to Canada with the BJ42, which had a 5\\-speed (overdrive) transmission that was widely sought. The original cost was around {{CAD\\|14000\\|link\\=yes}}.",
"#### Gallery",
"",
"File:1980 Toyota Land Cruiser (FJ40\\) hardtop (25439621823\\).jpg\\|1980 Toyota Land Cruiser hardtop (FJ40\\)\nFile:1963 Toyota Land Cruiser Station Wagon (FJ45\\).JPG\\|1963 Toyota Land Cruiser Station Wagon (FJ45\\)\nFile:1985 Toyota FJ45 Land Cruiser Pick\\-Up (33891352184\\).jpg\\|Toyota Land Cruiser pickup (FJ45\\)",
"",
"{{clear}}",
"### {{anchor\\|J70}} J70 (1984\\)",
"{{main\\|Toyota Land Cruiser (J70\\)}}\n{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= J70\n\\| image \\= Toyota landcruiser70 semilonglx 1 f (cropped).jpg\n\\| aka \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| Toyota Machito (Venezuela)\n }}\n\\| production \\= 1984–present\n\\| assembly \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| Japan: \\[\\[Toyota, Aichi]] (\\[\\[Yoshiwara plant]]){{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.toyota\\-global.com/company/history\\_of\\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\\_business/production/production/japan/general\\_status/toyota\\_auto\\_body.html \\|title\\=Affiliates (Toyota {{sic \\|hide\\=y\\|wholly\\|\\-}}owned subsidiaries)\\-Toyota Auto Body Co., Ltd. \\|publisher\\=Toyota Motor Corporation \\|year\\=2012 \\|access\\-date\\=14 February 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=29 May 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529053503/http://www.toyota\\-global.com/company/history\\_of\\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\\_business/production/production/japan/general\\_status/toyota\\_auto\\_body.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} \n \\| Colombia: \\[\\[SOFASA]], (\\[\\[Envigado]], \\[\\[Antioquia Department\\|Antioquia]], \\[\\[Colombia]]){{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/MAM\\-21709 \\|title\\=Oficializado Ensamble de Toyota \\- Archivo Digital de Noticias de Colombia y el Mundo desde 1\\.990 \\|trans\\-title\\=Officialized Toyota Assembly \\- Digital Archive of News from Colombia and the World since 1990 \\|work\\=eltiempo \\|location\\=Columbia \\|language\\=Spanish \\|date\\=8 February 1991 \\|access\\-date\\=1 October 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 September 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930211141/https://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/MAM\\-21709 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{Cite web\\|url \\= https://www.elcarrocolombiano.com/clasicos/nada\\-les\\-pasa\\-1992\\-los\\-toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-colombianos\\-y\\-su\\-eterna\\-robustez/\\|title \\= \"Nada les pasa\" (1992\\): Los Toyota Land Cruiser colombianos y su eterna robustez\\|date \\= 13 June 2021\\|access\\-date \\= 30 September 2021\\|archive\\-date \\= 30 September 2021\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20210930194618/https://www.elcarrocolombiano.com/clasicos/nada\\-les\\-pasa\\-1992\\-los\\-toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-colombianos\\-y\\-su\\-eterna\\-robustez/\\|url\\-status \\= live}}\n \\| Venezuela: \\[\\[Cumaná, Venezuela\\|Cumaná]]\n \\| Portugal: \\[\\[Ovar, Portugal\\|Ovar]]{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.razaoautomovel.com/2021/05/toyota\\-celebra\\-50\\-anos\\-de\\-producao\\-nacional\\-da\\-fabrica\\-de\\-ovar \\|title\\=Toyota celebra 50 anos de produção nacional da fábrica de Ovar \\|trans\\-title\\=Toyota celebrates 50 years of national production at the Ovar factory \\|first\\=Miguel \\|last\\=Dias \\|work\\=Razao Automovel \\|location\\=Portugal \\|language\\=Portuguese \\|date\\=May 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=11 August 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 August 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210810204252/https://www.razaoautomovel.com/2021/05/toyota\\-celebra\\-50\\-anos\\-de\\-producao\\-nacional\\-da\\-fabrica\\-de\\-ovar \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n }}\n\\| body\\_style \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| 2\\-door \\[\\[pickup truck]]\n \\| 4\\-door pickup truck\n \\| 2\\-door \\[\\[cab chassis]]\n \\| 4\\-door cab chassis\n \\| 2\\-door \\[\\[hardtop]]\n \\| 2\\-door \\[\\[softtop]]\n \\| 3\\-door \\[\\[van]]\n \\| 3\\-door \\[\\[station wagon\\|wagon]]\n \\| 3\\-door \\[\\[SUV]]\n \\| 5\\-door \\[\\[SUV]]\n }}\n\\| layout \\= \\[\\[Front\\-engine, four\\-wheel\\-drive]]\n\\| engine \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\|'''Petrol:'''{{Ubl\n \\| 2\\.4 L ''\\[\\[Toyota R engine\\#22R\\|22R]]'' \\[\\[Straight\\-four engine\\|I4]] \n \\| 4\\.0 L ''\\[\\[Toyota F engine\\#3F\\|3F]]'' \\[\\[Straight\\-six engine\\|I6]] \n \\| 4\\.5 L ''\\[\\[Toyota FZ engine\\#1FZ\\-FE\\|1FZ\\-FE]]'' I6\n \\| 4\\.0 L ''\\[\\[Toyota GR engine\\#1GR\\-FE\\|1GR\\-FE]]'' V6 \n }}\n \\|'''Diesel:'''{{Ubl\n \\| 2\\.4 L ''\\[\\[Toyota L engine\\#2L\\|2L]]'' I4\n \\| 2\\.4 L ''\\[\\[Toyota L engine\\#2L\\-T\\|2L\\-T]]'' \\[\\[Turbo\\-diesel\\|turbo]] I4\n \\| 2\\.5 L ''\\[\\[List of VM Motori engines\\#HR 588 OHV\\|VM HR588]]'' turbo \\[\\[Straight\\-five engine\\|I5]] (Italy only){{cite book \\|title\\=Quattroruote: Tutte le Auto del Mondo 1990 \\|editor\\=Mastrostefano, Raffaele \\|publisher\\=Editoriale Domus S.p.A \\|year\\=1990 \\|pages\\=1340–1341 \\|language\\=it \\|location\\=Milano}}\n \\| 2\\.8 L ''\\[\\[Toyota GD engine\\#1GD\\-FTV\\|1GD\\-FTV]]'' turbo I4 (2023\\-)\n \\| 3\\.0 L ''\\[\\[Toyota KZ engine\\#1KZ\\-T\\|1KZ\\-T]]'' turbo I4 \n \\| 3\\.4 L ''\\[\\[Toyota B engine\\#3B\\|3B]]'' I4\n \\| 3\\.4 L ''\\[\\[Toyota B engine\\#13B\\-T\\|13B\\-T]]'' turbo I4 \n \\| 3\\.4 L ''\\[\\[Toyota PZ engine\\|PZ]]'' I5 \n \\| 4\\.0 L ''\\[\\[Toyota H engine\\#2H\\|2H]]'' I6\n \\| 4\\.2 L ''\\[\\[Toyota HD engine\\#1HD\\-FTE\\|1HD\\-FTE]]'' turbo I6\n \\| 4\\.2 L ''\\[\\[Toyota HZ engine\\#1HZ\\|1HZ]]'' I6\n \\| 4\\.5 L ''\\[\\[Toyota VD engine\\#1VD\\-FTV\\|1VD\\-FTV]]'' turbo \\[\\[V8 engine\\|V8]]\n }}\n }}\n\\| transmission \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| 5\\-speed manual\n \\| 4\\-speed automatic\n \\| 6\\-speed automatic (2023–)\n }}\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| {{convert\\|2310\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n \\| {{convert\\|2600\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n \\| {{convert\\|2730\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n \\| {{convert\\|2980\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n \\| {{convert\\|3180\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n }}\n\\| length \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| Light: {{convert\\|4060\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n \\| Regular: {{convert\\|4870\\|–\\|5230\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n }}\n\\| width \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| Light: {{convert\\|1690\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n \\| Regular: {{convert\\|1790\\|–\\|1870\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n }}\n\\| height \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| Light: {{convert\\|1895\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}{{Cite web \\|title\\=Toyota Bundera Dimensions 1985 \\- Length, Width, Height, Turning Circle, Ground Clearance, Wheelbase \\& Size \\|url\\=https://www.carsguide.com.au/toyota/bundera/car\\-dimensions/1985 \\|date\\= \\|access\\-date\\=30 March 2022 \\|website\\=CarsGuide \\|location\\=Australia \\|archive\\-date\\=16 July 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716120249/https://www.carsguide.com.au/toyota/bundera/car\\-dimensions/1985 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n \\| Regular: {{convert\\|1940\\|–\\|2115\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}{{cite web \\|title\\=LandCruiser 70 Specifications \\|url\\=https://www.toyota.com.au/\\-/media/toyota/main\\-site/vehicle\\-hubs/lc70/files/lc70\\_spec\\_data\\_jun2021\\.pdf \\|access\\-date\\=30 March 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 July 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725033522/https://www.toyota.com.au/\\-/media/toyota/main\\-site/vehicle\\-hubs/lc70/files/lc70\\_spec\\_data\\_jun2021\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n }}\n}}",
"#### History",
"* 1984{{Snd}}[J70](/wiki/Toyota_Land_Cruiser_%28J70%29 \"Toyota Land Cruiser (J70)\") was introduced as a soft\\-top, hard\\-top, [Fibre\\-reinforced plastic](/wiki/Fibre-reinforced_plastic \"Fibre-reinforced plastic\") top, utility, cab\\-chassis, and Troop Carrier (inward facing rear seats). The petrol engine was replaced with a 4\\.0 L **3F** engine. The 70 Light had a four\\-wheel coil spring solid\\-axle suspension for better ride quality. This lighter\\-duty version of the Land Cruiser had the **22R** 2\\.4 L [four\\-stroke petrol engine](/wiki/Four-stroke_engine \"Four-stroke engine\"), which actually were the **2L** and **2L\\-T** (turbocharged) 2\\.4 L [diesel engines](/wiki/Diesel_engine \"Diesel engine\") commonly found in the [Toyota Hilux](/wiki/Toyota_Hilux \"Toyota Hilux\"). The 70 Light was sold in some markets as the **Bundera** or the **Landcruiser II**, later called **70 Prado**. The 70 Prado eventually became popular and evolved into the [Toyota Land Cruiser Prado (J90\\)](/wiki/Toyota_Land_Cruiser_Prado_%28J90%29 \"Toyota Land Cruiser Prado (J90)\"). An [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission \"Automatic transmission\") (A440F) was introduced making it the first [four\\-wheel drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive \"Four-wheel drive\") Japanese vehicle with an [automatic transmission](/wiki/Automatic_transmission \"Automatic transmission\").\n* 1990{{Snd}}New generation of diesel engines was introduced for the Land Cruiser including a 3\\.4 L five\\-cylinder SOHC naturally aspirated engine (1PZ), and a 4\\.2 L [six\\-cylinder](/wiki/Straight-six_engine \"Straight-six engine\") [SOHC](/wiki/SOHC \"SOHC\") naturally aspirated engine (designated the [1 HZ](/wiki/Toyota_HZ_engine \"Toyota HZ engine\")).\n* 1993 to 1996{{Snd}}The KZ 3\\.0 L turbocharged diesel engine replaced the LJ in the 70 series in European markets where this model was known as the KZJ70\\.\n* 1993{{snd}}An advanced 24\\-valve, 4\\.5 L six\\-cylinder petrol engine, **1FZ\\-FE** was introduced.\n* 1999{{snd}}Toyota updated the 70 series in several ways. The solid front axle received coil\\-spring suspension. The rear leaf springs were lengthened for increased ride comfort and wheel travel. The six\\-bolt wheels were replaced with five\\-bolt wheels. Several smaller modifications to the drivetrain provided increased durability. The long\\-wheel\\-base models received new designations: 78 for the troop carrier, and 79 for the pickup.\n* 2002{{Snd}}HDJ79 was introduced to Australia with the **1HD\\-FTE** 4\\.2 L six\\-cylinder 24\\-valve turbo\\-diesel EFI engine.\n* 2007{{Snd}}Toyota's first turbo\\-diesel [V8 engine](/wiki/V8_engine \"V8 engine\"), the [1VD\\-FTV](/wiki/Toyota_VD_engine \"Toyota VD engine\") was introduced in some countries for the 70 Series Land Cruiser. Other modifications include the addition of a 4\\-door medium\\-wheel\\-base model (the 76\\) and an updated front\\-end on all models.\n* 2012{{Snd}}The 79 Double Cab pickup was introduced in the South African markets (with the 4\\.2 L diesel or 4\\.0 L petrol engines) and in the Australian market (with 4\\.5 L V8 Diesel engine).\n* 2014 to 2015{{Snd}}The 30th Anniversary Series 70 sold in Japan as a 4\\-door wagon or 4\\-door pickup with the 1GR\\-FE V6 petrol engine and 5\\-speed manual transmission.{{Cite news \\|url\\=http://www.motortrend.com/roadtests/suvs/1412\\_toyota\\_land\\_cruiser\\_70\\_30th\\_anniversary\\_edition\\_first\\_drive/ \\|title\\=First Drive: Toyota Land Cruiser 70 Series \\|first\\=Ron \\|last\\=Kino \\|work\\=Motor Trend \\|date\\=15 December 2014 \\|access\\-date\\=5 January 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 January 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150110214417/http://www.motortrend.com/roadtests/suvs/1412\\_toyota\\_land\\_cruiser\\_70\\_30th\\_anniversary\\_edition\\_first\\_drive/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n* 2023 70 Series is re\\-introduced to Japan. Sold with the 1GD 4 cylinder turbo diesel engine in similar configurations as before, including 4\\-door wagon, 2\\-door pickup, 4\\-door pickup, and 3\\-door troop carrier models.{{cite press release \\|url\\=https://global.toyota/en/newsroom/toyota/40139890\\.html \\|title\\=Toyota Re\\-introduces the Land Cruiser \"70\" in Japan \\|publisher\\=Toyota \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-29 \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-08\\-31}}",
"The Sixth and Seventh generations of the Land Cruiser are still being produced and sold in African and Latin American regions. Production of the Land Cruiser in Venezuela ended in 2008\\.",
"The 70 series is also still marketed in Australia as 4\\-door wagon, 2\\-door 'Troop Carrier', 2\\-door cab\\-chassis and 4\\-door cab\\-chassis.",
"The 70 series is also still being marketed in the Middle East as a 2\\-door and 4\\-door version as an SUV, and a 2\\-door and 4\\-door version as a pickup, and it is very popular there along with the regular Land Cruiser.",
"#### Gallery",
"{{gallery \\| width \\= 200 \\| height \\= 150\n\\| File:Toyota Land Cruiser 70 001\\.JPG\\|BJ74 Mid wheelbase FRP\\-top 3\\.4D\\-T LX\n\\| File:2008 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ78R) WorkMate Troop Carrier 3\\-door wagon (2009\\-08\\-21\\).jpg\\|VDJ78 Troop Carrier\n\\| File:2015 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ76R) GXL 5\\-door wagon (19039611238\\).jpg\\|VDJ76 GXL 5\\-door wagon\n}}",
"{{clear right}}",
""
] |
{{anchor\|Comfort oriented models}} Station Wagon series
--------------------------------------------------------
### {{anchor\|J50}} J50 (1967\)
{{Infobox automobile
\|name\=J50
\|image\=1979 Toyota Land Cruiser FJ55\.jpg
\|caption\=1979 FJ55 (US)
\|production\=1967–1980
\|assembly\=\[\[Toyota City]], Japan (\[\[ARACO]])
\|body\_style\=5\-door \[\[SUV]]
\|layout\=\[\[Front\-engine, four\-wheel\-drive]]
\|engine\={{unbulleted list
\| 3\.9 L ''\[\[Toyota F engine\#F\|F]]'' \[\[Straight\-six engine\|I6]]
\| 4\.2 L ''\[\[Toyota F engine\#2F\|2F]]'' I6
}}
\|transmission\={{Ubl
\| 3\-speed \[\[manual transmission\|manual]]
\| 4\-speed manual (J30, H41 or H42\)
}}
\|wheelbase\={{convert\|2700\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\|length\={{convert\|4675\|mm\|in\|\|abbr\=on}}
\|width\={{convert\|1735\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\|height\={{convert\|1865\|mm\|in\|\|abbr\=on}}
}}
The Land Cruiser 55 was produced from 1967 to 1980\. Toyota refers to the FJ55G and FJ55V as the first "real" [station wagon](/wiki/Station_wagon "Station wagon") in the Land Cruiser series, thus marking the beginning of the station wagon body style. It was the first Land Cruiser to have fully enclosed box frame members. Of all the Land Cruiser wagons sold in the U.S., including the FJ45, it is the only one to not have hatch and tailgate in the rear, but rather a tailgate only with an electrically operated window that can be retracted into the tailgate.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.toyota\-global.com/showroom/vehicle\_heritage/landcruiser/collection/model\_55\_1\.html \|title\=Land Cruiser{{snd}}Model 55 Series \|publisher\=Toyota Motor Corporation Global Website \|access\-date\=14 March 2012 \|archive\-date\=1 April 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401020435/http://www.toyota\-global.com/showroom/vehicle\_heritage/landcruiser/collection/model\_55\_1\.html \|url\-status\=live }}
#### History
* 1967{{Snd}}Production of the FJ55 began. The FJ55 was a 4\-door station wagon version based on the FJ40's Drive\-train, replacing the 4\-Door FJ45V (I). It was colloquially known as the "[Moose](/wiki/Moose "Moose")". It has also been referred to as a "[pig](/wiki/Pig "Pig")" or an "iron pig". The FJ55 had a longer [wheelbase](/wiki/Wheelbase "Wheelbase") (at {{cvt\|2700\|mm\|in\|0\|abbr\=on}}) and was mainly designed to be sold in North America and Australia. Fire engine versions were also available, using the regular front clip but with open bodywork and no doors.{{citation \| ref \= JAMA25 \| title\= 自動車ガイドブック \| trans\-title \= Japanese Motor Vehicles Guide Book 1978/1979 \| language \= ja \| volume \= 25 \| date \= 10 October 1978 \| publisher \= \[\[Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association]] \| location \= Japan \| page \= 276 \| id \= 0053\-780025\-3400 }}
* 1975{{Snd}}January 1975 saw the F series engine being replaced by the 2F engine. Unusual for Toyota, the model designation (e.g. FJ55\) did not change, except in Japan, where it was changed to **FJ56**.
* July 1980{{snd}}Production ends.
**Gallery**
{{gallery \| width \= 200 \| height \= 150
\|File:Toyota Land Cruiser Wagon (FJ55\), 1970\-72 rear left.jpg\|Rear view
}}
{{Clear}}
### {{anchor\|J60}} J60 (1980\)
{{Infobox automobile
\|name\= J60
\|image\=Vintage Toyota Land Cruiser (16275497802\) (cropped).jpg
\|aka\=Toyota Samurai (Venezuela)
\|production\=1980–1992
\|assembly\={{unbulleted list
\| \[\[Toyota City]], Japan (\[\[ARACO]])
\| \[\[Cumaná, Venezuela\|Cumaná]], Venezuela
}}
\|body\_style\= 5\-door \[\[SUV]]
\|layout\=\[\[Front\-engine, four\-wheel\-drive]]
\|engine\={{unbulleted list
\|'''Petrol:'''{{Ubl
\| 4\.2 L ''\[\[Toyota F engine\#2F\|2F]]'' \[\[Straight\-six engine\|I6]] (FJ60\)
\| 4\.0 L ''\[\[Toyota F engine\#3F/3F\-E\|3F]]'' I6 (FJ62\)
\| 4\.0 L ''\[\[Toyota F engine\#3F/3F\-E\|3F\-E]]'' I6 (FJ62 from 1988\)
}}
\|'''Diesel:'''{{Ubl
\| 3\.4 L ''\[\[Toyota B engine\#3B\|3B]]'' \[\[Straight\-four engine\|I4]] (BJ60\)
\| 4\.0 L ''\[\[Toyota H engine\#2H\|2H]]'' I6 (HJ60\)
\| 4\.0 L ''\[\[Toyota H engine\#12H\-T\|12H\-T]]'' \[\[Turbocharger\|turbo]] I6 (HJ61\)
}}
}}
\|transmission\={{unbulleted list
\| 4\-speed ''H41F'' or ''H42F'' \[\[manual transmission\|manual]] (United States only)
\| 4\-speed ''\[\[Toyota A transmission\#A440F\|A440F]]'' \[\[automatic transmission\|automatic]]
\| 5\-speed ''H55F'' manual
}}
\|wheelbase\={{convert\|2730\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\|length\={{convert\|4675\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\|width\={{convert\|1800\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\|height\={{convert\|1750\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
}}
The Land Cruiser 60 series was produced from 1980 through 1990, for most markets but the Cumana Plant in Venezuela continued production until 1992 for their local market. It is a front engine, four\-door wagon which can seat five to eight{{cite web \|url\=https://roads\-waterways.transport.nsw.gov.au/rvd\-pre1999/data/pdf/11787\.pdf \|title\=Vehicle Specifications Toyota 56 \|publisher\=Department of Motor Transport \|location\=New South Wales, Australia \|date\=29 January 1985 \|access\-date\=24 April 2022 \|archive\-date\=12 April 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412011953/https://roads\-waterways.transport.nsw.gov.au/rvd\-pre1999/data/pdf/11787\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://roads\-waterways.transport.nsw.gov.au/rvd\-pre1999/data/pdf/11709\.pdf \|title\=Vehicle Specifications Toyota 28 \|publisher\=Department of Motor Transport \|location\=New South Wales, Australia \|date\=28 May 1984 \|access\-date\=24 April 2022 \|archive\-date\=12 April 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412011954/https://roads\-waterways.transport.nsw.gov.au/rvd\-pre1999/data/pdf/11709\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://roads\-waterways.transport.nsw.gov.au/rvd\-pre1999/data/pdf/11665\.pdf \|title\=Vehicle Specifications Toyota 11 \|publisher\=Department of Motor Transport \|location\=New South Wales, Australia \|date\=January 2002 \|access\-date\=24 April 2022 \|archive\-date\=12 April 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412011958/https://roads\-waterways.transport.nsw.gov.au/rvd\-pre1999/data/pdf/11665\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} people. The 60 series was available in the following exterior colours: Alpine White, Brown, Desert Beige, Freeborn Red, Royal Blue; and in the following metallic exterior colours: Charcoal Gray, Cognac, Gray\-Blue, Rootbeer, Sky Blue, Stardust Silver.
#### History
* 1980{{Snd}}The **60** series was introduced. While still retaining the rugged off\-road characteristics of previous Land Cruisers, the 60 was designed to better compete in the emerging [sport utility vehicle](/wiki/Sport_utility_vehicle "Sport utility vehicle") market. The 60 was given a variety of creature comforts like [air conditioning](/wiki/Air_conditioning "Air conditioning"), a rear heater and an upgraded interior. The FJ60's "2F" petrol engine was left unchanged from the "40" series while the six\-cylinder 4\.0 L **2H** and the [four\-cylinder](/wiki/Inline-four_engine "Inline-four engine") 3\.4 L **3B** [diesel engines](/wiki/Diesel_engine "Diesel engine") were added to the lineage. Less equipped versions were also available in many markets. In Europe this model was sold as the Land Cruiser Wagon Van.{{cite magazine \| ref \= AG140 \| magazine \= De AutoGids \| number \= 140 \| volume \= 6 \| page \= 116 \| title \= Nieuw in 1985 (1\) \| trans\-title \= New for 1985 (1\) \| editor\-first \= Etienne \| editor\-last \= Visart \| language \= nl\-be \| date \= 7 February 1985 \| publisher \= Uitgeverij Auto\-Magazine \| location \= Brussels, Belgium }}
* 1981{{Snd}}Land Cruiser sales surpassed 1 [million](/wiki/Million "Million") and a high\-roof version was introduced. The 60 series was introduced to South Africa when a stock Land Cruiser competed in the Toyota 1000 [km](/wiki/Kilometre "Kilometre") Desert Race in the punishing wilds of [Botswana](/wiki/Botswana "Botswana").
* 1984{{Snd}}This was the final year for the 40 series.
* 1984{{Snd}}Alongside the 60 series, the **[70 series](/wiki/Toyota_Land_Cruiser_70_Series "Toyota Land Cruiser 70 Series")** was introduced.
* 1985{{Snd}}The [direct\-injection](/wiki/Diesel_engine "Diesel engine") **12H\-T** [turbo\-diesel](/wiki/Turbo-diesel "Turbo-diesel") engine was introduced.
* 1988{{Snd}}The petrol engine was upgraded in some countries to a 4\.0 L **3F\-E** EFI engine or to a 4\.0 L **3F** carburettor engine. The FJ62G VX\-Series was introduced, allowing the Land Cruiser to be sold in Japan as a passenger vehicle.
* 1992{{Snd}}Last FJ62 with a 4\.0 L **3F** carburettor engine was built in Venezuela which was the only country producing the vehicles after production ended in Japan in 1990\.
**Gallery**
{{gallery \| width \= 200 \| height \= 133
\| File:1990 Toyota Land Cruiser FJ62, gray met., front right.jpg\|Toyota Land Cruiser post\-facelift
\| File:1981\-1987 Toyota Land Cruiser (FJ60\) wagon (2011\-03\-10\).jpg\|Toyota Land Cruiser (FJ60; pre\-facelift, rear view)
\| File:1987\-1990 Toyota Land Cruiser (FJ62RG) GX wagon (2009\-12\-04\).jpg\|Toyota Land Cruiser GX (FJ62; post\-facelift, rear view)
\| \|Interior
\| \|Interior (facelift)
}}
{{Clear}}
### {{anchor\|J80}} J80 (1990\)
{{Infobox automobile
\| name \= J80
\| image \= 1990\-1992 Toyota Land Cruiser (FJ80R) GXL wagon (2011\-10\-25\).jpg
\| aka \= {{unbulleted list
\| \[\[Lexus LX (J80\)\|Lexus LX 450]]
\| Toyota Land Cruiser Autana (Colombia and Venezuela)
\| Wanli Land Cruiser (China, \[\[joint venture\|JV]]){{cite web \|url\=https://chinacarhistory.com/2018/03/06/crazy\-car\-production\-days\-of\-guangdong\-guangdong\-wanli/ \|title\=Crazy Car Production Days of Guangdong: Guangdong Wanli \|first\=Tycho \|last\=de Feijter \|website\=ChinaCarHistory \|date\=2018\-03\-06 \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-22 \|archive\-date\=27 June 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627134449/https://chinacarhistory.com/2018/03/06/crazy\-car\-production\-days\-of\-guangdong\-guangdong\-wanli/ \|url\-status\=live }}
\| Xinkai HXK5022XSC (China, \[\[joint venture\|JV]]){{cite web \|url\=https://chinacarhistory.com/2018/12/24/crazy\-car\-production\-days\-of\-guangdong\-hebei\-xinkai\-automobile/ \|title\=Crazy Car Production Days of Guangdong: Hebei Xinkai Automobile \|first\=Tycho \|last\=de Feijter \|website\=ChinaCarHistory \|date\=2018\-12\-24 \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-22 \|archive\-date\=16 September 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190916085828/http://chinacarhistory.com/2018/12/24/crazy\-car\-production\-days\-of\-guangdong\-hebei\-xinkai\-automobile/ \|url\-status\=live }}
\| Toyota Land Cruiser Amazon (UK, 1997\)
}}
\| production \= {{unbulleted list
\| January 1990{{snd}}December 1997{{cite web \|url\=http://www.toyota\-global.com/company/history\_of\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\_business/production/production/japan/general\_status/honsha.html \|title\=General Status of Plants in Japan{{snd}}Honsha Plant \|publisher\=Toyota \|year\=2012 \|access\-date\=28 June 2014 \|archive\-date\=12 November 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112094606/http://www.toyota\-global.com/company/history\_of\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\_business/production/production/japan/general\_status/honsha.html \|url\-status\=live }}
}}
\| assembly \= {{unbulleted list
\| \[\[Toyota City]], Japan (\[\[ARACO]])
\| \[\[Cumaná, Venezuela\|Cumaná]], Venezuela
\| \[\[Zhanjiang, Guangdong]], China (Xinkai)
}}
\| designer \= Kitano Kizo (1987\){{Cite web\|url\=https://www.j\-platpat.inpit.go.jp/c1800/DE/JP\-0790318/49FECC73D527A316DFAC2AA6DF8B063B12A9EDC2C46309FE302981597D05714E/35/en\|title\=メンテナンス情報 (Maintenance information) \| J\-PlatPat/AIPN\|access\-date\=13 June 2019\|archive\-date\=8 September 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908005344/https://www.j\-platpat.inpit.go.jp/?uri\=/c1800/DE/JP\-0790318/49FECC73D527A316DFAC2AA6DF8B063B12A9EDC2C46309FE302981597D05714E/35/en\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.j\-platpat.inpit.go.jp/c1800/DE/JP\-0790318\-002/49FECC73D527A316DFAC2AA6DF8B063B12A9EDC2C46309FE302981597D05714E/35/en\|title\=メンテナンス情報 (Maintenance information) \| J\-PlatPat/AIPN\|access\-date\=13 June 2019\|archive\-date\=8 September 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908005344/https://www.j\-platpat.inpit.go.jp/?uri\=/c1800/DE/JP\-0790318\-002/49FECC73D527A316DFAC2AA6DF8B063B12A9EDC2C46309FE302981597D05714E/35/en\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.j\-platpat.inpit.go.jp/c1800/DE/JP\-0790318\-001/49FECC73D527A316DFAC2AA6DF8B063B12A9EDC2C46309FE302981597D05714E/35/en\|title\=メンテナンス情報 (Maintenance information) \| J\-PlatPat/AIPN\|access\-date\=13 June 2019\|archive\-date\=8 September 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908005414/https://www.j\-platpat.inpit.go.jp/?uri\=/c1800/DE/JP\-0790318\-001/49FECC73D527A316DFAC2AA6DF8B063B12A9EDC2C46309FE302981597D05714E/35/en\|url\-status\=live}}
\| body\_style \= 5\-door \[\[SUV]]
\| layout \= \[\[Front\-engine, four\-wheel\-drive]]
\| related \=
\| engine \= {{unbulleted list
\|'''Petrol:'''{{Ubl
\| 4\.0 L ''\[\[Toyota F engine\#3F\-E\|3F\-E]]'' \[\[Straight\-six engine\|I6]]
\| 4\.5 L ''\[\[Toyota FZ engine\|1FZ\-FE]]'' I6
}}
\|'''Diesel:'''{{Ubl
\| 4\.2 L ''\[\[Toyota HZ engine\|1HZ]]'' I6
\| 4\.2 L ''\[\[Toyota HD engine\|1HD\-T]]'' \[\[turbocharger\|turbocharged]] I6
\| 4\.2 L ''\[\[Toyota HD engine\|1HD\-FT]]'' \[\[turbocharger\|turbocharged]] I6
}}
}}
\| transmission \= {{unbulleted list
\| 5\-speed \[\[Toyota H transmission\#H150F\|H150F]] manual
\| 5\-speed \[\[Toyota H transmission\#H151F\|H151F]] manual
\| 4\-speed \[\[Toyota A transmission\#A440F\|A440F]] \[\[automatic transmission\|automatic]]
\| 4\-speed \[\[Toyota A transmission\#A442F\|A442F]] automatic
\| 4\-speed \[\[Toyota A transmission\#A343F\|A343F]] automatic
}}
\| wheelbase \= {{convert\|2850\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| length \= {{unbulleted list
\| {{convert\|4780\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} (1990–94\)
\| {{convert\|4820\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} (1995–97\)
}}
\| width \= {{unbulleted list
\| {{convert\|1830\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} (1990–91\)
\| {{convert\|1930\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} (1992–97\)
}}
\| height \= {{unbulleted list
\| {{convert\|1785\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} (1990–91\)
\| {{convert\|1860\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} (1992–94\)
\| {{convert\|1870\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} (1995–97\)
}}
\| weight \= {{unbulleted list
\| {{convert\|2084\|kg\|lb\|0\|abbr\=on}} (1990–92\)
\| {{convert\|2159\|kg\|lb\|0\|abbr\=on}} (1993–97\)
}}
}}
The Land Cruiser 80 series was unveiled in October 1989 at the [Tokyo Motor Show](/wiki/Tokyo_Motor_Show "Tokyo Motor Show") and launched in early 1990\. It had swing\-out back doors, which were replaced by a tailgate and hatch in 1994\. The Land Cruiser was nicknamed the Burbuja (Bubble) in [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia "Colombia") and Venezuela due to its roundness. The J80 was initially offered in two versions in these countries: the fully loaded VX and an entry\-level model that included a vinyl interior with optional air conditioning. In 1996, the entry model was upgraded to a medium\-equipped model named Autana, including cloth upholstery, standard air conditioning and power driver seat. The name is a reference to the [Tepui](/wiki/Tepui "Tepui") mesa [Autana](/wiki/Cerro_Autana "Cerro Autana"), a spectacular plateau and cave system along the [Guiana Shield](/wiki/Guiana_Shield "Guiana Shield") [craton](/wiki/Craton "Craton"). Land Cruiser sales reached 2 million vehicles.
#### History
* 1990{{Snd}}The **80** series [station wagon](/wiki/Station_wagon "Station wagon") was introduced, replacing the 60 series. All 80s sold in North America and Europe now have a full\-time [four\-wheel drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive "Four-wheel drive") system. In Japan, Africa, and Australia, a part\-time system was still available. 80s produced between 1990 and 1991 had an open centre differential which was lockable in 4HI and automatically locked in 4LO. From 1992 onward, vehicles with [anti\-lock brakes](/wiki/Anti-lock_brakes "Anti-lock brakes") had a viscous coupling that sent a maximum of 30% torque to the non\-slipping axle. The differential was lockable in 4HI and automatically locked in 4LO.
* 1990{{snd}}A new generation of diesel engines were introduced, adding to the engines available in the 80 series. The 80 series came with either a ([3F\-E](/wiki/Toyota_F_engine%233F-E "Toyota F engine#3F-E")) six\-cylinder naturally aspirated petrol engine, a six\-cylinder SOHC naturally aspirated diesel engine, ([1HZ](/wiki/Toyota_HZ_engine "Toyota HZ engine")), or a **1HD\-T** [direct injection](/wiki/Diesel_engine "Diesel engine") turbo diesel.
* 1991{{Snd}}By mid\-1991, the [3F\-E engine](/wiki/Toyota_F_engine%233F-E "Toyota F engine#3F-E") was introduced to the Australian market, a fuel injected version of the [3F engine](/wiki/Toyota_F_engine%233F "Toyota F engine#3F").
* 1993{{Snd}}An advanced 24\-valve, 4\.5 L six\-cylinder petrol engine, [1FZ\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_FZ_engine "Toyota FZ engine") was introduced. Larger brakes were added from October 1992 and the total wheelbase was made slightly longer. Front and rear axle lockers (code k294\) were available as an option. The High Pinion Electric Locking front differential became available in the US models. In May 1993, Toyota began using R134 refrigerant in the air conditioning system. Serial numbers lower than JT3DJ81xxxxx38947 use the R12 refrigerant.
* 1994{{Snd}}A limited edition called the Land Cruiser Blue Marlin (FZJ80\) was introduced to the Australian market. They have 4\.5 L straight\-6 petrol engines with double\-overhead cams, an automatic or manual transmission and {{convert\|158\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 4,600 rpm. The car is blue from the [Blue Marlin](/wiki/Indo-Pacific_blue_marlin "Indo-Pacific blue marlin") fish and they have the Blue Marlin logo throughout the car. Some of the features that the Blue Marlin included were altimeters, power windows, disc brakes, leather gear knob and steering wheel, central locking, leather trim, chrome handles and sidesteps, 16\-inch alloy wheels, limited\-slip differential, anti\-lock brakes (ABS), power steering, CD or cassette players, fender flares, and a limited edition bull bar. Only 500 were made.
* 1995{{Snd}}Driver and passenger [airbags](/wiki/Airbag "Airbag") were introduced as were adjustable shoulder\-belt anchors and an [anti\-lock braking system](/wiki/Anti-lock_braking_system "Anti-lock braking system"). The "T O Y O T A" badge was replaced with the modern, ovoid Toyota logo.
* 1996{{Snd}}In the [Dakar Rally](/wiki/Dakar_Rally "Dakar Rally"), a pair of Land Cruisers finished first and second in the unmodified production class. North American and British models adopted anti\-lock brakes and airbags as standard equipment. The Land Cruiser was withdrawn from Canada this year and from then on would only be sold in said market as the [Lexus LX](/wiki/Lexus_LX "Lexus LX").
* 1997{{Snd}}A limited run of Land Cruiser 80 was built specifically for collectors and is therefore called the Land Cruiser Collector's Edition. The Collector's Edition has Collectors Edition badging, "Collector's Edition" embroidered floor mats, automatic climate control, wheels with the "D" windows painted dark grey and special grey side moldings along with black pearl badging. The Collector's Edition was only available for the 1997 model year and the package was added to many of the available body colours.
* 1997{{Snd}}A total of 4,744 FZJ80 Land Cruisers were sold in the United States as "40th Anniversary Limited Edition" models. They were available in 2 colours; Antique Sage Pearl (often referred to as Riverrock, Pewter, or Grey) and Emerald Green. The 40th Anniversary models included apron badges, a serial number badge on the centre console, black pearl exterior badges, "40th Anniversary Limited Edition" embroidered floor mats, automatic climate control, two\-tone tan and brown leather interiors, and wheels with the "D" windows painted dark gray. Many were manufactured with the optional electric front and rear locking differentials, keyless entry, port\-installed roof racks and running boards. There are some examples that did not have many of these optional extras. This was the last year for the electric locking front differentials. For UK and Irish markets, to avoid confusion with the [Land Cruiser Prado](/wiki/Toyota_Land_Cruiser_Prado "Toyota Land Cruiser Prado") being introduced, the full size Land Cruiser would be renamed Land Cruiser Amazon with the Prado being named the Land Cruiser Colorado.
* 2007{{Snd}}Last 80\-Series models were built in Venezuela{{cite web \|url\=http://blog.toyota.co.uk/history\-of\-the\-toyota\-land\-cruiser\-station\-wagon\-models \|title\=History of the Toyota Land Cruiser (Station Wagon models) \|publisher\=Toyota \|location\=UK \|date\=3 September 2013 \|access\-date\=31 August 2018 \|archive\-date\=31 August 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180831035605/http://blog.toyota.co.uk/history\-of\-the\-toyota\-land\-cruiser\-station\-wagon\-models \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.motortrend.com/cars/toyota/land\-cruiser/ \|title\=Toyota Land Cruiser Reviews: Research New \& Used Models \|work\=Motor Trend \|location\=US \|access\-date\=31 August 2018 \|archive\-date\=31 August 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180831035715/https://www.motortrend.com/cars/toyota/land\-cruiser/ \|url\-status\=live }} which was the only country producing the vehicles after production ended in Japan in 1997\.
**Gallery**
{{gallery \| width \= 200 \| height \= 150
\|File:Toyota Land Cruiser rear 20071004\.jpg\|Land Cruiser (with swing\-out back\-doors)
\|File:Toyota Land Cruiser VX 80 series 1990\-1997 backleft\-2008\-04\-11 U..jpg\|Toyota Land Cruiser (pre\-facelift with lift\-up tailgate)
\|File:1995\-1998 Toyota Land Cruiser (FZJ80R) GXL wagon (2011\-11\-17\) 01\.jpg\|Toyota Land Cruiser GXL (FZJ80, post\-facelift)
\|File:1998 Toyota Land Cruiser (FZJ80R) 40th Anniversary wagon (2016\-01\-04\).jpg\|Toyota Land Cruiser 40th Anniversary (HZJ80; post\-facelift, rear view)
\|File:Toyota Land Cruiser \-\- 03\-25\-2010\.jpg\|Land Cruiser in Maryland, 2010
\|File:Toyota Land Cruiser FZJ80 dashboard.jpg\|Interior
}}
| Designation | Engine | Power | Torque | Availability |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| FJ80R/L | [3F\-E](/wiki/Toyota_F_engine "Toyota F engine") 4\.0 L petrol I6 | {{convert\|112\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 4,000 rpm | {{convert\|290\|N·m\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3,000 rpm | Australia, North America, Middle East |
| FZJ80 | [1FZ\-F](/wiki/Toyota_FZ_engine "Toyota FZ engine") 4\.5 L petrol I6 | {{convert\|140\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 4,400 rpm | {{convert\|363\|N·m\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3,200 rpm | Venezuela, Colombia, Bolivia (1994–1998\), Middle East |
| FZJ80R/L | [1FZ\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_FZ_engine "Toyota FZ engine") 4\.5 L petrol I6 | {{convert\|158\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 4,600 rpm | {{convert\|373\|N·m\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3,200 rpm | Australia, Middle East, North Africa, North America until 1997 and Venezuela, Colombia, Bolivia (1998–2007\) |
| HDJ80R | [1HD\-T](/wiki/Toyota_HD_engine "Toyota HD engine") 4\.2 L turbo\-diesel I6 | {{convert\|115\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3,600 rpm | {{convert\|357\|N·m\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 1,800 rpm | Australia, Japan |
| HZJ80R/L | [1HZ](/wiki/Toyota_HZ_engine "Toyota HZ engine") 4\.2 L diesel I6 | {{convert\|96\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 4,000 rpm | {{convert\|271\|N·m\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 2,000 rpm | Australia, Japan, Middle East |
*R* means [Right\-hand drive](/wiki/Left-_and_right-hand_traffic "Left- and right-hand traffic") version, excluding [Japanese domestic market](/wiki/Japanese_domestic_market "Japanese domestic market").
{{Clear}}
### {{anchor\|J100}} J100 (1998\)
{{Infobox automobile
\| name \= J100
\| image \= Toyota Land Cruiser \-\- 03\-21\-2012 1\.JPG
\| caption \= Toyota Land Cruiser (J100\) Pre\-facelift
\| aka \= {{unbulleted list
\| \[\[Lexus LX (J100\)\|Lexus LX 470]]
\| Toyota Land Cruiser Amazon (UK)
}}
\| production \= January 1998 – August 2007
\| model\_years \= 1998–2007
\| assembly \= {{unbulleted list
\| Japan: \[\[Toyota City]] (\[\[Araco]])
\| China: \[\[Changchun City]] (\[\[Sichuan FAW Toyota Motor\|SFTM]], 2003–2008\)
}}
\| designer \= Takeo Kondo
\| body\_style \= 5\-door \[\[SUV]]
\| layout \= \[\[Front\-engine, four\-wheel\-drive]]
\| engine \= {{unbulleted list
\|'''Petrol:'''{{unbulleted list
\| 4\.5 L ''\[\[Toyota FZ engine\#1FZ\-FE\|1FZ\-FE]]'' \[\[Straight\-six engine\|I6]]
\| 4\.7 L ''\[\[Toyota UZ engine\#2UZ\-FE\|2UZ\-FE]]'' \[\[V8 engine\|V8]]
}}
\|'''Diesel:'''{{unbulleted list
\| 4\.2 L ''\[\[Toyota HZ engine\#1HZ\|1HZ]]'' I6
\| 4\.2 L ''\[\[Toyota HD engine\#1HD\-T\|1HD\-T]]'' \[\[turbocharger\|turbocharged]] I6
\| 4\.2 L ''\[\[Toyota HD engine\#1HD\-FTE\|1HD\-FTE]]'' turbocharged I6
}}
}}
\| transmission \= {{unbulleted list
\| 4\-speed \[\[automatic transmission\|automatic]]
\| 5\-speed automatic\|5\-speed \[\[manual transmission\|manual]]
}}
\| wheelbase \= {{convert\|2850\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| length \= {{convert\|4890\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| width \= {{convert\|1941\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| height \= {{convert\|1849\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| weight \= {{convert\|2320\|kg\|lb\|0\|abbr\=on}}
}}
In January 1998, the 100 series Land Cruiser was introduced to replace the eight\-year\-old 80 series. The 100 series was previewed in October 1997 as the "Grand Cruiser" at the 32nd Tokyo Motor Show. Development began in 1991 under code name 404T, with the final design being frozen in mid\-1994\.{{cite news \|url\=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\_m3012/is\_n2\_v178/ai\_20301572/ \|work\=Automotive Industries \|title\=New Land Cruiser gets V8{{snd}}Toyota Land Cruiser{{snd}}includes related article on the Lexus LX450 \|year\=1998 \|access\-date\=10 January 2012 \|archive\-date\=30 May 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530055407/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\_m3012/is\_n2\_v178/ai\_20301572/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web\|last1\=Johnson\|first1\=Richard\|title\=Sport\-utilities highlight future PLANS\|url\=http://www.europe.autonews.com/article/19940725/ANA/407250701/sport\-utilities\-highlight\-future\-plans\|website\=Automotive News Europe\|publisher\=Crain Communications Inc.\|access\-date\=12 February 2017\|date\=25 July 1994}}{{Dead link\|date\=January 2019 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
There are two distinct versions of the 100\-series, the *100* and the *105*. The two versions look very similar, but there are significant differences under the bodywork. Despite these differences and official model names, both the 100 and 105 are collectively known as the *100 series*.
The *105* carried over the majority of its chassis and power train from the 80\-series with coil suspended [solid axles](/wiki/Live_axle "Live axle") front and rear, and straight\-6 petrol and diesel engines. These models were only sold in African, Australian, Russian, and South American markets.
In 1998, a suspension system combining [Active Height Control](/wiki/Active_Height_Control "Active Height Control") (AHC) and [Skyhook](/wiki/Skyhook_theory "Skyhook theory") TEMS [Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension](/wiki/Toyota_Electronic_Modulated_Suspension "Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension") on the Land Cruiser J100 was introduced.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.toyota\-global.com/company/history\_of\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\_business/products\_technology/technology\_development/chassis/index.html \|title\=75 Years of TOYOTA {{!}} Technical Development {{!}} Chassis \|publisher\=Toyota \|year\=2012 \|access\-date\=16 April 2015 \|archive\-date\=25 November 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125144107/https://www.toyota\-global.com/company/history\_of\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\_business/products\_technology/technology\_development/chassis/index.html \|url\-status\=live }}
In 2002, Toyota introduced Night View, the first worldwide series\-production active [automotive night vision](/wiki/Automotive_night_vision "Automotive night vision") system, on the Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus and [Lexus LX](/wiki/Lexus_LX "Lexus LX")470\. This system uses the headlight projectors emitting near infrared light aimed like the car's high\-beam headlights and a [CCD camera](/wiki/CCD_camera "CCD camera") then captures that reflected radiation, this signal is then processed by a computer which produces a black\-and\-white image which is projected on the lower section of the windshield.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.toyota.co.jp/en/safety\_presen/tech/40\.html \|title\=Safety Presentation \|publisher\=Toyota \|location\=Japan \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080325172342/http://www.toyota.co.jp/en/safety\_presen/tech/40\.html \|archive\-date\=25 March 2008 \|year\=2004 \|access\-date\=8 December 2009}} It was also the first Toyota vehicle with [roll\-over sensor and control logic](/wiki/Active_rollover_protection "Active rollover protection").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.toyota\-global.com/company/history\_of\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\_business/products\_technology/technology\_development/electronics\_parts/index.html \|title\=Technical Development Electronics Parts \|publisher\=Toyota Motor Corporation \|year\=2012 \|access\-date\=15 January 2015 \|archive\-date\=25 November 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125140233/https://www.toyota\-global.com/company/history\_of\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\_business/products\_technology/technology\_development/electronics\_parts/index.html \|url\-status\=live }}
The *100* models were fitted with a slightly wider chassis,{{cite web \|url\=https://www.modifind.com/what\-is\-the\-difference\-land\-cruiser\-100\-vs\-105/ \|title\=What is the Difference: Land Cruiser 100 vs. 105 \|publisher\=Modifind Off\-Road \|year\=2020 \|access\-date\=14 May 2020 \|archive\-date\=22 June 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622125306/https://www.modifind.com/what\-is\-the\-difference\-land\-cruiser\-100\-vs\-105/ \|url\-status\=live }} [independent front suspension](/wiki/Independent_suspension "Independent suspension") (IFS) and two new engines. The change to IFS was a first for a Land Cruiser, and was made (in combination with [rack\-and\-pinion steering](/wiki/Rack-and-pinion_steering "Rack-and-pinion steering")) to improve on\-road handling. However, it also limited the vehicle's off\-road capability and durability; hence, the decision to offer the solid\-axle 105 models alongside the IFS 100 models in some markets was made. The table below identifies the range of 100 and 105 models and their worldwide availability.
Despite the 100 and 105 bodies being very similar, there are some exterior visual indications between both models. The most obvious is the front end of the vehicle often appearing lower than the rear on the 100 models, due to the IFS. The other indicator is the design of the wheels: the 100 models have almost flat wheel designs, while the 105 models have dished wheels. This difference allows both versions to retain similar wheel tracks, despite the 100 having a relatively wider axle track to allow for the IFS system.
The introduction of a V8 engine was also a first for a Land Cruiser, and was specifically intended to improve sales in the North\-American market, where it was the only engine available. In Australia, the 100 V8 was initially only available in the range\-topping GXV model, while entry and mid\-range models were the 105 powered by the [1FZ\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_FZ_engine "Toyota FZ engine") I6 petrol, or [1HZ](/wiki/Toyota_HZ_engine "Toyota HZ engine") diesel engines. The new [1HD\-FTE](/wiki/Toyota_HD_engine "Toyota HD engine") turbo\-diesel 100 was added to the Australian range in October 2000 after being available in Europe and the UK since the vehicle's launch in 1998\. The automotive press in Australia were critical of Toyota's decision to offer the acclaimed 1HD\-FTE engine only in combination with IFS. Australian 4WD Monthly magazine stated "We will never forgive Toyota for going independent at the front with the mighty 4\.2 turbo\-diesel".
The 100 series offered a selectable rear axle differential locker available as an option for model years 1998\-1999\.
The 100 series formed the basis for the [Lexus LX 470](/wiki/Lexus_LX_%28J100%29 "Lexus LX (J100)"), which was also sold in Japan as the Toyota Cygnus.
The 100 series was called the Toyota Land Cruiser Amazon in the UK and Ireland from 1998 to 2007\.
In 2000, Toyota celebrated the 50th anniversary of the Land Cruiser with commemorative models offered in several countries. Total global production to date was 3\.72 million vehicles.
The 100 series remained in production until late 2007, with several minor facelifts such as headlights, tail lights, front grille, rear spoiler and specification changes introduced over the years.
| Designation | Engine | Power | Torque | Availability |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| HZJ105 | [1HZ](/wiki/Toyota_HZ_engine "Toyota HZ engine") 4\.2 L diesel I6 | {{convert\|96\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3,800 rpm | {{convert\|271\|N·m\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 2,200 rpm | Africa, Asia, Australia, Middle East, South America |
| FZJ105 | [1FZ\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_FZ_engine "Toyota FZ engine") 4\.5 L petrol I6 | {{convert\|180\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 4,600 rpm | {{convert\|410\|N·m\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3,600 rpm | Africa, Asia, Australia, Middle East, South America |
| FZJ100 | [1FZ\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_FZ_engine "Toyota FZ engine") 4\.5 L petrol I6 | {{convert\|180\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 4,600 rpm | {{convert\|410\|N·m\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3,600 rpm | Middle East, China |
| UZJ100 | [2UZ\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_UZ_engine "Toyota UZ engine") 4\.7 L petrol V8 | {{convert\|170\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 4,800 rpm | {{convert\|410\|N·m\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3,400 rpm | Africa, Asia, Australia, China, Europe, Japan, Middle East, North America, UK |
| HDJ1001 | [1HD\-T](/wiki/Toyota_HD_engine "Toyota HD engine") 4\.2 L turbo\-diesel I6 | {{convert\|123\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3,600 rpm | {{convert\|352\|N·m\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 2,000 rpm | Africa, South America |
| HDJ1002 | [1HD\-FTE](/wiki/Toyota_HD_engine "Toyota HD engine") 4\.2 L turbo\-diesel I6 | {{convert\|150\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3,400 rpm | {{convert\|430\|N·m\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 1,400 rpm | Australia\*, Europe, Japan, Middle East, New Zealand, UK |
*\*This engine was not introduced in Australia until 2000\.*
The 100\-series is generally considered a durable and reliable vehicle, however there have been three known issues identified, generally for vehicles operating in harsh conditions:
* The IFS 100\-series gained a reputation for front suspension failures in operating conditions where the front suspension was prone to hitting the bump stops. Several companies produce strengthened lower wishbones to prevent cracks from developing.{{cite web\|last\=Pepper \|first\=Robert \|title\=LC100 Suspension Solutions \|publisher\=Overlander 4WD Magazine \|date\=July 2006 \|url\=http://www.overlander.com.au/equipment/index/full/68/LC100\-Suspension\-Solutions \|access\-date\=18 July 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706110818/http://www.overlander.com.au/equipment/index/full/68/LC100\-Suspension\-Solutions \|archive\-date\=6 July 2011}}
* Both the IFS 100 and live\-axle 105 models have been reported to be suffering from broken front differential centres when driven in harsh conditions.{{Citation \|title\=2005 4×4 of the Year \|newspaper\=Australian 4WD Monthly \|pages\=63–67 \|date\=October 2005}} The most common front differential failures in IFS models are reported in vehicles produced between mid\-1997 and mid\-1999 (i.e., the model years 1998 and 1999\), when Toyota fitted the 100 Series IFS with a 2\-pinion front differential (the pinion gear would flex away from the ring gear under shock loads). In 1999 (model year 2000\) the IFS Landcruiser received a 4\-pinion front differential that was more robust{{Snd}}fewer failures were reported.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.landcruiserworkshopmanual.com.au/Item/toyota\-land\-cruiser\-78\-79\-100\-105\-series\-workshop\-manual\|title\=Toyota Land Cruiser Petrol Diesel 1998\-2007 Haynes Service Repair Workshop Manual \- Landcruiser Workshop Repair Manual\|website\=\[\[Haynes Manual]]\|access\-date\=4 December 2017\|archive\-date\=4 December 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171204222947/https://www.landcruiserworkshopmanual.com.au/Item/toyota\-land\-cruiser\-78\-79\-100\-105\-series\-workshop\-manual\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://au.haynes.com/products/productID/203\|title\=Toyota Land Cruiser 1998 \- 2007\|website\=\[\[Haynes Manual]]\|access\-date\=4 December 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205042103/https://au.haynes.com/products/productID/203\|archive\-date\=5 December 2017\|url\-status\=dead}}
**Gallery**
{{gallery \| width \= 200 \| height \= 150
\| File:1998\-2002 Toyota Land Cruiser (FZJ105R) GXL wagon (2011\-11\-18\) 01\.jpg\|Pre\-facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GXL (FZJ105\)
\| File:1998\-2002 Toyota Land Cruiser (FZJ105R) GXL wagon (2011\-11\-18\) 02\.jpg\|Pre\-facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GXL (FZJ105\)
\| File:Toyota Land Cruiser (eighth generation) (100\) (rear), Serdang.jpg\|Toyota Land Cruiser (with spare wheel on the rear)
\| File:2004 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ100R) GXL wagon (2015\-05\-29\) 01\.jpg\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GXL (UZJ100\)
\| File:2002\-2005 Toyota Land Cruiser (HDJ100R) GXL 02\.jpg\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GXL (HDJ100\)
\| File:Toyota Land Cruiser HZJ105 1998\-2004 backleft 2008\-06\-04 U.jpg\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser (HZJ105; with outback doors)
\| File:2005 Toyota Land Cruiser\-100 01\.jpg\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser VX Limited (UZJ100\)
\| File:2006 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ100R) VX wagon (2010\-07\-05\) 02\.jpg\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser VX (UZJ100\)
\| File:Toyota Land Cruiser (eighth generation) (100 Cygnus) (front), Serdang.jpg\|1998–2002 Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus
\| File:Toyota Land Cruiser (eighth generation) (100 Cygnus) (rear), Serdang.jpg\|1998–2002 Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus
\| File:2005 Toyota Land Cruiser\-cygnus 02\.jpg\|2005–2007 Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus (Japan)
\| File:2005 Toyota Land Cruiser\-cygnus 03\.jpg\|2005–2007 Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus (Japan)
}}
{{Clear}}
### {{anchor\|J200}} J200 (2007\)
{{Infobox automobile
\| name \= J200
\| image \= 2011 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ200R) Sahara wagon (2011\-11\-18\) 01\.jpg
\| caption \= 2011 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ200; pre\-facelift)
\| aka \= {{unbulleted list
\| \[\[Lexus LX (J200\)]]
\| Toyota Roraima (Venezuela)
\| Toyota Land Cruiser V8 (Europe)
}}
\| production \= September 2007 – March 2021{{cite news \|url\=https://www.caradvice.com.au/903108/toyota\-landcruiser\-200\-series\-v8\-to\-end\-production\-march\-2021/ \|title\=Toyota LandCruiser 200 Series V8 diesel to end production March 2021 \|first\=Joshua \|last\=Dowling \|work\=CarAdvice \|location\=Australia \|date\=23 November 2020 \|access\-date\=23 March 2021 \|archive\-date\=10 April 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410151450/https://www.caradvice.com.au/903108/toyota\-landcruiser\-200\-series\-v8\-to\-end\-production\-march\-2021/ \|url\-status\=live }}
\| model\_years \= 2008–2021 (US)
\| assembly \= {{unbulleted list
\| Japan: \[\[Toyota, Aichi]] (\[\[Yoshiwara plant]]); \[\[Tahara, Aichi]] (\[\[Tahara plant]]){{cite web \|url\=http://newsroom.toyota.co.jp/en/corporate/companyinformation/manufacturing \|title\=Japanese Production Sites \|publisher\=Toyota \|date\=6 March 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318032552/http://newsroom.toyota.co.jp/en/corporate/companyinformation/manufacturing \|archive\-date\=18 March 2015}}
\| China: \[\[Changchun]] (\[\[Sichuan FAW Toyota Motor\|SFTM]]; 2008–2016\)
}}
\| designer \= {{unbulleted list
\| Takumi Nakamura, Takayasu Furukawa, Hideo Karikomi, Jinichi Sato and Kengo Iwanaga{{Cite patent\|country\=US\|number\=D576919S\|title\=Automobile and/or toy replica thereof\|pubdate\=2008\-09\-16\|inventor1\-last\=Ito\|inventor1\-first\=Takanori\|inventor2\-last\=Toyooka\|inventor2\-first\=Kuniaki\|inventor3\-last\=Nakashima\|inventor3\-first\=Katsumi\|inventor4\=Kazumi Kowaki;Minoru Ogawa;Takeo Sowa;Shigetoshi Kozai\|assign1\=\[\[Toyota\|Toyota Motor Co. Ltd.]]}}
\| Tetsu Endō (2012 facelift){{Citation needed\|date\=February 2022}}
\| Keisuke Matsuno and Kouji Katsuno (2015 facelift){{Cite patent\|country\=US\|number\=D761704\|title\=Motor vehicle\|pubdate\=2016\-07\-19\|inventor1\-last\=Matsuno\|inventor1\-first\=Keisuke\|inventor2\-last\=Katsuno\|inventor2\-first\=Kouji\|assign1\=\[\[Toyota\|Toyota Motor Co. Ltd.]]}}
}}
\| body\_style \= 5\-door \[\[SUV]]
\| platform \= Toyota F1{{cite web \| url\=https://xtech.nikkei.com/dm/article/HONSHI/20071130/143401/ \| title\=トヨタ自動車「ランドクルーザー」 \| date\=30 November 2007 }}
\| layout \= \[\[Front\-engine, four\-wheel\-drive]]
\| related \= {{unbulleted list
\| \[\[Toyota Tundra (XK50\)]]
\| \[\[Lexus LX (J200\)]]
\| \[\[Toyota Sequoia (XK60\)]]
}}
\| engine \= {{unbulleted list
\|'''Petrol:'''{{Ubl
\| 4\.0 L ''\[\[Toyota GR engine\#1GR\-FE\|1GR\-FE]]'' \[\[V6 engine\|V6]]
\| 4\.6 L ''\[\[Toyota UR engine\#1UR\-FE\|1UR\-FE]]'' \[\[V8 engine\|V8]]{{cite web\|url\=http://toyota.jp/landcruiser/dynamism/engin/index.html \|title\=Toyota Japan Land Cruiser \|publisher\=Toyota.jp \|access\-date\=30 October 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705230523/http://toyota.jp/landcruiser/dynamism/engin/index.html \|archive\-date\=5 July 2011 }}
\| 4\.7 L ''\[\[Toyota UZ engine\#2UZ\-FE\|2UZ\-FE]]'' V8{{cite web \|url\=http://www.goo\-net.com/catalog/TOYOTA/LAND\_CRUISER/10043240/index.html \|title\=Goonet 2007 Land Cruiser \|publisher\=Goo\-net.com \|access\-date\=30 October 2010 \|archive\-date\=12 August 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100812074618/http://www.goo\-net.com/catalog/TOYOTA/LAND\_CRUISER/10043240/index.html \|url\-status\=live }}
\| 5\.7 L ''\[\[Toyota UR engine\#3UR\-FE\|3UR\-FE]]'' V8{{cite web \|url\=http://pressroom.toyota.com/pr/tms/toyota/document/2008LandCruiser\_sfo.pdf \|title\=Exterior Dimensions \|access\-date\=30 October 2010 \|archive\-date\=24 January 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124194152/http://pressroom.toyota.com/pr/tms/toyota/document/2008LandCruiser\_sfo.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }}
}}
\|'''Diesel:'''{{Ubl
\| 4\.5 L ''\[\[Toyota VD engine\#1VD\-FTV\|1VD\-FTV]]'' \[\[turbocharger\|turbocharged]] V8
}}
}}
\| powerout \= {{unbulleted list
\| {{convert\|170\|–\|202\|kW\|hp PS\|abbr\=on\|0}} (''1GR\-FE'')
\| {{convert\|227\|–\|234\|kW\|hp PS\|abbr\=on\|0}} (''1UR\-FE'')
\| {{convert\|202\|–\|212\|kW\|hp PS\|abbr\=on\|0}} (''2UZ\-FE'')
\| {{convert\|270\|–\|284\|kW\|hp PS\|abbr\=on\|0}} (''3UR\-FE'')
\| {{convert\|136\|–\|213\|kW\|hp PS\|abbr\=on\|0}} (''1VD\-FTV'')
}}
\| transmission \= {{unbulleted list
\| 5\-speed \[\[Manual transmission\|manual]] (1GR\-FE)
\| 5\-speed \[\[Automatic transmission\|automatic]] (1GR\-FE,2UZ\-FE)
\| 6\-speed automatic (1UR\-FE,1VD\-FTV)
\| 8\-speed automatic (3UR\-FE)
}}
\| wheelbase \= {{convert\|2850\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| length \= {{convert\|4990\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| width \= {{convert\|1980\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| height \= {{convert\|1945–1970\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} (adjustable)
\| weight \= {{Convert\|2405\-2740\|kg\|lb\|0\|abbr\=on}}
\| successor \= \[\[Toyota Land Cruiser (J250\)]] (UK and North America)
}}
In 2002, a five\-year development plan on a successor to the 100\-series platform commenced under Sadayoshi Koyari and Tetsuya Tada. By 2004, ten years after the design selection of its predecessor in 1994, a final production design was settled on for the 2008 J200\. Prototype related tests were conducted for over two years between 2004 and early 2007\. The redesigned Toyota Land Cruiser was introduced in late 2007\. Known as the 200 Series, it shares the [Lexus LX 570](/wiki/Lexus_LX_%28J200%29 "Lexus LX (J200)")'s platform and overall design. The frame was new, derived from the second\-generation [Tundra](/wiki/Toyota_Tundra "Toyota Tundra"){{Citation needed\|date\=February 2011}} but shortened and strengthened by 20 percent. Bigger brake rotors and calipers were added and the front suspension was strengthened. The underbelly is also protected by skid plates. The roof pillars were redesigned to better protect occupants in a rollover.
The 200 Series encountered some criticism due to its bland body restyling, with some{{who\|date\=November 2011}} claiming that Toyota has 'overdeveloped' the classic trademarked Land Cruiser identity in its efforts to fit the Land Cruiser into modern 21st century motoring and vehicle design.
The vehicle entered production in September 2007 and was available for sale from September or November, depending on country. It became available in Venezuela for sale in early November of the same year under the local nickname of "Roraima" (taken from [Mount Roraima](/wiki/Mount_Roraima "Mount Roraima")).
The 200 Series, offered numerous features and upgrades over its predecessor not limited to the cosmetic changes made to the body and interior, including:
* Smart Entry{{Snd}}A sensor is triggered when the remote is brought near the vehicle, allowing the user to simply touch the door handle to open it.
* Smart Start{{Snd}}Start/Stop push button for ignition; a key is not required.
* 4\-zone climate control on Sahara models, with outlet vents increased from 18 to 28
* 10 [airbags](/wiki/Airbag "Airbag") (VX \& Sahara)
* A stronger and lighter frame
Various driver assist technologies not offered on previous models are included as standard, including:
* CRAWL, a [four\-wheel drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive "Four-wheel drive") control system that operates like an off\-road [cruise control](/wiki/Cruise_control "Cruise control"), automatically maintaining a low uniform vehicle speed using brakes and throttle
* Downhill Assist Control
* Multi\-terrain anti\-lock braking system (ABS)
* [Kinetic Dynamic Suspension System](/wiki/Kinetic_Dynamic_Suspension_System "Kinetic Dynamic Suspension System") (KDSS), allows for greater wheel articulation
* An optional rear\-view camera (VX)
* Leather seats are available in full option (VX)
Engine and transmission improvements include:
* An all new optional V8 diesel engine, the [Toyota VD engine](/wiki/Toyota_VD_engine "Toyota VD engine") (a [twin\-turbocharged](/wiki/Twin_turbo "Twin turbo") version of the engine used in the 70 Series since 2007\).
* Automatic transmission included as standard across all levels of trim of the 200 Series, a five\-speed manual transmission is offered only with the 4\.0 L GX models (in selected regions). A five\-speed automatic gearbox is assigned to the 4\.7 L petrol models, while the 4\.5 L diesel models receive a six\-speed automatic.
In Japan, the Land Cruiser had an update in 2009 when it received the 4\.6 L V8 1UR\-FE engine and the gearbox was replaced with a 6\-speed automatic.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.toyota.co.jp/jp/news/09/Apr/nt09\_026\.html \|title\=Toyota Japan 2009 Land Cruiser press release \|publisher\=Toyota.co.jp \|date\=16 April 2009 \|access\-date\=30 October 2010 \|archive\-date\=13 August 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100813202052/http://www.toyota.co.jp/jp/news/09/Apr/nt09\_026\.html \|url\-status\=live }} Although the new 4608 cc 1UR\-FE is smaller than the old 4663 cc 2UZ\-FE engine, the power has been increased from {{convert\|212\|to\|234\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}}, torque increased from {{convert\|448\|to\|460\|N·m\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} and fuel consumption improved from {{convert\|6\.6\|to\|7\.1\|km/L\|0\|abbr\=on}} (Japan 10·15 mode measurement).
In the Middle East, the Land Cruiser 200 series was introduced in late 2007 as a 2008 model, for 2008 to 2010 there was three engine choices:
* {{convert\|179\|kW\|PS hp\|abbr\=on\|0}} 4\.0 L 1GR\-FE petrol engine
* {{convert\|202\|kW\|PS hp\|abbr\=on\|0}} 2UZ\-FE petrol engine
* {{convert\|162\-173\|kW\|PS hp\|abbr\=on\|0}} 1VD\-FTV 4\.5 L turbo diesel engine{{cite web \|title\=Toyota Land Cruiser 2008\-2009 UAE KSA Qatar GCC \|url\=http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\-Land\-Cruiser/2008\-2009\-/392 \|publisher\=DriveArabia.com \|access\-date\=18 July 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727063644/http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\-Land\-Cruiser/2008\-2009\-/392 \|archive\-date\=27 July 2014 }}
In Europe and Asia, the Euro4 diesel (2007\-2010\) model had {{cvt\|286\|hp\|kW\|0\|order\=flip}}.
Starting in 2011, the {{convert\|270\|kW\|PS hp\|abbr\=on\|0}} 3UR\-FE engine was offered along with the previous engines.{{cite web \|title\=Toyota Land Cruiser 2010\-2011 UAE KSA Qatar GCC \|url\=http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\-Land\-Cruiser/2010\-2011\-/594 \|publisher\=DriveArabia.com \|access\-date\=18 July 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727063735/http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\-Land\-Cruiser/2010\-2011\-/594 \|archive\-date\=27 July 2014 }} For 2012, the 1GR\-FE gained dual VVT\-i and power was increased to {{convert\|202\|kW\|PS hp\|abbr\=on\|0}}, the 4\.7 L 2UZ\-FE was dropped in favour of the new {{convert\|227\|kW\|PS hp\|abbr\=on\|0}} 4\.6 L 1UR\-FE, and the 5\.7 L and 4\.5 L diesel were unchanged, although the latter was dropped in some markets.{{cite web \|title\=Toyota Land Cruiser 2012\-2013 UAE KSA Qatar GCC \|url\=http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\-Land\-Cruiser/2012\-2013\-/685 \|publisher\=DriveArabia.com \|access\-date\=18 July 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727075024/http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\-Land\-Cruiser/2012\-2013\-/685 \|archive\-date\=27 July 2014 }}
In North America, the Land Cruiser 200 series is offered with one trim level and engine, the 5\.7 L 3UR\-FE V8 petrol engine producing {{convert\|284\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} and {{convert\|401\|lb·ft\|N·m\|0\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} of torque channeled through a six\-speed automatic. Towing is rated at {{convert\|8200\|lb\|abbr\=on\|sigfig\=2\|order\=flip}}. Beige or black leather upholstery is standard along with a 14 speaker JBL sound system. The only wheel choice is {{convert\|18\|in\|abbr\=on}} allowing a lot of sidewall so the vehicle can be driven off\-road without modification though a more aggressive tread pattern is advised for deep mud.
For the 2013 model year, Toyota added all previously optional safety and luxury options as standard. The Land Cruiser now gets push\-button start, HID headlights with beam level adjustment, a power moonroof, automatic rain sensing windshield wipers, heated and ventilated (perforated leather) front and only heated rear seats, a rear\-seat DVD entertainment system, Bluetooth, rear\-view camera with parking sensors, navigation system, HD radio and Entune. Another new feature is the Multi\-terrain Select system which helps control wheelspin and brake lockup giving the selectable choices of: Rock, Rock \& Dirt, Mogul, Loose Rock, and Mud \& Sand and with an addition to the Multi\-terrain Select system a feature known as adaptive Anti\-lock Braking system which adapts to the condition of the road like mud or sand and efficiently uses the ABS to reduce braking distance on any type of terrain.{{cite web \|url\=http://blog.durbansouthtoyota.co.za/the\-beast\-land\-cruiser\-200\-just\-got\-better/ \|title\=The Beast, Land Cruiser 200 Just Got Better! \|date\=19 August 2015 \|website\=Durban South Toyota Blog \|access\-date\=19 June 2016 \|archive\-date\=7 August 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807194813/http://blog.durbansouthtoyota.co.za/the\-beast\-land\-cruiser\-200\-just\-got\-better/ \|url\-status\=live }}
In [Oceania](/wiki/Oceania "Oceania"), the 200 Series is offered in four different levels of trim: GX, GXL, VX and Sahara.
In August 2015, Toyota launched an updated, face\-lifted version of the J200 Land Cruiser in Japan, which was later sold globally. This version first appeared in the United States in 2015 for the 2016 model year. The new version has several mechanical changes, including a new 8\-speed electronically controlled automatic transmission (ECT\-i) mated to the original 5\.7 L 3UR\-FE V8 petrol engine, larger front disc brakes, and a higher axle ratio (3\.30:1 vs 3\.90:1 in the previous years). Updates to the front fascia, grill, bonnet, headlamps (with [daylight running lamps](/wiki/Daylight_running_lamp "Daylight running lamp")), rear tail lamps and bumpers were the main exterior highlights of the facelift. Interior changes included a new multimedia system and interface with larger screens front and back, as well as refreshed interior styling.
In China, the Land Cruiser 200 was produced from 2008 to 2016 by [Sichuan FAW Toyota Motor](/wiki/Sichuan_FAW_Toyota_Motor "Sichuan FAW Toyota Motor"). The 4\.0 L *[1GR\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_GR_engine%231GR-FE "Toyota GR engine#1GR-FE")* V6 and 4\.7 L *[2UZ\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_UZ_engine%232UZ-FE "Toyota UZ engine#2UZ-FE")* V8 were the available engine choices{{snd}}both paired to a 5\-speed automatic gearbox. Trim levels were the 4\.0 GX\-R, 4\.0 VX, 4\.7 VX and 4\.7 VX\-R.{{cite web \|url\=http://chinaautoweb.com/car\-models/toyota\-landcruiser200/ \|title\=Toyota Land Cruiser200 from FAW\-Toyota \|website\=ChinaAutoWeb \|access\-date\=5 February 2018 \|archive\-date\=25 January 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125015329/http://chinaautoweb.com/car\-models/toyota\-landcruiser200/ \|url\-status\=live }}
In February 2019, Toyota introduced a Heritage edition of the Land Cruiser at the [Chicago Auto Show](/wiki/Chicago_Auto_Show "Chicago Auto Show") as part of the 60th anniversary of the introduction of the FJ40\. Toyota will only build 1200 vehicles and they will only be available as a 5\-seater sold in the United States. Sales are expected to begin in the third quarter of 2019 for the 2020 model year.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.motor1\.com/news/302355/toyota\-land\-cruiser\-heritage\-edition/ \|title\=2020 Toyota Land Cruiser Heritage Edition Arrives In Chicago \|first\=Christopher \|last\=Smith \|work\=Motor1 \|location\=US \|date\=7 February 2019 \|access\-date\=10 February 2019 \|archive\-date\=12 February 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212011548/https://www.motor1\.com/news/302355/toyota\-land\-cruiser\-heritage\-edition/ \|url\-status\=live }}
In December 2020, Toyota confirmed to *[Road \& Track](/wiki/Road_%26_Track "Road & Track")* that the Land Cruiser would be discontinued in North America after 2021\.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.roadandtrack.com/news/a35058791/toyota\-land\-cruiser\-reportedly\-dead\-after\-2021/ \|title\=The Toyota Land Cruiser Is Dead in America After 2021 \|first\=Brian \|last\=Silvestro \|work\=Road and Track \|location\=US \|date\=24 December 2020 \|access\-date\=27 December 2019 \|archive\-date\=23 December 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201223180846/https://www.roadandtrack.com/news/a35058791/toyota\-land\-cruiser\-reportedly\-dead\-after\-2021/ \|url\-status\=live }}
**Gallery**
{{gallery \| width \= 200 \| height \= 148
\| File:2011 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ200R) Sahara wagon (2011\-11\-18\) 02\.jpg\|Pre\-facelift Toyota Land Cruiser Sahara (UZJ200\)
\| File:2013 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R MY13\) Sahara wagon (2015\-07\-24\) 01\.jpg\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser Sahara (VDJ200\)
\| File:2013 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R MY13\) Sahara wagon (2015\-07\-24\) 02\.jpg\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser Sahara (VDJ200\)
\| File:2016\-2018 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R) VX wagon (2018\-09\-03\) 01\.jpg\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser VX (VDJ200\)
\| File:2016\-2018 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R) VX wagon (2018\-09\-03\) 02\.jpg\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser VX (VDJ200\)
\| File:2017 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R) GX wagon (2018\-10\-01\) 01\.jpg\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GX (VDJ200\)
\| File:2017 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R) GX wagon (2018\-10\-01\) 02\.jpg\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GX (VDJ200\)
\| File:Lc200interior.jpg\|Interior (pre\-facelift)
\| File:Toyota LAND CRUISER AX"G selection" (CBA\-URJ202W\-GNTAK\-G) interior.jpg\|Interior (second facelift)
}}
{{clear}}
### {{anchor\|J300}} J300 (2021\)
{{Infobox automobile
\| name \= J300
\| image \= 2021 Toyota Land Cruiser 300 3\.4 ZX (Colombia) front view 02\.png
\| caption \= 2021 Toyota Land Cruiser ZX (VJA300\)
\| aka \=
\| production \= March 2021 – present
\| model\_years \= 2022–present (Middle East)
\| assembly \= Japan: \[\[Toyota, Aichi]] (\[\[Yoshiwara plant]]); \[\[Tahara, Aichi]] (\[\[Tahara plant]])
\| designer \= {{collapsible list\|framestyle\=border:none; padding:0;
\| 1 \= Masaki Okue, Masanori Kinoshita, Takeshi Ogawa, Hironami Haga, and Hisayuki Tashiro{{Cite web\|title\=Design 202113959 Search\|url\=https://search.ipaustralia.gov.au/designs/search/details/202113959?s\=cffc7078\-af30\-4686\-afa3\-b4b6c515c2d1\|access\-date\=18 January 2022\|website\=IP Australia {{!}} Australian Design\|archive\-date\=18 January 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118183123/https://search.ipaustralia.gov.au/designs/search/details/202113959?s\=cffc7078\-af30\-4686\-afa3\-b4b6c515c2d1\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite web \|date\=2021\-08\-02 \|title\=Land Cruiser Design Sketches \|url\=https://global.toyota/en/mobility/toyota\-brand/toyota\-design/landcruiser/ \|access\-date\=2022\-07\-19 \|website\=Toyota Motor Corporation Official Global Website \|publisher\=Toyota \|archive\-date\=19 July 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719020537/https://global.toyota/en/mobility/toyota\-brand/toyota\-design/landcruiser/ \|url\-status\=live }}
\| 2 \= Mineo Imaiida and Kazunori Ueda (GR Sport){{Cite web\|title\=Design 202113969\|url\=https://search.ipaustralia.gov.au/designs/search/details/202113969?s\=cffc7078\-af30\-4686\-afa3\-b4b6c515c2d1\|access\-date\=18 January 2022\|website\=IP Australia {{!}} Australian Design\|archive\-date\=18 January 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118031532/https://search.ipaustralia.gov.au/designs/search/details/202113969?s\=cffc7078\-af30\-4686\-afa3\-b4b6c515c2d1\|url\-status\=live}}
}}
\| body\_style \= 5\-door \[\[SUV]]
\| platform \= TNGA: \[\[Toyota New Global Architecture\#GA\-F\|GA\-F]]{{Cite press release \|title\=Toyota's New Land Cruiser Makes World Premiere \|url\=https://global.toyota/en/newsroom/toyota/35323595\.html \|website\=Toyota Motor Corporation Official Global Website \|date\=9 June 2021 \|access\-date\=9 June 2021}}
\| layout \= \[\[Front\-engine, four\-wheel\-drive]]
\| related \= {{unbulleted list
\| \[\[Lexus LX (J310\)]]
\| \[\[Toyota Land Cruiser (J250\)]]
\| \[\[Lexus GX (J250\)]]
\| \[\[Toyota Sequoia (XK80\)]]
\| \[\[Toyota Tundra (XK70\)]]{{Cite web\|date\=20 September 2021\|title\=The 2022 Toyota Tundra Is A Tougher, Twin\-Turbo'ed Pickup\|url\=https://www.carscoops.com/2021/09/the\-2022\-toyota\-tundra\-is\-tougher\-techier\-and\-features\-a\-twin\-turbo\-v6/\|access\-date\=20 September 2021\|website\=Carscoops\|location\=US\|archive\-date\=21 September 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921010455/https://www.carscoops.com/2021/09/the\-2022\-toyota\-tundra\-is\-tougher\-techier\-and\-features\-a\-twin\-turbo\-v6/\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|date\=19 September 2021\|title\=The 2022 Toyota Tundra Has a Land Cruiser Connection Under Its Skin\|url\=https://www.motortrend.com/features/2022\-toyota\-tundra\-land\-cruiser\-connection\-skin/\|access\-date\=20 September 2021\|website\=MotorTrend\|location\=US\|archive\-date\=20 September 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920115932/https://www.motortrend.com/features/2022\-toyota\-tundra\-land\-cruiser\-connection\-skin/\|url\-status\=live}}
}}
\| engine \= {{unbulleted list
\| '''Petrol:'''
\| {{not a typo\|3\.4 L}} ''\[\[Toyota Dynamic Force engine\#V35A\-FTS\|V35A\-FTS]]'' \[\[twin\-turbo]] \[\[V6 engine\|V6]] (VJA300\)
\| 4\.0 L ''\[\[Toyota GR engine\#1GR\-FE\|1GR\-FE]]'' V6 (GRJ300\)
\| '''Diesel:'''
\| 3\.3 L ''\[\[Toyota F33A engine\|F33A\-FTV]]'' \[\[Turbodiesel\|twin\-turbo]] V6 (FJA300\)
}}
\| powerout \= {{unbulleted list
\| {{convert\|305\|kW\|hp PS\|abbr\=on\|0}} (''V35A\-FTS'')
\| {{convert\|201\|kW\|hp PS\|abbr\=on\|0}} (''1GR\-FE'')
\| {{convert\|220\|–\|227\|kW\|hp PS\|abbr\=on\|0}} (''F33A\-FTV'')
}}
\| transmission \= {{unbulleted list
\| 6\-speed automatic (GRJ300\)
\| 10\-speed ''\[\[List of Aisin transmissions\#Longitudinal\|AWR10L65]]'' automatic (VJA300/FJA300\)
}}
\| wheelbase \= {{convert\|2850\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| length \= {{convert\|4950\|–\|5015\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.carsguide.com.au/toyota/landcruiser/car\-dimensions/\|title\=Toyota Land Cruiser\|publisher\=CarsGuide\|access\-date\=10 July 2023\|archive\-date\=10 July 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230710102256/https://www.carsguide.com.au/toyota/landcruiser/car\-dimensions/\|url\-status\=live}}
\| width \= {{convert\|1980\|–\|1990\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| height \= {{convert\|1945\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| weight \= {{convert\|2310\|–\|2645\|kg\|lb\|0\|abbr\=on}}
}}
The J300 series Land Cruiser was unveiled on 9 June 2021\. Its development was led by Toyota chief engineer Takami Yokoo.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.carexpert.com.au/car\-news/how\-legendary\-80\-series\-inspired\-the\-new\-toyota\-landcruiser\-300 \|title\=How legendary 80 Series inspired the new Toyota LandCruiser 300 \|first\=Mike \|last\=Costello \|work\=CarExpert \|location\=Australia \|date\=10 June 2021 \|access\-date\=21 November 2021 \|archive\-date\=20 November 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120222808/https://www.carexpert.com.au/car\-news/how\-legendary\-80\-series\-inspired\-the\-new\-toyota\-landcruiser\-300 \|url\-status\=live }} Built on the body\-on\-frame [GA\-F](/wiki/Toyota_New_Global_Architecture%23GA-F "Toyota New Global Architecture#GA-F") platform, the frame itself was redesigned to reduce weight and increase rigidity. The total weight of the vehicle was reduced by {{convert\|200\|kg\|lb\|0\|abbr\=on}} compared to its predecessor. Other improvements claimed include lowered center of gravity, weight distribution, and an improved suspension structure.
Exterior dimensions including the total length, total width, and wheelbase, as well as both the [departure and approach angles](/wiki/Approach_and_departure_angles "Approach and departure angles") have been kept largely same as the previous model to retain its off\-road performance. It carries over the approach angle of 32 degrees from its predecessor. The departure angle can reach up to 26\.5 degrees depending on the version, while ground clearance measures {{convert\|230\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}. Toyota has equipped the vehicle with an [adaptive variable suspension](/wiki/Adaptive_Variable_Suspension "Adaptive Variable Suspension") (AVS), an upgraded Electronic Kinetic Dynamic Suspension System (E\-KDSS), a more advanced Multi\-Terrain Select system with Deep Snow and Auto modes, and a Multi\-Terrain Monitor system which incorporates an underbody camera.{{Cite web\|title\=2022 Toyota Land Cruiser Revealed With New Platform, Twin\-Turbo V6\|url\=https://www.motor1\.com/news/512904/2022\-toyota\-land\-cruiser\-debut/\|access\-date\=12 July 2021\|website\=Motor1\.com\|archive\-date\=9 July 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182426/https://www.motor1\.com/news/512904/2022\-toyota\-land\-cruiser\-debut/\|url\-status\=live}}
For this generation, Toyota ceased to offer V8 engine options in favour of a {{not a typo\|3\.4\-litre}} *[V35A\-FTS](/wiki/Toyota_Dynamic_Force_engine%23V35A-FTS "Toyota Dynamic Force engine#V35A-FTS")* twin\-turbocharged V6 petrol engine producing {{cvt\|409\|hp\|kW hp PS\|0\|abbr\=on\|order\=out}} and {{cvt\|479\|lbft\|Nm\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}}, and a 3\.3\-litre *[F33A\-FTV](/wiki/Toyota_F33A_engine "Toyota F33A engine")* twin\-turbocharged V6 diesel engine producing {{cvt\|304\|hp\|kW hp PS\|0\|abbr\=on\|order\=out}} and {{cvt\|516\|lbft\|Nm\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}}.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.caranddriver.com/news/a36676044/toyota\-land\-cruiser\-300\-series\-revealed/ \|title\=New Toyota Land Cruiser Debuts with 409\-HP 3\.4L Twin\-Turbo V\-6 \|website\=Car and Driver \|date\=10 June 2021}} A 4\.0\-litre naturally\-aspirated V6 engine is carried over from the previous model.{{Cite web\|title\=2022 Toyota LandCruiser 300 Series: New 3\.3\-litre diesel engine details emerge\|url\=https://www.caradvice.com.au/960788/2022\-toyota\-landcruiser\-300\-series\-new\-3\-3\-litre\-diesel\-engine\-details\-emerge/\|access\-date\=12 July 2021\|website\=CarAdvice\|location\=Australia\|archive\-date\=12 July 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712040606/https://www.caradvice.com.au/960788/2022\-toyota\-landcruiser\-300\-series\-new\-3\-3\-litre\-diesel\-engine\-details\-emerge/\|url\-status\=live}}
A [GR Sport/GR\-S](/wiki/Toyota_GR_Sport "Toyota GR Sport") variant is also available for the first time. It is {{convert\|5\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} shorter than the standard model, and uses more body adhesive to enhance structural rigidity. The GR Sport model also offers front and rear differential locking, as opposed to only centre locking in the standard 300 Series.{{cite web\|last\=Evans\|first\=Dean\|date\=11 June 2021\|title\=GR Sport Toyota Land Cruiser: one from left field, for the road or fields\|url\=https://www.driven.co.nz/news/gr\-sport\-toyota\-land\-cruiser\-one\-from\-left\-field\-for\-the\-road\-or\-fields/\|url\-status\=live\|access\-date\=12 July 2021\|website\=Driven\|location\=New Zealand\|archive\-date\=12 July 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712040606/https://www.driven.co.nz/news/gr\-sport\-toyota\-land\-cruiser\-one\-from\-left\-field\-for\-the\-road\-or\-fields/}}{{cite web\|title\=Toyota Land Cruiser LC300 expected to debut in end\-May 2021\|url\=https://www.autocarindia.com/car\-news/toyota\-land\-cruiser\-lc300\-expected\-to\-debut\-in\-end\-may\-2021\-420835\|access\-date\=12 July 2021\|website\=Autocar India\|archive\-date\=12 July 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712040607/https://www.autocarindia.com/car\-news/toyota\-land\-cruiser\-lc300\-expected\-to\-debut\-in\-end\-may\-2021\-420835\|url\-status\=live}}
It went on sale in the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait on 20 June 2021, in Japan on 2 August 2021, in the Philippines on 7 September 2021, in Australia on 5 October 2021, and in Indonesia on 13 January 2022\.{{Cite press release \|title\=Toyota Launches New Land Cruiser \|url\=https://global.toyota/en/newsroom/toyota/35758437\.html \|website\=Toyota Motor Corporation Official Global Website \|date\=2 August 2021 \|access\-date\=2 August 2021}} The Japanese model is available in four 7\-seat petrol grades: AX, VX, GR Sport and ZX, one 5\-seat petrol grade: GX and two 5\-seat diesel grades: GR Sport and ZX.{{cite web \|url\=https://toyota.jp/pages/contents/landcruiser/004\_p\_001/4\.0/pdf/spec/landcruiser\_spec\_202108\.pdf \|title\=トヨタ ランドクルーザー 主要諸元表 \|trans\-title\=Toyota Land Cruiser main specifications table \|publisher\=Toyota \|location\=Japan \|language\=ja \|date\=August 2021 \|access\-date\=12 September 2021 \|archive\-date\=12 September 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912015742/https://toyota.jp/pages/contents/landcruiser/004\_p\_001/4\.0/pdf/spec/landcruiser\_spec\_202108\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite news \|url\=https://paultan.org/2021/10/05/toyota\-land\-cruiser\-in\-australia/ \|title\=2022 Toyota Land Cruiser 300 launched in Australia \- priced from RM274k \|first\=Matthew H. \|last\=Tong \|work\=paultan.org \|date\=5 October 2021 \|access\-date\=6 October 2021 \|location\=Malaysia \|archive\-date\=6 October 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006034407/https://paultan.org/2021/10/05/toyota\-land\-cruiser\-in\-australia/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite news \|url\=https://www.gridoto.com/read/223092220/toyota\-resmi\-luncurkan\-dua\-suv\-baru\-new\-fortuner\-28\-dan\-all\-new\-land\-cruiser\-segini\-harganya \|title\=Toyota Resmi Luncurkan Dua SUV Baru, New Fortuner 2\.8 dan All New Land Cruiser, Segini Harganya \|trans\-title\=Toyota Officially Launches Two New SUVs, New Fortuner 2\.8 and All New Land Cruiser, here's the price \|first\=Naufal \|last\=Shafly \|work\=Gridoto \|location\=Indonesia \|language\=Indonesian \|date\=13 January 2022 \|access\-date\=13 January 2022 \|archive\-date\=13 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220113040835/https://www.gridoto.com/read/223092220/toyota\-resmi\-luncurkan\-dua\-suv\-baru\-new\-fortuner\-28\-dan\-all\-new\-land\-cruiser\-segini\-harganya \|url\-status\=live }} The Australian model is available in six grades: GX, GXL, VX, Sahara, GR Sport and Sahara ZX.{{Cite web\|last\=Crawford\|first\=Anthony\|title\=2022 Toyota LandCruiser 300 Series review\|url\=https://www.carexpert.com.au/car\-reviews/2022\-toyota\-landcruiser\-300\-series\-review\|access\-date\=23 October 2021\|website\=CarExpert\|date\=14 October 2021\|location\=Australia\|archive\-date\=23 October 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023115703/https://www.carexpert.com.au/car\-reviews/2022\-toyota\-landcruiser\-300\-series\-review\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|last\=Flynn\|first\=Malcolm\|title\=300 Series LandCruiser 2022 review: How does the new Toyota Land Cruiser LC300 compare to the old 200 Series?\|url\=https://www.carsguide.com.au/car\-reviews/toyota\-landcruiser\-lc300\-84848\|access\-date\=23 October 2021\|website\=CarsGuide\|location\=Australia\|archive\-date\=23 October 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023120136/https://www.carsguide.com.au/car\-reviews/toyota\-landcruiser\-lc300\-84848\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|last\=Purcell\|first\=Sam\|title\=2022 Toyota LandCruiser 300 review\|url\=https://www.drive.com.au/reviews/2022\-toyota\-landcruiser\-300\-review/\|access\-date\=23 October 2021\|website\=Drive\|date\=14 October 2021\|location\=Australia\|archive\-date\=23 October 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023120135/https://www.drive.com.au/reviews/2022\-toyota\-landcruiser\-300\-review/\|url\-status\=live}} The Indonesian model is available in two grades: VX\-R and GR\-S. The Philippine model is available in two grades: VX and ZX. The Middle Eastern model is available in six grades: GX, EX\-R, GX\-R, VX, VX\-R and GR Sport. {{Cite web \|title\=تويوتا لاندكروزر 2022 \- المربع نت \|url\=https://www.almuraba.net/japanese\-cars/toyota/landcruiser/2022\-landcruiser/ \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-30 \|language\=ar}}{{Cite web \|date\=2021\-07\-15 \|title\=First drive: 2022 Toyota Land Cruiser in the UAE {{!}} DriveArabia \|url\=https://www.drivearabia.com/news/2021/07/15/first\-drive\-2022\-toyota\-land\-cruiser\-in\-the\-uae/ \|access\-date\=2024\-09\-30 \|website\=DriveArabia}}
The J300 series Land Cruiser is not sold in the United States and Canada due to slow sales for its J200 series predecessor, as well as limited production capacity; the related Lexus LX remains available.{{Cite web\|last\=Campbell\|first\=Bryan\|title\=The U.S. Won't Get The 2022 Toyota Land Cruiser And That Shouldn't Surprise Anyone\|url\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/bryancampbell/2021/06/10/the\-us\-wont\-get\-the\-2022\-toyota\-land\-cruiser\-and\-that\-shouldnt\-surprise\-anyone/\|access\-date\=16 June 2021\|website\=Forbes\|location\=US\|archive\-date\=13 June 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613044327/https://www.forbes.com/sites/bryancampbell/2021/06/10/the\-us\-wont\-get\-the\-2022\-toyota\-land\-cruiser\-and\-that\-shouldnt\-surprise\-anyone/\|url\-status\=live}}{{cite news \|last\=Bosch \|first\=Charl \|date\=26 January 2022 \|title\=New Toyota Sequoia debuts as the 'upscale Prado' South Africa cannot have \|website\=Citizen.co.za \|publisher\=The Citizen \|location\=South Africa \|url\=https://www.citizen.co.za/motoring/motoring\-news/2992183/all\-new\-toyota\-sequoia\-revealed/ \|access\-date\=26 January 2022 \|archive\-date\=26 January 2022 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126073527/https://www.citizen.co.za/motoring/motoring\-news/2992183/all\-new\-toyota\-sequoia\-revealed/ \|url\-status\=live }} In those markets, the J200 series is replaced by the slightly smaller [J250 series](/wiki/Toyota_Land_Cruiser_Prado_%28J250%29 "Toyota Land Cruiser Prado (J250)") in 2024\.{{Cite web \|date\=2023\-08\-02 \|title\=Toyota's New Land Cruiser "250" Makes World Premiere \|url\=https://global.toyota/en/newsroom/toyota/39526684\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-08\-02 \|website\=Toyota Motor Corporation Official Global Website \|language\=en \|archive\-date\=2 August 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802073801/https://global.toyota/en/newsroom/toyota/39526684\.html \|url\-status\=live }}
File:2021 Toyota Land Cruiser 300 3\.4 ZX (Colombia) rear view 01\.png\|2021 Toyota Land Cruiser ZX (VJA300\)
File:Toyota Land Cruiser VX VJA300W.jpg\|2021 Toyota Land Cruiser VX (VJA300W)
File:Toyota Land Cruiser VX VJA300W rear.jpg\|2021 Toyota Land Cruiser VX (VJA300W)
File:Toyota LAND CRUISER GR SPORT (3BA\-VJA300W\-GNUSZ) front.jpg\|2021 Land Cruiser GR Sport
File:Toyota LAND CRUISER GR SPORT (3BA\-VJA300W\-GNUSZ) rear.jpg\|2021 Land Cruiser GR Sport (rear view)
File:Toyota Land Cruiser VX VJA300W interior.jpg\|Interior
{{clear}}
|
[
"{{anchor\\|Comfort oriented models}} Station Wagon series\n--------------------------------------------------------",
"### {{anchor\\|J50}} J50 (1967\\)",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\|name\\=J50\n\\|image\\=1979 Toyota Land Cruiser FJ55\\.jpg\n\\|caption\\=1979 FJ55 (US)\n\\|production\\=1967–1980\n\\|assembly\\=\\[\\[Toyota City]], Japan (\\[\\[ARACO]])\n\\|body\\_style\\=5\\-door \\[\\[SUV]]\n\\|layout\\=\\[\\[Front\\-engine, four\\-wheel\\-drive]]\n\\|engine\\={{unbulleted list\n \\| 3\\.9 L ''\\[\\[Toyota F engine\\#F\\|F]]'' \\[\\[Straight\\-six engine\\|I6]]\n \\| 4\\.2 L ''\\[\\[Toyota F engine\\#2F\\|2F]]'' I6\n }}\n\\|transmission\\={{Ubl\n \\| 3\\-speed \\[\\[manual transmission\\|manual]]\n \\| 4\\-speed manual (J30, H41 or H42\\)\n }}\n\\|wheelbase\\={{convert\\|2700\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\|length\\={{convert\\|4675\\|mm\\|in\\|\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\|width\\={{convert\\|1735\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\|height\\={{convert\\|1865\\|mm\\|in\\|\\|abbr\\=on}}\n}}",
"The Land Cruiser 55 was produced from 1967 to 1980\\. Toyota refers to the FJ55G and FJ55V as the first \"real\" [station wagon](/wiki/Station_wagon \"Station wagon\") in the Land Cruiser series, thus marking the beginning of the station wagon body style. It was the first Land Cruiser to have fully enclosed box frame members. Of all the Land Cruiser wagons sold in the U.S., including the FJ45, it is the only one to not have hatch and tailgate in the rear, but rather a tailgate only with an electrically operated window that can be retracted into the tailgate.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.toyota\\-global.com/showroom/vehicle\\_heritage/landcruiser/collection/model\\_55\\_1\\.html \\|title\\=Land Cruiser{{snd}}Model 55 Series \\|publisher\\=Toyota Motor Corporation Global Website \\|access\\-date\\=14 March 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=1 April 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401020435/http://www.toyota\\-global.com/showroom/vehicle\\_heritage/landcruiser/collection/model\\_55\\_1\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### History",
"* 1967{{Snd}}Production of the FJ55 began. The FJ55 was a 4\\-door station wagon version based on the FJ40's Drive\\-train, replacing the 4\\-Door FJ45V (I). It was colloquially known as the \"[Moose](/wiki/Moose \"Moose\")\". It has also been referred to as a \"[pig](/wiki/Pig \"Pig\")\" or an \"iron pig\". The FJ55 had a longer [wheelbase](/wiki/Wheelbase \"Wheelbase\") (at {{cvt\\|2700\\|mm\\|in\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}) and was mainly designed to be sold in North America and Australia. Fire engine versions were also available, using the regular front clip but with open bodywork and no doors.{{citation \\| ref \\= JAMA25 \\| title\\= 自動車ガイドブック \\| trans\\-title \\= Japanese Motor Vehicles Guide Book 1978/1979 \\| language \\= ja \\| volume \\= 25 \\| date \\= 10 October 1978 \\| publisher \\= \\[\\[Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association]] \\| location \\= Japan \\| page \\= 276 \\| id \\= 0053\\-780025\\-3400 }}\n* 1975{{Snd}}January 1975 saw the F series engine being replaced by the 2F engine. Unusual for Toyota, the model designation (e.g. FJ55\\) did not change, except in Japan, where it was changed to **FJ56**.\n* July 1980{{snd}}Production ends.",
"**Gallery**",
"{{gallery \\| width \\= 200 \\| height \\= 150\n\\|File:Toyota Land Cruiser Wagon (FJ55\\), 1970\\-72 rear left.jpg\\|Rear view\n}}",
"{{Clear}}",
"### {{anchor\\|J60}} J60 (1980\\)",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\|name\\= J60\n\\|image\\=Vintage Toyota Land Cruiser (16275497802\\) (cropped).jpg\n\\|aka\\=Toyota Samurai (Venezuela)\n\\|production\\=1980–1992\n\\|assembly\\={{unbulleted list\n \\| \\[\\[Toyota City]], Japan (\\[\\[ARACO]])\n \\| \\[\\[Cumaná, Venezuela\\|Cumaná]], Venezuela\n }}\n\\|body\\_style\\= 5\\-door \\[\\[SUV]]\n\\|layout\\=\\[\\[Front\\-engine, four\\-wheel\\-drive]]\n\\|engine\\={{unbulleted list\n \\|'''Petrol:'''{{Ubl\n \\| 4\\.2 L ''\\[\\[Toyota F engine\\#2F\\|2F]]'' \\[\\[Straight\\-six engine\\|I6]] (FJ60\\)\n \\| 4\\.0 L ''\\[\\[Toyota F engine\\#3F/3F\\-E\\|3F]]'' I6 (FJ62\\)\n \\| 4\\.0 L ''\\[\\[Toyota F engine\\#3F/3F\\-E\\|3F\\-E]]'' I6 (FJ62 from 1988\\)\n }}\n \\|'''Diesel:'''{{Ubl\n \\| 3\\.4 L ''\\[\\[Toyota B engine\\#3B\\|3B]]'' \\[\\[Straight\\-four engine\\|I4]] (BJ60\\)\n \\| 4\\.0 L ''\\[\\[Toyota H engine\\#2H\\|2H]]'' I6 (HJ60\\)\n \\| 4\\.0 L ''\\[\\[Toyota H engine\\#12H\\-T\\|12H\\-T]]'' \\[\\[Turbocharger\\|turbo]] I6 (HJ61\\)\n }}\n }}\n\\|transmission\\={{unbulleted list\n \\| 4\\-speed ''H41F'' or ''H42F'' \\[\\[manual transmission\\|manual]] (United States only)\n \\| 4\\-speed ''\\[\\[Toyota A transmission\\#A440F\\|A440F]]'' \\[\\[automatic transmission\\|automatic]]\n \\| 5\\-speed ''H55F'' manual\n }}\n\\|wheelbase\\={{convert\\|2730\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\|length\\={{convert\\|4675\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\|width\\={{convert\\|1800\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\|height\\={{convert\\|1750\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n}}",
"The Land Cruiser 60 series was produced from 1980 through 1990, for most markets but the Cumana Plant in Venezuela continued production until 1992 for their local market. It is a front engine, four\\-door wagon which can seat five to eight{{cite web \\|url\\=https://roads\\-waterways.transport.nsw.gov.au/rvd\\-pre1999/data/pdf/11787\\.pdf \\|title\\=Vehicle Specifications Toyota 56 \\|publisher\\=Department of Motor Transport \\|location\\=New South Wales, Australia \\|date\\=29 January 1985 \\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 April 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412011953/https://roads\\-waterways.transport.nsw.gov.au/rvd\\-pre1999/data/pdf/11787\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://roads\\-waterways.transport.nsw.gov.au/rvd\\-pre1999/data/pdf/11709\\.pdf \\|title\\=Vehicle Specifications Toyota 28 \\|publisher\\=Department of Motor Transport \\|location\\=New South Wales, Australia \\|date\\=28 May 1984 \\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 April 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412011954/https://roads\\-waterways.transport.nsw.gov.au/rvd\\-pre1999/data/pdf/11709\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://roads\\-waterways.transport.nsw.gov.au/rvd\\-pre1999/data/pdf/11665\\.pdf \\|title\\=Vehicle Specifications Toyota 11 \\|publisher\\=Department of Motor Transport \\|location\\=New South Wales, Australia \\|date\\=January 2002 \\|access\\-date\\=24 April 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 April 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412011958/https://roads\\-waterways.transport.nsw.gov.au/rvd\\-pre1999/data/pdf/11665\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} people. The 60 series was available in the following exterior colours: Alpine White, Brown, Desert Beige, Freeborn Red, Royal Blue; and in the following metallic exterior colours: Charcoal Gray, Cognac, Gray\\-Blue, Rootbeer, Sky Blue, Stardust Silver.",
"#### History",
"* 1980{{Snd}}The **60** series was introduced. While still retaining the rugged off\\-road characteristics of previous Land Cruisers, the 60 was designed to better compete in the emerging [sport utility vehicle](/wiki/Sport_utility_vehicle \"Sport utility vehicle\") market. The 60 was given a variety of creature comforts like [air conditioning](/wiki/Air_conditioning \"Air conditioning\"), a rear heater and an upgraded interior. The FJ60's \"2F\" petrol engine was left unchanged from the \"40\" series while the six\\-cylinder 4\\.0 L **2H** and the [four\\-cylinder](/wiki/Inline-four_engine \"Inline-four engine\") 3\\.4 L **3B** [diesel engines](/wiki/Diesel_engine \"Diesel engine\") were added to the lineage. Less equipped versions were also available in many markets. In Europe this model was sold as the Land Cruiser Wagon Van.{{cite magazine \\| ref \\= AG140 \\| magazine \\= De AutoGids \\| number \\= 140 \\| volume \\= 6 \\| page \\= 116 \\| title \\= Nieuw in 1985 (1\\) \\| trans\\-title \\= New for 1985 (1\\) \\| editor\\-first \\= Etienne \\| editor\\-last \\= Visart \\| language \\= nl\\-be \\| date \\= 7 February 1985 \\| publisher \\= Uitgeverij Auto\\-Magazine \\| location \\= Brussels, Belgium }}\n* 1981{{Snd}}Land Cruiser sales surpassed 1 [million](/wiki/Million \"Million\") and a high\\-roof version was introduced. The 60 series was introduced to South Africa when a stock Land Cruiser competed in the Toyota 1000 [km](/wiki/Kilometre \"Kilometre\") Desert Race in the punishing wilds of [Botswana](/wiki/Botswana \"Botswana\").\n* 1984{{Snd}}This was the final year for the 40 series.\n* 1984{{Snd}}Alongside the 60 series, the **[70 series](/wiki/Toyota_Land_Cruiser_70_Series \"Toyota Land Cruiser 70 Series\")** was introduced.\n* 1985{{Snd}}The [direct\\-injection](/wiki/Diesel_engine \"Diesel engine\") **12H\\-T** [turbo\\-diesel](/wiki/Turbo-diesel \"Turbo-diesel\") engine was introduced.\n* 1988{{Snd}}The petrol engine was upgraded in some countries to a 4\\.0 L **3F\\-E** EFI engine or to a 4\\.0 L **3F** carburettor engine. The FJ62G VX\\-Series was introduced, allowing the Land Cruiser to be sold in Japan as a passenger vehicle.\n* 1992{{Snd}}Last FJ62 with a 4\\.0 L **3F** carburettor engine was built in Venezuela which was the only country producing the vehicles after production ended in Japan in 1990\\.",
"**Gallery**\n{{gallery \\| width \\= 200 \\| height \\= 133\n\\| File:1990 Toyota Land Cruiser FJ62, gray met., front right.jpg\\|Toyota Land Cruiser post\\-facelift \n\\| File:1981\\-1987 Toyota Land Cruiser (FJ60\\) wagon (2011\\-03\\-10\\).jpg\\|Toyota Land Cruiser (FJ60; pre\\-facelift, rear view)\n\\| File:1987\\-1990 Toyota Land Cruiser (FJ62RG) GX wagon (2009\\-12\\-04\\).jpg\\|Toyota Land Cruiser GX (FJ62; post\\-facelift, rear view)\n\\| \\|Interior\n\\| \\|Interior (facelift)\n}}",
"{{Clear}}",
"### {{anchor\\|J80}} J80 (1990\\)",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= J80\n\\| image \\= 1990\\-1992 Toyota Land Cruiser (FJ80R) GXL wagon (2011\\-10\\-25\\).jpg\n\\| aka \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| \\[\\[Lexus LX (J80\\)\\|Lexus LX 450]]\n \\| Toyota Land Cruiser Autana (Colombia and Venezuela)\n \\| Wanli Land Cruiser (China, \\[\\[joint venture\\|JV]]){{cite web \\|url\\=https://chinacarhistory.com/2018/03/06/crazy\\-car\\-production\\-days\\-of\\-guangdong\\-guangdong\\-wanli/ \\|title\\=Crazy Car Production Days of Guangdong: Guangdong Wanli \\|first\\=Tycho \\|last\\=de Feijter \\|website\\=ChinaCarHistory \\|date\\=2018\\-03\\-06 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-22 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 June 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627134449/https://chinacarhistory.com/2018/03/06/crazy\\-car\\-production\\-days\\-of\\-guangdong\\-guangdong\\-wanli/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n \\| Xinkai HXK5022XSC (China, \\[\\[joint venture\\|JV]]){{cite web \\|url\\=https://chinacarhistory.com/2018/12/24/crazy\\-car\\-production\\-days\\-of\\-guangdong\\-hebei\\-xinkai\\-automobile/ \\|title\\=Crazy Car Production Days of Guangdong: Hebei Xinkai Automobile \\|first\\=Tycho \\|last\\=de Feijter \\|website\\=ChinaCarHistory \\|date\\=2018\\-12\\-24 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-22 \\|archive\\-date\\=16 September 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190916085828/http://chinacarhistory.com/2018/12/24/crazy\\-car\\-production\\-days\\-of\\-guangdong\\-hebei\\-xinkai\\-automobile/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n \\| Toyota Land Cruiser Amazon (UK, 1997\\)\n }}\n\\| production \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| January 1990{{snd}}December 1997{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.toyota\\-global.com/company/history\\_of\\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\\_business/production/production/japan/general\\_status/honsha.html \\|title\\=General Status of Plants in Japan{{snd}}Honsha Plant \\|publisher\\=Toyota \\|year\\=2012 \\|access\\-date\\=28 June 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 November 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112094606/http://www.toyota\\-global.com/company/history\\_of\\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\\_business/production/production/japan/general\\_status/honsha.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n }}\n\\| assembly \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| \\[\\[Toyota City]], Japan (\\[\\[ARACO]])\n \\| \\[\\[Cumaná, Venezuela\\|Cumaná]], Venezuela\n \\| \\[\\[Zhanjiang, Guangdong]], China (Xinkai)\n }}\n\\| designer \\= Kitano Kizo (1987\\){{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.j\\-platpat.inpit.go.jp/c1800/DE/JP\\-0790318/49FECC73D527A316DFAC2AA6DF8B063B12A9EDC2C46309FE302981597D05714E/35/en\\|title\\=メンテナンス情報 (Maintenance information) \\| J\\-PlatPat/AIPN\\|access\\-date\\=13 June 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=8 September 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908005344/https://www.j\\-platpat.inpit.go.jp/?uri\\=/c1800/DE/JP\\-0790318/49FECC73D527A316DFAC2AA6DF8B063B12A9EDC2C46309FE302981597D05714E/35/en\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.j\\-platpat.inpit.go.jp/c1800/DE/JP\\-0790318\\-002/49FECC73D527A316DFAC2AA6DF8B063B12A9EDC2C46309FE302981597D05714E/35/en\\|title\\=メンテナンス情報 (Maintenance information) \\| J\\-PlatPat/AIPN\\|access\\-date\\=13 June 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=8 September 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908005344/https://www.j\\-platpat.inpit.go.jp/?uri\\=/c1800/DE/JP\\-0790318\\-002/49FECC73D527A316DFAC2AA6DF8B063B12A9EDC2C46309FE302981597D05714E/35/en\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.j\\-platpat.inpit.go.jp/c1800/DE/JP\\-0790318\\-001/49FECC73D527A316DFAC2AA6DF8B063B12A9EDC2C46309FE302981597D05714E/35/en\\|title\\=メンテナンス情報 (Maintenance information) \\| J\\-PlatPat/AIPN\\|access\\-date\\=13 June 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=8 September 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908005414/https://www.j\\-platpat.inpit.go.jp/?uri\\=/c1800/DE/JP\\-0790318\\-001/49FECC73D527A316DFAC2AA6DF8B063B12A9EDC2C46309FE302981597D05714E/35/en\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n\\| body\\_style \\= 5\\-door \\[\\[SUV]]\n\\| layout \\= \\[\\[Front\\-engine, four\\-wheel\\-drive]]\n\\| related \\= \n\\| engine \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\|'''Petrol:'''{{Ubl\n \\| 4\\.0 L ''\\[\\[Toyota F engine\\#3F\\-E\\|3F\\-E]]'' \\[\\[Straight\\-six engine\\|I6]]\n \\| 4\\.5 L ''\\[\\[Toyota FZ engine\\|1FZ\\-FE]]'' I6\n }}\n \\|'''Diesel:'''{{Ubl\n \\| 4\\.2 L ''\\[\\[Toyota HZ engine\\|1HZ]]'' I6 \n \\| 4\\.2 L ''\\[\\[Toyota HD engine\\|1HD\\-T]]'' \\[\\[turbocharger\\|turbocharged]] I6\n \\| 4\\.2 L ''\\[\\[Toyota HD engine\\|1HD\\-FT]]'' \\[\\[turbocharger\\|turbocharged]] I6\n }}\n }}\n\\| transmission \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| 5\\-speed \\[\\[Toyota H transmission\\#H150F\\|H150F]] manual\n \\| 5\\-speed \\[\\[Toyota H transmission\\#H151F\\|H151F]] manual \n \\| 4\\-speed \\[\\[Toyota A transmission\\#A440F\\|A440F]] \\[\\[automatic transmission\\|automatic]]\n \\| 4\\-speed \\[\\[Toyota A transmission\\#A442F\\|A442F]] automatic\n \\| 4\\-speed \\[\\[Toyota A transmission\\#A343F\\|A343F]] automatic\n }}\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{convert\\|2850\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| length \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| {{convert\\|4780\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} (1990–94\\)\n \\| {{convert\\|4820\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} (1995–97\\)\n }}\n\\| width \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| {{convert\\|1830\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} (1990–91\\)\n \\| {{convert\\|1930\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} (1992–97\\)\n }}\n\\| height \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| {{convert\\|1785\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} (1990–91\\)\n \\| {{convert\\|1860\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} (1992–94\\)\n \\| {{convert\\|1870\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} (1995–97\\)\n }}\n\\| weight \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| {{convert\\|2084\\|kg\\|lb\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} (1990–92\\)\n \\| {{convert\\|2159\\|kg\\|lb\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} (1993–97\\)\n }}\n}}",
"The Land Cruiser 80 series was unveiled in October 1989 at the [Tokyo Motor Show](/wiki/Tokyo_Motor_Show \"Tokyo Motor Show\") and launched in early 1990\\. It had swing\\-out back doors, which were replaced by a tailgate and hatch in 1994\\. The Land Cruiser was nicknamed the Burbuja (Bubble) in [Colombia](/wiki/Colombia \"Colombia\") and Venezuela due to its roundness. The J80 was initially offered in two versions in these countries: the fully loaded VX and an entry\\-level model that included a vinyl interior with optional air conditioning. In 1996, the entry model was upgraded to a medium\\-equipped model named Autana, including cloth upholstery, standard air conditioning and power driver seat. The name is a reference to the [Tepui](/wiki/Tepui \"Tepui\") mesa [Autana](/wiki/Cerro_Autana \"Cerro Autana\"), a spectacular plateau and cave system along the [Guiana Shield](/wiki/Guiana_Shield \"Guiana Shield\") [craton](/wiki/Craton \"Craton\"). Land Cruiser sales reached 2 million vehicles.",
"#### History",
"* 1990{{Snd}}The **80** series [station wagon](/wiki/Station_wagon \"Station wagon\") was introduced, replacing the 60 series. All 80s sold in North America and Europe now have a full\\-time [four\\-wheel drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive \"Four-wheel drive\") system. In Japan, Africa, and Australia, a part\\-time system was still available. 80s produced between 1990 and 1991 had an open centre differential which was lockable in 4HI and automatically locked in 4LO. From 1992 onward, vehicles with [anti\\-lock brakes](/wiki/Anti-lock_brakes \"Anti-lock brakes\") had a viscous coupling that sent a maximum of 30% torque to the non\\-slipping axle. The differential was lockable in 4HI and automatically locked in 4LO.\n* 1990{{snd}}A new generation of diesel engines were introduced, adding to the engines available in the 80 series. The 80 series came with either a ([3F\\-E](/wiki/Toyota_F_engine%233F-E \"Toyota F engine#3F-E\")) six\\-cylinder naturally aspirated petrol engine, a six\\-cylinder SOHC naturally aspirated diesel engine, ([1HZ](/wiki/Toyota_HZ_engine \"Toyota HZ engine\")), or a **1HD\\-T** [direct injection](/wiki/Diesel_engine \"Diesel engine\") turbo diesel.\n* 1991{{Snd}}By mid\\-1991, the [3F\\-E engine](/wiki/Toyota_F_engine%233F-E \"Toyota F engine#3F-E\") was introduced to the Australian market, a fuel injected version of the [3F engine](/wiki/Toyota_F_engine%233F \"Toyota F engine#3F\").\n* 1993{{Snd}}An advanced 24\\-valve, 4\\.5 L six\\-cylinder petrol engine, [1FZ\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_FZ_engine \"Toyota FZ engine\") was introduced. Larger brakes were added from October 1992 and the total wheelbase was made slightly longer. Front and rear axle lockers (code k294\\) were available as an option. The High Pinion Electric Locking front differential became available in the US models. In May 1993, Toyota began using R134 refrigerant in the air conditioning system. Serial numbers lower than JT3DJ81xxxxx38947 use the R12 refrigerant.\n* 1994{{Snd}}A limited edition called the Land Cruiser Blue Marlin (FZJ80\\) was introduced to the Australian market. They have 4\\.5 L straight\\-6 petrol engines with double\\-overhead cams, an automatic or manual transmission and {{convert\\|158\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 4,600 rpm. The car is blue from the [Blue Marlin](/wiki/Indo-Pacific_blue_marlin \"Indo-Pacific blue marlin\") fish and they have the Blue Marlin logo throughout the car. Some of the features that the Blue Marlin included were altimeters, power windows, disc brakes, leather gear knob and steering wheel, central locking, leather trim, chrome handles and sidesteps, 16\\-inch alloy wheels, limited\\-slip differential, anti\\-lock brakes (ABS), power steering, CD or cassette players, fender flares, and a limited edition bull bar. Only 500 were made.\n* 1995{{Snd}}Driver and passenger [airbags](/wiki/Airbag \"Airbag\") were introduced as were adjustable shoulder\\-belt anchors and an [anti\\-lock braking system](/wiki/Anti-lock_braking_system \"Anti-lock braking system\"). The \"T O Y O T A\" badge was replaced with the modern, ovoid Toyota logo.\n* 1996{{Snd}}In the [Dakar Rally](/wiki/Dakar_Rally \"Dakar Rally\"), a pair of Land Cruisers finished first and second in the unmodified production class. North American and British models adopted anti\\-lock brakes and airbags as standard equipment. The Land Cruiser was withdrawn from Canada this year and from then on would only be sold in said market as the [Lexus LX](/wiki/Lexus_LX \"Lexus LX\").\n* 1997{{Snd}}A limited run of Land Cruiser 80 was built specifically for collectors and is therefore called the Land Cruiser Collector's Edition. The Collector's Edition has Collectors Edition badging, \"Collector's Edition\" embroidered floor mats, automatic climate control, wheels with the \"D\" windows painted dark grey and special grey side moldings along with black pearl badging. The Collector's Edition was only available for the 1997 model year and the package was added to many of the available body colours.\n* 1997{{Snd}}A total of 4,744 FZJ80 Land Cruisers were sold in the United States as \"40th Anniversary Limited Edition\" models. They were available in 2 colours; Antique Sage Pearl (often referred to as Riverrock, Pewter, or Grey) and Emerald Green. The 40th Anniversary models included apron badges, a serial number badge on the centre console, black pearl exterior badges, \"40th Anniversary Limited Edition\" embroidered floor mats, automatic climate control, two\\-tone tan and brown leather interiors, and wheels with the \"D\" windows painted dark gray. Many were manufactured with the optional electric front and rear locking differentials, keyless entry, port\\-installed roof racks and running boards. There are some examples that did not have many of these optional extras. This was the last year for the electric locking front differentials. For UK and Irish markets, to avoid confusion with the [Land Cruiser Prado](/wiki/Toyota_Land_Cruiser_Prado \"Toyota Land Cruiser Prado\") being introduced, the full size Land Cruiser would be renamed Land Cruiser Amazon with the Prado being named the Land Cruiser Colorado.\n* 2007{{Snd}}Last 80\\-Series models were built in Venezuela{{cite web \\|url\\=http://blog.toyota.co.uk/history\\-of\\-the\\-toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-station\\-wagon\\-models \\|title\\=History of the Toyota Land Cruiser (Station Wagon models) \\|publisher\\=Toyota \\|location\\=UK \\|date\\=3 September 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=31 August 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 August 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180831035605/http://blog.toyota.co.uk/history\\-of\\-the\\-toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-station\\-wagon\\-models \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.motortrend.com/cars/toyota/land\\-cruiser/ \\|title\\=Toyota Land Cruiser Reviews: Research New \\& Used Models \\|work\\=Motor Trend \\|location\\=US \\|access\\-date\\=31 August 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 August 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180831035715/https://www.motortrend.com/cars/toyota/land\\-cruiser/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} which was the only country producing the vehicles after production ended in Japan in 1997\\.",
"**Gallery**\n{{gallery \\| width \\= 200 \\| height \\= 150\n\\|File:Toyota Land Cruiser rear 20071004\\.jpg\\|Land Cruiser (with swing\\-out back\\-doors)\n\\|File:Toyota Land Cruiser VX 80 series 1990\\-1997 backleft\\-2008\\-04\\-11 U..jpg\\|Toyota Land Cruiser (pre\\-facelift with lift\\-up tailgate)\n\\|File:1995\\-1998 Toyota Land Cruiser (FZJ80R) GXL wagon (2011\\-11\\-17\\) 01\\.jpg\\|Toyota Land Cruiser GXL (FZJ80, post\\-facelift)\n\\|File:1998 Toyota Land Cruiser (FZJ80R) 40th Anniversary wagon (2016\\-01\\-04\\).jpg\\|Toyota Land Cruiser 40th Anniversary (HZJ80; post\\-facelift, rear view)\n\\|File:Toyota Land Cruiser \\-\\- 03\\-25\\-2010\\.jpg\\|Land Cruiser in Maryland, 2010\n\\|File:Toyota Land Cruiser FZJ80 dashboard.jpg\\|Interior\n}}",
"",
"| Designation | Engine | Power | Torque | Availability |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| FJ80R/L | [3F\\-E](/wiki/Toyota_F_engine \"Toyota F engine\") 4\\.0 L petrol I6 | {{convert\\|112\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 4,000 rpm | {{convert\\|290\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3,000 rpm | Australia, North America, Middle East |\n| FZJ80 | [1FZ\\-F](/wiki/Toyota_FZ_engine \"Toyota FZ engine\") 4\\.5 L petrol I6 | {{convert\\|140\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 4,400 rpm | {{convert\\|363\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3,200 rpm | Venezuela, Colombia, Bolivia (1994–1998\\), Middle East |\n| FZJ80R/L | [1FZ\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_FZ_engine \"Toyota FZ engine\") 4\\.5 L petrol I6 | {{convert\\|158\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 4,600 rpm | {{convert\\|373\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3,200 rpm | Australia, Middle East, North Africa, North America until 1997 and Venezuela, Colombia, Bolivia (1998–2007\\) |\n| HDJ80R | [1HD\\-T](/wiki/Toyota_HD_engine \"Toyota HD engine\") 4\\.2 L turbo\\-diesel I6 | {{convert\\|115\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3,600 rpm | {{convert\\|357\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 1,800 rpm | Australia, Japan |\n| HZJ80R/L | [1HZ](/wiki/Toyota_HZ_engine \"Toyota HZ engine\") 4\\.2 L diesel I6 | {{convert\\|96\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 4,000 rpm | {{convert\\|271\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 2,000 rpm | Australia, Japan, Middle East |",
"*R* means [Right\\-hand drive](/wiki/Left-_and_right-hand_traffic \"Left- and right-hand traffic\") version, excluding [Japanese domestic market](/wiki/Japanese_domestic_market \"Japanese domestic market\").",
"{{Clear}}",
"### {{anchor\\|J100}} J100 (1998\\)",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= J100\n\\| image \\= Toyota Land Cruiser \\-\\- 03\\-21\\-2012 1\\.JPG\n\\| caption \\= Toyota Land Cruiser (J100\\) Pre\\-facelift\n\\| aka \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| \\[\\[Lexus LX (J100\\)\\|Lexus LX 470]]\n \\| Toyota Land Cruiser Amazon (UK)\n }}\n\\| production \\= January 1998 – August 2007\n\\| model\\_years \\= 1998–2007\n\\| assembly \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| Japan: \\[\\[Toyota City]] (\\[\\[Araco]])\n \\| China: \\[\\[Changchun City]] (\\[\\[Sichuan FAW Toyota Motor\\|SFTM]], 2003–2008\\)\n }}\n\\| designer \\= Takeo Kondo\n\\| body\\_style \\= 5\\-door \\[\\[SUV]]\n\\| layout \\= \\[\\[Front\\-engine, four\\-wheel\\-drive]]\n\\| engine \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\|'''Petrol:'''{{unbulleted list\n \\| 4\\.5 L ''\\[\\[Toyota FZ engine\\#1FZ\\-FE\\|1FZ\\-FE]]'' \\[\\[Straight\\-six engine\\|I6]]\n \\| 4\\.7 L ''\\[\\[Toyota UZ engine\\#2UZ\\-FE\\|2UZ\\-FE]]'' \\[\\[V8 engine\\|V8]]\n }}\n \\|'''Diesel:'''{{unbulleted list\n \\| 4\\.2 L ''\\[\\[Toyota HZ engine\\#1HZ\\|1HZ]]'' I6\n \\| 4\\.2 L ''\\[\\[Toyota HD engine\\#1HD\\-T\\|1HD\\-T]]'' \\[\\[turbocharger\\|turbocharged]] I6\n \\| 4\\.2 L ''\\[\\[Toyota HD engine\\#1HD\\-FTE\\|1HD\\-FTE]]'' turbocharged I6\n }}\n }}\n\\| transmission \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| 4\\-speed \\[\\[automatic transmission\\|automatic]]\n \\| 5\\-speed automatic\\|5\\-speed \\[\\[manual transmission\\|manual]]\n }}\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{convert\\|2850\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| length \\= {{convert\\|4890\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| width \\= {{convert\\|1941\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| height \\= {{convert\\|1849\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| weight \\= {{convert\\|2320\\|kg\\|lb\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n}}",
"In January 1998, the 100 series Land Cruiser was introduced to replace the eight\\-year\\-old 80 series. The 100 series was previewed in October 1997 as the \"Grand Cruiser\" at the 32nd Tokyo Motor Show. Development began in 1991 under code name 404T, with the final design being frozen in mid\\-1994\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\\_m3012/is\\_n2\\_v178/ai\\_20301572/ \\|work\\=Automotive Industries \\|title\\=New Land Cruiser gets V8{{snd}}Toyota Land Cruiser{{snd}}includes related article on the Lexus LX450 \\|year\\=1998 \\|access\\-date\\=10 January 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 May 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530055407/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\\_m3012/is\\_n2\\_v178/ai\\_20301572/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web\\|last1\\=Johnson\\|first1\\=Richard\\|title\\=Sport\\-utilities highlight future PLANS\\|url\\=http://www.europe.autonews.com/article/19940725/ANA/407250701/sport\\-utilities\\-highlight\\-future\\-plans\\|website\\=Automotive News Europe\\|publisher\\=Crain Communications Inc.\\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2017\\|date\\=25 July 1994}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=January 2019 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}",
"There are two distinct versions of the 100\\-series, the *100* and the *105*. The two versions look very similar, but there are significant differences under the bodywork. Despite these differences and official model names, both the 100 and 105 are collectively known as the *100 series*.",
"The *105* carried over the majority of its chassis and power train from the 80\\-series with coil suspended [solid axles](/wiki/Live_axle \"Live axle\") front and rear, and straight\\-6 petrol and diesel engines. These models were only sold in African, Australian, Russian, and South American markets.",
"In 1998, a suspension system combining [Active Height Control](/wiki/Active_Height_Control \"Active Height Control\") (AHC) and [Skyhook](/wiki/Skyhook_theory \"Skyhook theory\") TEMS [Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension](/wiki/Toyota_Electronic_Modulated_Suspension \"Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension\") on the Land Cruiser J100 was introduced.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.toyota\\-global.com/company/history\\_of\\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\\_business/products\\_technology/technology\\_development/chassis/index.html \\|title\\=75 Years of TOYOTA {{!}} Technical Development {{!}} Chassis \\|publisher\\=Toyota \\|year\\=2012 \\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 November 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125144107/https://www.toyota\\-global.com/company/history\\_of\\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\\_business/products\\_technology/technology\\_development/chassis/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In 2002, Toyota introduced Night View, the first worldwide series\\-production active [automotive night vision](/wiki/Automotive_night_vision \"Automotive night vision\") system, on the Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus and [Lexus LX](/wiki/Lexus_LX \"Lexus LX\")470\\. This system uses the headlight projectors emitting near infrared light aimed like the car's high\\-beam headlights and a [CCD camera](/wiki/CCD_camera \"CCD camera\") then captures that reflected radiation, this signal is then processed by a computer which produces a black\\-and\\-white image which is projected on the lower section of the windshield.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.toyota.co.jp/en/safety\\_presen/tech/40\\.html \\|title\\=Safety Presentation \\|publisher\\=Toyota \\|location\\=Japan \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080325172342/http://www.toyota.co.jp/en/safety\\_presen/tech/40\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=25 March 2008 \\|year\\=2004 \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2009}} It was also the first Toyota vehicle with [roll\\-over sensor and control logic](/wiki/Active_rollover_protection \"Active rollover protection\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.toyota\\-global.com/company/history\\_of\\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\\_business/products\\_technology/technology\\_development/electronics\\_parts/index.html \\|title\\=Technical Development Electronics Parts \\|publisher\\=Toyota Motor Corporation \\|year\\=2012 \\|access\\-date\\=15 January 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 November 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125140233/https://www.toyota\\-global.com/company/history\\_of\\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\\_business/products\\_technology/technology\\_development/electronics\\_parts/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"The *100* models were fitted with a slightly wider chassis,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.modifind.com/what\\-is\\-the\\-difference\\-land\\-cruiser\\-100\\-vs\\-105/ \\|title\\=What is the Difference: Land Cruiser 100 vs. 105 \\|publisher\\=Modifind Off\\-Road \\|year\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=14 May 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 June 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622125306/https://www.modifind.com/what\\-is\\-the\\-difference\\-land\\-cruiser\\-100\\-vs\\-105/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} [independent front suspension](/wiki/Independent_suspension \"Independent suspension\") (IFS) and two new engines. The change to IFS was a first for a Land Cruiser, and was made (in combination with [rack\\-and\\-pinion steering](/wiki/Rack-and-pinion_steering \"Rack-and-pinion steering\")) to improve on\\-road handling. However, it also limited the vehicle's off\\-road capability and durability; hence, the decision to offer the solid\\-axle 105 models alongside the IFS 100 models in some markets was made. The table below identifies the range of 100 and 105 models and their worldwide availability.",
"Despite the 100 and 105 bodies being very similar, there are some exterior visual indications between both models. The most obvious is the front end of the vehicle often appearing lower than the rear on the 100 models, due to the IFS. The other indicator is the design of the wheels: the 100 models have almost flat wheel designs, while the 105 models have dished wheels. This difference allows both versions to retain similar wheel tracks, despite the 100 having a relatively wider axle track to allow for the IFS system.",
"The introduction of a V8 engine was also a first for a Land Cruiser, and was specifically intended to improve sales in the North\\-American market, where it was the only engine available. In Australia, the 100 V8 was initially only available in the range\\-topping GXV model, while entry and mid\\-range models were the 105 powered by the [1FZ\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_FZ_engine \"Toyota FZ engine\") I6 petrol, or [1HZ](/wiki/Toyota_HZ_engine \"Toyota HZ engine\") diesel engines. The new [1HD\\-FTE](/wiki/Toyota_HD_engine \"Toyota HD engine\") turbo\\-diesel 100 was added to the Australian range in October 2000 after being available in Europe and the UK since the vehicle's launch in 1998\\. The automotive press in Australia were critical of Toyota's decision to offer the acclaimed 1HD\\-FTE engine only in combination with IFS. Australian 4WD Monthly magazine stated \"We will never forgive Toyota for going independent at the front with the mighty 4\\.2 turbo\\-diesel\".",
"The 100 series offered a selectable rear axle differential locker available as an option for model years 1998\\-1999\\.",
"The 100 series formed the basis for the [Lexus LX 470](/wiki/Lexus_LX_%28J100%29 \"Lexus LX (J100)\"), which was also sold in Japan as the Toyota Cygnus.",
"The 100 series was called the Toyota Land Cruiser Amazon in the UK and Ireland from 1998 to 2007\\.",
"In 2000, Toyota celebrated the 50th anniversary of the Land Cruiser with commemorative models offered in several countries. Total global production to date was 3\\.72 million vehicles.",
"The 100 series remained in production until late 2007, with several minor facelifts such as headlights, tail lights, front grille, rear spoiler and specification changes introduced over the years.",
"",
"| Designation | Engine | Power | Torque | Availability |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| HZJ105 | [1HZ](/wiki/Toyota_HZ_engine \"Toyota HZ engine\") 4\\.2 L diesel I6 | {{convert\\|96\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3,800 rpm | {{convert\\|271\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 2,200 rpm | Africa, Asia, Australia, Middle East, South America |\n| FZJ105 | [1FZ\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_FZ_engine \"Toyota FZ engine\") 4\\.5 L petrol I6 | {{convert\\|180\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 4,600 rpm | {{convert\\|410\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3,600 rpm | Africa, Asia, Australia, Middle East, South America |\n| FZJ100 | [1FZ\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_FZ_engine \"Toyota FZ engine\") 4\\.5 L petrol I6 | {{convert\\|180\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 4,600 rpm | {{convert\\|410\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3,600 rpm | Middle East, China |\n| UZJ100 | [2UZ\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_UZ_engine \"Toyota UZ engine\") 4\\.7 L petrol V8 | {{convert\\|170\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 4,800 rpm | {{convert\\|410\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3,400 rpm | Africa, Asia, Australia, China, Europe, Japan, Middle East, North America, UK |\n| HDJ1001 | [1HD\\-T](/wiki/Toyota_HD_engine \"Toyota HD engine\") 4\\.2 L turbo\\-diesel I6 | {{convert\\|123\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3,600 rpm | {{convert\\|352\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 2,000 rpm | Africa, South America |\n| HDJ1002 | [1HD\\-FTE](/wiki/Toyota_HD_engine \"Toyota HD engine\") 4\\.2 L turbo\\-diesel I6 | {{convert\\|150\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3,400 rpm | {{convert\\|430\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 1,400 rpm | Australia\\*, Europe, Japan, Middle East, New Zealand, UK |",
"*\\*This engine was not introduced in Australia until 2000\\.*",
"The 100\\-series is generally considered a durable and reliable vehicle, however there have been three known issues identified, generally for vehicles operating in harsh conditions:\n* The IFS 100\\-series gained a reputation for front suspension failures in operating conditions where the front suspension was prone to hitting the bump stops. Several companies produce strengthened lower wishbones to prevent cracks from developing.{{cite web\\|last\\=Pepper \\|first\\=Robert \\|title\\=LC100 Suspension Solutions \\|publisher\\=Overlander 4WD Magazine \\|date\\=July 2006 \\|url\\=http://www.overlander.com.au/equipment/index/full/68/LC100\\-Suspension\\-Solutions \\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706110818/http://www.overlander.com.au/equipment/index/full/68/LC100\\-Suspension\\-Solutions \\|archive\\-date\\=6 July 2011}}\n* Both the IFS 100 and live\\-axle 105 models have been reported to be suffering from broken front differential centres when driven in harsh conditions.{{Citation \\|title\\=2005 4×4 of the Year \\|newspaper\\=Australian 4WD Monthly \\|pages\\=63–67 \\|date\\=October 2005}} The most common front differential failures in IFS models are reported in vehicles produced between mid\\-1997 and mid\\-1999 (i.e., the model years 1998 and 1999\\), when Toyota fitted the 100 Series IFS with a 2\\-pinion front differential (the pinion gear would flex away from the ring gear under shock loads). In 1999 (model year 2000\\) the IFS Landcruiser received a 4\\-pinion front differential that was more robust{{Snd}}fewer failures were reported.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.landcruiserworkshopmanual.com.au/Item/toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-78\\-79\\-100\\-105\\-series\\-workshop\\-manual\\|title\\=Toyota Land Cruiser Petrol Diesel 1998\\-2007 Haynes Service Repair Workshop Manual \\- Landcruiser Workshop Repair Manual\\|website\\=\\[\\[Haynes Manual]]\\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=4 December 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171204222947/https://www.landcruiserworkshopmanual.com.au/Item/toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-78\\-79\\-100\\-105\\-series\\-workshop\\-manual\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://au.haynes.com/products/productID/203\\|title\\=Toyota Land Cruiser 1998 \\- 2007\\|website\\=\\[\\[Haynes Manual]]\\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205042103/https://au.haynes.com/products/productID/203\\|archive\\-date\\=5 December 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"**Gallery**\n{{gallery \\| width \\= 200 \\| height \\= 150\n\\| File:1998\\-2002 Toyota Land Cruiser (FZJ105R) GXL wagon (2011\\-11\\-18\\) 01\\.jpg\\|Pre\\-facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GXL (FZJ105\\)\n\\| File:1998\\-2002 Toyota Land Cruiser (FZJ105R) GXL wagon (2011\\-11\\-18\\) 02\\.jpg\\|Pre\\-facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GXL (FZJ105\\)\n\\| File:Toyota Land Cruiser (eighth generation) (100\\) (rear), Serdang.jpg\\|Toyota Land Cruiser (with spare wheel on the rear)\n\\| File:2004 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ100R) GXL wagon (2015\\-05\\-29\\) 01\\.jpg\\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GXL (UZJ100\\)\n\\| File:2002\\-2005 Toyota Land Cruiser (HDJ100R) GXL 02\\.jpg\\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GXL (HDJ100\\)\n\\| File:Toyota Land Cruiser HZJ105 1998\\-2004 backleft 2008\\-06\\-04 U.jpg\\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser (HZJ105; with outback doors)\n\\| File:2005 Toyota Land Cruiser\\-100 01\\.jpg\\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser VX Limited (UZJ100\\)\n\\| File:2006 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ100R) VX wagon (2010\\-07\\-05\\) 02\\.jpg\\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser VX (UZJ100\\)\n\\| File:Toyota Land Cruiser (eighth generation) (100 Cygnus) (front), Serdang.jpg\\|1998–2002 Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus\n\\| File:Toyota Land Cruiser (eighth generation) (100 Cygnus) (rear), Serdang.jpg\\|1998–2002 Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus\n\\| File:2005 Toyota Land Cruiser\\-cygnus 02\\.jpg\\|2005–2007 Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus (Japan)\n\\| File:2005 Toyota Land Cruiser\\-cygnus 03\\.jpg\\|2005–2007 Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus (Japan)\n}}",
"{{Clear}}",
"### {{anchor\\|J200}} J200 (2007\\)",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= J200\n\\| image \\= 2011 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ200R) Sahara wagon (2011\\-11\\-18\\) 01\\.jpg\n\\| caption \\= 2011 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ200; pre\\-facelift)\n\\| aka \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| \\[\\[Lexus LX (J200\\)]]\n \\| Toyota Roraima (Venezuela)\n \\| Toyota Land Cruiser V8 (Europe)\n }}\n\\| production \\= September 2007 – March 2021{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.caradvice.com.au/903108/toyota\\-landcruiser\\-200\\-series\\-v8\\-to\\-end\\-production\\-march\\-2021/ \\|title\\=Toyota LandCruiser 200 Series V8 diesel to end production March 2021 \\|first\\=Joshua \\|last\\=Dowling \\|work\\=CarAdvice \\|location\\=Australia \\|date\\=23 November 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=23 March 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 April 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410151450/https://www.caradvice.com.au/903108/toyota\\-landcruiser\\-200\\-series\\-v8\\-to\\-end\\-production\\-march\\-2021/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n\\| model\\_years \\= 2008–2021 (US)\n\\| assembly \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| Japan: \\[\\[Toyota, Aichi]] (\\[\\[Yoshiwara plant]]); \\[\\[Tahara, Aichi]] (\\[\\[Tahara plant]]){{cite web \\|url\\=http://newsroom.toyota.co.jp/en/corporate/companyinformation/manufacturing \\|title\\=Japanese Production Sites \\|publisher\\=Toyota \\|date\\=6 March 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318032552/http://newsroom.toyota.co.jp/en/corporate/companyinformation/manufacturing \\|archive\\-date\\=18 March 2015}}\n \\| China: \\[\\[Changchun]] (\\[\\[Sichuan FAW Toyota Motor\\|SFTM]]; 2008–2016\\)\n }}\n\\| designer \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| Takumi Nakamura, Takayasu Furukawa, Hideo Karikomi, Jinichi Sato and Kengo Iwanaga{{Cite patent\\|country\\=US\\|number\\=D576919S\\|title\\=Automobile and/or toy replica thereof\\|pubdate\\=2008\\-09\\-16\\|inventor1\\-last\\=Ito\\|inventor1\\-first\\=Takanori\\|inventor2\\-last\\=Toyooka\\|inventor2\\-first\\=Kuniaki\\|inventor3\\-last\\=Nakashima\\|inventor3\\-first\\=Katsumi\\|inventor4\\=Kazumi Kowaki;Minoru Ogawa;Takeo Sowa;Shigetoshi Kozai\\|assign1\\=\\[\\[Toyota\\|Toyota Motor Co. Ltd.]]}}\n \\| Tetsu Endō (2012 facelift){{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2022}}\n \\| Keisuke Matsuno and Kouji Katsuno (2015 facelift){{Cite patent\\|country\\=US\\|number\\=D761704\\|title\\=Motor vehicle\\|pubdate\\=2016\\-07\\-19\\|inventor1\\-last\\=Matsuno\\|inventor1\\-first\\=Keisuke\\|inventor2\\-last\\=Katsuno\\|inventor2\\-first\\=Kouji\\|assign1\\=\\[\\[Toyota\\|Toyota Motor Co. Ltd.]]}}\n }}\n\\| body\\_style \\= 5\\-door \\[\\[SUV]]\n\\| platform \\= Toyota F1{{cite web \\| url\\=https://xtech.nikkei.com/dm/article/HONSHI/20071130/143401/ \\| title\\=トヨタ自動車「ランドクルーザー」 \\| date\\=30 November 2007 }}\n\\| layout \\= \\[\\[Front\\-engine, four\\-wheel\\-drive]]\n\\| related \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| \\[\\[Toyota Tundra (XK50\\)]] \n \\| \\[\\[Lexus LX (J200\\)]] \n \\| \\[\\[Toyota Sequoia (XK60\\)]]\n }}\n\\| engine \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\|'''Petrol:'''{{Ubl\n \\| 4\\.0 L ''\\[\\[Toyota GR engine\\#1GR\\-FE\\|1GR\\-FE]]'' \\[\\[V6 engine\\|V6]]\n \\| 4\\.6 L ''\\[\\[Toyota UR engine\\#1UR\\-FE\\|1UR\\-FE]]'' \\[\\[V8 engine\\|V8]]{{cite web\\|url\\=http://toyota.jp/landcruiser/dynamism/engin/index.html \\|title\\=Toyota Japan Land Cruiser \\|publisher\\=Toyota.jp \\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705230523/http://toyota.jp/landcruiser/dynamism/engin/index.html \\|archive\\-date\\=5 July 2011 }}\n \\| 4\\.7 L ''\\[\\[Toyota UZ engine\\#2UZ\\-FE\\|2UZ\\-FE]]'' V8{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.goo\\-net.com/catalog/TOYOTA/LAND\\_CRUISER/10043240/index.html \\|title\\=Goonet 2007 Land Cruiser \\|publisher\\=Goo\\-net.com \\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2010 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 August 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100812074618/http://www.goo\\-net.com/catalog/TOYOTA/LAND\\_CRUISER/10043240/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n \\| 5\\.7 L ''\\[\\[Toyota UR engine\\#3UR\\-FE\\|3UR\\-FE]]'' V8{{cite web \\|url\\=http://pressroom.toyota.com/pr/tms/toyota/document/2008LandCruiser\\_sfo.pdf \\|title\\=Exterior Dimensions \\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2010 \\|archive\\-date\\=24 January 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124194152/http://pressroom.toyota.com/pr/tms/toyota/document/2008LandCruiser\\_sfo.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n }}\n \\|'''Diesel:'''{{Ubl\n \\| 4\\.5 L ''\\[\\[Toyota VD engine\\#1VD\\-FTV\\|1VD\\-FTV]]'' \\[\\[turbocharger\\|turbocharged]] V8\n }}\n }}\n\\| powerout \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| {{convert\\|170\\|–\\|202\\|kW\\|hp PS\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} (''1GR\\-FE'')\n \\| {{convert\\|227\\|–\\|234\\|kW\\|hp PS\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} (''1UR\\-FE'')\n \\| {{convert\\|202\\|–\\|212\\|kW\\|hp PS\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} (''2UZ\\-FE'')\n \\| {{convert\\|270\\|–\\|284\\|kW\\|hp PS\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} (''3UR\\-FE'')\n \\| {{convert\\|136\\|–\\|213\\|kW\\|hp PS\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} (''1VD\\-FTV'')\n }}\n\\| transmission \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| 5\\-speed \\[\\[Manual transmission\\|manual]] (1GR\\-FE)\n \\| 5\\-speed \\[\\[Automatic transmission\\|automatic]] (1GR\\-FE,2UZ\\-FE)\n \\| 6\\-speed automatic (1UR\\-FE,1VD\\-FTV)\n \\| 8\\-speed automatic (3UR\\-FE)\n }}\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{convert\\|2850\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| length \\= {{convert\\|4990\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| width \\= {{convert\\|1980\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| height \\= {{convert\\|1945–1970\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} (adjustable)\n\\| weight \\= {{Convert\\|2405\\-2740\\|kg\\|lb\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| successor \\= \\[\\[Toyota Land Cruiser (J250\\)]] (UK and North America)\n}}",
"In 2002, a five\\-year development plan on a successor to the 100\\-series platform commenced under Sadayoshi Koyari and Tetsuya Tada. By 2004, ten years after the design selection of its predecessor in 1994, a final production design was settled on for the 2008 J200\\. Prototype related tests were conducted for over two years between 2004 and early 2007\\. The redesigned Toyota Land Cruiser was introduced in late 2007\\. Known as the 200 Series, it shares the [Lexus LX 570](/wiki/Lexus_LX_%28J200%29 \"Lexus LX (J200)\")'s platform and overall design. The frame was new, derived from the second\\-generation [Tundra](/wiki/Toyota_Tundra \"Toyota Tundra\"){{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2011}} but shortened and strengthened by 20 percent. Bigger brake rotors and calipers were added and the front suspension was strengthened. The underbelly is also protected by skid plates. The roof pillars were redesigned to better protect occupants in a rollover.",
"The 200 Series encountered some criticism due to its bland body restyling, with some{{who\\|date\\=November 2011}} claiming that Toyota has 'overdeveloped' the classic trademarked Land Cruiser identity in its efforts to fit the Land Cruiser into modern 21st century motoring and vehicle design.",
"The vehicle entered production in September 2007 and was available for sale from September or November, depending on country. It became available in Venezuela for sale in early November of the same year under the local nickname of \"Roraima\" (taken from [Mount Roraima](/wiki/Mount_Roraima \"Mount Roraima\")).",
"The 200 Series, offered numerous features and upgrades over its predecessor not limited to the cosmetic changes made to the body and interior, including:\n* Smart Entry{{Snd}}A sensor is triggered when the remote is brought near the vehicle, allowing the user to simply touch the door handle to open it.\n* Smart Start{{Snd}}Start/Stop push button for ignition; a key is not required.\n* 4\\-zone climate control on Sahara models, with outlet vents increased from 18 to 28\n* 10 [airbags](/wiki/Airbag \"Airbag\") (VX \\& Sahara)\n* A stronger and lighter frame",
"Various driver assist technologies not offered on previous models are included as standard, including:\n* CRAWL, a [four\\-wheel drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive \"Four-wheel drive\") control system that operates like an off\\-road [cruise control](/wiki/Cruise_control \"Cruise control\"), automatically maintaining a low uniform vehicle speed using brakes and throttle\n* Downhill Assist Control\n* Multi\\-terrain anti\\-lock braking system (ABS)\n* [Kinetic Dynamic Suspension System](/wiki/Kinetic_Dynamic_Suspension_System \"Kinetic Dynamic Suspension System\") (KDSS), allows for greater wheel articulation\n* An optional rear\\-view camera (VX)\n* Leather seats are available in full option (VX)",
"Engine and transmission improvements include:\n* An all new optional V8 diesel engine, the [Toyota VD engine](/wiki/Toyota_VD_engine \"Toyota VD engine\") (a [twin\\-turbocharged](/wiki/Twin_turbo \"Twin turbo\") version of the engine used in the 70 Series since 2007\\).\n* Automatic transmission included as standard across all levels of trim of the 200 Series, a five\\-speed manual transmission is offered only with the 4\\.0 L GX models (in selected regions). A five\\-speed automatic gearbox is assigned to the 4\\.7 L petrol models, while the 4\\.5 L diesel models receive a six\\-speed automatic.",
"In Japan, the Land Cruiser had an update in 2009 when it received the 4\\.6 L V8 1UR\\-FE engine and the gearbox was replaced with a 6\\-speed automatic.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.toyota.co.jp/jp/news/09/Apr/nt09\\_026\\.html \\|title\\=Toyota Japan 2009 Land Cruiser press release \\|publisher\\=Toyota.co.jp \\|date\\=16 April 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2010 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 August 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100813202052/http://www.toyota.co.jp/jp/news/09/Apr/nt09\\_026\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Although the new 4608 cc 1UR\\-FE is smaller than the old 4663 cc 2UZ\\-FE engine, the power has been increased from {{convert\\|212\\|to\\|234\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}, torque increased from {{convert\\|448\\|to\\|460\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and fuel consumption improved from {{convert\\|6\\.6\\|to\\|7\\.1\\|km/L\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} (Japan 10·15 mode measurement).",
"In the Middle East, the Land Cruiser 200 series was introduced in late 2007 as a 2008 model, for 2008 to 2010 there was three engine choices:\n* {{convert\\|179\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} 4\\.0 L 1GR\\-FE petrol engine\n* {{convert\\|202\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} 2UZ\\-FE petrol engine\n* {{convert\\|162\\-173\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} 1VD\\-FTV 4\\.5 L turbo diesel engine{{cite web \\|title\\=Toyota Land Cruiser 2008\\-2009 UAE KSA Qatar GCC \\|url\\=http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\\-Land\\-Cruiser/2008\\-2009\\-/392 \\|publisher\\=DriveArabia.com \\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727063644/http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\\-Land\\-Cruiser/2008\\-2009\\-/392 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 July 2014 }}",
"In Europe and Asia, the Euro4 diesel (2007\\-2010\\) model had {{cvt\\|286\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|order\\=flip}}.",
"Starting in 2011, the {{convert\\|270\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} 3UR\\-FE engine was offered along with the previous engines.{{cite web \\|title\\=Toyota Land Cruiser 2010\\-2011 UAE KSA Qatar GCC \\|url\\=http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\\-Land\\-Cruiser/2010\\-2011\\-/594 \\|publisher\\=DriveArabia.com \\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727063735/http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\\-Land\\-Cruiser/2010\\-2011\\-/594 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 July 2014 }} For 2012, the 1GR\\-FE gained dual VVT\\-i and power was increased to {{convert\\|202\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}}, the 4\\.7 L 2UZ\\-FE was dropped in favour of the new {{convert\\|227\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} 4\\.6 L 1UR\\-FE, and the 5\\.7 L and 4\\.5 L diesel were unchanged, although the latter was dropped in some markets.{{cite web \\|title\\=Toyota Land Cruiser 2012\\-2013 UAE KSA Qatar GCC \\|url\\=http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\\-Land\\-Cruiser/2012\\-2013\\-/685 \\|publisher\\=DriveArabia.com \\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727075024/http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\\-Land\\-Cruiser/2012\\-2013\\-/685 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 July 2014 }}",
"In North America, the Land Cruiser 200 series is offered with one trim level and engine, the 5\\.7 L 3UR\\-FE V8 petrol engine producing {{convert\\|284\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and {{convert\\|401\\|lb·ft\\|N·m\\|0\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} of torque channeled through a six\\-speed automatic. Towing is rated at {{convert\\|8200\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on\\|sigfig\\=2\\|order\\=flip}}. Beige or black leather upholstery is standard along with a 14 speaker JBL sound system. The only wheel choice is {{convert\\|18\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}} allowing a lot of sidewall so the vehicle can be driven off\\-road without modification though a more aggressive tread pattern is advised for deep mud.",
"For the 2013 model year, Toyota added all previously optional safety and luxury options as standard. The Land Cruiser now gets push\\-button start, HID headlights with beam level adjustment, a power moonroof, automatic rain sensing windshield wipers, heated and ventilated (perforated leather) front and only heated rear seats, a rear\\-seat DVD entertainment system, Bluetooth, rear\\-view camera with parking sensors, navigation system, HD radio and Entune. Another new feature is the Multi\\-terrain Select system which helps control wheelspin and brake lockup giving the selectable choices of: Rock, Rock \\& Dirt, Mogul, Loose Rock, and Mud \\& Sand and with an addition to the Multi\\-terrain Select system a feature known as adaptive Anti\\-lock Braking system which adapts to the condition of the road like mud or sand and efficiently uses the ABS to reduce braking distance on any type of terrain.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://blog.durbansouthtoyota.co.za/the\\-beast\\-land\\-cruiser\\-200\\-just\\-got\\-better/ \\|title\\=The Beast, Land Cruiser 200 Just Got Better! \\|date\\=19 August 2015 \\|website\\=Durban South Toyota Blog \\|access\\-date\\=19 June 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=7 August 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807194813/http://blog.durbansouthtoyota.co.za/the\\-beast\\-land\\-cruiser\\-200\\-just\\-got\\-better/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In [Oceania](/wiki/Oceania \"Oceania\"), the 200 Series is offered in four different levels of trim: GX, GXL, VX and Sahara.",
"In August 2015, Toyota launched an updated, face\\-lifted version of the J200 Land Cruiser in Japan, which was later sold globally. This version first appeared in the United States in 2015 for the 2016 model year. The new version has several mechanical changes, including a new 8\\-speed electronically controlled automatic transmission (ECT\\-i) mated to the original 5\\.7 L 3UR\\-FE V8 petrol engine, larger front disc brakes, and a higher axle ratio (3\\.30:1 vs 3\\.90:1 in the previous years). Updates to the front fascia, grill, bonnet, headlamps (with [daylight running lamps](/wiki/Daylight_running_lamp \"Daylight running lamp\")), rear tail lamps and bumpers were the main exterior highlights of the facelift. Interior changes included a new multimedia system and interface with larger screens front and back, as well as refreshed interior styling.",
"In China, the Land Cruiser 200 was produced from 2008 to 2016 by [Sichuan FAW Toyota Motor](/wiki/Sichuan_FAW_Toyota_Motor \"Sichuan FAW Toyota Motor\"). The 4\\.0 L *[1GR\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_GR_engine%231GR-FE \"Toyota GR engine#1GR-FE\")* V6 and 4\\.7 L *[2UZ\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_UZ_engine%232UZ-FE \"Toyota UZ engine#2UZ-FE\")* V8 were the available engine choices{{snd}}both paired to a 5\\-speed automatic gearbox. Trim levels were the 4\\.0 GX\\-R, 4\\.0 VX, 4\\.7 VX and 4\\.7 VX\\-R.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://chinaautoweb.com/car\\-models/toyota\\-landcruiser200/ \\|title\\=Toyota Land Cruiser200 from FAW\\-Toyota \\|website\\=ChinaAutoWeb \\|access\\-date\\=5 February 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 January 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125015329/http://chinaautoweb.com/car\\-models/toyota\\-landcruiser200/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In February 2019, Toyota introduced a Heritage edition of the Land Cruiser at the [Chicago Auto Show](/wiki/Chicago_Auto_Show \"Chicago Auto Show\") as part of the 60th anniversary of the introduction of the FJ40\\. Toyota will only build 1200 vehicles and they will only be available as a 5\\-seater sold in the United States. Sales are expected to begin in the third quarter of 2019 for the 2020 model year.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.motor1\\.com/news/302355/toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-heritage\\-edition/ \\|title\\=2020 Toyota Land Cruiser Heritage Edition Arrives In Chicago \\|first\\=Christopher \\|last\\=Smith \\|work\\=Motor1 \\|location\\=US \\|date\\=7 February 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=10 February 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 February 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212011548/https://www.motor1\\.com/news/302355/toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-heritage\\-edition/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In December 2020, Toyota confirmed to *[Road \\& Track](/wiki/Road_%26_Track \"Road & Track\")* that the Land Cruiser would be discontinued in North America after 2021\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.roadandtrack.com/news/a35058791/toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-reportedly\\-dead\\-after\\-2021/ \\|title\\=The Toyota Land Cruiser Is Dead in America After 2021 \\|first\\=Brian \\|last\\=Silvestro \\|work\\=Road and Track \\|location\\=US \\|date\\=24 December 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=27 December 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201223180846/https://www.roadandtrack.com/news/a35058791/toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-reportedly\\-dead\\-after\\-2021/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"**Gallery**\n{{gallery \\| width \\= 200 \\| height \\= 148\n\\| File:2011 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ200R) Sahara wagon (2011\\-11\\-18\\) 02\\.jpg\\|Pre\\-facelift Toyota Land Cruiser Sahara (UZJ200\\)\n\\| File:2013 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R MY13\\) Sahara wagon (2015\\-07\\-24\\) 01\\.jpg\\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser Sahara (VDJ200\\)\n\\| File:2013 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R MY13\\) Sahara wagon (2015\\-07\\-24\\) 02\\.jpg\\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser Sahara (VDJ200\\)\n\\| File:2016\\-2018 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R) VX wagon (2018\\-09\\-03\\) 01\\.jpg\\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser VX (VDJ200\\)\n\\| File:2016\\-2018 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R) VX wagon (2018\\-09\\-03\\) 02\\.jpg\\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser VX (VDJ200\\)\n\\| File:2017 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R) GX wagon (2018\\-10\\-01\\) 01\\.jpg\\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GX (VDJ200\\)\n\\| File:2017 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R) GX wagon (2018\\-10\\-01\\) 02\\.jpg\\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GX (VDJ200\\)\n\\| File:Lc200interior.jpg\\|Interior (pre\\-facelift)\n\\| File:Toyota LAND CRUISER AX\"G selection\" (CBA\\-URJ202W\\-GNTAK\\-G) interior.jpg\\|Interior (second facelift)\n}}",
"{{clear}}",
"### {{anchor\\|J300}} J300 (2021\\)",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= J300\n\\| image \\= 2021 Toyota Land Cruiser 300 3\\.4 ZX (Colombia) front view 02\\.png\n\\| caption \\= 2021 Toyota Land Cruiser ZX (VJA300\\)\n\\| aka \\=\n\\| production \\= March 2021 – present\n\\| model\\_years \\= 2022–present (Middle East)\n\\| assembly \\= Japan: \\[\\[Toyota, Aichi]] (\\[\\[Yoshiwara plant]]); \\[\\[Tahara, Aichi]] (\\[\\[Tahara plant]])\n\\| designer \\= {{collapsible list\\|framestyle\\=border:none; padding:0;\n \\| 1 \\= Masaki Okue, Masanori Kinoshita, Takeshi Ogawa, Hironami Haga, and Hisayuki Tashiro{{Cite web\\|title\\=Design 202113959 Search\\|url\\=https://search.ipaustralia.gov.au/designs/search/details/202113959?s\\=cffc7078\\-af30\\-4686\\-afa3\\-b4b6c515c2d1\\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2022\\|website\\=IP Australia {{!}} Australian Design\\|archive\\-date\\=18 January 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118183123/https://search.ipaustralia.gov.au/designs/search/details/202113959?s\\=cffc7078\\-af30\\-4686\\-afa3\\-b4b6c515c2d1\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-08\\-02 \\|title\\=Land Cruiser Design Sketches \\|url\\=https://global.toyota/en/mobility/toyota\\-brand/toyota\\-design/landcruiser/ \\|access\\-date\\=2022\\-07\\-19 \\|website\\=Toyota Motor Corporation Official Global Website \\|publisher\\=Toyota \\|archive\\-date\\=19 July 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719020537/https://global.toyota/en/mobility/toyota\\-brand/toyota\\-design/landcruiser/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n \\| 2 \\= Mineo Imaiida and Kazunori Ueda (GR Sport){{Cite web\\|title\\=Design 202113969\\|url\\=https://search.ipaustralia.gov.au/designs/search/details/202113969?s\\=cffc7078\\-af30\\-4686\\-afa3\\-b4b6c515c2d1\\|access\\-date\\=18 January 2022\\|website\\=IP Australia {{!}} Australian Design\\|archive\\-date\\=18 January 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118031532/https://search.ipaustralia.gov.au/designs/search/details/202113969?s\\=cffc7078\\-af30\\-4686\\-afa3\\-b4b6c515c2d1\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n}}\n\\| body\\_style \\= 5\\-door \\[\\[SUV]]\n\\| platform \\= TNGA: \\[\\[Toyota New Global Architecture\\#GA\\-F\\|GA\\-F]]{{Cite press release \\|title\\=Toyota's New Land Cruiser Makes World Premiere \\|url\\=https://global.toyota/en/newsroom/toyota/35323595\\.html \\|website\\=Toyota Motor Corporation Official Global Website \\|date\\=9 June 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=9 June 2021}}\n\\| layout \\= \\[\\[Front\\-engine, four\\-wheel\\-drive]]\n\\| related \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| \\[\\[Lexus LX (J310\\)]]\n \\| \\[\\[Toyota Land Cruiser (J250\\)]]\n \\| \\[\\[Lexus GX (J250\\)]]\n \\| \\[\\[Toyota Sequoia (XK80\\)]]\n \\| \\[\\[Toyota Tundra (XK70\\)]]{{Cite web\\|date\\=20 September 2021\\|title\\=The 2022 Toyota Tundra Is A Tougher, Twin\\-Turbo'ed Pickup\\|url\\=https://www.carscoops.com/2021/09/the\\-2022\\-toyota\\-tundra\\-is\\-tougher\\-techier\\-and\\-features\\-a\\-twin\\-turbo\\-v6/\\|access\\-date\\=20 September 2021\\|website\\=Carscoops\\|location\\=US\\|archive\\-date\\=21 September 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921010455/https://www.carscoops.com/2021/09/the\\-2022\\-toyota\\-tundra\\-is\\-tougher\\-techier\\-and\\-features\\-a\\-twin\\-turbo\\-v6/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|date\\=19 September 2021\\|title\\=The 2022 Toyota Tundra Has a Land Cruiser Connection Under Its Skin\\|url\\=https://www.motortrend.com/features/2022\\-toyota\\-tundra\\-land\\-cruiser\\-connection\\-skin/\\|access\\-date\\=20 September 2021\\|website\\=MotorTrend\\|location\\=US\\|archive\\-date\\=20 September 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920115932/https://www.motortrend.com/features/2022\\-toyota\\-tundra\\-land\\-cruiser\\-connection\\-skin/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n }}\n\\| engine \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| '''Petrol:'''\n \\| {{not a typo\\|3\\.4 L}} ''\\[\\[Toyota Dynamic Force engine\\#V35A\\-FTS\\|V35A\\-FTS]]'' \\[\\[twin\\-turbo]] \\[\\[V6 engine\\|V6]] (VJA300\\)\n \\| 4\\.0 L ''\\[\\[Toyota GR engine\\#1GR\\-FE\\|1GR\\-FE]]'' V6 (GRJ300\\)\n \\| '''Diesel:'''\n \\| 3\\.3 L ''\\[\\[Toyota F33A engine\\|F33A\\-FTV]]'' \\[\\[Turbodiesel\\|twin\\-turbo]] V6 (FJA300\\)\n }}\n\\| powerout \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| {{convert\\|305\\|kW\\|hp PS\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} (''V35A\\-FTS'')\n \\| {{convert\\|201\\|kW\\|hp PS\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} (''1GR\\-FE'')\n \\| {{convert\\|220\\|–\\|227\\|kW\\|hp PS\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} (''F33A\\-FTV'')\n }}\n\\| transmission \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| 6\\-speed automatic (GRJ300\\)\n \\| 10\\-speed ''\\[\\[List of Aisin transmissions\\#Longitudinal\\|AWR10L65]]'' automatic (VJA300/FJA300\\)\n }}\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{convert\\|2850\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| length \\= {{convert\\|4950\\|–\\|5015\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.carsguide.com.au/toyota/landcruiser/car\\-dimensions/\\|title\\=Toyota Land Cruiser\\|publisher\\=CarsGuide\\|access\\-date\\=10 July 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=10 July 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230710102256/https://www.carsguide.com.au/toyota/landcruiser/car\\-dimensions/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n\\| width \\= {{convert\\|1980\\|–\\|1990\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| height \\= {{convert\\|1945\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| weight \\= {{convert\\|2310\\|–\\|2645\\|kg\\|lb\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n}}",
"The J300 series Land Cruiser was unveiled on 9 June 2021\\. Its development was led by Toyota chief engineer Takami Yokoo.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.carexpert.com.au/car\\-news/how\\-legendary\\-80\\-series\\-inspired\\-the\\-new\\-toyota\\-landcruiser\\-300 \\|title\\=How legendary 80 Series inspired the new Toyota LandCruiser 300 \\|first\\=Mike \\|last\\=Costello \\|work\\=CarExpert \\|location\\=Australia \\|date\\=10 June 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=21 November 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 November 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120222808/https://www.carexpert.com.au/car\\-news/how\\-legendary\\-80\\-series\\-inspired\\-the\\-new\\-toyota\\-landcruiser\\-300 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Built on the body\\-on\\-frame [GA\\-F](/wiki/Toyota_New_Global_Architecture%23GA-F \"Toyota New Global Architecture#GA-F\") platform, the frame itself was redesigned to reduce weight and increase rigidity. The total weight of the vehicle was reduced by {{convert\\|200\\|kg\\|lb\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} compared to its predecessor. Other improvements claimed include lowered center of gravity, weight distribution, and an improved suspension structure.",
"Exterior dimensions including the total length, total width, and wheelbase, as well as both the [departure and approach angles](/wiki/Approach_and_departure_angles \"Approach and departure angles\") have been kept largely same as the previous model to retain its off\\-road performance. It carries over the approach angle of 32 degrees from its predecessor. The departure angle can reach up to 26\\.5 degrees depending on the version, while ground clearance measures {{convert\\|230\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}. Toyota has equipped the vehicle with an [adaptive variable suspension](/wiki/Adaptive_Variable_Suspension \"Adaptive Variable Suspension\") (AVS), an upgraded Electronic Kinetic Dynamic Suspension System (E\\-KDSS), a more advanced Multi\\-Terrain Select system with Deep Snow and Auto modes, and a Multi\\-Terrain Monitor system which incorporates an underbody camera.{{Cite web\\|title\\=2022 Toyota Land Cruiser Revealed With New Platform, Twin\\-Turbo V6\\|url\\=https://www.motor1\\.com/news/512904/2022\\-toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-debut/\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2021\\|website\\=Motor1\\.com\\|archive\\-date\\=9 July 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182426/https://www.motor1\\.com/news/512904/2022\\-toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-debut/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"For this generation, Toyota ceased to offer V8 engine options in favour of a {{not a typo\\|3\\.4\\-litre}} *[V35A\\-FTS](/wiki/Toyota_Dynamic_Force_engine%23V35A-FTS \"Toyota Dynamic Force engine#V35A-FTS\")* twin\\-turbocharged V6 petrol engine producing {{cvt\\|409\\|hp\\|kW hp PS\\|0\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=out}} and {{cvt\\|479\\|lbft\\|Nm\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}}, and a 3\\.3\\-litre *[F33A\\-FTV](/wiki/Toyota_F33A_engine \"Toyota F33A engine\")* twin\\-turbocharged V6 diesel engine producing {{cvt\\|304\\|hp\\|kW hp PS\\|0\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=out}} and {{cvt\\|516\\|lbft\\|Nm\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}}.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.caranddriver.com/news/a36676044/toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-300\\-series\\-revealed/ \\|title\\=New Toyota Land Cruiser Debuts with 409\\-HP 3\\.4L Twin\\-Turbo V\\-6 \\|website\\=Car and Driver \\|date\\=10 June 2021}} A 4\\.0\\-litre naturally\\-aspirated V6 engine is carried over from the previous model.{{Cite web\\|title\\=2022 Toyota LandCruiser 300 Series: New 3\\.3\\-litre diesel engine details emerge\\|url\\=https://www.caradvice.com.au/960788/2022\\-toyota\\-landcruiser\\-300\\-series\\-new\\-3\\-3\\-litre\\-diesel\\-engine\\-details\\-emerge/\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2021\\|website\\=CarAdvice\\|location\\=Australia\\|archive\\-date\\=12 July 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712040606/https://www.caradvice.com.au/960788/2022\\-toyota\\-landcruiser\\-300\\-series\\-new\\-3\\-3\\-litre\\-diesel\\-engine\\-details\\-emerge/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"A [GR Sport/GR\\-S](/wiki/Toyota_GR_Sport \"Toyota GR Sport\") variant is also available for the first time. It is {{convert\\|5\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} shorter than the standard model, and uses more body adhesive to enhance structural rigidity. The GR Sport model also offers front and rear differential locking, as opposed to only centre locking in the standard 300 Series.{{cite web\\|last\\=Evans\\|first\\=Dean\\|date\\=11 June 2021\\|title\\=GR Sport Toyota Land Cruiser: one from left field, for the road or fields\\|url\\=https://www.driven.co.nz/news/gr\\-sport\\-toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-one\\-from\\-left\\-field\\-for\\-the\\-road\\-or\\-fields/\\|url\\-status\\=live\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2021\\|website\\=Driven\\|location\\=New Zealand\\|archive\\-date\\=12 July 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712040606/https://www.driven.co.nz/news/gr\\-sport\\-toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-one\\-from\\-left\\-field\\-for\\-the\\-road\\-or\\-fields/}}{{cite web\\|title\\=Toyota Land Cruiser LC300 expected to debut in end\\-May 2021\\|url\\=https://www.autocarindia.com/car\\-news/toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-lc300\\-expected\\-to\\-debut\\-in\\-end\\-may\\-2021\\-420835\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2021\\|website\\=Autocar India\\|archive\\-date\\=12 July 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712040607/https://www.autocarindia.com/car\\-news/toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-lc300\\-expected\\-to\\-debut\\-in\\-end\\-may\\-2021\\-420835\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"It went on sale in the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait on 20 June 2021, in Japan on 2 August 2021, in the Philippines on 7 September 2021, in Australia on 5 October 2021, and in Indonesia on 13 January 2022\\.{{Cite press release \\|title\\=Toyota Launches New Land Cruiser \\|url\\=https://global.toyota/en/newsroom/toyota/35758437\\.html \\|website\\=Toyota Motor Corporation Official Global Website \\|date\\=2 August 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=2 August 2021}} The Japanese model is available in four 7\\-seat petrol grades: AX, VX, GR Sport and ZX, one 5\\-seat petrol grade: GX and two 5\\-seat diesel grades: GR Sport and ZX.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://toyota.jp/pages/contents/landcruiser/004\\_p\\_001/4\\.0/pdf/spec/landcruiser\\_spec\\_202108\\.pdf \\|title\\=トヨタ ランドクルーザー 主要諸元表 \\|trans\\-title\\=Toyota Land Cruiser main specifications table \\|publisher\\=Toyota \\|location\\=Japan \\|language\\=ja \\|date\\=August 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=12 September 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 September 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912015742/https://toyota.jp/pages/contents/landcruiser/004\\_p\\_001/4\\.0/pdf/spec/landcruiser\\_spec\\_202108\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news \\|url\\=https://paultan.org/2021/10/05/toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-in\\-australia/ \\|title\\=2022 Toyota Land Cruiser 300 launched in Australia \\- priced from RM274k \\|first\\=Matthew H. \\|last\\=Tong \\|work\\=paultan.org \\|date\\=5 October 2021 \\|access\\-date\\=6 October 2021 \\|location\\=Malaysia \\|archive\\-date\\=6 October 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006034407/https://paultan.org/2021/10/05/toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-in\\-australia/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.gridoto.com/read/223092220/toyota\\-resmi\\-luncurkan\\-dua\\-suv\\-baru\\-new\\-fortuner\\-28\\-dan\\-all\\-new\\-land\\-cruiser\\-segini\\-harganya \\|title\\=Toyota Resmi Luncurkan Dua SUV Baru, New Fortuner 2\\.8 dan All New Land Cruiser, Segini Harganya \\|trans\\-title\\=Toyota Officially Launches Two New SUVs, New Fortuner 2\\.8 and All New Land Cruiser, here's the price \\|first\\=Naufal \\|last\\=Shafly \\|work\\=Gridoto \\|location\\=Indonesia \\|language\\=Indonesian \\|date\\=13 January 2022 \\|access\\-date\\=13 January 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220113040835/https://www.gridoto.com/read/223092220/toyota\\-resmi\\-luncurkan\\-dua\\-suv\\-baru\\-new\\-fortuner\\-28\\-dan\\-all\\-new\\-land\\-cruiser\\-segini\\-harganya \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The Australian model is available in six grades: GX, GXL, VX, Sahara, GR Sport and Sahara ZX.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Crawford\\|first\\=Anthony\\|title\\=2022 Toyota LandCruiser 300 Series review\\|url\\=https://www.carexpert.com.au/car\\-reviews/2022\\-toyota\\-landcruiser\\-300\\-series\\-review\\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2021\\|website\\=CarExpert\\|date\\=14 October 2021\\|location\\=Australia\\|archive\\-date\\=23 October 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023115703/https://www.carexpert.com.au/car\\-reviews/2022\\-toyota\\-landcruiser\\-300\\-series\\-review\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=Flynn\\|first\\=Malcolm\\|title\\=300 Series LandCruiser 2022 review: How does the new Toyota Land Cruiser LC300 compare to the old 200 Series?\\|url\\=https://www.carsguide.com.au/car\\-reviews/toyota\\-landcruiser\\-lc300\\-84848\\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2021\\|website\\=CarsGuide\\|location\\=Australia\\|archive\\-date\\=23 October 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023120136/https://www.carsguide.com.au/car\\-reviews/toyota\\-landcruiser\\-lc300\\-84848\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|last\\=Purcell\\|first\\=Sam\\|title\\=2022 Toyota LandCruiser 300 review\\|url\\=https://www.drive.com.au/reviews/2022\\-toyota\\-landcruiser\\-300\\-review/\\|access\\-date\\=23 October 2021\\|website\\=Drive\\|date\\=14 October 2021\\|location\\=Australia\\|archive\\-date\\=23 October 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023120135/https://www.drive.com.au/reviews/2022\\-toyota\\-landcruiser\\-300\\-review/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} The Indonesian model is available in two grades: VX\\-R and GR\\-S. The Philippine model is available in two grades: VX and ZX. The Middle Eastern model is available in six grades: GX, EX\\-R, GX\\-R, VX, VX\\-R and GR Sport. {{Cite web \\|title\\=تويوتا لاندكروزر 2022 \\- المربع نت \\|url\\=https://www.almuraba.net/japanese\\-cars/toyota/landcruiser/2022\\-landcruiser/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-30 \\|language\\=ar}}{{Cite web \\|date\\=2021\\-07\\-15 \\|title\\=First drive: 2022 Toyota Land Cruiser in the UAE {{!}} DriveArabia \\|url\\=https://www.drivearabia.com/news/2021/07/15/first\\-drive\\-2022\\-toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-in\\-the\\-uae/ \\|access\\-date\\=2024\\-09\\-30 \\|website\\=DriveArabia}}",
"The J300 series Land Cruiser is not sold in the United States and Canada due to slow sales for its J200 series predecessor, as well as limited production capacity; the related Lexus LX remains available.{{Cite web\\|last\\=Campbell\\|first\\=Bryan\\|title\\=The U.S. Won't Get The 2022 Toyota Land Cruiser And That Shouldn't Surprise Anyone\\|url\\=https://www.forbes.com/sites/bryancampbell/2021/06/10/the\\-us\\-wont\\-get\\-the\\-2022\\-toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-and\\-that\\-shouldnt\\-surprise\\-anyone/\\|access\\-date\\=16 June 2021\\|website\\=Forbes\\|location\\=US\\|archive\\-date\\=13 June 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613044327/https://www.forbes.com/sites/bryancampbell/2021/06/10/the\\-us\\-wont\\-get\\-the\\-2022\\-toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-and\\-that\\-shouldnt\\-surprise\\-anyone/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{cite news \\|last\\=Bosch \\|first\\=Charl \\|date\\=26 January 2022 \\|title\\=New Toyota Sequoia debuts as the 'upscale Prado' South Africa cannot have \\|website\\=Citizen.co.za \\|publisher\\=The Citizen \\|location\\=South Africa \\|url\\=https://www.citizen.co.za/motoring/motoring\\-news/2992183/all\\-new\\-toyota\\-sequoia\\-revealed/ \\|access\\-date\\=26 January 2022 \\|archive\\-date\\=26 January 2022 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126073527/https://www.citizen.co.za/motoring/motoring\\-news/2992183/all\\-new\\-toyota\\-sequoia\\-revealed/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In those markets, the J200 series is replaced by the slightly smaller [J250 series](/wiki/Toyota_Land_Cruiser_Prado_%28J250%29 \"Toyota Land Cruiser Prado (J250)\") in 2024\\.{{Cite web \\|date\\=2023\\-08\\-02 \\|title\\=Toyota's New Land Cruiser \"250\" Makes World Premiere \\|url\\=https://global.toyota/en/newsroom/toyota/39526684\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-08\\-02 \\|website\\=Toyota Motor Corporation Official Global Website \\|language\\=en \\|archive\\-date\\=2 August 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802073801/https://global.toyota/en/newsroom/toyota/39526684\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"",
"File:2021 Toyota Land Cruiser 300 3\\.4 ZX (Colombia) rear view 01\\.png\\|2021 Toyota Land Cruiser ZX (VJA300\\)\nFile:Toyota Land Cruiser VX VJA300W.jpg\\|2021 Toyota Land Cruiser VX (VJA300W)\nFile:Toyota Land Cruiser VX VJA300W rear.jpg\\|2021 Toyota Land Cruiser VX (VJA300W)\nFile:Toyota LAND CRUISER GR SPORT (3BA\\-VJA300W\\-GNUSZ) front.jpg\\|2021 Land Cruiser GR Sport\nFile:Toyota LAND CRUISER GR SPORT (3BA\\-VJA300W\\-GNUSZ) rear.jpg\\|2021 Land Cruiser GR Sport (rear view)\nFile:Toyota Land Cruiser VX VJA300W interior.jpg\\|Interior",
"",
"{{clear}}",
""
] |
### {{anchor\|J100}} J100 (1998\)
{{Infobox automobile
\| name \= J100
\| image \= Toyota Land Cruiser \-\- 03\-21\-2012 1\.JPG
\| caption \= Toyota Land Cruiser (J100\) Pre\-facelift
\| aka \= {{unbulleted list
\| \[\[Lexus LX (J100\)\|Lexus LX 470]]
\| Toyota Land Cruiser Amazon (UK)
}}
\| production \= January 1998 – August 2007
\| model\_years \= 1998–2007
\| assembly \= {{unbulleted list
\| Japan: \[\[Toyota City]] (\[\[Araco]])
\| China: \[\[Changchun City]] (\[\[Sichuan FAW Toyota Motor\|SFTM]], 2003–2008\)
}}
\| designer \= Takeo Kondo
\| body\_style \= 5\-door \[\[SUV]]
\| layout \= \[\[Front\-engine, four\-wheel\-drive]]
\| engine \= {{unbulleted list
\|'''Petrol:'''{{unbulleted list
\| 4\.5 L ''\[\[Toyota FZ engine\#1FZ\-FE\|1FZ\-FE]]'' \[\[Straight\-six engine\|I6]]
\| 4\.7 L ''\[\[Toyota UZ engine\#2UZ\-FE\|2UZ\-FE]]'' \[\[V8 engine\|V8]]
}}
\|'''Diesel:'''{{unbulleted list
\| 4\.2 L ''\[\[Toyota HZ engine\#1HZ\|1HZ]]'' I6
\| 4\.2 L ''\[\[Toyota HD engine\#1HD\-T\|1HD\-T]]'' \[\[turbocharger\|turbocharged]] I6
\| 4\.2 L ''\[\[Toyota HD engine\#1HD\-FTE\|1HD\-FTE]]'' turbocharged I6
}}
}}
\| transmission \= {{unbulleted list
\| 4\-speed \[\[automatic transmission\|automatic]]
\| 5\-speed automatic\|5\-speed \[\[manual transmission\|manual]]
}}
\| wheelbase \= {{convert\|2850\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| length \= {{convert\|4890\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| width \= {{convert\|1941\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| height \= {{convert\|1849\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| weight \= {{convert\|2320\|kg\|lb\|0\|abbr\=on}}
}}
In January 1998, the 100 series Land Cruiser was introduced to replace the eight\-year\-old 80 series. The 100 series was previewed in October 1997 as the "Grand Cruiser" at the 32nd Tokyo Motor Show. Development began in 1991 under code name 404T, with the final design being frozen in mid\-1994\.{{cite news \|url\=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\_m3012/is\_n2\_v178/ai\_20301572/ \|work\=Automotive Industries \|title\=New Land Cruiser gets V8{{snd}}Toyota Land Cruiser{{snd}}includes related article on the Lexus LX450 \|year\=1998 \|access\-date\=10 January 2012 \|archive\-date\=30 May 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530055407/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\_m3012/is\_n2\_v178/ai\_20301572/ \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web\|last1\=Johnson\|first1\=Richard\|title\=Sport\-utilities highlight future PLANS\|url\=http://www.europe.autonews.com/article/19940725/ANA/407250701/sport\-utilities\-highlight\-future\-plans\|website\=Automotive News Europe\|publisher\=Crain Communications Inc.\|access\-date\=12 February 2017\|date\=25 July 1994}}{{Dead link\|date\=January 2019 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }}
There are two distinct versions of the 100\-series, the *100* and the *105*. The two versions look very similar, but there are significant differences under the bodywork. Despite these differences and official model names, both the 100 and 105 are collectively known as the *100 series*.
The *105* carried over the majority of its chassis and power train from the 80\-series with coil suspended [solid axles](/wiki/Live_axle "Live axle") front and rear, and straight\-6 petrol and diesel engines. These models were only sold in African, Australian, Russian, and South American markets.
In 1998, a suspension system combining [Active Height Control](/wiki/Active_Height_Control "Active Height Control") (AHC) and [Skyhook](/wiki/Skyhook_theory "Skyhook theory") TEMS [Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension](/wiki/Toyota_Electronic_Modulated_Suspension "Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension") on the Land Cruiser J100 was introduced.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.toyota\-global.com/company/history\_of\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\_business/products\_technology/technology\_development/chassis/index.html \|title\=75 Years of TOYOTA {{!}} Technical Development {{!}} Chassis \|publisher\=Toyota \|year\=2012 \|access\-date\=16 April 2015 \|archive\-date\=25 November 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125144107/https://www.toyota\-global.com/company/history\_of\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\_business/products\_technology/technology\_development/chassis/index.html \|url\-status\=live }}
In 2002, Toyota introduced Night View, the first worldwide series\-production active [automotive night vision](/wiki/Automotive_night_vision "Automotive night vision") system, on the Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus and [Lexus LX](/wiki/Lexus_LX "Lexus LX")470\. This system uses the headlight projectors emitting near infrared light aimed like the car's high\-beam headlights and a [CCD camera](/wiki/CCD_camera "CCD camera") then captures that reflected radiation, this signal is then processed by a computer which produces a black\-and\-white image which is projected on the lower section of the windshield.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.toyota.co.jp/en/safety\_presen/tech/40\.html \|title\=Safety Presentation \|publisher\=Toyota \|location\=Japan \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080325172342/http://www.toyota.co.jp/en/safety\_presen/tech/40\.html \|archive\-date\=25 March 2008 \|year\=2004 \|access\-date\=8 December 2009}} It was also the first Toyota vehicle with [roll\-over sensor and control logic](/wiki/Active_rollover_protection "Active rollover protection").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.toyota\-global.com/company/history\_of\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\_business/products\_technology/technology\_development/electronics\_parts/index.html \|title\=Technical Development Electronics Parts \|publisher\=Toyota Motor Corporation \|year\=2012 \|access\-date\=15 January 2015 \|archive\-date\=25 November 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125140233/https://www.toyota\-global.com/company/history\_of\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\_business/products\_technology/technology\_development/electronics\_parts/index.html \|url\-status\=live }}
The *100* models were fitted with a slightly wider chassis,{{cite web \|url\=https://www.modifind.com/what\-is\-the\-difference\-land\-cruiser\-100\-vs\-105/ \|title\=What is the Difference: Land Cruiser 100 vs. 105 \|publisher\=Modifind Off\-Road \|year\=2020 \|access\-date\=14 May 2020 \|archive\-date\=22 June 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622125306/https://www.modifind.com/what\-is\-the\-difference\-land\-cruiser\-100\-vs\-105/ \|url\-status\=live }} [independent front suspension](/wiki/Independent_suspension "Independent suspension") (IFS) and two new engines. The change to IFS was a first for a Land Cruiser, and was made (in combination with [rack\-and\-pinion steering](/wiki/Rack-and-pinion_steering "Rack-and-pinion steering")) to improve on\-road handling. However, it also limited the vehicle's off\-road capability and durability; hence, the decision to offer the solid\-axle 105 models alongside the IFS 100 models in some markets was made. The table below identifies the range of 100 and 105 models and their worldwide availability.
Despite the 100 and 105 bodies being very similar, there are some exterior visual indications between both models. The most obvious is the front end of the vehicle often appearing lower than the rear on the 100 models, due to the IFS. The other indicator is the design of the wheels: the 100 models have almost flat wheel designs, while the 105 models have dished wheels. This difference allows both versions to retain similar wheel tracks, despite the 100 having a relatively wider axle track to allow for the IFS system.
The introduction of a V8 engine was also a first for a Land Cruiser, and was specifically intended to improve sales in the North\-American market, where it was the only engine available. In Australia, the 100 V8 was initially only available in the range\-topping GXV model, while entry and mid\-range models were the 105 powered by the [1FZ\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_FZ_engine "Toyota FZ engine") I6 petrol, or [1HZ](/wiki/Toyota_HZ_engine "Toyota HZ engine") diesel engines. The new [1HD\-FTE](/wiki/Toyota_HD_engine "Toyota HD engine") turbo\-diesel 100 was added to the Australian range in October 2000 after being available in Europe and the UK since the vehicle's launch in 1998\. The automotive press in Australia were critical of Toyota's decision to offer the acclaimed 1HD\-FTE engine only in combination with IFS. Australian 4WD Monthly magazine stated "We will never forgive Toyota for going independent at the front with the mighty 4\.2 turbo\-diesel".
The 100 series offered a selectable rear axle differential locker available as an option for model years 1998\-1999\.
The 100 series formed the basis for the [Lexus LX 470](/wiki/Lexus_LX_%28J100%29 "Lexus LX (J100)"), which was also sold in Japan as the Toyota Cygnus.
The 100 series was called the Toyota Land Cruiser Amazon in the UK and Ireland from 1998 to 2007\.
In 2000, Toyota celebrated the 50th anniversary of the Land Cruiser with commemorative models offered in several countries. Total global production to date was 3\.72 million vehicles.
The 100 series remained in production until late 2007, with several minor facelifts such as headlights, tail lights, front grille, rear spoiler and specification changes introduced over the years.
| Designation | Engine | Power | Torque | Availability |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| HZJ105 | [1HZ](/wiki/Toyota_HZ_engine "Toyota HZ engine") 4\.2 L diesel I6 | {{convert\|96\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3,800 rpm | {{convert\|271\|N·m\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 2,200 rpm | Africa, Asia, Australia, Middle East, South America |
| FZJ105 | [1FZ\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_FZ_engine "Toyota FZ engine") 4\.5 L petrol I6 | {{convert\|180\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 4,600 rpm | {{convert\|410\|N·m\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3,600 rpm | Africa, Asia, Australia, Middle East, South America |
| FZJ100 | [1FZ\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_FZ_engine "Toyota FZ engine") 4\.5 L petrol I6 | {{convert\|180\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 4,600 rpm | {{convert\|410\|N·m\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3,600 rpm | Middle East, China |
| UZJ100 | [2UZ\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_UZ_engine "Toyota UZ engine") 4\.7 L petrol V8 | {{convert\|170\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 4,800 rpm | {{convert\|410\|N·m\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3,400 rpm | Africa, Asia, Australia, China, Europe, Japan, Middle East, North America, UK |
| HDJ1001 | [1HD\-T](/wiki/Toyota_HD_engine "Toyota HD engine") 4\.2 L turbo\-diesel I6 | {{convert\|123\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3,600 rpm | {{convert\|352\|N·m\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 2,000 rpm | Africa, South America |
| HDJ1002 | [1HD\-FTE](/wiki/Toyota_HD_engine "Toyota HD engine") 4\.2 L turbo\-diesel I6 | {{convert\|150\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 3,400 rpm | {{convert\|430\|N·m\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} at 1,400 rpm | Australia\*, Europe, Japan, Middle East, New Zealand, UK |
*\*This engine was not introduced in Australia until 2000\.*
The 100\-series is generally considered a durable and reliable vehicle, however there have been three known issues identified, generally for vehicles operating in harsh conditions:
* The IFS 100\-series gained a reputation for front suspension failures in operating conditions where the front suspension was prone to hitting the bump stops. Several companies produce strengthened lower wishbones to prevent cracks from developing.{{cite web\|last\=Pepper \|first\=Robert \|title\=LC100 Suspension Solutions \|publisher\=Overlander 4WD Magazine \|date\=July 2006 \|url\=http://www.overlander.com.au/equipment/index/full/68/LC100\-Suspension\-Solutions \|access\-date\=18 July 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706110818/http://www.overlander.com.au/equipment/index/full/68/LC100\-Suspension\-Solutions \|archive\-date\=6 July 2011}}
* Both the IFS 100 and live\-axle 105 models have been reported to be suffering from broken front differential centres when driven in harsh conditions.{{Citation \|title\=2005 4×4 of the Year \|newspaper\=Australian 4WD Monthly \|pages\=63–67 \|date\=October 2005}} The most common front differential failures in IFS models are reported in vehicles produced between mid\-1997 and mid\-1999 (i.e., the model years 1998 and 1999\), when Toyota fitted the 100 Series IFS with a 2\-pinion front differential (the pinion gear would flex away from the ring gear under shock loads). In 1999 (model year 2000\) the IFS Landcruiser received a 4\-pinion front differential that was more robust{{Snd}}fewer failures were reported.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.landcruiserworkshopmanual.com.au/Item/toyota\-land\-cruiser\-78\-79\-100\-105\-series\-workshop\-manual\|title\=Toyota Land Cruiser Petrol Diesel 1998\-2007 Haynes Service Repair Workshop Manual \- Landcruiser Workshop Repair Manual\|website\=\[\[Haynes Manual]]\|access\-date\=4 December 2017\|archive\-date\=4 December 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171204222947/https://www.landcruiserworkshopmanual.com.au/Item/toyota\-land\-cruiser\-78\-79\-100\-105\-series\-workshop\-manual\|url\-status\=live}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://au.haynes.com/products/productID/203\|title\=Toyota Land Cruiser 1998 \- 2007\|website\=\[\[Haynes Manual]]\|access\-date\=4 December 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205042103/https://au.haynes.com/products/productID/203\|archive\-date\=5 December 2017\|url\-status\=dead}}
**Gallery**
{{gallery \| width \= 200 \| height \= 150
\| File:1998\-2002 Toyota Land Cruiser (FZJ105R) GXL wagon (2011\-11\-18\) 01\.jpg\|Pre\-facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GXL (FZJ105\)
\| File:1998\-2002 Toyota Land Cruiser (FZJ105R) GXL wagon (2011\-11\-18\) 02\.jpg\|Pre\-facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GXL (FZJ105\)
\| File:Toyota Land Cruiser (eighth generation) (100\) (rear), Serdang.jpg\|Toyota Land Cruiser (with spare wheel on the rear)
\| File:2004 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ100R) GXL wagon (2015\-05\-29\) 01\.jpg\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GXL (UZJ100\)
\| File:2002\-2005 Toyota Land Cruiser (HDJ100R) GXL 02\.jpg\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GXL (HDJ100\)
\| File:Toyota Land Cruiser HZJ105 1998\-2004 backleft 2008\-06\-04 U.jpg\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser (HZJ105; with outback doors)
\| File:2005 Toyota Land Cruiser\-100 01\.jpg\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser VX Limited (UZJ100\)
\| File:2006 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ100R) VX wagon (2010\-07\-05\) 02\.jpg\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser VX (UZJ100\)
\| File:Toyota Land Cruiser (eighth generation) (100 Cygnus) (front), Serdang.jpg\|1998–2002 Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus
\| File:Toyota Land Cruiser (eighth generation) (100 Cygnus) (rear), Serdang.jpg\|1998–2002 Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus
\| File:2005 Toyota Land Cruiser\-cygnus 02\.jpg\|2005–2007 Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus (Japan)
\| File:2005 Toyota Land Cruiser\-cygnus 03\.jpg\|2005–2007 Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus (Japan)
}}
{{Clear}}
|
[
"### {{anchor\\|J100}} J100 (1998\\)",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= J100\n\\| image \\= Toyota Land Cruiser \\-\\- 03\\-21\\-2012 1\\.JPG\n\\| caption \\= Toyota Land Cruiser (J100\\) Pre\\-facelift\n\\| aka \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| \\[\\[Lexus LX (J100\\)\\|Lexus LX 470]]\n \\| Toyota Land Cruiser Amazon (UK)\n }}\n\\| production \\= January 1998 – August 2007\n\\| model\\_years \\= 1998–2007\n\\| assembly \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| Japan: \\[\\[Toyota City]] (\\[\\[Araco]])\n \\| China: \\[\\[Changchun City]] (\\[\\[Sichuan FAW Toyota Motor\\|SFTM]], 2003–2008\\)\n }}\n\\| designer \\= Takeo Kondo\n\\| body\\_style \\= 5\\-door \\[\\[SUV]]\n\\| layout \\= \\[\\[Front\\-engine, four\\-wheel\\-drive]]\n\\| engine \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\|'''Petrol:'''{{unbulleted list\n \\| 4\\.5 L ''\\[\\[Toyota FZ engine\\#1FZ\\-FE\\|1FZ\\-FE]]'' \\[\\[Straight\\-six engine\\|I6]]\n \\| 4\\.7 L ''\\[\\[Toyota UZ engine\\#2UZ\\-FE\\|2UZ\\-FE]]'' \\[\\[V8 engine\\|V8]]\n }}\n \\|'''Diesel:'''{{unbulleted list\n \\| 4\\.2 L ''\\[\\[Toyota HZ engine\\#1HZ\\|1HZ]]'' I6\n \\| 4\\.2 L ''\\[\\[Toyota HD engine\\#1HD\\-T\\|1HD\\-T]]'' \\[\\[turbocharger\\|turbocharged]] I6\n \\| 4\\.2 L ''\\[\\[Toyota HD engine\\#1HD\\-FTE\\|1HD\\-FTE]]'' turbocharged I6\n }}\n }}\n\\| transmission \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| 4\\-speed \\[\\[automatic transmission\\|automatic]]\n \\| 5\\-speed automatic\\|5\\-speed \\[\\[manual transmission\\|manual]]\n }}\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{convert\\|2850\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| length \\= {{convert\\|4890\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| width \\= {{convert\\|1941\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| height \\= {{convert\\|1849\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| weight \\= {{convert\\|2320\\|kg\\|lb\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n}}",
"In January 1998, the 100 series Land Cruiser was introduced to replace the eight\\-year\\-old 80 series. The 100 series was previewed in October 1997 as the \"Grand Cruiser\" at the 32nd Tokyo Motor Show. Development began in 1991 under code name 404T, with the final design being frozen in mid\\-1994\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\\_m3012/is\\_n2\\_v178/ai\\_20301572/ \\|work\\=Automotive Industries \\|title\\=New Land Cruiser gets V8{{snd}}Toyota Land Cruiser{{snd}}includes related article on the Lexus LX450 \\|year\\=1998 \\|access\\-date\\=10 January 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=30 May 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530055407/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi\\_m3012/is\\_n2\\_v178/ai\\_20301572/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web\\|last1\\=Johnson\\|first1\\=Richard\\|title\\=Sport\\-utilities highlight future PLANS\\|url\\=http://www.europe.autonews.com/article/19940725/ANA/407250701/sport\\-utilities\\-highlight\\-future\\-plans\\|website\\=Automotive News Europe\\|publisher\\=Crain Communications Inc.\\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2017\\|date\\=25 July 1994}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=January 2019 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }}",
"There are two distinct versions of the 100\\-series, the *100* and the *105*. The two versions look very similar, but there are significant differences under the bodywork. Despite these differences and official model names, both the 100 and 105 are collectively known as the *100 series*.",
"The *105* carried over the majority of its chassis and power train from the 80\\-series with coil suspended [solid axles](/wiki/Live_axle \"Live axle\") front and rear, and straight\\-6 petrol and diesel engines. These models were only sold in African, Australian, Russian, and South American markets.",
"In 1998, a suspension system combining [Active Height Control](/wiki/Active_Height_Control \"Active Height Control\") (AHC) and [Skyhook](/wiki/Skyhook_theory \"Skyhook theory\") TEMS [Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension](/wiki/Toyota_Electronic_Modulated_Suspension \"Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension\") on the Land Cruiser J100 was introduced.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.toyota\\-global.com/company/history\\_of\\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\\_business/products\\_technology/technology\\_development/chassis/index.html \\|title\\=75 Years of TOYOTA {{!}} Technical Development {{!}} Chassis \\|publisher\\=Toyota \\|year\\=2012 \\|access\\-date\\=16 April 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 November 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125144107/https://www.toyota\\-global.com/company/history\\_of\\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\\_business/products\\_technology/technology\\_development/chassis/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In 2002, Toyota introduced Night View, the first worldwide series\\-production active [automotive night vision](/wiki/Automotive_night_vision \"Automotive night vision\") system, on the Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus and [Lexus LX](/wiki/Lexus_LX \"Lexus LX\")470\\. This system uses the headlight projectors emitting near infrared light aimed like the car's high\\-beam headlights and a [CCD camera](/wiki/CCD_camera \"CCD camera\") then captures that reflected radiation, this signal is then processed by a computer which produces a black\\-and\\-white image which is projected on the lower section of the windshield.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.toyota.co.jp/en/safety\\_presen/tech/40\\.html \\|title\\=Safety Presentation \\|publisher\\=Toyota \\|location\\=Japan \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080325172342/http://www.toyota.co.jp/en/safety\\_presen/tech/40\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=25 March 2008 \\|year\\=2004 \\|access\\-date\\=8 December 2009}} It was also the first Toyota vehicle with [roll\\-over sensor and control logic](/wiki/Active_rollover_protection \"Active rollover protection\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.toyota\\-global.com/company/history\\_of\\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\\_business/products\\_technology/technology\\_development/electronics\\_parts/index.html \\|title\\=Technical Development Electronics Parts \\|publisher\\=Toyota Motor Corporation \\|year\\=2012 \\|access\\-date\\=15 January 2015 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 November 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125140233/https://www.toyota\\-global.com/company/history\\_of\\_toyota/75years/data/automotive\\_business/products\\_technology/technology\\_development/electronics\\_parts/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"The *100* models were fitted with a slightly wider chassis,{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.modifind.com/what\\-is\\-the\\-difference\\-land\\-cruiser\\-100\\-vs\\-105/ \\|title\\=What is the Difference: Land Cruiser 100 vs. 105 \\|publisher\\=Modifind Off\\-Road \\|year\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=14 May 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 June 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622125306/https://www.modifind.com/what\\-is\\-the\\-difference\\-land\\-cruiser\\-100\\-vs\\-105/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} [independent front suspension](/wiki/Independent_suspension \"Independent suspension\") (IFS) and two new engines. The change to IFS was a first for a Land Cruiser, and was made (in combination with [rack\\-and\\-pinion steering](/wiki/Rack-and-pinion_steering \"Rack-and-pinion steering\")) to improve on\\-road handling. However, it also limited the vehicle's off\\-road capability and durability; hence, the decision to offer the solid\\-axle 105 models alongside the IFS 100 models in some markets was made. The table below identifies the range of 100 and 105 models and their worldwide availability.",
"Despite the 100 and 105 bodies being very similar, there are some exterior visual indications between both models. The most obvious is the front end of the vehicle often appearing lower than the rear on the 100 models, due to the IFS. The other indicator is the design of the wheels: the 100 models have almost flat wheel designs, while the 105 models have dished wheels. This difference allows both versions to retain similar wheel tracks, despite the 100 having a relatively wider axle track to allow for the IFS system.",
"The introduction of a V8 engine was also a first for a Land Cruiser, and was specifically intended to improve sales in the North\\-American market, where it was the only engine available. In Australia, the 100 V8 was initially only available in the range\\-topping GXV model, while entry and mid\\-range models were the 105 powered by the [1FZ\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_FZ_engine \"Toyota FZ engine\") I6 petrol, or [1HZ](/wiki/Toyota_HZ_engine \"Toyota HZ engine\") diesel engines. The new [1HD\\-FTE](/wiki/Toyota_HD_engine \"Toyota HD engine\") turbo\\-diesel 100 was added to the Australian range in October 2000 after being available in Europe and the UK since the vehicle's launch in 1998\\. The automotive press in Australia were critical of Toyota's decision to offer the acclaimed 1HD\\-FTE engine only in combination with IFS. Australian 4WD Monthly magazine stated \"We will never forgive Toyota for going independent at the front with the mighty 4\\.2 turbo\\-diesel\".",
"The 100 series offered a selectable rear axle differential locker available as an option for model years 1998\\-1999\\.",
"The 100 series formed the basis for the [Lexus LX 470](/wiki/Lexus_LX_%28J100%29 \"Lexus LX (J100)\"), which was also sold in Japan as the Toyota Cygnus.",
"The 100 series was called the Toyota Land Cruiser Amazon in the UK and Ireland from 1998 to 2007\\.",
"In 2000, Toyota celebrated the 50th anniversary of the Land Cruiser with commemorative models offered in several countries. Total global production to date was 3\\.72 million vehicles.",
"The 100 series remained in production until late 2007, with several minor facelifts such as headlights, tail lights, front grille, rear spoiler and specification changes introduced over the years.",
"",
"| Designation | Engine | Power | Torque | Availability |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| HZJ105 | [1HZ](/wiki/Toyota_HZ_engine \"Toyota HZ engine\") 4\\.2 L diesel I6 | {{convert\\|96\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3,800 rpm | {{convert\\|271\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 2,200 rpm | Africa, Asia, Australia, Middle East, South America |\n| FZJ105 | [1FZ\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_FZ_engine \"Toyota FZ engine\") 4\\.5 L petrol I6 | {{convert\\|180\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 4,600 rpm | {{convert\\|410\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3,600 rpm | Africa, Asia, Australia, Middle East, South America |\n| FZJ100 | [1FZ\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_FZ_engine \"Toyota FZ engine\") 4\\.5 L petrol I6 | {{convert\\|180\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 4,600 rpm | {{convert\\|410\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3,600 rpm | Middle East, China |\n| UZJ100 | [2UZ\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_UZ_engine \"Toyota UZ engine\") 4\\.7 L petrol V8 | {{convert\\|170\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 4,800 rpm | {{convert\\|410\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3,400 rpm | Africa, Asia, Australia, China, Europe, Japan, Middle East, North America, UK |\n| HDJ1001 | [1HD\\-T](/wiki/Toyota_HD_engine \"Toyota HD engine\") 4\\.2 L turbo\\-diesel I6 | {{convert\\|123\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3,600 rpm | {{convert\\|352\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 2,000 rpm | Africa, South America |\n| HDJ1002 | [1HD\\-FTE](/wiki/Toyota_HD_engine \"Toyota HD engine\") 4\\.2 L turbo\\-diesel I6 | {{convert\\|150\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 3,400 rpm | {{convert\\|430\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} at 1,400 rpm | Australia\\*, Europe, Japan, Middle East, New Zealand, UK |",
"*\\*This engine was not introduced in Australia until 2000\\.*",
"The 100\\-series is generally considered a durable and reliable vehicle, however there have been three known issues identified, generally for vehicles operating in harsh conditions:\n* The IFS 100\\-series gained a reputation for front suspension failures in operating conditions where the front suspension was prone to hitting the bump stops. Several companies produce strengthened lower wishbones to prevent cracks from developing.{{cite web\\|last\\=Pepper \\|first\\=Robert \\|title\\=LC100 Suspension Solutions \\|publisher\\=Overlander 4WD Magazine \\|date\\=July 2006 \\|url\\=http://www.overlander.com.au/equipment/index/full/68/LC100\\-Suspension\\-Solutions \\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706110818/http://www.overlander.com.au/equipment/index/full/68/LC100\\-Suspension\\-Solutions \\|archive\\-date\\=6 July 2011}}\n* Both the IFS 100 and live\\-axle 105 models have been reported to be suffering from broken front differential centres when driven in harsh conditions.{{Citation \\|title\\=2005 4×4 of the Year \\|newspaper\\=Australian 4WD Monthly \\|pages\\=63–67 \\|date\\=October 2005}} The most common front differential failures in IFS models are reported in vehicles produced between mid\\-1997 and mid\\-1999 (i.e., the model years 1998 and 1999\\), when Toyota fitted the 100 Series IFS with a 2\\-pinion front differential (the pinion gear would flex away from the ring gear under shock loads). In 1999 (model year 2000\\) the IFS Landcruiser received a 4\\-pinion front differential that was more robust{{Snd}}fewer failures were reported.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.landcruiserworkshopmanual.com.au/Item/toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-78\\-79\\-100\\-105\\-series\\-workshop\\-manual\\|title\\=Toyota Land Cruiser Petrol Diesel 1998\\-2007 Haynes Service Repair Workshop Manual \\- Landcruiser Workshop Repair Manual\\|website\\=\\[\\[Haynes Manual]]\\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2017\\|archive\\-date\\=4 December 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171204222947/https://www.landcruiserworkshopmanual.com.au/Item/toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-78\\-79\\-100\\-105\\-series\\-workshop\\-manual\\|url\\-status\\=live}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://au.haynes.com/products/productID/203\\|title\\=Toyota Land Cruiser 1998 \\- 2007\\|website\\=\\[\\[Haynes Manual]]\\|access\\-date\\=4 December 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205042103/https://au.haynes.com/products/productID/203\\|archive\\-date\\=5 December 2017\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"**Gallery**\n{{gallery \\| width \\= 200 \\| height \\= 150\n\\| File:1998\\-2002 Toyota Land Cruiser (FZJ105R) GXL wagon (2011\\-11\\-18\\) 01\\.jpg\\|Pre\\-facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GXL (FZJ105\\)\n\\| File:1998\\-2002 Toyota Land Cruiser (FZJ105R) GXL wagon (2011\\-11\\-18\\) 02\\.jpg\\|Pre\\-facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GXL (FZJ105\\)\n\\| File:Toyota Land Cruiser (eighth generation) (100\\) (rear), Serdang.jpg\\|Toyota Land Cruiser (with spare wheel on the rear)\n\\| File:2004 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ100R) GXL wagon (2015\\-05\\-29\\) 01\\.jpg\\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GXL (UZJ100\\)\n\\| File:2002\\-2005 Toyota Land Cruiser (HDJ100R) GXL 02\\.jpg\\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GXL (HDJ100\\)\n\\| File:Toyota Land Cruiser HZJ105 1998\\-2004 backleft 2008\\-06\\-04 U.jpg\\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser (HZJ105; with outback doors)\n\\| File:2005 Toyota Land Cruiser\\-100 01\\.jpg\\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser VX Limited (UZJ100\\)\n\\| File:2006 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ100R) VX wagon (2010\\-07\\-05\\) 02\\.jpg\\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser VX (UZJ100\\)\n\\| File:Toyota Land Cruiser (eighth generation) (100 Cygnus) (front), Serdang.jpg\\|1998–2002 Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus\n\\| File:Toyota Land Cruiser (eighth generation) (100 Cygnus) (rear), Serdang.jpg\\|1998–2002 Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus\n\\| File:2005 Toyota Land Cruiser\\-cygnus 02\\.jpg\\|2005–2007 Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus (Japan)\n\\| File:2005 Toyota Land Cruiser\\-cygnus 03\\.jpg\\|2005–2007 Toyota Land Cruiser Cygnus (Japan)\n}}",
"{{Clear}}",
""
] |
### {{anchor\|J200}} J200 (2007\)
{{Infobox automobile
\| name \= J200
\| image \= 2011 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ200R) Sahara wagon (2011\-11\-18\) 01\.jpg
\| caption \= 2011 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ200; pre\-facelift)
\| aka \= {{unbulleted list
\| \[\[Lexus LX (J200\)]]
\| Toyota Roraima (Venezuela)
\| Toyota Land Cruiser V8 (Europe)
}}
\| production \= September 2007 – March 2021{{cite news \|url\=https://www.caradvice.com.au/903108/toyota\-landcruiser\-200\-series\-v8\-to\-end\-production\-march\-2021/ \|title\=Toyota LandCruiser 200 Series V8 diesel to end production March 2021 \|first\=Joshua \|last\=Dowling \|work\=CarAdvice \|location\=Australia \|date\=23 November 2020 \|access\-date\=23 March 2021 \|archive\-date\=10 April 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410151450/https://www.caradvice.com.au/903108/toyota\-landcruiser\-200\-series\-v8\-to\-end\-production\-march\-2021/ \|url\-status\=live }}
\| model\_years \= 2008–2021 (US)
\| assembly \= {{unbulleted list
\| Japan: \[\[Toyota, Aichi]] (\[\[Yoshiwara plant]]); \[\[Tahara, Aichi]] (\[\[Tahara plant]]){{cite web \|url\=http://newsroom.toyota.co.jp/en/corporate/companyinformation/manufacturing \|title\=Japanese Production Sites \|publisher\=Toyota \|date\=6 March 2015 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318032552/http://newsroom.toyota.co.jp/en/corporate/companyinformation/manufacturing \|archive\-date\=18 March 2015}}
\| China: \[\[Changchun]] (\[\[Sichuan FAW Toyota Motor\|SFTM]]; 2008–2016\)
}}
\| designer \= {{unbulleted list
\| Takumi Nakamura, Takayasu Furukawa, Hideo Karikomi, Jinichi Sato and Kengo Iwanaga{{Cite patent\|country\=US\|number\=D576919S\|title\=Automobile and/or toy replica thereof\|pubdate\=2008\-09\-16\|inventor1\-last\=Ito\|inventor1\-first\=Takanori\|inventor2\-last\=Toyooka\|inventor2\-first\=Kuniaki\|inventor3\-last\=Nakashima\|inventor3\-first\=Katsumi\|inventor4\=Kazumi Kowaki;Minoru Ogawa;Takeo Sowa;Shigetoshi Kozai\|assign1\=\[\[Toyota\|Toyota Motor Co. Ltd.]]}}
\| Tetsu Endō (2012 facelift){{Citation needed\|date\=February 2022}}
\| Keisuke Matsuno and Kouji Katsuno (2015 facelift){{Cite patent\|country\=US\|number\=D761704\|title\=Motor vehicle\|pubdate\=2016\-07\-19\|inventor1\-last\=Matsuno\|inventor1\-first\=Keisuke\|inventor2\-last\=Katsuno\|inventor2\-first\=Kouji\|assign1\=\[\[Toyota\|Toyota Motor Co. Ltd.]]}}
}}
\| body\_style \= 5\-door \[\[SUV]]
\| platform \= Toyota F1{{cite web \| url\=https://xtech.nikkei.com/dm/article/HONSHI/20071130/143401/ \| title\=トヨタ自動車「ランドクルーザー」 \| date\=30 November 2007 }}
\| layout \= \[\[Front\-engine, four\-wheel\-drive]]
\| related \= {{unbulleted list
\| \[\[Toyota Tundra (XK50\)]]
\| \[\[Lexus LX (J200\)]]
\| \[\[Toyota Sequoia (XK60\)]]
}}
\| engine \= {{unbulleted list
\|'''Petrol:'''{{Ubl
\| 4\.0 L ''\[\[Toyota GR engine\#1GR\-FE\|1GR\-FE]]'' \[\[V6 engine\|V6]]
\| 4\.6 L ''\[\[Toyota UR engine\#1UR\-FE\|1UR\-FE]]'' \[\[V8 engine\|V8]]{{cite web\|url\=http://toyota.jp/landcruiser/dynamism/engin/index.html \|title\=Toyota Japan Land Cruiser \|publisher\=Toyota.jp \|access\-date\=30 October 2010 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705230523/http://toyota.jp/landcruiser/dynamism/engin/index.html \|archive\-date\=5 July 2011 }}
\| 4\.7 L ''\[\[Toyota UZ engine\#2UZ\-FE\|2UZ\-FE]]'' V8{{cite web \|url\=http://www.goo\-net.com/catalog/TOYOTA/LAND\_CRUISER/10043240/index.html \|title\=Goonet 2007 Land Cruiser \|publisher\=Goo\-net.com \|access\-date\=30 October 2010 \|archive\-date\=12 August 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100812074618/http://www.goo\-net.com/catalog/TOYOTA/LAND\_CRUISER/10043240/index.html \|url\-status\=live }}
\| 5\.7 L ''\[\[Toyota UR engine\#3UR\-FE\|3UR\-FE]]'' V8{{cite web \|url\=http://pressroom.toyota.com/pr/tms/toyota/document/2008LandCruiser\_sfo.pdf \|title\=Exterior Dimensions \|access\-date\=30 October 2010 \|archive\-date\=24 January 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124194152/http://pressroom.toyota.com/pr/tms/toyota/document/2008LandCruiser\_sfo.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }}
}}
\|'''Diesel:'''{{Ubl
\| 4\.5 L ''\[\[Toyota VD engine\#1VD\-FTV\|1VD\-FTV]]'' \[\[turbocharger\|turbocharged]] V8
}}
}}
\| powerout \= {{unbulleted list
\| {{convert\|170\|–\|202\|kW\|hp PS\|abbr\=on\|0}} (''1GR\-FE'')
\| {{convert\|227\|–\|234\|kW\|hp PS\|abbr\=on\|0}} (''1UR\-FE'')
\| {{convert\|202\|–\|212\|kW\|hp PS\|abbr\=on\|0}} (''2UZ\-FE'')
\| {{convert\|270\|–\|284\|kW\|hp PS\|abbr\=on\|0}} (''3UR\-FE'')
\| {{convert\|136\|–\|213\|kW\|hp PS\|abbr\=on\|0}} (''1VD\-FTV'')
}}
\| transmission \= {{unbulleted list
\| 5\-speed \[\[Manual transmission\|manual]] (1GR\-FE)
\| 5\-speed \[\[Automatic transmission\|automatic]] (1GR\-FE,2UZ\-FE)
\| 6\-speed automatic (1UR\-FE,1VD\-FTV)
\| 8\-speed automatic (3UR\-FE)
}}
\| wheelbase \= {{convert\|2850\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| length \= {{convert\|4990\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| width \= {{convert\|1980\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}}
\| height \= {{convert\|1945–1970\|mm\|in\|1\|abbr\=on}} (adjustable)
\| weight \= {{Convert\|2405\-2740\|kg\|lb\|0\|abbr\=on}}
\| successor \= \[\[Toyota Land Cruiser (J250\)]] (UK and North America)
}}
In 2002, a five\-year development plan on a successor to the 100\-series platform commenced under Sadayoshi Koyari and Tetsuya Tada. By 2004, ten years after the design selection of its predecessor in 1994, a final production design was settled on for the 2008 J200\. Prototype related tests were conducted for over two years between 2004 and early 2007\. The redesigned Toyota Land Cruiser was introduced in late 2007\. Known as the 200 Series, it shares the [Lexus LX 570](/wiki/Lexus_LX_%28J200%29 "Lexus LX (J200)")'s platform and overall design. The frame was new, derived from the second\-generation [Tundra](/wiki/Toyota_Tundra "Toyota Tundra"){{Citation needed\|date\=February 2011}} but shortened and strengthened by 20 percent. Bigger brake rotors and calipers were added and the front suspension was strengthened. The underbelly is also protected by skid plates. The roof pillars were redesigned to better protect occupants in a rollover.
The 200 Series encountered some criticism due to its bland body restyling, with some{{who\|date\=November 2011}} claiming that Toyota has 'overdeveloped' the classic trademarked Land Cruiser identity in its efforts to fit the Land Cruiser into modern 21st century motoring and vehicle design.
The vehicle entered production in September 2007 and was available for sale from September or November, depending on country. It became available in Venezuela for sale in early November of the same year under the local nickname of "Roraima" (taken from [Mount Roraima](/wiki/Mount_Roraima "Mount Roraima")).
The 200 Series, offered numerous features and upgrades over its predecessor not limited to the cosmetic changes made to the body and interior, including:
* Smart Entry{{Snd}}A sensor is triggered when the remote is brought near the vehicle, allowing the user to simply touch the door handle to open it.
* Smart Start{{Snd}}Start/Stop push button for ignition; a key is not required.
* 4\-zone climate control on Sahara models, with outlet vents increased from 18 to 28
* 10 [airbags](/wiki/Airbag "Airbag") (VX \& Sahara)
* A stronger and lighter frame
Various driver assist technologies not offered on previous models are included as standard, including:
* CRAWL, a [four\-wheel drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive "Four-wheel drive") control system that operates like an off\-road [cruise control](/wiki/Cruise_control "Cruise control"), automatically maintaining a low uniform vehicle speed using brakes and throttle
* Downhill Assist Control
* Multi\-terrain anti\-lock braking system (ABS)
* [Kinetic Dynamic Suspension System](/wiki/Kinetic_Dynamic_Suspension_System "Kinetic Dynamic Suspension System") (KDSS), allows for greater wheel articulation
* An optional rear\-view camera (VX)
* Leather seats are available in full option (VX)
Engine and transmission improvements include:
* An all new optional V8 diesel engine, the [Toyota VD engine](/wiki/Toyota_VD_engine "Toyota VD engine") (a [twin\-turbocharged](/wiki/Twin_turbo "Twin turbo") version of the engine used in the 70 Series since 2007\).
* Automatic transmission included as standard across all levels of trim of the 200 Series, a five\-speed manual transmission is offered only with the 4\.0 L GX models (in selected regions). A five\-speed automatic gearbox is assigned to the 4\.7 L petrol models, while the 4\.5 L diesel models receive a six\-speed automatic.
In Japan, the Land Cruiser had an update in 2009 when it received the 4\.6 L V8 1UR\-FE engine and the gearbox was replaced with a 6\-speed automatic.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.toyota.co.jp/jp/news/09/Apr/nt09\_026\.html \|title\=Toyota Japan 2009 Land Cruiser press release \|publisher\=Toyota.co.jp \|date\=16 April 2009 \|access\-date\=30 October 2010 \|archive\-date\=13 August 2010 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100813202052/http://www.toyota.co.jp/jp/news/09/Apr/nt09\_026\.html \|url\-status\=live }} Although the new 4608 cc 1UR\-FE is smaller than the old 4663 cc 2UZ\-FE engine, the power has been increased from {{convert\|212\|to\|234\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}}, torque increased from {{convert\|448\|to\|460\|N·m\|lb·ft\|0\|abbr\=on}} and fuel consumption improved from {{convert\|6\.6\|to\|7\.1\|km/L\|0\|abbr\=on}} (Japan 10·15 mode measurement).
In the Middle East, the Land Cruiser 200 series was introduced in late 2007 as a 2008 model, for 2008 to 2010 there was three engine choices:
* {{convert\|179\|kW\|PS hp\|abbr\=on\|0}} 4\.0 L 1GR\-FE petrol engine
* {{convert\|202\|kW\|PS hp\|abbr\=on\|0}} 2UZ\-FE petrol engine
* {{convert\|162\-173\|kW\|PS hp\|abbr\=on\|0}} 1VD\-FTV 4\.5 L turbo diesel engine{{cite web \|title\=Toyota Land Cruiser 2008\-2009 UAE KSA Qatar GCC \|url\=http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\-Land\-Cruiser/2008\-2009\-/392 \|publisher\=DriveArabia.com \|access\-date\=18 July 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727063644/http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\-Land\-Cruiser/2008\-2009\-/392 \|archive\-date\=27 July 2014 }}
In Europe and Asia, the Euro4 diesel (2007\-2010\) model had {{cvt\|286\|hp\|kW\|0\|order\=flip}}.
Starting in 2011, the {{convert\|270\|kW\|PS hp\|abbr\=on\|0}} 3UR\-FE engine was offered along with the previous engines.{{cite web \|title\=Toyota Land Cruiser 2010\-2011 UAE KSA Qatar GCC \|url\=http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\-Land\-Cruiser/2010\-2011\-/594 \|publisher\=DriveArabia.com \|access\-date\=18 July 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727063735/http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\-Land\-Cruiser/2010\-2011\-/594 \|archive\-date\=27 July 2014 }} For 2012, the 1GR\-FE gained dual VVT\-i and power was increased to {{convert\|202\|kW\|PS hp\|abbr\=on\|0}}, the 4\.7 L 2UZ\-FE was dropped in favour of the new {{convert\|227\|kW\|PS hp\|abbr\=on\|0}} 4\.6 L 1UR\-FE, and the 5\.7 L and 4\.5 L diesel were unchanged, although the latter was dropped in some markets.{{cite web \|title\=Toyota Land Cruiser 2012\-2013 UAE KSA Qatar GCC \|url\=http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\-Land\-Cruiser/2012\-2013\-/685 \|publisher\=DriveArabia.com \|access\-date\=18 July 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727075024/http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\-Land\-Cruiser/2012\-2013\-/685 \|archive\-date\=27 July 2014 }}
In North America, the Land Cruiser 200 series is offered with one trim level and engine, the 5\.7 L 3UR\-FE V8 petrol engine producing {{convert\|284\|kW\|PS hp\|0\|abbr\=on}} and {{convert\|401\|lb·ft\|N·m\|0\|abbr\=on\|order\=flip}} of torque channeled through a six\-speed automatic. Towing is rated at {{convert\|8200\|lb\|abbr\=on\|sigfig\=2\|order\=flip}}. Beige or black leather upholstery is standard along with a 14 speaker JBL sound system. The only wheel choice is {{convert\|18\|in\|abbr\=on}} allowing a lot of sidewall so the vehicle can be driven off\-road without modification though a more aggressive tread pattern is advised for deep mud.
For the 2013 model year, Toyota added all previously optional safety and luxury options as standard. The Land Cruiser now gets push\-button start, HID headlights with beam level adjustment, a power moonroof, automatic rain sensing windshield wipers, heated and ventilated (perforated leather) front and only heated rear seats, a rear\-seat DVD entertainment system, Bluetooth, rear\-view camera with parking sensors, navigation system, HD radio and Entune. Another new feature is the Multi\-terrain Select system which helps control wheelspin and brake lockup giving the selectable choices of: Rock, Rock \& Dirt, Mogul, Loose Rock, and Mud \& Sand and with an addition to the Multi\-terrain Select system a feature known as adaptive Anti\-lock Braking system which adapts to the condition of the road like mud or sand and efficiently uses the ABS to reduce braking distance on any type of terrain.{{cite web \|url\=http://blog.durbansouthtoyota.co.za/the\-beast\-land\-cruiser\-200\-just\-got\-better/ \|title\=The Beast, Land Cruiser 200 Just Got Better! \|date\=19 August 2015 \|website\=Durban South Toyota Blog \|access\-date\=19 June 2016 \|archive\-date\=7 August 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807194813/http://blog.durbansouthtoyota.co.za/the\-beast\-land\-cruiser\-200\-just\-got\-better/ \|url\-status\=live }}
In [Oceania](/wiki/Oceania "Oceania"), the 200 Series is offered in four different levels of trim: GX, GXL, VX and Sahara.
In August 2015, Toyota launched an updated, face\-lifted version of the J200 Land Cruiser in Japan, which was later sold globally. This version first appeared in the United States in 2015 for the 2016 model year. The new version has several mechanical changes, including a new 8\-speed electronically controlled automatic transmission (ECT\-i) mated to the original 5\.7 L 3UR\-FE V8 petrol engine, larger front disc brakes, and a higher axle ratio (3\.30:1 vs 3\.90:1 in the previous years). Updates to the front fascia, grill, bonnet, headlamps (with [daylight running lamps](/wiki/Daylight_running_lamp "Daylight running lamp")), rear tail lamps and bumpers were the main exterior highlights of the facelift. Interior changes included a new multimedia system and interface with larger screens front and back, as well as refreshed interior styling.
In China, the Land Cruiser 200 was produced from 2008 to 2016 by [Sichuan FAW Toyota Motor](/wiki/Sichuan_FAW_Toyota_Motor "Sichuan FAW Toyota Motor"). The 4\.0 L *[1GR\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_GR_engine%231GR-FE "Toyota GR engine#1GR-FE")* V6 and 4\.7 L *[2UZ\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_UZ_engine%232UZ-FE "Toyota UZ engine#2UZ-FE")* V8 were the available engine choices{{snd}}both paired to a 5\-speed automatic gearbox. Trim levels were the 4\.0 GX\-R, 4\.0 VX, 4\.7 VX and 4\.7 VX\-R.{{cite web \|url\=http://chinaautoweb.com/car\-models/toyota\-landcruiser200/ \|title\=Toyota Land Cruiser200 from FAW\-Toyota \|website\=ChinaAutoWeb \|access\-date\=5 February 2018 \|archive\-date\=25 January 2018 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125015329/http://chinaautoweb.com/car\-models/toyota\-landcruiser200/ \|url\-status\=live }}
In February 2019, Toyota introduced a Heritage edition of the Land Cruiser at the [Chicago Auto Show](/wiki/Chicago_Auto_Show "Chicago Auto Show") as part of the 60th anniversary of the introduction of the FJ40\. Toyota will only build 1200 vehicles and they will only be available as a 5\-seater sold in the United States. Sales are expected to begin in the third quarter of 2019 for the 2020 model year.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.motor1\.com/news/302355/toyota\-land\-cruiser\-heritage\-edition/ \|title\=2020 Toyota Land Cruiser Heritage Edition Arrives In Chicago \|first\=Christopher \|last\=Smith \|work\=Motor1 \|location\=US \|date\=7 February 2019 \|access\-date\=10 February 2019 \|archive\-date\=12 February 2019 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212011548/https://www.motor1\.com/news/302355/toyota\-land\-cruiser\-heritage\-edition/ \|url\-status\=live }}
In December 2020, Toyota confirmed to *[Road \& Track](/wiki/Road_%26_Track "Road & Track")* that the Land Cruiser would be discontinued in North America after 2021\.{{cite news \|url\=https://www.roadandtrack.com/news/a35058791/toyota\-land\-cruiser\-reportedly\-dead\-after\-2021/ \|title\=The Toyota Land Cruiser Is Dead in America After 2021 \|first\=Brian \|last\=Silvestro \|work\=Road and Track \|location\=US \|date\=24 December 2020 \|access\-date\=27 December 2019 \|archive\-date\=23 December 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201223180846/https://www.roadandtrack.com/news/a35058791/toyota\-land\-cruiser\-reportedly\-dead\-after\-2021/ \|url\-status\=live }}
**Gallery**
{{gallery \| width \= 200 \| height \= 148
\| File:2011 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ200R) Sahara wagon (2011\-11\-18\) 02\.jpg\|Pre\-facelift Toyota Land Cruiser Sahara (UZJ200\)
\| File:2013 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R MY13\) Sahara wagon (2015\-07\-24\) 01\.jpg\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser Sahara (VDJ200\)
\| File:2013 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R MY13\) Sahara wagon (2015\-07\-24\) 02\.jpg\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser Sahara (VDJ200\)
\| File:2016\-2018 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R) VX wagon (2018\-09\-03\) 01\.jpg\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser VX (VDJ200\)
\| File:2016\-2018 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R) VX wagon (2018\-09\-03\) 02\.jpg\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser VX (VDJ200\)
\| File:2017 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R) GX wagon (2018\-10\-01\) 01\.jpg\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GX (VDJ200\)
\| File:2017 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R) GX wagon (2018\-10\-01\) 02\.jpg\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GX (VDJ200\)
\| File:Lc200interior.jpg\|Interior (pre\-facelift)
\| File:Toyota LAND CRUISER AX"G selection" (CBA\-URJ202W\-GNTAK\-G) interior.jpg\|Interior (second facelift)
}}
{{clear}}
|
[
"### {{anchor\\|J200}} J200 (2007\\)",
"{{Infobox automobile\n\\| name \\= J200\n\\| image \\= 2011 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ200R) Sahara wagon (2011\\-11\\-18\\) 01\\.jpg\n\\| caption \\= 2011 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ200; pre\\-facelift)\n\\| aka \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| \\[\\[Lexus LX (J200\\)]]\n \\| Toyota Roraima (Venezuela)\n \\| Toyota Land Cruiser V8 (Europe)\n }}\n\\| production \\= September 2007 – March 2021{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.caradvice.com.au/903108/toyota\\-landcruiser\\-200\\-series\\-v8\\-to\\-end\\-production\\-march\\-2021/ \\|title\\=Toyota LandCruiser 200 Series V8 diesel to end production March 2021 \\|first\\=Joshua \\|last\\=Dowling \\|work\\=CarAdvice \\|location\\=Australia \\|date\\=23 November 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=23 March 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=10 April 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410151450/https://www.caradvice.com.au/903108/toyota\\-landcruiser\\-200\\-series\\-v8\\-to\\-end\\-production\\-march\\-2021/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n\\| model\\_years \\= 2008–2021 (US)\n\\| assembly \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| Japan: \\[\\[Toyota, Aichi]] (\\[\\[Yoshiwara plant]]); \\[\\[Tahara, Aichi]] (\\[\\[Tahara plant]]){{cite web \\|url\\=http://newsroom.toyota.co.jp/en/corporate/companyinformation/manufacturing \\|title\\=Japanese Production Sites \\|publisher\\=Toyota \\|date\\=6 March 2015 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318032552/http://newsroom.toyota.co.jp/en/corporate/companyinformation/manufacturing \\|archive\\-date\\=18 March 2015}}\n \\| China: \\[\\[Changchun]] (\\[\\[Sichuan FAW Toyota Motor\\|SFTM]]; 2008–2016\\)\n }}\n\\| designer \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| Takumi Nakamura, Takayasu Furukawa, Hideo Karikomi, Jinichi Sato and Kengo Iwanaga{{Cite patent\\|country\\=US\\|number\\=D576919S\\|title\\=Automobile and/or toy replica thereof\\|pubdate\\=2008\\-09\\-16\\|inventor1\\-last\\=Ito\\|inventor1\\-first\\=Takanori\\|inventor2\\-last\\=Toyooka\\|inventor2\\-first\\=Kuniaki\\|inventor3\\-last\\=Nakashima\\|inventor3\\-first\\=Katsumi\\|inventor4\\=Kazumi Kowaki;Minoru Ogawa;Takeo Sowa;Shigetoshi Kozai\\|assign1\\=\\[\\[Toyota\\|Toyota Motor Co. Ltd.]]}}\n \\| Tetsu Endō (2012 facelift){{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2022}}\n \\| Keisuke Matsuno and Kouji Katsuno (2015 facelift){{Cite patent\\|country\\=US\\|number\\=D761704\\|title\\=Motor vehicle\\|pubdate\\=2016\\-07\\-19\\|inventor1\\-last\\=Matsuno\\|inventor1\\-first\\=Keisuke\\|inventor2\\-last\\=Katsuno\\|inventor2\\-first\\=Kouji\\|assign1\\=\\[\\[Toyota\\|Toyota Motor Co. Ltd.]]}}\n }}\n\\| body\\_style \\= 5\\-door \\[\\[SUV]]\n\\| platform \\= Toyota F1{{cite web \\| url\\=https://xtech.nikkei.com/dm/article/HONSHI/20071130/143401/ \\| title\\=トヨタ自動車「ランドクルーザー」 \\| date\\=30 November 2007 }}\n\\| layout \\= \\[\\[Front\\-engine, four\\-wheel\\-drive]]\n\\| related \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| \\[\\[Toyota Tundra (XK50\\)]] \n \\| \\[\\[Lexus LX (J200\\)]] \n \\| \\[\\[Toyota Sequoia (XK60\\)]]\n }}\n\\| engine \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\|'''Petrol:'''{{Ubl\n \\| 4\\.0 L ''\\[\\[Toyota GR engine\\#1GR\\-FE\\|1GR\\-FE]]'' \\[\\[V6 engine\\|V6]]\n \\| 4\\.6 L ''\\[\\[Toyota UR engine\\#1UR\\-FE\\|1UR\\-FE]]'' \\[\\[V8 engine\\|V8]]{{cite web\\|url\\=http://toyota.jp/landcruiser/dynamism/engin/index.html \\|title\\=Toyota Japan Land Cruiser \\|publisher\\=Toyota.jp \\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2010 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705230523/http://toyota.jp/landcruiser/dynamism/engin/index.html \\|archive\\-date\\=5 July 2011 }}\n \\| 4\\.7 L ''\\[\\[Toyota UZ engine\\#2UZ\\-FE\\|2UZ\\-FE]]'' V8{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.goo\\-net.com/catalog/TOYOTA/LAND\\_CRUISER/10043240/index.html \\|title\\=Goonet 2007 Land Cruiser \\|publisher\\=Goo\\-net.com \\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2010 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 August 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100812074618/http://www.goo\\-net.com/catalog/TOYOTA/LAND\\_CRUISER/10043240/index.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n \\| 5\\.7 L ''\\[\\[Toyota UR engine\\#3UR\\-FE\\|3UR\\-FE]]'' V8{{cite web \\|url\\=http://pressroom.toyota.com/pr/tms/toyota/document/2008LandCruiser\\_sfo.pdf \\|title\\=Exterior Dimensions \\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2010 \\|archive\\-date\\=24 January 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124194152/http://pressroom.toyota.com/pr/tms/toyota/document/2008LandCruiser\\_sfo.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n }}\n \\|'''Diesel:'''{{Ubl\n \\| 4\\.5 L ''\\[\\[Toyota VD engine\\#1VD\\-FTV\\|1VD\\-FTV]]'' \\[\\[turbocharger\\|turbocharged]] V8\n }}\n }}\n\\| powerout \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| {{convert\\|170\\|–\\|202\\|kW\\|hp PS\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} (''1GR\\-FE'')\n \\| {{convert\\|227\\|–\\|234\\|kW\\|hp PS\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} (''1UR\\-FE'')\n \\| {{convert\\|202\\|–\\|212\\|kW\\|hp PS\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} (''2UZ\\-FE'')\n \\| {{convert\\|270\\|–\\|284\\|kW\\|hp PS\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} (''3UR\\-FE'')\n \\| {{convert\\|136\\|–\\|213\\|kW\\|hp PS\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} (''1VD\\-FTV'')\n }}\n\\| transmission \\= {{unbulleted list\n \\| 5\\-speed \\[\\[Manual transmission\\|manual]] (1GR\\-FE)\n \\| 5\\-speed \\[\\[Automatic transmission\\|automatic]] (1GR\\-FE,2UZ\\-FE)\n \\| 6\\-speed automatic (1UR\\-FE,1VD\\-FTV)\n \\| 8\\-speed automatic (3UR\\-FE)\n }}\n\\| wheelbase \\= {{convert\\|2850\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| length \\= {{convert\\|4990\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| width \\= {{convert\\|1980\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| height \\= {{convert\\|1945–1970\\|mm\\|in\\|1\\|abbr\\=on}} (adjustable)\n\\| weight \\= {{Convert\\|2405\\-2740\\|kg\\|lb\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}\n\\| successor \\= \\[\\[Toyota Land Cruiser (J250\\)]] (UK and North America)\n}}",
"In 2002, a five\\-year development plan on a successor to the 100\\-series platform commenced under Sadayoshi Koyari and Tetsuya Tada. By 2004, ten years after the design selection of its predecessor in 1994, a final production design was settled on for the 2008 J200\\. Prototype related tests were conducted for over two years between 2004 and early 2007\\. The redesigned Toyota Land Cruiser was introduced in late 2007\\. Known as the 200 Series, it shares the [Lexus LX 570](/wiki/Lexus_LX_%28J200%29 \"Lexus LX (J200)\")'s platform and overall design. The frame was new, derived from the second\\-generation [Tundra](/wiki/Toyota_Tundra \"Toyota Tundra\"){{Citation needed\\|date\\=February 2011}} but shortened and strengthened by 20 percent. Bigger brake rotors and calipers were added and the front suspension was strengthened. The underbelly is also protected by skid plates. The roof pillars were redesigned to better protect occupants in a rollover.",
"The 200 Series encountered some criticism due to its bland body restyling, with some{{who\\|date\\=November 2011}} claiming that Toyota has 'overdeveloped' the classic trademarked Land Cruiser identity in its efforts to fit the Land Cruiser into modern 21st century motoring and vehicle design.",
"The vehicle entered production in September 2007 and was available for sale from September or November, depending on country. It became available in Venezuela for sale in early November of the same year under the local nickname of \"Roraima\" (taken from [Mount Roraima](/wiki/Mount_Roraima \"Mount Roraima\")).",
"The 200 Series, offered numerous features and upgrades over its predecessor not limited to the cosmetic changes made to the body and interior, including:\n* Smart Entry{{Snd}}A sensor is triggered when the remote is brought near the vehicle, allowing the user to simply touch the door handle to open it.\n* Smart Start{{Snd}}Start/Stop push button for ignition; a key is not required.\n* 4\\-zone climate control on Sahara models, with outlet vents increased from 18 to 28\n* 10 [airbags](/wiki/Airbag \"Airbag\") (VX \\& Sahara)\n* A stronger and lighter frame",
"Various driver assist technologies not offered on previous models are included as standard, including:\n* CRAWL, a [four\\-wheel drive](/wiki/Four-wheel_drive \"Four-wheel drive\") control system that operates like an off\\-road [cruise control](/wiki/Cruise_control \"Cruise control\"), automatically maintaining a low uniform vehicle speed using brakes and throttle\n* Downhill Assist Control\n* Multi\\-terrain anti\\-lock braking system (ABS)\n* [Kinetic Dynamic Suspension System](/wiki/Kinetic_Dynamic_Suspension_System \"Kinetic Dynamic Suspension System\") (KDSS), allows for greater wheel articulation\n* An optional rear\\-view camera (VX)\n* Leather seats are available in full option (VX)",
"Engine and transmission improvements include:\n* An all new optional V8 diesel engine, the [Toyota VD engine](/wiki/Toyota_VD_engine \"Toyota VD engine\") (a [twin\\-turbocharged](/wiki/Twin_turbo \"Twin turbo\") version of the engine used in the 70 Series since 2007\\).\n* Automatic transmission included as standard across all levels of trim of the 200 Series, a five\\-speed manual transmission is offered only with the 4\\.0 L GX models (in selected regions). A five\\-speed automatic gearbox is assigned to the 4\\.7 L petrol models, while the 4\\.5 L diesel models receive a six\\-speed automatic.",
"In Japan, the Land Cruiser had an update in 2009 when it received the 4\\.6 L V8 1UR\\-FE engine and the gearbox was replaced with a 6\\-speed automatic.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.toyota.co.jp/jp/news/09/Apr/nt09\\_026\\.html \\|title\\=Toyota Japan 2009 Land Cruiser press release \\|publisher\\=Toyota.co.jp \\|date\\=16 April 2009 \\|access\\-date\\=30 October 2010 \\|archive\\-date\\=13 August 2010 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100813202052/http://www.toyota.co.jp/jp/news/09/Apr/nt09\\_026\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Although the new 4608 cc 1UR\\-FE is smaller than the old 4663 cc 2UZ\\-FE engine, the power has been increased from {{convert\\|212\\|to\\|234\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}}, torque increased from {{convert\\|448\\|to\\|460\\|N·m\\|lb·ft\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and fuel consumption improved from {{convert\\|6\\.6\\|to\\|7\\.1\\|km/L\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} (Japan 10·15 mode measurement).",
"In the Middle East, the Land Cruiser 200 series was introduced in late 2007 as a 2008 model, for 2008 to 2010 there was three engine choices:\n* {{convert\\|179\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} 4\\.0 L 1GR\\-FE petrol engine\n* {{convert\\|202\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} 2UZ\\-FE petrol engine\n* {{convert\\|162\\-173\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} 1VD\\-FTV 4\\.5 L turbo diesel engine{{cite web \\|title\\=Toyota Land Cruiser 2008\\-2009 UAE KSA Qatar GCC \\|url\\=http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\\-Land\\-Cruiser/2008\\-2009\\-/392 \\|publisher\\=DriveArabia.com \\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727063644/http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\\-Land\\-Cruiser/2008\\-2009\\-/392 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 July 2014 }}",
"In Europe and Asia, the Euro4 diesel (2007\\-2010\\) model had {{cvt\\|286\\|hp\\|kW\\|0\\|order\\=flip}}.",
"Starting in 2011, the {{convert\\|270\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} 3UR\\-FE engine was offered along with the previous engines.{{cite web \\|title\\=Toyota Land Cruiser 2010\\-2011 UAE KSA Qatar GCC \\|url\\=http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\\-Land\\-Cruiser/2010\\-2011\\-/594 \\|publisher\\=DriveArabia.com \\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727063735/http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\\-Land\\-Cruiser/2010\\-2011\\-/594 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 July 2014 }} For 2012, the 1GR\\-FE gained dual VVT\\-i and power was increased to {{convert\\|202\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}}, the 4\\.7 L 2UZ\\-FE was dropped in favour of the new {{convert\\|227\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|abbr\\=on\\|0}} 4\\.6 L 1UR\\-FE, and the 5\\.7 L and 4\\.5 L diesel were unchanged, although the latter was dropped in some markets.{{cite web \\|title\\=Toyota Land Cruiser 2012\\-2013 UAE KSA Qatar GCC \\|url\\=http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\\-Land\\-Cruiser/2012\\-2013\\-/685 \\|publisher\\=DriveArabia.com \\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727075024/http://www.drivearabia.com/ultimatecarbuyerguide/uae/carpage.php/Toyota\\-Land\\-Cruiser/2012\\-2013\\-/685 \\|archive\\-date\\=27 July 2014 }}",
"In North America, the Land Cruiser 200 series is offered with one trim level and engine, the 5\\.7 L 3UR\\-FE V8 petrol engine producing {{convert\\|284\\|kW\\|PS hp\\|0\\|abbr\\=on}} and {{convert\\|401\\|lb·ft\\|N·m\\|0\\|abbr\\=on\\|order\\=flip}} of torque channeled through a six\\-speed automatic. Towing is rated at {{convert\\|8200\\|lb\\|abbr\\=on\\|sigfig\\=2\\|order\\=flip}}. Beige or black leather upholstery is standard along with a 14 speaker JBL sound system. The only wheel choice is {{convert\\|18\\|in\\|abbr\\=on}} allowing a lot of sidewall so the vehicle can be driven off\\-road without modification though a more aggressive tread pattern is advised for deep mud.",
"For the 2013 model year, Toyota added all previously optional safety and luxury options as standard. The Land Cruiser now gets push\\-button start, HID headlights with beam level adjustment, a power moonroof, automatic rain sensing windshield wipers, heated and ventilated (perforated leather) front and only heated rear seats, a rear\\-seat DVD entertainment system, Bluetooth, rear\\-view camera with parking sensors, navigation system, HD radio and Entune. Another new feature is the Multi\\-terrain Select system which helps control wheelspin and brake lockup giving the selectable choices of: Rock, Rock \\& Dirt, Mogul, Loose Rock, and Mud \\& Sand and with an addition to the Multi\\-terrain Select system a feature known as adaptive Anti\\-lock Braking system which adapts to the condition of the road like mud or sand and efficiently uses the ABS to reduce braking distance on any type of terrain.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://blog.durbansouthtoyota.co.za/the\\-beast\\-land\\-cruiser\\-200\\-just\\-got\\-better/ \\|title\\=The Beast, Land Cruiser 200 Just Got Better! \\|date\\=19 August 2015 \\|website\\=Durban South Toyota Blog \\|access\\-date\\=19 June 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=7 August 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807194813/http://blog.durbansouthtoyota.co.za/the\\-beast\\-land\\-cruiser\\-200\\-just\\-got\\-better/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In [Oceania](/wiki/Oceania \"Oceania\"), the 200 Series is offered in four different levels of trim: GX, GXL, VX and Sahara.",
"In August 2015, Toyota launched an updated, face\\-lifted version of the J200 Land Cruiser in Japan, which was later sold globally. This version first appeared in the United States in 2015 for the 2016 model year. The new version has several mechanical changes, including a new 8\\-speed electronically controlled automatic transmission (ECT\\-i) mated to the original 5\\.7 L 3UR\\-FE V8 petrol engine, larger front disc brakes, and a higher axle ratio (3\\.30:1 vs 3\\.90:1 in the previous years). Updates to the front fascia, grill, bonnet, headlamps (with [daylight running lamps](/wiki/Daylight_running_lamp \"Daylight running lamp\")), rear tail lamps and bumpers were the main exterior highlights of the facelift. Interior changes included a new multimedia system and interface with larger screens front and back, as well as refreshed interior styling.",
"In China, the Land Cruiser 200 was produced from 2008 to 2016 by [Sichuan FAW Toyota Motor](/wiki/Sichuan_FAW_Toyota_Motor \"Sichuan FAW Toyota Motor\"). The 4\\.0 L *[1GR\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_GR_engine%231GR-FE \"Toyota GR engine#1GR-FE\")* V6 and 4\\.7 L *[2UZ\\-FE](/wiki/Toyota_UZ_engine%232UZ-FE \"Toyota UZ engine#2UZ-FE\")* V8 were the available engine choices{{snd}}both paired to a 5\\-speed automatic gearbox. Trim levels were the 4\\.0 GX\\-R, 4\\.0 VX, 4\\.7 VX and 4\\.7 VX\\-R.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://chinaautoweb.com/car\\-models/toyota\\-landcruiser200/ \\|title\\=Toyota Land Cruiser200 from FAW\\-Toyota \\|website\\=ChinaAutoWeb \\|access\\-date\\=5 February 2018 \\|archive\\-date\\=25 January 2018 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125015329/http://chinaautoweb.com/car\\-models/toyota\\-landcruiser200/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In February 2019, Toyota introduced a Heritage edition of the Land Cruiser at the [Chicago Auto Show](/wiki/Chicago_Auto_Show \"Chicago Auto Show\") as part of the 60th anniversary of the introduction of the FJ40\\. Toyota will only build 1200 vehicles and they will only be available as a 5\\-seater sold in the United States. Sales are expected to begin in the third quarter of 2019 for the 2020 model year.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.motor1\\.com/news/302355/toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-heritage\\-edition/ \\|title\\=2020 Toyota Land Cruiser Heritage Edition Arrives In Chicago \\|first\\=Christopher \\|last\\=Smith \\|work\\=Motor1 \\|location\\=US \\|date\\=7 February 2019 \\|access\\-date\\=10 February 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=12 February 2019 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190212011548/https://www.motor1\\.com/news/302355/toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-heritage\\-edition/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In December 2020, Toyota confirmed to *[Road \\& Track](/wiki/Road_%26_Track \"Road & Track\")* that the Land Cruiser would be discontinued in North America after 2021\\.{{cite news \\|url\\=https://www.roadandtrack.com/news/a35058791/toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-reportedly\\-dead\\-after\\-2021/ \\|title\\=The Toyota Land Cruiser Is Dead in America After 2021 \\|first\\=Brian \\|last\\=Silvestro \\|work\\=Road and Track \\|location\\=US \\|date\\=24 December 2020 \\|access\\-date\\=27 December 2019 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 December 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201223180846/https://www.roadandtrack.com/news/a35058791/toyota\\-land\\-cruiser\\-reportedly\\-dead\\-after\\-2021/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"**Gallery**\n{{gallery \\| width \\= 200 \\| height \\= 148\n\\| File:2011 Toyota Land Cruiser (UZJ200R) Sahara wagon (2011\\-11\\-18\\) 02\\.jpg\\|Pre\\-facelift Toyota Land Cruiser Sahara (UZJ200\\)\n\\| File:2013 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R MY13\\) Sahara wagon (2015\\-07\\-24\\) 01\\.jpg\\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser Sahara (VDJ200\\)\n\\| File:2013 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R MY13\\) Sahara wagon (2015\\-07\\-24\\) 02\\.jpg\\|First facelift Toyota Land Cruiser Sahara (VDJ200\\)\n\\| File:2016\\-2018 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R) VX wagon (2018\\-09\\-03\\) 01\\.jpg\\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser VX (VDJ200\\)\n\\| File:2016\\-2018 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R) VX wagon (2018\\-09\\-03\\) 02\\.jpg\\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser VX (VDJ200\\)\n\\| File:2017 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R) GX wagon (2018\\-10\\-01\\) 01\\.jpg\\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GX (VDJ200\\)\n\\| File:2017 Toyota Land Cruiser (VDJ200R) GX wagon (2018\\-10\\-01\\) 02\\.jpg\\|Second facelift Toyota Land Cruiser GX (VDJ200\\)\n\\| File:Lc200interior.jpg\\|Interior (pre\\-facelift)\n\\| File:Toyota LAND CRUISER AX\"G selection\" (CBA\\-URJ202W\\-GNTAK\\-G) interior.jpg\\|Interior (second facelift)\n}}",
"{{clear}}",
""
] |
Establishment
-------------
### Periods of independence and autonomy
Danzig had an early history of independence. It was a leading player in the [Prussian Confederation](/wiki/Prussian_Confederation "Prussian Confederation") directed against the [Teutonic Monastic State of Prussia](/wiki/Monastic_State_of_the_Teutonic_Knights "Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights"). The Confederation stipulated with the Polish king, [Casimir IV Jagiellon](/wiki/Casimir_IV_Jagiellon "Casimir IV Jagiellon"), that the [Polish Crown](/wiki/Polish_Crown "Polish Crown") would be invested with the role of head of state of western parts of Prussia ([Royal Prussia](/wiki/Royal_Prussia "Royal Prussia")). In contrast, [Ducal Prussia](/wiki/Ducal_Prussia "Ducal Prussia") remained a Polish fief. Danzig and other cities such as [Elbing](/wiki/Elbing "Elbing") and [Thorn](/wiki/Toru%C5%84 "Toruń") financed most of the warfare and enjoyed a high level of city autonomy.
In 1569, when Royal Prussia's [estates](/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm "Estates of the realm") agreed to incorporate the region into the [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth"), the city insisted on preserving its special status. It defended itself through the costly [Siege of Danzig](/wiki/Siege_of_Danzig_%281577%29 "Siege of Danzig (1577)") in 1577 in order to preserve special privileges, and subsequently insisted on negotiating by sending emissaries directly to the Polish king.{{Cite book \|last\=Pelczar \|first\=Marian \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=YeY7AAAAMAAJ\&q\=batory\+gda%C5%84sk \|title\=Polski Gdańsk \|date\=1947 \|publisher\=Biblioteka Miejska \|language\=pl \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105545/https://books.google.com/books?id\=YeY7AAAAMAAJ\&q\=batory\+gda%C5%84sk \|url\-status\=live }} Danzig's location as a deep\-water port where the [Vistula river](/wiki/Vistula_river "Vistula river") met the [Baltic Sea](/wiki/Baltic_Sea "Baltic Sea") had made it into one of the wealthiest cities in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries as grain from [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland") and [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine") was shipped down the Vistula on barges to be loaded onto ships in Danzig, where it was shipped on to western Europe.Macmillan, Margaret *Paris 1919*, New York: Random House p. 211 As many of the merchants shipping the grain from Danzig were Dutch, who built Dutch\-style houses for themselves, leading to other Danzigers imitating them, the city was thus given a distinctively Dutch appearance. Danzig become known as "the [Amsterdam](/wiki/Amsterdam "Amsterdam") of the East", a wealthy seaport and trading crossroads that linked together the economics of western and eastern Europe, and whose location at where the Vistula flowed into the Baltic led to various powers competing to rule the city.
Although Danzig became part of the [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia "Kingdom of Prussia") in the [Second Partition of Poland](/wiki/Second_Partition_of_Poland "Second Partition of Poland") in 1793, Prussia was conquered by [Napoleon Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte "Napoleon Bonaparte") in 1806, and in September 1807 Napoleon declared Danzig a semi\-independent [client state](/wiki/Client_state "Client state") of the [French Empire](/wiki/First_French_Empire "First French Empire"), known as the [Free City of Danzig](/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig_%28Napoleonic%29 "Free City of Danzig (Napoleonic)"). It lasted seven years, until it was re\-incorporated into the [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia "Kingdom of Prussia") in 1814, after Napoleon's defeat at the [Battle of Leipzig](/wiki/Battle_of_Leipzig "Battle of Leipzig") ([Battle of Nations](/wiki/Battle_of_Nations "Battle of Nations")) by a coalition that included Russia, Austria, and Prussia.
Point 13 of U.S. president [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson "Woodrow Wilson")'s [Fourteen Points](/wiki/Fourteen_Points "Fourteen Points") called for Polish independence to be restored and for Poland to have "secure access to the sea", a promise that implied that Danzig, which occupied a strategic location where the Vistula river flowed into the Baltic sea, should become part of Poland. At the [Paris Peace Conference](/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference%2C_1919 "Paris Peace Conference, 1919") in 1919, the Polish delegation led by [Roman Dmowski](/wiki/Roman_Dmowski "Roman Dmowski") asked for Wilson to honor point 13 of the Fourteen Points by transferring Danzig to Poland, arguing that Poland would not be economically viable without Danzig and that since the city had been part of Poland until 1793, it was rightfully part of Poland anyway.Macmillan, Margaret *Paris 1919*, New York: Random House p. 211\. However, Wilson had promised that national self\-determination would be the basis of the Treaty of Versailles. As 90% of the people in Danzig in this period were German, the Allied leaders at the Paris Peace Conference compromised by creating the Free City of Danzig, a city\-state in which Poland had certain special rights.Macmillan, Margaret *Paris 1919*, New York: Random House p. 218\. It was felt that including a city that was 90% German into Poland would be a violation of the principle of [national self\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination "Self-determination"), but at the same time the promise in the Fourteen Points of allowing Poland "secure access to the sea" gave Poland a claim on Danzig, hence the compromise of the Free City of Danzig.
The Free City of Danzig was largely the work of British diplomacy as both the French Premier [Georges Clemenceau](/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau "Georges Clemenceau") and U.S. President Woodrow Wilson supported the Polish claim to Danzig (Gdańsk), and it was only objections from the British Prime Minister [David Lloyd George](/wiki/David_Lloyd_George "David Lloyd George") that prevented Danzig from going to Poland.Rothwell, Victor *The Origins of the Second World War*, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001 pp. 106–07\. Despite creating the Free City, the British did not really believe in the viability of the Free City of Danzig with Lloyd George writing at the time: "France would tomorrow fight for Alsace if her right to it were contested. But would we make war for Danzig?" The Foreign Secretary [Arthur Balfour](/wiki/Arthur_Balfour "Arthur Balfour") wrote in the summer of 1918 that the Germans had such a ferocious contempt for Poles that it was unwise for Germany to lose any territory to Poland even if morally justified as the Germans would never accept losing land to the despised Poles and such a situation was bound to cause a war.Rothwell, Victor *The Origins of the Second World War*, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001 p. 11\. During the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, the British consistently sought to minimize German territorial losses to Poland under the grounds that the Germans had such an utter contempt for the Poles together with the rest of the Slavic peoples that such losses were bound to deeply wound their feelings and cause a war. For all the bitterness of the [French–German enmity](/wiki/French%E2%80%93German_enmity "French–German enmity"), the Germans had a certain grudging respect for the French that did not extend to the Poles at all. During the Paris Peace Conference, a commission of inquiry chaired by a British historian, [James Headlam\-Morley](/wiki/James_Headlam-Morley "James Headlam-Morley"), investigating where the borders between Germany and Poland should be, started to research Danzig's history.Overy, Richard \& Wheatcroft, Andrew *The Road to War*, Random House: London 2009 p. 2\. Upon discovering that Danzig had been a Free City in the past, Headlam\-Morley came up with what he regarded as a brilliant compromise solution under which Danzig would become a Free City again that would belong to neither Germany nor Poland. As the British were opposed to Danzig becoming part of Poland and the French and the Americans to Danzig remaining part of Germany, Headlam\-Morley's compromise of the Free City of Danzig was embraced.
The rural areas around Danzig were overwhelmingly Polish and the representatives of the Polish farmers around Danzig complained about being included in the Free City of Danzig, stating they wanted to join Poland.{{cite book \|last\=Macmillan \|first\=Margaret \|author\-link\=Margaret Macmillan \|date\=September 2003 \|title\=Paris 1919 \|location\=New York \|publisher\=Random House \|page\=283 \|quote\="The two men met privately and decided that Danzig should be an independent city and that Marienwerder in the corridor should also decide its own fate by plebiscite. On April 1 they persuaded a reluctant Clemenceau to agree. Lloyd George was reassuring; as Danzig’s economic ties with Poland strengthened, its inhabitants would turn like sunflowers toward Warsaw, in just the same way, he expected, as the inhabitants of the Saar would eventually realize that their true interests lay with France and not Germany. The Poles were enraged when they heard the news. “Danzig is indispensable to Poland,” said Paderewski, “which cannot breathe without its window on the sea.” According to Clemenceau, who saw him privately, he wept. “Yes,” said Wilson unsympathetically, “but you must take account of his sensitivity, which is very lively.” The fact that “our troublesome friends the Poles,” as Wilson called them, were continuing to fight around Lvov despite repeated calls from Paris for a cease\-fire did not help Poland’s cause." \|quote\-page\=283 \|isbn\=9780375760525}} For their part, the representatives of the German population of Danzig complained about being severed from Germany, and constantly demanded that the Free City of Danzig be reincorporated into the *Reich*.Macmillan, Margaret *Paris 1919*, New York: Random House p. 219\. The Canadian historian [Margaret MacMillan](/wiki/Margaret_MacMillan "Margaret MacMillan") wrote that a sense of Danzig national identity emerged during the Free City's existence, and the German population of Danzig not always regarded themselves as Germans who had been unjustly taken out of Germany. The loss of Danzig did although deeply hurt German national pride and in the interwar period, German nationalists spoke of the "open wound in the east" that was the Free City of Danzig.Overy, Richard \& Wheatcroft, Andrew *The Road to War*, Random House: London 2009 p. 16\. However, until the building of [Gdynia](/wiki/Gdynia "Gdynia"), almost all of Poland's exports went through Danzig, and Polish public opinion was opposed to Germany having a "choke\-hold" on the [Polish economy](/wiki/Polish_economy "Polish economy").Overy, Richard \& Wheatcroft, Andrew *The Road to War*, Random House: London 2009 p. 3\.
### Territory
[thumb\|Distribution of certain German city and village names](/wiki/File:Verbreitung_bestimmter_Ortsnamen_im_Gebiet_der_Freien_Stadt_Danzig.png "Verbreitung bestimmter Ortsnamen im Gebiet der Freien Stadt Danzig.png")
{{CSS image crop\|Image \= DAN\-57\-Bank von Danzig\-1,000 Gulden (1924\).jpg\|bSize \= 233\|cWidth \= 230\|cHeight \= 128\|oTop \= 2\|oLeft \= 2\|Description\={{center\|1,000 \[\[Danzig gulden]] (1924\) depicting City Hall}}}}
The Free City of Danzig (1920–39\) included the city of Danzig (Gdańsk), the towns of [Zoppot (Sopot)](/wiki/Sopot "Sopot"), [Oliva (Oliwa)](/wiki/Oliwa "Oliwa"), [Tiegenhof (Nowy Dwór Gdański)](/wiki/Nowy_Dw%C3%B3r_Gda%C5%84ski "Nowy Dwór Gdański"), [Neuteich (Nowy Staw)](/wiki/Nowy_Staw "Nowy Staw") and some 252 villages and 63 [hamlets](/wiki/Hamlet_%28place%29 "Hamlet (place)"), covering a total area of 1,966 square kilometers ({{nowrap\|759 sq mi}}). The cities of Danzig (since 1818\) and Zoppot (since 1920\) formed independent cities (Stadtkreise), whereas all other towns and municipalities were part of one of the three rural districts (Landkreise), [Danziger Höhe](/wiki/Danziger_H%C3%B6he "Danziger Höhe"), {{ill\|Danziger Niederung\|pl\|Powiat Danziger Niederung}} (both seated in Danzig city) and {{ill\|Großes Werder\|de\|Landkreis Großes Werder}}, seated in Tiegenhof.{{citation needed\|date\=September 2023}}
In 1928, its territory covered 1,952 km2 including 58 square kilometers of freshwater surface. The border had a length of 290\.5 km, of which the coastline accounted for 66\.35 km.{{cite book \|last\=Wagner \|first\=Richard \|year\=1929 \|title\=Die Freie Stadt Danzig \|series\=Taschenbuch des Grenz\- und Auslanddeutschtums \|language\=de \|edition\=2\., Auflage \|location\=Berlin \|publisher\=Deutscher Schutzbund Verlag \|page\=3}}
### Polish rights declared by Treaty of Versailles
The Free City was to be represented abroad by Poland and was to be in a [customs union](/wiki/Customs_union "Customs union") with it. The [German railway](/wiki/Deutsche_Reichsbahn "Deutsche Reichsbahn") line that connected the Free City with newly created Poland was to be administered by Poland, as were all rail lines in the territory of the Free City. On November 9, 1920, a convention that provided for the Presence of a Polish diplomatic representative in Danzig was signed between the Polish government and the Danzig authorities. In article 6, the Polish government undertook not to conclude any international agreements regarding Danzig without previous consultation with the Free City's government.Text in *League of Nations Treaty Series*, vol. 6, pp. 190–207\.
A separate [Polish post office](/wiki/Polish_Post_Office_%28Danzig%29 "Polish Post Office (Danzig)") was established, besides the existing [municipal](/wiki/Municipal "Municipal") one.
### League of Nations High Commissioners
[thumb\|right\|Passport of the Free City of Danzig\|upright\=0\.8](/wiki/File:Danzig_passport.jpg "Danzig passport.jpg")
Unlike [Mandatory](/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate "League of Nations mandate") territories, which were entrusted to member countries, the Free City of Danzig (like the [Territory of the Saar Basin](/wiki/Territory_of_the_Saar_Basin "Territory of the Saar Basin")) remained directly under the authority of the League of Nations. Representatives of various countries took on the role of High Commissioner:{{citation needed\|date\=August 2020}}
[thumb\|Polish passport issued at Danzig by the "Polish Commission for Gdańsk" in 1935 and extended again in 1937, before the holder immigrated to British Palestine the following year](/wiki/File:Polish_passport_issued_at_Danzing%2C_Gdansk.jpg "Polish passport issued at Danzing, Gdansk.jpg")
| No. | Name | Period | Country |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | [Reginald Tower](/wiki/Reginald_Tower "Reginald Tower") | 1919–1920 | {{flagcountry\|United Kingdom}} |
| 2 | [Edward Lisle Strutt](/wiki/Edward_Lisle_Strutt "Edward Lisle Strutt") | 1920 | {{flagcountry\|United Kingdom}} |
| 3 | [Bernardo Attolico](/wiki/Bernardo_Attolico "Bernardo Attolico") | 1920 | {{flagcountry\|Kingdom of Italy}} |
| 4 | [Richard Haking](/wiki/Richard_Haking "Richard Haking") | 1921–1923 | {{flagcountry\|United Kingdom}} |
| 5 | {{ill\|Mervyn Sorley McDonnell\|pl\|Mervyn MacDonnell\|de\|Mervyn MacDonnell}} | 1923–1925 | {{flagcountry\|United Kingdom}} |
| 6 | {{ill\|Joost Adriaan van Hamel\|nl\|\|de}} | 1925–1929 | {{flagcountry\|Netherlands}} |
| 7 | {{ill\|Manfredi di Gravina\|de\|Manfredi Gravina\|sv\|Manfredi Gravina}} | 1929–1932 | {{flagcountry\|Kingdom of Italy}} |
| 8 | {{ill\|Helmer Rosting\|da\|\|de\|\|pl}} | 1932–1934 | {{flagcountry\|Denmark}} |
| 9 | [Seán Lester](/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_Lester "Seán Lester") | 1934–1936 | {{flagcountry\|Irish Free State}} |
| 10 | [Carl Jacob Burckhardt](/wiki/Carl_Jacob_Burckhardt "Carl Jacob Burckhardt") | 1937–1939 | {{flagcountry\|Switzerland}} |
The League of Nations refused to let the city\-state use the term of *[Hanseatic City](/wiki/Hanseatic_League "Hanseatic League")* as part of its official name; this referred to Danzig's long\-lasting membership in the [Hanseatic League](/wiki/Hanseatic_League "Hanseatic League"):{{explain\|date\=November 2023}}{{cite web \|url\=http://library.fes.de/breslau/pdf/a20715/a20715\_07\.pdf \|title\=Ostdeutschlands Arbeiterbewegung: Abriß ihrer Geschichte, Leistung und Opfer \|first1\=Wilhelm \|last1\=Matull \|publisher\=Holzner \|year\=1973 \|page\=419 \|language\=de \|access\-date\=2010\-01\-26 \|archive\-date\=2011\-08\-10 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810074811/http://library.fes.de/breslau/pdf/a20715/a20715\_07\.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}
### State Constabulary
{{main\|Free City of Danzig Police}}
[thumb\|right\|Danzig police arrest a protester in the aftermath of the [1933 Parliamentary Elections](/wiki/1933_Free_City_of_Danzig_parliamentary_election "1933 Free City of Danzig parliamentary election")](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-14649%2C_Danzig%2C_Verhaftung_am_Wahltag.jpg "Bundesarchiv Bild 102-14649, Danzig, Verhaftung am Wahltag.jpg")
With the creation of the Free City in the [aftermath of World War I](/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I "Aftermath of World War I") a security police force was created on 19 August 1919\. On 9 April 1920, a military style marching band, the *Musikkorps*, was formed. Led by composer Ernst Stieberitz, the [police band](/wiki/Police_band_%28music%29 "Police band (music)") became well known in the city and abroad. In 1921, Danzig's government reformed the entire institution and established the *[Schutzpolizei](/wiki/Schutzpolizei "Schutzpolizei")*, or protection police.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.danzig\-online.pl/grenze/polizeie.html \|title\=Polizei der Freie Stadt Danzig \|website\=www.danzig\-online.pl \|access\-date\=2016\-02\-28 \|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-04 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304091715/http://www.danzig\-online.pl/grenze/polizeie.html \|url\-status\=dead }} Helmut Froböss became President of the Police (i. e. [Chief](/wiki/Chief_of_police "Chief of police")) on 1 April 1921\. He served in this capacity until the German [annexation](/wiki/Annexation "Annexation") of the city.
The police initially operated from 12 precincts and 7 registration points. In 1926 the number of precincts was reduced to 7\.
After the Nazi takeover of the Senate, the police were increasingly used to suppress free speech and political dissent.[Policja. Kwartalnik kadry kierowniczej Policji](https://www.academia.edu/1862924/Działalność_policji_politycznej_w_Wolnym_Mieście_Gdańsku_w_latach_1920-1939_w_Policja._Kwartalnik_kadry_kierowniczej_Policji_4_2011_s._59-71) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620152655/http://www.academia.edu/1862924/Dzia%C5%82alno%C5%9B%C4%87\_policji\_politycznej\_w\_Wolnym\_Mie%C5%9Bcie\_Gda%C5%84sku\_w\_latach\_1920\-1939\_w\_Policja.\_Kwartalnik\_kadry\_kierowniczej\_Policji\_4\_2011\_s.\_59\-71 \|date\=2017\-06\-20 }} (in Polish) In 1933, Froböss ordered the left\-wing newspapers *Danziger Volksstimme* and *Danziger Landeszeitung* to suspend publications for 2 months and 8 days respectively.HeinOnline [15 League of Nations (1934\)](http://www.freecitysourcebook.com/uploads/2/6/1/2/26123343/15leagueofnationsoj214-221.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310001238/http://www.freecitysourcebook.com/uploads/2/6/1/2/26123343/15leagueofnationsoj214\-221\.pdf \|date\=2016\-03\-10 }} (translated from German)
By 1939, Polish\-German relations had worsened and war seemed a likely possibility. The police began making plans to seize Polish installations within the city, in the event of conflict.[Danzig: Der Kampf um die polnische Post](http://www.deutscheundpolen.de/ereignisse/ereignis_jsp/key=polnische_post_1939.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603221536/http://www.deutscheundpolen.de/ereignisse/ereignis\_jsp/key\=polnische\_post\_1939\.html \|date\=2016\-06\-03 }} (in German) Ultimately the Danzig police participated in the [September Campaign](/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland "Invasion of Poland"), fighting alongside the [local SS](/wiki/SS_Heimwehr_Danzig "SS Heimwehr Danzig") and the German Army [at the city's Polish post office](/wiki/Defence_of_the_Polish_Post_Office_in_Danzig "Defence of the Polish Post Office in Danzig") and [at Westerplatte](/wiki/Battle_of_Westerplatte "Battle of Westerplatte").Williamson, D. G. [Poland Betrayed: The Nazi\-Soviet Invasions of 1939](https://books.google.com/books?id=wtg8a-0ggkEC&q=subject%3A%22History+%2F+Military+%2F+World+War+II%22+poland) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105523/https://books.google.com/books?id\=wtg8a\-0ggkEC\&q\=subject%3A%22History\+%2F\+Military\+%2F\+World\+War\+II%22\+poland \|date\=2023\-03\-30 }} p. 66
Even though the Free City was [formally annexed](/wiki/Reichsgau_Danzig-West_Prussia "Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia") by [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany "Nazi Germany") in October 1939, the police force more or less continued to operate as a law enforcement agency. The [Stutthof concentration camp](/wiki/Stutthof_concentration_camp "Stutthof concentration camp"), 35 km east of the city, was run by the President of the police as an internment camp from 1939 until November 1941\.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. [Holocaust Encyclopedia – Danzig](http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005438) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507144134/https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId\=10005438 \|date\=2016\-05\-07 }} Administration was finally dissolved when the city was occupied by the [Soviets](/wiki/Red_Army "Red Army") in 1945\.
|
[
"Establishment\n-------------",
"### Periods of independence and autonomy",
"Danzig had an early history of independence. It was a leading player in the [Prussian Confederation](/wiki/Prussian_Confederation \"Prussian Confederation\") directed against the [Teutonic Monastic State of Prussia](/wiki/Monastic_State_of_the_Teutonic_Knights \"Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights\"). The Confederation stipulated with the Polish king, [Casimir IV Jagiellon](/wiki/Casimir_IV_Jagiellon \"Casimir IV Jagiellon\"), that the [Polish Crown](/wiki/Polish_Crown \"Polish Crown\") would be invested with the role of head of state of western parts of Prussia ([Royal Prussia](/wiki/Royal_Prussia \"Royal Prussia\")). In contrast, [Ducal Prussia](/wiki/Ducal_Prussia \"Ducal Prussia\") remained a Polish fief. Danzig and other cities such as [Elbing](/wiki/Elbing \"Elbing\") and [Thorn](/wiki/Toru%C5%84 \"Toruń\") financed most of the warfare and enjoyed a high level of city autonomy.",
"In 1569, when Royal Prussia's [estates](/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm \"Estates of the realm\") agreed to incorporate the region into the [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth \"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth\"), the city insisted on preserving its special status. It defended itself through the costly [Siege of Danzig](/wiki/Siege_of_Danzig_%281577%29 \"Siege of Danzig (1577)\") in 1577 in order to preserve special privileges, and subsequently insisted on negotiating by sending emissaries directly to the Polish king.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Pelczar \\|first\\=Marian \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=YeY7AAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=batory\\+gda%C5%84sk \\|title\\=Polski Gdańsk \\|date\\=1947 \\|publisher\\=Biblioteka Miejska \\|language\\=pl \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105545/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=YeY7AAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=batory\\+gda%C5%84sk \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Danzig's location as a deep\\-water port where the [Vistula river](/wiki/Vistula_river \"Vistula river\") met the [Baltic Sea](/wiki/Baltic_Sea \"Baltic Sea\") had made it into one of the wealthiest cities in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries as grain from [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\") and [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine \"Ukraine\") was shipped down the Vistula on barges to be loaded onto ships in Danzig, where it was shipped on to western Europe.Macmillan, Margaret *Paris 1919*, New York: Random House p. 211 As many of the merchants shipping the grain from Danzig were Dutch, who built Dutch\\-style houses for themselves, leading to other Danzigers imitating them, the city was thus given a distinctively Dutch appearance. Danzig become known as \"the [Amsterdam](/wiki/Amsterdam \"Amsterdam\") of the East\", a wealthy seaport and trading crossroads that linked together the economics of western and eastern Europe, and whose location at where the Vistula flowed into the Baltic led to various powers competing to rule the city.",
"Although Danzig became part of the [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia \"Kingdom of Prussia\") in the [Second Partition of Poland](/wiki/Second_Partition_of_Poland \"Second Partition of Poland\") in 1793, Prussia was conquered by [Napoleon Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte \"Napoleon Bonaparte\") in 1806, and in September 1807 Napoleon declared Danzig a semi\\-independent [client state](/wiki/Client_state \"Client state\") of the [French Empire](/wiki/First_French_Empire \"First French Empire\"), known as the [Free City of Danzig](/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig_%28Napoleonic%29 \"Free City of Danzig (Napoleonic)\"). It lasted seven years, until it was re\\-incorporated into the [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia \"Kingdom of Prussia\") in 1814, after Napoleon's defeat at the [Battle of Leipzig](/wiki/Battle_of_Leipzig \"Battle of Leipzig\") ([Battle of Nations](/wiki/Battle_of_Nations \"Battle of Nations\")) by a coalition that included Russia, Austria, and Prussia.",
"Point 13 of U.S. president [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson \"Woodrow Wilson\")'s [Fourteen Points](/wiki/Fourteen_Points \"Fourteen Points\") called for Polish independence to be restored and for Poland to have \"secure access to the sea\", a promise that implied that Danzig, which occupied a strategic location where the Vistula river flowed into the Baltic sea, should become part of Poland. At the [Paris Peace Conference](/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference%2C_1919 \"Paris Peace Conference, 1919\") in 1919, the Polish delegation led by [Roman Dmowski](/wiki/Roman_Dmowski \"Roman Dmowski\") asked for Wilson to honor point 13 of the Fourteen Points by transferring Danzig to Poland, arguing that Poland would not be economically viable without Danzig and that since the city had been part of Poland until 1793, it was rightfully part of Poland anyway.Macmillan, Margaret *Paris 1919*, New York: Random House p. 211\\. However, Wilson had promised that national self\\-determination would be the basis of the Treaty of Versailles. As 90% of the people in Danzig in this period were German, the Allied leaders at the Paris Peace Conference compromised by creating the Free City of Danzig, a city\\-state in which Poland had certain special rights.Macmillan, Margaret *Paris 1919*, New York: Random House p. 218\\. It was felt that including a city that was 90% German into Poland would be a violation of the principle of [national self\\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination \"Self-determination\"), but at the same time the promise in the Fourteen Points of allowing Poland \"secure access to the sea\" gave Poland a claim on Danzig, hence the compromise of the Free City of Danzig.",
"The Free City of Danzig was largely the work of British diplomacy as both the French Premier [Georges Clemenceau](/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau \"Georges Clemenceau\") and U.S. President Woodrow Wilson supported the Polish claim to Danzig (Gdańsk), and it was only objections from the British Prime Minister [David Lloyd George](/wiki/David_Lloyd_George \"David Lloyd George\") that prevented Danzig from going to Poland.Rothwell, Victor *The Origins of the Second World War*, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001 pp. 106–07\\. Despite creating the Free City, the British did not really believe in the viability of the Free City of Danzig with Lloyd George writing at the time: \"France would tomorrow fight for Alsace if her right to it were contested. But would we make war for Danzig?\" The Foreign Secretary [Arthur Balfour](/wiki/Arthur_Balfour \"Arthur Balfour\") wrote in the summer of 1918 that the Germans had such a ferocious contempt for Poles that it was unwise for Germany to lose any territory to Poland even if morally justified as the Germans would never accept losing land to the despised Poles and such a situation was bound to cause a war.Rothwell, Victor *The Origins of the Second World War*, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001 p. 11\\. During the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, the British consistently sought to minimize German territorial losses to Poland under the grounds that the Germans had such an utter contempt for the Poles together with the rest of the Slavic peoples that such losses were bound to deeply wound their feelings and cause a war. For all the bitterness of the [French–German enmity](/wiki/French%E2%80%93German_enmity \"French–German enmity\"), the Germans had a certain grudging respect for the French that did not extend to the Poles at all. During the Paris Peace Conference, a commission of inquiry chaired by a British historian, [James Headlam\\-Morley](/wiki/James_Headlam-Morley \"James Headlam-Morley\"), investigating where the borders between Germany and Poland should be, started to research Danzig's history.Overy, Richard \\& Wheatcroft, Andrew *The Road to War*, Random House: London 2009 p. 2\\. Upon discovering that Danzig had been a Free City in the past, Headlam\\-Morley came up with what he regarded as a brilliant compromise solution under which Danzig would become a Free City again that would belong to neither Germany nor Poland. As the British were opposed to Danzig becoming part of Poland and the French and the Americans to Danzig remaining part of Germany, Headlam\\-Morley's compromise of the Free City of Danzig was embraced.",
"The rural areas around Danzig were overwhelmingly Polish and the representatives of the Polish farmers around Danzig complained about being included in the Free City of Danzig, stating they wanted to join Poland.{{cite book \\|last\\=Macmillan \\|first\\=Margaret \\|author\\-link\\=Margaret Macmillan \\|date\\=September 2003 \\|title\\=Paris 1919 \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=Random House \\|page\\=283 \\|quote\\=\"The two men met privately and decided that Danzig should be an independent city and that Marienwerder in the corridor should also decide its own fate by plebiscite. On April 1 they persuaded a reluctant Clemenceau to agree. Lloyd George was reassuring; as Danzig’s economic ties with Poland strengthened, its inhabitants would turn like sunflowers toward Warsaw, in just the same way, he expected, as the inhabitants of the Saar would eventually realize that their true interests lay with France and not Germany. The Poles were enraged when they heard the news. “Danzig is indispensable to Poland,” said Paderewski, “which cannot breathe without its window on the sea.” According to Clemenceau, who saw him privately, he wept. “Yes,” said Wilson unsympathetically, “but you must take account of his sensitivity, which is very lively.” The fact that “our troublesome friends the Poles,” as Wilson called them, were continuing to fight around Lvov despite repeated calls from Paris for a cease\\-fire did not help Poland’s cause.\" \\|quote\\-page\\=283 \\|isbn\\=9780375760525}} For their part, the representatives of the German population of Danzig complained about being severed from Germany, and constantly demanded that the Free City of Danzig be reincorporated into the *Reich*.Macmillan, Margaret *Paris 1919*, New York: Random House p. 219\\. The Canadian historian [Margaret MacMillan](/wiki/Margaret_MacMillan \"Margaret MacMillan\") wrote that a sense of Danzig national identity emerged during the Free City's existence, and the German population of Danzig not always regarded themselves as Germans who had been unjustly taken out of Germany. The loss of Danzig did although deeply hurt German national pride and in the interwar period, German nationalists spoke of the \"open wound in the east\" that was the Free City of Danzig.Overy, Richard \\& Wheatcroft, Andrew *The Road to War*, Random House: London 2009 p. 16\\. However, until the building of [Gdynia](/wiki/Gdynia \"Gdynia\"), almost all of Poland's exports went through Danzig, and Polish public opinion was opposed to Germany having a \"choke\\-hold\" on the [Polish economy](/wiki/Polish_economy \"Polish economy\").Overy, Richard \\& Wheatcroft, Andrew *The Road to War*, Random House: London 2009 p. 3\\.",
"### Territory",
"[thumb\\|Distribution of certain German city and village names](/wiki/File:Verbreitung_bestimmter_Ortsnamen_im_Gebiet_der_Freien_Stadt_Danzig.png \"Verbreitung bestimmter Ortsnamen im Gebiet der Freien Stadt Danzig.png\")\n{{CSS image crop\\|Image \\= DAN\\-57\\-Bank von Danzig\\-1,000 Gulden (1924\\).jpg\\|bSize \\= 233\\|cWidth \\= 230\\|cHeight \\= 128\\|oTop \\= 2\\|oLeft \\= 2\\|Description\\={{center\\|1,000 \\[\\[Danzig gulden]] (1924\\) depicting City Hall}}}}\nThe Free City of Danzig (1920–39\\) included the city of Danzig (Gdańsk), the towns of [Zoppot (Sopot)](/wiki/Sopot \"Sopot\"), [Oliva (Oliwa)](/wiki/Oliwa \"Oliwa\"), [Tiegenhof (Nowy Dwór Gdański)](/wiki/Nowy_Dw%C3%B3r_Gda%C5%84ski \"Nowy Dwór Gdański\"), [Neuteich (Nowy Staw)](/wiki/Nowy_Staw \"Nowy Staw\") and some 252 villages and 63 [hamlets](/wiki/Hamlet_%28place%29 \"Hamlet (place)\"), covering a total area of 1,966 square kilometers ({{nowrap\\|759 sq mi}}). The cities of Danzig (since 1818\\) and Zoppot (since 1920\\) formed independent cities (Stadtkreise), whereas all other towns and municipalities were part of one of the three rural districts (Landkreise), [Danziger Höhe](/wiki/Danziger_H%C3%B6he \"Danziger Höhe\"), {{ill\\|Danziger Niederung\\|pl\\|Powiat Danziger Niederung}} (both seated in Danzig city) and {{ill\\|Großes Werder\\|de\\|Landkreis Großes Werder}}, seated in Tiegenhof.{{citation needed\\|date\\=September 2023}}",
"In 1928, its territory covered 1,952 km2 including 58 square kilometers of freshwater surface. The border had a length of 290\\.5 km, of which the coastline accounted for 66\\.35 km.{{cite book \\|last\\=Wagner \\|first\\=Richard \\|year\\=1929 \\|title\\=Die Freie Stadt Danzig \\|series\\=Taschenbuch des Grenz\\- und Auslanddeutschtums \\|language\\=de \\|edition\\=2\\., Auflage \\|location\\=Berlin \\|publisher\\=Deutscher Schutzbund Verlag \\|page\\=3}}",
"### Polish rights declared by Treaty of Versailles",
"The Free City was to be represented abroad by Poland and was to be in a [customs union](/wiki/Customs_union \"Customs union\") with it. The [German railway](/wiki/Deutsche_Reichsbahn \"Deutsche Reichsbahn\") line that connected the Free City with newly created Poland was to be administered by Poland, as were all rail lines in the territory of the Free City. On November 9, 1920, a convention that provided for the Presence of a Polish diplomatic representative in Danzig was signed between the Polish government and the Danzig authorities. In article 6, the Polish government undertook not to conclude any international agreements regarding Danzig without previous consultation with the Free City's government.Text in *League of Nations Treaty Series*, vol. 6, pp. 190–207\\.",
"A separate [Polish post office](/wiki/Polish_Post_Office_%28Danzig%29 \"Polish Post Office (Danzig)\") was established, besides the existing [municipal](/wiki/Municipal \"Municipal\") one.",
"### League of Nations High Commissioners",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Passport of the Free City of Danzig\\|upright\\=0\\.8](/wiki/File:Danzig_passport.jpg \"Danzig passport.jpg\")\nUnlike [Mandatory](/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate \"League of Nations mandate\") territories, which were entrusted to member countries, the Free City of Danzig (like the [Territory of the Saar Basin](/wiki/Territory_of_the_Saar_Basin \"Territory of the Saar Basin\")) remained directly under the authority of the League of Nations. Representatives of various countries took on the role of High Commissioner:{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2020}}\n[thumb\\|Polish passport issued at Danzig by the \"Polish Commission for Gdańsk\" in 1935 and extended again in 1937, before the holder immigrated to British Palestine the following year](/wiki/File:Polish_passport_issued_at_Danzing%2C_Gdansk.jpg \"Polish passport issued at Danzing, Gdansk.jpg\")",
"| No. | Name | Period | Country |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| 1 | [Reginald Tower](/wiki/Reginald_Tower \"Reginald Tower\") | 1919–1920 | {{flagcountry\\|United Kingdom}} |\n| 2 | [Edward Lisle Strutt](/wiki/Edward_Lisle_Strutt \"Edward Lisle Strutt\") | 1920 | {{flagcountry\\|United Kingdom}} |\n| 3 | [Bernardo Attolico](/wiki/Bernardo_Attolico \"Bernardo Attolico\") | 1920 | {{flagcountry\\|Kingdom of Italy}} |\n| 4 | [Richard Haking](/wiki/Richard_Haking \"Richard Haking\") | 1921–1923 | {{flagcountry\\|United Kingdom}} |\n| 5 | {{ill\\|Mervyn Sorley McDonnell\\|pl\\|Mervyn MacDonnell\\|de\\|Mervyn MacDonnell}} | 1923–1925 | {{flagcountry\\|United Kingdom}} |\n| 6 | {{ill\\|Joost Adriaan van Hamel\\|nl\\|\\|de}} | 1925–1929 | {{flagcountry\\|Netherlands}} |\n| 7 | {{ill\\|Manfredi di Gravina\\|de\\|Manfredi Gravina\\|sv\\|Manfredi Gravina}} | 1929–1932 | {{flagcountry\\|Kingdom of Italy}} |\n| 8 | {{ill\\|Helmer Rosting\\|da\\|\\|de\\|\\|pl}} | 1932–1934 | {{flagcountry\\|Denmark}} |\n| 9 | [Seán Lester](/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_Lester \"Seán Lester\") | 1934–1936 | {{flagcountry\\|Irish Free State}} |\n| 10 | [Carl Jacob Burckhardt](/wiki/Carl_Jacob_Burckhardt \"Carl Jacob Burckhardt\") | 1937–1939 | {{flagcountry\\|Switzerland}} |",
"",
"The League of Nations refused to let the city\\-state use the term of *[Hanseatic City](/wiki/Hanseatic_League \"Hanseatic League\")* as part of its official name; this referred to Danzig's long\\-lasting membership in the [Hanseatic League](/wiki/Hanseatic_League \"Hanseatic League\"):{{explain\\|date\\=November 2023}}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://library.fes.de/breslau/pdf/a20715/a20715\\_07\\.pdf \\|title\\=Ostdeutschlands Arbeiterbewegung: Abriß ihrer Geschichte, Leistung und Opfer \\|first1\\=Wilhelm \\|last1\\=Matull \\|publisher\\=Holzner \\|year\\=1973 \\|page\\=419 \\|language\\=de \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-01\\-26 \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-08\\-10 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810074811/http://library.fes.de/breslau/pdf/a20715/a20715\\_07\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"### State Constabulary",
"{{main\\|Free City of Danzig Police}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Danzig police arrest a protester in the aftermath of the [1933 Parliamentary Elections](/wiki/1933_Free_City_of_Danzig_parliamentary_election \"1933 Free City of Danzig parliamentary election\")](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-14649%2C_Danzig%2C_Verhaftung_am_Wahltag.jpg \"Bundesarchiv Bild 102-14649, Danzig, Verhaftung am Wahltag.jpg\")\nWith the creation of the Free City in the [aftermath of World War I](/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I \"Aftermath of World War I\") a security police force was created on 19 August 1919\\. On 9 April 1920, a military style marching band, the *Musikkorps*, was formed. Led by composer Ernst Stieberitz, the [police band](/wiki/Police_band_%28music%29 \"Police band (music)\") became well known in the city and abroad. In 1921, Danzig's government reformed the entire institution and established the *[Schutzpolizei](/wiki/Schutzpolizei \"Schutzpolizei\")*, or protection police.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.danzig\\-online.pl/grenze/polizeie.html \\|title\\=Polizei der Freie Stadt Danzig \\|website\\=www.danzig\\-online.pl \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-02\\-28 \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-04 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304091715/http://www.danzig\\-online.pl/grenze/polizeie.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} Helmut Froböss became President of the Police (i. e. [Chief](/wiki/Chief_of_police \"Chief of police\")) on 1 April 1921\\. He served in this capacity until the German [annexation](/wiki/Annexation \"Annexation\") of the city.",
"The police initially operated from 12 precincts and 7 registration points. In 1926 the number of precincts was reduced to 7\\.",
"After the Nazi takeover of the Senate, the police were increasingly used to suppress free speech and political dissent.[Policja. Kwartalnik kadry kierowniczej Policji](https://www.academia.edu/1862924/Działalność_policji_politycznej_w_Wolnym_Mieście_Gdańsku_w_latach_1920-1939_w_Policja._Kwartalnik_kadry_kierowniczej_Policji_4_2011_s._59-71) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620152655/http://www.academia.edu/1862924/Dzia%C5%82alno%C5%9B%C4%87\\_policji\\_politycznej\\_w\\_Wolnym\\_Mie%C5%9Bcie\\_Gda%C5%84sku\\_w\\_latach\\_1920\\-1939\\_w\\_Policja.\\_Kwartalnik\\_kadry\\_kierowniczej\\_Policji\\_4\\_2011\\_s.\\_59\\-71 \\|date\\=2017\\-06\\-20 }} (in Polish) In 1933, Froböss ordered the left\\-wing newspapers *Danziger Volksstimme* and *Danziger Landeszeitung* to suspend publications for 2 months and 8 days respectively.HeinOnline [15 League of Nations (1934\\)](http://www.freecitysourcebook.com/uploads/2/6/1/2/26123343/15leagueofnationsoj214-221.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310001238/http://www.freecitysourcebook.com/uploads/2/6/1/2/26123343/15leagueofnationsoj214\\-221\\.pdf \\|date\\=2016\\-03\\-10 }} (translated from German)",
"By 1939, Polish\\-German relations had worsened and war seemed a likely possibility. The police began making plans to seize Polish installations within the city, in the event of conflict.[Danzig: Der Kampf um die polnische Post](http://www.deutscheundpolen.de/ereignisse/ereignis_jsp/key=polnische_post_1939.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603221536/http://www.deutscheundpolen.de/ereignisse/ereignis\\_jsp/key\\=polnische\\_post\\_1939\\.html \\|date\\=2016\\-06\\-03 }} (in German) Ultimately the Danzig police participated in the [September Campaign](/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland \"Invasion of Poland\"), fighting alongside the [local SS](/wiki/SS_Heimwehr_Danzig \"SS Heimwehr Danzig\") and the German Army [at the city's Polish post office](/wiki/Defence_of_the_Polish_Post_Office_in_Danzig \"Defence of the Polish Post Office in Danzig\") and [at Westerplatte](/wiki/Battle_of_Westerplatte \"Battle of Westerplatte\").Williamson, D. G. [Poland Betrayed: The Nazi\\-Soviet Invasions of 1939](https://books.google.com/books?id=wtg8a-0ggkEC&q=subject%3A%22History+%2F+Military+%2F+World+War+II%22+poland) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105523/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=wtg8a\\-0ggkEC\\&q\\=subject%3A%22History\\+%2F\\+Military\\+%2F\\+World\\+War\\+II%22\\+poland \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 }} p. 66",
"Even though the Free City was [formally annexed](/wiki/Reichsgau_Danzig-West_Prussia \"Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia\") by [Nazi Germany](/wiki/Nazi_Germany \"Nazi Germany\") in October 1939, the police force more or less continued to operate as a law enforcement agency. The [Stutthof concentration camp](/wiki/Stutthof_concentration_camp \"Stutthof concentration camp\"), 35 km east of the city, was run by the President of the police as an internment camp from 1939 until November 1941\\.United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. [Holocaust Encyclopedia – Danzig](http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005438) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507144134/https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId\\=10005438 \\|date\\=2016\\-05\\-07 }} Administration was finally dissolved when the city was occupied by the [Soviets](/wiki/Red_Army \"Red Army\") in 1945\\.",
""
] |
### Periods of independence and autonomy
Danzig had an early history of independence. It was a leading player in the [Prussian Confederation](/wiki/Prussian_Confederation "Prussian Confederation") directed against the [Teutonic Monastic State of Prussia](/wiki/Monastic_State_of_the_Teutonic_Knights "Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights"). The Confederation stipulated with the Polish king, [Casimir IV Jagiellon](/wiki/Casimir_IV_Jagiellon "Casimir IV Jagiellon"), that the [Polish Crown](/wiki/Polish_Crown "Polish Crown") would be invested with the role of head of state of western parts of Prussia ([Royal Prussia](/wiki/Royal_Prussia "Royal Prussia")). In contrast, [Ducal Prussia](/wiki/Ducal_Prussia "Ducal Prussia") remained a Polish fief. Danzig and other cities such as [Elbing](/wiki/Elbing "Elbing") and [Thorn](/wiki/Toru%C5%84 "Toruń") financed most of the warfare and enjoyed a high level of city autonomy.
In 1569, when Royal Prussia's [estates](/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm "Estates of the realm") agreed to incorporate the region into the [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth "Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth"), the city insisted on preserving its special status. It defended itself through the costly [Siege of Danzig](/wiki/Siege_of_Danzig_%281577%29 "Siege of Danzig (1577)") in 1577 in order to preserve special privileges, and subsequently insisted on negotiating by sending emissaries directly to the Polish king.{{Cite book \|last\=Pelczar \|first\=Marian \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=YeY7AAAAMAAJ\&q\=batory\+gda%C5%84sk \|title\=Polski Gdańsk \|date\=1947 \|publisher\=Biblioteka Miejska \|language\=pl \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105545/https://books.google.com/books?id\=YeY7AAAAMAAJ\&q\=batory\+gda%C5%84sk \|url\-status\=live }} Danzig's location as a deep\-water port where the [Vistula river](/wiki/Vistula_river "Vistula river") met the [Baltic Sea](/wiki/Baltic_Sea "Baltic Sea") had made it into one of the wealthiest cities in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries as grain from [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland") and [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine") was shipped down the Vistula on barges to be loaded onto ships in Danzig, where it was shipped on to western Europe.Macmillan, Margaret *Paris 1919*, New York: Random House p. 211 As many of the merchants shipping the grain from Danzig were Dutch, who built Dutch\-style houses for themselves, leading to other Danzigers imitating them, the city was thus given a distinctively Dutch appearance. Danzig become known as "the [Amsterdam](/wiki/Amsterdam "Amsterdam") of the East", a wealthy seaport and trading crossroads that linked together the economics of western and eastern Europe, and whose location at where the Vistula flowed into the Baltic led to various powers competing to rule the city.
Although Danzig became part of the [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia "Kingdom of Prussia") in the [Second Partition of Poland](/wiki/Second_Partition_of_Poland "Second Partition of Poland") in 1793, Prussia was conquered by [Napoleon Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte "Napoleon Bonaparte") in 1806, and in September 1807 Napoleon declared Danzig a semi\-independent [client state](/wiki/Client_state "Client state") of the [French Empire](/wiki/First_French_Empire "First French Empire"), known as the [Free City of Danzig](/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig_%28Napoleonic%29 "Free City of Danzig (Napoleonic)"). It lasted seven years, until it was re\-incorporated into the [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia "Kingdom of Prussia") in 1814, after Napoleon's defeat at the [Battle of Leipzig](/wiki/Battle_of_Leipzig "Battle of Leipzig") ([Battle of Nations](/wiki/Battle_of_Nations "Battle of Nations")) by a coalition that included Russia, Austria, and Prussia.
Point 13 of U.S. president [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson "Woodrow Wilson")'s [Fourteen Points](/wiki/Fourteen_Points "Fourteen Points") called for Polish independence to be restored and for Poland to have "secure access to the sea", a promise that implied that Danzig, which occupied a strategic location where the Vistula river flowed into the Baltic sea, should become part of Poland. At the [Paris Peace Conference](/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference%2C_1919 "Paris Peace Conference, 1919") in 1919, the Polish delegation led by [Roman Dmowski](/wiki/Roman_Dmowski "Roman Dmowski") asked for Wilson to honor point 13 of the Fourteen Points by transferring Danzig to Poland, arguing that Poland would not be economically viable without Danzig and that since the city had been part of Poland until 1793, it was rightfully part of Poland anyway.Macmillan, Margaret *Paris 1919*, New York: Random House p. 211\. However, Wilson had promised that national self\-determination would be the basis of the Treaty of Versailles. As 90% of the people in Danzig in this period were German, the Allied leaders at the Paris Peace Conference compromised by creating the Free City of Danzig, a city\-state in which Poland had certain special rights.Macmillan, Margaret *Paris 1919*, New York: Random House p. 218\. It was felt that including a city that was 90% German into Poland would be a violation of the principle of [national self\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination "Self-determination"), but at the same time the promise in the Fourteen Points of allowing Poland "secure access to the sea" gave Poland a claim on Danzig, hence the compromise of the Free City of Danzig.
The Free City of Danzig was largely the work of British diplomacy as both the French Premier [Georges Clemenceau](/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau "Georges Clemenceau") and U.S. President Woodrow Wilson supported the Polish claim to Danzig (Gdańsk), and it was only objections from the British Prime Minister [David Lloyd George](/wiki/David_Lloyd_George "David Lloyd George") that prevented Danzig from going to Poland.Rothwell, Victor *The Origins of the Second World War*, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001 pp. 106–07\. Despite creating the Free City, the British did not really believe in the viability of the Free City of Danzig with Lloyd George writing at the time: "France would tomorrow fight for Alsace if her right to it were contested. But would we make war for Danzig?" The Foreign Secretary [Arthur Balfour](/wiki/Arthur_Balfour "Arthur Balfour") wrote in the summer of 1918 that the Germans had such a ferocious contempt for Poles that it was unwise for Germany to lose any territory to Poland even if morally justified as the Germans would never accept losing land to the despised Poles and such a situation was bound to cause a war.Rothwell, Victor *The Origins of the Second World War*, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001 p. 11\. During the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, the British consistently sought to minimize German territorial losses to Poland under the grounds that the Germans had such an utter contempt for the Poles together with the rest of the Slavic peoples that such losses were bound to deeply wound their feelings and cause a war. For all the bitterness of the [French–German enmity](/wiki/French%E2%80%93German_enmity "French–German enmity"), the Germans had a certain grudging respect for the French that did not extend to the Poles at all. During the Paris Peace Conference, a commission of inquiry chaired by a British historian, [James Headlam\-Morley](/wiki/James_Headlam-Morley "James Headlam-Morley"), investigating where the borders between Germany and Poland should be, started to research Danzig's history.Overy, Richard \& Wheatcroft, Andrew *The Road to War*, Random House: London 2009 p. 2\. Upon discovering that Danzig had been a Free City in the past, Headlam\-Morley came up with what he regarded as a brilliant compromise solution under which Danzig would become a Free City again that would belong to neither Germany nor Poland. As the British were opposed to Danzig becoming part of Poland and the French and the Americans to Danzig remaining part of Germany, Headlam\-Morley's compromise of the Free City of Danzig was embraced.
The rural areas around Danzig were overwhelmingly Polish and the representatives of the Polish farmers around Danzig complained about being included in the Free City of Danzig, stating they wanted to join Poland.{{cite book \|last\=Macmillan \|first\=Margaret \|author\-link\=Margaret Macmillan \|date\=September 2003 \|title\=Paris 1919 \|location\=New York \|publisher\=Random House \|page\=283 \|quote\="The two men met privately and decided that Danzig should be an independent city and that Marienwerder in the corridor should also decide its own fate by plebiscite. On April 1 they persuaded a reluctant Clemenceau to agree. Lloyd George was reassuring; as Danzig’s economic ties with Poland strengthened, its inhabitants would turn like sunflowers toward Warsaw, in just the same way, he expected, as the inhabitants of the Saar would eventually realize that their true interests lay with France and not Germany. The Poles were enraged when they heard the news. “Danzig is indispensable to Poland,” said Paderewski, “which cannot breathe without its window on the sea.” According to Clemenceau, who saw him privately, he wept. “Yes,” said Wilson unsympathetically, “but you must take account of his sensitivity, which is very lively.” The fact that “our troublesome friends the Poles,” as Wilson called them, were continuing to fight around Lvov despite repeated calls from Paris for a cease\-fire did not help Poland’s cause." \|quote\-page\=283 \|isbn\=9780375760525}} For their part, the representatives of the German population of Danzig complained about being severed from Germany, and constantly demanded that the Free City of Danzig be reincorporated into the *Reich*.Macmillan, Margaret *Paris 1919*, New York: Random House p. 219\. The Canadian historian [Margaret MacMillan](/wiki/Margaret_MacMillan "Margaret MacMillan") wrote that a sense of Danzig national identity emerged during the Free City's existence, and the German population of Danzig not always regarded themselves as Germans who had been unjustly taken out of Germany. The loss of Danzig did although deeply hurt German national pride and in the interwar period, German nationalists spoke of the "open wound in the east" that was the Free City of Danzig.Overy, Richard \& Wheatcroft, Andrew *The Road to War*, Random House: London 2009 p. 16\. However, until the building of [Gdynia](/wiki/Gdynia "Gdynia"), almost all of Poland's exports went through Danzig, and Polish public opinion was opposed to Germany having a "choke\-hold" on the [Polish economy](/wiki/Polish_economy "Polish economy").Overy, Richard \& Wheatcroft, Andrew *The Road to War*, Random House: London 2009 p. 3\.
|
[
"### Periods of independence and autonomy",
"Danzig had an early history of independence. It was a leading player in the [Prussian Confederation](/wiki/Prussian_Confederation \"Prussian Confederation\") directed against the [Teutonic Monastic State of Prussia](/wiki/Monastic_State_of_the_Teutonic_Knights \"Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights\"). The Confederation stipulated with the Polish king, [Casimir IV Jagiellon](/wiki/Casimir_IV_Jagiellon \"Casimir IV Jagiellon\"), that the [Polish Crown](/wiki/Polish_Crown \"Polish Crown\") would be invested with the role of head of state of western parts of Prussia ([Royal Prussia](/wiki/Royal_Prussia \"Royal Prussia\")). In contrast, [Ducal Prussia](/wiki/Ducal_Prussia \"Ducal Prussia\") remained a Polish fief. Danzig and other cities such as [Elbing](/wiki/Elbing \"Elbing\") and [Thorn](/wiki/Toru%C5%84 \"Toruń\") financed most of the warfare and enjoyed a high level of city autonomy.",
"In 1569, when Royal Prussia's [estates](/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm \"Estates of the realm\") agreed to incorporate the region into the [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth \"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth\"), the city insisted on preserving its special status. It defended itself through the costly [Siege of Danzig](/wiki/Siege_of_Danzig_%281577%29 \"Siege of Danzig (1577)\") in 1577 in order to preserve special privileges, and subsequently insisted on negotiating by sending emissaries directly to the Polish king.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Pelczar \\|first\\=Marian \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=YeY7AAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=batory\\+gda%C5%84sk \\|title\\=Polski Gdańsk \\|date\\=1947 \\|publisher\\=Biblioteka Miejska \\|language\\=pl \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105545/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=YeY7AAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=batory\\+gda%C5%84sk \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Danzig's location as a deep\\-water port where the [Vistula river](/wiki/Vistula_river \"Vistula river\") met the [Baltic Sea](/wiki/Baltic_Sea \"Baltic Sea\") had made it into one of the wealthiest cities in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries as grain from [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\") and [Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine \"Ukraine\") was shipped down the Vistula on barges to be loaded onto ships in Danzig, where it was shipped on to western Europe.Macmillan, Margaret *Paris 1919*, New York: Random House p. 211 As many of the merchants shipping the grain from Danzig were Dutch, who built Dutch\\-style houses for themselves, leading to other Danzigers imitating them, the city was thus given a distinctively Dutch appearance. Danzig become known as \"the [Amsterdam](/wiki/Amsterdam \"Amsterdam\") of the East\", a wealthy seaport and trading crossroads that linked together the economics of western and eastern Europe, and whose location at where the Vistula flowed into the Baltic led to various powers competing to rule the city.",
"Although Danzig became part of the [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia \"Kingdom of Prussia\") in the [Second Partition of Poland](/wiki/Second_Partition_of_Poland \"Second Partition of Poland\") in 1793, Prussia was conquered by [Napoleon Bonaparte](/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte \"Napoleon Bonaparte\") in 1806, and in September 1807 Napoleon declared Danzig a semi\\-independent [client state](/wiki/Client_state \"Client state\") of the [French Empire](/wiki/First_French_Empire \"First French Empire\"), known as the [Free City of Danzig](/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig_%28Napoleonic%29 \"Free City of Danzig (Napoleonic)\"). It lasted seven years, until it was re\\-incorporated into the [Kingdom of Prussia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia \"Kingdom of Prussia\") in 1814, after Napoleon's defeat at the [Battle of Leipzig](/wiki/Battle_of_Leipzig \"Battle of Leipzig\") ([Battle of Nations](/wiki/Battle_of_Nations \"Battle of Nations\")) by a coalition that included Russia, Austria, and Prussia.",
"Point 13 of U.S. president [Woodrow Wilson](/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson \"Woodrow Wilson\")'s [Fourteen Points](/wiki/Fourteen_Points \"Fourteen Points\") called for Polish independence to be restored and for Poland to have \"secure access to the sea\", a promise that implied that Danzig, which occupied a strategic location where the Vistula river flowed into the Baltic sea, should become part of Poland. At the [Paris Peace Conference](/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference%2C_1919 \"Paris Peace Conference, 1919\") in 1919, the Polish delegation led by [Roman Dmowski](/wiki/Roman_Dmowski \"Roman Dmowski\") asked for Wilson to honor point 13 of the Fourteen Points by transferring Danzig to Poland, arguing that Poland would not be economically viable without Danzig and that since the city had been part of Poland until 1793, it was rightfully part of Poland anyway.Macmillan, Margaret *Paris 1919*, New York: Random House p. 211\\. However, Wilson had promised that national self\\-determination would be the basis of the Treaty of Versailles. As 90% of the people in Danzig in this period were German, the Allied leaders at the Paris Peace Conference compromised by creating the Free City of Danzig, a city\\-state in which Poland had certain special rights.Macmillan, Margaret *Paris 1919*, New York: Random House p. 218\\. It was felt that including a city that was 90% German into Poland would be a violation of the principle of [national self\\-determination](/wiki/Self-determination \"Self-determination\"), but at the same time the promise in the Fourteen Points of allowing Poland \"secure access to the sea\" gave Poland a claim on Danzig, hence the compromise of the Free City of Danzig.",
"The Free City of Danzig was largely the work of British diplomacy as both the French Premier [Georges Clemenceau](/wiki/Georges_Clemenceau \"Georges Clemenceau\") and U.S. President Woodrow Wilson supported the Polish claim to Danzig (Gdańsk), and it was only objections from the British Prime Minister [David Lloyd George](/wiki/David_Lloyd_George \"David Lloyd George\") that prevented Danzig from going to Poland.Rothwell, Victor *The Origins of the Second World War*, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001 pp. 106–07\\. Despite creating the Free City, the British did not really believe in the viability of the Free City of Danzig with Lloyd George writing at the time: \"France would tomorrow fight for Alsace if her right to it were contested. But would we make war for Danzig?\" The Foreign Secretary [Arthur Balfour](/wiki/Arthur_Balfour \"Arthur Balfour\") wrote in the summer of 1918 that the Germans had such a ferocious contempt for Poles that it was unwise for Germany to lose any territory to Poland even if morally justified as the Germans would never accept losing land to the despised Poles and such a situation was bound to cause a war.Rothwell, Victor *The Origins of the Second World War*, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001 p. 11\\. During the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, the British consistently sought to minimize German territorial losses to Poland under the grounds that the Germans had such an utter contempt for the Poles together with the rest of the Slavic peoples that such losses were bound to deeply wound their feelings and cause a war. For all the bitterness of the [French–German enmity](/wiki/French%E2%80%93German_enmity \"French–German enmity\"), the Germans had a certain grudging respect for the French that did not extend to the Poles at all. During the Paris Peace Conference, a commission of inquiry chaired by a British historian, [James Headlam\\-Morley](/wiki/James_Headlam-Morley \"James Headlam-Morley\"), investigating where the borders between Germany and Poland should be, started to research Danzig's history.Overy, Richard \\& Wheatcroft, Andrew *The Road to War*, Random House: London 2009 p. 2\\. Upon discovering that Danzig had been a Free City in the past, Headlam\\-Morley came up with what he regarded as a brilliant compromise solution under which Danzig would become a Free City again that would belong to neither Germany nor Poland. As the British were opposed to Danzig becoming part of Poland and the French and the Americans to Danzig remaining part of Germany, Headlam\\-Morley's compromise of the Free City of Danzig was embraced.",
"The rural areas around Danzig were overwhelmingly Polish and the representatives of the Polish farmers around Danzig complained about being included in the Free City of Danzig, stating they wanted to join Poland.{{cite book \\|last\\=Macmillan \\|first\\=Margaret \\|author\\-link\\=Margaret Macmillan \\|date\\=September 2003 \\|title\\=Paris 1919 \\|location\\=New York \\|publisher\\=Random House \\|page\\=283 \\|quote\\=\"The two men met privately and decided that Danzig should be an independent city and that Marienwerder in the corridor should also decide its own fate by plebiscite. On April 1 they persuaded a reluctant Clemenceau to agree. Lloyd George was reassuring; as Danzig’s economic ties with Poland strengthened, its inhabitants would turn like sunflowers toward Warsaw, in just the same way, he expected, as the inhabitants of the Saar would eventually realize that their true interests lay with France and not Germany. The Poles were enraged when they heard the news. “Danzig is indispensable to Poland,” said Paderewski, “which cannot breathe without its window on the sea.” According to Clemenceau, who saw him privately, he wept. “Yes,” said Wilson unsympathetically, “but you must take account of his sensitivity, which is very lively.” The fact that “our troublesome friends the Poles,” as Wilson called them, were continuing to fight around Lvov despite repeated calls from Paris for a cease\\-fire did not help Poland’s cause.\" \\|quote\\-page\\=283 \\|isbn\\=9780375760525}} For their part, the representatives of the German population of Danzig complained about being severed from Germany, and constantly demanded that the Free City of Danzig be reincorporated into the *Reich*.Macmillan, Margaret *Paris 1919*, New York: Random House p. 219\\. The Canadian historian [Margaret MacMillan](/wiki/Margaret_MacMillan \"Margaret MacMillan\") wrote that a sense of Danzig national identity emerged during the Free City's existence, and the German population of Danzig not always regarded themselves as Germans who had been unjustly taken out of Germany. The loss of Danzig did although deeply hurt German national pride and in the interwar period, German nationalists spoke of the \"open wound in the east\" that was the Free City of Danzig.Overy, Richard \\& Wheatcroft, Andrew *The Road to War*, Random House: London 2009 p. 16\\. However, until the building of [Gdynia](/wiki/Gdynia \"Gdynia\"), almost all of Poland's exports went through Danzig, and Polish public opinion was opposed to Germany having a \"choke\\-hold\" on the [Polish economy](/wiki/Polish_economy \"Polish economy\").Overy, Richard \\& Wheatcroft, Andrew *The Road to War*, Random House: London 2009 p. 3\\.",
""
] |
Population
----------
[thumb\|upright\=1\.15\|[Population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") of [Poland](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic "Second Polish Republic") and the Free City of Danzig (Gdańsk), 1930](/wiki/File:Polska_II_RP_gestosc_zaludnienia.jpg "Polska II RP gestosc zaludnienia.jpg")
The population and demographics of the Free City are a matter of some dispute over the period of its existence.
The Free City's population rose from 357,000 (1919\) to 408,000 in 1929; according to the official census, 95% were [Germans](/wiki/Germans "Germans"),{{cite book \|last\=Mason \|first\=John Brown \|title\=The Danzig Dilemma, A Study in Peacemaking by Compromise \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=ORWrAAAAIAAJ \|access\-date\=2011\-04\-26 \|year\=1946 \|publisher\=Stanford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-8047\-2444\-9 \|page\= \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105525/https://books.google.com/books?id\=ORWrAAAAIAAJ \|url\-status\=live }}{{rp\|5, 11}} with the rest mainly either [Kashubians](/wiki/Kashubians "Kashubians") or [Poles](/wiki/Polish_people "Polish people"). According to E. Cieślak, the population registers of the Free City show that in 1929 the Polish population numbered 35,000, or 10\.7% of the population.{{cite book \|last1\=Cieślak \|first1\=Edmund \|last2\=Biernat \|first2\=Czesław \|author\-link1\=:pl:Edmund Cieślak \|author\-link2\=:pl:Czesław Biernat \|date\=1969 \|title\=Dzieje Gdańska\|location\=Gdańsk \|publisher\=Wydawnictwo Morskie \|language\=pl \|page\=473 \|isbn\=9788321572116 \|quote\="Spis ludności Wolnego Miasta Gdańska z 1929 r. wykazywał ponad 35 tysięcy ludności polskiej mającej obywatelstwo gdańskie lub polskie, ale zamieszkującej na terytorium Wolnego Miasta. W samym Gdańsku i Sopocie procent ten wynosił odpowiednio 10,7 i 21,1 %. \|trans\-quote\="The 1929 census of the Free City of Danzig showed more than 35,000 Polish people with Danzig or Polish citizenship but residing in the territory of the Free City. In Danzig and Sopot alone, this percentage was 10\.7 and 21\.1 % respectively." \|quote\-page\=473}} Some estimates put the proportion of Danzig Poles between at between 10 and 13%.{{cite book \|last1\=Cieślak \|first1\=Edmund \|title\=Dzieje Gdańska \|last2\=Biernat \|first2\=Czesław \|date\=1969 \|publisher\=Wydawnictwo Morskie \|isbn\=9788321572116 \|location\=Gdańsk \|page\=473 \|language\=pl \|quote\="Spis ludności Wolnego Miasta Gdańska z 1929 r. wykazywał ponad 35 tysięcy ludności polskiej mającej obywatelstwo gdańskie lub polskie, ale zamieszkującej na terytorium Wolnego Miasta. W samym Gdańsku i Sopocie procent ten wynosił odpowiednio 10,7 i 21,1 %. \|author\-link1\=:pl:Edmund Cieślak \|author\-link2\=:pl:Czesław Biernat \|trans\-quote\="The 1929 census of the Free City of Danzig showed more than 35,000 Polish people with Danzig or Polish citizenship but residing in the territory of the Free City. In Danzig and Sopot alone, this percentage was 10\.7 and 21\.1 % respectively." \|quote\-page\=473}}Zapiski historyczne: Volume 60, p. 256, *Towarzystwo Naukowe w Toruniu.* Wydział Nauk Historycznych – 1995 Henryk Stępniak estimates the 1929 Polish population as around 22,000, or around 6% of the population, increasing to around 13% in the 1930s.
In the 1920s and 1930s, the Polish population increased. According to some sources, in 1938, the Free City's population of 410,000 was 98% German, 1% Polish and 1% other.{{cite book \|last\=Mason \|first\=John Brown \|title\=The Danzig Dilemma; a Study in Peacemaking by Compromise \|pages\=4–5}} Other estimates suggest the proportion of Poles in the population of the Free City was around 20% in 1939\.{{cite journal \|last\=Somogyi \|first\=Renáta \|date\=2023 \|title\=Poland and the Local Poles in the Free City of Danzig between the two World Wars \|url\=http://real.mtak.hu/164147/1/05\_somogyi\_77\-92\_ActaHumana2023\_1\.pdf \|journal\=Acta Humana \|volume\=1 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=77–92 \|doi\=10\.32566/ah.2023\.1\.5 \|s2cid\=258286366}}
Based on the estimated voting patterns (according to Stępniak many Poles voted for the Catholic [Zentrumspartei](/wiki/Zentrumspartei "Zentrumspartei") instead of Polish parties), Stępniak estimates the number of Poles in the city to be 25–30% of Catholics living within it or about 30–36 thousand people. Including around 4,000 Polish nationals who were registered in the city, Stępniak estimated the Polish population as 9\.4–11% of population.Ludność polska w Wolnym Mieście Gdańsku, 1920–1939, page 37, Henryk Stępniak, Wydawnictwo "Stella Maris", 1991, "Przyjmując, że Polacy gdańscy stanowili 25–30% ogólnej liczby ludności katolickiej Wolnego Miasta Gdańska, liczącej w 1920 r. około 110 000 osób, można ustalić, że w liczbach bezwzględnych stanowiło można ustalić, że w liczbach bezwzględnych stanowiło to 30\- – 36 tyś. osób. Jeśli do liczby tej dodamy ok. 4 tyś. ludności obywatelstwa polskiego, otrzymamy łącznie ok. 9,4–11% ogółu ludności."
In contrast, Stefan Samerski estimates about 10 percent of the 130,000 Catholics were Polish.{{cite book \|last\=Samerski \|first\=Stefan \|title\=Das Bistum Danzig in Lebensbildern \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=VMvgZQrdkxcC \|year\=2003 \|publisher\=LIT Verlag \|language\=de \|isbn\=978\-3\-8258\-6284\-8 \|page\=8 \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105522/https://books.google.com/books?id\=VMvgZQrdkxcC \|url\-status\=live }} Andrzej Drzycimski estimates that Polish population at the end of 30s reached 20% (including Poles who arrived after the war).Stuthoff Zeszyty 4 4 Stanislaw Mikos Recenzje i omówienia *Andrzej Drzycimski, Polacy w Wolnym Mieście Gdańsku /1920 – 1933/. Polityka Seantu gdańskiego wobec ludności polskiej* Wrocław – Warszawa – Kraków – Gdańsk 1978,
The Polish population increased disproportionately in the 1920s and 1930s and was estimated at 20% shortly before the start of World War II in 1939\. The Catholic priest [Franciszek Rogaczewski](/wiki/Franciszek_Rogaczewski "Franciszek Rogaczewski") estimated that Poles made up about 20% of the population of the Free City of Danzig in 1936\.{{cite journal \|last\=Waszkiewicz \|first\=Zofia \|author\-link\=:pl:Zofia Waszkiewicz \|date\=April 2006 \|url\=https://bazhum.muzhp.pl/media/files/Dzieje\_Najnowsze\_kwartalnik\_poswiecony\_historii\_XX\_wieku\_/Dzieje\_Najnowsze\_kwartalnik\_poswiecony\_historii\_XX\_wieku\_\-r2006\-t38\-n4/Dzieje\_Najnowsze\_kwartalnik\_poswiecony\_historii\_XX\_wieku\_\-r2006\-t38\-n4\-s53\-70/Dzieje\_Najnowsze\_kwartalnik\_poswiecony\_historii\_XX\_wieku\_\-r2006\-t38\-n4\-s53\-70\.pdf \|title\=Polska a polityka Stolicy Apostolskiej wobec Wolnego Miasta Gdańska (rokowania o konkordat i ustanowienie w Gdańsku polskich parafii personalnych) \|journal\=Dzieje Najnowsze \|volume\=38 \|issue\=4 \|pages\=53–70 \|issn\=0419\-8824 \|location\=Toruń \|language\=pl }} The accuracy of demographic estimates is complicated by the discrepancy between the ethnic and linguistic identities of the Danzig population \- while 95% of the inhabitants of the Free City of Danzig were German\-speaking, many Poles were bilingual and also spoke German, and were included in such estimates. Another significant minority were the Kashubs, another West Slavic group who derived their [language](/wiki/Kashubian_language "Kashubian language") from [Pomeranian](/wiki/Pomeranian_language "Pomeranian language") and had their own independent identity. Additionally, as the result of [Kulturkampf](/wiki/Kulturkampf "Kulturkampf") laws, German Catholics, who made up about 40% of the city's population, supported the Polish national movement and stood up for Polish interests.{{cite journal \|last\=Blanke \|first\=Richard \|date\=June 1983 \|url\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40868112 \|title\=The Polish Role in the Origin of the Kulturkampf in Prussia \|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis, Ltd. \|journal\=Canadian Slavonic Papers \|volume\=25 \|issue\=2 \|pages\=253–262 \|doi\=10\.1080/00085006\.1983\.11091739 \|jstor\=40868112 }} This was further exacerbated by anti\-Catholic legislation introduced by NSDAP\-dominated Danzig Senate, which involved arrests of Catholic clergy as well as the activists and members of the [Catholic Centre Party](/wiki/Catholic_Centre_Party "Catholic Centre Party").{{cite news\| url \= https://www.nytimes.com/1937/10/20/archives/poles\-are\-angered\-by\-danzig\-attacks\-campaign\-against\-catholics\-by.html\| title \= NY Times report\| website \= \[\[The New York Times]]\| date \= 20 October 1937\| page\=19}} The Catholic Centre Party was friendly to the Danzig Poles, and many Poles voted for the Centre Party instead of Polish organisations. The German Catholic clergy in Danzig also strongly supported the Polish minority, and the [Bishop of Danzig](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Gda%C5%84sk "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gdańsk"), [Edward O'Rourke](/wiki/Edward_O%27Rourke "Edward O'Rourke"), actively fought for the interests of Danzig Poles.
In 1929, Tadeusz Kijański, a Polish citizen of Danzig, questioned the results of the official 1923 census, according to which only 3% to 1% of the Danzig population was Polish. Kijański pointed out that the census was conducted by the police, which was "a deviation from the usual and only sensible and proven way of conducting this type of census". The police officers in charge of conducting the census were mostly German citizens who were granted Danzig citizenship for the duration of their service, and there were several incidents in which they intimidated the local non\-German population. The census also often relied on information provided by landlords or homeowners instead of asking each citizen directly; as a result, Kijański stated that "the results of the census show significant deviations from the actual proportions in terms of nationality data".{{cite book \|first1\=Tadeusz \|last1\=Kijański \|title\=Ilu jest Polaków na terenie Wolnego Miasta Gdańska \|url\=https://pbc.gda.pl/dlibra/doccontent?id\=5433 \|year\=1929 \|location\=Danzig \|publisher\=\[\[Gdańsk University of Technology Library]] \|series\=RG 2\-3 \|pages\=113–121 \|language\=pl}} According to Kijański, many Poles in Danzig did not reveal their nationality in the census as a result of this intimidation, as well as pressure from German employers.{{cite journal \|last\=Baciński \|first\=Antoni \|date\=1973 \|url\=http://studiagdanskie.diecezja.gda.pl/pdf/sg\_i.pdf \|location\=Danzig \|title\=Polskie Duchowieństwo Katolickie w Wolnym Mieście Gdańsku 1919\-1939 \|journal\=Studia Gdańskie \|volume\=1 \|issue\=1 \|page\=37 \|publisher\=\[\[:pl:Gdańskie Seminarium Duchowne\|Danzig Theological Seminary]] \|language\=pl \|access\-date\=2023\-06\-08 \|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-07 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307230358/http://studiagdanskie.diecezja.gda.pl/pdf/sg\_i.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }} He estimated that Poles accounted for 14\.5% of the Free City's permanent population, but noted that the actual number of Poles may have been higher, as Poles made up 60% of all foreigners in Danzig at the time.
[thumb\|Distribution of German and Polish/Kashub population](/wiki/File:Deutscher_Bev%C3%B6lkerungsanteil_in_den_Gemeinden_der_Freien_Stadt_Danzig.png "Deutscher Bevölkerungsanteil in den Gemeinden der Freien Stadt Danzig.png")
The [Treaty of Versailles](/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles "Treaty of Versailles") required that the newly formed state have its own citizenship, based on residency. German inhabitants lost their [German citizenship](/wiki/German_nationality_law "German nationality law") with the creation of the Free City, but were given the right to re\-obtain it within the first two years of the state's existence. Anyone desiring German citizenship had to leave their property and make their residence outside the Free State of Danzig area in the remaining parts of Germany.
| \+ Total population by language, November 1, 1923, according to the Free City of Danzig census{{rp\|11}} |
| --- |
| Nationality | [German](/wiki/German_language "German language") | German and[Polish](/wiki/Polish_language "Polish language") | Polish, [Kashub](/wiki/Kashubian_language "Kashubian language"),[Masurian](/wiki/Mazurs "Mazurs") | [Russian](/wiki/Russian_language "Russian language"),[Ukrainian](/wiki/Ukrainian_language "Ukrainian language") | [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew_language "Hebrew language"),[Yiddish](/wiki/Yiddish_language "Yiddish language") | Unclassified | Total |
| Danzig | 327,827 | 1,108 | 6,788 | 99 | 22 | 77 | 335,921 |
| Non\-Danzig | 20,666 | 521 | 5,239 | 2,529 | 580 | 1,274 | 30,809 |
| Total | 348,493 | 1,629 | 12,027 | 2,628 | 602 | 1,351 | 366,730 |
| Percent | 95\.03% | 0\.44% | 3\.28% | 0\.72% | 0\.16% | 0\.37% | 100\.00% |
### Notable people born in the Free City of Danzig
[upright\=0\.55\|thumb\|[Eddi Arent](/wiki/Eddi_Arent "Eddi Arent") in 1971](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F034158-0018%2C_Ausschnitt_Eddi_Arent.jpg "Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F034158-0018, Ausschnitt Eddi Arent.jpg")
[upright\=0\.55\|thumb\|[Ingrid van Bergen](/wiki/Ingrid_van_Bergen "Ingrid van Bergen") in 2010](/wiki/File:IMG_0220_Ingrid_van_Bergen.jpg "IMG 0220 Ingrid van Bergen.jpg")
[upright\=0\.55\|thumb\|[Günter Grass](/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Grass "Günter Grass") in 2006](/wiki/File:G%C3%BCnter_Grass_auf_dem_Blauen_Sofa.jpg "Günter Grass auf dem Blauen Sofa.jpg")
[upright\=0\.55\|thumb\|[Klaus Kinski](/wiki/Klaus_Kinski "Klaus Kinski") in the 1980s](/wiki/File:Klaus_Kinski_Cannes-%28retouched-cropped%29.jpg "Klaus Kinski Cannes-(retouched-cropped).jpg")
[upright\=0\.55\|thumb\|[Rupert Neudeck](/wiki/Rupert_Neudeck "Rupert Neudeck") 2007](/wiki/File:Rupert-neudeck001.jpg "Rupert-neudeck001.jpg")
[upright\=0\.55\|thumb\|[Wolfgang Völz](/wiki/Wolfgang_V%C3%B6lz "Wolfgang Völz") in 2011](/wiki/File:Portrat_wolfgang_voelz_philipp_von_ostau.jpg "Portrat wolfgang voelz philipp von ostau.jpg")
* [Eddi Arent](/wiki/Eddi_Arent "Eddi Arent") (1925 in Danzig – 2013 in [Munich](/wiki/Munich "Munich")) was a German actor, cabaret artist and comedian.["Eddi Arent"](https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0034357/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412105622/https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0034357/ \|date\=2019\-04\-12 }}, *[IMDb](/wiki/IMDb "IMDb")*, retrieved 21 October 2017 He appeared in 104 films between 1956 and 2002\.
* [Ike Aronowicz](/wiki/Ike_Aronowicz "Ike Aronowicz") (1923 in Danzig – 2009 Israel) captain of the immigrant ship [SS *Exodus*](/wiki/SS_Exodus "SS Exodus"), which unsuccessfully tried to dock in [Mandatory Palestine](/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine "Mandatory Palestine") with [Holocaust survivors](/wiki/Holocaust_survivors "Holocaust survivors") on July 11, 1947\.["Yitzhak Ahronovitch, Exodus Skipper in Defiant ’47 Voyage of Jewish Refugees, Dies at 86"](https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/24/world/middleeast/24ahronovitch.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100114045757/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/24/world/middleeast/24ahronovitch.html \|date\=2010\-01\-14 }}, *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times "New York Times")* December 24, 2009, retrieved 21 October 2017
* [Elisabeth Becker](/wiki/Elisabeth_Becker "Elisabeth Becker") (1923 in Danzig – executed 1946 in Biskupia Górka) was a [concentration camp guard](/wiki/SS-Totenkopfverb%C3%A4nde "SS-Totenkopfverbände") in World War II.[Stutthof Trial. Female guards in Nazi concentration camps Archived 2008](http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/stutthof-trial-april-may-1946) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007082036/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/stutthof\-trial\-april\-may\-1946 \|date\=2017\-10\-07 }} retrieved 21 October 2017
* [Ingrid van Bergen](/wiki/Ingrid_van_Bergen "Ingrid van Bergen") (born 1931 in Danzig) is a German film actress.[IMDb](https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0885706/bio?ref_=nm_ov_bio_sm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319113957/https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0885706/bio?ref\_\=nm\_ov\_bio\_sm \|date\=2022\-03\-19 }} retrieved 21 October 2017 She has appeared in 100 films since 1954\. Convicted of manslaughter in 1977\.
* [Miltiades Caridis](/wiki/Miltiades_Caridis "Miltiades Caridis") (1923 in Danzig – 1998 in Athens) was a German\-Greek conductor, his family moved to Greece in 1938\.
* [Zygmunt Chychła](/wiki/Zygmunt_Chych%C5%82a "Zygmunt Chychła") (1926 in Gdańsk – 2009 in Hamburg) was a Polish boxer.[Olympic DB](https://web.archive.org/web/20070314033650/http://www.databaseolympics.com/players/playerpage.htm?ilkid=CHYCHZYG01) retrieved 21 October 2017 He won the [Olympic gold medal](/wiki/Olympic_medal "Olympic medal") for [Poland](/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic "Polish People's Republic") at the [1952 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1952_Summer_Olympics "1952 Summer Olympics").
* [Anna M. Cienciala](/wiki/Anna_M._Cienciala "Anna M. Cienciala") (1929 in Danzig – 2014 in Florida) was a [Polish\-American](/wiki/Polish_Americans "Polish Americans") historian and author.[Anna M. Cienciala. Obituary. Lawrence Journal\-World](http://obituaries.ljworld.com/obituaries/ljworld/obituary.aspx?n=anna-m-cienciala&pid=173612122) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171022033723/http://obituaries.ljworld.com/obituaries/ljworld/obituary.aspx?n\=anna\-m\-cienciala\&pid\=173612122 \|date\=2017\-10\-22 }} retrieved 21 October 2017
* [Holger Czukay](/wiki/Holger_Czukay "Holger Czukay") (1938 in Danzig – 2017 in Weilerswist) was a German musician, co\-founder of the [krautrock](/wiki/Krautrock "Krautrock") group [Can](/wiki/Can_%28band%29 "Can (band)").[New York Times 8 Sept 2017](https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/08/arts/music/holger-czukay-dead-architect-of-experimental-band-can.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://archive.today/20170911070227/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/08/arts/music/holger\-czukay\-dead\-architect\-of\-experimental\-band\-can.html \|date\=2017\-09\-11 }} retrieved 21 October 2017
* [Horst Ehmke](/wiki/Horst_Ehmke "Horst Ehmke") (1927 in Danzig – 2017 in Bonn) was a German lawyer, law professor and SPD politician, served as [Federal Minister of Justice](/wiki/Federal_Ministry_of_Justice_and_Consumer_Protection "Federal Ministry of Justice and Consumer Protection") (1969\).[Spiegel Online 04\.02\.2007](http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/horst-ehmke-wird-80-der-flotte-hotte-sah-sich-als-kommenden-exzellenten-kanzler-a-463828.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818201934/http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/horst\-ehmke\-wird\-80\-der\-flotte\-hotte\-sah\-sich\-als\-kommenden\-exzellenten\-kanzler\-a\-463828\.html \|date\=2017\-08\-18 }} retrieved 21 October 2017
* [Jörg\-Peter Ewert](/wiki/J%C3%B6rg-Peter_Ewert "Jörg-Peter Ewert") (born 1938 in Danzig) is a German [neurophysiologist](/wiki/Neurophysiologist "Neurophysiologist") and researcher into [Neuroethology](/wiki/Neuroethology "Neuroethology").[Own website](http://www.joerg-peter-ewert.de/5.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705031825/http://www.joerg\-peter\-ewert.de/5\.html \|date\=2017\-07\-05 }} retrieved 21 October 2017
* [Günter Grass](/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Grass "Günter Grass") (1927 in Danzig – 2015 in Lübeck) was a German novelist, poet, playwright, illustrator, graphic artist, sculptor, and recipient of the 1999 [Nobel Prize in Literature](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature "Nobel Prize in Literature").["German author Guenter Grass dies"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-32285705) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180724215954/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\-europe\-32285705 \|date\=2018\-07\-24 }}, *[BBC News](/wiki/BBC_News "BBC News")*, 13 April 2015, retrieved 21 October 2017
* [Ursula Happe](/wiki/Ursula_Happe "Ursula Happe") (1926 in Danzig – 2021 in Dortmund) was a German swimmer and Olympic champion.[Sports\-reference.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20200417170033/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ha/ursula-happe-1.html) retrieved 21 October 2017 She competed at the [1956 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1956_Summer_Olympics "1956 Summer Olympics") and won the gold medal in 200 m breaststroke.
* [Hans Albert Hohnfeldt](/wiki/Hans_Albert_Hohnfeldt "Hans Albert Hohnfeldt") (1897 in Neufahrwasser – 1948\) Nazi Party *[Gauleiter](/wiki/Gauleiter "Gauleiter")* in Danzig.
* [Klaus Kinski](/wiki/Klaus_Kinski "Klaus Kinski") (1926 in Zopot – 1991 in [Lagunitas, California](/wiki/Lagunitas%2C_California "Lagunitas, California")) was a controversial German actor.[IMDb](https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001428/?ref_=fn_al_nm_1) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129022500/https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001428/?ref\_\=fn\_al\_nm\_1 \|date\=2020\-11\-29 }} retrieved 21 October 2017
* [Wanda Klaff](/wiki/Wanda_Klaff "Wanda Klaff") (1922 in Danzig – executed 1946 in [Biskupia Górka](/wiki/Biskupia_G%C3%B3rka "Biskupia Górka")) was a Nazi camp overseer.
* [Heinz\-Hermann Koelle](/wiki/Heinz-Hermann_Koelle "Heinz-Hermann Koelle") (1925 in Danzig – 2011 in Berlin) was an aeronautical engineer, and made the preliminary designs for [Saturn I](/wiki/Saturn_I "Saturn I").[Resonance Publications, March–June 1999](http://www.resonancepub.com/interview1.htm) {{Webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215202808/http://www.resonancepub.com/interview1\.htm \|date\=2012\-02\-15 }} retrieved 21 October 2017
* [Erhard Krack](/wiki/Erhard_Krack "Erhard Krack") (1931 in Danzig – 2000 in Berlin) was an [East German](/wiki/East_Germany "East Germany") politician and mayor of [East Berlin](/wiki/East_Berlin "East Berlin") from 1974 to 1990\.
* [Zdzisław Kuźniar](/wiki/Zdzis%C5%82aw_Ku%C5%BAniar "Zdzisław Kuźniar") (born 1931 in Gdańsk) is a Polish actor.[Zdzislaw Kuzniar, IMDb](https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0476888/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414201151/https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0476888/ \|date\=2022\-04\-14 }}.
* [Hanna\-Renate Laurien](/wiki/Hanna-Renate_Laurien "Hanna-Renate Laurien") (1928 in Danzig – 2010 in Berlin) was a German [CDU](/wiki/CDU/CSU "CDU/CSU") politician.[Spiegel Online 12\.03\.2009](http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/trauer-in-berlin-cdu-politikerin-laurien-ist-tot-a-683346.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214002656/http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/trauer\-in\-berlin\-cdu\-politikerin\-laurien\-ist\-tot\-a\-683346\.html \|date\=2017\-02\-14 }} retrieved 21 October 2017
* [Jack Mandelbaum](/wiki/Jack_Mandelbaum "Jack Mandelbaum") (1927 in Danzig – 2023 [Naples, Florida](/wiki/Naples%2C_Florida "Naples, Florida")) was a Holocaust survivor.[Midwest Center for Holocaust Education](https://mchekc.org/portfolio-posts/mandelbaumjack/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171022032937/https://mchekc.org/portfolio\-posts/mandelbaumjack/ \|date\=2017\-10\-22 }} retrieved 21 October 2017
* [Rupert Neudeck](/wiki/Rupert_Neudeck "Rupert Neudeck") (1939 in Danzig – 2016 in Siegburg) correspondent for [Deutschlandfunk](/wiki/Deutschlandfunk "Deutschlandfunk") and founder of [Cap Anamur](/wiki/Cap_Anamur "Cap Anamur"), a humanitarian organisation.["Rupert Neudeck, refugee advocate, dead at 77"](http://www.dw.com/en/rupert-neudeck-refugee-advocate-dead-at-77/a-19296123) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118204447/http://www.dw.com/en/rupert\-neudeck\-refugee\-advocate\-dead\-at\-77/a\-19296123\|date\=2017\-11\-18}}, *[Deutsche Welle](/wiki/Deutsche_Welle "Deutsche Welle")* retrieved 21 October 2017
* [Zygmunt Pawłowicz](/wiki/Zygmunt_Paw%C5%82owicz "Zygmunt Pawłowicz") (1927 in Danzig – 2010 in Gdańsk) ordained a Catholic priest in 1952, was the Polish Auxiliary bishop of the [Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gdańsk](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Gda%C5%84sk "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gdańsk") from 1985 until 2005\.[Catholic\-Hierarchy](https://web.archive.org/web/20100620125557/http://catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bpawz.html) retrieved 21 October 2017
* [Avi Pazner](/wiki/Avi_Pazner "Avi Pazner") (born 1937 in Danzig) is a retired Israeli diplomat.[Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs](http://www.jcpa.org/israel-europe/ier-pazner-05.htm) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035853/http://www.jcpa.org/israel\-europe/ier\-pazner\-05\.htm \|date\=2016\-03\-04 }} retrieved 21 October 2017
* [Richard Pratt](/wiki/Richard_Pratt_%28businessman%29 "Richard Pratt (businessman)") (1934 in Danzig – 2009 in Kew, Victoria) was a prominent Australian businessman, chairman of [Visy](/wiki/Visy "Visy").["Life and times of Richard Pratt"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090502004819/http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,25366289-2862,00.html), *[Herald Sun](/wiki/Herald_Sun "Herald Sun")* April 28, 2009 retrieved 21 October 2017 His family moved to Australia in 1938\.
* [Georg Preuß](/wiki/Georg_Preu%C3%9F "Georg Preuß") (1920 in Danzig – 1991 Clenze) was a mid\-ranking commander in the [Waffen\-SS](/wiki/Waffen-SS "Waffen-SS"), a convicted war criminal.
* [Meta Preuß](/wiki/Meta_Preu%C3%9F "Meta Preuß") (1903–1981\) one of seven members of the [Communist Party (Free City of Danzig)](/wiki/Communist_Party_%28Free_City_of_Danzig%29 "Communist Party (Free City of Danzig)"), elected to the [Volkstag](/wiki/Volkstag "Volkstag") in 1930\.
* [Henry Rosovsky](/wiki/Henry_Rosovsky "Henry Rosovsky") (1927 in Danzig – 2022 in Cambridge, Massachusetts) was an economic historian, specializing in [East Asia](/wiki/East_Asia "East Asia"), born of [Russian Jewish](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia "History of the Jews in Russia") parents.[Harvard College, Department of Economics](https://economics.harvard.edu/people/henry-rosovsky) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171022033614/https://economics.harvard.edu/people/henry\-rosovsky \|date\=2017\-10\-22 }} retrieved 21 October 2017
* [Hermann Salomon](/wiki/Hermann_Salomon "Hermann Salomon") (1938 in Danzig – 2020 in Mainz) was a German javelin thrower who competed in the [1960](/wiki/1960_Summer_Olympics "1960 Summer Olympics"), [1964](/wiki/1964_Summer_Olympics "1964 Summer Olympics"), and [1968 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1968_Summer_Olympics "1968 Summer Olympics").[Sports\-reference.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20121216232625/http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/sa/hermann-salomon-1.html) retrieved 21 October 2017
* [Meir Shamgar](/wiki/Meir_Shamgar "Meir Shamgar") (1925 in Danzig – 2019 in Jerusalem) was President of the [Israeli Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Israel "Supreme Court of Israel") from 1983 to 1995\.[Israel's Holocaust and the Politics of Nationhood. Cambridge University Press 2005 p. 215](https://books.google.com/books?id=bQEAmjk4Wh0C&pg=PA215) retrieved 21 October 2017
* [Zalman Shoval](/wiki/Zalman_Shoval "Zalman Shoval") (born 1930 in Danzig) is an Israeli politician and diplomat.[Knesset website](https://www.knesset.gov.il/mk/eng/mk_eng.asp?mk_individual_id_t=637) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701095931/https://www.knesset.gov.il/mk/eng/mk\_eng.asp?mk\_individual\_id\_t\=637 \|date\=2017\-07\-01 }} retrieved 21 October 2017
* [Wolfgang Völz](/wiki/Wolfgang_V%C3%B6lz "Wolfgang Völz") (1930 in Danzig – 2018 in Berlin) was a German actor, known for his roles in theatre plays, TV shows, feature films and taped radio shows.[IMDb](https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0905061/) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180508162654/https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0905061/ \|date\=2018\-05\-08 }} retrieved 21 October 2017
* [F. K. Waechter](/wiki/F._K._Waechter "F. K. Waechter") (1937 in Danzig – 2005 in Frankfurt) was a German cartoonist, author and playwright.
* [David Dushman](/wiki/David_Dushman "David Dushman") (1923 in Danzig \- 2021 in Munich) was Jewish\-Soviet Red Army soldier, assisted in the liberation of the Auschwitz\-Birkenau concentration camp.
### Religion
In 1924, 54\.7% of the populace was [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant "Protestant") (220,731 persons, mostly [Lutherans](/wiki/Lutheran "Lutheran") within the [united](/wiki/United_and_uniting_churches "United and uniting churches") [old\-Prussian church](/wiki/Evangelical_Church_of_the_old-Prussian_Union "Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union")), 34\.5% was [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic "Roman Catholic") (140,797 persons), and 2\.4% Jewish (9,239 persons). Other Protestants included 5,604 [Mennonites](/wiki/Mennonite "Mennonite"), 1,934 [Calvinists](/wiki/Calvinist "Calvinist") ([Reformed](/wiki/Reformed_church "Reformed church")), 1,093 [Baptists](/wiki/Baptist "Baptist"), 410 [Free Religionists](/wiki/Religious_humanism "Religious humanism"). The population also included 2,129 [dissenters](/wiki/Dissenter "Dissenter"), 1,394 faithful of other religions and denominations, and 664 [irreligionists](/wiki/Irreligionism "Irreligionism").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Danzig/index.htm \|title\=Die Freie Stadt Danzig im Überblick \|website\=www.gonschior.de \|access\-date\=2010\-03\-02 \|archive\-date\=2010\-03\-01 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100301035437/http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Danzig/index.htm \|url\-status\=live }}Dr. Juergensen, *Die freie Stadt Danzig*, Danzig: Kafemann, 1925\.
The Jewish community grew from 2,717 in 1910 to 7,282 in 1923 and 10,448 in 1929, many of them immigrants from Poland and Russia.{{cite book \|author2\=Vivian B. Mann \|author3\=Joseph Gutmann \|title\=Danzig Jewry: A Short History \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=vvIECPYRssIC \|year\=1980 \|publisher\=\[\[Jewish Museum (New York)]] \|isbn\=978\-0\-8143\-1662\-7 \|page\=31 \|last1\=Bacon \|first1\=Gershon C. \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105536/https://books.google.com/books?id\=vvIECPYRssIC \|url\-status\=live }}
#### Regional Synodal Federation of the Free City of Danzig
[thumb\|The Lutheran Supreme Parish Church of St. Mary's in Danzig's [Rechtstadt](/wiki/Main_City "Main City") quarter](/wiki/File:Danzig-Marienkirche.jpg "Danzig-Marienkirche.jpg")
The mostly Lutheran and partially Reformed congregations situated in the territory of the Free City, which previously used to belong to the *Ecclesiastical Province of West Prussia* of the [Evangelical Church of the old\-Prussian Union](/wiki/Evangelical_Church_of_the_old-Prussian_Union "Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union") (EKapU), were transformed into the *Regional [Synodal](/wiki/Synod "Synod") Federation of the Free City of Danzig* after 1920\. The executive body of that ecclesiastical province, the [consistory](/wiki/Consistory_%28Protestantism%29 "Consistory (Protestantism)") (est. 1 November 1886\), was seated in Danzig. After 1920 it was restricted in its responsibility to those congregations within the Free City's territory.Those congregations in Polish\-annexed West Prussia ([Pomeranian Voivodeship](/wiki/Pomeranian_Voivodeship_%281919%E2%80%931939%29 "Pomeranian Voivodeship (1919–1939)")) merged into the new United Evangelical Church in Poland, which emerged from the old\-Prussian *Posen ecclesiastical province*, with its consistory seated in [Poznań](/wiki/Pozna%C5%84 "Poznań"). First General Superintendent {{ill\|Paul Kalweit\|de}} (1920–1933\) and then Bishop {{ill\|Johannes Beermann\|de\|Johannes Beermann (Bischof)}} (1933–1945\) presided over the consistory.
Unlike the [Second Polish Republic](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic "Second Polish Republic"), which opposed the cooperation of the {{ill\|United Evangelical Church in Poland\|pl\|Ewangelicki Kościół Unijny w Polsce}} with EKapU, Volkstag and the Senate of Danzig approved cross\-border religious bodies. Danzig's Regional Synodal Federation — just as the regional synodal federation of the autonomous [Memelland](/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da_Region "Klaipėda Region") — retained the status of an [ecclesiastical province within EKapU](/wiki/Ecclesiastical_province%23Evangelical_State_Church_in_Prussia "Ecclesiastical province#Evangelical State Church in Prussia").In June 1922 the Senate of Danzig and the old\-Prussian ecclesiastical executive, the {{ill\|Evangelical Supreme Ecclesiastical Council\|de\|Evangelischer Oberkirchenrat (Preußen)}}, EOK), concluded a contract to that end. Cf. Adalbert Erler, *Die rechtliche Stellung der evangelischen Kirche in Danzig*, Berlin: 1929, simultaneously Univ. of Greifswald, Department of Law and Politics, doctor thesis of 21 February 1929, pp. 36 seqq.
After the German annexation of the Free City in 1939, the EKapU merged the Danzig regional synodal federation in 1940 into the Ecclesiastical Region of Danzig\-West Prussia. This included the Polish congregations of the United Evangelical Church in Poland in the homonymous [Reichsgau Danzig\-West Prussia](/wiki/Reichsgau_Danzig-West_Prussia "Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia") and the German congregations in the [West Prussia governorate](/wiki/West_Prussia_%28region%29 "West Prussia (region)"). Danzig's consistory functioned as an executive body for that region. With the flight and expulsion of most ethnically German Protestant parishioners from the area of the Free City of Danzig between 1945 and 1948, the congregations vanished.
In March 1945, the consistory had relocated to [Lübeck](/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck "Lübeck") and opened a refugee centre for Danzigers (Hilfsstelle beim evangelischen Konsistorium Danzig) led by Upper Consistorial Councillor {{ill\|Gerhard M. Gülzow\|de}}. The Lutheran congregation of [St. Mary's Church](/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Church%2C_Gda%C5%84sk "St. Mary's Church, Gdańsk") could relocate its valuable [parament](/wiki/Parament "Parament") collection and the [presbytery](/wiki/Presbyterian_polity "Presbyterian polity") granted it on loan to [St. Annen Museum](/wiki/St._Anne%27s_Museum_Quarter%2C_L%C3%BCbeck%23Chamber_of_paraments "St. Anne's Museum Quarter, Lübeck#Chamber of paraments") in Lübeck after the war. Other Lutheran congregations of Danzig could reclaim their church bells, which the [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht "Wehrmacht") had requisitioned as non\-ferrous metal for war purposes since 1940, but which had survived, not yet melted down, in storage (e.g. {{ill\|Glockenfriedhof\|de}}) in the British zone of occupation. The presbyteries granted them usually to Northwestern German Lutheran congregations which had lost bells due to the war.
#### Diocese of Danzig of the Roman Catholic Church
{{main\|Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gdańsk\#history\|l1\=Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gdańsk}}
[thumb\|right\|The [Archcathedral of the Holy Trinity, Blessed Virgin Mary and Saint Bernard](/wiki/Oliwa_Cathedral "Oliwa Cathedral") in Oliva, Danzig](/wiki/File:CH-NB_-_Freie_Stadt_Danzig%2C_Danzig_%28Gdansk%29-_Kirche_-_Annemarie_Schwarzenbach_-_SLA-Schwarzenbach-A-5-13-066.jpg "CH-NB - Freie Stadt Danzig, Danzig (Gdansk)- Kirche - Annemarie Schwarzenbach - SLA-Schwarzenbach-A-5-13-066.jpg")
The 36 Catholic [parishes](/wiki/Parish "Parish") in the territory of the Free City in 1922 used to belong in equal shares to the [Diocese of Culm](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Culm_%28Che%C5%82mno%29 "Bishopric of Culm (Chełmno)"), which was mostly Polish, and the [Diocese of Ermland](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Warmia "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Warmia"), which was mostly German. While the Second Polish Republic wanted all the parishes within the Free City to form part of Polish Culm, Volkstag and Senate wanted them all to become subject to German Ermland.{{cite book \|author\=Georg May \|title\=Ludwig Kaas: der Priester, der Politiker und der Gelehrte aus der Schule von Ulrich Stutz \|publisher\=John Benjamins Publishing \|isbn\=978\-90\-6032\-197\-3 \|page\=175 \|year\=1981}} In 1922 the [Holy See](/wiki/Holy_See "Holy See") suspended the jurisdictions of both dioceses over their parishes in the Free State and established an [exempt](/wiki/Exemption_%28church%29 "Exemption (church)") [apostolic administration](/wiki/Apostolic_administration "Apostolic administration") for the territory.
The first apostolic administrator was [Edward O'Rourke](/wiki/Edward_O%27Rourke "Edward O'Rourke") (born in [Minsk](/wiki/Minsk "Minsk") and of Irish ancestry) who became [Bishop of Danzig](/wiki/Bishop_of_Danzig "Bishop of Danzig") on the occasion of the elevation of the administration to an exempt diocese in 1925\. He was naturalised as Danziger on the same occasion. In 1938 he resigned after quarrels with the Nazi\-dominated Senate of Danzig on appointments of parish priests of Polish ethnicity.{{cite book \|author2\=Reimund Haas \|author3\=Karl Josef Rivinius \|author4\=Hermann\-Josef Scheidgen \|title\=Ein aussichtsloses Unternehmen – Die Reaktivierung Bischof Eduard Graf O'Rourkes 1939 \|url\=http://www.db\-thueringen.de/servlets/DerivateServlet/Derivate\-5265/SamerskiFsAdrianyi.pdf \|year\=2000 \|publisher\=Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar \|language\=de \|isbn\=978\-3\-412\-04100\-7 \|page\=378 \|last1\=Samerski \|first1\=Stefan \|access\-date\=2010\-02\-28 \|archive\-date\=2012\-02\-18 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218160507/http://www.db\-thueringen.de/servlets/DerivateServlet/Derivate\-5265/SamerskiFsAdrianyi.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} The senate also instigated the denaturalisation of O'Rourke, who subsequently became a Polish citizen. O'Rourke was succeeded by Bishop [Carl Maria Splett](/wiki/Carl_Maria_Splett "Carl Maria Splett"), a native from the Free City area.
Splett remained bishop after the German annexation of the Free City. In early 1941, he applied for admitting the Danzig diocese as member in Archbishop [Adolf Bertram](/wiki/Adolf_Bertram "Adolf Bertram")'s [Eastern German Ecclesiastical Province](/wiki/Eastern_German_Ecclesiastical_Province "Eastern German Ecclesiastical Province") and thus at the [Fulda Conference of Bishops](/wiki/Fulda_Conference%23Fulda_Conference_of_Bishops_%28till_1965%29 "Fulda Conference#Fulda Conference of Bishops (till 1965)"); however, Bertram, also speaker of the Fulda conference, rejected the request.{{cite book \|author1\=Hans\-Jürgen Karp \|author2\=Joachim Köhler \|title\=Katholische Kirche unter nationalsozialistischer und kommunistischer Diktatur: Deutschland und Polen 1939–1989 \|year\=2001 \|publisher\=Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar \|isbn\=978\-3\-412\-11800\-6 \|page\=162}} Any arguments that the Free City of Danzig had been annexed to Nazi Germany did not impress Bertram since Danzig's annexation lacked international recognition. Until the reorganization of the Catholic dioceses in Danzig and the formerly eastern territories of Germany the diocesan territory remained unaltered and the see exempt. However, with the replacement of Danzig's population between 1945 and 1948 by mostly Catholic Poles, the number of Catholic parishes increased and most formerly Protestant churches were taken over for Catholic services.
#### Jewish Danzigers
[thumb\|right\|The [Great Synagogue](/wiki/Great_Synagogue_%28Danzig%29 "Great Synagogue (Danzig)") on Reitbahn Street in Danzig's Rechtstadt quarter](/wiki/File:GreatSynagogueDanzig.jpg "GreatSynagogueDanzig.jpg")
{{main\|Jewish Community of Gdańsk\#Free City of Danzig\|l1\=Jewish Community in the Free City of Danzig}}
Since 1883 most of the Jewish congregations in the later territory of Free State had merged into the Synagogal Community of Danzig. Only the Jews of [Tiegenhof](/wiki/Nowy_Dw%C3%B3r_Gda%C5%84ski "Nowy Dwór Gdański") ran their own congregation until 1938\.
Danzig became a centre of Polish and Russian Jewish emigration to North America. Between 1920 and 1925 60,000 Jews emigrated via Danzig to the US and Canada. At the same time, between 1923 and 1929, Danzig's own Jewish population increased from roughly 7,000 to 10,500\.{{cite book \|title\=Danzig: Geschichte einer Deutschen Stadt \|first\=Rüdiger \|last\=Ruhnau \|publisher\=Holzner Verlag \|year\=1971 \|page\=94 \|language\=de}} Native Jews and newcomers established themselves in the city and contributed to its civic life, culture and economy. Danzig became a venue for international meetings of Jewish organisations, such as the convention of delegates from Jewish youth organisations of various nations, attended by [David Ben\-Gurion](/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion "David Ben-Gurion"), which founded the [World Union of Jewish Youth](/wiki/World_Union_of_Jewish_Youth "World Union of Jewish Youth") on 2 September 1924 in the Schützenhaus venue. On 21 March 1926 the *Zionistische Organisation für Danzig* convened delegates of [Hechalutz](/wiki/Hechalutz "Hechalutz") from all over for the first conference in Danzig using [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew_language "Hebrew language") as common language, also attended by Ben Gurion.
With a Nazi majority in the Volkstag and Senate, anti\-Semitic persecution and discrimination occurred unsanctioned by the authorities. In contrast to Germany, which exercised capital outflow control since 1931, emigration of Danzig's Jews was nonetheless somewhat easier, with capital transfers enabled by the [Bank of Danzig](/wiki/Bank_of_Danzig "Bank of Danzig"). Moreover, the comparatively few Danzig Jews were offered easier refuge in safe countries because of favorable Free City migration quotas.
After the anti\-Jewish riots of [Kristallnacht](/wiki/Kristallnacht "Kristallnacht") of 9/10 November 1938 in Germany, similar riots took place on 12/13 November in Danzig.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ifz\-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1966\_2\_2\_sodeikat.pdf \|title\=Der Nationalsozialismus und die Danziger Opposition \|first1\=Ernst \|last1\=Sodeikat \|publisher\=\[\[Institut für Zeitgeschichte]] \|year\=1966 \|page\=139 ff \|language\=de \|access\-date\=2010\-02\-04 \|archive\-date\=2011\-07\-20 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720013656/http://www.ifz\-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1966\_2\_2\_sodeikat.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|author2\=Vivian B. Mann \|author3\=Joseph Gutmann \|author4\=Jewish Museum (New York, N.Y.) \|title\=Danzig 1939, treasures of a destroyed community \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=vvIECPYRssIC \|year\=1980 \|publisher\=The Jewish Museum, New York \|isbn\=978\-0\-8143\-1662\-7 \|page\=33 \|last1\=Grass \|first1\=Günther \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105536/https://books.google.com/books?id\=vvIECPYRssIC \|url\-status\=live }} The [Great Synagogue](/wiki/Great_Synagogue_%28Danzig%29 "Great Synagogue (Danzig)") was taken over and demolished by the local authorities in 1939\. Most Jews had already left the city, and the [Jewish Community of Danzig](/wiki/Jewish_Community_of_Gda%C5%84sk%23Free_City_of_Danzig "Jewish Community of Gdańsk#Free City of Danzig") decided to organize its own emigration in early 1939\.[Gdańsk](https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0007_0_07105.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113051709/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud\_0002\_0007\_0\_07105\.html \|date\=2017\-01\-13 }} at the [Jewish Virtual Library](/wiki/Jewish_Virtual_Library "Jewish Virtual Library").
|
[
"Population\n----------",
"[thumb\\|upright\\=1\\.15\\|[Population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") of [Poland](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic \"Second Polish Republic\") and the Free City of Danzig (Gdańsk), 1930](/wiki/File:Polska_II_RP_gestosc_zaludnienia.jpg \"Polska II RP gestosc zaludnienia.jpg\")",
"The population and demographics of the Free City are a matter of some dispute over the period of its existence.",
"The Free City's population rose from 357,000 (1919\\) to 408,000 in 1929; according to the official census, 95% were [Germans](/wiki/Germans \"Germans\"),{{cite book \\|last\\=Mason \\|first\\=John Brown \\|title\\=The Danzig Dilemma, A Study in Peacemaking by Compromise \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ORWrAAAAIAAJ \\|access\\-date\\=2011\\-04\\-26 \\|year\\=1946 \\|publisher\\=Stanford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8047\\-2444\\-9 \\|page\\= \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105525/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=ORWrAAAAIAAJ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{rp\\|5, 11}} with the rest mainly either [Kashubians](/wiki/Kashubians \"Kashubians\") or [Poles](/wiki/Polish_people \"Polish people\"). According to E. Cieślak, the population registers of the Free City show that in 1929 the Polish population numbered 35,000, or 10\\.7% of the population.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Cieślak \\|first1\\=Edmund \\|last2\\=Biernat \\|first2\\=Czesław \\|author\\-link1\\=:pl:Edmund Cieślak \\|author\\-link2\\=:pl:Czesław Biernat \\|date\\=1969 \\|title\\=Dzieje Gdańska\\|location\\=Gdańsk \\|publisher\\=Wydawnictwo Morskie \\|language\\=pl \\|page\\=473 \\|isbn\\=9788321572116 \\|quote\\=\"Spis ludności Wolnego Miasta Gdańska z 1929 r. wykazywał ponad 35 tysięcy ludności polskiej mającej obywatelstwo gdańskie lub polskie, ale zamieszkującej na terytorium Wolnego Miasta. W samym Gdańsku i Sopocie procent ten wynosił odpowiednio 10,7 i 21,1 %. \\|trans\\-quote\\=\"The 1929 census of the Free City of Danzig showed more than 35,000 Polish people with Danzig or Polish citizenship but residing in the territory of the Free City. In Danzig and Sopot alone, this percentage was 10\\.7 and 21\\.1 % respectively.\" \\|quote\\-page\\=473}} Some estimates put the proportion of Danzig Poles between at between 10 and 13%.{{cite book \\|last1\\=Cieślak \\|first1\\=Edmund \\|title\\=Dzieje Gdańska \\|last2\\=Biernat \\|first2\\=Czesław \\|date\\=1969 \\|publisher\\=Wydawnictwo Morskie \\|isbn\\=9788321572116 \\|location\\=Gdańsk \\|page\\=473 \\|language\\=pl \\|quote\\=\"Spis ludności Wolnego Miasta Gdańska z 1929 r. wykazywał ponad 35 tysięcy ludności polskiej mającej obywatelstwo gdańskie lub polskie, ale zamieszkującej na terytorium Wolnego Miasta. W samym Gdańsku i Sopocie procent ten wynosił odpowiednio 10,7 i 21,1 %. \\|author\\-link1\\=:pl:Edmund Cieślak \\|author\\-link2\\=:pl:Czesław Biernat \\|trans\\-quote\\=\"The 1929 census of the Free City of Danzig showed more than 35,000 Polish people with Danzig or Polish citizenship but residing in the territory of the Free City. In Danzig and Sopot alone, this percentage was 10\\.7 and 21\\.1 % respectively.\" \\|quote\\-page\\=473}}Zapiski historyczne: Volume 60, p. 256, *Towarzystwo Naukowe w Toruniu.* Wydział Nauk Historycznych – 1995 Henryk Stępniak estimates the 1929 Polish population as around 22,000, or around 6% of the population, increasing to around 13% in the 1930s.",
"In the 1920s and 1930s, the Polish population increased. According to some sources, in 1938, the Free City's population of 410,000 was 98% German, 1% Polish and 1% other.{{cite book \\|last\\=Mason \\|first\\=John Brown \\|title\\=The Danzig Dilemma; a Study in Peacemaking by Compromise \\|pages\\=4–5}} Other estimates suggest the proportion of Poles in the population of the Free City was around 20% in 1939\\.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Somogyi \\|first\\=Renáta \\|date\\=2023 \\|title\\=Poland and the Local Poles in the Free City of Danzig between the two World Wars \\|url\\=http://real.mtak.hu/164147/1/05\\_somogyi\\_77\\-92\\_ActaHumana2023\\_1\\.pdf \\|journal\\=Acta Humana \\|volume\\=1 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=77–92 \\|doi\\=10\\.32566/ah.2023\\.1\\.5 \\|s2cid\\=258286366}}",
"Based on the estimated voting patterns (according to Stępniak many Poles voted for the Catholic [Zentrumspartei](/wiki/Zentrumspartei \"Zentrumspartei\") instead of Polish parties), Stępniak estimates the number of Poles in the city to be 25–30% of Catholics living within it or about 30–36 thousand people. Including around 4,000 Polish nationals who were registered in the city, Stępniak estimated the Polish population as 9\\.4–11% of population.Ludność polska w Wolnym Mieście Gdańsku, 1920–1939, page 37, Henryk Stępniak, Wydawnictwo \"Stella Maris\", 1991, \"Przyjmując, że Polacy gdańscy stanowili 25–30% ogólnej liczby ludności katolickiej Wolnego Miasta Gdańska, liczącej w 1920 r. około 110 000 osób, można ustalić, że w liczbach bezwzględnych stanowiło można ustalić, że w liczbach bezwzględnych stanowiło to 30\\- – 36 tyś. osób. Jeśli do liczby tej dodamy ok. 4 tyś. ludności obywatelstwa polskiego, otrzymamy łącznie ok. 9,4–11% ogółu ludności.\"",
"In contrast, Stefan Samerski estimates about 10 percent of the 130,000 Catholics were Polish.{{cite book \\|last\\=Samerski \\|first\\=Stefan \\|title\\=Das Bistum Danzig in Lebensbildern \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=VMvgZQrdkxcC \\|year\\=2003 \\|publisher\\=LIT Verlag \\|language\\=de \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-8258\\-6284\\-8 \\|page\\=8 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105522/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=VMvgZQrdkxcC \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Andrzej Drzycimski estimates that Polish population at the end of 30s reached 20% (including Poles who arrived after the war).Stuthoff Zeszyty 4 4 Stanislaw Mikos Recenzje i omówienia *Andrzej Drzycimski, Polacy w Wolnym Mieście Gdańsku /1920 – 1933/. Polityka Seantu gdańskiego wobec ludności polskiej* Wrocław – Warszawa – Kraków – Gdańsk 1978,",
"The Polish population increased disproportionately in the 1920s and 1930s and was estimated at 20% shortly before the start of World War II in 1939\\. The Catholic priest [Franciszek Rogaczewski](/wiki/Franciszek_Rogaczewski \"Franciszek Rogaczewski\") estimated that Poles made up about 20% of the population of the Free City of Danzig in 1936\\.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Waszkiewicz \\|first\\=Zofia \\|author\\-link\\=:pl:Zofia Waszkiewicz \\|date\\=April 2006 \\|url\\=https://bazhum.muzhp.pl/media/files/Dzieje\\_Najnowsze\\_kwartalnik\\_poswiecony\\_historii\\_XX\\_wieku\\_/Dzieje\\_Najnowsze\\_kwartalnik\\_poswiecony\\_historii\\_XX\\_wieku\\_\\-r2006\\-t38\\-n4/Dzieje\\_Najnowsze\\_kwartalnik\\_poswiecony\\_historii\\_XX\\_wieku\\_\\-r2006\\-t38\\-n4\\-s53\\-70/Dzieje\\_Najnowsze\\_kwartalnik\\_poswiecony\\_historii\\_XX\\_wieku\\_\\-r2006\\-t38\\-n4\\-s53\\-70\\.pdf \\|title\\=Polska a polityka Stolicy Apostolskiej wobec Wolnego Miasta Gdańska (rokowania o konkordat i ustanowienie w Gdańsku polskich parafii personalnych) \\|journal\\=Dzieje Najnowsze \\|volume\\=38 \\|issue\\=4 \\|pages\\=53–70 \\|issn\\=0419\\-8824 \\|location\\=Toruń \\|language\\=pl }} The accuracy of demographic estimates is complicated by the discrepancy between the ethnic and linguistic identities of the Danzig population \\- while 95% of the inhabitants of the Free City of Danzig were German\\-speaking, many Poles were bilingual and also spoke German, and were included in such estimates. Another significant minority were the Kashubs, another West Slavic group who derived their [language](/wiki/Kashubian_language \"Kashubian language\") from [Pomeranian](/wiki/Pomeranian_language \"Pomeranian language\") and had their own independent identity. Additionally, as the result of [Kulturkampf](/wiki/Kulturkampf \"Kulturkampf\") laws, German Catholics, who made up about 40% of the city's population, supported the Polish national movement and stood up for Polish interests.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Blanke \\|first\\=Richard \\|date\\=June 1983 \\|url\\=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40868112 \\|title\\=The Polish Role in the Origin of the Kulturkampf in Prussia \\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis, Ltd. \\|journal\\=Canadian Slavonic Papers \\|volume\\=25 \\|issue\\=2 \\|pages\\=253–262 \\|doi\\=10\\.1080/00085006\\.1983\\.11091739 \\|jstor\\=40868112 }} This was further exacerbated by anti\\-Catholic legislation introduced by NSDAP\\-dominated Danzig Senate, which involved arrests of Catholic clergy as well as the activists and members of the [Catholic Centre Party](/wiki/Catholic_Centre_Party \"Catholic Centre Party\").{{cite news\\| url \\= https://www.nytimes.com/1937/10/20/archives/poles\\-are\\-angered\\-by\\-danzig\\-attacks\\-campaign\\-against\\-catholics\\-by.html\\| title \\= NY Times report\\| website \\= \\[\\[The New York Times]]\\| date \\= 20 October 1937\\| page\\=19}} The Catholic Centre Party was friendly to the Danzig Poles, and many Poles voted for the Centre Party instead of Polish organisations. The German Catholic clergy in Danzig also strongly supported the Polish minority, and the [Bishop of Danzig](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Gda%C5%84sk \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gdańsk\"), [Edward O'Rourke](/wiki/Edward_O%27Rourke \"Edward O'Rourke\"), actively fought for the interests of Danzig Poles.",
"In 1929, Tadeusz Kijański, a Polish citizen of Danzig, questioned the results of the official 1923 census, according to which only 3% to 1% of the Danzig population was Polish. Kijański pointed out that the census was conducted by the police, which was \"a deviation from the usual and only sensible and proven way of conducting this type of census\". The police officers in charge of conducting the census were mostly German citizens who were granted Danzig citizenship for the duration of their service, and there were several incidents in which they intimidated the local non\\-German population. The census also often relied on information provided by landlords or homeowners instead of asking each citizen directly; as a result, Kijański stated that \"the results of the census show significant deviations from the actual proportions in terms of nationality data\".{{cite book \\|first1\\=Tadeusz \\|last1\\=Kijański \\|title\\=Ilu jest Polaków na terenie Wolnego Miasta Gdańska \\|url\\=https://pbc.gda.pl/dlibra/doccontent?id\\=5433 \\|year\\=1929 \\|location\\=Danzig \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Gdańsk University of Technology Library]] \\|series\\=RG 2\\-3 \\|pages\\=113–121 \\|language\\=pl}} According to Kijański, many Poles in Danzig did not reveal their nationality in the census as a result of this intimidation, as well as pressure from German employers.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Baciński \\|first\\=Antoni \\|date\\=1973 \\|url\\=http://studiagdanskie.diecezja.gda.pl/pdf/sg\\_i.pdf \\|location\\=Danzig \\|title\\=Polskie Duchowieństwo Katolickie w Wolnym Mieście Gdańsku 1919\\-1939 \\|journal\\=Studia Gdańskie \\|volume\\=1 \\|issue\\=1 \\|page\\=37 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[:pl:Gdańskie Seminarium Duchowne\\|Danzig Theological Seminary]] \\|language\\=pl \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-08 \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-07 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307230358/http://studiagdanskie.diecezja.gda.pl/pdf/sg\\_i.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} He estimated that Poles accounted for 14\\.5% of the Free City's permanent population, but noted that the actual number of Poles may have been higher, as Poles made up 60% of all foreigners in Danzig at the time.\n[thumb\\|Distribution of German and Polish/Kashub population](/wiki/File:Deutscher_Bev%C3%B6lkerungsanteil_in_den_Gemeinden_der_Freien_Stadt_Danzig.png \"Deutscher Bevölkerungsanteil in den Gemeinden der Freien Stadt Danzig.png\")\nThe [Treaty of Versailles](/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles \"Treaty of Versailles\") required that the newly formed state have its own citizenship, based on residency. German inhabitants lost their [German citizenship](/wiki/German_nationality_law \"German nationality law\") with the creation of the Free City, but were given the right to re\\-obtain it within the first two years of the state's existence. Anyone desiring German citizenship had to leave their property and make their residence outside the Free State of Danzig area in the remaining parts of Germany.",
"| \\+ Total population by language, November 1, 1923, according to the Free City of Danzig census{{rp\\|11}} |\n| --- |\n| Nationality | [German](/wiki/German_language \"German language\") | German and[Polish](/wiki/Polish_language \"Polish language\") | Polish, [Kashub](/wiki/Kashubian_language \"Kashubian language\"),[Masurian](/wiki/Mazurs \"Mazurs\") | [Russian](/wiki/Russian_language \"Russian language\"),[Ukrainian](/wiki/Ukrainian_language \"Ukrainian language\") | [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew_language \"Hebrew language\"),[Yiddish](/wiki/Yiddish_language \"Yiddish language\") | Unclassified | Total |\n| Danzig | 327,827 | 1,108 | 6,788 | 99 | 22 | 77 | 335,921 |\n| Non\\-Danzig | 20,666 | 521 | 5,239 | 2,529 | 580 | 1,274 | 30,809 |\n| Total | 348,493 | 1,629 | 12,027 | 2,628 | 602 | 1,351 | 366,730 |\n| Percent | 95\\.03% | 0\\.44% | 3\\.28% | 0\\.72% | 0\\.16% | 0\\.37% | 100\\.00% |",
"",
"### Notable people born in the Free City of Danzig",
"[upright\\=0\\.55\\|thumb\\|[Eddi Arent](/wiki/Eddi_Arent \"Eddi Arent\") in 1971](/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F034158-0018%2C_Ausschnitt_Eddi_Arent.jpg \"Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F034158-0018, Ausschnitt Eddi Arent.jpg\")\n[upright\\=0\\.55\\|thumb\\|[Ingrid van Bergen](/wiki/Ingrid_van_Bergen \"Ingrid van Bergen\") in 2010](/wiki/File:IMG_0220_Ingrid_van_Bergen.jpg \"IMG 0220 Ingrid van Bergen.jpg\")\n[upright\\=0\\.55\\|thumb\\|[Günter Grass](/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Grass \"Günter Grass\") in 2006](/wiki/File:G%C3%BCnter_Grass_auf_dem_Blauen_Sofa.jpg \"Günter Grass auf dem Blauen Sofa.jpg\")\n[upright\\=0\\.55\\|thumb\\|[Klaus Kinski](/wiki/Klaus_Kinski \"Klaus Kinski\") in the 1980s](/wiki/File:Klaus_Kinski_Cannes-%28retouched-cropped%29.jpg \"Klaus Kinski Cannes-(retouched-cropped).jpg\")\n[upright\\=0\\.55\\|thumb\\|[Rupert Neudeck](/wiki/Rupert_Neudeck \"Rupert Neudeck\") 2007](/wiki/File:Rupert-neudeck001.jpg \"Rupert-neudeck001.jpg\")\n[upright\\=0\\.55\\|thumb\\|[Wolfgang Völz](/wiki/Wolfgang_V%C3%B6lz \"Wolfgang Völz\") in 2011](/wiki/File:Portrat_wolfgang_voelz_philipp_von_ostau.jpg \"Portrat wolfgang voelz philipp von ostau.jpg\")",
"* [Eddi Arent](/wiki/Eddi_Arent \"Eddi Arent\") (1925 in Danzig – 2013 in [Munich](/wiki/Munich \"Munich\")) was a German actor, cabaret artist and comedian.[\"Eddi Arent\"](https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0034357/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412105622/https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0034357/ \\|date\\=2019\\-04\\-12 }}, *[IMDb](/wiki/IMDb \"IMDb\")*, retrieved 21 October 2017 He appeared in 104 films between 1956 and 2002\\.\n* [Ike Aronowicz](/wiki/Ike_Aronowicz \"Ike Aronowicz\") (1923 in Danzig – 2009 Israel) captain of the immigrant ship [SS *Exodus*](/wiki/SS_Exodus \"SS Exodus\"), which unsuccessfully tried to dock in [Mandatory Palestine](/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine \"Mandatory Palestine\") with [Holocaust survivors](/wiki/Holocaust_survivors \"Holocaust survivors\") on July 11, 1947\\.[\"Yitzhak Ahronovitch, Exodus Skipper in Defiant ’47 Voyage of Jewish Refugees, Dies at 86\"](https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/24/world/middleeast/24ahronovitch.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100114045757/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/24/world/middleeast/24ahronovitch.html \\|date\\=2010\\-01\\-14 }}, *[New York Times](/wiki/New_York_Times \"New York Times\")* December 24, 2009, retrieved 21 October 2017\n* [Elisabeth Becker](/wiki/Elisabeth_Becker \"Elisabeth Becker\") (1923 in Danzig – executed 1946 in Biskupia Górka) was a [concentration camp guard](/wiki/SS-Totenkopfverb%C3%A4nde \"SS-Totenkopfverbände\") in World War II.[Stutthof Trial. Female guards in Nazi concentration camps Archived 2008](http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/stutthof-trial-april-may-1946) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007082036/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/stutthof\\-trial\\-april\\-may\\-1946 \\|date\\=2017\\-10\\-07 }} retrieved 21 October 2017\n* [Ingrid van Bergen](/wiki/Ingrid_van_Bergen \"Ingrid van Bergen\") (born 1931 in Danzig) is a German film actress.[IMDb](https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0885706/bio?ref_=nm_ov_bio_sm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319113957/https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0885706/bio?ref\\_\\=nm\\_ov\\_bio\\_sm \\|date\\=2022\\-03\\-19 }} retrieved 21 October 2017 She has appeared in 100 films since 1954\\. Convicted of manslaughter in 1977\\.\n* [Miltiades Caridis](/wiki/Miltiades_Caridis \"Miltiades Caridis\") (1923 in Danzig – 1998 in Athens) was a German\\-Greek conductor, his family moved to Greece in 1938\\.\n* [Zygmunt Chychła](/wiki/Zygmunt_Chych%C5%82a \"Zygmunt Chychła\") (1926 in Gdańsk – 2009 in Hamburg) was a Polish boxer.[Olympic DB](https://web.archive.org/web/20070314033650/http://www.databaseolympics.com/players/playerpage.htm?ilkid=CHYCHZYG01) retrieved 21 October 2017 He won the [Olympic gold medal](/wiki/Olympic_medal \"Olympic medal\") for [Poland](/wiki/Polish_People%27s_Republic \"Polish People's Republic\") at the [1952 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1952_Summer_Olympics \"1952 Summer Olympics\").\n* [Anna M. Cienciala](/wiki/Anna_M._Cienciala \"Anna M. Cienciala\") (1929 in Danzig – 2014 in Florida) was a [Polish\\-American](/wiki/Polish_Americans \"Polish Americans\") historian and author.[Anna M. Cienciala. Obituary. Lawrence Journal\\-World](http://obituaries.ljworld.com/obituaries/ljworld/obituary.aspx?n=anna-m-cienciala&pid=173612122) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171022033723/http://obituaries.ljworld.com/obituaries/ljworld/obituary.aspx?n\\=anna\\-m\\-cienciala\\&pid\\=173612122 \\|date\\=2017\\-10\\-22 }} retrieved 21 October 2017\n* [Holger Czukay](/wiki/Holger_Czukay \"Holger Czukay\") (1938 in Danzig – 2017 in Weilerswist) was a German musician, co\\-founder of the [krautrock](/wiki/Krautrock \"Krautrock\") group [Can](/wiki/Can_%28band%29 \"Can (band)\").[New York Times 8 Sept 2017](https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/08/arts/music/holger-czukay-dead-architect-of-experimental-band-can.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://archive.today/20170911070227/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/08/arts/music/holger\\-czukay\\-dead\\-architect\\-of\\-experimental\\-band\\-can.html \\|date\\=2017\\-09\\-11 }} retrieved 21 October 2017\n* [Horst Ehmke](/wiki/Horst_Ehmke \"Horst Ehmke\") (1927 in Danzig – 2017 in Bonn) was a German lawyer, law professor and SPD politician, served as [Federal Minister of Justice](/wiki/Federal_Ministry_of_Justice_and_Consumer_Protection \"Federal Ministry of Justice and Consumer Protection\") (1969\\).[Spiegel Online 04\\.02\\.2007](http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/horst-ehmke-wird-80-der-flotte-hotte-sah-sich-als-kommenden-exzellenten-kanzler-a-463828.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818201934/http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/horst\\-ehmke\\-wird\\-80\\-der\\-flotte\\-hotte\\-sah\\-sich\\-als\\-kommenden\\-exzellenten\\-kanzler\\-a\\-463828\\.html \\|date\\=2017\\-08\\-18 }} retrieved 21 October 2017\n* [Jörg\\-Peter Ewert](/wiki/J%C3%B6rg-Peter_Ewert \"Jörg-Peter Ewert\") (born 1938 in Danzig) is a German [neurophysiologist](/wiki/Neurophysiologist \"Neurophysiologist\") and researcher into [Neuroethology](/wiki/Neuroethology \"Neuroethology\").[Own website](http://www.joerg-peter-ewert.de/5.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705031825/http://www.joerg\\-peter\\-ewert.de/5\\.html \\|date\\=2017\\-07\\-05 }} retrieved 21 October 2017\n* [Günter Grass](/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Grass \"Günter Grass\") (1927 in Danzig – 2015 in Lübeck) was a German novelist, poet, playwright, illustrator, graphic artist, sculptor, and recipient of the 1999 [Nobel Prize in Literature](/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature \"Nobel Prize in Literature\").[\"German author Guenter Grass dies\"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-32285705) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180724215954/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world\\-europe\\-32285705 \\|date\\=2018\\-07\\-24 }}, *[BBC News](/wiki/BBC_News \"BBC News\")*, 13 April 2015, retrieved 21 October 2017\n* [Ursula Happe](/wiki/Ursula_Happe \"Ursula Happe\") (1926 in Danzig – 2021 in Dortmund) was a German swimmer and Olympic champion.[Sports\\-reference.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20200417170033/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ha/ursula-happe-1.html) retrieved 21 October 2017 She competed at the [1956 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1956_Summer_Olympics \"1956 Summer Olympics\") and won the gold medal in 200 m breaststroke.\n* [Hans Albert Hohnfeldt](/wiki/Hans_Albert_Hohnfeldt \"Hans Albert Hohnfeldt\") (1897 in Neufahrwasser – 1948\\) Nazi Party *[Gauleiter](/wiki/Gauleiter \"Gauleiter\")* in Danzig.\n* [Klaus Kinski](/wiki/Klaus_Kinski \"Klaus Kinski\") (1926 in Zopot – 1991 in [Lagunitas, California](/wiki/Lagunitas%2C_California \"Lagunitas, California\")) was a controversial German actor.[IMDb](https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001428/?ref_=fn_al_nm_1) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129022500/https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001428/?ref\\_\\=fn\\_al\\_nm\\_1 \\|date\\=2020\\-11\\-29 }} retrieved 21 October 2017\n* [Wanda Klaff](/wiki/Wanda_Klaff \"Wanda Klaff\") (1922 in Danzig – executed 1946 in [Biskupia Górka](/wiki/Biskupia_G%C3%B3rka \"Biskupia Górka\")) was a Nazi camp overseer.\n* [Heinz\\-Hermann Koelle](/wiki/Heinz-Hermann_Koelle \"Heinz-Hermann Koelle\") (1925 in Danzig – 2011 in Berlin) was an aeronautical engineer, and made the preliminary designs for [Saturn I](/wiki/Saturn_I \"Saturn I\").[Resonance Publications, March–June 1999](http://www.resonancepub.com/interview1.htm) {{Webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215202808/http://www.resonancepub.com/interview1\\.htm \\|date\\=2012\\-02\\-15 }} retrieved 21 October 2017\n* [Erhard Krack](/wiki/Erhard_Krack \"Erhard Krack\") (1931 in Danzig – 2000 in Berlin) was an [East German](/wiki/East_Germany \"East Germany\") politician and mayor of [East Berlin](/wiki/East_Berlin \"East Berlin\") from 1974 to 1990\\.\n* [Zdzisław Kuźniar](/wiki/Zdzis%C5%82aw_Ku%C5%BAniar \"Zdzisław Kuźniar\") (born 1931 in Gdańsk) is a Polish actor.[Zdzislaw Kuzniar, IMDb](https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0476888/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414201151/https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0476888/ \\|date\\=2022\\-04\\-14 }}.\n* [Hanna\\-Renate Laurien](/wiki/Hanna-Renate_Laurien \"Hanna-Renate Laurien\") (1928 in Danzig – 2010 in Berlin) was a German [CDU](/wiki/CDU/CSU \"CDU/CSU\") politician.[Spiegel Online 12\\.03\\.2009](http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/trauer-in-berlin-cdu-politikerin-laurien-ist-tot-a-683346.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214002656/http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/trauer\\-in\\-berlin\\-cdu\\-politikerin\\-laurien\\-ist\\-tot\\-a\\-683346\\.html \\|date\\=2017\\-02\\-14 }} retrieved 21 October 2017\n* [Jack Mandelbaum](/wiki/Jack_Mandelbaum \"Jack Mandelbaum\") (1927 in Danzig – 2023 [Naples, Florida](/wiki/Naples%2C_Florida \"Naples, Florida\")) was a Holocaust survivor.[Midwest Center for Holocaust Education](https://mchekc.org/portfolio-posts/mandelbaumjack/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171022032937/https://mchekc.org/portfolio\\-posts/mandelbaumjack/ \\|date\\=2017\\-10\\-22 }} retrieved 21 October 2017\n* [Rupert Neudeck](/wiki/Rupert_Neudeck \"Rupert Neudeck\") (1939 in Danzig – 2016 in Siegburg) correspondent for [Deutschlandfunk](/wiki/Deutschlandfunk \"Deutschlandfunk\") and founder of [Cap Anamur](/wiki/Cap_Anamur \"Cap Anamur\"), a humanitarian organisation.[\"Rupert Neudeck, refugee advocate, dead at 77\"](http://www.dw.com/en/rupert-neudeck-refugee-advocate-dead-at-77/a-19296123) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171118204447/http://www.dw.com/en/rupert\\-neudeck\\-refugee\\-advocate\\-dead\\-at\\-77/a\\-19296123\\|date\\=2017\\-11\\-18}}, *[Deutsche Welle](/wiki/Deutsche_Welle \"Deutsche Welle\")* retrieved 21 October 2017\n* [Zygmunt Pawłowicz](/wiki/Zygmunt_Paw%C5%82owicz \"Zygmunt Pawłowicz\") (1927 in Danzig – 2010 in Gdańsk) ordained a Catholic priest in 1952, was the Polish Auxiliary bishop of the [Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gdańsk](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Gda%C5%84sk \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gdańsk\") from 1985 until 2005\\.[Catholic\\-Hierarchy](https://web.archive.org/web/20100620125557/http://catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bpawz.html) retrieved 21 October 2017\n* [Avi Pazner](/wiki/Avi_Pazner \"Avi Pazner\") (born 1937 in Danzig) is a retired Israeli diplomat.[Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs](http://www.jcpa.org/israel-europe/ier-pazner-05.htm) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035853/http://www.jcpa.org/israel\\-europe/ier\\-pazner\\-05\\.htm \\|date\\=2016\\-03\\-04 }} retrieved 21 October 2017\n* [Richard Pratt](/wiki/Richard_Pratt_%28businessman%29 \"Richard Pratt (businessman)\") (1934 in Danzig – 2009 in Kew, Victoria) was a prominent Australian businessman, chairman of [Visy](/wiki/Visy \"Visy\").[\"Life and times of Richard Pratt\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090502004819/http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,25366289-2862,00.html), *[Herald Sun](/wiki/Herald_Sun \"Herald Sun\")* April 28, 2009 retrieved 21 October 2017 His family moved to Australia in 1938\\.\n* [Georg Preuß](/wiki/Georg_Preu%C3%9F \"Georg Preuß\") (1920 in Danzig – 1991 Clenze) was a mid\\-ranking commander in the [Waffen\\-SS](/wiki/Waffen-SS \"Waffen-SS\"), a convicted war criminal.\n* [Meta Preuß](/wiki/Meta_Preu%C3%9F \"Meta Preuß\") (1903–1981\\) one of seven members of the [Communist Party (Free City of Danzig)](/wiki/Communist_Party_%28Free_City_of_Danzig%29 \"Communist Party (Free City of Danzig)\"), elected to the [Volkstag](/wiki/Volkstag \"Volkstag\") in 1930\\.\n* [Henry Rosovsky](/wiki/Henry_Rosovsky \"Henry Rosovsky\") (1927 in Danzig – 2022 in Cambridge, Massachusetts) was an economic historian, specializing in [East Asia](/wiki/East_Asia \"East Asia\"), born of [Russian Jewish](/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia \"History of the Jews in Russia\") parents.[Harvard College, Department of Economics](https://economics.harvard.edu/people/henry-rosovsky) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20171022033614/https://economics.harvard.edu/people/henry\\-rosovsky \\|date\\=2017\\-10\\-22 }} retrieved 21 October 2017\n* [Hermann Salomon](/wiki/Hermann_Salomon \"Hermann Salomon\") (1938 in Danzig – 2020 in Mainz) was a German javelin thrower who competed in the [1960](/wiki/1960_Summer_Olympics \"1960 Summer Olympics\"), [1964](/wiki/1964_Summer_Olympics \"1964 Summer Olympics\"), and [1968 Summer Olympics](/wiki/1968_Summer_Olympics \"1968 Summer Olympics\").[Sports\\-reference.com](https://web.archive.org/web/20121216232625/http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/sa/hermann-salomon-1.html) retrieved 21 October 2017\n* [Meir Shamgar](/wiki/Meir_Shamgar \"Meir Shamgar\") (1925 in Danzig – 2019 in Jerusalem) was President of the [Israeli Supreme Court](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Israel \"Supreme Court of Israel\") from 1983 to 1995\\.[Israel's Holocaust and the Politics of Nationhood. Cambridge University Press 2005 p. 215](https://books.google.com/books?id=bQEAmjk4Wh0C&pg=PA215) retrieved 21 October 2017\n* [Zalman Shoval](/wiki/Zalman_Shoval \"Zalman Shoval\") (born 1930 in Danzig) is an Israeli politician and diplomat.[Knesset website](https://www.knesset.gov.il/mk/eng/mk_eng.asp?mk_individual_id_t=637) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701095931/https://www.knesset.gov.il/mk/eng/mk\\_eng.asp?mk\\_individual\\_id\\_t\\=637 \\|date\\=2017\\-07\\-01 }} retrieved 21 October 2017\n* [Wolfgang Völz](/wiki/Wolfgang_V%C3%B6lz \"Wolfgang Völz\") (1930 in Danzig – 2018 in Berlin) was a German actor, known for his roles in theatre plays, TV shows, feature films and taped radio shows.[IMDb](https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0905061/) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180508162654/https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0905061/ \\|date\\=2018\\-05\\-08 }} retrieved 21 October 2017\n* [F. K. Waechter](/wiki/F._K._Waechter \"F. K. Waechter\") (1937 in Danzig – 2005 in Frankfurt) was a German cartoonist, author and playwright.\n* [David Dushman](/wiki/David_Dushman \"David Dushman\") (1923 in Danzig \\- 2021 in Munich) was Jewish\\-Soviet Red Army soldier, assisted in the liberation of the Auschwitz\\-Birkenau concentration camp.",
"### Religion",
"In 1924, 54\\.7% of the populace was [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant \"Protestant\") (220,731 persons, mostly [Lutherans](/wiki/Lutheran \"Lutheran\") within the [united](/wiki/United_and_uniting_churches \"United and uniting churches\") [old\\-Prussian church](/wiki/Evangelical_Church_of_the_old-Prussian_Union \"Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union\")), 34\\.5% was [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic \"Roman Catholic\") (140,797 persons), and 2\\.4% Jewish (9,239 persons). Other Protestants included 5,604 [Mennonites](/wiki/Mennonite \"Mennonite\"), 1,934 [Calvinists](/wiki/Calvinist \"Calvinist\") ([Reformed](/wiki/Reformed_church \"Reformed church\")), 1,093 [Baptists](/wiki/Baptist \"Baptist\"), 410 [Free Religionists](/wiki/Religious_humanism \"Religious humanism\"). The population also included 2,129 [dissenters](/wiki/Dissenter \"Dissenter\"), 1,394 faithful of other religions and denominations, and 664 [irreligionists](/wiki/Irreligionism \"Irreligionism\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Danzig/index.htm \\|title\\=Die Freie Stadt Danzig im Überblick \\|website\\=www.gonschior.de \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-03\\-02 \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-03\\-01 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100301035437/http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Danzig/index.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live }}Dr. Juergensen, *Die freie Stadt Danzig*, Danzig: Kafemann, 1925\\.",
"The Jewish community grew from 2,717 in 1910 to 7,282 in 1923 and 10,448 in 1929, many of them immigrants from Poland and Russia.{{cite book \\|author2\\=Vivian B. Mann \\|author3\\=Joseph Gutmann \\|title\\=Danzig Jewry: A Short History \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=vvIECPYRssIC \\|year\\=1980 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Jewish Museum (New York)]] \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8143\\-1662\\-7 \\|page\\=31 \\|last1\\=Bacon \\|first1\\=Gershon C. \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105536/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=vvIECPYRssIC \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### Regional Synodal Federation of the Free City of Danzig",
"[thumb\\|The Lutheran Supreme Parish Church of St. Mary's in Danzig's [Rechtstadt](/wiki/Main_City \"Main City\") quarter](/wiki/File:Danzig-Marienkirche.jpg \"Danzig-Marienkirche.jpg\")\nThe mostly Lutheran and partially Reformed congregations situated in the territory of the Free City, which previously used to belong to the *Ecclesiastical Province of West Prussia* of the [Evangelical Church of the old\\-Prussian Union](/wiki/Evangelical_Church_of_the_old-Prussian_Union \"Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union\") (EKapU), were transformed into the *Regional [Synodal](/wiki/Synod \"Synod\") Federation of the Free City of Danzig* after 1920\\. The executive body of that ecclesiastical province, the [consistory](/wiki/Consistory_%28Protestantism%29 \"Consistory (Protestantism)\") (est. 1 November 1886\\), was seated in Danzig. After 1920 it was restricted in its responsibility to those congregations within the Free City's territory.Those congregations in Polish\\-annexed West Prussia ([Pomeranian Voivodeship](/wiki/Pomeranian_Voivodeship_%281919%E2%80%931939%29 \"Pomeranian Voivodeship (1919–1939)\")) merged into the new United Evangelical Church in Poland, which emerged from the old\\-Prussian *Posen ecclesiastical province*, with its consistory seated in [Poznań](/wiki/Pozna%C5%84 \"Poznań\"). First General Superintendent {{ill\\|Paul Kalweit\\|de}} (1920–1933\\) and then Bishop {{ill\\|Johannes Beermann\\|de\\|Johannes Beermann (Bischof)}} (1933–1945\\) presided over the consistory.",
"Unlike the [Second Polish Republic](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic \"Second Polish Republic\"), which opposed the cooperation of the {{ill\\|United Evangelical Church in Poland\\|pl\\|Ewangelicki Kościół Unijny w Polsce}} with EKapU, Volkstag and the Senate of Danzig approved cross\\-border religious bodies. Danzig's Regional Synodal Federation — just as the regional synodal federation of the autonomous [Memelland](/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da_Region \"Klaipėda Region\") — retained the status of an [ecclesiastical province within EKapU](/wiki/Ecclesiastical_province%23Evangelical_State_Church_in_Prussia \"Ecclesiastical province#Evangelical State Church in Prussia\").In June 1922 the Senate of Danzig and the old\\-Prussian ecclesiastical executive, the {{ill\\|Evangelical Supreme Ecclesiastical Council\\|de\\|Evangelischer Oberkirchenrat (Preußen)}}, EOK), concluded a contract to that end. Cf. Adalbert Erler, *Die rechtliche Stellung der evangelischen Kirche in Danzig*, Berlin: 1929, simultaneously Univ. of Greifswald, Department of Law and Politics, doctor thesis of 21 February 1929, pp. 36 seqq.",
"After the German annexation of the Free City in 1939, the EKapU merged the Danzig regional synodal federation in 1940 into the Ecclesiastical Region of Danzig\\-West Prussia. This included the Polish congregations of the United Evangelical Church in Poland in the homonymous [Reichsgau Danzig\\-West Prussia](/wiki/Reichsgau_Danzig-West_Prussia \"Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia\") and the German congregations in the [West Prussia governorate](/wiki/West_Prussia_%28region%29 \"West Prussia (region)\"). Danzig's consistory functioned as an executive body for that region. With the flight and expulsion of most ethnically German Protestant parishioners from the area of the Free City of Danzig between 1945 and 1948, the congregations vanished.",
"In March 1945, the consistory had relocated to [Lübeck](/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck \"Lübeck\") and opened a refugee centre for Danzigers (Hilfsstelle beim evangelischen Konsistorium Danzig) led by Upper Consistorial Councillor {{ill\\|Gerhard M. Gülzow\\|de}}. The Lutheran congregation of [St. Mary's Church](/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Church%2C_Gda%C5%84sk \"St. Mary's Church, Gdańsk\") could relocate its valuable [parament](/wiki/Parament \"Parament\") collection and the [presbytery](/wiki/Presbyterian_polity \"Presbyterian polity\") granted it on loan to [St. Annen Museum](/wiki/St._Anne%27s_Museum_Quarter%2C_L%C3%BCbeck%23Chamber_of_paraments \"St. Anne's Museum Quarter, Lübeck#Chamber of paraments\") in Lübeck after the war. Other Lutheran congregations of Danzig could reclaim their church bells, which the [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\") had requisitioned as non\\-ferrous metal for war purposes since 1940, but which had survived, not yet melted down, in storage (e.g. {{ill\\|Glockenfriedhof\\|de}}) in the British zone of occupation. The presbyteries granted them usually to Northwestern German Lutheran congregations which had lost bells due to the war.",
"#### Diocese of Danzig of the Roman Catholic Church",
"{{main\\|Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gdańsk\\#history\\|l1\\=Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gdańsk}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|The [Archcathedral of the Holy Trinity, Blessed Virgin Mary and Saint Bernard](/wiki/Oliwa_Cathedral \"Oliwa Cathedral\") in Oliva, Danzig](/wiki/File:CH-NB_-_Freie_Stadt_Danzig%2C_Danzig_%28Gdansk%29-_Kirche_-_Annemarie_Schwarzenbach_-_SLA-Schwarzenbach-A-5-13-066.jpg \"CH-NB - Freie Stadt Danzig, Danzig (Gdansk)- Kirche - Annemarie Schwarzenbach - SLA-Schwarzenbach-A-5-13-066.jpg\")\nThe 36 Catholic [parishes](/wiki/Parish \"Parish\") in the territory of the Free City in 1922 used to belong in equal shares to the [Diocese of Culm](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Culm_%28Che%C5%82mno%29 \"Bishopric of Culm (Chełmno)\"), which was mostly Polish, and the [Diocese of Ermland](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Warmia \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Warmia\"), which was mostly German. While the Second Polish Republic wanted all the parishes within the Free City to form part of Polish Culm, Volkstag and Senate wanted them all to become subject to German Ermland.{{cite book \\|author\\=Georg May \\|title\\=Ludwig Kaas: der Priester, der Politiker und der Gelehrte aus der Schule von Ulrich Stutz \\|publisher\\=John Benjamins Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-6032\\-197\\-3 \\|page\\=175 \\|year\\=1981}} In 1922 the [Holy See](/wiki/Holy_See \"Holy See\") suspended the jurisdictions of both dioceses over their parishes in the Free State and established an [exempt](/wiki/Exemption_%28church%29 \"Exemption (church)\") [apostolic administration](/wiki/Apostolic_administration \"Apostolic administration\") for the territory.",
"The first apostolic administrator was [Edward O'Rourke](/wiki/Edward_O%27Rourke \"Edward O'Rourke\") (born in [Minsk](/wiki/Minsk \"Minsk\") and of Irish ancestry) who became [Bishop of Danzig](/wiki/Bishop_of_Danzig \"Bishop of Danzig\") on the occasion of the elevation of the administration to an exempt diocese in 1925\\. He was naturalised as Danziger on the same occasion. In 1938 he resigned after quarrels with the Nazi\\-dominated Senate of Danzig on appointments of parish priests of Polish ethnicity.{{cite book \\|author2\\=Reimund Haas \\|author3\\=Karl Josef Rivinius \\|author4\\=Hermann\\-Josef Scheidgen \\|title\\=Ein aussichtsloses Unternehmen – Die Reaktivierung Bischof Eduard Graf O'Rourkes 1939 \\|url\\=http://www.db\\-thueringen.de/servlets/DerivateServlet/Derivate\\-5265/SamerskiFsAdrianyi.pdf \\|year\\=2000 \\|publisher\\=Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar \\|language\\=de \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-412\\-04100\\-7 \\|page\\=378 \\|last1\\=Samerski \\|first1\\=Stefan \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-02\\-28 \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-02\\-18 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218160507/http://www.db\\-thueringen.de/servlets/DerivateServlet/Derivate\\-5265/SamerskiFsAdrianyi.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The senate also instigated the denaturalisation of O'Rourke, who subsequently became a Polish citizen. O'Rourke was succeeded by Bishop [Carl Maria Splett](/wiki/Carl_Maria_Splett \"Carl Maria Splett\"), a native from the Free City area.",
"Splett remained bishop after the German annexation of the Free City. In early 1941, he applied for admitting the Danzig diocese as member in Archbishop [Adolf Bertram](/wiki/Adolf_Bertram \"Adolf Bertram\")'s [Eastern German Ecclesiastical Province](/wiki/Eastern_German_Ecclesiastical_Province \"Eastern German Ecclesiastical Province\") and thus at the [Fulda Conference of Bishops](/wiki/Fulda_Conference%23Fulda_Conference_of_Bishops_%28till_1965%29 \"Fulda Conference#Fulda Conference of Bishops (till 1965)\"); however, Bertram, also speaker of the Fulda conference, rejected the request.{{cite book \\|author1\\=Hans\\-Jürgen Karp \\|author2\\=Joachim Köhler \\|title\\=Katholische Kirche unter nationalsozialistischer und kommunistischer Diktatur: Deutschland und Polen 1939–1989 \\|year\\=2001 \\|publisher\\=Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-412\\-11800\\-6 \\|page\\=162}} Any arguments that the Free City of Danzig had been annexed to Nazi Germany did not impress Bertram since Danzig's annexation lacked international recognition. Until the reorganization of the Catholic dioceses in Danzig and the formerly eastern territories of Germany the diocesan territory remained unaltered and the see exempt. However, with the replacement of Danzig's population between 1945 and 1948 by mostly Catholic Poles, the number of Catholic parishes increased and most formerly Protestant churches were taken over for Catholic services.",
"#### Jewish Danzigers",
"[thumb\\|right\\|The [Great Synagogue](/wiki/Great_Synagogue_%28Danzig%29 \"Great Synagogue (Danzig)\") on Reitbahn Street in Danzig's Rechtstadt quarter](/wiki/File:GreatSynagogueDanzig.jpg \"GreatSynagogueDanzig.jpg\")\n{{main\\|Jewish Community of Gdańsk\\#Free City of Danzig\\|l1\\=Jewish Community in the Free City of Danzig}}\nSince 1883 most of the Jewish congregations in the later territory of Free State had merged into the Synagogal Community of Danzig. Only the Jews of [Tiegenhof](/wiki/Nowy_Dw%C3%B3r_Gda%C5%84ski \"Nowy Dwór Gdański\") ran their own congregation until 1938\\.",
"Danzig became a centre of Polish and Russian Jewish emigration to North America. Between 1920 and 1925 60,000 Jews emigrated via Danzig to the US and Canada. At the same time, between 1923 and 1929, Danzig's own Jewish population increased from roughly 7,000 to 10,500\\.{{cite book \\|title\\=Danzig: Geschichte einer Deutschen Stadt \\|first\\=Rüdiger \\|last\\=Ruhnau \\|publisher\\=Holzner Verlag \\|year\\=1971 \\|page\\=94 \\|language\\=de}} Native Jews and newcomers established themselves in the city and contributed to its civic life, culture and economy. Danzig became a venue for international meetings of Jewish organisations, such as the convention of delegates from Jewish youth organisations of various nations, attended by [David Ben\\-Gurion](/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion \"David Ben-Gurion\"), which founded the [World Union of Jewish Youth](/wiki/World_Union_of_Jewish_Youth \"World Union of Jewish Youth\") on 2 September 1924 in the Schützenhaus venue. On 21 March 1926 the *Zionistische Organisation für Danzig* convened delegates of [Hechalutz](/wiki/Hechalutz \"Hechalutz\") from all over for the first conference in Danzig using [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew_language \"Hebrew language\") as common language, also attended by Ben Gurion.",
"With a Nazi majority in the Volkstag and Senate, anti\\-Semitic persecution and discrimination occurred unsanctioned by the authorities. In contrast to Germany, which exercised capital outflow control since 1931, emigration of Danzig's Jews was nonetheless somewhat easier, with capital transfers enabled by the [Bank of Danzig](/wiki/Bank_of_Danzig \"Bank of Danzig\"). Moreover, the comparatively few Danzig Jews were offered easier refuge in safe countries because of favorable Free City migration quotas.",
"After the anti\\-Jewish riots of [Kristallnacht](/wiki/Kristallnacht \"Kristallnacht\") of 9/10 November 1938 in Germany, similar riots took place on 12/13 November in Danzig.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ifz\\-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1966\\_2\\_2\\_sodeikat.pdf \\|title\\=Der Nationalsozialismus und die Danziger Opposition \\|first1\\=Ernst \\|last1\\=Sodeikat \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Institut für Zeitgeschichte]] \\|year\\=1966 \\|page\\=139 ff \\|language\\=de \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-02\\-04 \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-20 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720013656/http://www.ifz\\-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1966\\_2\\_2\\_sodeikat.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|author2\\=Vivian B. Mann \\|author3\\=Joseph Gutmann \\|author4\\=Jewish Museum (New York, N.Y.) \\|title\\=Danzig 1939, treasures of a destroyed community \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=vvIECPYRssIC \\|year\\=1980 \\|publisher\\=The Jewish Museum, New York \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8143\\-1662\\-7 \\|page\\=33 \\|last1\\=Grass \\|first1\\=Günther \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105536/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=vvIECPYRssIC \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The [Great Synagogue](/wiki/Great_Synagogue_%28Danzig%29 \"Great Synagogue (Danzig)\") was taken over and demolished by the local authorities in 1939\\. Most Jews had already left the city, and the [Jewish Community of Danzig](/wiki/Jewish_Community_of_Gda%C5%84sk%23Free_City_of_Danzig \"Jewish Community of Gdańsk#Free City of Danzig\") decided to organize its own emigration in early 1939\\.[Gdańsk](https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0007_0_07105.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113051709/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud\\_0002\\_0007\\_0\\_07105\\.html \\|date\\=2017\\-01\\-13 }} at the [Jewish Virtual Library](/wiki/Jewish_Virtual_Library \"Jewish Virtual Library\").",
""
] |
### Religion
In 1924, 54\.7% of the populace was [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant "Protestant") (220,731 persons, mostly [Lutherans](/wiki/Lutheran "Lutheran") within the [united](/wiki/United_and_uniting_churches "United and uniting churches") [old\-Prussian church](/wiki/Evangelical_Church_of_the_old-Prussian_Union "Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union")), 34\.5% was [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic "Roman Catholic") (140,797 persons), and 2\.4% Jewish (9,239 persons). Other Protestants included 5,604 [Mennonites](/wiki/Mennonite "Mennonite"), 1,934 [Calvinists](/wiki/Calvinist "Calvinist") ([Reformed](/wiki/Reformed_church "Reformed church")), 1,093 [Baptists](/wiki/Baptist "Baptist"), 410 [Free Religionists](/wiki/Religious_humanism "Religious humanism"). The population also included 2,129 [dissenters](/wiki/Dissenter "Dissenter"), 1,394 faithful of other religions and denominations, and 664 [irreligionists](/wiki/Irreligionism "Irreligionism").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Danzig/index.htm \|title\=Die Freie Stadt Danzig im Überblick \|website\=www.gonschior.de \|access\-date\=2010\-03\-02 \|archive\-date\=2010\-03\-01 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100301035437/http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Danzig/index.htm \|url\-status\=live }}Dr. Juergensen, *Die freie Stadt Danzig*, Danzig: Kafemann, 1925\.
The Jewish community grew from 2,717 in 1910 to 7,282 in 1923 and 10,448 in 1929, many of them immigrants from Poland and Russia.{{cite book \|author2\=Vivian B. Mann \|author3\=Joseph Gutmann \|title\=Danzig Jewry: A Short History \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=vvIECPYRssIC \|year\=1980 \|publisher\=\[\[Jewish Museum (New York)]] \|isbn\=978\-0\-8143\-1662\-7 \|page\=31 \|last1\=Bacon \|first1\=Gershon C. \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105536/https://books.google.com/books?id\=vvIECPYRssIC \|url\-status\=live }}
#### Regional Synodal Federation of the Free City of Danzig
[thumb\|The Lutheran Supreme Parish Church of St. Mary's in Danzig's [Rechtstadt](/wiki/Main_City "Main City") quarter](/wiki/File:Danzig-Marienkirche.jpg "Danzig-Marienkirche.jpg")
The mostly Lutheran and partially Reformed congregations situated in the territory of the Free City, which previously used to belong to the *Ecclesiastical Province of West Prussia* of the [Evangelical Church of the old\-Prussian Union](/wiki/Evangelical_Church_of_the_old-Prussian_Union "Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union") (EKapU), were transformed into the *Regional [Synodal](/wiki/Synod "Synod") Federation of the Free City of Danzig* after 1920\. The executive body of that ecclesiastical province, the [consistory](/wiki/Consistory_%28Protestantism%29 "Consistory (Protestantism)") (est. 1 November 1886\), was seated in Danzig. After 1920 it was restricted in its responsibility to those congregations within the Free City's territory.Those congregations in Polish\-annexed West Prussia ([Pomeranian Voivodeship](/wiki/Pomeranian_Voivodeship_%281919%E2%80%931939%29 "Pomeranian Voivodeship (1919–1939)")) merged into the new United Evangelical Church in Poland, which emerged from the old\-Prussian *Posen ecclesiastical province*, with its consistory seated in [Poznań](/wiki/Pozna%C5%84 "Poznań"). First General Superintendent {{ill\|Paul Kalweit\|de}} (1920–1933\) and then Bishop {{ill\|Johannes Beermann\|de\|Johannes Beermann (Bischof)}} (1933–1945\) presided over the consistory.
Unlike the [Second Polish Republic](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic "Second Polish Republic"), which opposed the cooperation of the {{ill\|United Evangelical Church in Poland\|pl\|Ewangelicki Kościół Unijny w Polsce}} with EKapU, Volkstag and the Senate of Danzig approved cross\-border religious bodies. Danzig's Regional Synodal Federation — just as the regional synodal federation of the autonomous [Memelland](/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da_Region "Klaipėda Region") — retained the status of an [ecclesiastical province within EKapU](/wiki/Ecclesiastical_province%23Evangelical_State_Church_in_Prussia "Ecclesiastical province#Evangelical State Church in Prussia").In June 1922 the Senate of Danzig and the old\-Prussian ecclesiastical executive, the {{ill\|Evangelical Supreme Ecclesiastical Council\|de\|Evangelischer Oberkirchenrat (Preußen)}}, EOK), concluded a contract to that end. Cf. Adalbert Erler, *Die rechtliche Stellung der evangelischen Kirche in Danzig*, Berlin: 1929, simultaneously Univ. of Greifswald, Department of Law and Politics, doctor thesis of 21 February 1929, pp. 36 seqq.
After the German annexation of the Free City in 1939, the EKapU merged the Danzig regional synodal federation in 1940 into the Ecclesiastical Region of Danzig\-West Prussia. This included the Polish congregations of the United Evangelical Church in Poland in the homonymous [Reichsgau Danzig\-West Prussia](/wiki/Reichsgau_Danzig-West_Prussia "Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia") and the German congregations in the [West Prussia governorate](/wiki/West_Prussia_%28region%29 "West Prussia (region)"). Danzig's consistory functioned as an executive body for that region. With the flight and expulsion of most ethnically German Protestant parishioners from the area of the Free City of Danzig between 1945 and 1948, the congregations vanished.
In March 1945, the consistory had relocated to [Lübeck](/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck "Lübeck") and opened a refugee centre for Danzigers (Hilfsstelle beim evangelischen Konsistorium Danzig) led by Upper Consistorial Councillor {{ill\|Gerhard M. Gülzow\|de}}. The Lutheran congregation of [St. Mary's Church](/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Church%2C_Gda%C5%84sk "St. Mary's Church, Gdańsk") could relocate its valuable [parament](/wiki/Parament "Parament") collection and the [presbytery](/wiki/Presbyterian_polity "Presbyterian polity") granted it on loan to [St. Annen Museum](/wiki/St._Anne%27s_Museum_Quarter%2C_L%C3%BCbeck%23Chamber_of_paraments "St. Anne's Museum Quarter, Lübeck#Chamber of paraments") in Lübeck after the war. Other Lutheran congregations of Danzig could reclaim their church bells, which the [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht "Wehrmacht") had requisitioned as non\-ferrous metal for war purposes since 1940, but which had survived, not yet melted down, in storage (e.g. {{ill\|Glockenfriedhof\|de}}) in the British zone of occupation. The presbyteries granted them usually to Northwestern German Lutheran congregations which had lost bells due to the war.
#### Diocese of Danzig of the Roman Catholic Church
{{main\|Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gdańsk\#history\|l1\=Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gdańsk}}
[thumb\|right\|The [Archcathedral of the Holy Trinity, Blessed Virgin Mary and Saint Bernard](/wiki/Oliwa_Cathedral "Oliwa Cathedral") in Oliva, Danzig](/wiki/File:CH-NB_-_Freie_Stadt_Danzig%2C_Danzig_%28Gdansk%29-_Kirche_-_Annemarie_Schwarzenbach_-_SLA-Schwarzenbach-A-5-13-066.jpg "CH-NB - Freie Stadt Danzig, Danzig (Gdansk)- Kirche - Annemarie Schwarzenbach - SLA-Schwarzenbach-A-5-13-066.jpg")
The 36 Catholic [parishes](/wiki/Parish "Parish") in the territory of the Free City in 1922 used to belong in equal shares to the [Diocese of Culm](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Culm_%28Che%C5%82mno%29 "Bishopric of Culm (Chełmno)"), which was mostly Polish, and the [Diocese of Ermland](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Warmia "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Warmia"), which was mostly German. While the Second Polish Republic wanted all the parishes within the Free City to form part of Polish Culm, Volkstag and Senate wanted them all to become subject to German Ermland.{{cite book \|author\=Georg May \|title\=Ludwig Kaas: der Priester, der Politiker und der Gelehrte aus der Schule von Ulrich Stutz \|publisher\=John Benjamins Publishing \|isbn\=978\-90\-6032\-197\-3 \|page\=175 \|year\=1981}} In 1922 the [Holy See](/wiki/Holy_See "Holy See") suspended the jurisdictions of both dioceses over their parishes in the Free State and established an [exempt](/wiki/Exemption_%28church%29 "Exemption (church)") [apostolic administration](/wiki/Apostolic_administration "Apostolic administration") for the territory.
The first apostolic administrator was [Edward O'Rourke](/wiki/Edward_O%27Rourke "Edward O'Rourke") (born in [Minsk](/wiki/Minsk "Minsk") and of Irish ancestry) who became [Bishop of Danzig](/wiki/Bishop_of_Danzig "Bishop of Danzig") on the occasion of the elevation of the administration to an exempt diocese in 1925\. He was naturalised as Danziger on the same occasion. In 1938 he resigned after quarrels with the Nazi\-dominated Senate of Danzig on appointments of parish priests of Polish ethnicity.{{cite book \|author2\=Reimund Haas \|author3\=Karl Josef Rivinius \|author4\=Hermann\-Josef Scheidgen \|title\=Ein aussichtsloses Unternehmen – Die Reaktivierung Bischof Eduard Graf O'Rourkes 1939 \|url\=http://www.db\-thueringen.de/servlets/DerivateServlet/Derivate\-5265/SamerskiFsAdrianyi.pdf \|year\=2000 \|publisher\=Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar \|language\=de \|isbn\=978\-3\-412\-04100\-7 \|page\=378 \|last1\=Samerski \|first1\=Stefan \|access\-date\=2010\-02\-28 \|archive\-date\=2012\-02\-18 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218160507/http://www.db\-thueringen.de/servlets/DerivateServlet/Derivate\-5265/SamerskiFsAdrianyi.pdf \|url\-status\=live }} The senate also instigated the denaturalisation of O'Rourke, who subsequently became a Polish citizen. O'Rourke was succeeded by Bishop [Carl Maria Splett](/wiki/Carl_Maria_Splett "Carl Maria Splett"), a native from the Free City area.
Splett remained bishop after the German annexation of the Free City. In early 1941, he applied for admitting the Danzig diocese as member in Archbishop [Adolf Bertram](/wiki/Adolf_Bertram "Adolf Bertram")'s [Eastern German Ecclesiastical Province](/wiki/Eastern_German_Ecclesiastical_Province "Eastern German Ecclesiastical Province") and thus at the [Fulda Conference of Bishops](/wiki/Fulda_Conference%23Fulda_Conference_of_Bishops_%28till_1965%29 "Fulda Conference#Fulda Conference of Bishops (till 1965)"); however, Bertram, also speaker of the Fulda conference, rejected the request.{{cite book \|author1\=Hans\-Jürgen Karp \|author2\=Joachim Köhler \|title\=Katholische Kirche unter nationalsozialistischer und kommunistischer Diktatur: Deutschland und Polen 1939–1989 \|year\=2001 \|publisher\=Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar \|isbn\=978\-3\-412\-11800\-6 \|page\=162}} Any arguments that the Free City of Danzig had been annexed to Nazi Germany did not impress Bertram since Danzig's annexation lacked international recognition. Until the reorganization of the Catholic dioceses in Danzig and the formerly eastern territories of Germany the diocesan territory remained unaltered and the see exempt. However, with the replacement of Danzig's population between 1945 and 1948 by mostly Catholic Poles, the number of Catholic parishes increased and most formerly Protestant churches were taken over for Catholic services.
#### Jewish Danzigers
[thumb\|right\|The [Great Synagogue](/wiki/Great_Synagogue_%28Danzig%29 "Great Synagogue (Danzig)") on Reitbahn Street in Danzig's Rechtstadt quarter](/wiki/File:GreatSynagogueDanzig.jpg "GreatSynagogueDanzig.jpg")
{{main\|Jewish Community of Gdańsk\#Free City of Danzig\|l1\=Jewish Community in the Free City of Danzig}}
Since 1883 most of the Jewish congregations in the later territory of Free State had merged into the Synagogal Community of Danzig. Only the Jews of [Tiegenhof](/wiki/Nowy_Dw%C3%B3r_Gda%C5%84ski "Nowy Dwór Gdański") ran their own congregation until 1938\.
Danzig became a centre of Polish and Russian Jewish emigration to North America. Between 1920 and 1925 60,000 Jews emigrated via Danzig to the US and Canada. At the same time, between 1923 and 1929, Danzig's own Jewish population increased from roughly 7,000 to 10,500\.{{cite book \|title\=Danzig: Geschichte einer Deutschen Stadt \|first\=Rüdiger \|last\=Ruhnau \|publisher\=Holzner Verlag \|year\=1971 \|page\=94 \|language\=de}} Native Jews and newcomers established themselves in the city and contributed to its civic life, culture and economy. Danzig became a venue for international meetings of Jewish organisations, such as the convention of delegates from Jewish youth organisations of various nations, attended by [David Ben\-Gurion](/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion "David Ben-Gurion"), which founded the [World Union of Jewish Youth](/wiki/World_Union_of_Jewish_Youth "World Union of Jewish Youth") on 2 September 1924 in the Schützenhaus venue. On 21 March 1926 the *Zionistische Organisation für Danzig* convened delegates of [Hechalutz](/wiki/Hechalutz "Hechalutz") from all over for the first conference in Danzig using [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew_language "Hebrew language") as common language, also attended by Ben Gurion.
With a Nazi majority in the Volkstag and Senate, anti\-Semitic persecution and discrimination occurred unsanctioned by the authorities. In contrast to Germany, which exercised capital outflow control since 1931, emigration of Danzig's Jews was nonetheless somewhat easier, with capital transfers enabled by the [Bank of Danzig](/wiki/Bank_of_Danzig "Bank of Danzig"). Moreover, the comparatively few Danzig Jews were offered easier refuge in safe countries because of favorable Free City migration quotas.
After the anti\-Jewish riots of [Kristallnacht](/wiki/Kristallnacht "Kristallnacht") of 9/10 November 1938 in Germany, similar riots took place on 12/13 November in Danzig.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.ifz\-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1966\_2\_2\_sodeikat.pdf \|title\=Der Nationalsozialismus und die Danziger Opposition \|first1\=Ernst \|last1\=Sodeikat \|publisher\=\[\[Institut für Zeitgeschichte]] \|year\=1966 \|page\=139 ff \|language\=de \|access\-date\=2010\-02\-04 \|archive\-date\=2011\-07\-20 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720013656/http://www.ifz\-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1966\_2\_2\_sodeikat.pdf \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|author2\=Vivian B. Mann \|author3\=Joseph Gutmann \|author4\=Jewish Museum (New York, N.Y.) \|title\=Danzig 1939, treasures of a destroyed community \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=vvIECPYRssIC \|year\=1980 \|publisher\=The Jewish Museum, New York \|isbn\=978\-0\-8143\-1662\-7 \|page\=33 \|last1\=Grass \|first1\=Günther \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105536/https://books.google.com/books?id\=vvIECPYRssIC \|url\-status\=live }} The [Great Synagogue](/wiki/Great_Synagogue_%28Danzig%29 "Great Synagogue (Danzig)") was taken over and demolished by the local authorities in 1939\. Most Jews had already left the city, and the [Jewish Community of Danzig](/wiki/Jewish_Community_of_Gda%C5%84sk%23Free_City_of_Danzig "Jewish Community of Gdańsk#Free City of Danzig") decided to organize its own emigration in early 1939\.[Gdańsk](https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0007_0_07105.html) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113051709/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud\_0002\_0007\_0\_07105\.html \|date\=2017\-01\-13 }} at the [Jewish Virtual Library](/wiki/Jewish_Virtual_Library "Jewish Virtual Library").
|
[
"### Religion",
"In 1924, 54\\.7% of the populace was [Protestant](/wiki/Protestant \"Protestant\") (220,731 persons, mostly [Lutherans](/wiki/Lutheran \"Lutheran\") within the [united](/wiki/United_and_uniting_churches \"United and uniting churches\") [old\\-Prussian church](/wiki/Evangelical_Church_of_the_old-Prussian_Union \"Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union\")), 34\\.5% was [Roman Catholic](/wiki/Roman_Catholic \"Roman Catholic\") (140,797 persons), and 2\\.4% Jewish (9,239 persons). Other Protestants included 5,604 [Mennonites](/wiki/Mennonite \"Mennonite\"), 1,934 [Calvinists](/wiki/Calvinist \"Calvinist\") ([Reformed](/wiki/Reformed_church \"Reformed church\")), 1,093 [Baptists](/wiki/Baptist \"Baptist\"), 410 [Free Religionists](/wiki/Religious_humanism \"Religious humanism\"). The population also included 2,129 [dissenters](/wiki/Dissenter \"Dissenter\"), 1,394 faithful of other religions and denominations, and 664 [irreligionists](/wiki/Irreligionism \"Irreligionism\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Danzig/index.htm \\|title\\=Die Freie Stadt Danzig im Überblick \\|website\\=www.gonschior.de \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-03\\-02 \\|archive\\-date\\=2010\\-03\\-01 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100301035437/http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Danzig/index.htm \\|url\\-status\\=live }}Dr. Juergensen, *Die freie Stadt Danzig*, Danzig: Kafemann, 1925\\.",
"The Jewish community grew from 2,717 in 1910 to 7,282 in 1923 and 10,448 in 1929, many of them immigrants from Poland and Russia.{{cite book \\|author2\\=Vivian B. Mann \\|author3\\=Joseph Gutmann \\|title\\=Danzig Jewry: A Short History \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=vvIECPYRssIC \\|year\\=1980 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Jewish Museum (New York)]] \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8143\\-1662\\-7 \\|page\\=31 \\|last1\\=Bacon \\|first1\\=Gershon C. \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105536/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=vvIECPYRssIC \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"#### Regional Synodal Federation of the Free City of Danzig",
"[thumb\\|The Lutheran Supreme Parish Church of St. Mary's in Danzig's [Rechtstadt](/wiki/Main_City \"Main City\") quarter](/wiki/File:Danzig-Marienkirche.jpg \"Danzig-Marienkirche.jpg\")\nThe mostly Lutheran and partially Reformed congregations situated in the territory of the Free City, which previously used to belong to the *Ecclesiastical Province of West Prussia* of the [Evangelical Church of the old\\-Prussian Union](/wiki/Evangelical_Church_of_the_old-Prussian_Union \"Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union\") (EKapU), were transformed into the *Regional [Synodal](/wiki/Synod \"Synod\") Federation of the Free City of Danzig* after 1920\\. The executive body of that ecclesiastical province, the [consistory](/wiki/Consistory_%28Protestantism%29 \"Consistory (Protestantism)\") (est. 1 November 1886\\), was seated in Danzig. After 1920 it was restricted in its responsibility to those congregations within the Free City's territory.Those congregations in Polish\\-annexed West Prussia ([Pomeranian Voivodeship](/wiki/Pomeranian_Voivodeship_%281919%E2%80%931939%29 \"Pomeranian Voivodeship (1919–1939)\")) merged into the new United Evangelical Church in Poland, which emerged from the old\\-Prussian *Posen ecclesiastical province*, with its consistory seated in [Poznań](/wiki/Pozna%C5%84 \"Poznań\"). First General Superintendent {{ill\\|Paul Kalweit\\|de}} (1920–1933\\) and then Bishop {{ill\\|Johannes Beermann\\|de\\|Johannes Beermann (Bischof)}} (1933–1945\\) presided over the consistory.",
"Unlike the [Second Polish Republic](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic \"Second Polish Republic\"), which opposed the cooperation of the {{ill\\|United Evangelical Church in Poland\\|pl\\|Ewangelicki Kościół Unijny w Polsce}} with EKapU, Volkstag and the Senate of Danzig approved cross\\-border religious bodies. Danzig's Regional Synodal Federation — just as the regional synodal federation of the autonomous [Memelland](/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da_Region \"Klaipėda Region\") — retained the status of an [ecclesiastical province within EKapU](/wiki/Ecclesiastical_province%23Evangelical_State_Church_in_Prussia \"Ecclesiastical province#Evangelical State Church in Prussia\").In June 1922 the Senate of Danzig and the old\\-Prussian ecclesiastical executive, the {{ill\\|Evangelical Supreme Ecclesiastical Council\\|de\\|Evangelischer Oberkirchenrat (Preußen)}}, EOK), concluded a contract to that end. Cf. Adalbert Erler, *Die rechtliche Stellung der evangelischen Kirche in Danzig*, Berlin: 1929, simultaneously Univ. of Greifswald, Department of Law and Politics, doctor thesis of 21 February 1929, pp. 36 seqq.",
"After the German annexation of the Free City in 1939, the EKapU merged the Danzig regional synodal federation in 1940 into the Ecclesiastical Region of Danzig\\-West Prussia. This included the Polish congregations of the United Evangelical Church in Poland in the homonymous [Reichsgau Danzig\\-West Prussia](/wiki/Reichsgau_Danzig-West_Prussia \"Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia\") and the German congregations in the [West Prussia governorate](/wiki/West_Prussia_%28region%29 \"West Prussia (region)\"). Danzig's consistory functioned as an executive body for that region. With the flight and expulsion of most ethnically German Protestant parishioners from the area of the Free City of Danzig between 1945 and 1948, the congregations vanished.",
"In March 1945, the consistory had relocated to [Lübeck](/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck \"Lübeck\") and opened a refugee centre for Danzigers (Hilfsstelle beim evangelischen Konsistorium Danzig) led by Upper Consistorial Councillor {{ill\\|Gerhard M. Gülzow\\|de}}. The Lutheran congregation of [St. Mary's Church](/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Church%2C_Gda%C5%84sk \"St. Mary's Church, Gdańsk\") could relocate its valuable [parament](/wiki/Parament \"Parament\") collection and the [presbytery](/wiki/Presbyterian_polity \"Presbyterian polity\") granted it on loan to [St. Annen Museum](/wiki/St._Anne%27s_Museum_Quarter%2C_L%C3%BCbeck%23Chamber_of_paraments \"St. Anne's Museum Quarter, Lübeck#Chamber of paraments\") in Lübeck after the war. Other Lutheran congregations of Danzig could reclaim their church bells, which the [Wehrmacht](/wiki/Wehrmacht \"Wehrmacht\") had requisitioned as non\\-ferrous metal for war purposes since 1940, but which had survived, not yet melted down, in storage (e.g. {{ill\\|Glockenfriedhof\\|de}}) in the British zone of occupation. The presbyteries granted them usually to Northwestern German Lutheran congregations which had lost bells due to the war.",
"#### Diocese of Danzig of the Roman Catholic Church",
"{{main\\|Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gdańsk\\#history\\|l1\\=Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Gdańsk}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|The [Archcathedral of the Holy Trinity, Blessed Virgin Mary and Saint Bernard](/wiki/Oliwa_Cathedral \"Oliwa Cathedral\") in Oliva, Danzig](/wiki/File:CH-NB_-_Freie_Stadt_Danzig%2C_Danzig_%28Gdansk%29-_Kirche_-_Annemarie_Schwarzenbach_-_SLA-Schwarzenbach-A-5-13-066.jpg \"CH-NB - Freie Stadt Danzig, Danzig (Gdansk)- Kirche - Annemarie Schwarzenbach - SLA-Schwarzenbach-A-5-13-066.jpg\")\nThe 36 Catholic [parishes](/wiki/Parish \"Parish\") in the territory of the Free City in 1922 used to belong in equal shares to the [Diocese of Culm](/wiki/Bishopric_of_Culm_%28Che%C5%82mno%29 \"Bishopric of Culm (Chełmno)\"), which was mostly Polish, and the [Diocese of Ermland](/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Warmia \"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Warmia\"), which was mostly German. While the Second Polish Republic wanted all the parishes within the Free City to form part of Polish Culm, Volkstag and Senate wanted them all to become subject to German Ermland.{{cite book \\|author\\=Georg May \\|title\\=Ludwig Kaas: der Priester, der Politiker und der Gelehrte aus der Schule von Ulrich Stutz \\|publisher\\=John Benjamins Publishing \\|isbn\\=978\\-90\\-6032\\-197\\-3 \\|page\\=175 \\|year\\=1981}} In 1922 the [Holy See](/wiki/Holy_See \"Holy See\") suspended the jurisdictions of both dioceses over their parishes in the Free State and established an [exempt](/wiki/Exemption_%28church%29 \"Exemption (church)\") [apostolic administration](/wiki/Apostolic_administration \"Apostolic administration\") for the territory.",
"The first apostolic administrator was [Edward O'Rourke](/wiki/Edward_O%27Rourke \"Edward O'Rourke\") (born in [Minsk](/wiki/Minsk \"Minsk\") and of Irish ancestry) who became [Bishop of Danzig](/wiki/Bishop_of_Danzig \"Bishop of Danzig\") on the occasion of the elevation of the administration to an exempt diocese in 1925\\. He was naturalised as Danziger on the same occasion. In 1938 he resigned after quarrels with the Nazi\\-dominated Senate of Danzig on appointments of parish priests of Polish ethnicity.{{cite book \\|author2\\=Reimund Haas \\|author3\\=Karl Josef Rivinius \\|author4\\=Hermann\\-Josef Scheidgen \\|title\\=Ein aussichtsloses Unternehmen – Die Reaktivierung Bischof Eduard Graf O'Rourkes 1939 \\|url\\=http://www.db\\-thueringen.de/servlets/DerivateServlet/Derivate\\-5265/SamerskiFsAdrianyi.pdf \\|year\\=2000 \\|publisher\\=Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar \\|language\\=de \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-412\\-04100\\-7 \\|page\\=378 \\|last1\\=Samerski \\|first1\\=Stefan \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-02\\-28 \\|archive\\-date\\=2012\\-02\\-18 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218160507/http://www.db\\-thueringen.de/servlets/DerivateServlet/Derivate\\-5265/SamerskiFsAdrianyi.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The senate also instigated the denaturalisation of O'Rourke, who subsequently became a Polish citizen. O'Rourke was succeeded by Bishop [Carl Maria Splett](/wiki/Carl_Maria_Splett \"Carl Maria Splett\"), a native from the Free City area.",
"Splett remained bishop after the German annexation of the Free City. In early 1941, he applied for admitting the Danzig diocese as member in Archbishop [Adolf Bertram](/wiki/Adolf_Bertram \"Adolf Bertram\")'s [Eastern German Ecclesiastical Province](/wiki/Eastern_German_Ecclesiastical_Province \"Eastern German Ecclesiastical Province\") and thus at the [Fulda Conference of Bishops](/wiki/Fulda_Conference%23Fulda_Conference_of_Bishops_%28till_1965%29 \"Fulda Conference#Fulda Conference of Bishops (till 1965)\"); however, Bertram, also speaker of the Fulda conference, rejected the request.{{cite book \\|author1\\=Hans\\-Jürgen Karp \\|author2\\=Joachim Köhler \\|title\\=Katholische Kirche unter nationalsozialistischer und kommunistischer Diktatur: Deutschland und Polen 1939–1989 \\|year\\=2001 \\|publisher\\=Böhlau Verlag Köln Weimar \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-412\\-11800\\-6 \\|page\\=162}} Any arguments that the Free City of Danzig had been annexed to Nazi Germany did not impress Bertram since Danzig's annexation lacked international recognition. Until the reorganization of the Catholic dioceses in Danzig and the formerly eastern territories of Germany the diocesan territory remained unaltered and the see exempt. However, with the replacement of Danzig's population between 1945 and 1948 by mostly Catholic Poles, the number of Catholic parishes increased and most formerly Protestant churches were taken over for Catholic services.",
"#### Jewish Danzigers",
"[thumb\\|right\\|The [Great Synagogue](/wiki/Great_Synagogue_%28Danzig%29 \"Great Synagogue (Danzig)\") on Reitbahn Street in Danzig's Rechtstadt quarter](/wiki/File:GreatSynagogueDanzig.jpg \"GreatSynagogueDanzig.jpg\")\n{{main\\|Jewish Community of Gdańsk\\#Free City of Danzig\\|l1\\=Jewish Community in the Free City of Danzig}}\nSince 1883 most of the Jewish congregations in the later territory of Free State had merged into the Synagogal Community of Danzig. Only the Jews of [Tiegenhof](/wiki/Nowy_Dw%C3%B3r_Gda%C5%84ski \"Nowy Dwór Gdański\") ran their own congregation until 1938\\.",
"Danzig became a centre of Polish and Russian Jewish emigration to North America. Between 1920 and 1925 60,000 Jews emigrated via Danzig to the US and Canada. At the same time, between 1923 and 1929, Danzig's own Jewish population increased from roughly 7,000 to 10,500\\.{{cite book \\|title\\=Danzig: Geschichte einer Deutschen Stadt \\|first\\=Rüdiger \\|last\\=Ruhnau \\|publisher\\=Holzner Verlag \\|year\\=1971 \\|page\\=94 \\|language\\=de}} Native Jews and newcomers established themselves in the city and contributed to its civic life, culture and economy. Danzig became a venue for international meetings of Jewish organisations, such as the convention of delegates from Jewish youth organisations of various nations, attended by [David Ben\\-Gurion](/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion \"David Ben-Gurion\"), which founded the [World Union of Jewish Youth](/wiki/World_Union_of_Jewish_Youth \"World Union of Jewish Youth\") on 2 September 1924 in the Schützenhaus venue. On 21 March 1926 the *Zionistische Organisation für Danzig* convened delegates of [Hechalutz](/wiki/Hechalutz \"Hechalutz\") from all over for the first conference in Danzig using [Hebrew](/wiki/Hebrew_language \"Hebrew language\") as common language, also attended by Ben Gurion.",
"With a Nazi majority in the Volkstag and Senate, anti\\-Semitic persecution and discrimination occurred unsanctioned by the authorities. In contrast to Germany, which exercised capital outflow control since 1931, emigration of Danzig's Jews was nonetheless somewhat easier, with capital transfers enabled by the [Bank of Danzig](/wiki/Bank_of_Danzig \"Bank of Danzig\"). Moreover, the comparatively few Danzig Jews were offered easier refuge in safe countries because of favorable Free City migration quotas.",
"After the anti\\-Jewish riots of [Kristallnacht](/wiki/Kristallnacht \"Kristallnacht\") of 9/10 November 1938 in Germany, similar riots took place on 12/13 November in Danzig.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.ifz\\-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1966\\_2\\_2\\_sodeikat.pdf \\|title\\=Der Nationalsozialismus und die Danziger Opposition \\|first1\\=Ernst \\|last1\\=Sodeikat \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Institut für Zeitgeschichte]] \\|year\\=1966 \\|page\\=139 ff \\|language\\=de \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-02\\-04 \\|archive\\-date\\=2011\\-07\\-20 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720013656/http://www.ifz\\-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1966\\_2\\_2\\_sodeikat.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|author2\\=Vivian B. Mann \\|author3\\=Joseph Gutmann \\|author4\\=Jewish Museum (New York, N.Y.) \\|title\\=Danzig 1939, treasures of a destroyed community \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=vvIECPYRssIC \\|year\\=1980 \\|publisher\\=The Jewish Museum, New York \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8143\\-1662\\-7 \\|page\\=33 \\|last1\\=Grass \\|first1\\=Günther \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105536/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=vvIECPYRssIC \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The [Great Synagogue](/wiki/Great_Synagogue_%28Danzig%29 \"Great Synagogue (Danzig)\") was taken over and demolished by the local authorities in 1939\\. Most Jews had already left the city, and the [Jewish Community of Danzig](/wiki/Jewish_Community_of_Gda%C5%84sk%23Free_City_of_Danzig \"Jewish Community of Gdańsk#Free City of Danzig\") decided to organize its own emigration in early 1939\\.[Gdańsk](https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0007_0_07105.html) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113051709/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud\\_0002\\_0007\\_0\\_07105\\.html \\|date\\=2017\\-01\\-13 }} at the [Jewish Virtual Library](/wiki/Jewish_Virtual_Library \"Jewish Virtual Library\").",
""
] |
Politics
--------
### Government
[thumb\|Flag of the Danzig Senate](/wiki/File:Danzig_Senatsflagge_1920-1939.svg "Danzig Senatsflagge 1920-1939.svg")
{{Css Image Crop\|Image \= DAN\-62\-Bank von Danzig\-100 Gulden (1931, specimen).jpg\|bSize \= 1000\|cWidth \= 220\|cHeight \= 205\|oTop \= 175\|oLeft \= 75\|Location \= right\|Description\={{center\|The Danzig coat of arms depicted on a 100 \[\[Danzig gulden\|gulden]] note (1931\)}}}}
| \+ **Heads of State of the Free City of Danzig**{{citation needed\|date\=August 2020}} |
| --- |
| {{abbr\|No.\|Number}} | Portrait | Name(Born\-Died) | Term of office | | | Political Party |
| Took office | Left office | Time in office |
Presidents of the Danzig Senate {{Officeholder table \| order2 \= 1 \| image \= Heinrich Sahm.jpg \|bSize \= 70 \| officeholder \= \[\[Heinrich Sahm]] \| born\_year \= 1877 \| died\_year \= 1939 \| term\_start \= 6 December 1920 \| term\_end \= 10 January 1931 \| timeinoffice \= {{ayd\|1920\|12\|06\|1931\|01\|10}} \| alt\_party \= Independent (politician) }} {{Officeholder table \| order2 \= 2 \| image \= Ernst Ziehm.jpg \|bSize \= 70 \| officeholder \= \[\[Ernst Ziehm]] \| born\_year \= 1867 \| died\_year \= 1962 \| term\_start \= 10 January 1931 \| term\_end \= 20 June 1933 \| timeinoffice \= {{ayd\|1931\|01\|10\|1933\|06\|20}} \| alt\_party \= German National People's Party }} {{Officeholder table \| order2 \= 3 \| image \= Hermann Rauschning.jpg \|bSize \= 70 \| officeholder \= \[\[Hermann Rauschning]] \| born\_year \= 1887 \| died\_year \= 1982 \| term\_start \= 20 June 1933 \| term\_end \= 23 November 1934 \| timeinoffice \= {{ayd\|1933\|06\|20\|1934\|11\|23}} \| alt\_party \= Nazi Party }} {{Officeholder table \| order2 \= 4 \| image \= Arthur Greiser 1934\.jpg \|bSize \= 70 \| officeholder \= \[\[Arthur Greiser]] \| born\_year \= 1897 \| died\_year \= 1946 \| term\_start \= 23 November 1934 \| term\_end \= 23 August 1939 \| timeinoffice \= {{ayd\|1934\|11\|23\|1939\|08\|23}} \| alt\_party \= Nazi Party }} | | | | | | |
State President {{Officeholder table \| order2 \= 5 \| image \= Albert Forster.jpg \|bSize \= 70 \| officeholder \= \[\[Albert Forster]] \| born\_year \= 1902 \| died\_year \= 1952 \| term\_start \= 23 August 1939 \| term\_end \= 1 September 1939 \| timeinoffice \= {{ayd\|1939\|08\|23\|1939\|09\|01}} \| alt\_party \= Nazi Party }} | | | | | | |
The Free City was governed by the [Senate](/wiki/Senate%23Alternative_meanings "Senate#Alternative meanings") of the Free City of Danzig, which was elected by the parliament ([Volkstag](/wiki/Volkstag "Volkstag")) for a legislative period of four years. The official language was German,{{cite book \|title\=Axis Rule in Occupied Europe \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=y0in2wOY\-W0C \|date\=2008 \|publisher\=The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. \|isbn\=978\-1\-58477\-901\-8 \|page\=155 \|last1\=Lemkin \|first1\=Raphael \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-01\-14 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114040954/https://books.google.com/books?id\=y0in2wOY\-W0C \|url\-status\=live }} although the usage of Polish was guaranteed by law.{{in lang\|de}} [Constitution of Danzig](http://www.verfassungen.de/de/x/danzig/danzig22-index.htm) {{Webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150309042207/http://www.verfassungen.de/de/x/danzig/danzig22\-index.htm \|date\=2015\-03\-09 }}Matull, "Ostdeutschlands Arbeiterbewegung", p. 419\. The political parties in the Free City corresponded with the political parties in [Weimar Germany](/wiki/Weimar_Germany "Weimar Germany"); the most influential parties in the 1920s were the conservative [German National People's Party](/wiki/German_National_People%27s_Party "German National People's Party"), the [Social Democratic Party of the Free City of Danzig](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_the_Free_City_of_Danzig "Social Democratic Party of the Free City of Danzig") and the [Catholic Centre Party](/wiki/Centre_Party_%28Germany%29 "Centre Party (Germany)"). A [Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_%28Free_City_of_Danzig%29 "Communist Party (Free City of Danzig)") was founded in 1921 with its origins in the [Spartacus League](/wiki/Spartacus_League "Spartacus League") and the Communist Party of [East Prussia](/wiki/East_Prussia "East Prussia"). Several liberal parties and Free Voter's Associations existed and ran in the elections with varying success. A [Polish Party](/wiki/Polish_Party "Polish Party") represented the Polish minority and received between 3% ([1933](/wiki/1933_Free_City_of_Danzig_parliamentary_election "1933 Free City of Danzig parliamentary election")) and 6% ([1920](/wiki/1920_Free_City_of_Danzig_Constituent_Assembly_election "1920 Free City of Danzig Constituent Assembly election")) of the vote (in total, 4,358 votes in 1933 and 9,321 votes in 1920\).{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Danzig/Uebersicht\_LTW.html \|title\=Danzig: Übersicht der Wahlen 1919–1935 \|website\=www.gonschior.de \|access\-date\=2010\-02\-04 \|archive\-date\=2009\-07\-06 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706052744/http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Danzig/Uebersicht\_LTW.html \|url\-status\=live }}
Initially, the [Nazi Party](/wiki/Nazi_Party "Nazi Party") had only a small amount of success (0\.8% of the vote in [1927](/wiki/1927_Free_City_of_Danzig_parliamentary_election "1927 Free City of Danzig parliamentary election")) and was even briefly dissolved. Its influence grew with the onset of difficult economic times and the increasing popularity of the Nazi Party in Germany proper. [Albert Forster](/wiki/Albert_Forster "Albert Forster") became the [Gauleiter](/wiki/Gauleiter "Gauleiter") in October 1930\. The Nazis won 50 percent of votes in the Volkstag elections of 28 May 1933, and took control of the Senate in June 1933, with [Hermann Rauschning](/wiki/Hermann_Rauschning "Hermann Rauschning") becoming President of the Senate of Danzig. In contrast to Germany, the Nazi Party was relatively weak in the Free City of Danzig, and remained unstable because of "furious factional struggles" which plagued the Nazi administration throughout its rule. The party membership was generally low, and the 1935 election in Danzig "amounted to an electoral defeat for the Nazis".{{cite journal \|page\=305 \|author\=F. L. Carsten \|title\=Review of "Hitler's Free City: A History of the Nazi Party in Danzig 1925\-1939" by Herbet S. Levine \|url\=http://www.jstor.org/stable/4206888 \|journal\=The Slavonic and East European Review \|volume\=52 \|issue\=127 \|date\=April 1974 \|jstor\=4206888 \|publisher\=the Modern Humanities Research Association and University College London, School of}} The democratic opposition remained strong and was able to temporarily block the Nazi [Gleichschaltung](/wiki/Gleichschaltung "Gleichschaltung") policies between 1935 and 1937\.{{cite journal \|pages\=185–186 \|author\=Hunt, R. M. \|title\=Review of "Hitler's Free City: A History of the Nazi Party in Danzig 1925\-1939" by Herbet S. Levine \|journal\=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science \|volume\=412 \|issue\=1 \|date\=March 1974 \|issn\=0002\-7162 \|doi\=10\.1177/000271627441200139 \|publisher\=CSAGE Publications\|s2cid\=145646953 }} German Catholics were supportive of the Polish minority and most Danzig Poles voted for the Catholic Centre Party. Social Democrats were also willing to cooperate with Catholics and Poles, and the Catholic Church in Danzig was pro\-Polish and opposed National Socialism.{{cite journal \|pages\=490–492 \|author\=Harald von Riekhoff \|title\=Review of "Hitler's Free City: A History of the Nazi Party in Danzig 1925\-1939" by Herbet S. Levine \|url\=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40866777 \|journal\=Canadian Slavonic Papers / Revue Canadienne des Slavistes \|volume\=16 \|issue\=3 \|date\=1974 \|jstor\=40866777 \|publisher\=Canadian Association of Slavists}}
Rauschning was removed from his position by Forster and replaced by [Arthur Greiser](/wiki/Arthur_Greiser "Arthur Greiser") in November 1934\. He later appealed to the public not to vote for the Nazis in the [1935 elections](/wiki/1935_Free_City_of_Danzig_parliamentary_election "1935 Free City of Danzig parliamentary election"). Political opposition to the Nazis was repressed{{cite book \|title\=The new UN peacekeeping \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=0Rf9SE2YI\-UC \|year\=1995 \|publisher\=Palgrave Macmillan \|isbn\=978\-0\-312\-12415\-1 \|page\=94 \|last1\=Ratner \|first1\=Steven R. \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105536/https://books.google.com/books?id\=0Rf9SE2YI\-UC \|url\-status\=live }} with several politicians being imprisoned and murdered.Sodeikat, p. 170, p. 173, Fn.92Matull, "Ostdeutschlands Arbeiterbewegung", pp. 440, 450\. The economic policy of Danzig's Nazi\-led government, which increased the public expenditures for employment\-creation programs{{cite book \|title\=Meine Danziger Mission \|first\=Carl Jakob \|last\=Burckhardt \|page\=39 \|language\=de}}
{{cite book \|title\=Die Juden der Freien Stadt Danzig unter der Herrschaft des Nationalsozialismus \|first\=Erwin \|last\=Lichtenstein \|year\=1973 \|page\=44 \|language\=de}} and the retrenchment of financial aid from Germany led to a devaluation of more than 40% of the [Danziger Gulden](/wiki/Danzig_gulden "Danzig gulden") in 1935\.{{cite book \|title\=Danzig – Biographie einer Stadt \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=9ifeo6zdSMcC \|year\=2011 \|publisher\=C.H. Beck \|language\=de \|isbn\=978\-3\-406\-60587\-1 \|page\=206 \|last1\=Loew \|first1\=Peter Oliver \|author\-link1\=Peter Oliver Loew \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105540/https://books.google.com/books?id\=9ifeo6zdSMcC \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|last\=Loose \|first\=Ingo \|title\=Kredite für NS\-Verbrechen \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=R2Dr9gdFZoAC \|year\=2007 \|publisher\=\[\[Institut für Zeitgeschichte]] \|language\=de \|isbn\=978\-3\-486\-58331\-1 \|page\=33 \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105536/https://books.google.com/books?id\=R2Dr9gdFZoAC \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=A4LiAAAAMAAJ\&q\=Arbeitsbeschaffungspolitik \|title\=Opposition und Widerstand in Danzig \|first1\=Marek \|last1\=Andrzejewski \|publisher\=Dietz \|year\=1994 \|isbn\=978\-3801240547 \|page\=99 \|language\=de \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105551/https://books.google.com/books?id\=A4LiAAAAMAAJ\&q\=Arbeitsbeschaffungspolitik \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=O2BpAAAAMAAJ\&q\=devaluation\+gulden \|title\=History of Gdańsk \|first1\=Edmund \|last1\=Cieslak \|first2\=Czeslaw \|last2\=Biernat \|publisher\=Fundacji Biblioteki Gdańskiej \|year\=1995 \|isbn\=978\-8386557004 \|page\=454 \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105537/https://books.google.com/books?id\=O2BpAAAAMAAJ\&q\=devaluation\+gulden \|url\-status\=live }}Matull, "Ostdeutschlands Arbeiterbewegung", pp. 417, 418\. The Gold reserves of the [Bank of Danzig](/wiki/Bank_of_Danzig "Bank of Danzig") declined from 30 million Gulden in 1933 to 13 million in 1935 and the foreign asset reserve from 10 million to 250,000 Gulden.{{cite book \|author1\=Intelligence Service Economic Intelligence Service \|title\=Commercial Banks 1929–1934 \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=fQdXGT6tA8AC \|date\=2007 \|publisher\=League of Nations \|isbn\=978\-1\-4067\-5963\-1 \|page\=lxxxix \|author2\=Service, Intellige Economic Intelligence \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105539/https://books.google.com/books?id\=fQdXGT6tA8AC \|url\-status\=live }} In 1935, Poland protested when Danzig's Senate reduced the value of the Gulden so that it would be the same as the [Polish zloty](/wiki/Polish_z%C5%82oty "Polish złoty").{{cite book \|title\=Danzig: Geschichte einer Deutschen Stadt \|first\=Rüdiger \|last\=Ruhnau \|publisher\=Holzner Verlag \|year\=1971 \|page\=103 \|language\=de}}
As in Germany, the Nazis introduced laws mirroring the [Enabling Act](/wiki/Erm%C3%A4chtigungsgesetz "Ermächtigungsgesetz") and [Nuremberg laws](/wiki/Nuremberg_laws "Nuremberg laws") (November 1938\);{{cite book \|title\="Die Blechtrommel" von Günter Grass: Bedeutung, Erzähltechnik und Zeitgeschichte \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=2nue91Rlg\-0C \|date\=2009 \|publisher\=Frank \& Timme GmbH \|language\=de \|isbn\=978\-3\-86596\-237\-9 \|page\=396 \|last1\=Schwartze\-Köhler \|first1\=Hannelore \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105553/https://books.google.com/books?id\=2nue91Rlg\-0C \|url\-status\=live }} existing parties and unions were gradually banned. The presence of the League of Nations however still guaranteed a minimum of legal certainty. In 1935, the opposition parties, except for the Polish Party, filed a lawsuit to the Danzig High Court in protest against the manipulation of the Volkstag elections. The opposition also protested to the League of Nations, as did the Jewish Community of Danzig.{{cite book \|title\=Leo Baeck Institute New York Bibliothek und Archiv \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=vvCsfz67i1wC \|year\=1970 \|publisher\=Mohr Siebeck \|language\=de \|isbn\=978\-3\-16\-830772\-3 \|page\=67 \|last1\=Kreutzberger \|first1\=Max}}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Danzig.html \|title\=Danzig Jewry: A Short History \|first1\=Gershon C. \|last1\=Bacon \|publisher\=Jewish Virtual Library \|access\-date\=2015\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2017\-01\-13 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113051333/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Danzig.html \|url\-status\=live }} The number of members of the Nazi Party in Danzig increased from 21,861 in June 1934 to 48,345 in September 1938\.{{cite journal \|page\=53 \|author\=Grzegorz Berendt \|title\=Gdańsk – od niemieckości do polskości \|language\=pl \|url\=http://www.sierpien1980\.pl/download/10/15909/biuletyn8\-967\-68\.pdf \|journal\=Biuletyn Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej IPN \|volume\=8–9 (67–68\) \|date\=August 2006 \|access\-date\=2015\-12\-24 \|archive\-date\=2018\-09\-17 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917203328/http://www.sierpien1980\.pl/download/10/15909/biuletyn8\-967\-68\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead}}
### Foreign relations
Foreign relations were handled by [Poland](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic "Second Polish Republic").Article 104 (6\) of the [Treaty of Versailles](/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles "Treaty of Versailles"). In 1927, the Free City of Danzig sent a military advisory mission to [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia "Bolivia"). The Bolivian government of [Hernando Siles Reyes](/wiki/Hernando_Siles_Reyes "Hernando Siles Reyes") wanted to continue the pre\-[World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") German military mission but the Treaty of Versailles prohibited that. The German officers, including [Ernst Röhm](/wiki/Ernst_R%C3%B6hm "Ernst Röhm"), were transferred to the Danzig police force and then sent to Bolivia. In 1929, after problems with the mission, the British embassy handled the return of the German officers.{{cite journal \|page\=695 \|author\=Eleanor Hancock \|title\=Ernst Röhm versus General Hans Kundt in Bolivia, 1929–30? The Curious Incident \|language\=en \|journal\=Journal of Contemporary History \|volume\=4 (47\) \|issue\=4 \|date\=October 2012 \|jstor\=23488391}}
### German\-Polish tensions
The rights of the [Second Polish Republic](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic "Second Polish Republic") within the territory of the Free City were stipulated in the [Treaty of Paris](/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_%281920%29 "Treaty of Paris (1920)") of 9 November 1920 and the [Treaty of Warsaw](/wiki/Treaty_of_Warsaw_%281920%29 "Treaty of Warsaw (1920)") of 24 October 1921\.{{cite book \|title\=Autonomy, Sovereignty and Self\-Determination \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=28PEGfCDiZEC \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=University of Pennsylvania \|isbn\=978\-0\-8122\-1572\-4 \|page\=375 \|last1\=Hannum \|first1\=Hurst \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105554/https://books.google.com/books?id\=28PEGfCDiZEC \|url\-status\=live }} The details of the Polish privileges soon became a permanent matter of disputes between the local populace and the Polish State. While the representatives of the Free City tried to uphold the city's autonomy and sovereignty, Poland sought to extend its privileges.{{cite book \|title\=The Law and Practice of International Territorial Administration \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=j6e16GCIfiEC \|date\=2008 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-87800\-5 \|pages\=173 ff, 177 \|last1\=Stahn \|first1\=Carsten \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105634/https://books.google.com/books?id\=j6e16GCIfiEC \|url\-status\=live }}
Throughout the [Polish–Soviet War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War "Polish–Soviet War"), local dockworkers went on strike and refused to unload ammunition supplies for the [Polish Army](/wiki/Polish_Army "Polish Army"). While the ammunition was finally unloaded by British troops,{{cite book \|title\=The Post\-War history of the British Working Class \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XV35N74\_jk8C \|date\=2006 \|publisher\=Read Bookd \|isbn\=978\-1\-4067\-9826\-5 \|page\=38 \|author\-link1\=Allen Hutt \|last1\=Hutt \|first1\=Allen \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105542/https://books.google.com/books?id\=XV35N74\_jk8C \|url\-status\=live }} the incident led to the establishment of a permanent ammunition depot at the [Westerplatte](/wiki/Westerplatte "Westerplatte") and the construction of a trade and naval port in [Gdynia](/wiki/Gdynia "Gdynia"),{{cite book \|title\=Poland – Key to Europe \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-KcfGbrKptoC \|date\=2007 \|publisher\=Read Books \|isbn\=978\-1\-4067\-4564\-1 \|page\=159 \|last1\=Buell \|first1\=Raymond Leslie \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105556/https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-KcfGbrKptoC \|url\-status\=live }} whose total exports and imports surpassed those of Danzig in May 1932\.Eugene van Cleef, "Danzig and Gdynia," Geographical Review, Vol. 23, No. 1\. (Jan., 1933\): 106\. In December 1925, the Council of the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations "League of Nations") agreed to the establishment of a Polish military guard of 88 men on the [Westerplatte](/wiki/Westerplatte "Westerplatte") peninsula to protect the war material depot.Cieślak, E Biernat, C (1995\) *History of Gdańsk*, Fundacji Biblioteki Gdanskiej. p. 436*By a decision of the League Council in December 1925, the guard which the Poles were entitled to maintain on this spot \[Westerplatte peninsula] was limited to 88 men, though the number might be increased with the consent of the High Commissioner.* Geoffrey Malcolm Gathorne\-Hardy. *A Short History of International Affairs, 1920 to 1934*. Royal institute of international affairs (1934\). [Oxford University Press](/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). p. 384\.
During the interwar period the Polish minority was heavily discriminated against by the German population, which openly attacked its members using racist slurs and harassment, and attacks against the Polish consulate by German students were praised by authorities.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.rp.pl/artykul/55392\-Mit\-Gdanska\-\-mit\-Grassa.html \|title\=Mit Gdańska, mit Grassa \|website\=www.rp.pl \|access\-date\=2021\-01\-31 \|archive\-date\=2021\-05\-09 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509164857/https://www.rp.pl/artykul/55392\-Mit\-Gdanska\-\-mit\-Grassa.html \|url\-status\=live }} In June 1932, a [crisis](/wiki/Danzig_crisis_%281932%29 "Danzig crisis (1932)") broke out when the Polish destroyer [ORP *Wicher*](/wiki/ORP_Wicher_%281928%29 "ORP Wicher (1928)") was sent into Danzig harbour without the permission of the Senate to greet a visiting squadron of British destroyers.Wandycz, Piotr Stefan *The Twilight of French Eastern Alliances*, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988 p. 237 The crisis was resolved when the Free City granted more access rights to the Polish Navy in exchange for a promise to not take the *Wicher* back into Danzig harbour.
Several disputes between Danzig and Poland occurred in the sequel. The Free City protested against the Westerplatte depot, the placement of Polish letter boxes within the City[worldcourts.com](http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1925/1925.05.16_danzig.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101210072938/http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1925/1925\.05\.16\_danzig.htm \|date\=2010\-12\-10 }} PCIJ, Advisory Opinion No. 11 and the presence of Polish war vessels at the harbour.[worldcourts.com](http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1931/1931.12.11_danzig.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://archive.today/20130209113525/http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1931/1931\.12\.11\_danzig.htm \|date\=2013\-02\-09 }} PCIJ, Advisory Opinion No. 22 The attempt of the Free City to join the [International Labour Organization](/wiki/International_Labour_Organization "International Labour Organization") was rejected by the [Permanent Court of International Justice](/wiki/Permanent_Court_of_International_Justice "Permanent Court of International Justice") at the League of Nations after protests of the Polish ILO delegate.[worldcourts.com](http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1930/1930.08.26_danzig.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://archive.today/20130209135635/http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1930/1930\.08\.26\_danzig.htm \|date\=2013\-02\-09 }} PCIJ, Advisory Opinion No. 18{{cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=KzYGaYaNswkC\&q\=International\+Labour\+Organization\+danzig\&pg\=PA410 \|title\=International Law Reports 1929–1930 \|access\-date\=2009\-08\-30 \|work\=Advisory Opinion No 18: Free City of Danzig and International Labour Organization on August 26, 1930, Collection of Advisory Opinions: Free City of Danzig and International Labour Organization, No. 18 Series B File F (1930\) \|publisher\=H. Lauterpacht \|year\=1936 \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-46350\-8 \|author1\=Lauterpacht, H \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105545/https://books.google.com/books?id\=KzYGaYaNswkC\&q\=International\+Labour\+Organization\+danzig\&pg\=PA410 \|url\-status\=live }}
After Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany, the Polish military doubled the number of 88 troops at Westerplatte in order to test the reaction of the new chancellor. After protests the additional troops were withdrawn.Hargreaves, R (2010\) Blitzkrieg Unleashed: The German Invasion of Poland, 1939 pp. 31–32 Nazi propaganda used these events in the [Volkstag](/wiki/Volkstag "Volkstag") elections of May 1933, in which Nazis won absolute majority.Epstein, C (2012\) Model Nazi: Arthur Greiser and the Occupation of Western Poland, Oxford University Press p. 58
Until June 1933, the High Commissioner decided in 66 cases of dispute between Danzig and Poland; in 54 cases one of the parties appealed to the Permanent Court of International Justice.Hurst Hannum, p. 377\. Subsequent disputes were resolved in direct negotiations between the Senate and Poland after both had agreed to abstain from further appeals to the International Court in the summer of 1933 and bilateral agreements were concluded.{{cite book \|title\=Wörterbuch des Völkerrechts; Aachener Kongress – Hussar Fall \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=EBSE1BF\_w2AC \|date\=1960 \|publisher\=de Gruyter Verlag \|language\=de \|isbn\=978\-3\-11\-001030\-5 \|pages\=307, 309 \|last1\=Schlochauer \|last3\=Mosler \|last2\=Krüger \|first1\=Hans J. \|first2\=Herbert \|first3\=Hermann \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105610/https://books.google.com/books?id\=EBSE1BF\_w2AC \|url\-status\=live }}
In the aftermath of the [German\-Polish Non\-Aggression Pact](/wiki/German-Polish_Non-Aggression_Pact "German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact") of 1934, Danzig–Polish relations improved and [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") instructed the local Nazi government to cease anti\-Polish actions.{{cite book \|title\=The Baltic and the Outbreak of the Second World War \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=4pKEQgAACAAJ \|year\=1992 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-40467\-9 \|pages\=74 ff, 80 \|last1\=Hiden \|last3\=Prazmowska \|last2\=Lane \|first1\=John \|first2\=Thomas \|first3\=Anita J. \|author\-link3\=Anita J. Prazmowska \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105548/https://books.google.com/books?id\=4pKEQgAACAAJ \|url\-status\=live }} In return, Poland did not support the actions of the anti\-Nazi opposition in Danzig. The Polish Ambassador to Germany, [Józef Lipski](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Lipski "Józef Lipski"), stated in a meeting with [Hermann Göring](/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring "Hermann Göring")Prazmowska, p. 80\.
> "... that a National Socialist Senate in Danzig is also most desirable from our point of view, since it brought about a rapprochement between the Free City and Poland, I would like to remind him that we have always kept aloof from internal Danzig problems. In spite of approaches repeatedly made by the opposition parties, we rejected any attempt to draw us into action against the Senate. I mentioned quite confidentially that the Polish minority in Danzig was advised not to join forces with the opposition at the time of elections."
When [Carl J. Burckhardt](/wiki/Carl_Jacob_Burckhardt "Carl Jacob Burckhardt") became High Commissioner in February 1937, both Poles and Germans openly welcomed his withdrawal, and Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs [Józef Beck](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Beck "Józef Beck") notified him not to "count on the support of the Polish State" in the case of difficulties with the Senate or the Nazi Party.Prazmowska, p. 81\.
While the Senate appeared to respect the agreements with Poland, the "Nazification of Danzig proceeded relentlessly"Prazmowska, p. 85\. and Danzig became a springboard for anti\-Polish propaganda among the German and Ukrainian minority in Poland.Prazmowska, p. 83\. The Catholic Bishop of Danzig, [Edward O'Rourke](/wiki/Edward_O%27Rourke "Edward O'Rourke"), was forced to withdraw after he had tried to implement four additional Polish nationals as parish priests in October 1937\.
### Danzig crisis
{{see also\|Danzig crisis}}
The German policy openly changed immediately after the [Munich Conference](/wiki/Munich_Conference "Munich Conference") in October 1938, when German Minister of Foreign Affairs [Joachim von Ribbentrop](/wiki/Joachim_von_Ribbentrop "Joachim von Ribbentrop") demanded the incorporation of the Free City into the Reich.{{cite book \|title\=Barbarism and Civilization \|url\=https://archive.org/details/barbarismciviliz00wass \|url\-access\=registration \|year\=2007 \|publisher\=Oxford University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-19\-873074\-3 \|page\=\[https://archive.org/details/barbarismciviliz00wass/page/279 279] \|last1\=Wasserstein \|first1\=Bernard}} The Polish ambassador to Germany, [Jozef Lipski](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Lipski "Józef Lipski"), declined Ribbentrop's offer, saying that Polish public opinion would not tolerate the Free City joining Germany and predicated that if Warsaw allowed that to happen, then the *[Sanation](/wiki/Sanation "Sanation")* military dictatorship that had ruled Poland since 1926 would be overthrown. [Ernst von Weizsäcker](/wiki/Ernst_von_Weizs%C3%A4cker "Ernst von Weizsäcker") on 29 March 1939 told the Danzig government the *Reich* would carry out a policy to the *Zermürbungspolitik* (point of destruction) towards Poland, saying a compromise solution was not wanted, and on 5 April 1939 told [Hans\-Adolf von Moltke](/wiki/Hans-Adolf_von_Moltke "Hans-Adolf von Moltke") under no conditions was he to negotiate with the Poles.Weinberg Gerhard *The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany : Starting World War II 1937–39*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980 p. 560\.
All through the spring and summer of 1939 there was a massive media campaign in Germany demanding the immediate return of the Free City of Danzig to Germany under the slogan "Home to the *Reich*!". However, the Danzig crisis was just a pretext for war. Ribbentrop ordered Count [Hans\-Adolf von Moltke](/wiki/Hans-Adolf_von_Moltke "Hans-Adolf von Moltke"), the German ambassador to Poland, not to negotiate with the Poles over Danzig as it was always Ribbentrop's great fear that the Poles might actually agree to the Free City returning to Germany, thereby depriving the *Reich* of its pretext for attacking Poland.Weinberg Gerhard *The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany : Starting World War II 1937–39*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980 pp. 560–562 \& 583–584
[thumb\|left\|Hitler gives a speech in Danzig on 19 September 1939](/wiki/File:Adolf_Hitler_addresses_an_audience_in_Danzig_03.jpg "Adolf Hitler addresses an audience in Danzig 03.jpg")
In the middle of August, Beck offered a concession, saying that Poland was willing to give up its control of Danzig's customs, a proposal which caused fury in [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin "Berlin").Rothwell, Victor *The Origins of the Second World War*, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001 p. 161\. However, the leaders of the Free City sent a message to Berlin on 19 August 1939 saying: "*Gauleiter* Forster intends to extend claims...Should the Poles yield again it is intended to increase the claims further in order to make accord impossible". The same day a telegram from Berlin expressed approval with the proviso: "Discussions will have to be conducted and pressure exerted against Poland in such a way that responsibility for failure to come to an agreement and the consequences rest with Poland". On 23 August 1939, Albert Forster, the *Gauleiter* of Danzig, called a meeting of the Senate that voted to have the Free City rejoin Germany, raising tensions to the breaking point.Prazmowska, Anita "Poland" pp. 155–64 from *The Origins of The Second World War* edited by Robert Boyce and Joseph Maiolo, London: Macmillan, 2003 p. 163\. The same meeting appointed Forster the Danzig State President, through this was due to Forster's long\-running rivalry with [Arthur Greiser](/wiki/Arthur_Greiser "Arthur Greiser"), a *völkisch* fanatic who regarded Forster as too soft on the Poles. Both the appointment of Forster as State President and the resolution calling for the Free City to rejoin the *Reich* were violations of the charter the League of Nations had given Danzig in 1920, and the matter should have been taken to the League of Nations's Security Council for discussion.Prazmowska, Anita "Poland, the 'Danzig Question', and the Outbreak of the Second World War" pp. 394–408 from *The Origins of the Second World War* edited by Frank McDonough, London: Continuum, 2011 p. 406\.
Since these violations of the Danzig charter would have resulted in the League deposing the Danzig's Nazi government, both the French and British prevented the matter from being referred to the Security Council.Prazmowska, Anita "Poland, the 'Danzig Question', and the Outbreak of the Second World War" pp. 394–408 from *The Origins of the Second World War* edited by Frank McDonough, London: Continuum, 2011 pp. 406–07\. Instead the British and French applied strong pressure on the Poles not to send in a military force to depose the Danzig government, and appoint a mediator to resolve the crisis.Prazmowska, Anita "Poland, the 'Danzig Question', and the Outbreak of the Second World War" pp. 394–408 from *The Origins of the Second World War* edited by Frank McDonough, London: Continuum, 2011 p. 407\. By late August 1939, the crisis continued to escalate with the Senate confiscating on 27 August 1939 stocks of wheat, salt and petrol that belonged to the Polish businesses that were in the process of being exported or imported via the Free City, an action that led to sharp Polish complaints.Watt, D.C. *How War Came*, London: Heinemann, 1989 p. 512\. The same day, 200 Polish workers at the Danzig shipyards were fired without severance pay and their identification papers revoked, meaning that they legally could not live in Danzig anymore.Watt, D.C. *How War Came*, London: Heinemann, 1989 p. 513\. The Danzig government imposed food rationing, the Danzig newspapers took a militantly anti\-Polish line, and almost every day there were "incidents" on the border with Poland. Ordinary people in Danzig were described as being highly worried in the last days of August 1939 as it become apparent that war was imminent. In the meantime, the German battleship *[Schleswig\-Holstein](/wiki/SMS_Schleswig-Holstein "SMS Schleswig-Holstein")* had arrived in Danzig on 15 August. Originally, it was planned to send the light cruiser *[Königsberg](/wiki/German_cruiser_K%C3%B6nigsberg "German cruiser Königsberg")* to Danzig for what was described as a "friendship visit", but it was decided at the last minute that a ship with more firepower was needed, leading to the *Schleswig\-Holstein* with its {{convert\|11\|inch\|adj\=on}} guns being substituted.Watt, D.C. *How War Came*, London: Heinemann, 1989 p. 484\. Upon anchoring in Danzig harbor, the *Schleswig\-Holstein* ominously aimed its guns at the Polish Military Depot on the Westerplatte peninsula in a provocative gesture that further raised the tensions in the Free City.
At about 4:48am on 1 September 1939, the *Schleswig\-Holstein* opened fire on the Westerplatte, firing the first shots of World War II.Watt, D.C. *How War Came*, London: Heinemann, 1989 p. 530\.
|
[
"Politics\n--------",
"### Government",
"[thumb\\|Flag of the Danzig Senate](/wiki/File:Danzig_Senatsflagge_1920-1939.svg \"Danzig Senatsflagge 1920-1939.svg\")\n{{Css Image Crop\\|Image \\= DAN\\-62\\-Bank von Danzig\\-100 Gulden (1931, specimen).jpg\\|bSize \\= 1000\\|cWidth \\= 220\\|cHeight \\= 205\\|oTop \\= 175\\|oLeft \\= 75\\|Location \\= right\\|Description\\={{center\\|The Danzig coat of arms depicted on a 100 \\[\\[Danzig gulden\\|gulden]] note (1931\\)}}}}",
"| \\+ **Heads of State of the Free City of Danzig**{{citation needed\\|date\\=August 2020}} |\n| --- |\n| {{abbr\\|No.\\|Number}} | Portrait | Name(Born\\-Died) | Term of office | | | Political Party |\n| Took office | Left office | Time in office |",
"Presidents of the Danzig Senate {{Officeholder table \\| order2 \\= 1 \\| image \\= Heinrich Sahm.jpg \\|bSize \\= 70 \\| officeholder \\= \\[\\[Heinrich Sahm]] \\| born\\_year \\= 1877 \\| died\\_year \\= 1939 \\| term\\_start \\= 6 December 1920 \\| term\\_end \\= 10 January 1931 \\| timeinoffice \\= {{ayd\\|1920\\|12\\|06\\|1931\\|01\\|10}} \\| alt\\_party \\= Independent (politician) }} {{Officeholder table \\| order2 \\= 2 \\| image \\= Ernst Ziehm.jpg \\|bSize \\= 70 \\| officeholder \\= \\[\\[Ernst Ziehm]] \\| born\\_year \\= 1867 \\| died\\_year \\= 1962 \\| term\\_start \\= 10 January 1931 \\| term\\_end \\= 20 June 1933 \\| timeinoffice \\= {{ayd\\|1931\\|01\\|10\\|1933\\|06\\|20}} \\| alt\\_party \\= German National People's Party }} {{Officeholder table \\| order2 \\= 3 \\| image \\= Hermann Rauschning.jpg \\|bSize \\= 70 \\| officeholder \\= \\[\\[Hermann Rauschning]] \\| born\\_year \\= 1887 \\| died\\_year \\= 1982 \\| term\\_start \\= 20 June 1933 \\| term\\_end \\= 23 November 1934 \\| timeinoffice \\= {{ayd\\|1933\\|06\\|20\\|1934\\|11\\|23}} \\| alt\\_party \\= Nazi Party }} {{Officeholder table \\| order2 \\= 4 \\| image \\= Arthur Greiser 1934\\.jpg \\|bSize \\= 70 \\| officeholder \\= \\[\\[Arthur Greiser]] \\| born\\_year \\= 1897 \\| died\\_year \\= 1946 \\| term\\_start \\= 23 November 1934 \\| term\\_end \\= 23 August 1939 \\| timeinoffice \\= {{ayd\\|1934\\|11\\|23\\|1939\\|08\\|23}} \\| alt\\_party \\= Nazi Party }} | | | | | | |\n State President {{Officeholder table \\| order2 \\= 5 \\| image \\= Albert Forster.jpg \\|bSize \\= 70 \\| officeholder \\= \\[\\[Albert Forster]] \\| born\\_year \\= 1902 \\| died\\_year \\= 1952 \\| term\\_start \\= 23 August 1939 \\| term\\_end \\= 1 September 1939 \\| timeinoffice \\= {{ayd\\|1939\\|08\\|23\\|1939\\|09\\|01}} \\| alt\\_party \\= Nazi Party }} | | | | | | |",
"",
"The Free City was governed by the [Senate](/wiki/Senate%23Alternative_meanings \"Senate#Alternative meanings\") of the Free City of Danzig, which was elected by the parliament ([Volkstag](/wiki/Volkstag \"Volkstag\")) for a legislative period of four years. The official language was German,{{cite book \\|title\\=Axis Rule in Occupied Europe \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=y0in2wOY\\-W0C \\|date\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-58477\\-901\\-8 \\|page\\=155 \\|last1\\=Lemkin \\|first1\\=Raphael \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-01\\-14 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114040954/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=y0in2wOY\\-W0C \\|url\\-status\\=live }} although the usage of Polish was guaranteed by law.{{in lang\\|de}} [Constitution of Danzig](http://www.verfassungen.de/de/x/danzig/danzig22-index.htm) {{Webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150309042207/http://www.verfassungen.de/de/x/danzig/danzig22\\-index.htm \\|date\\=2015\\-03\\-09 }}Matull, \"Ostdeutschlands Arbeiterbewegung\", p. 419\\. The political parties in the Free City corresponded with the political parties in [Weimar Germany](/wiki/Weimar_Germany \"Weimar Germany\"); the most influential parties in the 1920s were the conservative [German National People's Party](/wiki/German_National_People%27s_Party \"German National People's Party\"), the [Social Democratic Party of the Free City of Danzig](/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_the_Free_City_of_Danzig \"Social Democratic Party of the Free City of Danzig\") and the [Catholic Centre Party](/wiki/Centre_Party_%28Germany%29 \"Centre Party (Germany)\"). A [Communist Party](/wiki/Communist_Party_%28Free_City_of_Danzig%29 \"Communist Party (Free City of Danzig)\") was founded in 1921 with its origins in the [Spartacus League](/wiki/Spartacus_League \"Spartacus League\") and the Communist Party of [East Prussia](/wiki/East_Prussia \"East Prussia\"). Several liberal parties and Free Voter's Associations existed and ran in the elections with varying success. A [Polish Party](/wiki/Polish_Party \"Polish Party\") represented the Polish minority and received between 3% ([1933](/wiki/1933_Free_City_of_Danzig_parliamentary_election \"1933 Free City of Danzig parliamentary election\")) and 6% ([1920](/wiki/1920_Free_City_of_Danzig_Constituent_Assembly_election \"1920 Free City of Danzig Constituent Assembly election\")) of the vote (in total, 4,358 votes in 1933 and 9,321 votes in 1920\\).{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Danzig/Uebersicht\\_LTW.html \\|title\\=Danzig: Übersicht der Wahlen 1919–1935 \\|website\\=www.gonschior.de \\|access\\-date\\=2010\\-02\\-04 \\|archive\\-date\\=2009\\-07\\-06 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706052744/http://www.gonschior.de/weimar/Danzig/Uebersicht\\_LTW.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Initially, the [Nazi Party](/wiki/Nazi_Party \"Nazi Party\") had only a small amount of success (0\\.8% of the vote in [1927](/wiki/1927_Free_City_of_Danzig_parliamentary_election \"1927 Free City of Danzig parliamentary election\")) and was even briefly dissolved. Its influence grew with the onset of difficult economic times and the increasing popularity of the Nazi Party in Germany proper. [Albert Forster](/wiki/Albert_Forster \"Albert Forster\") became the [Gauleiter](/wiki/Gauleiter \"Gauleiter\") in October 1930\\. The Nazis won 50 percent of votes in the Volkstag elections of 28 May 1933, and took control of the Senate in June 1933, with [Hermann Rauschning](/wiki/Hermann_Rauschning \"Hermann Rauschning\") becoming President of the Senate of Danzig. In contrast to Germany, the Nazi Party was relatively weak in the Free City of Danzig, and remained unstable because of \"furious factional struggles\" which plagued the Nazi administration throughout its rule. The party membership was generally low, and the 1935 election in Danzig \"amounted to an electoral defeat for the Nazis\".{{cite journal \\|page\\=305 \\|author\\=F. L. Carsten \\|title\\=Review of \"Hitler's Free City: A History of the Nazi Party in Danzig 1925\\-1939\" by Herbet S. Levine \\|url\\=http://www.jstor.org/stable/4206888 \\|journal\\=The Slavonic and East European Review \\|volume\\=52 \\|issue\\=127 \\|date\\=April 1974 \\|jstor\\=4206888 \\|publisher\\=the Modern Humanities Research Association and University College London, School of}} The democratic opposition remained strong and was able to temporarily block the Nazi [Gleichschaltung](/wiki/Gleichschaltung \"Gleichschaltung\") policies between 1935 and 1937\\.{{cite journal \\|pages\\=185–186 \\|author\\=Hunt, R. M. \\|title\\=Review of \"Hitler's Free City: A History of the Nazi Party in Danzig 1925\\-1939\" by Herbet S. Levine \\|journal\\=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science \\|volume\\=412 \\|issue\\=1 \\|date\\=March 1974 \\|issn\\=0002\\-7162 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/000271627441200139 \\|publisher\\=CSAGE Publications\\|s2cid\\=145646953 }} German Catholics were supportive of the Polish minority and most Danzig Poles voted for the Catholic Centre Party. Social Democrats were also willing to cooperate with Catholics and Poles, and the Catholic Church in Danzig was pro\\-Polish and opposed National Socialism.{{cite journal \\|pages\\=490–492 \\|author\\=Harald von Riekhoff \\|title\\=Review of \"Hitler's Free City: A History of the Nazi Party in Danzig 1925\\-1939\" by Herbet S. Levine \\|url\\=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40866777 \\|journal\\=Canadian Slavonic Papers / Revue Canadienne des Slavistes \\|volume\\=16 \\|issue\\=3 \\|date\\=1974 \\|jstor\\=40866777 \\|publisher\\=Canadian Association of Slavists}}",
"Rauschning was removed from his position by Forster and replaced by [Arthur Greiser](/wiki/Arthur_Greiser \"Arthur Greiser\") in November 1934\\. He later appealed to the public not to vote for the Nazis in the [1935 elections](/wiki/1935_Free_City_of_Danzig_parliamentary_election \"1935 Free City of Danzig parliamentary election\"). Political opposition to the Nazis was repressed{{cite book \\|title\\=The new UN peacekeeping \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0Rf9SE2YI\\-UC \\|year\\=1995 \\|publisher\\=Palgrave Macmillan \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-312\\-12415\\-1 \\|page\\=94 \\|last1\\=Ratner \\|first1\\=Steven R. \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105536/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=0Rf9SE2YI\\-UC \\|url\\-status\\=live }} with several politicians being imprisoned and murdered.Sodeikat, p. 170, p. 173, Fn.92Matull, \"Ostdeutschlands Arbeiterbewegung\", pp. 440, 450\\. The economic policy of Danzig's Nazi\\-led government, which increased the public expenditures for employment\\-creation programs{{cite book \\|title\\=Meine Danziger Mission \\|first\\=Carl Jakob \\|last\\=Burckhardt \\|page\\=39 \\|language\\=de}} \n{{cite book \\|title\\=Die Juden der Freien Stadt Danzig unter der Herrschaft des Nationalsozialismus \\|first\\=Erwin \\|last\\=Lichtenstein \\|year\\=1973 \\|page\\=44 \\|language\\=de}} and the retrenchment of financial aid from Germany led to a devaluation of more than 40% of the [Danziger Gulden](/wiki/Danzig_gulden \"Danzig gulden\") in 1935\\.{{cite book \\|title\\=Danzig – Biographie einer Stadt \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=9ifeo6zdSMcC \\|year\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=C.H. Beck \\|language\\=de \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-406\\-60587\\-1 \\|page\\=206 \\|last1\\=Loew \\|first1\\=Peter Oliver \\|author\\-link1\\=Peter Oliver Loew \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105540/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=9ifeo6zdSMcC \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|last\\=Loose \\|first\\=Ingo \\|title\\=Kredite für NS\\-Verbrechen \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=R2Dr9gdFZoAC \\|year\\=2007 \\|publisher\\=\\[\\[Institut für Zeitgeschichte]] \\|language\\=de \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-486\\-58331\\-1 \\|page\\=33 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105536/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=R2Dr9gdFZoAC \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=A4LiAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=Arbeitsbeschaffungspolitik \\|title\\=Opposition und Widerstand in Danzig \\|first1\\=Marek \\|last1\\=Andrzejewski \\|publisher\\=Dietz \\|year\\=1994 \\|isbn\\=978\\-3801240547 \\|page\\=99 \\|language\\=de \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105551/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=A4LiAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=Arbeitsbeschaffungspolitik \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=O2BpAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=devaluation\\+gulden \\|title\\=History of Gdańsk \\|first1\\=Edmund \\|last1\\=Cieslak \\|first2\\=Czeslaw \\|last2\\=Biernat \\|publisher\\=Fundacji Biblioteki Gdańskiej \\|year\\=1995 \\|isbn\\=978\\-8386557004 \\|page\\=454 \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105537/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=O2BpAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=devaluation\\+gulden \\|url\\-status\\=live }}Matull, \"Ostdeutschlands Arbeiterbewegung\", pp. 417, 418\\. The Gold reserves of the [Bank of Danzig](/wiki/Bank_of_Danzig \"Bank of Danzig\") declined from 30 million Gulden in 1933 to 13 million in 1935 and the foreign asset reserve from 10 million to 250,000 Gulden.{{cite book \\|author1\\=Intelligence Service Economic Intelligence Service \\|title\\=Commercial Banks 1929–1934 \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=fQdXGT6tA8AC \\|date\\=2007 \\|publisher\\=League of Nations \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4067\\-5963\\-1 \\|page\\=lxxxix \\|author2\\=Service, Intellige Economic Intelligence \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105539/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=fQdXGT6tA8AC \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In 1935, Poland protested when Danzig's Senate reduced the value of the Gulden so that it would be the same as the [Polish zloty](/wiki/Polish_z%C5%82oty \"Polish złoty\").{{cite book \\|title\\=Danzig: Geschichte einer Deutschen Stadt \\|first\\=Rüdiger \\|last\\=Ruhnau \\|publisher\\=Holzner Verlag \\|year\\=1971 \\|page\\=103 \\|language\\=de}}",
"As in Germany, the Nazis introduced laws mirroring the [Enabling Act](/wiki/Erm%C3%A4chtigungsgesetz \"Ermächtigungsgesetz\") and [Nuremberg laws](/wiki/Nuremberg_laws \"Nuremberg laws\") (November 1938\\);{{cite book \\|title\\=\"Die Blechtrommel\" von Günter Grass: Bedeutung, Erzähltechnik und Zeitgeschichte \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=2nue91Rlg\\-0C \\|date\\=2009 \\|publisher\\=Frank \\& Timme GmbH \\|language\\=de \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-86596\\-237\\-9 \\|page\\=396 \\|last1\\=Schwartze\\-Köhler \\|first1\\=Hannelore \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105553/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=2nue91Rlg\\-0C \\|url\\-status\\=live }} existing parties and unions were gradually banned. The presence of the League of Nations however still guaranteed a minimum of legal certainty. In 1935, the opposition parties, except for the Polish Party, filed a lawsuit to the Danzig High Court in protest against the manipulation of the Volkstag elections. The opposition also protested to the League of Nations, as did the Jewish Community of Danzig.{{cite book \\|title\\=Leo Baeck Institute New York Bibliothek und Archiv \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=vvCsfz67i1wC \\|year\\=1970 \\|publisher\\=Mohr Siebeck \\|language\\=de \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-16\\-830772\\-3 \\|page\\=67 \\|last1\\=Kreutzberger \\|first1\\=Max}}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Danzig.html \\|title\\=Danzig Jewry: A Short History \\|first1\\=Gershon C. \\|last1\\=Bacon \\|publisher\\=Jewish Virtual Library \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-01\\-13 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113051333/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Danzig.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The number of members of the Nazi Party in Danzig increased from 21,861 in June 1934 to 48,345 in September 1938\\.{{cite journal \\|page\\=53 \\|author\\=Grzegorz Berendt \\|title\\=Gdańsk – od niemieckości do polskości \\|language\\=pl \\|url\\=http://www.sierpien1980\\.pl/download/10/15909/biuletyn8\\-967\\-68\\.pdf \\|journal\\=Biuletyn Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej IPN \\|volume\\=8–9 (67–68\\) \\|date\\=August 2006 \\|access\\-date\\=2015\\-12\\-24 \\|archive\\-date\\=2018\\-09\\-17 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917203328/http://www.sierpien1980\\.pl/download/10/15909/biuletyn8\\-967\\-68\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"### Foreign relations",
"Foreign relations were handled by [Poland](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic \"Second Polish Republic\").Article 104 (6\\) of the [Treaty of Versailles](/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles \"Treaty of Versailles\"). In 1927, the Free City of Danzig sent a military advisory mission to [Bolivia](/wiki/Bolivia \"Bolivia\"). The Bolivian government of [Hernando Siles Reyes](/wiki/Hernando_Siles_Reyes \"Hernando Siles Reyes\") wanted to continue the pre\\-[World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") German military mission but the Treaty of Versailles prohibited that. The German officers, including [Ernst Röhm](/wiki/Ernst_R%C3%B6hm \"Ernst Röhm\"), were transferred to the Danzig police force and then sent to Bolivia. In 1929, after problems with the mission, the British embassy handled the return of the German officers.{{cite journal \\|page\\=695 \\|author\\=Eleanor Hancock \\|title\\=Ernst Röhm versus General Hans Kundt in Bolivia, 1929–30? The Curious Incident \\|language\\=en \\|journal\\=Journal of Contemporary History \\|volume\\=4 (47\\) \\|issue\\=4 \\|date\\=October 2012 \\|jstor\\=23488391}}",
"### German\\-Polish tensions",
"The rights of the [Second Polish Republic](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic \"Second Polish Republic\") within the territory of the Free City were stipulated in the [Treaty of Paris](/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_%281920%29 \"Treaty of Paris (1920)\") of 9 November 1920 and the [Treaty of Warsaw](/wiki/Treaty_of_Warsaw_%281920%29 \"Treaty of Warsaw (1920)\") of 24 October 1921\\.{{cite book \\|title\\=Autonomy, Sovereignty and Self\\-Determination \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=28PEGfCDiZEC \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=University of Pennsylvania \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8122\\-1572\\-4 \\|page\\=375 \\|last1\\=Hannum \\|first1\\=Hurst \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105554/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=28PEGfCDiZEC \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The details of the Polish privileges soon became a permanent matter of disputes between the local populace and the Polish State. While the representatives of the Free City tried to uphold the city's autonomy and sovereignty, Poland sought to extend its privileges.{{cite book \\|title\\=The Law and Practice of International Territorial Administration \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=j6e16GCIfiEC \\|date\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-87800\\-5 \\|pages\\=173 ff, 177 \\|last1\\=Stahn \\|first1\\=Carsten \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105634/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=j6e16GCIfiEC \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Throughout the [Polish–Soviet War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War \"Polish–Soviet War\"), local dockworkers went on strike and refused to unload ammunition supplies for the [Polish Army](/wiki/Polish_Army \"Polish Army\"). While the ammunition was finally unloaded by British troops,{{cite book \\|title\\=The Post\\-War history of the British Working Class \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XV35N74\\_jk8C \\|date\\=2006 \\|publisher\\=Read Bookd \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4067\\-9826\\-5 \\|page\\=38 \\|author\\-link1\\=Allen Hutt \\|last1\\=Hutt \\|first1\\=Allen \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105542/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XV35N74\\_jk8C \\|url\\-status\\=live }} the incident led to the establishment of a permanent ammunition depot at the [Westerplatte](/wiki/Westerplatte \"Westerplatte\") and the construction of a trade and naval port in [Gdynia](/wiki/Gdynia \"Gdynia\"),{{cite book \\|title\\=Poland – Key to Europe \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-KcfGbrKptoC \\|date\\=2007 \\|publisher\\=Read Books \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4067\\-4564\\-1 \\|page\\=159 \\|last1\\=Buell \\|first1\\=Raymond Leslie \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105556/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-KcfGbrKptoC \\|url\\-status\\=live }} whose total exports and imports surpassed those of Danzig in May 1932\\.Eugene van Cleef, \"Danzig and Gdynia,\" Geographical Review, Vol. 23, No. 1\\. (Jan., 1933\\): 106\\. In December 1925, the Council of the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations \"League of Nations\") agreed to the establishment of a Polish military guard of 88 men on the [Westerplatte](/wiki/Westerplatte \"Westerplatte\") peninsula to protect the war material depot.Cieślak, E Biernat, C (1995\\) *History of Gdańsk*, Fundacji Biblioteki Gdanskiej. p. 436*By a decision of the League Council in December 1925, the guard which the Poles were entitled to maintain on this spot \\[Westerplatte peninsula] was limited to 88 men, though the number might be increased with the consent of the High Commissioner.* Geoffrey Malcolm Gathorne\\-Hardy. *A Short History of International Affairs, 1920 to 1934*. Royal institute of international affairs (1934\\). [Oxford University Press](/wiki/Oxford_University_Press \"Oxford University Press\"). p. 384\\.",
"During the interwar period the Polish minority was heavily discriminated against by the German population, which openly attacked its members using racist slurs and harassment, and attacks against the Polish consulate by German students were praised by authorities.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.rp.pl/artykul/55392\\-Mit\\-Gdanska\\-\\-mit\\-Grassa.html \\|title\\=Mit Gdańska, mit Grassa \\|website\\=www.rp.pl \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-31 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-09 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509164857/https://www.rp.pl/artykul/55392\\-Mit\\-Gdanska\\-\\-mit\\-Grassa.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In June 1932, a [crisis](/wiki/Danzig_crisis_%281932%29 \"Danzig crisis (1932)\") broke out when the Polish destroyer [ORP *Wicher*](/wiki/ORP_Wicher_%281928%29 \"ORP Wicher (1928)\") was sent into Danzig harbour without the permission of the Senate to greet a visiting squadron of British destroyers.Wandycz, Piotr Stefan *The Twilight of French Eastern Alliances*, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988 p. 237 The crisis was resolved when the Free City granted more access rights to the Polish Navy in exchange for a promise to not take the *Wicher* back into Danzig harbour.",
"Several disputes between Danzig and Poland occurred in the sequel. The Free City protested against the Westerplatte depot, the placement of Polish letter boxes within the City[worldcourts.com](http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1925/1925.05.16_danzig.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101210072938/http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1925/1925\\.05\\.16\\_danzig.htm \\|date\\=2010\\-12\\-10 }} PCIJ, Advisory Opinion No. 11 and the presence of Polish war vessels at the harbour.[worldcourts.com](http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1931/1931.12.11_danzig.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://archive.today/20130209113525/http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1931/1931\\.12\\.11\\_danzig.htm \\|date\\=2013\\-02\\-09 }} PCIJ, Advisory Opinion No. 22 The attempt of the Free City to join the [International Labour Organization](/wiki/International_Labour_Organization \"International Labour Organization\") was rejected by the [Permanent Court of International Justice](/wiki/Permanent_Court_of_International_Justice \"Permanent Court of International Justice\") at the League of Nations after protests of the Polish ILO delegate.[worldcourts.com](http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1930/1930.08.26_danzig.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://archive.today/20130209135635/http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1930/1930\\.08\\.26\\_danzig.htm \\|date\\=2013\\-02\\-09 }} PCIJ, Advisory Opinion No. 18{{cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KzYGaYaNswkC\\&q\\=International\\+Labour\\+Organization\\+danzig\\&pg\\=PA410 \\|title\\=International Law Reports 1929–1930 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-08\\-30 \\|work\\=Advisory Opinion No 18: Free City of Danzig and International Labour Organization on August 26, 1930, Collection of Advisory Opinions: Free City of Danzig and International Labour Organization, No. 18 Series B File F (1930\\) \\|publisher\\=H. Lauterpacht \\|year\\=1936 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-46350\\-8 \\|author1\\=Lauterpacht, H \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105545/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KzYGaYaNswkC\\&q\\=International\\+Labour\\+Organization\\+danzig\\&pg\\=PA410 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"After Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany, the Polish military doubled the number of 88 troops at Westerplatte in order to test the reaction of the new chancellor. After protests the additional troops were withdrawn.Hargreaves, R (2010\\) Blitzkrieg Unleashed: The German Invasion of Poland, 1939 pp. 31–32 Nazi propaganda used these events in the [Volkstag](/wiki/Volkstag \"Volkstag\") elections of May 1933, in which Nazis won absolute majority.Epstein, C (2012\\) Model Nazi: Arthur Greiser and the Occupation of Western Poland, Oxford University Press p. 58",
"Until June 1933, the High Commissioner decided in 66 cases of dispute between Danzig and Poland; in 54 cases one of the parties appealed to the Permanent Court of International Justice.Hurst Hannum, p. 377\\. Subsequent disputes were resolved in direct negotiations between the Senate and Poland after both had agreed to abstain from further appeals to the International Court in the summer of 1933 and bilateral agreements were concluded.{{cite book \\|title\\=Wörterbuch des Völkerrechts; Aachener Kongress – Hussar Fall \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=EBSE1BF\\_w2AC \\|date\\=1960 \\|publisher\\=de Gruyter Verlag \\|language\\=de \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-11\\-001030\\-5 \\|pages\\=307, 309 \\|last1\\=Schlochauer \\|last3\\=Mosler \\|last2\\=Krüger \\|first1\\=Hans J. \\|first2\\=Herbert \\|first3\\=Hermann \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105610/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=EBSE1BF\\_w2AC \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In the aftermath of the [German\\-Polish Non\\-Aggression Pact](/wiki/German-Polish_Non-Aggression_Pact \"German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact\") of 1934, Danzig–Polish relations improved and [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\") instructed the local Nazi government to cease anti\\-Polish actions.{{cite book \\|title\\=The Baltic and the Outbreak of the Second World War \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=4pKEQgAACAAJ \\|year\\=1992 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-40467\\-9 \\|pages\\=74 ff, 80 \\|last1\\=Hiden \\|last3\\=Prazmowska \\|last2\\=Lane \\|first1\\=John \\|first2\\=Thomas \\|first3\\=Anita J. \\|author\\-link3\\=Anita J. Prazmowska \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105548/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=4pKEQgAACAAJ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In return, Poland did not support the actions of the anti\\-Nazi opposition in Danzig. The Polish Ambassador to Germany, [Józef Lipski](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Lipski \"Józef Lipski\"), stated in a meeting with [Hermann Göring](/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring \"Hermann Göring\")Prazmowska, p. 80\\.",
"> \"... that a National Socialist Senate in Danzig is also most desirable from our point of view, since it brought about a rapprochement between the Free City and Poland, I would like to remind him that we have always kept aloof from internal Danzig problems. In spite of approaches repeatedly made by the opposition parties, we rejected any attempt to draw us into action against the Senate. I mentioned quite confidentially that the Polish minority in Danzig was advised not to join forces with the opposition at the time of elections.\"",
"When [Carl J. Burckhardt](/wiki/Carl_Jacob_Burckhardt \"Carl Jacob Burckhardt\") became High Commissioner in February 1937, both Poles and Germans openly welcomed his withdrawal, and Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs [Józef Beck](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Beck \"Józef Beck\") notified him not to \"count on the support of the Polish State\" in the case of difficulties with the Senate or the Nazi Party.Prazmowska, p. 81\\.",
"While the Senate appeared to respect the agreements with Poland, the \"Nazification of Danzig proceeded relentlessly\"Prazmowska, p. 85\\. and Danzig became a springboard for anti\\-Polish propaganda among the German and Ukrainian minority in Poland.Prazmowska, p. 83\\. The Catholic Bishop of Danzig, [Edward O'Rourke](/wiki/Edward_O%27Rourke \"Edward O'Rourke\"), was forced to withdraw after he had tried to implement four additional Polish nationals as parish priests in October 1937\\.",
"### Danzig crisis",
"{{see also\\|Danzig crisis}}\nThe German policy openly changed immediately after the [Munich Conference](/wiki/Munich_Conference \"Munich Conference\") in October 1938, when German Minister of Foreign Affairs [Joachim von Ribbentrop](/wiki/Joachim_von_Ribbentrop \"Joachim von Ribbentrop\") demanded the incorporation of the Free City into the Reich.{{cite book \\|title\\=Barbarism and Civilization \\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/barbarismciviliz00wass \\|url\\-access\\=registration \\|year\\=2007 \\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-19\\-873074\\-3 \\|page\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/barbarismciviliz00wass/page/279 279] \\|last1\\=Wasserstein \\|first1\\=Bernard}} The Polish ambassador to Germany, [Jozef Lipski](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Lipski \"Józef Lipski\"), declined Ribbentrop's offer, saying that Polish public opinion would not tolerate the Free City joining Germany and predicated that if Warsaw allowed that to happen, then the *[Sanation](/wiki/Sanation \"Sanation\")* military dictatorship that had ruled Poland since 1926 would be overthrown. [Ernst von Weizsäcker](/wiki/Ernst_von_Weizs%C3%A4cker \"Ernst von Weizsäcker\") on 29 March 1939 told the Danzig government the *Reich* would carry out a policy to the *Zermürbungspolitik* (point of destruction) towards Poland, saying a compromise solution was not wanted, and on 5 April 1939 told [Hans\\-Adolf von Moltke](/wiki/Hans-Adolf_von_Moltke \"Hans-Adolf von Moltke\") under no conditions was he to negotiate with the Poles.Weinberg Gerhard *The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany : Starting World War II 1937–39*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980 p. 560\\.",
"All through the spring and summer of 1939 there was a massive media campaign in Germany demanding the immediate return of the Free City of Danzig to Germany under the slogan \"Home to the *Reich*!\". However, the Danzig crisis was just a pretext for war. Ribbentrop ordered Count [Hans\\-Adolf von Moltke](/wiki/Hans-Adolf_von_Moltke \"Hans-Adolf von Moltke\"), the German ambassador to Poland, not to negotiate with the Poles over Danzig as it was always Ribbentrop's great fear that the Poles might actually agree to the Free City returning to Germany, thereby depriving the *Reich* of its pretext for attacking Poland.Weinberg Gerhard *The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany : Starting World War II 1937–39*, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980 pp. 560–562 \\& 583–584",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Hitler gives a speech in Danzig on 19 September 1939](/wiki/File:Adolf_Hitler_addresses_an_audience_in_Danzig_03.jpg \"Adolf Hitler addresses an audience in Danzig 03.jpg\")\nIn the middle of August, Beck offered a concession, saying that Poland was willing to give up its control of Danzig's customs, a proposal which caused fury in [Berlin](/wiki/Berlin \"Berlin\").Rothwell, Victor *The Origins of the Second World War*, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001 p. 161\\. However, the leaders of the Free City sent a message to Berlin on 19 August 1939 saying: \"*Gauleiter* Forster intends to extend claims...Should the Poles yield again it is intended to increase the claims further in order to make accord impossible\". The same day a telegram from Berlin expressed approval with the proviso: \"Discussions will have to be conducted and pressure exerted against Poland in such a way that responsibility for failure to come to an agreement and the consequences rest with Poland\". On 23 August 1939, Albert Forster, the *Gauleiter* of Danzig, called a meeting of the Senate that voted to have the Free City rejoin Germany, raising tensions to the breaking point.Prazmowska, Anita \"Poland\" pp. 155–64 from *The Origins of The Second World War* edited by Robert Boyce and Joseph Maiolo, London: Macmillan, 2003 p. 163\\. The same meeting appointed Forster the Danzig State President, through this was due to Forster's long\\-running rivalry with [Arthur Greiser](/wiki/Arthur_Greiser \"Arthur Greiser\"), a *völkisch* fanatic who regarded Forster as too soft on the Poles. Both the appointment of Forster as State President and the resolution calling for the Free City to rejoin the *Reich* were violations of the charter the League of Nations had given Danzig in 1920, and the matter should have been taken to the League of Nations's Security Council for discussion.Prazmowska, Anita \"Poland, the 'Danzig Question', and the Outbreak of the Second World War\" pp. 394–408 from *The Origins of the Second World War* edited by Frank McDonough, London: Continuum, 2011 p. 406\\.",
"Since these violations of the Danzig charter would have resulted in the League deposing the Danzig's Nazi government, both the French and British prevented the matter from being referred to the Security Council.Prazmowska, Anita \"Poland, the 'Danzig Question', and the Outbreak of the Second World War\" pp. 394–408 from *The Origins of the Second World War* edited by Frank McDonough, London: Continuum, 2011 pp. 406–07\\. Instead the British and French applied strong pressure on the Poles not to send in a military force to depose the Danzig government, and appoint a mediator to resolve the crisis.Prazmowska, Anita \"Poland, the 'Danzig Question', and the Outbreak of the Second World War\" pp. 394–408 from *The Origins of the Second World War* edited by Frank McDonough, London: Continuum, 2011 p. 407\\. By late August 1939, the crisis continued to escalate with the Senate confiscating on 27 August 1939 stocks of wheat, salt and petrol that belonged to the Polish businesses that were in the process of being exported or imported via the Free City, an action that led to sharp Polish complaints.Watt, D.C. *How War Came*, London: Heinemann, 1989 p. 512\\. The same day, 200 Polish workers at the Danzig shipyards were fired without severance pay and their identification papers revoked, meaning that they legally could not live in Danzig anymore.Watt, D.C. *How War Came*, London: Heinemann, 1989 p. 513\\. The Danzig government imposed food rationing, the Danzig newspapers took a militantly anti\\-Polish line, and almost every day there were \"incidents\" on the border with Poland. Ordinary people in Danzig were described as being highly worried in the last days of August 1939 as it become apparent that war was imminent. In the meantime, the German battleship *[Schleswig\\-Holstein](/wiki/SMS_Schleswig-Holstein \"SMS Schleswig-Holstein\")* had arrived in Danzig on 15 August. Originally, it was planned to send the light cruiser *[Königsberg](/wiki/German_cruiser_K%C3%B6nigsberg \"German cruiser Königsberg\")* to Danzig for what was described as a \"friendship visit\", but it was decided at the last minute that a ship with more firepower was needed, leading to the *Schleswig\\-Holstein* with its {{convert\\|11\\|inch\\|adj\\=on}} guns being substituted.Watt, D.C. *How War Came*, London: Heinemann, 1989 p. 484\\. Upon anchoring in Danzig harbor, the *Schleswig\\-Holstein* ominously aimed its guns at the Polish Military Depot on the Westerplatte peninsula in a provocative gesture that further raised the tensions in the Free City.",
"At about 4:48am on 1 September 1939, the *Schleswig\\-Holstein* opened fire on the Westerplatte, firing the first shots of World War II.Watt, D.C. *How War Came*, London: Heinemann, 1989 p. 530\\.",
""
] |
### German\-Polish tensions
The rights of the [Second Polish Republic](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic "Second Polish Republic") within the territory of the Free City were stipulated in the [Treaty of Paris](/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_%281920%29 "Treaty of Paris (1920)") of 9 November 1920 and the [Treaty of Warsaw](/wiki/Treaty_of_Warsaw_%281920%29 "Treaty of Warsaw (1920)") of 24 October 1921\.{{cite book \|title\=Autonomy, Sovereignty and Self\-Determination \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=28PEGfCDiZEC \|date\=2011 \|publisher\=University of Pennsylvania \|isbn\=978\-0\-8122\-1572\-4 \|page\=375 \|last1\=Hannum \|first1\=Hurst \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105554/https://books.google.com/books?id\=28PEGfCDiZEC \|url\-status\=live }} The details of the Polish privileges soon became a permanent matter of disputes between the local populace and the Polish State. While the representatives of the Free City tried to uphold the city's autonomy and sovereignty, Poland sought to extend its privileges.{{cite book \|title\=The Law and Practice of International Territorial Administration \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=j6e16GCIfiEC \|date\=2008 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-87800\-5 \|pages\=173 ff, 177 \|last1\=Stahn \|first1\=Carsten \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105634/https://books.google.com/books?id\=j6e16GCIfiEC \|url\-status\=live }}
Throughout the [Polish–Soviet War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War "Polish–Soviet War"), local dockworkers went on strike and refused to unload ammunition supplies for the [Polish Army](/wiki/Polish_Army "Polish Army"). While the ammunition was finally unloaded by British troops,{{cite book \|title\=The Post\-War history of the British Working Class \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=XV35N74\_jk8C \|date\=2006 \|publisher\=Read Bookd \|isbn\=978\-1\-4067\-9826\-5 \|page\=38 \|author\-link1\=Allen Hutt \|last1\=Hutt \|first1\=Allen \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105542/https://books.google.com/books?id\=XV35N74\_jk8C \|url\-status\=live }} the incident led to the establishment of a permanent ammunition depot at the [Westerplatte](/wiki/Westerplatte "Westerplatte") and the construction of a trade and naval port in [Gdynia](/wiki/Gdynia "Gdynia"),{{cite book \|title\=Poland – Key to Europe \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-KcfGbrKptoC \|date\=2007 \|publisher\=Read Books \|isbn\=978\-1\-4067\-4564\-1 \|page\=159 \|last1\=Buell \|first1\=Raymond Leslie \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105556/https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-KcfGbrKptoC \|url\-status\=live }} whose total exports and imports surpassed those of Danzig in May 1932\.Eugene van Cleef, "Danzig and Gdynia," Geographical Review, Vol. 23, No. 1\. (Jan., 1933\): 106\. In December 1925, the Council of the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations "League of Nations") agreed to the establishment of a Polish military guard of 88 men on the [Westerplatte](/wiki/Westerplatte "Westerplatte") peninsula to protect the war material depot.Cieślak, E Biernat, C (1995\) *History of Gdańsk*, Fundacji Biblioteki Gdanskiej. p. 436*By a decision of the League Council in December 1925, the guard which the Poles were entitled to maintain on this spot \[Westerplatte peninsula] was limited to 88 men, though the number might be increased with the consent of the High Commissioner.* Geoffrey Malcolm Gathorne\-Hardy. *A Short History of International Affairs, 1920 to 1934*. Royal institute of international affairs (1934\). [Oxford University Press](/wiki/Oxford_University_Press "Oxford University Press"). p. 384\.
During the interwar period the Polish minority was heavily discriminated against by the German population, which openly attacked its members using racist slurs and harassment, and attacks against the Polish consulate by German students were praised by authorities.{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.rp.pl/artykul/55392\-Mit\-Gdanska\-\-mit\-Grassa.html \|title\=Mit Gdańska, mit Grassa \|website\=www.rp.pl \|access\-date\=2021\-01\-31 \|archive\-date\=2021\-05\-09 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509164857/https://www.rp.pl/artykul/55392\-Mit\-Gdanska\-\-mit\-Grassa.html \|url\-status\=live }} In June 1932, a [crisis](/wiki/Danzig_crisis_%281932%29 "Danzig crisis (1932)") broke out when the Polish destroyer [ORP *Wicher*](/wiki/ORP_Wicher_%281928%29 "ORP Wicher (1928)") was sent into Danzig harbour without the permission of the Senate to greet a visiting squadron of British destroyers.Wandycz, Piotr Stefan *The Twilight of French Eastern Alliances*, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988 p. 237 The crisis was resolved when the Free City granted more access rights to the Polish Navy in exchange for a promise to not take the *Wicher* back into Danzig harbour.
Several disputes between Danzig and Poland occurred in the sequel. The Free City protested against the Westerplatte depot, the placement of Polish letter boxes within the City[worldcourts.com](http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1925/1925.05.16_danzig.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101210072938/http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1925/1925\.05\.16\_danzig.htm \|date\=2010\-12\-10 }} PCIJ, Advisory Opinion No. 11 and the presence of Polish war vessels at the harbour.[worldcourts.com](http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1931/1931.12.11_danzig.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://archive.today/20130209113525/http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1931/1931\.12\.11\_danzig.htm \|date\=2013\-02\-09 }} PCIJ, Advisory Opinion No. 22 The attempt of the Free City to join the [International Labour Organization](/wiki/International_Labour_Organization "International Labour Organization") was rejected by the [Permanent Court of International Justice](/wiki/Permanent_Court_of_International_Justice "Permanent Court of International Justice") at the League of Nations after protests of the Polish ILO delegate.[worldcourts.com](http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1930/1930.08.26_danzig.htm) {{webarchive \|url\=https://archive.today/20130209135635/http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1930/1930\.08\.26\_danzig.htm \|date\=2013\-02\-09 }} PCIJ, Advisory Opinion No. 18{{cite book \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=KzYGaYaNswkC\&q\=International\+Labour\+Organization\+danzig\&pg\=PA410 \|title\=International Law Reports 1929–1930 \|access\-date\=2009\-08\-30 \|work\=Advisory Opinion No 18: Free City of Danzig and International Labour Organization on August 26, 1930, Collection of Advisory Opinions: Free City of Danzig and International Labour Organization, No. 18 Series B File F (1930\) \|publisher\=H. Lauterpacht \|year\=1936 \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-46350\-8 \|author1\=Lauterpacht, H \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105545/https://books.google.com/books?id\=KzYGaYaNswkC\&q\=International\+Labour\+Organization\+danzig\&pg\=PA410 \|url\-status\=live }}
After Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany, the Polish military doubled the number of 88 troops at Westerplatte in order to test the reaction of the new chancellor. After protests the additional troops were withdrawn.Hargreaves, R (2010\) Blitzkrieg Unleashed: The German Invasion of Poland, 1939 pp. 31–32 Nazi propaganda used these events in the [Volkstag](/wiki/Volkstag "Volkstag") elections of May 1933, in which Nazis won absolute majority.Epstein, C (2012\) Model Nazi: Arthur Greiser and the Occupation of Western Poland, Oxford University Press p. 58
Until June 1933, the High Commissioner decided in 66 cases of dispute between Danzig and Poland; in 54 cases one of the parties appealed to the Permanent Court of International Justice.Hurst Hannum, p. 377\. Subsequent disputes were resolved in direct negotiations between the Senate and Poland after both had agreed to abstain from further appeals to the International Court in the summer of 1933 and bilateral agreements were concluded.{{cite book \|title\=Wörterbuch des Völkerrechts; Aachener Kongress – Hussar Fall \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=EBSE1BF\_w2AC \|date\=1960 \|publisher\=de Gruyter Verlag \|language\=de \|isbn\=978\-3\-11\-001030\-5 \|pages\=307, 309 \|last1\=Schlochauer \|last3\=Mosler \|last2\=Krüger \|first1\=Hans J. \|first2\=Herbert \|first3\=Hermann \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105610/https://books.google.com/books?id\=EBSE1BF\_w2AC \|url\-status\=live }}
In the aftermath of the [German\-Polish Non\-Aggression Pact](/wiki/German-Polish_Non-Aggression_Pact "German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact") of 1934, Danzig–Polish relations improved and [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler "Adolf Hitler") instructed the local Nazi government to cease anti\-Polish actions.{{cite book \|title\=The Baltic and the Outbreak of the Second World War \|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=4pKEQgAACAAJ \|year\=1992 \|publisher\=Cambridge University Press \|isbn\=978\-0\-521\-40467\-9 \|pages\=74 ff, 80 \|last1\=Hiden \|last3\=Prazmowska \|last2\=Lane \|first1\=John \|first2\=Thomas \|first3\=Anita J. \|author\-link3\=Anita J. Prazmowska \|access\-date\=2020\-10\-25 \|archive\-date\=2023\-03\-30 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105548/https://books.google.com/books?id\=4pKEQgAACAAJ \|url\-status\=live }} In return, Poland did not support the actions of the anti\-Nazi opposition in Danzig. The Polish Ambassador to Germany, [Józef Lipski](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Lipski "Józef Lipski"), stated in a meeting with [Hermann Göring](/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring "Hermann Göring")Prazmowska, p. 80\.
> "... that a National Socialist Senate in Danzig is also most desirable from our point of view, since it brought about a rapprochement between the Free City and Poland, I would like to remind him that we have always kept aloof from internal Danzig problems. In spite of approaches repeatedly made by the opposition parties, we rejected any attempt to draw us into action against the Senate. I mentioned quite confidentially that the Polish minority in Danzig was advised not to join forces with the opposition at the time of elections."
When [Carl J. Burckhardt](/wiki/Carl_Jacob_Burckhardt "Carl Jacob Burckhardt") became High Commissioner in February 1937, both Poles and Germans openly welcomed his withdrawal, and Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs [Józef Beck](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Beck "Józef Beck") notified him not to "count on the support of the Polish State" in the case of difficulties with the Senate or the Nazi Party.Prazmowska, p. 81\.
While the Senate appeared to respect the agreements with Poland, the "Nazification of Danzig proceeded relentlessly"Prazmowska, p. 85\. and Danzig became a springboard for anti\-Polish propaganda among the German and Ukrainian minority in Poland.Prazmowska, p. 83\. The Catholic Bishop of Danzig, [Edward O'Rourke](/wiki/Edward_O%27Rourke "Edward O'Rourke"), was forced to withdraw after he had tried to implement four additional Polish nationals as parish priests in October 1937\.
|
[
"### German\\-Polish tensions",
"The rights of the [Second Polish Republic](/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic \"Second Polish Republic\") within the territory of the Free City were stipulated in the [Treaty of Paris](/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_%281920%29 \"Treaty of Paris (1920)\") of 9 November 1920 and the [Treaty of Warsaw](/wiki/Treaty_of_Warsaw_%281920%29 \"Treaty of Warsaw (1920)\") of 24 October 1921\\.{{cite book \\|title\\=Autonomy, Sovereignty and Self\\-Determination \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=28PEGfCDiZEC \\|date\\=2011 \\|publisher\\=University of Pennsylvania \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-8122\\-1572\\-4 \\|page\\=375 \\|last1\\=Hannum \\|first1\\=Hurst \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105554/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=28PEGfCDiZEC \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The details of the Polish privileges soon became a permanent matter of disputes between the local populace and the Polish State. While the representatives of the Free City tried to uphold the city's autonomy and sovereignty, Poland sought to extend its privileges.{{cite book \\|title\\=The Law and Practice of International Territorial Administration \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=j6e16GCIfiEC \\|date\\=2008 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-87800\\-5 \\|pages\\=173 ff, 177 \\|last1\\=Stahn \\|first1\\=Carsten \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105634/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=j6e16GCIfiEC \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Throughout the [Polish–Soviet War](/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War \"Polish–Soviet War\"), local dockworkers went on strike and refused to unload ammunition supplies for the [Polish Army](/wiki/Polish_Army \"Polish Army\"). While the ammunition was finally unloaded by British troops,{{cite book \\|title\\=The Post\\-War history of the British Working Class \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XV35N74\\_jk8C \\|date\\=2006 \\|publisher\\=Read Bookd \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4067\\-9826\\-5 \\|page\\=38 \\|author\\-link1\\=Allen Hutt \\|last1\\=Hutt \\|first1\\=Allen \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105542/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=XV35N74\\_jk8C \\|url\\-status\\=live }} the incident led to the establishment of a permanent ammunition depot at the [Westerplatte](/wiki/Westerplatte \"Westerplatte\") and the construction of a trade and naval port in [Gdynia](/wiki/Gdynia \"Gdynia\"),{{cite book \\|title\\=Poland – Key to Europe \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-KcfGbrKptoC \\|date\\=2007 \\|publisher\\=Read Books \\|isbn\\=978\\-1\\-4067\\-4564\\-1 \\|page\\=159 \\|last1\\=Buell \\|first1\\=Raymond Leslie \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105556/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-KcfGbrKptoC \\|url\\-status\\=live }} whose total exports and imports surpassed those of Danzig in May 1932\\.Eugene van Cleef, \"Danzig and Gdynia,\" Geographical Review, Vol. 23, No. 1\\. (Jan., 1933\\): 106\\. In December 1925, the Council of the [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations \"League of Nations\") agreed to the establishment of a Polish military guard of 88 men on the [Westerplatte](/wiki/Westerplatte \"Westerplatte\") peninsula to protect the war material depot.Cieślak, E Biernat, C (1995\\) *History of Gdańsk*, Fundacji Biblioteki Gdanskiej. p. 436*By a decision of the League Council in December 1925, the guard which the Poles were entitled to maintain on this spot \\[Westerplatte peninsula] was limited to 88 men, though the number might be increased with the consent of the High Commissioner.* Geoffrey Malcolm Gathorne\\-Hardy. *A Short History of International Affairs, 1920 to 1934*. Royal institute of international affairs (1934\\). [Oxford University Press](/wiki/Oxford_University_Press \"Oxford University Press\"). p. 384\\.",
"During the interwar period the Polish minority was heavily discriminated against by the German population, which openly attacked its members using racist slurs and harassment, and attacks against the Polish consulate by German students were praised by authorities.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.rp.pl/artykul/55392\\-Mit\\-Gdanska\\-\\-mit\\-Grassa.html \\|title\\=Mit Gdańska, mit Grassa \\|website\\=www.rp.pl \\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-01\\-31 \\|archive\\-date\\=2021\\-05\\-09 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509164857/https://www.rp.pl/artykul/55392\\-Mit\\-Gdanska\\-\\-mit\\-Grassa.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In June 1932, a [crisis](/wiki/Danzig_crisis_%281932%29 \"Danzig crisis (1932)\") broke out when the Polish destroyer [ORP *Wicher*](/wiki/ORP_Wicher_%281928%29 \"ORP Wicher (1928)\") was sent into Danzig harbour without the permission of the Senate to greet a visiting squadron of British destroyers.Wandycz, Piotr Stefan *The Twilight of French Eastern Alliances*, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988 p. 237 The crisis was resolved when the Free City granted more access rights to the Polish Navy in exchange for a promise to not take the *Wicher* back into Danzig harbour.",
"Several disputes between Danzig and Poland occurred in the sequel. The Free City protested against the Westerplatte depot, the placement of Polish letter boxes within the City[worldcourts.com](http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1925/1925.05.16_danzig.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20101210072938/http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1925/1925\\.05\\.16\\_danzig.htm \\|date\\=2010\\-12\\-10 }} PCIJ, Advisory Opinion No. 11 and the presence of Polish war vessels at the harbour.[worldcourts.com](http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1931/1931.12.11_danzig.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://archive.today/20130209113525/http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1931/1931\\.12\\.11\\_danzig.htm \\|date\\=2013\\-02\\-09 }} PCIJ, Advisory Opinion No. 22 The attempt of the Free City to join the [International Labour Organization](/wiki/International_Labour_Organization \"International Labour Organization\") was rejected by the [Permanent Court of International Justice](/wiki/Permanent_Court_of_International_Justice \"Permanent Court of International Justice\") at the League of Nations after protests of the Polish ILO delegate.[worldcourts.com](http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1930/1930.08.26_danzig.htm) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://archive.today/20130209135635/http://www.worldcourts.com/pcij/eng/decisions/1930/1930\\.08\\.26\\_danzig.htm \\|date\\=2013\\-02\\-09 }} PCIJ, Advisory Opinion No. 18{{cite book \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KzYGaYaNswkC\\&q\\=International\\+Labour\\+Organization\\+danzig\\&pg\\=PA410 \\|title\\=International Law Reports 1929–1930 \\|access\\-date\\=2009\\-08\\-30 \\|work\\=Advisory Opinion No 18: Free City of Danzig and International Labour Organization on August 26, 1930, Collection of Advisory Opinions: Free City of Danzig and International Labour Organization, No. 18 Series B File F (1930\\) \\|publisher\\=H. Lauterpacht \\|year\\=1936 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-46350\\-8 \\|author1\\=Lauterpacht, H \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105545/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=KzYGaYaNswkC\\&q\\=International\\+Labour\\+Organization\\+danzig\\&pg\\=PA410 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"After Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany, the Polish military doubled the number of 88 troops at Westerplatte in order to test the reaction of the new chancellor. After protests the additional troops were withdrawn.Hargreaves, R (2010\\) Blitzkrieg Unleashed: The German Invasion of Poland, 1939 pp. 31–32 Nazi propaganda used these events in the [Volkstag](/wiki/Volkstag \"Volkstag\") elections of May 1933, in which Nazis won absolute majority.Epstein, C (2012\\) Model Nazi: Arthur Greiser and the Occupation of Western Poland, Oxford University Press p. 58",
"Until June 1933, the High Commissioner decided in 66 cases of dispute between Danzig and Poland; in 54 cases one of the parties appealed to the Permanent Court of International Justice.Hurst Hannum, p. 377\\. Subsequent disputes were resolved in direct negotiations between the Senate and Poland after both had agreed to abstain from further appeals to the International Court in the summer of 1933 and bilateral agreements were concluded.{{cite book \\|title\\=Wörterbuch des Völkerrechts; Aachener Kongress – Hussar Fall \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=EBSE1BF\\_w2AC \\|date\\=1960 \\|publisher\\=de Gruyter Verlag \\|language\\=de \\|isbn\\=978\\-3\\-11\\-001030\\-5 \\|pages\\=307, 309 \\|last1\\=Schlochauer \\|last3\\=Mosler \\|last2\\=Krüger \\|first1\\=Hans J. \\|first2\\=Herbert \\|first3\\=Hermann \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105610/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=EBSE1BF\\_w2AC \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In the aftermath of the [German\\-Polish Non\\-Aggression Pact](/wiki/German-Polish_Non-Aggression_Pact \"German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact\") of 1934, Danzig–Polish relations improved and [Adolf Hitler](/wiki/Adolf_Hitler \"Adolf Hitler\") instructed the local Nazi government to cease anti\\-Polish actions.{{cite book \\|title\\=The Baltic and the Outbreak of the Second World War \\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=4pKEQgAACAAJ \\|year\\=1992 \\|publisher\\=Cambridge University Press \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-521\\-40467\\-9 \\|pages\\=74 ff, 80 \\|last1\\=Hiden \\|last3\\=Prazmowska \\|last2\\=Lane \\|first1\\=John \\|first2\\=Thomas \\|first3\\=Anita J. \\|author\\-link3\\=Anita J. Prazmowska \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-10\\-25 \\|archive\\-date\\=2023\\-03\\-30 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330105548/https://books.google.com/books?id\\=4pKEQgAACAAJ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In return, Poland did not support the actions of the anti\\-Nazi opposition in Danzig. The Polish Ambassador to Germany, [Józef Lipski](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Lipski \"Józef Lipski\"), stated in a meeting with [Hermann Göring](/wiki/Hermann_G%C3%B6ring \"Hermann Göring\")Prazmowska, p. 80\\.",
"> \"... that a National Socialist Senate in Danzig is also most desirable from our point of view, since it brought about a rapprochement between the Free City and Poland, I would like to remind him that we have always kept aloof from internal Danzig problems. In spite of approaches repeatedly made by the opposition parties, we rejected any attempt to draw us into action against the Senate. I mentioned quite confidentially that the Polish minority in Danzig was advised not to join forces with the opposition at the time of elections.\"",
"When [Carl J. Burckhardt](/wiki/Carl_Jacob_Burckhardt \"Carl Jacob Burckhardt\") became High Commissioner in February 1937, both Poles and Germans openly welcomed his withdrawal, and Polish Minister of Foreign Affairs [Józef Beck](/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Beck \"Józef Beck\") notified him not to \"count on the support of the Polish State\" in the case of difficulties with the Senate or the Nazi Party.Prazmowska, p. 81\\.",
"While the Senate appeared to respect the agreements with Poland, the \"Nazification of Danzig proceeded relentlessly\"Prazmowska, p. 85\\. and Danzig became a springboard for anti\\-Polish propaganda among the German and Ukrainian minority in Poland.Prazmowska, p. 83\\. The Catholic Bishop of Danzig, [Edward O'Rourke](/wiki/Edward_O%27Rourke \"Edward O'Rourke\"), was forced to withdraw after he had tried to implement four additional Polish nationals as parish priests in October 1937\\.",
""
] |
Ecology
-------
The harsh condition of glacial streams is not only because glacial streams are often located at high altitude and latitude, but also the consistent contribution of melting snow.{{Cite journal\|last1\=Füreder\|first1\=Leopold\|last2\=Niedrist\|first2\=Georg H.\|date\=2020\|title\=Glacial Stream Ecology: Structural and Functional Assets\|journal\=Water\|language\=en\|volume\=12\|issue\=2\|pages\=376\|doi\=10\.3390/w12020376\|issn\=2073\-4441\|doi\-access\=free}} Thus, low water temperature, variable discharge rates, unstable substrate and riverbed, and increased [turbidity](/wiki/Turbidity "Turbidity") and sediment load are the typical condition of glacial streams.
The growth of [invertebrates](/wiki/Invertebrate "Invertebrate") in glacial streams is faster characterized by higher body mass. The reasons are the low level of [competition](/wiki/Competition_%28biology%29 "Competition (biology)") and the abundant food source due to less organisms surviving. The dominant species is [Diamesinae](/wiki/Diamesinae "Diamesinae") from the [chironomid](/wiki/Chironomidae "Chironomidae") subfamily. Other species able to live in glacial streams include [Orthocladiinae](/wiki/Orthocladiinae "Orthocladiinae"), which is the second dominant species in cold streams, [benthic](/wiki/Benthic_zone "Benthic zone") algae, [periphyton](/wiki/Periphyton "Periphyton"), and the insect family [Chironomidae](/wiki/Chironomidae "Chironomidae").
In the summer, glacial streams experience high stream flow because of ice melt. The high flow is characterized by high turbidity and [sediment transport](/wiki/Sediment_transport "Sediment transport"), which reduces the [biomass](/wiki/Biomass "Biomass") of the resident periphyton. At the end of summer, ice melt is reduced and stream flow decreases, causing an increase in the periphyton population.
Moreover, in similar latitude and altitude glacial stream, the [beta diversity](/wiki/Beta_diversity "Beta diversity") is similar and enhanced compared to non\-glacial reaches.
### Stream types
Alpine streams can be characterized as kyral, krenal, or rhithral, and vary in ecology.{{Cite journal\|last\=Ward\|first\=J.V.\|date\=1994\|title\=Ecology of alpine streams\|url\=http://doi.wiley.com/10\.1111/j.1365\-2427\.1994\.tb01126\.x\|journal\=Freshwater Biology\|language\=en\|volume\=32\|issue\=2\|pages\=277–294\|doi\=10\.1111/j.1365\-2427\.1994\.tb01126\.x\|issn\=0046\-5070}}
#### Kyral
Kyral streams are the upper\-most reach of glacial streams, located above the permanent snowline of glaciers. These streams are fed by glacial meltwater and consist of temperatures below 4°C. Low temperatures control the organisms that are found in this stream section. Generally, there are no organisms within the first few meters below the glacial input; organisms increase in their abundance and diversity downstream. Typical species of kyral streams consist of [diamesine](/wiki/Diamesinae "Diamesinae") [chironomids](/wiki/Chironomidae "Chironomidae") and [simuliids](/wiki/Black_fly "Black fly"). These organisms feed upon algae and allochthonous organic matter. No fish, [angiosperms](/wiki/Flowering_plant "Flowering plant") or [plankton](/wiki/Plankton "Plankton") are found in this segment.
#### Krenal
Krenal streams (also known as springbrooks) can be found at all altitudes and receive their sources from groundwater. This water source provides the stream with a well\-oxygenated environment that has constant flow and stable temperatures, varying only 1\-2°C during the year. These conditions allow for a diverse community of organisms to inhabit the environment. Various types of algae, [moss](/wiki/Moss "Moss") and tundra vegetation can be found here. Some fish, like the [arctic char](/wiki/Arctic_char "Arctic char"), rely on these streams for [spawning](/wiki/Spawn_%28biology%29 "Spawn (biology)") sites in the winter months. At higher elevations, [Chironomidae](/wiki/Chironomidae "Chironomidae"), specifically [Diamesa](/wiki/Diamesa "Diamesa"), are the dominant fauna. At lower elevations, [amphipods](/wiki/Amphipoda "Amphipoda"), [isopods](/wiki/Isopoda "Isopoda") and [molluscs](/wiki/Mollusca "Mollusca") become more dominant.
#### Rhithral
Rhithral stream sources come from snowmelt, causing soft water that is made up predominantly of [sodium](/wiki/Sodium "Sodium") [ions](/wiki/Ion "Ion"). The temperature varies widely, ranging from 5\-10°C. The vegetation found here are mainly [bryophytes](/wiki/Bryophyte "Bryophyte"), and macroalgae, such as [chrysophytes](/wiki/Golden_algae "Golden algae"), [chlorophytes](/wiki/Chlorophyta "Chlorophyta"), [cyanophytes](/wiki/Cyanobacteria "Cyanobacteria") and [rhodophytes](/wiki/Red_algae "Red algae"). For invertebrates, [Plecoptera](/wiki/Plecoptera "Plecoptera"), [Ephemeroptera](/wiki/Mayfly "Mayfly"), [Trichoptera](/wiki/Caddisfly "Caddisfly"), [Diptera](/wiki/Fly "Fly"), [turbellarians](/wiki/Turbellaria "Turbellaria"), [acarines](/wiki/Acari "Acari"), [oligochaetes](/wiki/Oligochaeta "Oligochaeta") and [nematodes](/wiki/Nematode "Nematode") are typically found in these streams. There are a limited number of fish species that inhabit this environment, like [salmonids](/wiki/Salmonidae "Salmonidae"), and sometimes [trout](/wiki/Trout "Trout"), [catfish](/wiki/Catfish "Catfish") or [darters](/wiki/Etheostomatinae "Etheostomatinae").
|
[
"Ecology\n-------",
"The harsh condition of glacial streams is not only because glacial streams are often located at high altitude and latitude, but also the consistent contribution of melting snow.{{Cite journal\\|last1\\=Füreder\\|first1\\=Leopold\\|last2\\=Niedrist\\|first2\\=Georg H.\\|date\\=2020\\|title\\=Glacial Stream Ecology: Structural and Functional Assets\\|journal\\=Water\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=12\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=376\\|doi\\=10\\.3390/w12020376\\|issn\\=2073\\-4441\\|doi\\-access\\=free}} Thus, low water temperature, variable discharge rates, unstable substrate and riverbed, and increased [turbidity](/wiki/Turbidity \"Turbidity\") and sediment load are the typical condition of glacial streams.",
"The growth of [invertebrates](/wiki/Invertebrate \"Invertebrate\") in glacial streams is faster characterized by higher body mass. The reasons are the low level of [competition](/wiki/Competition_%28biology%29 \"Competition (biology)\") and the abundant food source due to less organisms surviving. The dominant species is [Diamesinae](/wiki/Diamesinae \"Diamesinae\") from the [chironomid](/wiki/Chironomidae \"Chironomidae\") subfamily. Other species able to live in glacial streams include [Orthocladiinae](/wiki/Orthocladiinae \"Orthocladiinae\"), which is the second dominant species in cold streams, [benthic](/wiki/Benthic_zone \"Benthic zone\") algae, [periphyton](/wiki/Periphyton \"Periphyton\"), and the insect family [Chironomidae](/wiki/Chironomidae \"Chironomidae\").",
"In the summer, glacial streams experience high stream flow because of ice melt. The high flow is characterized by high turbidity and [sediment transport](/wiki/Sediment_transport \"Sediment transport\"), which reduces the [biomass](/wiki/Biomass \"Biomass\") of the resident periphyton. At the end of summer, ice melt is reduced and stream flow decreases, causing an increase in the periphyton population.",
"Moreover, in similar latitude and altitude glacial stream, the [beta diversity](/wiki/Beta_diversity \"Beta diversity\") is similar and enhanced compared to non\\-glacial reaches.",
"### Stream types",
"Alpine streams can be characterized as kyral, krenal, or rhithral, and vary in ecology.{{Cite journal\\|last\\=Ward\\|first\\=J.V.\\|date\\=1994\\|title\\=Ecology of alpine streams\\|url\\=http://doi.wiley.com/10\\.1111/j.1365\\-2427\\.1994\\.tb01126\\.x\\|journal\\=Freshwater Biology\\|language\\=en\\|volume\\=32\\|issue\\=2\\|pages\\=277–294\\|doi\\=10\\.1111/j.1365\\-2427\\.1994\\.tb01126\\.x\\|issn\\=0046\\-5070}}",
"#### Kyral",
"Kyral streams are the upper\\-most reach of glacial streams, located above the permanent snowline of glaciers. These streams are fed by glacial meltwater and consist of temperatures below 4°C. Low temperatures control the organisms that are found in this stream section. Generally, there are no organisms within the first few meters below the glacial input; organisms increase in their abundance and diversity downstream. Typical species of kyral streams consist of [diamesine](/wiki/Diamesinae \"Diamesinae\") [chironomids](/wiki/Chironomidae \"Chironomidae\") and [simuliids](/wiki/Black_fly \"Black fly\"). These organisms feed upon algae and allochthonous organic matter. No fish, [angiosperms](/wiki/Flowering_plant \"Flowering plant\") or [plankton](/wiki/Plankton \"Plankton\") are found in this segment.",
"#### Krenal",
"Krenal streams (also known as springbrooks) can be found at all altitudes and receive their sources from groundwater. This water source provides the stream with a well\\-oxygenated environment that has constant flow and stable temperatures, varying only 1\\-2°C during the year. These conditions allow for a diverse community of organisms to inhabit the environment. Various types of algae, [moss](/wiki/Moss \"Moss\") and tundra vegetation can be found here. Some fish, like the [arctic char](/wiki/Arctic_char \"Arctic char\"), rely on these streams for [spawning](/wiki/Spawn_%28biology%29 \"Spawn (biology)\") sites in the winter months. At higher elevations, [Chironomidae](/wiki/Chironomidae \"Chironomidae\"), specifically [Diamesa](/wiki/Diamesa \"Diamesa\"), are the dominant fauna. At lower elevations, [amphipods](/wiki/Amphipoda \"Amphipoda\"), [isopods](/wiki/Isopoda \"Isopoda\") and [molluscs](/wiki/Mollusca \"Mollusca\") become more dominant.",
"#### Rhithral",
"Rhithral stream sources come from snowmelt, causing soft water that is made up predominantly of [sodium](/wiki/Sodium \"Sodium\") [ions](/wiki/Ion \"Ion\"). The temperature varies widely, ranging from 5\\-10°C. The vegetation found here are mainly [bryophytes](/wiki/Bryophyte \"Bryophyte\"), and macroalgae, such as [chrysophytes](/wiki/Golden_algae \"Golden algae\"), [chlorophytes](/wiki/Chlorophyta \"Chlorophyta\"), [cyanophytes](/wiki/Cyanobacteria \"Cyanobacteria\") and [rhodophytes](/wiki/Red_algae \"Red algae\"). For invertebrates, [Plecoptera](/wiki/Plecoptera \"Plecoptera\"), [Ephemeroptera](/wiki/Mayfly \"Mayfly\"), [Trichoptera](/wiki/Caddisfly \"Caddisfly\"), [Diptera](/wiki/Fly \"Fly\"), [turbellarians](/wiki/Turbellaria \"Turbellaria\"), [acarines](/wiki/Acari \"Acari\"), [oligochaetes](/wiki/Oligochaeta \"Oligochaeta\") and [nematodes](/wiki/Nematode \"Nematode\") are typically found in these streams. There are a limited number of fish species that inhabit this environment, like [salmonids](/wiki/Salmonidae \"Salmonidae\"), and sometimes [trout](/wiki/Trout \"Trout\"), [catfish](/wiki/Catfish \"Catfish\") or [darters](/wiki/Etheostomatinae \"Etheostomatinae\").",
""
] |
Biography
---------
A singer, guitarist and composer, Eduardo Neves Borges was born in [São Fidélis](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Fid%C3%A9lis "São Fidélis"), in the state of [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro_%28state%29 "Rio de Janeiro (state)"), in 1953\.
On 6 September 1982, his brother Barrerito and the other members of [Trio Parada Dura](/wiki/Trio_Parada_Dura "Trio Parada Dura") suffered a plane crash in the city of [Espírito Santo do Pinhal](/wiki/Esp%C3%ADrito_Santo_do_Pinhal "Espírito Santo do Pinhal"), in the interior of the state of [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_%28state%29 "São Paulo (state)"). The accident left Barrerito [paraplegic](/wiki/Paraplegic "Paraplegic"), and Parrerito provisionally took his brother's place in the trio, while his brother was undergoing treatment.{{Cite web \|url\=https://jardimdoagreste.com.br/barrerito\-e\-o\-acidente\-aereo\-que\-mudou\-a\-musica\-sertaneja/ \|title\=Barrerito e o acidente aéreo que mudou a música sertaneja \|date\=6 September 2018 \|access\-date\=15 September 2020 \|website\=Jardim do Agreste \|language\=pt\-BR \|archive\-date\=21 October 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021184903/https://jardimdoagreste.com.br/barrerito\-e\-o\-acidente\-aereo\-que\-mudou\-a\-musica\-sertaneja/ \|url\-status\=dead }} A few months later, Barrerito returned to Trio Parada Dura and Parrerito left.
In 1986, alongside [Catalão](/wiki/Catal%C3%A3o_%28singer%29 "Catalão (singer)") and [Marcel](/wiki/Marcel_%28Brazilian_singer%29 "Marcel (Brazilian singer)") he formed the [Trio Para Bilhões](/wiki/Trio_Para_Bilh%C3%B5es "Trio Para Bilhões") and changed his stage name to **Roserito**. O Trio Para Bilhões tevehumb vida curta e durou de 1986 até 1988\. With Trio Para Bilhões Parrerito, at the time Roserito, recorded 2 LP's entitled: *Trio Para Bilhões* (1986\) and *Espelho Velho* (1988\).
In 1988, Barrerito decided to leave the Trio Parada Dura and pursue a solo career; after this, Parrerito abandoned the stage name "Roserito" and returned permanently to the Trio Parada Dura; he debuted in the Trio Parada Dura with the recording of LP "Nos Braços do Povo" (1988\).{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.letras.mus.br/trio\-parada\-dura/discografia/ \|title\=Trio Parada Dura {{!}} 33 álbuns da Discografia no LETRAS.MUS.BR \|access\-date\=15 September 2020 \|website\=Letras.mus.br \|language\=pt\-br}}
Parrerito was part of the Trio Parada Dura from 1988 until 2006, when he and {{ill\|Creone\|pt}} left the trio and formed a country [duo](/wiki/Musical_duo "Musical duo") called Os Parada Dura; years later, the duo became a trio again with arrival of [accordion](/wiki/Accordion "Accordion") player [Xonadão](/wiki/Xonad%C3%A3o "Xonadão").
In 2013, Parrerito, Creone and Xonadão went to court and tried to acquire the right to exploit the stage name "Trio Parada Dura", but they did not succeed. Therefore, the stage name "Trio Parada Dura" was registered as owned by accordion player and founder of Trio Parada Dura, {{ill\|Mangabinha\|pt}}.
In 2015, Mangabinha died after suffering a stroke{{Cite web \|last\=MG \|first\=Do G1 \|url\=http://g1\.globo.com/minas\-gerais/noticia/2015/04/fundador\-do\-trio\-parada\-dura\-morre\-em\-belo\-horizonte.html \|title\=Fundador do Trio Parada Dura morre em Belo Horizonte \|date\=23 April 2015 \|access\-date\=15 September 2020 \|website\=Minas Gerais \|language\=pt\-br}} and his family ceded the right to use the stage name "Trio Parada Dura" to Parrerito, Creone and Xonadão.
With the Trio Parada Dura, Parrerito recorded 5 LPs, 4 CDs and 3 DVDs.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"A singer, guitarist and composer, Eduardo Neves Borges was born in [São Fidélis](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Fid%C3%A9lis \"São Fidélis\"), in the state of [Rio de Janeiro](/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro_%28state%29 \"Rio de Janeiro (state)\"), in 1953\\.",
"On 6 September 1982, his brother Barrerito and the other members of [Trio Parada Dura](/wiki/Trio_Parada_Dura \"Trio Parada Dura\") suffered a plane crash in the city of [Espírito Santo do Pinhal](/wiki/Esp%C3%ADrito_Santo_do_Pinhal \"Espírito Santo do Pinhal\"), in the interior of the state of [São Paulo](/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo_%28state%29 \"São Paulo (state)\"). The accident left Barrerito [paraplegic](/wiki/Paraplegic \"Paraplegic\"), and Parrerito provisionally took his brother's place in the trio, while his brother was undergoing treatment.{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://jardimdoagreste.com.br/barrerito\\-e\\-o\\-acidente\\-aereo\\-que\\-mudou\\-a\\-musica\\-sertaneja/ \\|title\\=Barrerito e o acidente aéreo que mudou a música sertaneja \\|date\\=6 September 2018 \\|access\\-date\\=15 September 2020 \\|website\\=Jardim do Agreste \\|language\\=pt\\-BR \\|archive\\-date\\=21 October 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021184903/https://jardimdoagreste.com.br/barrerito\\-e\\-o\\-acidente\\-aereo\\-que\\-mudou\\-a\\-musica\\-sertaneja/ \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} A few months later, Barrerito returned to Trio Parada Dura and Parrerito left.",
"In 1986, alongside [Catalão](/wiki/Catal%C3%A3o_%28singer%29 \"Catalão (singer)\") and [Marcel](/wiki/Marcel_%28Brazilian_singer%29 \"Marcel (Brazilian singer)\") he formed the [Trio Para Bilhões](/wiki/Trio_Para_Bilh%C3%B5es \"Trio Para Bilhões\") and changed his stage name to **Roserito**. O Trio Para Bilhões tevehumb vida curta e durou de 1986 até 1988\\. With Trio Para Bilhões Parrerito, at the time Roserito, recorded 2 LP's entitled: *Trio Para Bilhões* (1986\\) and *Espelho Velho* (1988\\).",
"In 1988, Barrerito decided to leave the Trio Parada Dura and pursue a solo career; after this, Parrerito abandoned the stage name \"Roserito\" and returned permanently to the Trio Parada Dura; he debuted in the Trio Parada Dura with the recording of LP \"Nos Braços do Povo\" (1988\\).{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.letras.mus.br/trio\\-parada\\-dura/discografia/ \\|title\\=Trio Parada Dura {{!}} 33 álbuns da Discografia no LETRAS.MUS.BR \\|access\\-date\\=15 September 2020 \\|website\\=Letras.mus.br \\|language\\=pt\\-br}}",
"Parrerito was part of the Trio Parada Dura from 1988 until 2006, when he and {{ill\\|Creone\\|pt}} left the trio and formed a country [duo](/wiki/Musical_duo \"Musical duo\") called Os Parada Dura; years later, the duo became a trio again with arrival of [accordion](/wiki/Accordion \"Accordion\") player [Xonadão](/wiki/Xonad%C3%A3o \"Xonadão\").",
"In 2013, Parrerito, Creone and Xonadão went to court and tried to acquire the right to exploit the stage name \"Trio Parada Dura\", but they did not succeed. Therefore, the stage name \"Trio Parada Dura\" was registered as owned by accordion player and founder of Trio Parada Dura, {{ill\\|Mangabinha\\|pt}}.",
"In 2015, Mangabinha died after suffering a stroke{{Cite web \\|last\\=MG \\|first\\=Do G1 \\|url\\=http://g1\\.globo.com/minas\\-gerais/noticia/2015/04/fundador\\-do\\-trio\\-parada\\-dura\\-morre\\-em\\-belo\\-horizonte.html \\|title\\=Fundador do Trio Parada Dura morre em Belo Horizonte \\|date\\=23 April 2015 \\|access\\-date\\=15 September 2020 \\|website\\=Minas Gerais \\|language\\=pt\\-br}} and his family ceded the right to use the stage name \"Trio Parada Dura\" to Parrerito, Creone and Xonadão.",
"With the Trio Parada Dura, Parrerito recorded 5 LPs, 4 CDs and 3 DVDs.",
""
] |
History
-------
### Byzantine period
During the [Byzantine period](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire "Byzantine Empire") in [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29 "Palestine (region)") (c. 4th–early 7th centuries), a church dedicated to St Mamilla was established on the same site and it appears to have been used for burials at this time as well. A rather biased account of the aftermath of the [Persian](/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628 "Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628") [capture of Jerusalem in 614](/wiki/Sasanian_conquest_of_Jerusalem "Sasanian conquest of Jerusalem") by [Strategius](/wiki/Strategius "Strategius"), a monk of [Mar Saba](/wiki/Mar_Saba "Mar Saba"), says that the bodies of thousands of Christians killed as a result of the [Persian](/wiki/Sassanid_Empire "Sassanid Empire") siege – 4,518 according to Gregorian translations of the lost Greek original, and 24,518 according to Arabic translations of the same – were found in the Mamilla Pool and buried in caves in and around it.{{cite book\|page\=167\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=GQup\_FGN7qsC\&q\=mamilla\&pg\=PA167\|title\=Witnesses to a World Crisis: Historians and Histories of the Middle East in the Seventh Century\|author\=James Howard\-Johnston\|edition\=Illustrated\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|year\=2010\|isbn\=9780199208593}}
### Early Islamic period
Islamic rule over [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem "Jerusalem") began in 638 under the [Rashidun Caliphate](/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate "Rashidun Caliphate") and persisted for some 1,400 years, interrupted only by the periods of Crusader rule between 1099 and 1187 and between 1229 and 1244\. Throughout much of this period, Mamilla cemetery was the largest Islamic cemetery in the city, containing the remains of [emirs](/wiki/Emir "Emir"), [muftis](/wiki/Mufti "Mufti"), Arab and [Sufi](/wiki/Sufi "Sufi") mystics, soldiers of [Saladin](/wiki/Saladin "Saladin") and numerous Jerusalem notables.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.conflictincities.org/PDFs/WorkingPaper12\_10\.11\.09\.pdf\|title\=Political Islam in Contested Jerusalem: The Emerging Role of Islamists from within Israel\|author1\=Mick Dumper \|author2\=Craig Larkin \|name\-list\-style\=amp \|publisher\=Conflict in Cities\|year\=2009}} The cemetery is said to be the burial site of several of the first Muslims, the [Sahabah](/wiki/Sahabah "Sahabah"), companions or disciples of Muhammad, the prophet of Islam.{{Cite book\|chapter\-url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=\-2VOAAAAYAAJ\|page\=67\|title\=Ottoman Jerusalem: the living city, 1517–1917, Part 1\| author\=Abdul\-Karim Rafeq\|chapter\=Ottoman Jerusalem in the writings of Arab travellers\|editor\=Sylvia Auld, Robert Hillenbrand\|publisher\=Published on behalf of the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem in co\-operation with the Administration of Auqaf and Islamic Affairs, Jerusalem, by Altajir World of Islam Trust\|year\=2000\|isbn\=9781901435030}} In 1945, *[The Palestine Post](/wiki/The_Palestine_Post "The Palestine Post")* said it covered an area of over 450 dunams (111 acres), while *[Haaretz](/wiki/Haaretz "Haaretz")* in 2010 said that at its peak, it covered an area of 200 dunams (some 50 acres).{{cite news\|url\=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/2\.278/museum\-of\-tolerance\-special\-report\-part\-i\-holes\-holiness\-and\-hollywood\-1\.290924\|title\=Museum of Tolerance Special Report / Part I: Holes, Holiness and Hollywood\|author\=Nir Hasson\|date\=18 May 2010\|access\-date\=17 July 2011\|newspaper\=Ha'aretz}} A 1938 deed issued by the British mandatory authorities to the Islamic waqf outlined the size of the plot as 134\.5 dunams (33 acres).{{cite web\|url\=http://www.ipcri.org/files/khalidi.html\|title\=Mamilla and the Museum of Intolerance\|date\=January 2009\|author\=Asem Khalidi\|publisher\=Israel Palestine Crnter for Research and Information (IPCRI)\|access\-date\=27 November 2011\|archive\-url\=https://archive.today/20130415050603/http://www.ipcri.org/files/khalidi.html\|archive\-date\=15 April 2013\|url\-status\=dead}}
Religious warriors or [mujahideen](/wiki/Mujahideen "Mujahideen") who died in the battles for control over Jerusalem with the Byzantines in 636 and the Crusaders in 1137 were buried in the cemetery,{{cite book\|title\=Golden Jerusalem\|author\=Menashe Har\-El\|edition\=Illustrated\|publisher\=Gefen Publishing House Ltd\|year\=2004\|isbn\= 9789652292544\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=9Z2cFY9iGqgC\&pg\=PA126}} including, according to tradition, some 70,000 soldiers of Saladin. The Church of St Mamilla was still standing in the 9th century when Palestine was under the rule of the [Abbasid Empire](/wiki/Abbasids "Abbasids"); it is listed in the *Commemoratorium De Casis Dei* (c. 808\) as one of the properties for which the Jerusalem Patriarch paid the Arabs taxes,Gil, pp. 153, 442\. and is described by [Bernard the Monk](/wiki/Bernard_the_Monk "Bernard the Monk") as lying about a mile west of Jerusalem (c. 870\).{{cite book\|page\=90\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=bRxr0TADiyEC\&pg\=PA202\|title\=East and West in the crusader states: context, contacts, confrontations : acta of the congress held at Hernen Castle in May 1993\|author1\=Krijna Nelly Ciggaar \|author2\=Adelbert Davids \|author3\=Herman G. B. Teule \|author4\=A.A. Brediusstichting \|edition\=Illustrated\|publisher\=Peeters Publishers\|year\=1996\|isbn\=9789068317923}}
The cemetery is mentioned by Arab and Persian authors under its various names throughout the ages (see [above](/wiki/Mamilla_Cemetery%23Name "Mamilla Cemetery#Name")). In 1020, al\-Wasiti writes that the Muslim cemetery situated in *zaytun al\-milla* and outlines the advantages of being buried in Jerusalem. [Ibn al\-Adim](/wiki/Ibn_al-Adim "Ibn al-Adim"), the Syrian historian, recounts visiting the cemetery several times, and on one visit in 1239–40 recalls going to the graves of Rabi' al\-Mardini (d. 1205–1206\), a shaykh from Mardin renowned for performing miracles, and al\-'Iwaqi (d. 1232\), a pious Sufi who lived in the compound of al\-Aqsa mosque.{{cite book\|title\=An Ayyubid notable and his world: Ibn al\-ʻAdīm and Aleppo as portrayed in his biographical dictionary of people associated with the city\|author\=D. W. Morray\|publisher\=BRILL\|year\=1994\|isbn\= 9789004099562\|pages\=75, 101, 104}} Al\-Adim describes the grave of the former as housed in a prominent mausoleum with other pious individuals.
### Crusader/Ayyubid period
During [Crusader rule](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem "Kingdom of Jerusalem") over Jerusalem, the cemetery appears to have once again served as a burial place for Christians. [Charles Simon Clermont\-Ganneau](/wiki/Charles_Simon_Clermont-Ganneau "Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau"), the French archaeologist, described and sketched several Frankish sarcophagi that were in the cemetery in the 19th century, most of which were destroyed in 1955 (see [below](/wiki/Mamilla_Cemetery%23Israeli_period "Mamilla Cemetery#Israeli period")).
Al\-Quraishi, a famous Sufi mystic said to have had miraculous healing powers, immigrated to Jerusalem from [Andulasia](/wiki/Andulasia "Andulasia") by way of [Fustat](/wiki/Fustat "Fustat") and garnered a school of disciples in his new home that numbered some 600 people before his death and burial in 1194\.
### Mamluk period
[225px\|right\|thumb\|Tomb of Mamluk emir Aidughdi Kubaki](/wiki/File:Jerusalem_Mamilla_cemetery_mausoleum_north.jpg "Jerusalem Mamilla cemetery mausoleum north.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|225px\|Sketch of the *Kebekiyeh* where emir Aidughdi Kubaki was interred in 1289](/wiki/File:Bkmamila3.jpg "Bkmamila3.jpg")
During the period of [Mamluk](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_%28Cairo%29 "Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)") rule (c. 12th–15th centuries), most of the area's notable citizens were buried in Mamilla.{{Cite journal\|title\=Mamlūk Epitaphs from Māmillā Cemetery\|author\=Da'ādli, Tawfiq\|journal\=Levant\|volume\=43\|issue\=1\|date\=Spring 2011\|pages\=78–97\|publisher\=Maney Publishing\|doi\=10\.1179/007589111X12966443320891\|s2cid\=162297451}} A structure known as *al\-Kebekiyeh* (or *Zawiya Kubakiyya*), a one\-room square\-shaped building covered with a dome and incorporating architectural materials from the Crusader era was built during this period. It is identified as the tomb of [emir](/wiki/Emir "Emir") Aidughdi Kubaki, a Syrian slave who rose to prominence as the governor of [Safed](/wiki/Safed "Safed") and [Aleppo](/wiki/Aleppo "Aleppo"), before his death in 1289\.{{Cite book\|page\=146\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=GhPlUt1kz\-wC\&q\=mamilla\+park\&pg\=PA146\|title\=The Holy Land: an Oxford archaeological guide : from earliest times to 1700\|author\=Jerome Murphy\-O'Connor\|edition\=4th, illustrated\|publisher\=Oxford University Press\|year\=1998\|isbn\=9780192880130}}
In the 14th century work *A'lam*, a collection of traditions on the value of prayer in Jerusalem, [al\-Zarkashi](/wiki/Al-Zarkashi "Al-Zarkashi") says those buried in the city will avoid *fitnat al qabr* or "purgatory of the tomb," and for those buried in *zaytun al\-milla* itself, it would be as if they were buried in heaven.
Ibn Arslan, who was buried alongside Al\-Quraishi (d. 1194\) some two and a half centuries after the Ayyubid\-period Sufi master, was a charismatic Sufi [shaykh](/wiki/Shaykh "Shaykh") whom Muslims from surrounding countries came to visit.
[Mujir al\-Din al\-'Ulaymi](/wiki/Mujir_al-Din_al-%27Ulaymi "Mujir al-Din al-'Ulaymi") in *al\-Uns al\-Jalil* (c. 1496\) says, "Who ever invokes God's name while standing between the graves of Ibn Arslān and al\-Quraishī \[in Māmilā cemetery], God will grant all his wishes."{{cite book\|title\=Spiritual wayfarers, leaders in piety: Sufis and the dissemination of Islam in medieval Palestine\|author\=Daphna Ephrat\|pages\=129, 141–142\|edition\=Illustrated\|publisher\=Harvard CMES\|year\=2008\|isbn\=9780674032019}}
Other notables buried in Mamilla and recalled by Mujir al\-Din include two founders of [zawiyas](/wiki/Zawiya_%28institution%29 "Zawiya (institution)") in Jerusalem – Nasr ed\-din Mohammad, one of the "ten emirs of Gaza", and Shaykh 'Omar, a Moroccan of the Masmoudys, El Modjarrad tribe. Also named are several emirs, including Ruq ed\-din Mankouros, the imperial lieutenant of the Jerusalem Citadel (d. AH 717\), Abu el\-Qasim, the governor of Nablus and custodian of Jerusalem and Hebron (d. AH 760\), and Nasser ed\-din Mohammad, custodian of the two Haram al\-Sharifs (Holy Mosques) of al\-Aqsa in Jerusalem and [al\-Ibrahimi](/wiki/Al-Ibrahimi_Mosque "Al-Ibrahimi Mosque") in Hebron (d. AH 828\), among others.{{cite book\|url\=https://archive.org/details/histoiredejrus00ulayuoft\|title\=Histoire de Jérusalem et d'Hébron depuis Abraham jusqu'à la fin du XVe siècle de J.\-C. : fragments de la Chronique de Moudjir\-ed\-dyn\|year\=1876\|author\=Moudjir ed\-dyn\|editor\=Sauvaire\|pages\=\[https://archive.org/details/histoiredejrus00ulayuoft/page/102 102], 164, 198–200, 265, 267, 269\|publisher\=Paris : Leroux}}
### Ottoman period
[thumb\|Pool and cemetery of Mamilla, 1864\.](/wiki/File:Edmund_Walker._Pool_of_Mamillah._1864.jpg "Edmund Walker. Pool of Mamillah. 1864.jpg")
During the period of [Ottoman imperial](/wiki/Ottoman_empire "Ottoman empire") rule from the early 16th to early 20th centuries, the cemetery continued to serve as a burial site, and in 1847, it was demarcated by a {{convert\|2\|m\|ft\|adj\=mid\|\-high\|sp\=us}} fence. By the 1860s, the borders of the cemetery were delineated from the by then encroaching urban development by a wall and surrounding road.{{sfn\|Makdisi\|2010\|p\=521}}
### Mandatory Palestine period
[thumb\|Ashbee 1921 Zonning plan for Jerusalem. Mamilla Cemetery with its pool is shown directly west of the west corner of the old city.](/wiki/File:Jerusalem_zoning_system_-_Charles_Robert_Ashbee_1922.png "Jerusalem zoning system - Charles Robert Ashbee 1922.png")
[thumb\|The "Mamillah" district of Jerusalem in 1946, including the "Mamillah Cemetery (Moslem)" and the "Mamillah Pool".](/wiki/File:MamillaDistrict1946.jpg "MamillaDistrict1946.jpg")
Burials in the cemetery ceased early in the period of British rule over [Mandate Palestine](/wiki/Mandate_Palestine "Mandate Palestine") (1918–1948\), following the 1927 decision by the Supreme Muslim Council, who oversaw the administration of [waqf](/wiki/Waqf "Waqf") properties, to preserve it as a historic site. By this decision, the cemetery, its tombs, and its grounds were maintained.
In 1929, [Mohammad Amin al\-Husayni](/wiki/Mohammad_Amin_al-Husayni "Mohammad Amin al-Husayni"), the Mufti of Jerusalem, decided to build the Palace Hotel on what was assumed to be outside the border of the cemetery. While the foundations were being laid, Arab workers uncovered Muslim graves. Baruch Katinka, a Jewish contractor hired to oversee the project, wrote in his memoirs that when the Mufti was informed of the discovery, he said to quietly rebury the bones elsewhere, as he feared [Raghib al\-Nashashibi](/wiki/Raghib_al-Nashashibi "Raghib al-Nashashibi"), his political rival and the mayor of Jerusalem, would issue a cease work order. As Shari'a law permits the transfer of graves in special cases with the approval of a qadi (Muslim judge), Husayni, acting as head of the Supreme Muslim Council, the highest body in charge of Muslim community affairs in [Mandate Palestine](/wiki/Mandate_Palestine "Mandate Palestine"), authorized the disinterment. When it was discovered what had happened, rival factions filed a suit against Husayni in the Muslim courts, arguing that he had desecrated ancient graves.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.jpost.com/local\-israel/in\-jerusalem/grand\-hotel\|title\=Grand hotel\|website\=The Jerusalem Post \| JPost.com}}{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.jpost.com/israel\-guide/jerusalem\-area\-tours/a\-guide\-to\-buildings\-in\-jerusalem\-166754\|title\=A guide to buildings in Jerusalem\|website\=The Jerusalem Post \| JPost.com}}
The Islamic waqf continued to control the cemetery and in 1944, the cemetery was designated an antiquities site by the British mandatory authorities.{{cite magazine\|url\=http://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/2052/human\-dignity\-in\-jerusalem\|title\=Human Dignity in Jerusalem\|author\=Rashid Khalidi\|magazine\=\[\[Jadaliyya]]\|date\=5 July 2011\|author\-link\=Rashid Khalidi}}
A November 1945 article in *[The Palestine Post](/wiki/The_Palestine_Post "The Palestine Post")* reported on plans of the Supreme Muslim Council (SMC) and the Government Town Planning Adviser to build a commercial center on cemetery grounds and to transfer remains buried in the areas to be developed to a "40 dunams walled reserve" centered around the tomb of al Sayid al Kurashi, ancestor of the Dajani family.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.jewishjournal.com/israel/article/mamilla\_cemetery\_chutzpah\_and\_the\_museum\_of\_tolerance\_20100219/\|date\=19 February 2010\|title\=Mamilla Cemetery Chutzpah and the Museum of Tolerance\|author\=Rabbi Marvin Hier\|access\-date\=18 July 2011}} A member of the SMC told the newspaper that, "the use of Muslim cemeteries in the public interest had many precedents both in Palestine and elsewhere." The SMC's plan, however, was never implemented.
### Israel
[thumb\|Mamilla graveyard 1948](/wiki/File:Mamilla_graveyard.jpg "Mamilla graveyard.jpg")
At the time of Israel's assertion of control over West Jerusalem in 1948, the cemetery, which contained thousands of grave markers, came under the administration of the Israeli [Custodian of Absentee Property](/wiki/Custodian_of_Absentee_Property "Custodian of Absentee Property") and the Muslim Affairs Department of Israel's [Ministry of Religious Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_Religious_Services "Ministry of Religious Services").{{cite book\|title\=Debating Islam in the Jewish state: the development of policy toward Islamic institutions in Israel\|author\=Alisa Rubin Peled\|edition\=Illustrated\|publisher\=SUNY Press\|year\=2001\|isbn\= 9780791450789\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=SRAs5BgF70AC\&q\=mamilla\+cemetery\&pg\=PA91\|pages\=87–91}} After the armistice, Israeli authorities destroyed the part of the cemetery closest to the armistice line.The Meeting of Civilizations: Muslim, Christian, and Jewish edited by Moshe Ma'oz p. 103 Since 1948, the site has been progressively built over with carparks, and partly developed into [Independence Park](/wiki/Independence_Park_%28Jerusalem%29 "Independence Park (Jerusalem)").{{cite journal \|last\=Busbridge \|first\=R. \|date\=2014 \|title\=Frontier Jerusalem: Blurred separation and uneasy coexistence in a divided city. \|journal\=Thesis Eleven \|volume\=121 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=76–100 \|doi\=10\.1177/0725513614526156\|s2cid\=145465276 }}
By the end of the [1967 war](/wiki/Six-Day_War "Six-Day War") that resulted in the Israeli occupation of [East Jerusalem](/wiki/East_Jerusalem "East Jerusalem"), only a handful of broken grave markers remained standing. A large part of the cemetery was bulldozed and converted into a parking lot in 1964 and a public lavatory was also built on the cemetery grounds.{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=LQcOAAAAQAAJ\&q\=parking\+lot\+mamillah\&pg\=PA256\|title\=The Palestine question\|author\=Henry Cattan\|edition\=Illustrated\|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis\|year\=1988\|isbn\= 9780709948605\|page\=256}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=A7tVAAAAYAAJ\&q\=parking\+lot\+mamillah\|title\=Journal of Palestine studies, Volume 7, Issues 25\-28\|publisher\=Institute for Palestine Studies and Kuwait University\|year\=1978\|page\=194}}
In the 1950s, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, sensitive to how the treatment of waqf properties would be viewed internationally, criticized government policy towards the cemetery. A ministry representative described the vandalism to tombstones, including their use by the guard appointed by the Religious Ministry to build a henhouse beside his shelter in the cemetery, and the destruction of ancient tombs by bulldozers cleaning the Mamilla Pool. Noting the site constituted waqf property and lay within sight of the American Consulate, the ministry said it viewed the situation, which included plans for new roads and the parceling out of portions to private landowners as compensation for other properties confiscated by the state, with deep regret.
Israeli authorities bulldozed several tombs in the cemetery, including some of those identified as Frankish by Clermont\-Ganneau, to establish Mamilla Park (or [Independence Park](/wiki/Independence_Park_%28Jerusalem%29 "Independence Park (Jerusalem)")) in 1955\.{{Cite book\|title\=Crusader archaeology: the material culture of the Latin East\|author\=Adrian J. Boas\|edition\=Illustrated\|publisher\=Routledge\|year\=1999\|isbn\= 9780415173612\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=a4ROJ\_y85qwC\&q\=mamilla\+1955\+cemetery\&pg\=RA1\-PA228\|page\=288}} Two of the largest and finest tombs survived, though the lid of one was overturned when it moved from its original spot. The other is the Mamluk era funerary chapel known as *al\-Kebekiyeh* (or *Zawiya Kubakiyya*), now located in the eastern end of Independence Park.
Besides Independence Park, other parts of downtown Jerusalem erected on the cemetery grounds include the Experimental School, Agron Street, [Beit Agron](/wiki/Agron_House "Agron House"), and Kikar Hahatulot (Cats' Square), among others. Government buildings on the cemetery grounds include the main headquarters of the Israeli Ministry of Trade and Industry, and the Customs Department building, which is said to be located on what was once the site of the chapel dedicated to St. Mamilla.{{cite book\|title\=Ancient churches revealed\|author\=Yoram Tsafrir\|edition\=Illustrated\|publisher\=Israel Exploration Society\|year\=1993\|isbn\= 9789652210166\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=3mltAAAAMAAJ\&q\=chapel\+mamilla}}
[thumb\|right\|Grave of [Ahmad Agha Duzdar](/wiki/Ahmad_Agha_Duzdar "Ahmad Agha Duzdar"), Ottoman governor of Jerusalem (1838\-1863\), in the southern section of the Mamilla Cemetery. The headstone was refurbished by the Turkish government in consultation with the Waqf in 2005\.](/wiki/File:AhmadAghaDuzdar.jpg "AhmadAghaDuzdar.jpg")
In 1992, the Custodian of Absentee Property sold the cemetery grounds to the Jerusalem Municipality, a sale the Mufti of Jerusalem, Ikrema Sabri, said they had no right to make. The Israeli Electricity Company destroyed more tombs on 15 January 2005 in order to lay some cables.
#### Museum of Tolerance controversy
{{main\|Museum of Tolerance Jerusalem\#Controversy}}
In 2004, the [Simon Wiesenthal Center](/wiki/Simon_Wiesenthal_Center "Simon Wiesenthal Center") (SWC) revealed plans to build a [Center for Human Dignity](/wiki/Center_for_Human_Dignity "Center for Human Dignity") as part of its [Museum of Tolerance Jerusalem](/wiki/Museum_of_Tolerance_Jerusalem "Museum of Tolerance Jerusalem") with a target date for completion in 2009\.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle\-east/israel\-plans\-to\-build\-museum\-of\-tolerance\-on\-muslim\-graves\-466028\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619154809/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle\-east/israel\-plans\-to\-build\-museum\-of\-tolerance\-on\-muslim\-graves\-466028\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=19 June 2008 \|title\=Israel plans to build 'museum of tolerance' on Muslim graves \|date\= 9 February 2006\|author \=Donald Macintyre \|work\=\[\[The Independent]] \|access\-date\=16 July 2011}}{{Cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle\_east/4721336\.stm\|title\=Row over Israeli tolerance museum\|date\=17 February 2006\|via\=news.bbc.co.uk}} [Frank Gehry](/wiki/Frank_Gehry "Frank Gehry") was appointed the architect, and the Jerusalem Municipality offered the SWC a 3\.5\-acre plot in the northern section of the original Mamilla cemetery where the parking lot was built in 1964\. Marvin Hier, head of the SWC, said his association was unaware that the site was located on a cemetery and was told by the municipality that the land was owned by the [Israel Lands Administration](/wiki/Israel_Lands_Administration "Israel Lands Administration") before it was given to the SWC for the project.{{cite news\|title\=Museum of Tolerance Special Report / An exhibition of Zionism\|url\=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/2\.278/museum\-of\-tolerance\-special\-report\-an\-exhibition\-of\-zionism\-1\.290968\|newspaper\=Ha'aretz\|author\=Natasha Mozgovaya\|date\=18 May 2010\|access\-date\=18 July 2011}}
During excavations to prepare the ground for construction in 2005–2006, skeletons were found and removed. The Islamic Court, a division of Israel's justice system, issued a temporary ban on work, but work continued anyway. The Al Aqsa Association of the [Islamic Movement](/wiki/Islamic_Movement_in_Israel "Islamic Movement in Israel") moved to bring the case before Israel's Supreme Court.
The SWC's plan also elicited considerable outcry from some Israeli academics and archaeologists, and work was stayed several times by the courts. After the Supreme Court rejected the Islamic Movement's petition in October 2008, work resumed. Between November 2008 and April 2009, crews of 40 to 70 people per shift worked in 8\-hour stints, 24\-hours a day to remove an estimated 1,000 skeletons from the site slated for construction.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/magazine/museum\-of\-tolerance\-special\-report\-part\-ii\-secrets\-from\-the\-grave\-1\.290941\|title\=Museum of Tolerance Special Report / Part II: Secrets from the grave\|date\=18 May 2011\|access\-date\=17 July 2011\|newspaper\=Ha'aretz\|author\=Nir Hasson}}
In 2010, [Marvin Hier](/wiki/Marvin_Hier "Marvin Hier"), rabbi and founder and dean of the SWC, said "Our opponents would have you believe our bulldozers are preparing to desecrate ancient Muslim tombstones and historic markers. Let me be clear: The Museum of Tolerance is not being built on the Mamilla Cemetery, but on an adjacent 3\-acre site where, for a half\-century, hundreds of people of all faiths have parked in a three\-level underground structure without any protest."{{Cite news\|title\=Hypocrisy and lies fuel enemies of a Jerusalem museum \|author\=Rabbin Marvin Hier \|newspaper\=New York Daily News \|date\=19 February 2010 \|url\=http://www.nydailynews.com/opinions/2010/02/19/2010\-02\-19\_hypocrisy\_and\_lies\_fuel\_enemies\_of\_a\_jerusalem\_museum.html }} Hier also accused opponents of the SWC's building plans of "sheer hypocrisy,"{{Cite news\|title\=Muslims planned Mamilla project in '45 \|author\=Abe Selig \|newspaper\=The Jerusalem Post \|date\=17 February 2010 \|url\=http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id\=168899}} noting that the plans of the Supreme Muslim Council to build a commercial center in 1945 was evidence that substantiated the Supreme Court's ruling, "That the Mamilla Cemetery was regarded by many Muslim religious leaders as 'mundras,' or abandoned and without sanctity."
[Rashid Khalidi](/wiki/Rashid_Khalidi "Rashid Khalidi"), a professor of Arab studies at [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University "Columbia University"), said that, "contrary to what Rabbi Hier said, that parking lot was built over a cemetery, part of it. And so, the Israeli authorities are basically pushing ahead with the desecration of a cemetery that they have been, unfortunately, slowly nibbling away at for over three decades. We and other families are taking action as a group of families to try and stop this, after other families failed in the Israeli Supreme Court." He also said that "What they have now done is to dig down and disinter four layers, according to the chief archaeologist for the Israeli Archaeological Authority, four layers of graves. There are more probably beneath those, according to his report, which was suppressed in the submissions to the Israeli Supreme Court."{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.democracynow.org/2010/2/10/palestinian\_families\_appeal\_to\_un\_over \|title\=Palestinian families appeal to un \|date\= 10 February 2010\|author \=Democracy Now \|access\-date\=14 July 2011}}
Gehry resigned from the project in January 2010\.{{cite news\|title\=Frank Gehry steps down from Museum of Tolerance project\|date\=15 January 2010\|access\-date\=18 July 2011\|author\=Akiva Eldar\|newspaper\=Ha'aretz\|url\=http://www.haaretz.com/print\-edition/news/frank\-gehry\-steps\-down\-from\-museum\-of\-tolerance\-project\-1\.261496}} A new design for the museum drafted by Chyutin Architects was approved by the city of Jerusalem in June 2011, receiving an official building permit from the Interior Ministry in July 2011\.{{cite web\|title\=Irony Be Damned, Israel Will Build Its Museum of Tolerance Atop a Muslim Graveyard\|url\=http://www.artinfo.com/news/story/38107/irony\-be\-damned\-israel\-will\-build\-its\-museum\-of\-tolerance\-atop\-a\-palestinian\-graveyard/\|publisher\=ARTINFO\|date\=14 July 2011\|access\-date\=18 July 2011}}
In October 2011, eighty\-four archaeologists called on the Simon Wiesenthal Center, the Jerusalem municipality and the Israel Antiquities Authority to end construction of the Museum of Tolerance. In a letter sent to the three bodies, the archaeologists argued that the establishment of the museum on the site of the Mamilla Muslim cemetery contradicted ethical standards in the archaeological world, as well as Israeli law. "The bulldozing of historic cemeteries is the ultimate act of territorial aggrandizement: the erasure of prior residents," said Professor [Harvey Weiss](/wiki/Harvey_Weiss "Harvey Weiss") of Yale University, adding that "Desecration of Jerusalem's Mamilla cemetery is a continuing cultural and historical tragedy." The Simon Wiesenthal Center responded that "the arguments in the letter are old, of a mistaken nature and contain factual errors."{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.haaretz.com/culture/arts\-leisure/grave\-concerns\-1\.391852 \|title\= Grave concerns International archaeologists are calling for work to stop at the Museum of Tolerance \|date\= 25 October 2011 \|author \= Noam Dvir \|access\-date\=30 July 2011}}
#### Other developments
Plans to build new buildings to house the Jerusalem Magistrate's Court and the Jerusalem District Court on the cemetery grounds were cancelled by Supreme Court President Dorit Beinisch in January 2010\. The decision followed the discovery of human remains at the site, supporting critics' claims that construction in the area was offensive to Muslims.
On 9 August 2010, 300 Muslim gravestones in the cemetery were bulldozed by the [Israel Lands Administration](/wiki/Israel_Lands_Administration "Israel Lands Administration") (ILA) in an area US Jewish human rights activists said was very close to the planned site for the Museum of Tolerance. A reporter from [Agence France Presse](/wiki/Agence_France_Presse "Agence France Presse") witnessed the destruction of 200 graves until the work was briefly suspended while the court heard a stop work petition it rejected, allowing demolitions to continue that same day. The judge later issued an order prohibiting harm to ancient graves and mandating that the ILA coordinate work with the [Israel Antiquities Authority](/wiki/Israel_Antiquities_Authority "Israel Antiquities Authority") and representatives of the Islamic Movement.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.haaretz.com/print\-edition/features/even\-the\-dead\-and\-buried\-enter\-the\-conflict\-1\.308076\|author\=Nir Hasson\|date\=15 August 2010\|title\=Even the dead and buried enter the conflict\|newspaper\=Haaretz}}
The Jerusalem city council issued its first official response in a written statement on 12 August, saying that, "The municipality and the (Israel Lands) Authority destroyed around 300 dummy gravestones which were set up illegally in Independence Park on public land." It said these "fake" gravestones were not erected over any human remains and were placed in the park in an effort to "illegally take over state land."
Mahmud Abu Atta, a spokesman for the Al\-Aqsa Foundation, denied the city council's claim that new tombs were added illegally. He said that between 500 and 600 tombs had been renovated in total "with the municipality's agreement," that "some of the tombs had to be totally rebuilt," but that "all the tombs that we built or renovated contain bodies."["Destroyed Muslim graves in Jerusalem were 'fake': Israel,"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100815071759/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gtT5BQ6NyRWT1w36pkmHcQAEf6DQ) Hazel Ward, 12 August 2010, (AFP).
Twenty graves were completely destroyed or had their tombstones removed by vandals in January 2011\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.arct.cam.ac.uk/conflictincities/PDFs/Jan%20\-Feb%202011%20WR.pdf\|title\=Jerusalem Web Review Jan–Feb 2011\|publisher\=Conflict in Cities and the Contested State}}{{Dead link\|date\=March 2020 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} On the night of 25–26 June 2011, about 100 gravestones in an intact part of the cemetery were destroyed by Israeli bulldozers.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.palestinemonitor.org/?p\=1146\|date\=15 July 2011\|publisher\=The Palestine Monitor\|title\=Israel gets final permit to build "Museum of Tolerance" atop of Muslim cemetery}} Footage filmed by local media and activists appeared on [Al Arabiya](/wiki/Al_Arabiya "Al Arabiya") and [Al Jazeera](/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Media_Network "Al Jazeera Media Network") and showed the bulldozers pulling out quickly after realizing they were being filmed; Israeli officials made no comment on the incident.{{cite web\|url\=http://axisoflogic.com/artman/publish/Article\_63332\.shtml\|title\=Jerusalem Municipality Destroys Cemetery Headstones, Approves "Museum of Tolerance" \|author\=Center for Constitutional Rights\|date\=30 June 2011\|publisher\=Axis of Logic}}
Later that same year, fifteen gravestones in the cemetery were spray painted red with racist slogans reading "Death to the Arabs", as well as "[price tag](/wiki/Price_tag_policy "Price tag policy")" and "[Givat Asaf](/wiki/Givat_Asaf "Givat Asaf")", the name of an [Israeli outpost](/wiki/Israeli_outpost "Israeli outpost") slated for demolition.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.france24\.com/en/20111110\-muslim\-graves\-vandalised\-disputed\-jerusalem\-site \|title\=Muslim graves vandalised at disputed Jerusalem site \|publisher\=AFP/France24 \|date\=10 November 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111110194328/http://www.france24\.com/en/20111110\-muslim\-graves\-vandalised\-disputed\-jerusalem\-site \|archive\-date\=10 November 2011 }}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.jpost.com/NationalNews/Article.aspx?id\=245138\|title\=88% of Jewish Israelis oppose price tag attacks\|newspaper\=The Jerusalem Post\|date\=10 November 2011}} The news was reported in November 2011 by Agence France Presse whose photographer saw the damage. Haaretz reported that the authorities did not know exactly when the vandalism took place, nor who was responsible,{{cite news\|url\=http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/death\-to\-arabs\-scrawled\-across\-muslim\-gravestones\-in\-jerusalem\-1\.394804\|title\='Death to Arabs' scrawled across Muslim gravestones in Jerusalem\|date\=10 November 2011\|author\=Oz Rosenberg\|newspaper\=Haaretz}} An Israeli Police spokeswoman told AFP that "the slogans were painted several weeks ago" and had not yet been erased by municipal authorities.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"### Byzantine period",
"During the [Byzantine period](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire \"Byzantine Empire\") in [Palestine](/wiki/Palestine_%28region%29 \"Palestine (region)\") (c. 4th–early 7th centuries), a church dedicated to St Mamilla was established on the same site and it appears to have been used for burials at this time as well. A rather biased account of the aftermath of the [Persian](/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628 \"Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628\") [capture of Jerusalem in 614](/wiki/Sasanian_conquest_of_Jerusalem \"Sasanian conquest of Jerusalem\") by [Strategius](/wiki/Strategius \"Strategius\"), a monk of [Mar Saba](/wiki/Mar_Saba \"Mar Saba\"), says that the bodies of thousands of Christians killed as a result of the [Persian](/wiki/Sassanid_Empire \"Sassanid Empire\") siege – 4,518 according to Gregorian translations of the lost Greek original, and 24,518 according to Arabic translations of the same – were found in the Mamilla Pool and buried in caves in and around it.{{cite book\\|page\\=167\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=GQup\\_FGN7qsC\\&q\\=mamilla\\&pg\\=PA167\\|title\\=Witnesses to a World Crisis: Historians and Histories of the Middle East in the Seventh Century\\|author\\=James Howard\\-Johnston\\|edition\\=Illustrated\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|year\\=2010\\|isbn\\=9780199208593}}",
"### Early Islamic period",
"Islamic rule over [Jerusalem](/wiki/Jerusalem \"Jerusalem\") began in 638 under the [Rashidun Caliphate](/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate \"Rashidun Caliphate\") and persisted for some 1,400 years, interrupted only by the periods of Crusader rule between 1099 and 1187 and between 1229 and 1244\\. Throughout much of this period, Mamilla cemetery was the largest Islamic cemetery in the city, containing the remains of [emirs](/wiki/Emir \"Emir\"), [muftis](/wiki/Mufti \"Mufti\"), Arab and [Sufi](/wiki/Sufi \"Sufi\") mystics, soldiers of [Saladin](/wiki/Saladin \"Saladin\") and numerous Jerusalem notables.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.conflictincities.org/PDFs/WorkingPaper12\\_10\\.11\\.09\\.pdf\\|title\\=Political Islam in Contested Jerusalem: The Emerging Role of Islamists from within Israel\\|author1\\=Mick Dumper \\|author2\\=Craig Larkin \\|name\\-list\\-style\\=amp \\|publisher\\=Conflict in Cities\\|year\\=2009}} The cemetery is said to be the burial site of several of the first Muslims, the [Sahabah](/wiki/Sahabah \"Sahabah\"), companions or disciples of Muhammad, the prophet of Islam.{{Cite book\\|chapter\\-url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=\\-2VOAAAAYAAJ\\|page\\=67\\|title\\=Ottoman Jerusalem: the living city, 1517–1917, Part 1\\| author\\=Abdul\\-Karim Rafeq\\|chapter\\=Ottoman Jerusalem in the writings of Arab travellers\\|editor\\=Sylvia Auld, Robert Hillenbrand\\|publisher\\=Published on behalf of the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem in co\\-operation with the Administration of Auqaf and Islamic Affairs, Jerusalem, by Altajir World of Islam Trust\\|year\\=2000\\|isbn\\=9781901435030}} In 1945, *[The Palestine Post](/wiki/The_Palestine_Post \"The Palestine Post\")* said it covered an area of over 450 dunams (111 acres), while *[Haaretz](/wiki/Haaretz \"Haaretz\")* in 2010 said that at its peak, it covered an area of 200 dunams (some 50 acres).{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/2\\.278/museum\\-of\\-tolerance\\-special\\-report\\-part\\-i\\-holes\\-holiness\\-and\\-hollywood\\-1\\.290924\\|title\\=Museum of Tolerance Special Report / Part I: Holes, Holiness and Hollywood\\|author\\=Nir Hasson\\|date\\=18 May 2010\\|access\\-date\\=17 July 2011\\|newspaper\\=Ha'aretz}} A 1938 deed issued by the British mandatory authorities to the Islamic waqf outlined the size of the plot as 134\\.5 dunams (33 acres).{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.ipcri.org/files/khalidi.html\\|title\\=Mamilla and the Museum of Intolerance\\|date\\=January 2009\\|author\\=Asem Khalidi\\|publisher\\=Israel Palestine Crnter for Research and Information (IPCRI)\\|access\\-date\\=27 November 2011\\|archive\\-url\\=https://archive.today/20130415050603/http://www.ipcri.org/files/khalidi.html\\|archive\\-date\\=15 April 2013\\|url\\-status\\=dead}}",
"Religious warriors or [mujahideen](/wiki/Mujahideen \"Mujahideen\") who died in the battles for control over Jerusalem with the Byzantines in 636 and the Crusaders in 1137 were buried in the cemetery,{{cite book\\|title\\=Golden Jerusalem\\|author\\=Menashe Har\\-El\\|edition\\=Illustrated\\|publisher\\=Gefen Publishing House Ltd\\|year\\=2004\\|isbn\\= 9789652292544\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=9Z2cFY9iGqgC\\&pg\\=PA126}} including, according to tradition, some 70,000 soldiers of Saladin. The Church of St Mamilla was still standing in the 9th century when Palestine was under the rule of the [Abbasid Empire](/wiki/Abbasids \"Abbasids\"); it is listed in the *Commemoratorium De Casis Dei* (c. 808\\) as one of the properties for which the Jerusalem Patriarch paid the Arabs taxes,Gil, pp. 153, 442\\. and is described by [Bernard the Monk](/wiki/Bernard_the_Monk \"Bernard the Monk\") as lying about a mile west of Jerusalem (c. 870\\).{{cite book\\|page\\=90\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=bRxr0TADiyEC\\&pg\\=PA202\\|title\\=East and West in the crusader states: context, contacts, confrontations : acta of the congress held at Hernen Castle in May 1993\\|author1\\=Krijna Nelly Ciggaar \\|author2\\=Adelbert Davids \\|author3\\=Herman G. B. Teule \\|author4\\=A.A. Brediusstichting \\|edition\\=Illustrated\\|publisher\\=Peeters Publishers\\|year\\=1996\\|isbn\\=9789068317923}}",
"The cemetery is mentioned by Arab and Persian authors under its various names throughout the ages (see [above](/wiki/Mamilla_Cemetery%23Name \"Mamilla Cemetery#Name\")). In 1020, al\\-Wasiti writes that the Muslim cemetery situated in *zaytun al\\-milla* and outlines the advantages of being buried in Jerusalem. [Ibn al\\-Adim](/wiki/Ibn_al-Adim \"Ibn al-Adim\"), the Syrian historian, recounts visiting the cemetery several times, and on one visit in 1239–40 recalls going to the graves of Rabi' al\\-Mardini (d. 1205–1206\\), a shaykh from Mardin renowned for performing miracles, and al\\-'Iwaqi (d. 1232\\), a pious Sufi who lived in the compound of al\\-Aqsa mosque.{{cite book\\|title\\=An Ayyubid notable and his world: Ibn al\\-ʻAdīm and Aleppo as portrayed in his biographical dictionary of people associated with the city\\|author\\=D. W. Morray\\|publisher\\=BRILL\\|year\\=1994\\|isbn\\= 9789004099562\\|pages\\=75, 101, 104}} Al\\-Adim describes the grave of the former as housed in a prominent mausoleum with other pious individuals.",
"### Crusader/Ayyubid period",
"During [Crusader rule](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem \"Kingdom of Jerusalem\") over Jerusalem, the cemetery appears to have once again served as a burial place for Christians. [Charles Simon Clermont\\-Ganneau](/wiki/Charles_Simon_Clermont-Ganneau \"Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau\"), the French archaeologist, described and sketched several Frankish sarcophagi that were in the cemetery in the 19th century, most of which were destroyed in 1955 (see [below](/wiki/Mamilla_Cemetery%23Israeli_period \"Mamilla Cemetery#Israeli period\")).",
"Al\\-Quraishi, a famous Sufi mystic said to have had miraculous healing powers, immigrated to Jerusalem from [Andulasia](/wiki/Andulasia \"Andulasia\") by way of [Fustat](/wiki/Fustat \"Fustat\") and garnered a school of disciples in his new home that numbered some 600 people before his death and burial in 1194\\.",
"### Mamluk period",
"[225px\\|right\\|thumb\\|Tomb of Mamluk emir Aidughdi Kubaki](/wiki/File:Jerusalem_Mamilla_cemetery_mausoleum_north.jpg \"Jerusalem Mamilla cemetery mausoleum north.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|225px\\|Sketch of the *Kebekiyeh* where emir Aidughdi Kubaki was interred in 1289](/wiki/File:Bkmamila3.jpg \"Bkmamila3.jpg\")",
"During the period of [Mamluk](/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_%28Cairo%29 \"Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)\") rule (c. 12th–15th centuries), most of the area's notable citizens were buried in Mamilla.{{Cite journal\\|title\\=Mamlūk Epitaphs from Māmillā Cemetery\\|author\\=Da'ādli, Tawfiq\\|journal\\=Levant\\|volume\\=43\\|issue\\=1\\|date\\=Spring 2011\\|pages\\=78–97\\|publisher\\=Maney Publishing\\|doi\\=10\\.1179/007589111X12966443320891\\|s2cid\\=162297451}} A structure known as *al\\-Kebekiyeh* (or *Zawiya Kubakiyya*), a one\\-room square\\-shaped building covered with a dome and incorporating architectural materials from the Crusader era was built during this period. It is identified as the tomb of [emir](/wiki/Emir \"Emir\") Aidughdi Kubaki, a Syrian slave who rose to prominence as the governor of [Safed](/wiki/Safed \"Safed\") and [Aleppo](/wiki/Aleppo \"Aleppo\"), before his death in 1289\\.{{Cite book\\|page\\=146\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=GhPlUt1kz\\-wC\\&q\\=mamilla\\+park\\&pg\\=PA146\\|title\\=The Holy Land: an Oxford archaeological guide : from earliest times to 1700\\|author\\=Jerome Murphy\\-O'Connor\\|edition\\=4th, illustrated\\|publisher\\=Oxford University Press\\|year\\=1998\\|isbn\\=9780192880130}}",
"In the 14th century work *A'lam*, a collection of traditions on the value of prayer in Jerusalem, [al\\-Zarkashi](/wiki/Al-Zarkashi \"Al-Zarkashi\") says those buried in the city will avoid *fitnat al qabr* or \"purgatory of the tomb,\" and for those buried in *zaytun al\\-milla* itself, it would be as if they were buried in heaven.",
"Ibn Arslan, who was buried alongside Al\\-Quraishi (d. 1194\\) some two and a half centuries after the Ayyubid\\-period Sufi master, was a charismatic Sufi [shaykh](/wiki/Shaykh \"Shaykh\") whom Muslims from surrounding countries came to visit.",
"[Mujir al\\-Din al\\-'Ulaymi](/wiki/Mujir_al-Din_al-%27Ulaymi \"Mujir al-Din al-'Ulaymi\") in *al\\-Uns al\\-Jalil* (c. 1496\\) says, \"Who ever invokes God's name while standing between the graves of Ibn Arslān and al\\-Quraishī \\[in Māmilā cemetery], God will grant all his wishes.\"{{cite book\\|title\\=Spiritual wayfarers, leaders in piety: Sufis and the dissemination of Islam in medieval Palestine\\|author\\=Daphna Ephrat\\|pages\\=129, 141–142\\|edition\\=Illustrated\\|publisher\\=Harvard CMES\\|year\\=2008\\|isbn\\=9780674032019}}",
"Other notables buried in Mamilla and recalled by Mujir al\\-Din include two founders of [zawiyas](/wiki/Zawiya_%28institution%29 \"Zawiya (institution)\") in Jerusalem – Nasr ed\\-din Mohammad, one of the \"ten emirs of Gaza\", and Shaykh 'Omar, a Moroccan of the Masmoudys, El Modjarrad tribe. Also named are several emirs, including Ruq ed\\-din Mankouros, the imperial lieutenant of the Jerusalem Citadel (d. AH 717\\), Abu el\\-Qasim, the governor of Nablus and custodian of Jerusalem and Hebron (d. AH 760\\), and Nasser ed\\-din Mohammad, custodian of the two Haram al\\-Sharifs (Holy Mosques) of al\\-Aqsa in Jerusalem and [al\\-Ibrahimi](/wiki/Al-Ibrahimi_Mosque \"Al-Ibrahimi Mosque\") in Hebron (d. AH 828\\), among others.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://archive.org/details/histoiredejrus00ulayuoft\\|title\\=Histoire de Jérusalem et d'Hébron depuis Abraham jusqu'à la fin du XVe siècle de J.\\-C. : fragments de la Chronique de Moudjir\\-ed\\-dyn\\|year\\=1876\\|author\\=Moudjir ed\\-dyn\\|editor\\=Sauvaire\\|pages\\=\\[https://archive.org/details/histoiredejrus00ulayuoft/page/102 102], 164, 198–200, 265, 267, 269\\|publisher\\=Paris : Leroux}}",
"### Ottoman period",
"[thumb\\|Pool and cemetery of Mamilla, 1864\\.](/wiki/File:Edmund_Walker._Pool_of_Mamillah._1864.jpg \"Edmund Walker. Pool of Mamillah. 1864.jpg\")",
"During the period of [Ottoman imperial](/wiki/Ottoman_empire \"Ottoman empire\") rule from the early 16th to early 20th centuries, the cemetery continued to serve as a burial site, and in 1847, it was demarcated by a {{convert\\|2\\|m\\|ft\\|adj\\=mid\\|\\-high\\|sp\\=us}} fence. By the 1860s, the borders of the cemetery were delineated from the by then encroaching urban development by a wall and surrounding road.{{sfn\\|Makdisi\\|2010\\|p\\=521}}",
"### Mandatory Palestine period",
"[thumb\\|Ashbee 1921 Zonning plan for Jerusalem. Mamilla Cemetery with its pool is shown directly west of the west corner of the old city.](/wiki/File:Jerusalem_zoning_system_-_Charles_Robert_Ashbee_1922.png \"Jerusalem zoning system - Charles Robert Ashbee 1922.png\")\n[thumb\\|The \"Mamillah\" district of Jerusalem in 1946, including the \"Mamillah Cemetery (Moslem)\" and the \"Mamillah Pool\".](/wiki/File:MamillaDistrict1946.jpg \"MamillaDistrict1946.jpg\")",
"Burials in the cemetery ceased early in the period of British rule over [Mandate Palestine](/wiki/Mandate_Palestine \"Mandate Palestine\") (1918–1948\\), following the 1927 decision by the Supreme Muslim Council, who oversaw the administration of [waqf](/wiki/Waqf \"Waqf\") properties, to preserve it as a historic site. By this decision, the cemetery, its tombs, and its grounds were maintained.",
"In 1929, [Mohammad Amin al\\-Husayni](/wiki/Mohammad_Amin_al-Husayni \"Mohammad Amin al-Husayni\"), the Mufti of Jerusalem, decided to build the Palace Hotel on what was assumed to be outside the border of the cemetery. While the foundations were being laid, Arab workers uncovered Muslim graves. Baruch Katinka, a Jewish contractor hired to oversee the project, wrote in his memoirs that when the Mufti was informed of the discovery, he said to quietly rebury the bones elsewhere, as he feared [Raghib al\\-Nashashibi](/wiki/Raghib_al-Nashashibi \"Raghib al-Nashashibi\"), his political rival and the mayor of Jerusalem, would issue a cease work order. As Shari'a law permits the transfer of graves in special cases with the approval of a qadi (Muslim judge), Husayni, acting as head of the Supreme Muslim Council, the highest body in charge of Muslim community affairs in [Mandate Palestine](/wiki/Mandate_Palestine \"Mandate Palestine\"), authorized the disinterment. When it was discovered what had happened, rival factions filed a suit against Husayni in the Muslim courts, arguing that he had desecrated ancient graves.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.jpost.com/local\\-israel/in\\-jerusalem/grand\\-hotel\\|title\\=Grand hotel\\|website\\=The Jerusalem Post \\| JPost.com}}{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.jpost.com/israel\\-guide/jerusalem\\-area\\-tours/a\\-guide\\-to\\-buildings\\-in\\-jerusalem\\-166754\\|title\\=A guide to buildings in Jerusalem\\|website\\=The Jerusalem Post \\| JPost.com}}",
"The Islamic waqf continued to control the cemetery and in 1944, the cemetery was designated an antiquities site by the British mandatory authorities.{{cite magazine\\|url\\=http://www.jadaliyya.com/pages/index/2052/human\\-dignity\\-in\\-jerusalem\\|title\\=Human Dignity in Jerusalem\\|author\\=Rashid Khalidi\\|magazine\\=\\[\\[Jadaliyya]]\\|date\\=5 July 2011\\|author\\-link\\=Rashid Khalidi}}",
"A November 1945 article in *[The Palestine Post](/wiki/The_Palestine_Post \"The Palestine Post\")* reported on plans of the Supreme Muslim Council (SMC) and the Government Town Planning Adviser to build a commercial center on cemetery grounds and to transfer remains buried in the areas to be developed to a \"40 dunams walled reserve\" centered around the tomb of al Sayid al Kurashi, ancestor of the Dajani family.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.jewishjournal.com/israel/article/mamilla\\_cemetery\\_chutzpah\\_and\\_the\\_museum\\_of\\_tolerance\\_20100219/\\|date\\=19 February 2010\\|title\\=Mamilla Cemetery Chutzpah and the Museum of Tolerance\\|author\\=Rabbi Marvin Hier\\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2011}} A member of the SMC told the newspaper that, \"the use of Muslim cemeteries in the public interest had many precedents both in Palestine and elsewhere.\" The SMC's plan, however, was never implemented.",
"### Israel",
"[thumb\\|Mamilla graveyard 1948](/wiki/File:Mamilla_graveyard.jpg \"Mamilla graveyard.jpg\")",
"At the time of Israel's assertion of control over West Jerusalem in 1948, the cemetery, which contained thousands of grave markers, came under the administration of the Israeli [Custodian of Absentee Property](/wiki/Custodian_of_Absentee_Property \"Custodian of Absentee Property\") and the Muslim Affairs Department of Israel's [Ministry of Religious Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_Religious_Services \"Ministry of Religious Services\").{{cite book\\|title\\=Debating Islam in the Jewish state: the development of policy toward Islamic institutions in Israel\\|author\\=Alisa Rubin Peled\\|edition\\=Illustrated\\|publisher\\=SUNY Press\\|year\\=2001\\|isbn\\= 9780791450789\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=SRAs5BgF70AC\\&q\\=mamilla\\+cemetery\\&pg\\=PA91\\|pages\\=87–91}} After the armistice, Israeli authorities destroyed the part of the cemetery closest to the armistice line.The Meeting of Civilizations: Muslim, Christian, and Jewish edited by Moshe Ma'oz p. 103 Since 1948, the site has been progressively built over with carparks, and partly developed into [Independence Park](/wiki/Independence_Park_%28Jerusalem%29 \"Independence Park (Jerusalem)\").{{cite journal \\|last\\=Busbridge \\|first\\=R. \\|date\\=2014 \\|title\\=Frontier Jerusalem: Blurred separation and uneasy coexistence in a divided city. \\|journal\\=Thesis Eleven \\|volume\\=121 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=76–100 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/0725513614526156\\|s2cid\\=145465276 }}",
"By the end of the [1967 war](/wiki/Six-Day_War \"Six-Day War\") that resulted in the Israeli occupation of [East Jerusalem](/wiki/East_Jerusalem \"East Jerusalem\"), only a handful of broken grave markers remained standing. A large part of the cemetery was bulldozed and converted into a parking lot in 1964 and a public lavatory was also built on the cemetery grounds.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=LQcOAAAAQAAJ\\&q\\=parking\\+lot\\+mamillah\\&pg\\=PA256\\|title\\=The Palestine question\\|author\\=Henry Cattan\\|edition\\=Illustrated\\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis\\|year\\=1988\\|isbn\\= 9780709948605\\|page\\=256}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=A7tVAAAAYAAJ\\&q\\=parking\\+lot\\+mamillah\\|title\\=Journal of Palestine studies, Volume 7, Issues 25\\-28\\|publisher\\=Institute for Palestine Studies and Kuwait University\\|year\\=1978\\|page\\=194}}",
"In the 1950s, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, sensitive to how the treatment of waqf properties would be viewed internationally, criticized government policy towards the cemetery. A ministry representative described the vandalism to tombstones, including their use by the guard appointed by the Religious Ministry to build a henhouse beside his shelter in the cemetery, and the destruction of ancient tombs by bulldozers cleaning the Mamilla Pool. Noting the site constituted waqf property and lay within sight of the American Consulate, the ministry said it viewed the situation, which included plans for new roads and the parceling out of portions to private landowners as compensation for other properties confiscated by the state, with deep regret.",
"Israeli authorities bulldozed several tombs in the cemetery, including some of those identified as Frankish by Clermont\\-Ganneau, to establish Mamilla Park (or [Independence Park](/wiki/Independence_Park_%28Jerusalem%29 \"Independence Park (Jerusalem)\")) in 1955\\.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Crusader archaeology: the material culture of the Latin East\\|author\\=Adrian J. Boas\\|edition\\=Illustrated\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|year\\=1999\\|isbn\\= 9780415173612\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=a4ROJ\\_y85qwC\\&q\\=mamilla\\+1955\\+cemetery\\&pg\\=RA1\\-PA228\\|page\\=288}} Two of the largest and finest tombs survived, though the lid of one was overturned when it moved from its original spot. The other is the Mamluk era funerary chapel known as *al\\-Kebekiyeh* (or *Zawiya Kubakiyya*), now located in the eastern end of Independence Park.",
"Besides Independence Park, other parts of downtown Jerusalem erected on the cemetery grounds include the Experimental School, Agron Street, [Beit Agron](/wiki/Agron_House \"Agron House\"), and Kikar Hahatulot (Cats' Square), among others. Government buildings on the cemetery grounds include the main headquarters of the Israeli Ministry of Trade and Industry, and the Customs Department building, which is said to be located on what was once the site of the chapel dedicated to St. Mamilla.{{cite book\\|title\\=Ancient churches revealed\\|author\\=Yoram Tsafrir\\|edition\\=Illustrated\\|publisher\\=Israel Exploration Society\\|year\\=1993\\|isbn\\= 9789652210166\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=3mltAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=chapel\\+mamilla}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Grave of [Ahmad Agha Duzdar](/wiki/Ahmad_Agha_Duzdar \"Ahmad Agha Duzdar\"), Ottoman governor of Jerusalem (1838\\-1863\\), in the southern section of the Mamilla Cemetery. The headstone was refurbished by the Turkish government in consultation with the Waqf in 2005\\.](/wiki/File:AhmadAghaDuzdar.jpg \"AhmadAghaDuzdar.jpg\")",
"In 1992, the Custodian of Absentee Property sold the cemetery grounds to the Jerusalem Municipality, a sale the Mufti of Jerusalem, Ikrema Sabri, said they had no right to make. The Israeli Electricity Company destroyed more tombs on 15 January 2005 in order to lay some cables.",
"#### Museum of Tolerance controversy",
"{{main\\|Museum of Tolerance Jerusalem\\#Controversy}}\nIn 2004, the [Simon Wiesenthal Center](/wiki/Simon_Wiesenthal_Center \"Simon Wiesenthal Center\") (SWC) revealed plans to build a [Center for Human Dignity](/wiki/Center_for_Human_Dignity \"Center for Human Dignity\") as part of its [Museum of Tolerance Jerusalem](/wiki/Museum_of_Tolerance_Jerusalem \"Museum of Tolerance Jerusalem\") with a target date for completion in 2009\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle\\-east/israel\\-plans\\-to\\-build\\-museum\\-of\\-tolerance\\-on\\-muslim\\-graves\\-466028\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619154809/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle\\-east/israel\\-plans\\-to\\-build\\-museum\\-of\\-tolerance\\-on\\-muslim\\-graves\\-466028\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=19 June 2008 \\|title\\=Israel plans to build 'museum of tolerance' on Muslim graves \\|date\\= 9 February 2006\\|author \\=Donald Macintyre \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Independent]] \\|access\\-date\\=16 July 2011}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle\\_east/4721336\\.stm\\|title\\=Row over Israeli tolerance museum\\|date\\=17 February 2006\\|via\\=news.bbc.co.uk}} [Frank Gehry](/wiki/Frank_Gehry \"Frank Gehry\") was appointed the architect, and the Jerusalem Municipality offered the SWC a 3\\.5\\-acre plot in the northern section of the original Mamilla cemetery where the parking lot was built in 1964\\. Marvin Hier, head of the SWC, said his association was unaware that the site was located on a cemetery and was told by the municipality that the land was owned by the [Israel Lands Administration](/wiki/Israel_Lands_Administration \"Israel Lands Administration\") before it was given to the SWC for the project.{{cite news\\|title\\=Museum of Tolerance Special Report / An exhibition of Zionism\\|url\\=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/2\\.278/museum\\-of\\-tolerance\\-special\\-report\\-an\\-exhibition\\-of\\-zionism\\-1\\.290968\\|newspaper\\=Ha'aretz\\|author\\=Natasha Mozgovaya\\|date\\=18 May 2010\\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2011}}",
"During excavations to prepare the ground for construction in 2005–2006, skeletons were found and removed. The Islamic Court, a division of Israel's justice system, issued a temporary ban on work, but work continued anyway. The Al Aqsa Association of the [Islamic Movement](/wiki/Islamic_Movement_in_Israel \"Islamic Movement in Israel\") moved to bring the case before Israel's Supreme Court.",
"The SWC's plan also elicited considerable outcry from some Israeli academics and archaeologists, and work was stayed several times by the courts. After the Supreme Court rejected the Islamic Movement's petition in October 2008, work resumed. Between November 2008 and April 2009, crews of 40 to 70 people per shift worked in 8\\-hour stints, 24\\-hours a day to remove an estimated 1,000 skeletons from the site slated for construction.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/magazine/museum\\-of\\-tolerance\\-special\\-report\\-part\\-ii\\-secrets\\-from\\-the\\-grave\\-1\\.290941\\|title\\=Museum of Tolerance Special Report / Part II: Secrets from the grave\\|date\\=18 May 2011\\|access\\-date\\=17 July 2011\\|newspaper\\=Ha'aretz\\|author\\=Nir Hasson}}",
"In 2010, [Marvin Hier](/wiki/Marvin_Hier \"Marvin Hier\"), rabbi and founder and dean of the SWC, said \"Our opponents would have you believe our bulldozers are preparing to desecrate ancient Muslim tombstones and historic markers. Let me be clear: The Museum of Tolerance is not being built on the Mamilla Cemetery, but on an adjacent 3\\-acre site where, for a half\\-century, hundreds of people of all faiths have parked in a three\\-level underground structure without any protest.\"{{Cite news\\|title\\=Hypocrisy and lies fuel enemies of a Jerusalem museum \\|author\\=Rabbin Marvin Hier \\|newspaper\\=New York Daily News \\|date\\=19 February 2010 \\|url\\=http://www.nydailynews.com/opinions/2010/02/19/2010\\-02\\-19\\_hypocrisy\\_and\\_lies\\_fuel\\_enemies\\_of\\_a\\_jerusalem\\_museum.html }} Hier also accused opponents of the SWC's building plans of \"sheer hypocrisy,\"{{Cite news\\|title\\=Muslims planned Mamilla project in '45 \\|author\\=Abe Selig \\|newspaper\\=The Jerusalem Post \\|date\\=17 February 2010 \\|url\\=http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id\\=168899}} noting that the plans of the Supreme Muslim Council to build a commercial center in 1945 was evidence that substantiated the Supreme Court's ruling, \"That the Mamilla Cemetery was regarded by many Muslim religious leaders as 'mundras,' or abandoned and without sanctity.\"",
"[Rashid Khalidi](/wiki/Rashid_Khalidi \"Rashid Khalidi\"), a professor of Arab studies at [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University \"Columbia University\"), said that, \"contrary to what Rabbi Hier said, that parking lot was built over a cemetery, part of it. And so, the Israeli authorities are basically pushing ahead with the desecration of a cemetery that they have been, unfortunately, slowly nibbling away at for over three decades. We and other families are taking action as a group of families to try and stop this, after other families failed in the Israeli Supreme Court.\" He also said that \"What they have now done is to dig down and disinter four layers, according to the chief archaeologist for the Israeli Archaeological Authority, four layers of graves. There are more probably beneath those, according to his report, which was suppressed in the submissions to the Israeli Supreme Court.\"{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.democracynow.org/2010/2/10/palestinian\\_families\\_appeal\\_to\\_un\\_over \\|title\\=Palestinian families appeal to un \\|date\\= 10 February 2010\\|author \\=Democracy Now \\|access\\-date\\=14 July 2011}}",
"Gehry resigned from the project in January 2010\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Frank Gehry steps down from Museum of Tolerance project\\|date\\=15 January 2010\\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2011\\|author\\=Akiva Eldar\\|newspaper\\=Ha'aretz\\|url\\=http://www.haaretz.com/print\\-edition/news/frank\\-gehry\\-steps\\-down\\-from\\-museum\\-of\\-tolerance\\-project\\-1\\.261496}} A new design for the museum drafted by Chyutin Architects was approved by the city of Jerusalem in June 2011, receiving an official building permit from the Interior Ministry in July 2011\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Irony Be Damned, Israel Will Build Its Museum of Tolerance Atop a Muslim Graveyard\\|url\\=http://www.artinfo.com/news/story/38107/irony\\-be\\-damned\\-israel\\-will\\-build\\-its\\-museum\\-of\\-tolerance\\-atop\\-a\\-palestinian\\-graveyard/\\|publisher\\=ARTINFO\\|date\\=14 July 2011\\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2011}}",
"In October 2011, eighty\\-four archaeologists called on the Simon Wiesenthal Center, the Jerusalem municipality and the Israel Antiquities Authority to end construction of the Museum of Tolerance. In a letter sent to the three bodies, the archaeologists argued that the establishment of the museum on the site of the Mamilla Muslim cemetery contradicted ethical standards in the archaeological world, as well as Israeli law. \"The bulldozing of historic cemeteries is the ultimate act of territorial aggrandizement: the erasure of prior residents,\" said Professor [Harvey Weiss](/wiki/Harvey_Weiss \"Harvey Weiss\") of Yale University, adding that \"Desecration of Jerusalem's Mamilla cemetery is a continuing cultural and historical tragedy.\" The Simon Wiesenthal Center responded that \"the arguments in the letter are old, of a mistaken nature and contain factual errors.\"{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.haaretz.com/culture/arts\\-leisure/grave\\-concerns\\-1\\.391852 \\|title\\= Grave concerns International archaeologists are calling for work to stop at the Museum of Tolerance \\|date\\= 25 October 2011 \\|author \\= Noam Dvir \\|access\\-date\\=30 July 2011}}",
"#### Other developments",
"Plans to build new buildings to house the Jerusalem Magistrate's Court and the Jerusalem District Court on the cemetery grounds were cancelled by Supreme Court President Dorit Beinisch in January 2010\\. The decision followed the discovery of human remains at the site, supporting critics' claims that construction in the area was offensive to Muslims.",
"On 9 August 2010, 300 Muslim gravestones in the cemetery were bulldozed by the [Israel Lands Administration](/wiki/Israel_Lands_Administration \"Israel Lands Administration\") (ILA) in an area US Jewish human rights activists said was very close to the planned site for the Museum of Tolerance. A reporter from [Agence France Presse](/wiki/Agence_France_Presse \"Agence France Presse\") witnessed the destruction of 200 graves until the work was briefly suspended while the court heard a stop work petition it rejected, allowing demolitions to continue that same day. The judge later issued an order prohibiting harm to ancient graves and mandating that the ILA coordinate work with the [Israel Antiquities Authority](/wiki/Israel_Antiquities_Authority \"Israel Antiquities Authority\") and representatives of the Islamic Movement.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.haaretz.com/print\\-edition/features/even\\-the\\-dead\\-and\\-buried\\-enter\\-the\\-conflict\\-1\\.308076\\|author\\=Nir Hasson\\|date\\=15 August 2010\\|title\\=Even the dead and buried enter the conflict\\|newspaper\\=Haaretz}}",
"The Jerusalem city council issued its first official response in a written statement on 12 August, saying that, \"The municipality and the (Israel Lands) Authority destroyed around 300 dummy gravestones which were set up illegally in Independence Park on public land.\" It said these \"fake\" gravestones were not erected over any human remains and were placed in the park in an effort to \"illegally take over state land.\"",
"Mahmud Abu Atta, a spokesman for the Al\\-Aqsa Foundation, denied the city council's claim that new tombs were added illegally. He said that between 500 and 600 tombs had been renovated in total \"with the municipality's agreement,\" that \"some of the tombs had to be totally rebuilt,\" but that \"all the tombs that we built or renovated contain bodies.\"[\"Destroyed Muslim graves in Jerusalem were 'fake': Israel,\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100815071759/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gtT5BQ6NyRWT1w36pkmHcQAEf6DQ) Hazel Ward, 12 August 2010, (AFP).",
"Twenty graves were completely destroyed or had their tombstones removed by vandals in January 2011\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.arct.cam.ac.uk/conflictincities/PDFs/Jan%20\\-Feb%202011%20WR.pdf\\|title\\=Jerusalem Web Review Jan–Feb 2011\\|publisher\\=Conflict in Cities and the Contested State}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=March 2020 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} On the night of 25–26 June 2011, about 100 gravestones in an intact part of the cemetery were destroyed by Israeli bulldozers.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.palestinemonitor.org/?p\\=1146\\|date\\=15 July 2011\\|publisher\\=The Palestine Monitor\\|title\\=Israel gets final permit to build \"Museum of Tolerance\" atop of Muslim cemetery}} Footage filmed by local media and activists appeared on [Al Arabiya](/wiki/Al_Arabiya \"Al Arabiya\") and [Al Jazeera](/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Media_Network \"Al Jazeera Media Network\") and showed the bulldozers pulling out quickly after realizing they were being filmed; Israeli officials made no comment on the incident.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://axisoflogic.com/artman/publish/Article\\_63332\\.shtml\\|title\\=Jerusalem Municipality Destroys Cemetery Headstones, Approves \"Museum of Tolerance\" \\|author\\=Center for Constitutional Rights\\|date\\=30 June 2011\\|publisher\\=Axis of Logic}}",
"Later that same year, fifteen gravestones in the cemetery were spray painted red with racist slogans reading \"Death to the Arabs\", as well as \"[price tag](/wiki/Price_tag_policy \"Price tag policy\")\" and \"[Givat Asaf](/wiki/Givat_Asaf \"Givat Asaf\")\", the name of an [Israeli outpost](/wiki/Israeli_outpost \"Israeli outpost\") slated for demolition.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.france24\\.com/en/20111110\\-muslim\\-graves\\-vandalised\\-disputed\\-jerusalem\\-site \\|title\\=Muslim graves vandalised at disputed Jerusalem site \\|publisher\\=AFP/France24 \\|date\\=10 November 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111110194328/http://www.france24\\.com/en/20111110\\-muslim\\-graves\\-vandalised\\-disputed\\-jerusalem\\-site \\|archive\\-date\\=10 November 2011 }}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.jpost.com/NationalNews/Article.aspx?id\\=245138\\|title\\=88% of Jewish Israelis oppose price tag attacks\\|newspaper\\=The Jerusalem Post\\|date\\=10 November 2011}} The news was reported in November 2011 by Agence France Presse whose photographer saw the damage. Haaretz reported that the authorities did not know exactly when the vandalism took place, nor who was responsible,{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/death\\-to\\-arabs\\-scrawled\\-across\\-muslim\\-gravestones\\-in\\-jerusalem\\-1\\.394804\\|title\\='Death to Arabs' scrawled across Muslim gravestones in Jerusalem\\|date\\=10 November 2011\\|author\\=Oz Rosenberg\\|newspaper\\=Haaretz}} An Israeli Police spokeswoman told AFP that \"the slogans were painted several weeks ago\" and had not yet been erased by municipal authorities.",
""
] |
### Israel
[thumb\|Mamilla graveyard 1948](/wiki/File:Mamilla_graveyard.jpg "Mamilla graveyard.jpg")
At the time of Israel's assertion of control over West Jerusalem in 1948, the cemetery, which contained thousands of grave markers, came under the administration of the Israeli [Custodian of Absentee Property](/wiki/Custodian_of_Absentee_Property "Custodian of Absentee Property") and the Muslim Affairs Department of Israel's [Ministry of Religious Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_Religious_Services "Ministry of Religious Services").{{cite book\|title\=Debating Islam in the Jewish state: the development of policy toward Islamic institutions in Israel\|author\=Alisa Rubin Peled\|edition\=Illustrated\|publisher\=SUNY Press\|year\=2001\|isbn\= 9780791450789\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=SRAs5BgF70AC\&q\=mamilla\+cemetery\&pg\=PA91\|pages\=87–91}} After the armistice, Israeli authorities destroyed the part of the cemetery closest to the armistice line.The Meeting of Civilizations: Muslim, Christian, and Jewish edited by Moshe Ma'oz p. 103 Since 1948, the site has been progressively built over with carparks, and partly developed into [Independence Park](/wiki/Independence_Park_%28Jerusalem%29 "Independence Park (Jerusalem)").{{cite journal \|last\=Busbridge \|first\=R. \|date\=2014 \|title\=Frontier Jerusalem: Blurred separation and uneasy coexistence in a divided city. \|journal\=Thesis Eleven \|volume\=121 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=76–100 \|doi\=10\.1177/0725513614526156\|s2cid\=145465276 }}
By the end of the [1967 war](/wiki/Six-Day_War "Six-Day War") that resulted in the Israeli occupation of [East Jerusalem](/wiki/East_Jerusalem "East Jerusalem"), only a handful of broken grave markers remained standing. A large part of the cemetery was bulldozed and converted into a parking lot in 1964 and a public lavatory was also built on the cemetery grounds.{{Cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=LQcOAAAAQAAJ\&q\=parking\+lot\+mamillah\&pg\=PA256\|title\=The Palestine question\|author\=Henry Cattan\|edition\=Illustrated\|publisher\=Taylor \& Francis\|year\=1988\|isbn\= 9780709948605\|page\=256}}{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=A7tVAAAAYAAJ\&q\=parking\+lot\+mamillah\|title\=Journal of Palestine studies, Volume 7, Issues 25\-28\|publisher\=Institute for Palestine Studies and Kuwait University\|year\=1978\|page\=194}}
In the 1950s, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, sensitive to how the treatment of waqf properties would be viewed internationally, criticized government policy towards the cemetery. A ministry representative described the vandalism to tombstones, including their use by the guard appointed by the Religious Ministry to build a henhouse beside his shelter in the cemetery, and the destruction of ancient tombs by bulldozers cleaning the Mamilla Pool. Noting the site constituted waqf property and lay within sight of the American Consulate, the ministry said it viewed the situation, which included plans for new roads and the parceling out of portions to private landowners as compensation for other properties confiscated by the state, with deep regret.
Israeli authorities bulldozed several tombs in the cemetery, including some of those identified as Frankish by Clermont\-Ganneau, to establish Mamilla Park (or [Independence Park](/wiki/Independence_Park_%28Jerusalem%29 "Independence Park (Jerusalem)")) in 1955\.{{Cite book\|title\=Crusader archaeology: the material culture of the Latin East\|author\=Adrian J. Boas\|edition\=Illustrated\|publisher\=Routledge\|year\=1999\|isbn\= 9780415173612\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=a4ROJ\_y85qwC\&q\=mamilla\+1955\+cemetery\&pg\=RA1\-PA228\|page\=288}} Two of the largest and finest tombs survived, though the lid of one was overturned when it moved from its original spot. The other is the Mamluk era funerary chapel known as *al\-Kebekiyeh* (or *Zawiya Kubakiyya*), now located in the eastern end of Independence Park.
Besides Independence Park, other parts of downtown Jerusalem erected on the cemetery grounds include the Experimental School, Agron Street, [Beit Agron](/wiki/Agron_House "Agron House"), and Kikar Hahatulot (Cats' Square), among others. Government buildings on the cemetery grounds include the main headquarters of the Israeli Ministry of Trade and Industry, and the Customs Department building, which is said to be located on what was once the site of the chapel dedicated to St. Mamilla.{{cite book\|title\=Ancient churches revealed\|author\=Yoram Tsafrir\|edition\=Illustrated\|publisher\=Israel Exploration Society\|year\=1993\|isbn\= 9789652210166\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=3mltAAAAMAAJ\&q\=chapel\+mamilla}}
[thumb\|right\|Grave of [Ahmad Agha Duzdar](/wiki/Ahmad_Agha_Duzdar "Ahmad Agha Duzdar"), Ottoman governor of Jerusalem (1838\-1863\), in the southern section of the Mamilla Cemetery. The headstone was refurbished by the Turkish government in consultation with the Waqf in 2005\.](/wiki/File:AhmadAghaDuzdar.jpg "AhmadAghaDuzdar.jpg")
In 1992, the Custodian of Absentee Property sold the cemetery grounds to the Jerusalem Municipality, a sale the Mufti of Jerusalem, Ikrema Sabri, said they had no right to make. The Israeli Electricity Company destroyed more tombs on 15 January 2005 in order to lay some cables.
#### Museum of Tolerance controversy
{{main\|Museum of Tolerance Jerusalem\#Controversy}}
In 2004, the [Simon Wiesenthal Center](/wiki/Simon_Wiesenthal_Center "Simon Wiesenthal Center") (SWC) revealed plans to build a [Center for Human Dignity](/wiki/Center_for_Human_Dignity "Center for Human Dignity") as part of its [Museum of Tolerance Jerusalem](/wiki/Museum_of_Tolerance_Jerusalem "Museum of Tolerance Jerusalem") with a target date for completion in 2009\.{{Cite news\|url\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle\-east/israel\-plans\-to\-build\-museum\-of\-tolerance\-on\-muslim\-graves\-466028\.html \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619154809/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle\-east/israel\-plans\-to\-build\-museum\-of\-tolerance\-on\-muslim\-graves\-466028\.html \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-date\=19 June 2008 \|title\=Israel plans to build 'museum of tolerance' on Muslim graves \|date\= 9 February 2006\|author \=Donald Macintyre \|work\=\[\[The Independent]] \|access\-date\=16 July 2011}}{{Cite news\|url\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle\_east/4721336\.stm\|title\=Row over Israeli tolerance museum\|date\=17 February 2006\|via\=news.bbc.co.uk}} [Frank Gehry](/wiki/Frank_Gehry "Frank Gehry") was appointed the architect, and the Jerusalem Municipality offered the SWC a 3\.5\-acre plot in the northern section of the original Mamilla cemetery where the parking lot was built in 1964\. Marvin Hier, head of the SWC, said his association was unaware that the site was located on a cemetery and was told by the municipality that the land was owned by the [Israel Lands Administration](/wiki/Israel_Lands_Administration "Israel Lands Administration") before it was given to the SWC for the project.{{cite news\|title\=Museum of Tolerance Special Report / An exhibition of Zionism\|url\=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/2\.278/museum\-of\-tolerance\-special\-report\-an\-exhibition\-of\-zionism\-1\.290968\|newspaper\=Ha'aretz\|author\=Natasha Mozgovaya\|date\=18 May 2010\|access\-date\=18 July 2011}}
During excavations to prepare the ground for construction in 2005–2006, skeletons were found and removed. The Islamic Court, a division of Israel's justice system, issued a temporary ban on work, but work continued anyway. The Al Aqsa Association of the [Islamic Movement](/wiki/Islamic_Movement_in_Israel "Islamic Movement in Israel") moved to bring the case before Israel's Supreme Court.
The SWC's plan also elicited considerable outcry from some Israeli academics and archaeologists, and work was stayed several times by the courts. After the Supreme Court rejected the Islamic Movement's petition in October 2008, work resumed. Between November 2008 and April 2009, crews of 40 to 70 people per shift worked in 8\-hour stints, 24\-hours a day to remove an estimated 1,000 skeletons from the site slated for construction.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/magazine/museum\-of\-tolerance\-special\-report\-part\-ii\-secrets\-from\-the\-grave\-1\.290941\|title\=Museum of Tolerance Special Report / Part II: Secrets from the grave\|date\=18 May 2011\|access\-date\=17 July 2011\|newspaper\=Ha'aretz\|author\=Nir Hasson}}
In 2010, [Marvin Hier](/wiki/Marvin_Hier "Marvin Hier"), rabbi and founder and dean of the SWC, said "Our opponents would have you believe our bulldozers are preparing to desecrate ancient Muslim tombstones and historic markers. Let me be clear: The Museum of Tolerance is not being built on the Mamilla Cemetery, but on an adjacent 3\-acre site where, for a half\-century, hundreds of people of all faiths have parked in a three\-level underground structure without any protest."{{Cite news\|title\=Hypocrisy and lies fuel enemies of a Jerusalem museum \|author\=Rabbin Marvin Hier \|newspaper\=New York Daily News \|date\=19 February 2010 \|url\=http://www.nydailynews.com/opinions/2010/02/19/2010\-02\-19\_hypocrisy\_and\_lies\_fuel\_enemies\_of\_a\_jerusalem\_museum.html }} Hier also accused opponents of the SWC's building plans of "sheer hypocrisy,"{{Cite news\|title\=Muslims planned Mamilla project in '45 \|author\=Abe Selig \|newspaper\=The Jerusalem Post \|date\=17 February 2010 \|url\=http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id\=168899}} noting that the plans of the Supreme Muslim Council to build a commercial center in 1945 was evidence that substantiated the Supreme Court's ruling, "That the Mamilla Cemetery was regarded by many Muslim religious leaders as 'mundras,' or abandoned and without sanctity."
[Rashid Khalidi](/wiki/Rashid_Khalidi "Rashid Khalidi"), a professor of Arab studies at [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University "Columbia University"), said that, "contrary to what Rabbi Hier said, that parking lot was built over a cemetery, part of it. And so, the Israeli authorities are basically pushing ahead with the desecration of a cemetery that they have been, unfortunately, slowly nibbling away at for over three decades. We and other families are taking action as a group of families to try and stop this, after other families failed in the Israeli Supreme Court." He also said that "What they have now done is to dig down and disinter four layers, according to the chief archaeologist for the Israeli Archaeological Authority, four layers of graves. There are more probably beneath those, according to his report, which was suppressed in the submissions to the Israeli Supreme Court."{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.democracynow.org/2010/2/10/palestinian\_families\_appeal\_to\_un\_over \|title\=Palestinian families appeal to un \|date\= 10 February 2010\|author \=Democracy Now \|access\-date\=14 July 2011}}
Gehry resigned from the project in January 2010\.{{cite news\|title\=Frank Gehry steps down from Museum of Tolerance project\|date\=15 January 2010\|access\-date\=18 July 2011\|author\=Akiva Eldar\|newspaper\=Ha'aretz\|url\=http://www.haaretz.com/print\-edition/news/frank\-gehry\-steps\-down\-from\-museum\-of\-tolerance\-project\-1\.261496}} A new design for the museum drafted by Chyutin Architects was approved by the city of Jerusalem in June 2011, receiving an official building permit from the Interior Ministry in July 2011\.{{cite web\|title\=Irony Be Damned, Israel Will Build Its Museum of Tolerance Atop a Muslim Graveyard\|url\=http://www.artinfo.com/news/story/38107/irony\-be\-damned\-israel\-will\-build\-its\-museum\-of\-tolerance\-atop\-a\-palestinian\-graveyard/\|publisher\=ARTINFO\|date\=14 July 2011\|access\-date\=18 July 2011}}
In October 2011, eighty\-four archaeologists called on the Simon Wiesenthal Center, the Jerusalem municipality and the Israel Antiquities Authority to end construction of the Museum of Tolerance. In a letter sent to the three bodies, the archaeologists argued that the establishment of the museum on the site of the Mamilla Muslim cemetery contradicted ethical standards in the archaeological world, as well as Israeli law. "The bulldozing of historic cemeteries is the ultimate act of territorial aggrandizement: the erasure of prior residents," said Professor [Harvey Weiss](/wiki/Harvey_Weiss "Harvey Weiss") of Yale University, adding that "Desecration of Jerusalem's Mamilla cemetery is a continuing cultural and historical tragedy." The Simon Wiesenthal Center responded that "the arguments in the letter are old, of a mistaken nature and contain factual errors."{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.haaretz.com/culture/arts\-leisure/grave\-concerns\-1\.391852 \|title\= Grave concerns International archaeologists are calling for work to stop at the Museum of Tolerance \|date\= 25 October 2011 \|author \= Noam Dvir \|access\-date\=30 July 2011}}
#### Other developments
Plans to build new buildings to house the Jerusalem Magistrate's Court and the Jerusalem District Court on the cemetery grounds were cancelled by Supreme Court President Dorit Beinisch in January 2010\. The decision followed the discovery of human remains at the site, supporting critics' claims that construction in the area was offensive to Muslims.
On 9 August 2010, 300 Muslim gravestones in the cemetery were bulldozed by the [Israel Lands Administration](/wiki/Israel_Lands_Administration "Israel Lands Administration") (ILA) in an area US Jewish human rights activists said was very close to the planned site for the Museum of Tolerance. A reporter from [Agence France Presse](/wiki/Agence_France_Presse "Agence France Presse") witnessed the destruction of 200 graves until the work was briefly suspended while the court heard a stop work petition it rejected, allowing demolitions to continue that same day. The judge later issued an order prohibiting harm to ancient graves and mandating that the ILA coordinate work with the [Israel Antiquities Authority](/wiki/Israel_Antiquities_Authority "Israel Antiquities Authority") and representatives of the Islamic Movement.{{cite news\|url\=http://www.haaretz.com/print\-edition/features/even\-the\-dead\-and\-buried\-enter\-the\-conflict\-1\.308076\|author\=Nir Hasson\|date\=15 August 2010\|title\=Even the dead and buried enter the conflict\|newspaper\=Haaretz}}
The Jerusalem city council issued its first official response in a written statement on 12 August, saying that, "The municipality and the (Israel Lands) Authority destroyed around 300 dummy gravestones which were set up illegally in Independence Park on public land." It said these "fake" gravestones were not erected over any human remains and were placed in the park in an effort to "illegally take over state land."
Mahmud Abu Atta, a spokesman for the Al\-Aqsa Foundation, denied the city council's claim that new tombs were added illegally. He said that between 500 and 600 tombs had been renovated in total "with the municipality's agreement," that "some of the tombs had to be totally rebuilt," but that "all the tombs that we built or renovated contain bodies."["Destroyed Muslim graves in Jerusalem were 'fake': Israel,"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100815071759/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gtT5BQ6NyRWT1w36pkmHcQAEf6DQ) Hazel Ward, 12 August 2010, (AFP).
Twenty graves were completely destroyed or had their tombstones removed by vandals in January 2011\.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.arct.cam.ac.uk/conflictincities/PDFs/Jan%20\-Feb%202011%20WR.pdf\|title\=Jerusalem Web Review Jan–Feb 2011\|publisher\=Conflict in Cities and the Contested State}}{{Dead link\|date\=March 2020 \|bot\=InternetArchiveBot \|fix\-attempted\=yes }} On the night of 25–26 June 2011, about 100 gravestones in an intact part of the cemetery were destroyed by Israeli bulldozers.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.palestinemonitor.org/?p\=1146\|date\=15 July 2011\|publisher\=The Palestine Monitor\|title\=Israel gets final permit to build "Museum of Tolerance" atop of Muslim cemetery}} Footage filmed by local media and activists appeared on [Al Arabiya](/wiki/Al_Arabiya "Al Arabiya") and [Al Jazeera](/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Media_Network "Al Jazeera Media Network") and showed the bulldozers pulling out quickly after realizing they were being filmed; Israeli officials made no comment on the incident.{{cite web\|url\=http://axisoflogic.com/artman/publish/Article\_63332\.shtml\|title\=Jerusalem Municipality Destroys Cemetery Headstones, Approves "Museum of Tolerance" \|author\=Center for Constitutional Rights\|date\=30 June 2011\|publisher\=Axis of Logic}}
Later that same year, fifteen gravestones in the cemetery were spray painted red with racist slogans reading "Death to the Arabs", as well as "[price tag](/wiki/Price_tag_policy "Price tag policy")" and "[Givat Asaf](/wiki/Givat_Asaf "Givat Asaf")", the name of an [Israeli outpost](/wiki/Israeli_outpost "Israeli outpost") slated for demolition.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.france24\.com/en/20111110\-muslim\-graves\-vandalised\-disputed\-jerusalem\-site \|title\=Muslim graves vandalised at disputed Jerusalem site \|publisher\=AFP/France24 \|date\=10 November 2011 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111110194328/http://www.france24\.com/en/20111110\-muslim\-graves\-vandalised\-disputed\-jerusalem\-site \|archive\-date\=10 November 2011 }}{{cite news\|url\=http://www.jpost.com/NationalNews/Article.aspx?id\=245138\|title\=88% of Jewish Israelis oppose price tag attacks\|newspaper\=The Jerusalem Post\|date\=10 November 2011}} The news was reported in November 2011 by Agence France Presse whose photographer saw the damage. Haaretz reported that the authorities did not know exactly when the vandalism took place, nor who was responsible,{{cite news\|url\=http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/death\-to\-arabs\-scrawled\-across\-muslim\-gravestones\-in\-jerusalem\-1\.394804\|title\='Death to Arabs' scrawled across Muslim gravestones in Jerusalem\|date\=10 November 2011\|author\=Oz Rosenberg\|newspaper\=Haaretz}} An Israeli Police spokeswoman told AFP that "the slogans were painted several weeks ago" and had not yet been erased by municipal authorities.
|
[
"### Israel",
"[thumb\\|Mamilla graveyard 1948](/wiki/File:Mamilla_graveyard.jpg \"Mamilla graveyard.jpg\")",
"At the time of Israel's assertion of control over West Jerusalem in 1948, the cemetery, which contained thousands of grave markers, came under the administration of the Israeli [Custodian of Absentee Property](/wiki/Custodian_of_Absentee_Property \"Custodian of Absentee Property\") and the Muslim Affairs Department of Israel's [Ministry of Religious Affairs](/wiki/Ministry_of_Religious_Services \"Ministry of Religious Services\").{{cite book\\|title\\=Debating Islam in the Jewish state: the development of policy toward Islamic institutions in Israel\\|author\\=Alisa Rubin Peled\\|edition\\=Illustrated\\|publisher\\=SUNY Press\\|year\\=2001\\|isbn\\= 9780791450789\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=SRAs5BgF70AC\\&q\\=mamilla\\+cemetery\\&pg\\=PA91\\|pages\\=87–91}} After the armistice, Israeli authorities destroyed the part of the cemetery closest to the armistice line.The Meeting of Civilizations: Muslim, Christian, and Jewish edited by Moshe Ma'oz p. 103 Since 1948, the site has been progressively built over with carparks, and partly developed into [Independence Park](/wiki/Independence_Park_%28Jerusalem%29 \"Independence Park (Jerusalem)\").{{cite journal \\|last\\=Busbridge \\|first\\=R. \\|date\\=2014 \\|title\\=Frontier Jerusalem: Blurred separation and uneasy coexistence in a divided city. \\|journal\\=Thesis Eleven \\|volume\\=121 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=76–100 \\|doi\\=10\\.1177/0725513614526156\\|s2cid\\=145465276 }}",
"By the end of the [1967 war](/wiki/Six-Day_War \"Six-Day War\") that resulted in the Israeli occupation of [East Jerusalem](/wiki/East_Jerusalem \"East Jerusalem\"), only a handful of broken grave markers remained standing. A large part of the cemetery was bulldozed and converted into a parking lot in 1964 and a public lavatory was also built on the cemetery grounds.{{Cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=LQcOAAAAQAAJ\\&q\\=parking\\+lot\\+mamillah\\&pg\\=PA256\\|title\\=The Palestine question\\|author\\=Henry Cattan\\|edition\\=Illustrated\\|publisher\\=Taylor \\& Francis\\|year\\=1988\\|isbn\\= 9780709948605\\|page\\=256}}{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=A7tVAAAAYAAJ\\&q\\=parking\\+lot\\+mamillah\\|title\\=Journal of Palestine studies, Volume 7, Issues 25\\-28\\|publisher\\=Institute for Palestine Studies and Kuwait University\\|year\\=1978\\|page\\=194}}",
"In the 1950s, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, sensitive to how the treatment of waqf properties would be viewed internationally, criticized government policy towards the cemetery. A ministry representative described the vandalism to tombstones, including their use by the guard appointed by the Religious Ministry to build a henhouse beside his shelter in the cemetery, and the destruction of ancient tombs by bulldozers cleaning the Mamilla Pool. Noting the site constituted waqf property and lay within sight of the American Consulate, the ministry said it viewed the situation, which included plans for new roads and the parceling out of portions to private landowners as compensation for other properties confiscated by the state, with deep regret.",
"Israeli authorities bulldozed several tombs in the cemetery, including some of those identified as Frankish by Clermont\\-Ganneau, to establish Mamilla Park (or [Independence Park](/wiki/Independence_Park_%28Jerusalem%29 \"Independence Park (Jerusalem)\")) in 1955\\.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Crusader archaeology: the material culture of the Latin East\\|author\\=Adrian J. Boas\\|edition\\=Illustrated\\|publisher\\=Routledge\\|year\\=1999\\|isbn\\= 9780415173612\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=a4ROJ\\_y85qwC\\&q\\=mamilla\\+1955\\+cemetery\\&pg\\=RA1\\-PA228\\|page\\=288}} Two of the largest and finest tombs survived, though the lid of one was overturned when it moved from its original spot. The other is the Mamluk era funerary chapel known as *al\\-Kebekiyeh* (or *Zawiya Kubakiyya*), now located in the eastern end of Independence Park.",
"Besides Independence Park, other parts of downtown Jerusalem erected on the cemetery grounds include the Experimental School, Agron Street, [Beit Agron](/wiki/Agron_House \"Agron House\"), and Kikar Hahatulot (Cats' Square), among others. Government buildings on the cemetery grounds include the main headquarters of the Israeli Ministry of Trade and Industry, and the Customs Department building, which is said to be located on what was once the site of the chapel dedicated to St. Mamilla.{{cite book\\|title\\=Ancient churches revealed\\|author\\=Yoram Tsafrir\\|edition\\=Illustrated\\|publisher\\=Israel Exploration Society\\|year\\=1993\\|isbn\\= 9789652210166\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=3mltAAAAMAAJ\\&q\\=chapel\\+mamilla}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Grave of [Ahmad Agha Duzdar](/wiki/Ahmad_Agha_Duzdar \"Ahmad Agha Duzdar\"), Ottoman governor of Jerusalem (1838\\-1863\\), in the southern section of the Mamilla Cemetery. The headstone was refurbished by the Turkish government in consultation with the Waqf in 2005\\.](/wiki/File:AhmadAghaDuzdar.jpg \"AhmadAghaDuzdar.jpg\")",
"In 1992, the Custodian of Absentee Property sold the cemetery grounds to the Jerusalem Municipality, a sale the Mufti of Jerusalem, Ikrema Sabri, said they had no right to make. The Israeli Electricity Company destroyed more tombs on 15 January 2005 in order to lay some cables.",
"#### Museum of Tolerance controversy",
"{{main\\|Museum of Tolerance Jerusalem\\#Controversy}}\nIn 2004, the [Simon Wiesenthal Center](/wiki/Simon_Wiesenthal_Center \"Simon Wiesenthal Center\") (SWC) revealed plans to build a [Center for Human Dignity](/wiki/Center_for_Human_Dignity \"Center for Human Dignity\") as part of its [Museum of Tolerance Jerusalem](/wiki/Museum_of_Tolerance_Jerusalem \"Museum of Tolerance Jerusalem\") with a target date for completion in 2009\\.{{Cite news\\|url\\=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle\\-east/israel\\-plans\\-to\\-build\\-museum\\-of\\-tolerance\\-on\\-muslim\\-graves\\-466028\\.html \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619154809/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle\\-east/israel\\-plans\\-to\\-build\\-museum\\-of\\-tolerance\\-on\\-muslim\\-graves\\-466028\\.html \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-date\\=19 June 2008 \\|title\\=Israel plans to build 'museum of tolerance' on Muslim graves \\|date\\= 9 February 2006\\|author \\=Donald Macintyre \\|work\\=\\[\\[The Independent]] \\|access\\-date\\=16 July 2011}}{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle\\_east/4721336\\.stm\\|title\\=Row over Israeli tolerance museum\\|date\\=17 February 2006\\|via\\=news.bbc.co.uk}} [Frank Gehry](/wiki/Frank_Gehry \"Frank Gehry\") was appointed the architect, and the Jerusalem Municipality offered the SWC a 3\\.5\\-acre plot in the northern section of the original Mamilla cemetery where the parking lot was built in 1964\\. Marvin Hier, head of the SWC, said his association was unaware that the site was located on a cemetery and was told by the municipality that the land was owned by the [Israel Lands Administration](/wiki/Israel_Lands_Administration \"Israel Lands Administration\") before it was given to the SWC for the project.{{cite news\\|title\\=Museum of Tolerance Special Report / An exhibition of Zionism\\|url\\=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/2\\.278/museum\\-of\\-tolerance\\-special\\-report\\-an\\-exhibition\\-of\\-zionism\\-1\\.290968\\|newspaper\\=Ha'aretz\\|author\\=Natasha Mozgovaya\\|date\\=18 May 2010\\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2011}}",
"During excavations to prepare the ground for construction in 2005–2006, skeletons were found and removed. The Islamic Court, a division of Israel's justice system, issued a temporary ban on work, but work continued anyway. The Al Aqsa Association of the [Islamic Movement](/wiki/Islamic_Movement_in_Israel \"Islamic Movement in Israel\") moved to bring the case before Israel's Supreme Court.",
"The SWC's plan also elicited considerable outcry from some Israeli academics and archaeologists, and work was stayed several times by the courts. After the Supreme Court rejected the Islamic Movement's petition in October 2008, work resumed. Between November 2008 and April 2009, crews of 40 to 70 people per shift worked in 8\\-hour stints, 24\\-hours a day to remove an estimated 1,000 skeletons from the site slated for construction.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/magazine/museum\\-of\\-tolerance\\-special\\-report\\-part\\-ii\\-secrets\\-from\\-the\\-grave\\-1\\.290941\\|title\\=Museum of Tolerance Special Report / Part II: Secrets from the grave\\|date\\=18 May 2011\\|access\\-date\\=17 July 2011\\|newspaper\\=Ha'aretz\\|author\\=Nir Hasson}}",
"In 2010, [Marvin Hier](/wiki/Marvin_Hier \"Marvin Hier\"), rabbi and founder and dean of the SWC, said \"Our opponents would have you believe our bulldozers are preparing to desecrate ancient Muslim tombstones and historic markers. Let me be clear: The Museum of Tolerance is not being built on the Mamilla Cemetery, but on an adjacent 3\\-acre site where, for a half\\-century, hundreds of people of all faiths have parked in a three\\-level underground structure without any protest.\"{{Cite news\\|title\\=Hypocrisy and lies fuel enemies of a Jerusalem museum \\|author\\=Rabbin Marvin Hier \\|newspaper\\=New York Daily News \\|date\\=19 February 2010 \\|url\\=http://www.nydailynews.com/opinions/2010/02/19/2010\\-02\\-19\\_hypocrisy\\_and\\_lies\\_fuel\\_enemies\\_of\\_a\\_jerusalem\\_museum.html }} Hier also accused opponents of the SWC's building plans of \"sheer hypocrisy,\"{{Cite news\\|title\\=Muslims planned Mamilla project in '45 \\|author\\=Abe Selig \\|newspaper\\=The Jerusalem Post \\|date\\=17 February 2010 \\|url\\=http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id\\=168899}} noting that the plans of the Supreme Muslim Council to build a commercial center in 1945 was evidence that substantiated the Supreme Court's ruling, \"That the Mamilla Cemetery was regarded by many Muslim religious leaders as 'mundras,' or abandoned and without sanctity.\"",
"[Rashid Khalidi](/wiki/Rashid_Khalidi \"Rashid Khalidi\"), a professor of Arab studies at [Columbia University](/wiki/Columbia_University \"Columbia University\"), said that, \"contrary to what Rabbi Hier said, that parking lot was built over a cemetery, part of it. And so, the Israeli authorities are basically pushing ahead with the desecration of a cemetery that they have been, unfortunately, slowly nibbling away at for over three decades. We and other families are taking action as a group of families to try and stop this, after other families failed in the Israeli Supreme Court.\" He also said that \"What they have now done is to dig down and disinter four layers, according to the chief archaeologist for the Israeli Archaeological Authority, four layers of graves. There are more probably beneath those, according to his report, which was suppressed in the submissions to the Israeli Supreme Court.\"{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.democracynow.org/2010/2/10/palestinian\\_families\\_appeal\\_to\\_un\\_over \\|title\\=Palestinian families appeal to un \\|date\\= 10 February 2010\\|author \\=Democracy Now \\|access\\-date\\=14 July 2011}}",
"Gehry resigned from the project in January 2010\\.{{cite news\\|title\\=Frank Gehry steps down from Museum of Tolerance project\\|date\\=15 January 2010\\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2011\\|author\\=Akiva Eldar\\|newspaper\\=Ha'aretz\\|url\\=http://www.haaretz.com/print\\-edition/news/frank\\-gehry\\-steps\\-down\\-from\\-museum\\-of\\-tolerance\\-project\\-1\\.261496}} A new design for the museum drafted by Chyutin Architects was approved by the city of Jerusalem in June 2011, receiving an official building permit from the Interior Ministry in July 2011\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Irony Be Damned, Israel Will Build Its Museum of Tolerance Atop a Muslim Graveyard\\|url\\=http://www.artinfo.com/news/story/38107/irony\\-be\\-damned\\-israel\\-will\\-build\\-its\\-museum\\-of\\-tolerance\\-atop\\-a\\-palestinian\\-graveyard/\\|publisher\\=ARTINFO\\|date\\=14 July 2011\\|access\\-date\\=18 July 2011}}",
"In October 2011, eighty\\-four archaeologists called on the Simon Wiesenthal Center, the Jerusalem municipality and the Israel Antiquities Authority to end construction of the Museum of Tolerance. In a letter sent to the three bodies, the archaeologists argued that the establishment of the museum on the site of the Mamilla Muslim cemetery contradicted ethical standards in the archaeological world, as well as Israeli law. \"The bulldozing of historic cemeteries is the ultimate act of territorial aggrandizement: the erasure of prior residents,\" said Professor [Harvey Weiss](/wiki/Harvey_Weiss \"Harvey Weiss\") of Yale University, adding that \"Desecration of Jerusalem's Mamilla cemetery is a continuing cultural and historical tragedy.\" The Simon Wiesenthal Center responded that \"the arguments in the letter are old, of a mistaken nature and contain factual errors.\"{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.haaretz.com/culture/arts\\-leisure/grave\\-concerns\\-1\\.391852 \\|title\\= Grave concerns International archaeologists are calling for work to stop at the Museum of Tolerance \\|date\\= 25 October 2011 \\|author \\= Noam Dvir \\|access\\-date\\=30 July 2011}}",
"#### Other developments",
"Plans to build new buildings to house the Jerusalem Magistrate's Court and the Jerusalem District Court on the cemetery grounds were cancelled by Supreme Court President Dorit Beinisch in January 2010\\. The decision followed the discovery of human remains at the site, supporting critics' claims that construction in the area was offensive to Muslims.",
"On 9 August 2010, 300 Muslim gravestones in the cemetery were bulldozed by the [Israel Lands Administration](/wiki/Israel_Lands_Administration \"Israel Lands Administration\") (ILA) in an area US Jewish human rights activists said was very close to the planned site for the Museum of Tolerance. A reporter from [Agence France Presse](/wiki/Agence_France_Presse \"Agence France Presse\") witnessed the destruction of 200 graves until the work was briefly suspended while the court heard a stop work petition it rejected, allowing demolitions to continue that same day. The judge later issued an order prohibiting harm to ancient graves and mandating that the ILA coordinate work with the [Israel Antiquities Authority](/wiki/Israel_Antiquities_Authority \"Israel Antiquities Authority\") and representatives of the Islamic Movement.{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.haaretz.com/print\\-edition/features/even\\-the\\-dead\\-and\\-buried\\-enter\\-the\\-conflict\\-1\\.308076\\|author\\=Nir Hasson\\|date\\=15 August 2010\\|title\\=Even the dead and buried enter the conflict\\|newspaper\\=Haaretz}}",
"The Jerusalem city council issued its first official response in a written statement on 12 August, saying that, \"The municipality and the (Israel Lands) Authority destroyed around 300 dummy gravestones which were set up illegally in Independence Park on public land.\" It said these \"fake\" gravestones were not erected over any human remains and were placed in the park in an effort to \"illegally take over state land.\"",
"Mahmud Abu Atta, a spokesman for the Al\\-Aqsa Foundation, denied the city council's claim that new tombs were added illegally. He said that between 500 and 600 tombs had been renovated in total \"with the municipality's agreement,\" that \"some of the tombs had to be totally rebuilt,\" but that \"all the tombs that we built or renovated contain bodies.\"[\"Destroyed Muslim graves in Jerusalem were 'fake': Israel,\"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100815071759/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gtT5BQ6NyRWT1w36pkmHcQAEf6DQ) Hazel Ward, 12 August 2010, (AFP).",
"Twenty graves were completely destroyed or had their tombstones removed by vandals in January 2011\\.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.arct.cam.ac.uk/conflictincities/PDFs/Jan%20\\-Feb%202011%20WR.pdf\\|title\\=Jerusalem Web Review Jan–Feb 2011\\|publisher\\=Conflict in Cities and the Contested State}}{{Dead link\\|date\\=March 2020 \\|bot\\=InternetArchiveBot \\|fix\\-attempted\\=yes }} On the night of 25–26 June 2011, about 100 gravestones in an intact part of the cemetery were destroyed by Israeli bulldozers.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.palestinemonitor.org/?p\\=1146\\|date\\=15 July 2011\\|publisher\\=The Palestine Monitor\\|title\\=Israel gets final permit to build \"Museum of Tolerance\" atop of Muslim cemetery}} Footage filmed by local media and activists appeared on [Al Arabiya](/wiki/Al_Arabiya \"Al Arabiya\") and [Al Jazeera](/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Media_Network \"Al Jazeera Media Network\") and showed the bulldozers pulling out quickly after realizing they were being filmed; Israeli officials made no comment on the incident.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://axisoflogic.com/artman/publish/Article\\_63332\\.shtml\\|title\\=Jerusalem Municipality Destroys Cemetery Headstones, Approves \"Museum of Tolerance\" \\|author\\=Center for Constitutional Rights\\|date\\=30 June 2011\\|publisher\\=Axis of Logic}}",
"Later that same year, fifteen gravestones in the cemetery were spray painted red with racist slogans reading \"Death to the Arabs\", as well as \"[price tag](/wiki/Price_tag_policy \"Price tag policy\")\" and \"[Givat Asaf](/wiki/Givat_Asaf \"Givat Asaf\")\", the name of an [Israeli outpost](/wiki/Israeli_outpost \"Israeli outpost\") slated for demolition.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.france24\\.com/en/20111110\\-muslim\\-graves\\-vandalised\\-disputed\\-jerusalem\\-site \\|title\\=Muslim graves vandalised at disputed Jerusalem site \\|publisher\\=AFP/France24 \\|date\\=10 November 2011 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20111110194328/http://www.france24\\.com/en/20111110\\-muslim\\-graves\\-vandalised\\-disputed\\-jerusalem\\-site \\|archive\\-date\\=10 November 2011 }}{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.jpost.com/NationalNews/Article.aspx?id\\=245138\\|title\\=88% of Jewish Israelis oppose price tag attacks\\|newspaper\\=The Jerusalem Post\\|date\\=10 November 2011}} The news was reported in November 2011 by Agence France Presse whose photographer saw the damage. Haaretz reported that the authorities did not know exactly when the vandalism took place, nor who was responsible,{{cite news\\|url\\=http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/death\\-to\\-arabs\\-scrawled\\-across\\-muslim\\-gravestones\\-in\\-jerusalem\\-1\\.394804\\|title\\='Death to Arabs' scrawled across Muslim gravestones in Jerusalem\\|date\\=10 November 2011\\|author\\=Oz Rosenberg\\|newspaper\\=Haaretz}} An Israeli Police spokeswoman told AFP that \"the slogans were painted several weeks ago\" and had not yet been erased by municipal authorities.",
""
] |
History
-------
{{more citations needed\|section\|date\=November 2016}}
[thumb\|right\|Rapid City in 1938](/wiki/File:South_Dakota_-_Rapid_City_-_NARA_-_68148938_%28cropped%29.jpg "South Dakota - Rapid City - NARA - 68148938 (cropped).jpg")
The public discovery of gold in 1874 by the [Black Hills Expedition](/wiki/Black_Hills_Expedition "Black Hills Expedition"), led by [George Armstrong Custer](/wiki/George_Armstrong_Custer "George Armstrong Custer"), brought a mass influx of European\-American miners and settlers into Rapid City.{{cite web\|url\=https://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/blackhills/learning/history\-culture/?cid\=STELPRDB5115326\|title\=Western Frontier History\|publisher\=\[\[United States Forest Service]]\|access\-date\=July 12, 2023}} A group of unsuccessful miners founded Rapid City in 1876, trying to create other chances; they promoted their new city as the "Gateway to the Black Hills"; it was originally known as Hay Camp. The "Gateway" nickname is shared by neighboring [Box Elder](/wiki/Box_Elder%2C_South_Dakota "Box Elder, South Dakota"). In February 1876, [John Richard Brennan](/wiki/John_Richard_Brennan "John Richard Brennan") and Samuel Scott, with a small group of men, laid out Rapid City. It was eventually named for the spring\-fed [Rapid Creek](/wiki/Rapid_Creek_%28South_Dakota%29 "Rapid Creek (South Dakota)") that flows through it.
The land speculators measured off a square mile and designated the six blocks in the center as a business section. Committees were appointed to recruit prospective merchants and their families to locate in the settlement. Such merchants soon began selling supplies to miners and pioneers. The city's location on the edge of the Plains and Hills and its large river valley made it a natural hub for the railroads that were constructed in the late 1880s from both the south and east. By 1900, Rapid City had survived a boom and bust and was developing as an important regional trade center for the Upper Midwest.
The Black Hills had become popular in the late 1890s, but Rapid City became a more important destination in the 20th century. Local entrepreneurs promoted the sights, the availability of the automobile for individual transportation, and construction of improved roadways after [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") led to many more tourists to this area, including President [Calvin Coolidge](/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge "Calvin Coolidge") and the First Lady in summer 1927\. Coolidge announced that he would not seek reelection in 1928 from his summer office in Rapid City. [Gutzon Borglum](/wiki/Gutzon_Borglum "Gutzon Borglum"), already a noted sculptor, began work on [Mount Rushmore](/wiki/Mount_Rushmore "Mount Rushmore") in 1927, and his son, Lincoln Borglum, continued the work after Gutzon's death in 1941\. The work was halted due to the US need to invest in buildup for its entry into [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II "World War II"); the sculpture was declared complete in 1941\. Although tourism had sustained the city throughout the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression "Great Depression") of the 1930s, gasoline rationing during World War II decimated such travel. But investments in the defense industry and other war\-related growth stimulated the placement of new military installations in the area, bringing more businesses and residents.
In 1930, the Rapid City Chamber of Commerce sent a letter inviting [Al Capone](/wiki/Al_Capone "Al Capone") to live in the Black Hills.{{Cite book\|title\=Almanac of North Dakota Mysteries \& Oddities, 2009\-2010\|last\=Jackson\|first\=William\|date\=2008\|publisher\=Valley Star Books\|isbn\=9780967734989\|pages\=44\|oclc\=259419005}} South Dakota's governor did not support the idea, and Capone declined.
[thumb\|left\|400px\|Panoramic view of Sixth and Main Streets in Rapid City, 1912](/wiki/File:6th_and_Main_Streets%2C_Rapid_City.jpg "6th and Main Streets, Rapid City.jpg")
In the 1940s Rapid City benefited greatly from the opening of Rapid City Army Air Base, later [Ellsworth Air Force Base](/wiki/Ellsworth_Air_Force_Base "Ellsworth Air Force Base"), an [Army Air Corps](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Corps "United States Army Air Corps") training base. The local population nearly doubled between 1940 and 1948, from almost 14,000 to nearly 27,000\. Military families and civilian personnel soon took every available living space in town, and mobile home parks proliferated. Rapid City businesses profited from the military payroll.
During the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War "Cold War"), the government constructed missile installations in the area: a series of [Nike Air Defense](/wiki/Nike_Air_Defense "Nike Air Defense") sites were constructed around Ellsworth in the 1950s. In the early 1960s three [Titan missile](/wiki/Titan_missile "Titan missile") launch sites were constructed; these contained a total of nine Titan I missiles in Rapid City's general vicinity. Beginning in November 1963, the land for 100 miles east, northeast and northwest of the city was dotted with construction of 150 [Minuteman](/wiki/LGM-30_Minuteman "LGM-30 Minuteman") [missile silos](/wiki/Missile_silo "Missile silo") and 15 launch command centers. They were all deactivated in the early 1990s.{{cite web \| publisher\=The Brookings Institution \| title \=Retiring a Minuteman ICBM (LGM\-30F) \| work\=U.S. Nuclear Weapons Cost Study Project \| url\=http://www.brook.edu/fp/projects/nucwcost/retire.htm \| access\-date\=October 4, 2007 \| url\-status\=dead \| archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070510001730/http://www.brook.edu/fp/projects/nucwcost/retire.htm \| archive\-date\=May 10, 2007}}
In 1949, city officials envisioned the city as a retail and wholesale trade center for the region. They developed a plan for growth that focused on a civic center, more downtown parking, new schools, and paved streets. A construction boom continued into the 1950s. Growth slowed in the 1960s.
After the [Black Hills Flood of 1972](/wiki/Black_Hills_Flood_of_1972 "Black Hills Flood of 1972"), the worst natural disaster in South Dakota history, a building boom took place over the next decade to replace damaged structures. On June 9, 1972, heavy rains caused massive flash flooding along Rapid Creek through the city, killing 238 people and destroying more than $100 million in property.
[thumb\|upright\|Debris along Rapid Creek after 1972 flood](/wiki/Image:Rapidcreek1972flood.jpg "Rapidcreek1972flood.jpg")
In response to this devastation, Rapid City received an outpouring of private donations and millions of dollars in federal aid. It was able to complete a major part of its 1949 plan: clearing the area along the Rapid Creek and making the floodplain a public park. In other areas, new homes and businesses were constructed to replace those that had been destroyed. [Rushmore Plaza Civic Center](/wiki/Rushmore_Plaza_Civic_Center "Rushmore Plaza Civic Center") and a new Central High School were built in part of the area that was cleared. The high school opened in 1978, with the graduating class that year attending classes in both the original school (housed in what is now Rapid City High School and community theater) and the new one.
The rebuilding generated construction and related jobs that partly insulated Rapid City from the drop in automotive tourism caused by the 1974 [Oil Embargo](/wiki/Oil_Embargo "Oil Embargo"), but tourism was depressed for most of a decade. In 1978, [Rushmore Mall](/wiki/Rushmore_Mall "Rushmore Mall") was built on the city's north edge, enhancing the city's status as a local retail center.
In 1980, the [Supreme Court of the United States](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States "Supreme Court of the United States") ruled in *[United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians](/wiki/United_States_v._Sioux_Nation_of_Indians "United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians")* that the federal government had not justly compensated the [Sioux](/wiki/Sioux "Sioux") people for the [Black Hills](/wiki/Black_Hills "Black Hills") when it unilaterally broke a treaty guaranteeing the Black Hills to them. As a result, the federal government offered a financial settlement, but the Lakota Sioux declined on the principle that the theft of their land should not be validated. They still demand the return of the land. The settlement funds accrue interest.{{cite news\|last\=Giago\|first\=Tim\|title\=The Black Hills: A Case of Dishonest Dealings\|work\=The Huffington Post\|date\=June 3, 2007\|url\=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/tim\-giago/the\-black\-hills\-a\-case\-o\_b\_50480\.html\|access\-date\=October 26, 2007}} This land includes Rapid City, by far the largest modern settlement in the Black Hills. As of 2023, the dispute has not been settled.
In the 1980s, tourism increased again as the city hosted the annual [Sturgis Motorcycle Rally](/wiki/Sturgis_Motorcycle_Rally "Sturgis Motorcycle Rally"); another decline occurred in the late 1990s. Fears that Ellsworth AFB would be closed under the BRAC review and base closure process in the 1990s and 2000s led to attempts to expand other sectors of the economy. Growth continued and the city expanded significantly during this period.
Today, Rapid City is South Dakota's primary city for tourism and recreation. With the federal government's approval of a [Deep Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory](/wiki/Deep_Underground_Science_and_Engineering_Laboratory "Deep Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory") at the [Homestake Mine](/wiki/Homestake_Mine_%28South_Dakota%29 "Homestake Mine (South Dakota)") site in nearby [Lead](/wiki/Lead%2C_South_Dakota "Lead, South Dakota"), Rapid City is primed for advancements in [technology](/wiki/Technology "Technology"), [medicine](/wiki/Medicine "Medicine"), and [scientific](/wiki/Scientific "Scientific") [research](/wiki/Research "Research").
### 1972 Rapid Creek flood
{{Main\|1972 Black Hills flood}}
[thumb\|Cars thrown together by the 1972 flood](/wiki/Image:Rapid_City_SD_wea00703.jpg "Rapid City SD wea00703.jpg")
On June 9–10, 1972, extremely heavy rains over the eastern [Black Hills](/wiki/Black_Hills "Black Hills") of South Dakota produced record floods on Rapid Creek and other streams in the area. Nearly {{convert\|15\|in\|mm}} of rain fell in about six hours near [Nemo](/wiki/Nemo%2C_South_Dakota "Nemo, South Dakota"), and more than {{convert\|10\|in\|mm}} of rain fell over an area of {{convert\|60\|sqmi\|km2\|\-1}}. According to the [Red Cross](/wiki/Red_Cross "Red Cross"), the resulting peak floods (which occurred after dark) left 238 people dead and 3,057 people injured.{{cite web \| title \= The 1972 Black Hills\-Rapid City Flood Revisited \| publisher \= United States Geological Survey \| access\-date\=October 15, 2007 \| url \= http://sd.water.usgs.gov/projects/1972flood/ \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20071009114711/http://sd.water.usgs.gov/projects/1972flood/ \| archive\-date\=October 9, 2007 \| url\-status \= dead }} Total property destruction was estimated in excess of $160 million (about $964 million in 2018 dollars), which included 1,335 homes and 5,000 automobiles that were destroyed. The flood also nearly destroyed a popular children's park: [Story Book Island](/wiki/Story_Book_Island "Story Book Island").{{cite web \| url\=https://www.keloland.com/news/local\-news/storybook\-island\-in\-rapid\-city\-reflects\-on\-the\-1972\-flood/ \| title\=Storybook Island in Rapid City reflects on the 1972 flood \| date\=June 6, 2022 }}
Runoff from this storm produced record floods (highest peak flows recorded) along Battle, Spring, Rapid, and Box Elder creeks. Smaller floods also occurred along Elk and [Bear Butte](/wiki/Bear_Butte "Bear Butte") creeks. Canyon Lake Dam, on the west side of Rapid City, broke the night of the flood, unleashing a wall of water down the creek. The 1972 flooding has an estimated recurrence interval of 500 years,[(Burr and Korkow, 1996\)](https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/pubs/ofr/ofr96202) which means that a flood of this magnitude will occur on average once every 500 years. Every year there is a 0\.2% chance (1 in 500\) that a similar event will occur. To prevent similar damage, the city has prohibited residential and business construction on its flood plain. Today the flood plain is used for civic functions such as golf courses, parks, sports arenas, and arboretums, based mostly on the landscape and temporary use by people.
In 2007, the [Rapid City Public Library](/wiki/Rapid_City_Public_Library "Rapid City Public Library") created a 1972 Flood digital archive[1972 Flood digital archive](http://www.rapidcitylibrary.org/lib_info/1972Flood/index.asp) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210213624/http://www.rapidcitylibrary.org/lib\_info/1972Flood/index.asp \|date\=February 10, 2012}} that collects survivors' stories, photos and news accounts of the flood. The Journey Museum has an interactive display on the 1972 flood; this is an ongoing project to give future generations the best idea of how the people were affected and what changes the city made as a result of the major losses of life and property. Plans include the memorialization of all those who died from the flood by the preparation of individual biographies, so they may be remembered more fully.
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{more citations needed\\|section\\|date\\=November 2016}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Rapid City in 1938](/wiki/File:South_Dakota_-_Rapid_City_-_NARA_-_68148938_%28cropped%29.jpg \"South Dakota - Rapid City - NARA - 68148938 (cropped).jpg\")\nThe public discovery of gold in 1874 by the [Black Hills Expedition](/wiki/Black_Hills_Expedition \"Black Hills Expedition\"), led by [George Armstrong Custer](/wiki/George_Armstrong_Custer \"George Armstrong Custer\"), brought a mass influx of European\\-American miners and settlers into Rapid City.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.fs.usda.gov/detail/blackhills/learning/history\\-culture/?cid\\=STELPRDB5115326\\|title\\=Western Frontier History\\|publisher\\=\\[\\[United States Forest Service]]\\|access\\-date\\=July 12, 2023}} A group of unsuccessful miners founded Rapid City in 1876, trying to create other chances; they promoted their new city as the \"Gateway to the Black Hills\"; it was originally known as Hay Camp. The \"Gateway\" nickname is shared by neighboring [Box Elder](/wiki/Box_Elder%2C_South_Dakota \"Box Elder, South Dakota\"). In February 1876, [John Richard Brennan](/wiki/John_Richard_Brennan \"John Richard Brennan\") and Samuel Scott, with a small group of men, laid out Rapid City. It was eventually named for the spring\\-fed [Rapid Creek](/wiki/Rapid_Creek_%28South_Dakota%29 \"Rapid Creek (South Dakota)\") that flows through it.",
"The land speculators measured off a square mile and designated the six blocks in the center as a business section. Committees were appointed to recruit prospective merchants and their families to locate in the settlement. Such merchants soon began selling supplies to miners and pioneers. The city's location on the edge of the Plains and Hills and its large river valley made it a natural hub for the railroads that were constructed in the late 1880s from both the south and east. By 1900, Rapid City had survived a boom and bust and was developing as an important regional trade center for the Upper Midwest.",
"The Black Hills had become popular in the late 1890s, but Rapid City became a more important destination in the 20th century. Local entrepreneurs promoted the sights, the availability of the automobile for individual transportation, and construction of improved roadways after [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") led to many more tourists to this area, including President [Calvin Coolidge](/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge \"Calvin Coolidge\") and the First Lady in summer 1927\\. Coolidge announced that he would not seek reelection in 1928 from his summer office in Rapid City. [Gutzon Borglum](/wiki/Gutzon_Borglum \"Gutzon Borglum\"), already a noted sculptor, began work on [Mount Rushmore](/wiki/Mount_Rushmore \"Mount Rushmore\") in 1927, and his son, Lincoln Borglum, continued the work after Gutzon's death in 1941\\. The work was halted due to the US need to invest in buildup for its entry into [World War II](/wiki/World_War_II \"World War II\"); the sculpture was declared complete in 1941\\. Although tourism had sustained the city throughout the [Great Depression](/wiki/Great_Depression \"Great Depression\") of the 1930s, gasoline rationing during World War II decimated such travel. But investments in the defense industry and other war\\-related growth stimulated the placement of new military installations in the area, bringing more businesses and residents.",
"In 1930, the Rapid City Chamber of Commerce sent a letter inviting [Al Capone](/wiki/Al_Capone \"Al Capone\") to live in the Black Hills.{{Cite book\\|title\\=Almanac of North Dakota Mysteries \\& Oddities, 2009\\-2010\\|last\\=Jackson\\|first\\=William\\|date\\=2008\\|publisher\\=Valley Star Books\\|isbn\\=9780967734989\\|pages\\=44\\|oclc\\=259419005}} South Dakota's governor did not support the idea, and Capone declined.",
"[thumb\\|left\\|400px\\|Panoramic view of Sixth and Main Streets in Rapid City, 1912](/wiki/File:6th_and_Main_Streets%2C_Rapid_City.jpg \"6th and Main Streets, Rapid City.jpg\")\nIn the 1940s Rapid City benefited greatly from the opening of Rapid City Army Air Base, later [Ellsworth Air Force Base](/wiki/Ellsworth_Air_Force_Base \"Ellsworth Air Force Base\"), an [Army Air Corps](/wiki/United_States_Army_Air_Corps \"United States Army Air Corps\") training base. The local population nearly doubled between 1940 and 1948, from almost 14,000 to nearly 27,000\\. Military families and civilian personnel soon took every available living space in town, and mobile home parks proliferated. Rapid City businesses profited from the military payroll.",
"During the [Cold War](/wiki/Cold_War \"Cold War\"), the government constructed missile installations in the area: a series of [Nike Air Defense](/wiki/Nike_Air_Defense \"Nike Air Defense\") sites were constructed around Ellsworth in the 1950s. In the early 1960s three [Titan missile](/wiki/Titan_missile \"Titan missile\") launch sites were constructed; these contained a total of nine Titan I missiles in Rapid City's general vicinity. Beginning in November 1963, the land for 100 miles east, northeast and northwest of the city was dotted with construction of 150 [Minuteman](/wiki/LGM-30_Minuteman \"LGM-30 Minuteman\") [missile silos](/wiki/Missile_silo \"Missile silo\") and 15 launch command centers. They were all deactivated in the early 1990s.{{cite web \\| publisher\\=The Brookings Institution \\| title \\=Retiring a Minuteman ICBM (LGM\\-30F) \\| work\\=U.S. Nuclear Weapons Cost Study Project \\| url\\=http://www.brook.edu/fp/projects/nucwcost/retire.htm \\| access\\-date\\=October 4, 2007 \\| url\\-status\\=dead \\| archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070510001730/http://www.brook.edu/fp/projects/nucwcost/retire.htm \\| archive\\-date\\=May 10, 2007}}",
"In 1949, city officials envisioned the city as a retail and wholesale trade center for the region. They developed a plan for growth that focused on a civic center, more downtown parking, new schools, and paved streets. A construction boom continued into the 1950s. Growth slowed in the 1960s.",
"After the [Black Hills Flood of 1972](/wiki/Black_Hills_Flood_of_1972 \"Black Hills Flood of 1972\"), the worst natural disaster in South Dakota history, a building boom took place over the next decade to replace damaged structures. On June 9, 1972, heavy rains caused massive flash flooding along Rapid Creek through the city, killing 238 people and destroying more than $100 million in property.\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Debris along Rapid Creek after 1972 flood](/wiki/Image:Rapidcreek1972flood.jpg \"Rapidcreek1972flood.jpg\")",
"In response to this devastation, Rapid City received an outpouring of private donations and millions of dollars in federal aid. It was able to complete a major part of its 1949 plan: clearing the area along the Rapid Creek and making the floodplain a public park. In other areas, new homes and businesses were constructed to replace those that had been destroyed. [Rushmore Plaza Civic Center](/wiki/Rushmore_Plaza_Civic_Center \"Rushmore Plaza Civic Center\") and a new Central High School were built in part of the area that was cleared. The high school opened in 1978, with the graduating class that year attending classes in both the original school (housed in what is now Rapid City High School and community theater) and the new one.",
"The rebuilding generated construction and related jobs that partly insulated Rapid City from the drop in automotive tourism caused by the 1974 [Oil Embargo](/wiki/Oil_Embargo \"Oil Embargo\"), but tourism was depressed for most of a decade. In 1978, [Rushmore Mall](/wiki/Rushmore_Mall \"Rushmore Mall\") was built on the city's north edge, enhancing the city's status as a local retail center.",
"In 1980, the [Supreme Court of the United States](/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States \"Supreme Court of the United States\") ruled in *[United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians](/wiki/United_States_v._Sioux_Nation_of_Indians \"United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians\")* that the federal government had not justly compensated the [Sioux](/wiki/Sioux \"Sioux\") people for the [Black Hills](/wiki/Black_Hills \"Black Hills\") when it unilaterally broke a treaty guaranteeing the Black Hills to them. As a result, the federal government offered a financial settlement, but the Lakota Sioux declined on the principle that the theft of their land should not be validated. They still demand the return of the land. The settlement funds accrue interest.{{cite news\\|last\\=Giago\\|first\\=Tim\\|title\\=The Black Hills: A Case of Dishonest Dealings\\|work\\=The Huffington Post\\|date\\=June 3, 2007\\|url\\=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/tim\\-giago/the\\-black\\-hills\\-a\\-case\\-o\\_b\\_50480\\.html\\|access\\-date\\=October 26, 2007}} This land includes Rapid City, by far the largest modern settlement in the Black Hills. As of 2023, the dispute has not been settled.",
"In the 1980s, tourism increased again as the city hosted the annual [Sturgis Motorcycle Rally](/wiki/Sturgis_Motorcycle_Rally \"Sturgis Motorcycle Rally\"); another decline occurred in the late 1990s. Fears that Ellsworth AFB would be closed under the BRAC review and base closure process in the 1990s and 2000s led to attempts to expand other sectors of the economy. Growth continued and the city expanded significantly during this period.",
"Today, Rapid City is South Dakota's primary city for tourism and recreation. With the federal government's approval of a [Deep Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory](/wiki/Deep_Underground_Science_and_Engineering_Laboratory \"Deep Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory\") at the [Homestake Mine](/wiki/Homestake_Mine_%28South_Dakota%29 \"Homestake Mine (South Dakota)\") site in nearby [Lead](/wiki/Lead%2C_South_Dakota \"Lead, South Dakota\"), Rapid City is primed for advancements in [technology](/wiki/Technology \"Technology\"), [medicine](/wiki/Medicine \"Medicine\"), and [scientific](/wiki/Scientific \"Scientific\") [research](/wiki/Research \"Research\").",
"### 1972 Rapid Creek flood",
"{{Main\\|1972 Black Hills flood}}\n[thumb\\|Cars thrown together by the 1972 flood](/wiki/Image:Rapid_City_SD_wea00703.jpg \"Rapid City SD wea00703.jpg\")\nOn June 9–10, 1972, extremely heavy rains over the eastern [Black Hills](/wiki/Black_Hills \"Black Hills\") of South Dakota produced record floods on Rapid Creek and other streams in the area. Nearly {{convert\\|15\\|in\\|mm}} of rain fell in about six hours near [Nemo](/wiki/Nemo%2C_South_Dakota \"Nemo, South Dakota\"), and more than {{convert\\|10\\|in\\|mm}} of rain fell over an area of {{convert\\|60\\|sqmi\\|km2\\|\\-1}}. According to the [Red Cross](/wiki/Red_Cross \"Red Cross\"), the resulting peak floods (which occurred after dark) left 238 people dead and 3,057 people injured.{{cite web \\| title \\= The 1972 Black Hills\\-Rapid City Flood Revisited \\| publisher \\= United States Geological Survey \\| access\\-date\\=October 15, 2007 \\| url \\= http://sd.water.usgs.gov/projects/1972flood/ \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20071009114711/http://sd.water.usgs.gov/projects/1972flood/ \\| archive\\-date\\=October 9, 2007 \\| url\\-status \\= dead }} Total property destruction was estimated in excess of $160 million (about $964 million in 2018 dollars), which included 1,335 homes and 5,000 automobiles that were destroyed. The flood also nearly destroyed a popular children's park: [Story Book Island](/wiki/Story_Book_Island \"Story Book Island\").{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.keloland.com/news/local\\-news/storybook\\-island\\-in\\-rapid\\-city\\-reflects\\-on\\-the\\-1972\\-flood/ \\| title\\=Storybook Island in Rapid City reflects on the 1972 flood \\| date\\=June 6, 2022 }}",
"Runoff from this storm produced record floods (highest peak flows recorded) along Battle, Spring, Rapid, and Box Elder creeks. Smaller floods also occurred along Elk and [Bear Butte](/wiki/Bear_Butte \"Bear Butte\") creeks. Canyon Lake Dam, on the west side of Rapid City, broke the night of the flood, unleashing a wall of water down the creek. The 1972 flooding has an estimated recurrence interval of 500 years,[(Burr and Korkow, 1996\\)](https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/pubs/ofr/ofr96202) which means that a flood of this magnitude will occur on average once every 500 years. Every year there is a 0\\.2% chance (1 in 500\\) that a similar event will occur. To prevent similar damage, the city has prohibited residential and business construction on its flood plain. Today the flood plain is used for civic functions such as golf courses, parks, sports arenas, and arboretums, based mostly on the landscape and temporary use by people.",
"In 2007, the [Rapid City Public Library](/wiki/Rapid_City_Public_Library \"Rapid City Public Library\") created a 1972 Flood digital archive[1972 Flood digital archive](http://www.rapidcitylibrary.org/lib_info/1972Flood/index.asp) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210213624/http://www.rapidcitylibrary.org/lib\\_info/1972Flood/index.asp \\|date\\=February 10, 2012}} that collects survivors' stories, photos and news accounts of the flood. The Journey Museum has an interactive display on the 1972 flood; this is an ongoing project to give future generations the best idea of how the people were affected and what changes the city made as a result of the major losses of life and property. Plans include the memorialization of all those who died from the flood by the preparation of individual biographies, so they may be remembered more fully.",
""
] |
Geography
---------
Rapid City is located in the shadow of [Black Elk Peak](/wiki/Black_Elk_Peak "Black Elk Peak"), which at {{convert\|7242\|ft\|m\|0}}, is the second highest point east of the [Rocky Mountains](/wiki/Rocky_Mountains "Rocky Mountains"), after Guadeloupe Peak in Texas at 8,571 feet.
According to the [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau "United States Census Bureau"), the city has a total area of {{convert\|55\.129\|sqmi\|sqkm\|2}}, of which, {{convert\|55\.067\|sqmi\|sqkm\|2}} is land and {{convert\|0\.062\|sqmi\|sqkm\|2}} is water.
Rapid City is located on the eastern edge of the Black Hills, and has developed on each side of the Dakota Hogback. Rapid City's "Westside" is located in the Red Valley between the foothills of the Black Hills proper and the Dakota Hogback, so named for the red Spearfish formation soils and the way the valley completely encircles the Black Hills. Rapid City has expanded into the foothills, with developments having been built on both ridges and in valleys developed, especially in the last 20 years. This arid edge area has a higher risk of wildfire, as shown by the Westberry Trails fire in 1988\.
[thumb\|right\|View of the city from [Dinosaur Park](/wiki/Dinosaur_Park "Dinosaur Park")](/wiki/File:Rapid_City%2C_South_Dakota_seen_from_Dinosaur_Park.jpg "Rapid City, South Dakota seen from Dinosaur Park.jpg")
Skyline Drive follows the summits of the Dakota Hogback south from near Rapid Gap (where Rapid Creek cuts through the Hogback) to a large high plateau that forms the current south edge of Rapid City. The Central and Eastern portions of Rapid City lie in the wide valley of Rapid Creek outside the Hogback. It includes a number of mesas rising a hundred feet or more above the floodplain.
### Rapid Creek
Rapid Creek flows through Rapid City, emerging from Dark Canyon above Canyon Lake and flowing in a large arc north of downtown. It descends to the southeast where the valley widens. Since the flood damage of 1972, the city has prohibited most development in the [floodplain](/wiki/Floodplain "Floodplain") of Rapid Creek. It has adapted this green space for public uses: a series of parks, arboretums, and bike trails, which have reconnected the city to the creek for residents.
To the north, a series of ridges separate Rapid Creek from Box Elder Creek. Both older and new residential areas and commercial areas have developed here, along [I\-90](/wiki/I-90_%28SD%29 "I-90 (SD)"). To the south, the terrain rises more steeply to the southern widening of the Dakota Hogback into a plateau dividing the Rapid Creek drainage from Spring Creek.
### Climate
[thumb\|View of southern Rapid City from the east after a rainstorm, including a view of [Black Elk Peak](/wiki/Black_Elk_Peak "Black Elk Peak") and the [Black Hills](/wiki/Black_Hills "Black Hills")](/wiki/File:Rapid_City_from_Rapid_Valley_090604.jpg "Rapid City from Rapid Valley 090604.jpg")
Rapid City features a temperate [semi\-arid climate](/wiki/Semi-arid_climate "Semi-arid climate") ([Köppen](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification "Köppen climate classification"): BSk) bordering on a [hot\-summer humid continental climate](/wiki/Hot-summer_humid_continental_climate "Hot-summer humid continental climate") ([Köppen](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification "Köppen climate classification"): Dwa), and is part of USDA [Hardiness zone](/wiki/Hardiness_zone "Hardiness zone") 5b.{{cite book \|title\=USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map \|publisher\=United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service }} Its location makes its climate unlike both the higher elevations of the Black Hills to the west and the Great Plains to the east. It is characterized by long arid summers and long dry winters, with short but distinct spring and autumn seasons. Precipitation averages {{convert\|17\.44\|in\|mm\|1\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}} annually, but has historically ranged from {{convert\|9\.12\|in\|mm\|1\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}} in 1974 to {{convert\|27\.70\|in\|mm\|1\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}} in 1946\.{{cite web \|url \= https://www.weather.gov/wrh/Climate?wfo\=unr \|title \= NowData \- NOAA Online Weather Data \|publisher \= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \|access\-date\=October 19, 2021}}{{cite web \|url\= https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset\=normals\-monthly\-1991\-2020\&startDate\=0001\-01\-01\&endDate\=9996\-12\-31\&stations\=USW00024090\&format\=pdf \|title \= Station: Rapid City RGNL AP, SD \|work\= U.S. Climate Normals 2020: U.S. Monthly Climate Normals (1991\-2020\) \|publisher \= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \|access\-date\=October 19, 2021}}
Winters are cold and dry, with January being the coldest month with a daily mean temperature of {{convert\|24\.3\|°F\|1\|disp\=or}}. [Chinook winds](/wiki/Chinook_wind "Chinook wind") can warm temperatures above {{convert\|50\|°F\|disp\=or}}, doing so on average about 20 times from December to February. Temperature inversions, however, occasionally produce warmer temperatures in the Black Hills. On average, highs do not climb above freezing on 43 days, while the low temperature reaches {{convert\|0\|°F\|1\|disp\=or}} on an average of 18 nights. Snowfall is frequent but usually not heavy; March and April are typically the snowiest months. The seasonal total averages {{convert\|48\.5\|in\|m\|2\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}}, although historically ranging from {{convert\|16\.9\|in\|m\|2\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}} during 1980–81 to {{convert\|80\.9\|in\|m\|2\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}} during 1985–86\. Extensive snow cover does not remain for long, with only nine days seasonally with {{convert\|5\|in\|m\|2\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}} or more on the ground. Measurable snow has occurred in every month except July.
Compared to locations in the east, the area warms rather gradually early in the year, with the last measurable snow typically occurring in late April and precipitation totals beginning to increase; May snow occurs several times per decade. Toward the middle of the year, storms typically develop over the Black Hills during the afternoon and move onto the plains in the evening. Only in April through June have calendar\-day precipitation amounts exceeding {{convert\|3\|in\|mm\|1\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}} been observed. June 15, 1963, with {{convert\|3\.78\|in\|mm\|1\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}}, holds the single\-day rainfall record; the record\-wettest month is May 1996 with {{convert\|8\.18\|in\|mm\|1\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}}. Rapid City has an average of twenty clear to partly cloudy days{{cite web\|url \= http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s\=026627\&refer\=\|title \= Weatherbase: Historical Weather for Rapid City, South Dakota, United States of America\|access\-date \= September 5, 2009}} and 67% of its possible sunshine in June. This is the traditional "flood" season for Rapid and other creeks in the Eastern Hills. Temperatures warm rapidly as summer approaches.
Summer in Rapid City has relatively pleasant temperatures, and is relatively dry (following a wet spring), and relatively sunny. July is the warmest month of the year, having a daily mean temperature of {{convert\|72\.4\|°F\|1}}. An average of 32 days reach {{convert\|90\|°F\|1}}\+ highs and 5 with {{convert\|100\|°F\|1}}\+ highs. Due to the elevation and aridity, lows rarely remain at or above {{convert\|70\|°F\|1}} and during July and August fall to or below {{convert\|50\|°F\|disp\=or}} on an average 7\.6 days. Rapid City records an average of nine thunderstorm days in August, but only {{convert\|1\.56\|in\|mm\|1\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}} of rain in that month.
Fall is a transition season: the average first freeze occurs in Rapid City on October 4 and in the Black Hills in late August through September. The Rapid City area's first snowfall is usually in October, although higher elevations sometimes receive significant snow in September. Occasional cold fronts moving through the area bring blustery northwest winds.
Sunshine is abundant in the region in all months except December, averaging 2850 hours, 64% of the possible total, per year.
Official extreme temperatures range from {{convert\|−31\|°F\|0\|disp\=or}} on February 2, 1996, up to {{convert\|111\|°F\|0\|disp\=or}} on July 15, 2006; the record low daily maximum is {{convert\|−18\|°F\|0\|disp\=or}} on February 2, 1989, while the record high daily minimum is {{convert\|75\|°F\|0\|disp\=or}} on July 8, 1985, and July 28, 1960\.{{cite web \|title\=Threaded Extremes \|url\=http://threadex.rcc\-acis.org/ \|access\-date\=March 10, 2013 \|publisher\=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}
Rapid City had the record for an extreme temperature drop of {{convert\|47\|F\-change\|1\|disp\=or}}, which was achieved on January 10, 1911, from {{convert\|60\|°F\|°C\|0\|disp\=or}} to {{convert\|13\|°F\|°C\|0\|disp\=or}}.{{cite book
\| last \= Lyons
\| first \= Walter A
\| title \= The Handy Weather Answer Book
\| edition \= 2nd
\| year \= 1997
\| publisher \= Visible Ink press
\| location \= \[\[Detroit]]
\| isbn \= 0\-7876\-1034\-8
\| url \= https://archive.org/details/handyweatheransw00lyon
}} This was due to the [Chinook wind](/wiki/Chinook_wind "Chinook wind"), but record was lost to Spearfish, South Dakota, in 1942\.{{Cite web \|last\=US Department of Commerce \|first\=NOAA \|title\=The Black Hills Remarkable Temperature Change of January 22, 1943 \|url\=https://www.weather.gov/unr/1943\-01\-22 \|access\-date\=March 3, 2024 \|website\=www.weather.gov \|language\=EN\-US}}
{{Weather box
\|location \= \[\[Rapid City Regional Airport]], South Dakota (1991−2020 normals,{{efn\|Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the expected highest and lowest temperature readings at any point during the year or given month) calculated based on data at said location from 1991 to 2020\.}} extremes 1942−present){{efn\|Official temperature and precipitation records for Rapid City kept at the old municipal airport from August 1942 to October 11, 1950, and at Rapid City Regional since October 12, 1950\. Snowfall and snow depth records date to September 1, 1942, and the move to Rapid City Regional, respectively.}}
\|collapsed \= Y
\|single line \= Y
\|Jan record high F \= 76
\|Feb record high F \= 75
\|Mar record high F \= 84
\|Apr record high F \= 93
\|May record high F \= 98
\|Jun record high F \= 109
\|Jul record high F \= 111
\|Aug record high F \= 107
\|Sep record high F \= 104
\|Oct record high F \= 96
\|Nov record high F \= 83
\|Dec record high F \= 75
\|year record high F \= 111
\|Jan avg record high F \= 61\.3
\|Feb avg record high F \= 63\.8
\|Mar avg record high F \= 74\.8
\|Apr avg record high F \= 81\.6
\|May avg record high F \= 87\.8
\|Jun avg record high F \= 95\.1
\|Jul avg record high F \= 100\.7
\|Aug avg record high F \= 99\.8
\|Sep avg record high F \= 96\.4
\|Oct avg record high F \= 86\.3
\|Nov avg record high F \= 72\.3
\|Dec avg record high F \= 62\.0
\|year avg record high F \= 102\.8
\|Jan high F \= 36\.0
\|Feb high F \= 38\.1
\|Mar high F \= 48\.2
\|Apr high F \= 56\.6
\|May high F \= 66\.5
\|Jun high F \= 77\.6
\|Jul high F \= 86\.4
\|Aug high F \= 85\.4
\|Sep high F \= 76\.1
\|Oct high F \= 60\.4
\|Nov high F \= 47\.3
\|Dec high F \= 37\.2
\|year high F \= 59\.6
\|Jan mean F \= 24\.3
\|Feb mean F \= 26\.1
\|Mar mean F \= 35\.4
\|Apr mean F \= 43\.9
\|May mean F \= 54\.1
\|Jun mean F \= 64\.6
\|Jul mean F \= 72\.4
\|Aug mean F \= 70\.8
\|Sep mean F \= 61\.3
\|Oct mean F \= 47\.1
\|Nov mean F \= 34\.6
\|Dec mean F \= 25\.6
\|year mean F \= 46\.7
\|Jan low F \= 12\.7
\|Feb low F \= 14\.0
\|Mar low F \= 22\.6
\|Apr low F \= 31\.2
\|May low F \= 41\.7
\|Jun low F \= 51\.6
\|Jul low F \= 58\.5
\|Aug low F \= 56\.2
\|Sep low F \= 46\.4
\|Oct low F \= 33\.7
\|Nov low F \= 21\.9
\|Dec low F \= 13\.9
\|year low F \= 33\.7
\|Jan avg record low F \= \-9\.6
\|Feb avg record low F \= \-7\.5
\|Mar avg record low F \= 1\.7
\|Apr avg record low F \= 15\.9
\|May avg record low F \= 27\.0
\|Jun avg record low F \= 39\.7
\|Jul avg record low F \= 48\.2
\|Aug avg record low F \= 45\.2
\|Sep avg record low F \= 31\.6
\|Oct avg record low F \= 15\.1
\|Nov avg record low F \= 2\.0
\|Dec avg record low F \= \-7\.5
\|year avg record low F \= \-17\.2
\|Jan record low F \= −27
\|Feb record low F \= −31
\|Mar record low F \= −21
\|Apr record low F \= \-1
\|May record low F \= 18
\|Jun record low F \= 31
\|Jul record low F \= 39
\|Aug record low F \= 37
\|Sep record low F \= 18
\|Oct record low F \= \-7
\|Nov record low F \= −19
\|Dec record low F \= −30
\|year record low F \= \-31
\|precipitation colour \= green
\|Jan precipitation inch \= 0\.31
\|Feb precipitation inch \= 0\.50
\|Mar precipitation inch \= 0\.91
\|Apr precipitation inch \= 2\.08
\|May precipitation inch \= 3\.45
\|Jun precipitation inch \= 2\.87
\|Jul precipitation inch \= 2\.28
\|Aug precipitation inch \= 1\.59
\|Sep precipitation inch \= 1\.22
\|Oct precipitation inch \= 1\.41
\|Nov precipitation inch \= 0\.47
\|Dec precipitation inch \= 0\.35
\|year precipitation inch \= 17\.44
\|Jan snow inch \= 5\.3
\|Feb snow inch \= 7\.7
\|Mar snow inch \= 8\.4
\|Apr snow inch \= 10\.1
\|May snow inch \= 1\.5
\|Jun snow inch \= 0\.0
\|Jul snow inch \= 0\.0
\|Aug snow inch \= 0\.0
\|Sep snow inch \= 0\.1
\|Oct snow inch \= 3\.0
\|Nov snow inch \= 5\.7
\|Dec snow inch \= 6\.7
\|year snow inch \= 48\.5
\|unit precipitation days \= 0\.01 in
\|Jan precipitation days \= 5\.7
\|Feb precipitation days \= 6\.6
\|Mar precipitation days \= 7\.0
\|Apr precipitation days \= 10\.5
\|May precipitation days \= 12\.6
\|Jun precipitation days \= 12\.5
\|Jul precipitation days \= 9\.8
\|Aug precipitation days \= 7\.9
\|Sep precipitation days \= 6\.6
\|Oct precipitation days \= 7\.1
\|Nov precipitation days \= 5\.1
\|Dec precipitation days \= 5\.0
\|year precipitation days \= 96\.4
\|unit snow days \= 0\.1 in
\|Jan snow days \= 6\.1
\|Feb snow days \= 7\.1
\|Mar snow days \= 4\.1
\|Apr snow days \= 4\.3
\|May snow days \= 0\.4
\|Jun snow days \= 0\.0
\|Jul snow days \= 0\.0
\|Aug snow days \= 0\.0
\|Sep snow days \= 0\.1
\|Oct snow days \= 1\.7
\|Nov snow days \= 3\.6
\|Dec snow days \= 5\.4
\|year snow days \= 32\.8
\|Jan humidity \= 63\.5
\|Feb humidity \= 65\.1
\|Mar humidity \= 63\.8
\|Apr humidity \= 58\.6
\|May humidity \= 60\.8
\|Jun humidity \= 61\.9
\|Jul humidity \= 56\.2
\|Aug humidity \= 52\.6
\|Sep humidity \= 53\.5
\|Oct humidity \= 54\.2
\|Nov humidity \= 62\.2
\|Dec humidity \= 64\.8
\|year humidity \= 59\.8
\|Jan sun \= 163\.5
\|Feb sun \= 174\.0
\|Mar sun \= 233\.9
\|Apr sun \= 246\.9
\|May sun \= 274\.3
\|Jun sun \= 310\.5
\|Jul sun \= 335\.5
\|Aug sun \= 323\.8
\|Sep sun \= 261\.9
\|Oct sun \= 226\.0
\|Nov sun \= 156\.6
\|Dec sun \= 149\.9
\|year sun \= 2856\.8
\|Jan percentsun \= 57
\|Feb percentsun \= 59
\|Mar percentsun \= 63
\|Apr percentsun \= 61
\|May percentsun \= 60
\|Jun percentsun \= 67
\|Jul percentsun \= 72
\|Aug percentsun \= 75
\|Sep percentsun \= 70
\|Oct percentsun \= 66
\|Nov percentsun \= 54
\|Dec percentsun \= 54
\|year percentsun \= 64
\|source 1 \= \[\[NOAA]] (relative humidity and sun 1961−1990\){{cite web
\| url \= https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1961\-1990/TABLES/REG\_IV/US/GROUP4/72662\.TXT
\| title \= WMO Climate Normals for RAPID CITY/REGIONAL ARPT SD 1961–1990
\| publisher \= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
\| access\-date \= October 19, 2021}}
}}
|
[
"Geography\n---------",
"Rapid City is located in the shadow of [Black Elk Peak](/wiki/Black_Elk_Peak \"Black Elk Peak\"), which at {{convert\\|7242\\|ft\\|m\\|0}}, is the second highest point east of the [Rocky Mountains](/wiki/Rocky_Mountains \"Rocky Mountains\"), after Guadeloupe Peak in Texas at 8,571 feet.",
"According to the [United States Census Bureau](/wiki/United_States_Census_Bureau \"United States Census Bureau\"), the city has a total area of {{convert\\|55\\.129\\|sqmi\\|sqkm\\|2}}, of which, {{convert\\|55\\.067\\|sqmi\\|sqkm\\|2}} is land and {{convert\\|0\\.062\\|sqmi\\|sqkm\\|2}} is water.",
"Rapid City is located on the eastern edge of the Black Hills, and has developed on each side of the Dakota Hogback. Rapid City's \"Westside\" is located in the Red Valley between the foothills of the Black Hills proper and the Dakota Hogback, so named for the red Spearfish formation soils and the way the valley completely encircles the Black Hills. Rapid City has expanded into the foothills, with developments having been built on both ridges and in valleys developed, especially in the last 20 years. This arid edge area has a higher risk of wildfire, as shown by the Westberry Trails fire in 1988\\.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|View of the city from [Dinosaur Park](/wiki/Dinosaur_Park \"Dinosaur Park\")](/wiki/File:Rapid_City%2C_South_Dakota_seen_from_Dinosaur_Park.jpg \"Rapid City, South Dakota seen from Dinosaur Park.jpg\")",
"Skyline Drive follows the summits of the Dakota Hogback south from near Rapid Gap (where Rapid Creek cuts through the Hogback) to a large high plateau that forms the current south edge of Rapid City. The Central and Eastern portions of Rapid City lie in the wide valley of Rapid Creek outside the Hogback. It includes a number of mesas rising a hundred feet or more above the floodplain.",
"### Rapid Creek",
"Rapid Creek flows through Rapid City, emerging from Dark Canyon above Canyon Lake and flowing in a large arc north of downtown. It descends to the southeast where the valley widens. Since the flood damage of 1972, the city has prohibited most development in the [floodplain](/wiki/Floodplain \"Floodplain\") of Rapid Creek. It has adapted this green space for public uses: a series of parks, arboretums, and bike trails, which have reconnected the city to the creek for residents.",
"To the north, a series of ridges separate Rapid Creek from Box Elder Creek. Both older and new residential areas and commercial areas have developed here, along [I\\-90](/wiki/I-90_%28SD%29 \"I-90 (SD)\"). To the south, the terrain rises more steeply to the southern widening of the Dakota Hogback into a plateau dividing the Rapid Creek drainage from Spring Creek.",
"### Climate",
"[thumb\\|View of southern Rapid City from the east after a rainstorm, including a view of [Black Elk Peak](/wiki/Black_Elk_Peak \"Black Elk Peak\") and the [Black Hills](/wiki/Black_Hills \"Black Hills\")](/wiki/File:Rapid_City_from_Rapid_Valley_090604.jpg \"Rapid City from Rapid Valley 090604.jpg\")\nRapid City features a temperate [semi\\-arid climate](/wiki/Semi-arid_climate \"Semi-arid climate\") ([Köppen](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification \"Köppen climate classification\"): BSk) bordering on a [hot\\-summer humid continental climate](/wiki/Hot-summer_humid_continental_climate \"Hot-summer humid continental climate\") ([Köppen](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification \"Köppen climate classification\"): Dwa), and is part of USDA [Hardiness zone](/wiki/Hardiness_zone \"Hardiness zone\") 5b.{{cite book \\|title\\=USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map \\|publisher\\=United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service }} Its location makes its climate unlike both the higher elevations of the Black Hills to the west and the Great Plains to the east. It is characterized by long arid summers and long dry winters, with short but distinct spring and autumn seasons. Precipitation averages {{convert\\|17\\.44\\|in\\|mm\\|1\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}} annually, but has historically ranged from {{convert\\|9\\.12\\|in\\|mm\\|1\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}} in 1974 to {{convert\\|27\\.70\\|in\\|mm\\|1\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}} in 1946\\.{{cite web \\|url \\= https://www.weather.gov/wrh/Climate?wfo\\=unr \\|title \\= NowData \\- NOAA Online Weather Data \\|publisher \\= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \\|access\\-date\\=October 19, 2021}}{{cite web \\|url\\= https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset\\=normals\\-monthly\\-1991\\-2020\\&startDate\\=0001\\-01\\-01\\&endDate\\=9996\\-12\\-31\\&stations\\=USW00024090\\&format\\=pdf \\|title \\= Station: Rapid City RGNL AP, SD \\|work\\= U.S. Climate Normals 2020: U.S. Monthly Climate Normals (1991\\-2020\\) \\|publisher \\= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \\|access\\-date\\=October 19, 2021}}",
"Winters are cold and dry, with January being the coldest month with a daily mean temperature of {{convert\\|24\\.3\\|°F\\|1\\|disp\\=or}}. [Chinook winds](/wiki/Chinook_wind \"Chinook wind\") can warm temperatures above {{convert\\|50\\|°F\\|disp\\=or}}, doing so on average about 20 times from December to February. Temperature inversions, however, occasionally produce warmer temperatures in the Black Hills. On average, highs do not climb above freezing on 43 days, while the low temperature reaches {{convert\\|0\\|°F\\|1\\|disp\\=or}} on an average of 18 nights. Snowfall is frequent but usually not heavy; March and April are typically the snowiest months. The seasonal total averages {{convert\\|48\\.5\\|in\\|m\\|2\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}}, although historically ranging from {{convert\\|16\\.9\\|in\\|m\\|2\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}} during 1980–81 to {{convert\\|80\\.9\\|in\\|m\\|2\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}} during 1985–86\\. Extensive snow cover does not remain for long, with only nine days seasonally with {{convert\\|5\\|in\\|m\\|2\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}} or more on the ground. Measurable snow has occurred in every month except July.",
"Compared to locations in the east, the area warms rather gradually early in the year, with the last measurable snow typically occurring in late April and precipitation totals beginning to increase; May snow occurs several times per decade. Toward the middle of the year, storms typically develop over the Black Hills during the afternoon and move onto the plains in the evening. Only in April through June have calendar\\-day precipitation amounts exceeding {{convert\\|3\\|in\\|mm\\|1\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}} been observed. June 15, 1963, with {{convert\\|3\\.78\\|in\\|mm\\|1\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}}, holds the single\\-day rainfall record; the record\\-wettest month is May 1996 with {{convert\\|8\\.18\\|in\\|mm\\|1\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}}. Rapid City has an average of twenty clear to partly cloudy days{{cite web\\|url \\= http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s\\=026627\\&refer\\=\\|title \\= Weatherbase: Historical Weather for Rapid City, South Dakota, United States of America\\|access\\-date \\= September 5, 2009}} and 67% of its possible sunshine in June. This is the traditional \"flood\" season for Rapid and other creeks in the Eastern Hills. Temperatures warm rapidly as summer approaches.",
"Summer in Rapid City has relatively pleasant temperatures, and is relatively dry (following a wet spring), and relatively sunny. July is the warmest month of the year, having a daily mean temperature of {{convert\\|72\\.4\\|°F\\|1}}. An average of 32 days reach {{convert\\|90\\|°F\\|1}}\\+ highs and 5 with {{convert\\|100\\|°F\\|1}}\\+ highs. Due to the elevation and aridity, lows rarely remain at or above {{convert\\|70\\|°F\\|1}} and during July and August fall to or below {{convert\\|50\\|°F\\|disp\\=or}} on an average 7\\.6 days. Rapid City records an average of nine thunderstorm days in August, but only {{convert\\|1\\.56\\|in\\|mm\\|1\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}} of rain in that month.",
"Fall is a transition season: the average first freeze occurs in Rapid City on October 4 and in the Black Hills in late August through September. The Rapid City area's first snowfall is usually in October, although higher elevations sometimes receive significant snow in September. Occasional cold fronts moving through the area bring blustery northwest winds.",
"Sunshine is abundant in the region in all months except December, averaging 2850 hours, 64% of the possible total, per year.",
"Official extreme temperatures range from {{convert\\|−31\\|°F\\|0\\|disp\\=or}} on February 2, 1996, up to {{convert\\|111\\|°F\\|0\\|disp\\=or}} on July 15, 2006; the record low daily maximum is {{convert\\|−18\\|°F\\|0\\|disp\\=or}} on February 2, 1989, while the record high daily minimum is {{convert\\|75\\|°F\\|0\\|disp\\=or}} on July 8, 1985, and July 28, 1960\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Threaded Extremes \\|url\\=http://threadex.rcc\\-acis.org/ \\|access\\-date\\=March 10, 2013 \\|publisher\\=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}",
"Rapid City had the record for an extreme temperature drop of {{convert\\|47\\|F\\-change\\|1\\|disp\\=or}}, which was achieved on January 10, 1911, from {{convert\\|60\\|°F\\|°C\\|0\\|disp\\=or}} to {{convert\\|13\\|°F\\|°C\\|0\\|disp\\=or}}.{{cite book\n \\| last \\= Lyons\n \\| first \\= Walter A\n \\| title \\= The Handy Weather Answer Book\n \\| edition \\= 2nd\n \\| year \\= 1997\n \\| publisher \\= Visible Ink press\n \\| location \\= \\[\\[Detroit]]\n \\| isbn \\= 0\\-7876\\-1034\\-8\n \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/handyweatheransw00lyon\n }} This was due to the [Chinook wind](/wiki/Chinook_wind \"Chinook wind\"), but record was lost to Spearfish, South Dakota, in 1942\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=US Department of Commerce \\|first\\=NOAA \\|title\\=The Black Hills Remarkable Temperature Change of January 22, 1943 \\|url\\=https://www.weather.gov/unr/1943\\-01\\-22 \\|access\\-date\\=March 3, 2024 \\|website\\=www.weather.gov \\|language\\=EN\\-US}}",
"{{Weather box\n\\|location \\= \\[\\[Rapid City Regional Airport]], South Dakota (1991−2020 normals,{{efn\\|Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the expected highest and lowest temperature readings at any point during the year or given month) calculated based on data at said location from 1991 to 2020\\.}} extremes 1942−present){{efn\\|Official temperature and precipitation records for Rapid City kept at the old municipal airport from August 1942 to October 11, 1950, and at Rapid City Regional since October 12, 1950\\. Snowfall and snow depth records date to September 1, 1942, and the move to Rapid City Regional, respectively.}}\n\\|collapsed \\= Y\n\\|single line \\= Y\n\\|Jan record high F \\= 76\n\\|Feb record high F \\= 75\n\\|Mar record high F \\= 84\n\\|Apr record high F \\= 93\n\\|May record high F \\= 98\n\\|Jun record high F \\= 109\n\\|Jul record high F \\= 111\n\\|Aug record high F \\= 107\n\\|Sep record high F \\= 104\n\\|Oct record high F \\= 96\n\\|Nov record high F \\= 83\n\\|Dec record high F \\= 75\n\\|year record high F \\= 111\n\\|Jan avg record high F \\= 61\\.3\n\\|Feb avg record high F \\= 63\\.8\n\\|Mar avg record high F \\= 74\\.8\n\\|Apr avg record high F \\= 81\\.6\n\\|May avg record high F \\= 87\\.8\n\\|Jun avg record high F \\= 95\\.1\n\\|Jul avg record high F \\= 100\\.7\n\\|Aug avg record high F \\= 99\\.8\n\\|Sep avg record high F \\= 96\\.4\n\\|Oct avg record high F \\= 86\\.3\n\\|Nov avg record high F \\= 72\\.3\n\\|Dec avg record high F \\= 62\\.0\n\\|year avg record high F \\= 102\\.8\n\\|Jan high F \\= 36\\.0\n\\|Feb high F \\= 38\\.1\n\\|Mar high F \\= 48\\.2\n\\|Apr high F \\= 56\\.6\n\\|May high F \\= 66\\.5\n\\|Jun high F \\= 77\\.6\n\\|Jul high F \\= 86\\.4\n\\|Aug high F \\= 85\\.4\n\\|Sep high F \\= 76\\.1\n\\|Oct high F \\= 60\\.4\n\\|Nov high F \\= 47\\.3\n\\|Dec high F \\= 37\\.2\n\\|year high F \\= 59\\.6\n\\|Jan mean F \\= 24\\.3\n\\|Feb mean F \\= 26\\.1\n\\|Mar mean F \\= 35\\.4\n\\|Apr mean F \\= 43\\.9\n\\|May mean F \\= 54\\.1\n\\|Jun mean F \\= 64\\.6\n\\|Jul mean F \\= 72\\.4\n\\|Aug mean F \\= 70\\.8\n\\|Sep mean F \\= 61\\.3\n\\|Oct mean F \\= 47\\.1\n\\|Nov mean F \\= 34\\.6\n\\|Dec mean F \\= 25\\.6\n\\|year mean F \\= 46\\.7\n\\|Jan low F \\= 12\\.7\n\\|Feb low F \\= 14\\.0\n\\|Mar low F \\= 22\\.6\n\\|Apr low F \\= 31\\.2\n\\|May low F \\= 41\\.7\n\\|Jun low F \\= 51\\.6\n\\|Jul low F \\= 58\\.5\n\\|Aug low F \\= 56\\.2\n\\|Sep low F \\= 46\\.4\n\\|Oct low F \\= 33\\.7\n\\|Nov low F \\= 21\\.9\n\\|Dec low F \\= 13\\.9\n\\|year low F \\= 33\\.7\n\\|Jan avg record low F \\= \\-9\\.6\n\\|Feb avg record low F \\= \\-7\\.5\n\\|Mar avg record low F \\= 1\\.7\n\\|Apr avg record low F \\= 15\\.9\n\\|May avg record low F \\= 27\\.0\n\\|Jun avg record low F \\= 39\\.7\n\\|Jul avg record low F \\= 48\\.2\n\\|Aug avg record low F \\= 45\\.2\n\\|Sep avg record low F \\= 31\\.6\n\\|Oct avg record low F \\= 15\\.1\n\\|Nov avg record low F \\= 2\\.0\n\\|Dec avg record low F \\= \\-7\\.5\n\\|year avg record low F \\= \\-17\\.2\n\\|Jan record low F \\= −27\n\\|Feb record low F \\= −31\n\\|Mar record low F \\= −21\n\\|Apr record low F \\= \\-1\n\\|May record low F \\= 18\n\\|Jun record low F \\= 31\n\\|Jul record low F \\= 39\n\\|Aug record low F \\= 37\n\\|Sep record low F \\= 18\n\\|Oct record low F \\= \\-7\n\\|Nov record low F \\= −19\n\\|Dec record low F \\= −30\n\\|year record low F \\= \\-31\n\\|precipitation colour \\= green\n\\|Jan precipitation inch \\= 0\\.31\n\\|Feb precipitation inch \\= 0\\.50\n\\|Mar precipitation inch \\= 0\\.91\n\\|Apr precipitation inch \\= 2\\.08\n\\|May precipitation inch \\= 3\\.45\n\\|Jun precipitation inch \\= 2\\.87\n\\|Jul precipitation inch \\= 2\\.28\n\\|Aug precipitation inch \\= 1\\.59\n\\|Sep precipitation inch \\= 1\\.22\n\\|Oct precipitation inch \\= 1\\.41\n\\|Nov precipitation inch \\= 0\\.47\n\\|Dec precipitation inch \\= 0\\.35\n\\|year precipitation inch \\= 17\\.44\n\\|Jan snow inch \\= 5\\.3\n\\|Feb snow inch \\= 7\\.7\n\\|Mar snow inch \\= 8\\.4\n\\|Apr snow inch \\= 10\\.1\n\\|May snow inch \\= 1\\.5\n\\|Jun snow inch \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Jul snow inch \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Aug snow inch \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Sep snow inch \\= 0\\.1\n\\|Oct snow inch \\= 3\\.0\n\\|Nov snow inch \\= 5\\.7\n\\|Dec snow inch \\= 6\\.7\n\\|year snow inch \\= 48\\.5\n\\|unit precipitation days \\= 0\\.01 in\n\\|Jan precipitation days \\= 5\\.7\n\\|Feb precipitation days \\= 6\\.6\n\\|Mar precipitation days \\= 7\\.0\n\\|Apr precipitation days \\= 10\\.5\n\\|May precipitation days \\= 12\\.6\n\\|Jun precipitation days \\= 12\\.5\n\\|Jul precipitation days \\= 9\\.8\n\\|Aug precipitation days \\= 7\\.9\n\\|Sep precipitation days \\= 6\\.6\n\\|Oct precipitation days \\= 7\\.1\n\\|Nov precipitation days \\= 5\\.1\n\\|Dec precipitation days \\= 5\\.0\n\\|year precipitation days \\= 96\\.4\n\\|unit snow days \\= 0\\.1 in\n\\|Jan snow days \\= 6\\.1\n\\|Feb snow days \\= 7\\.1\n\\|Mar snow days \\= 4\\.1\n\\|Apr snow days \\= 4\\.3\n\\|May snow days \\= 0\\.4\n\\|Jun snow days \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Jul snow days \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Aug snow days \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Sep snow days \\= 0\\.1\n\\|Oct snow days \\= 1\\.7\n\\|Nov snow days \\= 3\\.6\n\\|Dec snow days \\= 5\\.4\n\\|year snow days \\= 32\\.8\n\\|Jan humidity \\= 63\\.5\n\\|Feb humidity \\= 65\\.1\n\\|Mar humidity \\= 63\\.8\n\\|Apr humidity \\= 58\\.6\n\\|May humidity \\= 60\\.8\n\\|Jun humidity \\= 61\\.9\n\\|Jul humidity \\= 56\\.2\n\\|Aug humidity \\= 52\\.6\n\\|Sep humidity \\= 53\\.5\n\\|Oct humidity \\= 54\\.2\n\\|Nov humidity \\= 62\\.2\n\\|Dec humidity \\= 64\\.8\n\\|year humidity \\= 59\\.8\n\\|Jan sun \\= 163\\.5\n\\|Feb sun \\= 174\\.0\n\\|Mar sun \\= 233\\.9\n\\|Apr sun \\= 246\\.9\n\\|May sun \\= 274\\.3\n\\|Jun sun \\= 310\\.5\n\\|Jul sun \\= 335\\.5\n\\|Aug sun \\= 323\\.8\n\\|Sep sun \\= 261\\.9\n\\|Oct sun \\= 226\\.0\n\\|Nov sun \\= 156\\.6\n\\|Dec sun \\= 149\\.9\n\\|year sun \\= 2856\\.8\n\\|Jan percentsun \\= 57\n\\|Feb percentsun \\= 59\n\\|Mar percentsun \\= 63\n\\|Apr percentsun \\= 61\n\\|May percentsun \\= 60\n\\|Jun percentsun \\= 67\n\\|Jul percentsun \\= 72\n\\|Aug percentsun \\= 75\n\\|Sep percentsun \\= 70\n\\|Oct percentsun \\= 66\n\\|Nov percentsun \\= 54\n\\|Dec percentsun \\= 54\n\\|year percentsun \\= 64\n\\|source 1 \\= \\[\\[NOAA]] (relative humidity and sun 1961−1990\\){{cite web\n\\| url \\= https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1961\\-1990/TABLES/REG\\_IV/US/GROUP4/72662\\.TXT\n\\| title \\= WMO Climate Normals for RAPID CITY/REGIONAL ARPT SD 1961–1990\n\\| publisher \\= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration\n\\| access\\-date \\= October 19, 2021}}\n}}",
""
] |
### Climate
[thumb\|View of southern Rapid City from the east after a rainstorm, including a view of [Black Elk Peak](/wiki/Black_Elk_Peak "Black Elk Peak") and the [Black Hills](/wiki/Black_Hills "Black Hills")](/wiki/File:Rapid_City_from_Rapid_Valley_090604.jpg "Rapid City from Rapid Valley 090604.jpg")
Rapid City features a temperate [semi\-arid climate](/wiki/Semi-arid_climate "Semi-arid climate") ([Köppen](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification "Köppen climate classification"): BSk) bordering on a [hot\-summer humid continental climate](/wiki/Hot-summer_humid_continental_climate "Hot-summer humid continental climate") ([Köppen](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification "Köppen climate classification"): Dwa), and is part of USDA [Hardiness zone](/wiki/Hardiness_zone "Hardiness zone") 5b.{{cite book \|title\=USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map \|publisher\=United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service }} Its location makes its climate unlike both the higher elevations of the Black Hills to the west and the Great Plains to the east. It is characterized by long arid summers and long dry winters, with short but distinct spring and autumn seasons. Precipitation averages {{convert\|17\.44\|in\|mm\|1\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}} annually, but has historically ranged from {{convert\|9\.12\|in\|mm\|1\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}} in 1974 to {{convert\|27\.70\|in\|mm\|1\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}} in 1946\.{{cite web \|url \= https://www.weather.gov/wrh/Climate?wfo\=unr \|title \= NowData \- NOAA Online Weather Data \|publisher \= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \|access\-date\=October 19, 2021}}{{cite web \|url\= https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset\=normals\-monthly\-1991\-2020\&startDate\=0001\-01\-01\&endDate\=9996\-12\-31\&stations\=USW00024090\&format\=pdf \|title \= Station: Rapid City RGNL AP, SD \|work\= U.S. Climate Normals 2020: U.S. Monthly Climate Normals (1991\-2020\) \|publisher \= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \|access\-date\=October 19, 2021}}
Winters are cold and dry, with January being the coldest month with a daily mean temperature of {{convert\|24\.3\|°F\|1\|disp\=or}}. [Chinook winds](/wiki/Chinook_wind "Chinook wind") can warm temperatures above {{convert\|50\|°F\|disp\=or}}, doing so on average about 20 times from December to February. Temperature inversions, however, occasionally produce warmer temperatures in the Black Hills. On average, highs do not climb above freezing on 43 days, while the low temperature reaches {{convert\|0\|°F\|1\|disp\=or}} on an average of 18 nights. Snowfall is frequent but usually not heavy; March and April are typically the snowiest months. The seasonal total averages {{convert\|48\.5\|in\|m\|2\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}}, although historically ranging from {{convert\|16\.9\|in\|m\|2\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}} during 1980–81 to {{convert\|80\.9\|in\|m\|2\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}} during 1985–86\. Extensive snow cover does not remain for long, with only nine days seasonally with {{convert\|5\|in\|m\|2\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}} or more on the ground. Measurable snow has occurred in every month except July.
Compared to locations in the east, the area warms rather gradually early in the year, with the last measurable snow typically occurring in late April and precipitation totals beginning to increase; May snow occurs several times per decade. Toward the middle of the year, storms typically develop over the Black Hills during the afternoon and move onto the plains in the evening. Only in April through June have calendar\-day precipitation amounts exceeding {{convert\|3\|in\|mm\|1\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}} been observed. June 15, 1963, with {{convert\|3\.78\|in\|mm\|1\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}}, holds the single\-day rainfall record; the record\-wettest month is May 1996 with {{convert\|8\.18\|in\|mm\|1\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}}. Rapid City has an average of twenty clear to partly cloudy days{{cite web\|url \= http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s\=026627\&refer\=\|title \= Weatherbase: Historical Weather for Rapid City, South Dakota, United States of America\|access\-date \= September 5, 2009}} and 67% of its possible sunshine in June. This is the traditional "flood" season for Rapid and other creeks in the Eastern Hills. Temperatures warm rapidly as summer approaches.
Summer in Rapid City has relatively pleasant temperatures, and is relatively dry (following a wet spring), and relatively sunny. July is the warmest month of the year, having a daily mean temperature of {{convert\|72\.4\|°F\|1}}. An average of 32 days reach {{convert\|90\|°F\|1}}\+ highs and 5 with {{convert\|100\|°F\|1}}\+ highs. Due to the elevation and aridity, lows rarely remain at or above {{convert\|70\|°F\|1}} and during July and August fall to or below {{convert\|50\|°F\|disp\=or}} on an average 7\.6 days. Rapid City records an average of nine thunderstorm days in August, but only {{convert\|1\.56\|in\|mm\|1\|disp\=or\|sp\=us}} of rain in that month.
Fall is a transition season: the average first freeze occurs in Rapid City on October 4 and in the Black Hills in late August through September. The Rapid City area's first snowfall is usually in October, although higher elevations sometimes receive significant snow in September. Occasional cold fronts moving through the area bring blustery northwest winds.
Sunshine is abundant in the region in all months except December, averaging 2850 hours, 64% of the possible total, per year.
Official extreme temperatures range from {{convert\|−31\|°F\|0\|disp\=or}} on February 2, 1996, up to {{convert\|111\|°F\|0\|disp\=or}} on July 15, 2006; the record low daily maximum is {{convert\|−18\|°F\|0\|disp\=or}} on February 2, 1989, while the record high daily minimum is {{convert\|75\|°F\|0\|disp\=or}} on July 8, 1985, and July 28, 1960\.{{cite web \|title\=Threaded Extremes \|url\=http://threadex.rcc\-acis.org/ \|access\-date\=March 10, 2013 \|publisher\=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}
Rapid City had the record for an extreme temperature drop of {{convert\|47\|F\-change\|1\|disp\=or}}, which was achieved on January 10, 1911, from {{convert\|60\|°F\|°C\|0\|disp\=or}} to {{convert\|13\|°F\|°C\|0\|disp\=or}}.{{cite book
\| last \= Lyons
\| first \= Walter A
\| title \= The Handy Weather Answer Book
\| edition \= 2nd
\| year \= 1997
\| publisher \= Visible Ink press
\| location \= \[\[Detroit]]
\| isbn \= 0\-7876\-1034\-8
\| url \= https://archive.org/details/handyweatheransw00lyon
}} This was due to the [Chinook wind](/wiki/Chinook_wind "Chinook wind"), but record was lost to Spearfish, South Dakota, in 1942\.{{Cite web \|last\=US Department of Commerce \|first\=NOAA \|title\=The Black Hills Remarkable Temperature Change of January 22, 1943 \|url\=https://www.weather.gov/unr/1943\-01\-22 \|access\-date\=March 3, 2024 \|website\=www.weather.gov \|language\=EN\-US}}
{{Weather box
\|location \= \[\[Rapid City Regional Airport]], South Dakota (1991−2020 normals,{{efn\|Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the expected highest and lowest temperature readings at any point during the year or given month) calculated based on data at said location from 1991 to 2020\.}} extremes 1942−present){{efn\|Official temperature and precipitation records for Rapid City kept at the old municipal airport from August 1942 to October 11, 1950, and at Rapid City Regional since October 12, 1950\. Snowfall and snow depth records date to September 1, 1942, and the move to Rapid City Regional, respectively.}}
\|collapsed \= Y
\|single line \= Y
\|Jan record high F \= 76
\|Feb record high F \= 75
\|Mar record high F \= 84
\|Apr record high F \= 93
\|May record high F \= 98
\|Jun record high F \= 109
\|Jul record high F \= 111
\|Aug record high F \= 107
\|Sep record high F \= 104
\|Oct record high F \= 96
\|Nov record high F \= 83
\|Dec record high F \= 75
\|year record high F \= 111
\|Jan avg record high F \= 61\.3
\|Feb avg record high F \= 63\.8
\|Mar avg record high F \= 74\.8
\|Apr avg record high F \= 81\.6
\|May avg record high F \= 87\.8
\|Jun avg record high F \= 95\.1
\|Jul avg record high F \= 100\.7
\|Aug avg record high F \= 99\.8
\|Sep avg record high F \= 96\.4
\|Oct avg record high F \= 86\.3
\|Nov avg record high F \= 72\.3
\|Dec avg record high F \= 62\.0
\|year avg record high F \= 102\.8
\|Jan high F \= 36\.0
\|Feb high F \= 38\.1
\|Mar high F \= 48\.2
\|Apr high F \= 56\.6
\|May high F \= 66\.5
\|Jun high F \= 77\.6
\|Jul high F \= 86\.4
\|Aug high F \= 85\.4
\|Sep high F \= 76\.1
\|Oct high F \= 60\.4
\|Nov high F \= 47\.3
\|Dec high F \= 37\.2
\|year high F \= 59\.6
\|Jan mean F \= 24\.3
\|Feb mean F \= 26\.1
\|Mar mean F \= 35\.4
\|Apr mean F \= 43\.9
\|May mean F \= 54\.1
\|Jun mean F \= 64\.6
\|Jul mean F \= 72\.4
\|Aug mean F \= 70\.8
\|Sep mean F \= 61\.3
\|Oct mean F \= 47\.1
\|Nov mean F \= 34\.6
\|Dec mean F \= 25\.6
\|year mean F \= 46\.7
\|Jan low F \= 12\.7
\|Feb low F \= 14\.0
\|Mar low F \= 22\.6
\|Apr low F \= 31\.2
\|May low F \= 41\.7
\|Jun low F \= 51\.6
\|Jul low F \= 58\.5
\|Aug low F \= 56\.2
\|Sep low F \= 46\.4
\|Oct low F \= 33\.7
\|Nov low F \= 21\.9
\|Dec low F \= 13\.9
\|year low F \= 33\.7
\|Jan avg record low F \= \-9\.6
\|Feb avg record low F \= \-7\.5
\|Mar avg record low F \= 1\.7
\|Apr avg record low F \= 15\.9
\|May avg record low F \= 27\.0
\|Jun avg record low F \= 39\.7
\|Jul avg record low F \= 48\.2
\|Aug avg record low F \= 45\.2
\|Sep avg record low F \= 31\.6
\|Oct avg record low F \= 15\.1
\|Nov avg record low F \= 2\.0
\|Dec avg record low F \= \-7\.5
\|year avg record low F \= \-17\.2
\|Jan record low F \= −27
\|Feb record low F \= −31
\|Mar record low F \= −21
\|Apr record low F \= \-1
\|May record low F \= 18
\|Jun record low F \= 31
\|Jul record low F \= 39
\|Aug record low F \= 37
\|Sep record low F \= 18
\|Oct record low F \= \-7
\|Nov record low F \= −19
\|Dec record low F \= −30
\|year record low F \= \-31
\|precipitation colour \= green
\|Jan precipitation inch \= 0\.31
\|Feb precipitation inch \= 0\.50
\|Mar precipitation inch \= 0\.91
\|Apr precipitation inch \= 2\.08
\|May precipitation inch \= 3\.45
\|Jun precipitation inch \= 2\.87
\|Jul precipitation inch \= 2\.28
\|Aug precipitation inch \= 1\.59
\|Sep precipitation inch \= 1\.22
\|Oct precipitation inch \= 1\.41
\|Nov precipitation inch \= 0\.47
\|Dec precipitation inch \= 0\.35
\|year precipitation inch \= 17\.44
\|Jan snow inch \= 5\.3
\|Feb snow inch \= 7\.7
\|Mar snow inch \= 8\.4
\|Apr snow inch \= 10\.1
\|May snow inch \= 1\.5
\|Jun snow inch \= 0\.0
\|Jul snow inch \= 0\.0
\|Aug snow inch \= 0\.0
\|Sep snow inch \= 0\.1
\|Oct snow inch \= 3\.0
\|Nov snow inch \= 5\.7
\|Dec snow inch \= 6\.7
\|year snow inch \= 48\.5
\|unit precipitation days \= 0\.01 in
\|Jan precipitation days \= 5\.7
\|Feb precipitation days \= 6\.6
\|Mar precipitation days \= 7\.0
\|Apr precipitation days \= 10\.5
\|May precipitation days \= 12\.6
\|Jun precipitation days \= 12\.5
\|Jul precipitation days \= 9\.8
\|Aug precipitation days \= 7\.9
\|Sep precipitation days \= 6\.6
\|Oct precipitation days \= 7\.1
\|Nov precipitation days \= 5\.1
\|Dec precipitation days \= 5\.0
\|year precipitation days \= 96\.4
\|unit snow days \= 0\.1 in
\|Jan snow days \= 6\.1
\|Feb snow days \= 7\.1
\|Mar snow days \= 4\.1
\|Apr snow days \= 4\.3
\|May snow days \= 0\.4
\|Jun snow days \= 0\.0
\|Jul snow days \= 0\.0
\|Aug snow days \= 0\.0
\|Sep snow days \= 0\.1
\|Oct snow days \= 1\.7
\|Nov snow days \= 3\.6
\|Dec snow days \= 5\.4
\|year snow days \= 32\.8
\|Jan humidity \= 63\.5
\|Feb humidity \= 65\.1
\|Mar humidity \= 63\.8
\|Apr humidity \= 58\.6
\|May humidity \= 60\.8
\|Jun humidity \= 61\.9
\|Jul humidity \= 56\.2
\|Aug humidity \= 52\.6
\|Sep humidity \= 53\.5
\|Oct humidity \= 54\.2
\|Nov humidity \= 62\.2
\|Dec humidity \= 64\.8
\|year humidity \= 59\.8
\|Jan sun \= 163\.5
\|Feb sun \= 174\.0
\|Mar sun \= 233\.9
\|Apr sun \= 246\.9
\|May sun \= 274\.3
\|Jun sun \= 310\.5
\|Jul sun \= 335\.5
\|Aug sun \= 323\.8
\|Sep sun \= 261\.9
\|Oct sun \= 226\.0
\|Nov sun \= 156\.6
\|Dec sun \= 149\.9
\|year sun \= 2856\.8
\|Jan percentsun \= 57
\|Feb percentsun \= 59
\|Mar percentsun \= 63
\|Apr percentsun \= 61
\|May percentsun \= 60
\|Jun percentsun \= 67
\|Jul percentsun \= 72
\|Aug percentsun \= 75
\|Sep percentsun \= 70
\|Oct percentsun \= 66
\|Nov percentsun \= 54
\|Dec percentsun \= 54
\|year percentsun \= 64
\|source 1 \= \[\[NOAA]] (relative humidity and sun 1961−1990\){{cite web
\| url \= https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1961\-1990/TABLES/REG\_IV/US/GROUP4/72662\.TXT
\| title \= WMO Climate Normals for RAPID CITY/REGIONAL ARPT SD 1961–1990
\| publisher \= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
\| access\-date \= October 19, 2021}}
}}
|
[
"### Climate",
"[thumb\\|View of southern Rapid City from the east after a rainstorm, including a view of [Black Elk Peak](/wiki/Black_Elk_Peak \"Black Elk Peak\") and the [Black Hills](/wiki/Black_Hills \"Black Hills\")](/wiki/File:Rapid_City_from_Rapid_Valley_090604.jpg \"Rapid City from Rapid Valley 090604.jpg\")\nRapid City features a temperate [semi\\-arid climate](/wiki/Semi-arid_climate \"Semi-arid climate\") ([Köppen](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification \"Köppen climate classification\"): BSk) bordering on a [hot\\-summer humid continental climate](/wiki/Hot-summer_humid_continental_climate \"Hot-summer humid continental climate\") ([Köppen](/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification \"Köppen climate classification\"): Dwa), and is part of USDA [Hardiness zone](/wiki/Hardiness_zone \"Hardiness zone\") 5b.{{cite book \\|title\\=USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map \\|publisher\\=United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service }} Its location makes its climate unlike both the higher elevations of the Black Hills to the west and the Great Plains to the east. It is characterized by long arid summers and long dry winters, with short but distinct spring and autumn seasons. Precipitation averages {{convert\\|17\\.44\\|in\\|mm\\|1\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}} annually, but has historically ranged from {{convert\\|9\\.12\\|in\\|mm\\|1\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}} in 1974 to {{convert\\|27\\.70\\|in\\|mm\\|1\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}} in 1946\\.{{cite web \\|url \\= https://www.weather.gov/wrh/Climate?wfo\\=unr \\|title \\= NowData \\- NOAA Online Weather Data \\|publisher \\= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \\|access\\-date\\=October 19, 2021}}{{cite web \\|url\\= https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/services/data/v1?dataset\\=normals\\-monthly\\-1991\\-2020\\&startDate\\=0001\\-01\\-01\\&endDate\\=9996\\-12\\-31\\&stations\\=USW00024090\\&format\\=pdf \\|title \\= Station: Rapid City RGNL AP, SD \\|work\\= U.S. Climate Normals 2020: U.S. Monthly Climate Normals (1991\\-2020\\) \\|publisher \\= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \\|access\\-date\\=October 19, 2021}}",
"Winters are cold and dry, with January being the coldest month with a daily mean temperature of {{convert\\|24\\.3\\|°F\\|1\\|disp\\=or}}. [Chinook winds](/wiki/Chinook_wind \"Chinook wind\") can warm temperatures above {{convert\\|50\\|°F\\|disp\\=or}}, doing so on average about 20 times from December to February. Temperature inversions, however, occasionally produce warmer temperatures in the Black Hills. On average, highs do not climb above freezing on 43 days, while the low temperature reaches {{convert\\|0\\|°F\\|1\\|disp\\=or}} on an average of 18 nights. Snowfall is frequent but usually not heavy; March and April are typically the snowiest months. The seasonal total averages {{convert\\|48\\.5\\|in\\|m\\|2\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}}, although historically ranging from {{convert\\|16\\.9\\|in\\|m\\|2\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}} during 1980–81 to {{convert\\|80\\.9\\|in\\|m\\|2\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}} during 1985–86\\. Extensive snow cover does not remain for long, with only nine days seasonally with {{convert\\|5\\|in\\|m\\|2\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}} or more on the ground. Measurable snow has occurred in every month except July.",
"Compared to locations in the east, the area warms rather gradually early in the year, with the last measurable snow typically occurring in late April and precipitation totals beginning to increase; May snow occurs several times per decade. Toward the middle of the year, storms typically develop over the Black Hills during the afternoon and move onto the plains in the evening. Only in April through June have calendar\\-day precipitation amounts exceeding {{convert\\|3\\|in\\|mm\\|1\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}} been observed. June 15, 1963, with {{convert\\|3\\.78\\|in\\|mm\\|1\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}}, holds the single\\-day rainfall record; the record\\-wettest month is May 1996 with {{convert\\|8\\.18\\|in\\|mm\\|1\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}}. Rapid City has an average of twenty clear to partly cloudy days{{cite web\\|url \\= http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather.php3?s\\=026627\\&refer\\=\\|title \\= Weatherbase: Historical Weather for Rapid City, South Dakota, United States of America\\|access\\-date \\= September 5, 2009}} and 67% of its possible sunshine in June. This is the traditional \"flood\" season for Rapid and other creeks in the Eastern Hills. Temperatures warm rapidly as summer approaches.",
"Summer in Rapid City has relatively pleasant temperatures, and is relatively dry (following a wet spring), and relatively sunny. July is the warmest month of the year, having a daily mean temperature of {{convert\\|72\\.4\\|°F\\|1}}. An average of 32 days reach {{convert\\|90\\|°F\\|1}}\\+ highs and 5 with {{convert\\|100\\|°F\\|1}}\\+ highs. Due to the elevation and aridity, lows rarely remain at or above {{convert\\|70\\|°F\\|1}} and during July and August fall to or below {{convert\\|50\\|°F\\|disp\\=or}} on an average 7\\.6 days. Rapid City records an average of nine thunderstorm days in August, but only {{convert\\|1\\.56\\|in\\|mm\\|1\\|disp\\=or\\|sp\\=us}} of rain in that month.",
"Fall is a transition season: the average first freeze occurs in Rapid City on October 4 and in the Black Hills in late August through September. The Rapid City area's first snowfall is usually in October, although higher elevations sometimes receive significant snow in September. Occasional cold fronts moving through the area bring blustery northwest winds.",
"Sunshine is abundant in the region in all months except December, averaging 2850 hours, 64% of the possible total, per year.",
"Official extreme temperatures range from {{convert\\|−31\\|°F\\|0\\|disp\\=or}} on February 2, 1996, up to {{convert\\|111\\|°F\\|0\\|disp\\=or}} on July 15, 2006; the record low daily maximum is {{convert\\|−18\\|°F\\|0\\|disp\\=or}} on February 2, 1989, while the record high daily minimum is {{convert\\|75\\|°F\\|0\\|disp\\=or}} on July 8, 1985, and July 28, 1960\\.{{cite web \\|title\\=Threaded Extremes \\|url\\=http://threadex.rcc\\-acis.org/ \\|access\\-date\\=March 10, 2013 \\|publisher\\=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}",
"Rapid City had the record for an extreme temperature drop of {{convert\\|47\\|F\\-change\\|1\\|disp\\=or}}, which was achieved on January 10, 1911, from {{convert\\|60\\|°F\\|°C\\|0\\|disp\\=or}} to {{convert\\|13\\|°F\\|°C\\|0\\|disp\\=or}}.{{cite book\n \\| last \\= Lyons\n \\| first \\= Walter A\n \\| title \\= The Handy Weather Answer Book\n \\| edition \\= 2nd\n \\| year \\= 1997\n \\| publisher \\= Visible Ink press\n \\| location \\= \\[\\[Detroit]]\n \\| isbn \\= 0\\-7876\\-1034\\-8\n \\| url \\= https://archive.org/details/handyweatheransw00lyon\n }} This was due to the [Chinook wind](/wiki/Chinook_wind \"Chinook wind\"), but record was lost to Spearfish, South Dakota, in 1942\\.{{Cite web \\|last\\=US Department of Commerce \\|first\\=NOAA \\|title\\=The Black Hills Remarkable Temperature Change of January 22, 1943 \\|url\\=https://www.weather.gov/unr/1943\\-01\\-22 \\|access\\-date\\=March 3, 2024 \\|website\\=www.weather.gov \\|language\\=EN\\-US}}",
"{{Weather box\n\\|location \\= \\[\\[Rapid City Regional Airport]], South Dakota (1991−2020 normals,{{efn\\|Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the expected highest and lowest temperature readings at any point during the year or given month) calculated based on data at said location from 1991 to 2020\\.}} extremes 1942−present){{efn\\|Official temperature and precipitation records for Rapid City kept at the old municipal airport from August 1942 to October 11, 1950, and at Rapid City Regional since October 12, 1950\\. Snowfall and snow depth records date to September 1, 1942, and the move to Rapid City Regional, respectively.}}\n\\|collapsed \\= Y\n\\|single line \\= Y\n\\|Jan record high F \\= 76\n\\|Feb record high F \\= 75\n\\|Mar record high F \\= 84\n\\|Apr record high F \\= 93\n\\|May record high F \\= 98\n\\|Jun record high F \\= 109\n\\|Jul record high F \\= 111\n\\|Aug record high F \\= 107\n\\|Sep record high F \\= 104\n\\|Oct record high F \\= 96\n\\|Nov record high F \\= 83\n\\|Dec record high F \\= 75\n\\|year record high F \\= 111\n\\|Jan avg record high F \\= 61\\.3\n\\|Feb avg record high F \\= 63\\.8\n\\|Mar avg record high F \\= 74\\.8\n\\|Apr avg record high F \\= 81\\.6\n\\|May avg record high F \\= 87\\.8\n\\|Jun avg record high F \\= 95\\.1\n\\|Jul avg record high F \\= 100\\.7\n\\|Aug avg record high F \\= 99\\.8\n\\|Sep avg record high F \\= 96\\.4\n\\|Oct avg record high F \\= 86\\.3\n\\|Nov avg record high F \\= 72\\.3\n\\|Dec avg record high F \\= 62\\.0\n\\|year avg record high F \\= 102\\.8\n\\|Jan high F \\= 36\\.0\n\\|Feb high F \\= 38\\.1\n\\|Mar high F \\= 48\\.2\n\\|Apr high F \\= 56\\.6\n\\|May high F \\= 66\\.5\n\\|Jun high F \\= 77\\.6\n\\|Jul high F \\= 86\\.4\n\\|Aug high F \\= 85\\.4\n\\|Sep high F \\= 76\\.1\n\\|Oct high F \\= 60\\.4\n\\|Nov high F \\= 47\\.3\n\\|Dec high F \\= 37\\.2\n\\|year high F \\= 59\\.6\n\\|Jan mean F \\= 24\\.3\n\\|Feb mean F \\= 26\\.1\n\\|Mar mean F \\= 35\\.4\n\\|Apr mean F \\= 43\\.9\n\\|May mean F \\= 54\\.1\n\\|Jun mean F \\= 64\\.6\n\\|Jul mean F \\= 72\\.4\n\\|Aug mean F \\= 70\\.8\n\\|Sep mean F \\= 61\\.3\n\\|Oct mean F \\= 47\\.1\n\\|Nov mean F \\= 34\\.6\n\\|Dec mean F \\= 25\\.6\n\\|year mean F \\= 46\\.7\n\\|Jan low F \\= 12\\.7\n\\|Feb low F \\= 14\\.0\n\\|Mar low F \\= 22\\.6\n\\|Apr low F \\= 31\\.2\n\\|May low F \\= 41\\.7\n\\|Jun low F \\= 51\\.6\n\\|Jul low F \\= 58\\.5\n\\|Aug low F \\= 56\\.2\n\\|Sep low F \\= 46\\.4\n\\|Oct low F \\= 33\\.7\n\\|Nov low F \\= 21\\.9\n\\|Dec low F \\= 13\\.9\n\\|year low F \\= 33\\.7\n\\|Jan avg record low F \\= \\-9\\.6\n\\|Feb avg record low F \\= \\-7\\.5\n\\|Mar avg record low F \\= 1\\.7\n\\|Apr avg record low F \\= 15\\.9\n\\|May avg record low F \\= 27\\.0\n\\|Jun avg record low F \\= 39\\.7\n\\|Jul avg record low F \\= 48\\.2\n\\|Aug avg record low F \\= 45\\.2\n\\|Sep avg record low F \\= 31\\.6\n\\|Oct avg record low F \\= 15\\.1\n\\|Nov avg record low F \\= 2\\.0\n\\|Dec avg record low F \\= \\-7\\.5\n\\|year avg record low F \\= \\-17\\.2\n\\|Jan record low F \\= −27\n\\|Feb record low F \\= −31\n\\|Mar record low F \\= −21\n\\|Apr record low F \\= \\-1\n\\|May record low F \\= 18\n\\|Jun record low F \\= 31\n\\|Jul record low F \\= 39\n\\|Aug record low F \\= 37\n\\|Sep record low F \\= 18\n\\|Oct record low F \\= \\-7\n\\|Nov record low F \\= −19\n\\|Dec record low F \\= −30\n\\|year record low F \\= \\-31\n\\|precipitation colour \\= green\n\\|Jan precipitation inch \\= 0\\.31\n\\|Feb precipitation inch \\= 0\\.50\n\\|Mar precipitation inch \\= 0\\.91\n\\|Apr precipitation inch \\= 2\\.08\n\\|May precipitation inch \\= 3\\.45\n\\|Jun precipitation inch \\= 2\\.87\n\\|Jul precipitation inch \\= 2\\.28\n\\|Aug precipitation inch \\= 1\\.59\n\\|Sep precipitation inch \\= 1\\.22\n\\|Oct precipitation inch \\= 1\\.41\n\\|Nov precipitation inch \\= 0\\.47\n\\|Dec precipitation inch \\= 0\\.35\n\\|year precipitation inch \\= 17\\.44\n\\|Jan snow inch \\= 5\\.3\n\\|Feb snow inch \\= 7\\.7\n\\|Mar snow inch \\= 8\\.4\n\\|Apr snow inch \\= 10\\.1\n\\|May snow inch \\= 1\\.5\n\\|Jun snow inch \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Jul snow inch \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Aug snow inch \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Sep snow inch \\= 0\\.1\n\\|Oct snow inch \\= 3\\.0\n\\|Nov snow inch \\= 5\\.7\n\\|Dec snow inch \\= 6\\.7\n\\|year snow inch \\= 48\\.5\n\\|unit precipitation days \\= 0\\.01 in\n\\|Jan precipitation days \\= 5\\.7\n\\|Feb precipitation days \\= 6\\.6\n\\|Mar precipitation days \\= 7\\.0\n\\|Apr precipitation days \\= 10\\.5\n\\|May precipitation days \\= 12\\.6\n\\|Jun precipitation days \\= 12\\.5\n\\|Jul precipitation days \\= 9\\.8\n\\|Aug precipitation days \\= 7\\.9\n\\|Sep precipitation days \\= 6\\.6\n\\|Oct precipitation days \\= 7\\.1\n\\|Nov precipitation days \\= 5\\.1\n\\|Dec precipitation days \\= 5\\.0\n\\|year precipitation days \\= 96\\.4\n\\|unit snow days \\= 0\\.1 in\n\\|Jan snow days \\= 6\\.1\n\\|Feb snow days \\= 7\\.1\n\\|Mar snow days \\= 4\\.1\n\\|Apr snow days \\= 4\\.3\n\\|May snow days \\= 0\\.4\n\\|Jun snow days \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Jul snow days \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Aug snow days \\= 0\\.0\n\\|Sep snow days \\= 0\\.1\n\\|Oct snow days \\= 1\\.7\n\\|Nov snow days \\= 3\\.6\n\\|Dec snow days \\= 5\\.4\n\\|year snow days \\= 32\\.8\n\\|Jan humidity \\= 63\\.5\n\\|Feb humidity \\= 65\\.1\n\\|Mar humidity \\= 63\\.8\n\\|Apr humidity \\= 58\\.6\n\\|May humidity \\= 60\\.8\n\\|Jun humidity \\= 61\\.9\n\\|Jul humidity \\= 56\\.2\n\\|Aug humidity \\= 52\\.6\n\\|Sep humidity \\= 53\\.5\n\\|Oct humidity \\= 54\\.2\n\\|Nov humidity \\= 62\\.2\n\\|Dec humidity \\= 64\\.8\n\\|year humidity \\= 59\\.8\n\\|Jan sun \\= 163\\.5\n\\|Feb sun \\= 174\\.0\n\\|Mar sun \\= 233\\.9\n\\|Apr sun \\= 246\\.9\n\\|May sun \\= 274\\.3\n\\|Jun sun \\= 310\\.5\n\\|Jul sun \\= 335\\.5\n\\|Aug sun \\= 323\\.8\n\\|Sep sun \\= 261\\.9\n\\|Oct sun \\= 226\\.0\n\\|Nov sun \\= 156\\.6\n\\|Dec sun \\= 149\\.9\n\\|year sun \\= 2856\\.8\n\\|Jan percentsun \\= 57\n\\|Feb percentsun \\= 59\n\\|Mar percentsun \\= 63\n\\|Apr percentsun \\= 61\n\\|May percentsun \\= 60\n\\|Jun percentsun \\= 67\n\\|Jul percentsun \\= 72\n\\|Aug percentsun \\= 75\n\\|Sep percentsun \\= 70\n\\|Oct percentsun \\= 66\n\\|Nov percentsun \\= 54\n\\|Dec percentsun \\= 54\n\\|year percentsun \\= 64\n\\|source 1 \\= \\[\\[NOAA]] (relative humidity and sun 1961−1990\\){{cite web\n\\| url \\= https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/pub/data/normals/WMO/1961\\-1990/TABLES/REG\\_IV/US/GROUP4/72662\\.TXT\n\\| title \\= WMO Climate Normals for RAPID CITY/REGIONAL ARPT SD 1961–1990\n\\| publisher \\= National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration\n\\| access\\-date \\= October 19, 2021}}\n}}",
""
] |
Demographics
------------
{{US Census population
\|1880\= 939
\|1890\= 2128
\|1900\= 1342
\|1910\= 3454
\|1920\= 5777
\|1930\= 10464
\|1940\= 13844
\|1950\= 25312
\|1960\= 42390
\|1970\= 43846
\|1980\= 46492
\|1990\= 54523
\|2000\= 59607
\|2010\= 67956
\|2020\= 74703
\|estyear\=2023
\|estimate\=79404
\|estref\={{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time\-series/demo/popest/2020s\-total\-cities\-and\-towns.html \|date\=August 17, 2024\|title\=City and Town Population Totals: 2020\-2023\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=August 17, 2024}}
\|align\-fn\=center
\|footnote\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\|url\=https://www.census.gov/programs\-surveys/decennial\-census.html\|title\=Census of Population and Housing\|publisher\=United States Census Bureau\|accessdate\=June 4, 2015}}
2020 Census
}}
### 2020 census
| \+**Rapid City, South Dakota – Racial Composition**{{Cite web\|title\=P2 HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE – 2020: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94\-171\) – Rapid City city, South Dakota\|url\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q\=Rapid%20City%20city,%20South%20Dakota\&t\=Race%20and%20Ethnicity\&tid\=DECENNIALPL2020\.P2}} | Race | Number | Percentage |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [White](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_whites "Non-Hispanic or Latino whites") (NH) | 54,444 | 72\.9% |
| [Black or African American](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_African_Americans "Non-Hispanic or Latino African Americans") (NH) | 1,080 | 1\.4% |
| [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States "Native Americans in the United States") or [Alaska Native](/wiki/Alaska_Native "Alaska Native") (NH) | 9,221 | 12\.3% |
| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_Americans "Asian Americans") (NH) | 1,188 | 1\.6% |
| [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_Americans "Pacific Islander Americans") (NH) | 45 | 0\.1% |
| [Some Other Race](/wiki/Some_Other_Race "Some Other Race") (NH) | 250 | 0\.3% |
| [Mixed/Multi\-Racial](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans "Multiracial Americans") (NH) | 4,513 | 6\.0% |
| [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "Hispanic and Latino Americans") | 3,962 | 5\.3% |
| **Total** | **74,703** | **100\.0%** |
As of the [2020 census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census "2020 United States census"), there were 74,703 people, and 31,261 households, and 17,755 families residing in the city.{{Cite web\|title\=US Census Bureau, Table P16: Household Type \|url\=https://data.census.gov/table?q\=Rapid%20City%20city,%20South%20Dakota%20p16\&y\=2020 \|access\-date\=August 17, 2024 \|publisher\=United States Census Bureau}} The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|1365\.7\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 33,544 housing units. The racial makeup of the city was 74\.6% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 1\.5% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 13\.2% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 1\.6% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), 1\.2% from [some other races](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census "Race and ethnicity in the United States census") and 7\.8% from [two or more races](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans "Multiracial Americans"). [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans "Hispanic and Latino Americans") of any race were 5\.3% of the population.{{Cite web\|title\=How many people live in Rapid City city, South Dakota \|url\=https://data.usatoday.com/census/total\-population/total\-population\-change/rapid\-city\-city\-south\-dakota/160\-4652980/ \|access\-date\=August 17, 2024 \|publisher\=USA Today}} 22\.0% of residents were under the age of 18, 6\.2% were under 5 years of age, and 20\.0% were 65 and older.
### 2010 census
As of the [2010 census](/wiki/2010_United_States_census "2010 United States census"), there were 67,956 people, 28,586 households, and 16,957 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density "Population density") was {{convert\|1226\.5\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|1}}. There were 30,254 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|546\.0\|/sqmi\|/km2\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 80\.4% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 1\.1% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 12\.4% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 1\.0% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), 0\.7% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 "Race (U.S. Census)"), and 4\.1% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 4\.1% of the population.
There were 28,586 households, of which 29\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Married_couples "Married couples") living together, 13\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 5\.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40\.7% were non\-families. 32\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.29 and the average family size was 2\.90\.
The median age in the city was 35\.6 years. 23\.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 10\.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25\.7% were from 25 to 44; 25% were from 45 to 64; and 14\.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49\.5% male and 50\.5% female.
### 2000 census
As of the [2000 census](/wiki/2000_United_States_census "2000 United States census"), there were 59,607 people, 23,969 households, and 15,220 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\|1,336\.7\|PD/sqmi\|PD/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. There were 25,096 housing units at an average density of {{convert\|562\.8\|/sqmi\|/km2\|sp\=us\|adj\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 84\.33% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 "White (U.S. Census)"), 0\.97% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "African American (U.S. Census)"), 10\.14% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 "Native American (U.S. Census)"), 1\.0% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 "Asian (U.S. Census)"), 0\.06% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 "Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)"), 0\.73% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 "Race (United States Census)"), and 2\.77% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 "Hispanic (U.S. Census)") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 "Latino (U.S. Census)") of any race were 2\.77% of the population.
There were 23,969 households, out of which 31\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Married_couples "Married couples") living together, 12\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36\.5% were non\-families. 29\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\.39 and the average family size was 2\.96\.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 25\.3% under the age of 18, 11\.8% from 18 to 24, 28\.7% from 25 to 44, 20\.9% from 45 to 64, and 13\.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 96\.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93\.6 males.
As of 2000 the median income for a household in the city was $35,978, and the median income for a family was $44,818\. Males had a median income of $30,985 versus $21,913 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income "Per capita income") for the city was $19,445\. About 9\.4% of families and 12\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line "Poverty line"), including 17\.6% of those under age 18 and 6\.9% of those age 65 or over.
### Statistical area
The population of the Rapid City metropolitan statistical area ([Pennington](/wiki/Pennington_County%2C_South_Dakota "Pennington County, South Dakota") and [Meade](/wiki/Meade_County%2C_South_Dakota "Meade County, South Dakota") Counties) was 139,074 at the 2020 census. Rapid City is also included in the [Rapid City\-Spearfish combined statistical area](/wiki/Rapid_City%2C_South_Dakota_metropolitan_area "Rapid City, South Dakota metropolitan area"), which, with the addition of [Lawrence County](/wiki/Lawrence_County%2C_South_Dakota "Lawrence County, South Dakota"), had a 2020 census population of 164,842\.
|
[
"Demographics\n------------",
"{{US Census population\n\\|1880\\= 939\n\\|1890\\= 2128\n\\|1900\\= 1342\n\\|1910\\= 3454\n\\|1920\\= 5777\n\\|1930\\= 10464\n\\|1940\\= 13844\n\\|1950\\= 25312\n\\|1960\\= 42390\n\\|1970\\= 43846\n\\|1980\\= 46492\n\\|1990\\= 54523\n\\|2000\\= 59607\n\\|2010\\= 67956\n\\|2020\\= 74703\n\\|estyear\\=2023\n\\|estimate\\=79404\n\\|estref\\={{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time\\-series/demo/popest/2020s\\-total\\-cities\\-and\\-towns.html \\|date\\=August 17, 2024\\|title\\=City and Town Population Totals: 2020\\-2023\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=August 17, 2024}}\n\\|align\\-fn\\=center\n\\|footnote\\=U.S. Decennial Census{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.census.gov/programs\\-surveys/decennial\\-census.html\\|title\\=Census of Population and Housing\\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau\\|accessdate\\=June 4, 2015}} \n2020 Census\n}}",
"### 2020 census",
"",
"| \\+**Rapid City, South Dakota – Racial Composition**{{Cite web\\|title\\=P2 HISPANIC OR LATINO, AND NOT HISPANIC OR LATINO BY RACE – 2020: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94\\-171\\) – Rapid City city, South Dakota\\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q\\=Rapid%20City%20city,%20South%20Dakota\\&t\\=Race%20and%20Ethnicity\\&tid\\=DECENNIALPL2020\\.P2}} | Race | Number | Percentage |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| [White](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_whites \"Non-Hispanic or Latino whites\") (NH) | 54,444 | 72\\.9% |\n| [Black or African American](/wiki/Non-Hispanic_or_Latino_African_Americans \"Non-Hispanic or Latino African Americans\") (NH) | 1,080 | 1\\.4% |\n| [Native American](/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States \"Native Americans in the United States\") or [Alaska Native](/wiki/Alaska_Native \"Alaska Native\") (NH) | 9,221 | 12\\.3% |\n| [Asian](/wiki/Asian_Americans \"Asian Americans\") (NH) | 1,188 | 1\\.6% |\n| [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_Americans \"Pacific Islander Americans\") (NH) | 45 | 0\\.1% |\n| [Some Other Race](/wiki/Some_Other_Race \"Some Other Race\") (NH) | 250 | 0\\.3% |\n| [Mixed/Multi\\-Racial](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans \"Multiracial Americans\") (NH) | 4,513 | 6\\.0% |\n| [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"Hispanic and Latino Americans\") | 3,962 | 5\\.3% |\n| **Total** | **74,703** | **100\\.0%** |",
"As of the [2020 census](/wiki/2020_United_States_census \"2020 United States census\"), there were 74,703 people, and 31,261 households, and 17,755 families residing in the city.{{Cite web\\|title\\=US Census Bureau, Table P16: Household Type \\|url\\=https://data.census.gov/table?q\\=Rapid%20City%20city,%20South%20Dakota%20p16\\&y\\=2020 \\|access\\-date\\=August 17, 2024 \\|publisher\\=United States Census Bureau}} The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|1365\\.7\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 33,544 housing units. The racial makeup of the city was 74\\.6% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.5% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 13\\.2% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.6% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.2% from [some other races](/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census \"Race and ethnicity in the United States census\") and 7\\.8% from [two or more races](/wiki/Multiracial_Americans \"Multiracial Americans\"). [Hispanic or Latino](/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans \"Hispanic and Latino Americans\") of any race were 5\\.3% of the population.{{Cite web\\|title\\=How many people live in Rapid City city, South Dakota \\|url\\=https://data.usatoday.com/census/total\\-population/total\\-population\\-change/rapid\\-city\\-city\\-south\\-dakota/160\\-4652980/ \\|access\\-date\\=August 17, 2024 \\|publisher\\=USA Today}} 22\\.0% of residents were under the age of 18, 6\\.2% were under 5 years of age, and 20\\.0% were 65 and older.",
"### 2010 census",
"As of the [2010 census](/wiki/2010_United_States_census \"2010 United States census\"), there were 67,956 people, 28,586 households, and 16,957 families residing in the city. The [population density](/wiki/Population_density \"Population density\") was {{convert\\|1226\\.5\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|1}}. There were 30,254 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|546\\.0\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|1}}. The racial makeup of the city was 80\\.4% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.1% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 12\\.4% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.0% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.1% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.7% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Race (U.S. Census)\"), and 4\\.1% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 4\\.1% of the population.",
"There were 28,586 households, of which 29\\.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41\\.2% were [married couples](/wiki/Married_couples \"Married couples\") living together, 13\\.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 5\\.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40\\.7% were non\\-families. 32\\.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11\\.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.29 and the average family size was 2\\.90\\.",
"The median age in the city was 35\\.6 years. 23\\.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 10\\.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25\\.7% were from 25 to 44; 25% were from 45 to 64; and 14\\.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49\\.5% male and 50\\.5% female.",
"### 2000 census",
"As of the [2000 census](/wiki/2000_United_States_census \"2000 United States census\"), there were 59,607 people, 23,969 households, and 15,220 families residing in the city. The population density was {{convert\\|1,336\\.7\\|PD/sqmi\\|PD/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. There were 25,096 housing units at an average density of {{convert\\|562\\.8\\|/sqmi\\|/km2\\|sp\\=us\\|adj\\=off}}. The racial makeup of the city was 84\\.33% [White](/wiki/White_%28U.S._Census%29 \"White (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.97% [African American](/wiki/African_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"African American (U.S. Census)\"), 10\\.14% [Native American](/wiki/Native_American_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Native American (U.S. Census)\"), 1\\.0% [Asian](/wiki/Asian_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Asian (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.06% [Pacific Islander](/wiki/Pacific_Islander_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\"), 0\\.73% from [other races](/wiki/Race_%28United_States_Census%29 \"Race (United States Census)\"), and 2\\.77% from two or more races. [Hispanic](/wiki/Hispanic_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Hispanic (U.S. Census)\") or [Latino](/wiki/Latino_%28U.S._Census%29 \"Latino (U.S. Census)\") of any race were 2\\.77% of the population.",
"There were 23,969 households, out of which 31\\.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46\\.7% were [married couples](/wiki/Married_couples \"Married couples\") living together, 12\\.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36\\.5% were non\\-families. 29\\.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10\\.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2\\.39 and the average family size was 2\\.96\\.",
"In the city, the population was spread out, with 25\\.3% under the age of 18, 11\\.8% from 18 to 24, 28\\.7% from 25 to 44, 20\\.9% from 45 to 64, and 13\\.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 96\\.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93\\.6 males.",
"As of 2000 the median income for a household in the city was $35,978, and the median income for a family was $44,818\\. Males had a median income of $30,985 versus $21,913 for females. The [per capita income](/wiki/Per_capita_income \"Per capita income\") for the city was $19,445\\. About 9\\.4% of families and 12\\.7% of the population were below the [poverty line](/wiki/Poverty_line \"Poverty line\"), including 17\\.6% of those under age 18 and 6\\.9% of those age 65 or over.",
"### Statistical area",
"The population of the Rapid City metropolitan statistical area ([Pennington](/wiki/Pennington_County%2C_South_Dakota \"Pennington County, South Dakota\") and [Meade](/wiki/Meade_County%2C_South_Dakota \"Meade County, South Dakota\") Counties) was 139,074 at the 2020 census. Rapid City is also included in the [Rapid City\\-Spearfish combined statistical area](/wiki/Rapid_City%2C_South_Dakota_metropolitan_area \"Rapid City, South Dakota metropolitan area\"), which, with the addition of [Lawrence County](/wiki/Lawrence_County%2C_South_Dakota \"Lawrence County, South Dakota\"), had a 2020 census population of 164,842\\.",
""
] |
Economy
-------
Rapid City's economy is diverse, but industry is a small portion. Heavy and medium industrial activities include a [Portland cement](/wiki/Portland_cement "Portland cement") plant (constructed and owned for 84 yearsCreated by SD Constitutional Amendment, 1919\. by the State of South Dakota and sold in 2003 to Grupo Cementos de Chihuahua, or GCC, a Mexican\-based conglomerate); [Black Hills Ammunition](/wiki/Black_Hills_Ammunition "Black Hills Ammunition"), an ammunition and reloading supplies manufacturing company; several custom sawmills, a lime plant, a computer peripheral component manufacturing plant, and several farm and ranch equipment manufacturers. Of particular note, this city is the center for the manufacture of [Black Hills gold jewelry](/wiki/Black_Hills_gold_jewelry "Black Hills gold jewelry"), a popular product with tourists and Westerners in general. The city is the site of the only American manufacturer of stamping machines used for the labeling of plywood and chipboard products.
Most gold mining has ceased in the Black Hills and was never conducted in or near Rapid City. Regional mining operations include for sand and gravel, as well as the raw materials for [lime](/wiki/Lime_%28mineral%29 "Lime (mineral)") and Portland cement (including chemical\-grade [limestone](/wiki/Limestone "Limestone"), taconite iron ore, and gypsum) remains an important part of the economy.
The largest sector of the Rapid City economy is government services, including local, state, and federal. Major employers include [Ellsworth Air Force Base](/wiki/Ellsworth_Air_Force_Base "Ellsworth Air Force Base"),{{cite web \| title \=Rapid City: Economy \| publisher \=City\-Data.com \| url \=http://www.city\-data.com/us\-cities/The\-Midwest/Rapid\-City\-Economy.html \| access\-date\=October 16, 2008 }} home of the [28th Bomb Wing](/wiki/28th_Bomb_Wing "28th Bomb Wing") flying the [B\-1B](/wiki/B-1B "B-1B") long\-range bomber; the [Army National Guard](/wiki/Army_National_Guard "Army National Guard") based at [Camp Rapid](/wiki/Camp_Rapid "Camp Rapid") and hosting annual exercises in the Black Hills, drawing troops from five to ten states; and various federal agencies, including the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service "National Park Service"), [US Forest Service](/wiki/US_Forest_Service "US Forest Service"), and [Indian Health Service](/wiki/Indian_Health_Service "Indian Health Service").
Monument Health covers one of the largest geographic service areas in the United States. The health care sector employs more than 8,000 persons in the Rapid City area.
Tourism constitutes a major portion of the Rapid City economy, due to the proximity of [Mount Rushmore](/wiki/Mount_Rushmore "Mount Rushmore"), Sturgis, home of the [Sturgis Motorcycle Rally](/wiki/Sturgis_Motorcycle_Rally "Sturgis Motorcycle Rally"); [Deadwood](/wiki/Deadwood%2C_South_Dakota "Deadwood, South Dakota"), and other attractions in the Black Hills. This city provides most services for the Motorcycle Rally. Prepared to satisfy the Rally's demand for motel rooms, camp sites, and other services for tourists during the first week of August, Rapid City has the capacity to host other large events, such as conventions, and numerous associated tourists year\-round. Various minor tourist attractions, including wildlife parks, specialty shops, caves, water parks, private museums, and other businesses are found in and near Rapid City.
Other economic sectors include financial service, insurance and investing companies. As noted, the city has a strong medical services sector, and several institutions of higher education. Rapid City is also the major market town for much of five states, drawing commerce from more than half of South Dakota, and large portions of [North Dakota](/wiki/North_Dakota "North Dakota"), [Montana](/wiki/Montana "Montana"), [Wyoming](/wiki/Wyoming "Wyoming"), and the [Nebraska Panhandle](/wiki/Nebraska_Panhandle "Nebraska Panhandle").
The real compound annual growth rate of the [gross domestic product](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product "Gross domestic product") of the [Rapid City Metropolitan Statistical Area](/wiki/Rapid_City_Metropolitan_Statistical_Area "Rapid City Metropolitan Statistical Area") was 2\.6% for 2001–2013\.{{cite web\|title\=Economic Output (GDP)\|url\=http://southdakotadashboard.org/economy/economic\-output\-gdp\#0\-7138\-d\|publisher\=South Dakota Dashboard\|access\-date\=November 14, 2014}}
|
[
"Economy\n-------",
"Rapid City's economy is diverse, but industry is a small portion. Heavy and medium industrial activities include a [Portland cement](/wiki/Portland_cement \"Portland cement\") plant (constructed and owned for 84 yearsCreated by SD Constitutional Amendment, 1919\\. by the State of South Dakota and sold in 2003 to Grupo Cementos de Chihuahua, or GCC, a Mexican\\-based conglomerate); [Black Hills Ammunition](/wiki/Black_Hills_Ammunition \"Black Hills Ammunition\"), an ammunition and reloading supplies manufacturing company; several custom sawmills, a lime plant, a computer peripheral component manufacturing plant, and several farm and ranch equipment manufacturers. Of particular note, this city is the center for the manufacture of [Black Hills gold jewelry](/wiki/Black_Hills_gold_jewelry \"Black Hills gold jewelry\"), a popular product with tourists and Westerners in general. The city is the site of the only American manufacturer of stamping machines used for the labeling of plywood and chipboard products.",
"Most gold mining has ceased in the Black Hills and was never conducted in or near Rapid City. Regional mining operations include for sand and gravel, as well as the raw materials for [lime](/wiki/Lime_%28mineral%29 \"Lime (mineral)\") and Portland cement (including chemical\\-grade [limestone](/wiki/Limestone \"Limestone\"), taconite iron ore, and gypsum) remains an important part of the economy.",
"The largest sector of the Rapid City economy is government services, including local, state, and federal. Major employers include [Ellsworth Air Force Base](/wiki/Ellsworth_Air_Force_Base \"Ellsworth Air Force Base\"),{{cite web \\| title \\=Rapid City: Economy \\| publisher \\=City\\-Data.com \\| url \\=http://www.city\\-data.com/us\\-cities/The\\-Midwest/Rapid\\-City\\-Economy.html \\| access\\-date\\=October 16, 2008 }} home of the [28th Bomb Wing](/wiki/28th_Bomb_Wing \"28th Bomb Wing\") flying the [B\\-1B](/wiki/B-1B \"B-1B\") long\\-range bomber; the [Army National Guard](/wiki/Army_National_Guard \"Army National Guard\") based at [Camp Rapid](/wiki/Camp_Rapid \"Camp Rapid\") and hosting annual exercises in the Black Hills, drawing troops from five to ten states; and various federal agencies, including the [National Park Service](/wiki/National_Park_Service \"National Park Service\"), [US Forest Service](/wiki/US_Forest_Service \"US Forest Service\"), and [Indian Health Service](/wiki/Indian_Health_Service \"Indian Health Service\").",
"Monument Health covers one of the largest geographic service areas in the United States. The health care sector employs more than 8,000 persons in the Rapid City area.",
"Tourism constitutes a major portion of the Rapid City economy, due to the proximity of [Mount Rushmore](/wiki/Mount_Rushmore \"Mount Rushmore\"), Sturgis, home of the [Sturgis Motorcycle Rally](/wiki/Sturgis_Motorcycle_Rally \"Sturgis Motorcycle Rally\"); [Deadwood](/wiki/Deadwood%2C_South_Dakota \"Deadwood, South Dakota\"), and other attractions in the Black Hills. This city provides most services for the Motorcycle Rally. Prepared to satisfy the Rally's demand for motel rooms, camp sites, and other services for tourists during the first week of August, Rapid City has the capacity to host other large events, such as conventions, and numerous associated tourists year\\-round. Various minor tourist attractions, including wildlife parks, specialty shops, caves, water parks, private museums, and other businesses are found in and near Rapid City.",
"Other economic sectors include financial service, insurance and investing companies. As noted, the city has a strong medical services sector, and several institutions of higher education. Rapid City is also the major market town for much of five states, drawing commerce from more than half of South Dakota, and large portions of [North Dakota](/wiki/North_Dakota \"North Dakota\"), [Montana](/wiki/Montana \"Montana\"), [Wyoming](/wiki/Wyoming \"Wyoming\"), and the [Nebraska Panhandle](/wiki/Nebraska_Panhandle \"Nebraska Panhandle\").",
"The real compound annual growth rate of the [gross domestic product](/wiki/Gross_domestic_product \"Gross domestic product\") of the [Rapid City Metropolitan Statistical Area](/wiki/Rapid_City_Metropolitan_Statistical_Area \"Rapid City Metropolitan Statistical Area\") was 2\\.6% for 2001–2013\\.{{cite web\\|title\\=Economic Output (GDP)\\|url\\=http://southdakotadashboard.org/economy/economic\\-output\\-gdp\\#0\\-7138\\-d\\|publisher\\=South Dakota Dashboard\\|access\\-date\\=November 14, 2014}}",
""
] |
Infrastructure
--------------
### Transportation
#### Public Transit
Rapid City is served by [Rapid City Rapid Ride](/wiki/Rapid_City_Rapid_Ride "Rapid City Rapid Ride"), which provides fixed route and demand response service to the region.
Rapid City has a municipally owned bus service, providing multiple [bus stops](/wiki/Bus_stops "Bus stops") and a headquarters in the city. It has limited city\-to\-city bus service along I\-90\. Charter bus services operate in the area, connecting Rapid City and Deadwood with cities in Colorado, Nebraska, and Iowa.
Intercity bus service to the city is provided by [Jefferson Lines](/wiki/Jefferson_Lines "Jefferson Lines").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.jeffersonlines.com/bus\-stops/south\-dakota/\|title\=South Dakota Bus Stops\|access\-date\=July 20, 2023}}
#### Roads
{{unreferenced section\|date \= May 2016}}
* [Interstate 90](/wiki/Interstate_90_in_South_Dakota "Interstate 90 in South Dakota")
* [Interstate 190](/wiki/Interstate_190_%28South_Dakota%29 "Interstate 190 (South Dakota)")
* [US Highway 16](/wiki/U.S._Route_16_in_South_Dakota "U.S. Route 16 in South Dakota")
* [South Dakota Highway 44](/wiki/South_Dakota_Highway_44 "South Dakota Highway 44")
* [South Dakota Highway 79](/wiki/South_Dakota_Highway_79 "South Dakota Highway 79")
#### Air
[Rapid City Regional Airport](/wiki/Rapid_City_Regional_Airport "Rapid City Regional Airport") provides flights to the airline hub cities, and has [general aviation](/wiki/General_aviation "General aviation") operations, including wildfire fighting activities, and medical flight support to Rapid City medical facilities and regional Indian Health Service operations.
#### Railroads
Historically, Rapid City was primarily served by two railroads: the [Chicago \& North Western Railway](/wiki/Chicago_and_North_Western_Railway "Chicago and North Western Railway") and the [Milwaukee Road](/wiki/Milwaukee_Road "Milwaukee Road"). Following extensive restructuring in the industry in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the city is now served only by the [Rapid City, Pierre and Eastern Railroad](/wiki/Rapid_City%2C_Pierre_and_Eastern_Railroad "Rapid City, Pierre and Eastern Railroad") (RCP\&E). Rapid City has no passenger train service, and was last served in 1960 by the C\&NW's [Dakota 400](/wiki/Dakota_400 "Dakota 400"), a daily train from [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago "Chicago") to Rapid City via [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester%2C_Minnesota "Rochester, Minnesota").
### Power
Rapid City is located on the boundary of the Western and Eastern power grids. It is served by the hydroelectric plants of the two Mainstem dams on the Missouri River, and the large coal fields and power plants of the Powder River Basin of Wyoming. It is located where the two national power grids connect with each other, allowing switching of electrical power from east to west and vice versa. Rapid City had its own coal\-fired power plant but could not afford to meet current air pollution standards and closed it. Closed for similar reasons were [coal\-fired power stations](/wiki/Coal-fired_power_station "Coal-fired power station") near [Gillette, Wyoming](/wiki/Gillette%2C_Wyoming "Gillette, Wyoming"). The Ben French power station located within city boundaries shut down September 2012, more than two years ahead of its scheduled shutdown. Rapid City now obtains much of its power from the Missouri dams and importing it from elsewhere. Following the shut down of the plants dependent on coal, electrical rates have increased. The city has had to spend more to import electricity over a longer distance.
### Water
[thumb\|[National Guard](/wiki/National_Guard_of_the_United_States "National Guard of the United States") officer candidates take part in a
tactical road march through a west Rapid City neighborhood.](/wiki/File:Officer_candidates_step_off_to_final_training_phase_110716-A-DI382-012.jpg "Officer candidates step off to final training phase 110716-A-DI382-012.jpg")
Rapid City obtains most of its water supply from Rapid Creek and the alluvial aquifers associated with the creek, owning significant water rights in Pactola Reservoir located some {{convert\|15\|mi\|km\|0}} west of the city, but does also obtain water from some springs in the vicinity, and has the ability to draw water from deep formations that receive water from recharge in areas of the Black Hills where the formations come to the surface. The heavy dependence on shallow alluvial aquifers is of some concern to planners, as most suburbs of Rapid City use septic systems for domestic sewage treatment. However, water supplies remain relatively good for future growth.
### Healthcare
Hospitals include:
* Monument Health Rapid City Hospital, a level 2 Trauma Center, and the busiest emergency department in South Dakota with 57,000 visits annually.
* Black Hills Surgical Hospital
* [Indian Health Service](/wiki/Indian_Health_Service "Indian Health Service")’s Oyate Health Center provides care to the Native American community
### Emergency services
Emergency medical services are provided by the Rapid City Fire Department. Emergency medical transportation by rotor and fixed wing aircraft is provided by Black Hills Life Flight, and MARC (Medical Air Rescue Company).
|
[
"Infrastructure\n--------------",
"### Transportation",
"#### Public Transit",
"Rapid City is served by [Rapid City Rapid Ride](/wiki/Rapid_City_Rapid_Ride \"Rapid City Rapid Ride\"), which provides fixed route and demand response service to the region.",
"Rapid City has a municipally owned bus service, providing multiple [bus stops](/wiki/Bus_stops \"Bus stops\") and a headquarters in the city. It has limited city\\-to\\-city bus service along I\\-90\\. Charter bus services operate in the area, connecting Rapid City and Deadwood with cities in Colorado, Nebraska, and Iowa.",
"Intercity bus service to the city is provided by [Jefferson Lines](/wiki/Jefferson_Lines \"Jefferson Lines\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.jeffersonlines.com/bus\\-stops/south\\-dakota/\\|title\\=South Dakota Bus Stops\\|access\\-date\\=July 20, 2023}}",
"#### Roads",
"{{unreferenced section\\|date \\= May 2016}}\n* [Interstate 90](/wiki/Interstate_90_in_South_Dakota \"Interstate 90 in South Dakota\")\n* [Interstate 190](/wiki/Interstate_190_%28South_Dakota%29 \"Interstate 190 (South Dakota)\")\n* [US Highway 16](/wiki/U.S._Route_16_in_South_Dakota \"U.S. Route 16 in South Dakota\")\n* [South Dakota Highway 44](/wiki/South_Dakota_Highway_44 \"South Dakota Highway 44\")\n* [South Dakota Highway 79](/wiki/South_Dakota_Highway_79 \"South Dakota Highway 79\")",
"#### Air",
"[Rapid City Regional Airport](/wiki/Rapid_City_Regional_Airport \"Rapid City Regional Airport\") provides flights to the airline hub cities, and has [general aviation](/wiki/General_aviation \"General aviation\") operations, including wildfire fighting activities, and medical flight support to Rapid City medical facilities and regional Indian Health Service operations.",
"#### Railroads",
"Historically, Rapid City was primarily served by two railroads: the [Chicago \\& North Western Railway](/wiki/Chicago_and_North_Western_Railway \"Chicago and North Western Railway\") and the [Milwaukee Road](/wiki/Milwaukee_Road \"Milwaukee Road\"). Following extensive restructuring in the industry in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the city is now served only by the [Rapid City, Pierre and Eastern Railroad](/wiki/Rapid_City%2C_Pierre_and_Eastern_Railroad \"Rapid City, Pierre and Eastern Railroad\") (RCP\\&E). Rapid City has no passenger train service, and was last served in 1960 by the C\\&NW's [Dakota 400](/wiki/Dakota_400 \"Dakota 400\"), a daily train from [Chicago](/wiki/Chicago \"Chicago\") to Rapid City via [Rochester](/wiki/Rochester%2C_Minnesota \"Rochester, Minnesota\").",
"### Power",
"Rapid City is located on the boundary of the Western and Eastern power grids. It is served by the hydroelectric plants of the two Mainstem dams on the Missouri River, and the large coal fields and power plants of the Powder River Basin of Wyoming. It is located where the two national power grids connect with each other, allowing switching of electrical power from east to west and vice versa. Rapid City had its own coal\\-fired power plant but could not afford to meet current air pollution standards and closed it. Closed for similar reasons were [coal\\-fired power stations](/wiki/Coal-fired_power_station \"Coal-fired power station\") near [Gillette, Wyoming](/wiki/Gillette%2C_Wyoming \"Gillette, Wyoming\"). The Ben French power station located within city boundaries shut down September 2012, more than two years ahead of its scheduled shutdown. Rapid City now obtains much of its power from the Missouri dams and importing it from elsewhere. Following the shut down of the plants dependent on coal, electrical rates have increased. The city has had to spend more to import electricity over a longer distance.",
"### Water",
"[thumb\\|[National Guard](/wiki/National_Guard_of_the_United_States \"National Guard of the United States\") officer candidates take part in a \ntactical road march through a west Rapid City neighborhood.](/wiki/File:Officer_candidates_step_off_to_final_training_phase_110716-A-DI382-012.jpg \"Officer candidates step off to final training phase 110716-A-DI382-012.jpg\")",
"Rapid City obtains most of its water supply from Rapid Creek and the alluvial aquifers associated with the creek, owning significant water rights in Pactola Reservoir located some {{convert\\|15\\|mi\\|km\\|0}} west of the city, but does also obtain water from some springs in the vicinity, and has the ability to draw water from deep formations that receive water from recharge in areas of the Black Hills where the formations come to the surface. The heavy dependence on shallow alluvial aquifers is of some concern to planners, as most suburbs of Rapid City use septic systems for domestic sewage treatment. However, water supplies remain relatively good for future growth.",
"### Healthcare",
"Hospitals include:\n* Monument Health Rapid City Hospital, a level 2 Trauma Center, and the busiest emergency department in South Dakota with 57,000 visits annually.\n* Black Hills Surgical Hospital\n* [Indian Health Service](/wiki/Indian_Health_Service \"Indian Health Service\")’s Oyate Health Center provides care to the Native American community",
"### Emergency services",
"Emergency medical services are provided by the Rapid City Fire Department. Emergency medical transportation by rotor and fixed wing aircraft is provided by Black Hills Life Flight, and MARC (Medical Air Rescue Company).",
""
] |
Description
-----------
The Hall of Records was estimated to cost $13\.7 million in 1961\. Counter proposals were made by the Los Angeles County Chief Administrative Officer to preserve the old Hall of Records and move it to the Temple Street location, however, it was estimated that the cost of moving the building would be prohibitively high\-\-$1\.5 million to move, and much more to renovate."Plan to Move Hall of Records 50ft., Twist it Around, Studied." Los Angeles Times, June 9, 1961\. B1
Originally envisioned as two separate buildings, one for storing records and the other for workers,"Permit Issued for New Hall of Records" Los Angeles Times, July 31, 1958\. B1 Neutra and Alexander combined the buildings into one. The T\-shaped building has odd number floors on the north side, with double high ceilings and tall windows. The records block on the south side, has floors at 8\-ft intervals. Currently, no vital records accessible to the public are in the building, and the windowless south records block designed for storage has been converted to office cubicles. In 1991, the County Recorder's office moved to [Norwalk](/wiki/Norwalk%2C_California "Norwalk, California") following merging the office with the County Registrar and County Clerk by the [Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors](/wiki/Los_Angeles_County_Board_of_Supervisors "Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors").[http://www.huttoncompanies.com/historical/pdfs/County%20Purchase%20of%20Hutton%20Development%20Building%20Seen%20as%20Economic%20Boost%20\-%20LA%20Times%20(10\-31\-91\).pdf](http://www.huttoncompanies.com/historical/pdfs/County%20Purchase%20of%20Hutton%20Development%20Building%20Seen%20as%20Economic%20Boost%20-%20LA%20Times%20(10-31-91).pdf) {{Dead link\|date\=February 2022}}
The Hall of Records houses offices for the Alternative Public Defender, Probation Department, Regional Planning, Sheriff's Department, and the Los Angeles County District Attorney. The Los Angeles County archives are below the building, and there are publicly accessible tunnels to the [Kenneth Hahn Hall of Administration](/wiki/Kenneth_Hahn_Hall_of_Administration "Kenneth Hahn Hall of Administration").
There are terraces on the 13th and 15th floors, and at ground level. The upper terraces were designed for a dining room and lounge with panoramic views of downtown."Permit Issued for New Hall of Records" Los Angeles Times, July 31, 1958\. B1 Accessible from the 13th floor, they are currently only accessible to workers. The escalators from the ground through 3rd floor are flanked by grilles and screens designed by Malcolm Leland, also known for his work in the [ModulArt](/wiki/ModulArt "ModulArt") movement."Jazz Pottery From the 30s Comes of Age" by Patricia Leigh Brown, New York Times August 16, 2001\. Section F, Page 1\.
The building was designed to be energy efficient, with large aluminum louvers on the south face running the height of the building. Originally, they turned with the angle of the sun throughout the day to allow more indirect light into the building. No longer operable, they are now locked in one position.
The Temple Street side of the building features a Mosaic Mural titled *Topographical Map of Water Sources in County of Los Angeles* by [Joseph Young (artist)](/wiki/Joseph_Young_%28artist%29 "Joseph Young (artist)"). The mural and reflecting pool were restored in 2007, and again in 2017\.
The [Civic Center/Tom Bradley](/wiki/Civic_Center_%28Los_Angeles_Metro_station%29 "Civic Center (Los Angeles Metro station)") subway station serviced by the [Metro D Line](/wiki/D_Line_%28Los_Angeles_Metro%29 "D Line (Los Angeles Metro)") and [Metro B Line](/wiki/B_Line_%28Los_Angeles_Metro%29 "B Line (Los Angeles Metro)") is directly behind the Hall of Records.
|
[
"Description\n-----------",
"The Hall of Records was estimated to cost $13\\.7 million in 1961\\. Counter proposals were made by the Los Angeles County Chief Administrative Officer to preserve the old Hall of Records and move it to the Temple Street location, however, it was estimated that the cost of moving the building would be prohibitively high\\-\\-$1\\.5 million to move, and much more to renovate.\"Plan to Move Hall of Records 50ft., Twist it Around, Studied.\" Los Angeles Times, June 9, 1961\\. B1",
"Originally envisioned as two separate buildings, one for storing records and the other for workers,\"Permit Issued for New Hall of Records\" Los Angeles Times, July 31, 1958\\. B1 Neutra and Alexander combined the buildings into one. The T\\-shaped building has odd number floors on the north side, with double high ceilings and tall windows. The records block on the south side, has floors at 8\\-ft intervals. Currently, no vital records accessible to the public are in the building, and the windowless south records block designed for storage has been converted to office cubicles. In 1991, the County Recorder's office moved to [Norwalk](/wiki/Norwalk%2C_California \"Norwalk, California\") following merging the office with the County Registrar and County Clerk by the [Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors](/wiki/Los_Angeles_County_Board_of_Supervisors \"Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors\").[http://www.huttoncompanies.com/historical/pdfs/County%20Purchase%20of%20Hutton%20Development%20Building%20Seen%20as%20Economic%20Boost%20\\-%20LA%20Times%20(10\\-31\\-91\\).pdf](http://www.huttoncompanies.com/historical/pdfs/County%20Purchase%20of%20Hutton%20Development%20Building%20Seen%20as%20Economic%20Boost%20-%20LA%20Times%20(10-31-91).pdf) {{Dead link\\|date\\=February 2022}}",
"The Hall of Records houses offices for the Alternative Public Defender, Probation Department, Regional Planning, Sheriff's Department, and the Los Angeles County District Attorney. The Los Angeles County archives are below the building, and there are publicly accessible tunnels to the [Kenneth Hahn Hall of Administration](/wiki/Kenneth_Hahn_Hall_of_Administration \"Kenneth Hahn Hall of Administration\").",
"There are terraces on the 13th and 15th floors, and at ground level. The upper terraces were designed for a dining room and lounge with panoramic views of downtown.\"Permit Issued for New Hall of Records\" Los Angeles Times, July 31, 1958\\. B1 Accessible from the 13th floor, they are currently only accessible to workers. The escalators from the ground through 3rd floor are flanked by grilles and screens designed by Malcolm Leland, also known for his work in the [ModulArt](/wiki/ModulArt \"ModulArt\") movement.\"Jazz Pottery From the 30s Comes of Age\" by Patricia Leigh Brown, New York Times August 16, 2001\\. Section F, Page 1\\.",
"The building was designed to be energy efficient, with large aluminum louvers on the south face running the height of the building. Originally, they turned with the angle of the sun throughout the day to allow more indirect light into the building. No longer operable, they are now locked in one position.",
"The Temple Street side of the building features a Mosaic Mural titled *Topographical Map of Water Sources in County of Los Angeles* by [Joseph Young (artist)](/wiki/Joseph_Young_%28artist%29 \"Joseph Young (artist)\"). The mural and reflecting pool were restored in 2007, and again in 2017\\.",
"The [Civic Center/Tom Bradley](/wiki/Civic_Center_%28Los_Angeles_Metro_station%29 \"Civic Center (Los Angeles Metro station)\") subway station serviced by the [Metro D Line](/wiki/D_Line_%28Los_Angeles_Metro%29 \"D Line (Los Angeles Metro)\") and [Metro B Line](/wiki/B_Line_%28Los_Angeles_Metro%29 \"B Line (Los Angeles Metro)\") is directly behind the Hall of Records.",
""
] |
Current museum
--------------
[thumb\|[Borgward Isabella](/wiki/Borgward_Isabella "Borgward Isabella") TS Coupé and [Lloyd LP 400](/wiki/Lloyd_%28car%29 "Lloyd (car)") on display in the main building](/wiki/File:FockeMuseum-08-1_B.jpg "FockeMuseum-08-1 B.jpg")
[thumb\|Electrical section in open storage](/wiki/File:FockeMuseum-06-1.jpg "FockeMuseum-06-1.jpg")
[thumb\|Lifeboat *Paul Denker*](/wiki/File:SRKPDenker2.JPG "SRKPDenker2.JPG")
[thumb\|Haus Riensberg](/wiki/File:FockeMuseum-02.jpg "FockeMuseum-02.jpg")
[thumb\|Eichenhof, former barn of the Riensberg estate](/wiki/File:FockeMuseum-03.jpg "FockeMuseum-03.jpg")
[thumb\|Haus Mittelsbüren](/wiki/File:FockeMuseum-04.jpg "FockeMuseum-04.jpg")
[thumb\|Tarmstedt barn](/wiki/File:FockeMuseum-05.jpg "FockeMuseum-05.jpg")
[thumb\|upright\|Oberneuland Mill](/wiki/File:MuehleOberneuland-1.jpg "MuehleOberneuland-1.jpg")
In addition to Haus Riensberg and the main building, the museum complex now includes three other historic buildings and an extension built in 2002\. The extensive park is also used for exhibits and events.
### Main building
The 1964 building was modernised in 1996–98 and reopened with a new permanent exhibition on the history of Bremen, spanning over 1200 years from medieval archaeological finds to the rebuilding after the Second World War. Exhibits include the head of the [Bremen Roland](/wiki/Bremen_Roland "Bremen Roland"), sandstone statues from [Bremen Town Hall](/wiki/Bremen_Town_Hall "Bremen Town Hall"), cars by [Borgward](/wiki/Borgward "Borgward"), machinery from the [Koch \& Bergfeld](/wiki/Koch_%26_Bergfeld "Koch & Bergfeld") silverware company, models representing shipbuilding in the state in the 20th century, and also a curiosity: the [Complimentarius](/wiki/Complimentarius "Complimentarius"), an automaton who used to greet people coming up the steps into the great hall of the [Schütting](/wiki/Sch%C3%BCtting_%28Bremen%29 "Schütting (Bremen)").
### Extension
The extension to the main building opened in 2002 and is known as the *Schaumagazin* (viewable storage). Designed by the Bremen architect [Gert Schulze](/wiki/Gert_Schulze "Gert Schulze"), it is in the form of a cube, clad in copper which gives it a green colour. Of the four storeys, one consists of space for special exhibitions and three are storage for the museum, two of which are open to visitors, adding {{convert\|2000\|m2\|sqft}} of display space. It is connected to the main building by a glassed\-walled passageway.
Storehouses have been placed on view since the 16th century.Peter\-René Becker, ["Das scheinbar doppelte Mäxchen. Vom Schaumagazin Übermaxx im Verbund mit dem Großkino CinemaxX"](http://www.museumsbund.de/cms/index.php?id=406&L=0) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903090807/http://www.museumsbund.de/cms/index.php?id\=406\&L\=0 \|date\=2014\-09\-03 }}, Deutscher Museumsbund, 2000 {{in lang\|de}} However, the Focke Museum is the first institution in Europe to revive the idea in a long time. On these two floors, visitors can see items in the museum's collection that were previously hidden away; a wide variety of items are packed together much more closely than in display spaces. [Multimedia](/wiki/Multimedia "Multimedia") stations provide information, and there are also opportunities for play and for trying things out.
### Lifeboat
The decommissioned [lifeboat](/wiki/Lifeboat_%28rescue%29 "Lifeboat (rescue)") *[Paul Denker](/wiki/Paul_Denker "Paul Denker")*, the first all\-aluminium craft built for the [German Maritime Search and Rescue Service](/wiki/German_Maritime_Search_and_Rescue_Service "German Maritime Search and Rescue Service"), is on display in the courtyard between the main building and the extension. She was retired in July 2005\.
### Haus Riensberg
Haus Riensberg was built in the second half of the 18th century and was the main house of the Riensberg estate. It has been used by the museum since 1953 and was declared a protected landmark in 1973\.{{WP\-HB LfD\|1129,T\|Database Landesamt für Denkmalpflege Bremen}} Haus Riensberg {{in lang\|de}} It currently houses the museum's displays on residential life in Bremen, European glass and the children's museum and toy collection. The displays are especially rich in furniture of the 16th to the 20th centuries, including [Heinrich Vogeler](/wiki/Heinrich_Vogeler "Heinrich Vogeler")'s 1906 design for "a young lady's room", a masterwork of the German [Jugendstil](/wiki/Jugendstil "Jugendstil"), and furniture by [Rudolf Alexander Schröder](/wiki/Rudolf_Alexander_Schr%C3%B6der "Rudolf Alexander Schröder"). In the attic is the Studio Focke, an experimental space for children and teenagers.
### Eichenhof
The Eichenhof is the former barn of the Riensberg estate. It is [thatched](/wiki/Thatching "Thatching") with reeds and houses the department of pre\-history and early history, covering the cultural development of the region from 350,000 [BCE](/wiki/Common_Era "Common Era") until the 8th century. Amongst other topics, displays cover [Stone Age](/wiki/Stone_Age "Stone Age") farming cultures, archaeological finds resulting from excavating and gravel dredging in the [Weser](/wiki/Weser "Weser"), and [Bronze](/wiki/Bronze_Age "Bronze Age") and [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age "Iron Age") grave finds. There is a large amount of material related to the [Saxon](/wiki/Saxons "Saxons") period, with exhibits in particular from the [Migration Age](/wiki/Migration_Age "Migration Age") and early medieval cemetery at Mahndorf. This building also includes a Renaissance bronze tournament helmet found in the [Lesum](/wiki/Lesum "Lesum").
### Haus Mittelsbüren
Haus Mittlesbüren is a farmhouse, built in 1586 or 1587\. In the late 1950s the village of Mittelsbüren in the Burglesum section of north Bremen (previously a rural area) was cleared for a new steel works operated by Klöckner ([Klöckner Stahl](/wiki/Kl%C3%B6ckner_Stahl "Klöckner Stahl")). The farmhouse was dismantled in 1961 and rebuilt on the museum grounds in 1964\.Hans Hermann Meyer, *Das Haus, das einer Hütte wich. Die Geschichte eines Bauernhauses aus dem Bremer Landgebiet*. Veröffentlichungen des Bremer Landesmuseums 95, Bremen 1994, {{ISBN\|3\-929902\-52\-4}} {{in lang\|de}} It has been a protected landmark since 1973\.{{WP\-HB LfD\|1701\|Database Landesamt für Denkmalpflege Bremen}} Haus Mittelsbüren {{in lang\|de}}
The house is used to display information on the life and daily work of rural families in the Büren area, including house construction, [flax](/wiki/Flax "Flax") preparation, seafaring and river fishing, as well as the movement of industry into rural areas.
### Tarmstedt barn
The barn from a farm in [Tarmstedt](/wiki/Tarmstedt "Tarmstedt") was erected by Johann and Tebke Böschen in 1803, according to the inscription on it. It was moved to the museum grounds in 1973/74 and is used to display farm tools and exhibits relating to agriculture, including [cattle](/wiki/Cattle "Cattle"), [dairy](/wiki/Dairy_farming "Dairy farming") and [arable](/wiki/Arable_farming "Arable farming") farming, [beekeeping](/wiki/Beekeeping "Beekeeping"), [haying](/wiki/Haying "Haying"), [peat](/wiki/Peat "Peat") cutting, [slaughtering](/wiki/Animal_slaughter "Animal slaughter") and rural transport.
### Park
The museum is set in {{convert\|4\.5\|ha\|acre}} of parkland, with the different buildings being connected by gardens with sculptures and [sundials](/wiki/Sundial "Sundial"). The oldest elements in the park are four tall [lime trees](/wiki/Tilia "Tilia") in front of Haus Riensberg which were probably planted when the house was remodelled in 1768, and a marble statue of the goddess [Terra](/wiki/Terra_%28mythology%29 "Terra (mythology)") which has been in the park since 1810\. The park includes water features and both a botanical collection with many exotics and a farm garden at Haus Mittelsbüren displaying indigenous flowers and herbs. Open\-air concerts are held in the park in summer.Sigrid Schuer, ["Sommerliches Singspiel auf hohem Niveau"](http://www.weser-kurier.de/bremen/stadtteile/ausgabe-nordost_artikel,-Sommerliches-Singspiel-auf-hohem-Niveau-_arid,923655.html), *Weser\-Kurier*, 21 August 2014 {{in lang\|de}}
### Oberneuland Mill
The Oberneuland Mill, in the Oberneuland section of Bremen, is an external site belonging to the museum. It is a [smock mill](/wiki/Smock_mill "Smock mill") of the gallery type built in 1848, and has been a protected landmark since 1973\.{{WP\-HB LfD\|0933\|Database Landesamt für Denkmalpflege Bremen}} Oberneulander Mühle {{in lang\|de}} The mill has a permanent exhibit on the process of making bread from [corn](/wiki/Cereal "Cereal") and an educational programme.
|
[
"Current museum\n--------------",
"[thumb\\|[Borgward Isabella](/wiki/Borgward_Isabella \"Borgward Isabella\") TS Coupé and [Lloyd LP 400](/wiki/Lloyd_%28car%29 \"Lloyd (car)\") on display in the main building](/wiki/File:FockeMuseum-08-1_B.jpg \"FockeMuseum-08-1 B.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Electrical section in open storage](/wiki/File:FockeMuseum-06-1.jpg \"FockeMuseum-06-1.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Lifeboat *Paul Denker*](/wiki/File:SRKPDenker2.JPG \"SRKPDenker2.JPG\")\n[thumb\\|Haus Riensberg](/wiki/File:FockeMuseum-02.jpg \"FockeMuseum-02.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Eichenhof, former barn of the Riensberg estate](/wiki/File:FockeMuseum-03.jpg \"FockeMuseum-03.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Haus Mittelsbüren](/wiki/File:FockeMuseum-04.jpg \"FockeMuseum-04.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Tarmstedt barn](/wiki/File:FockeMuseum-05.jpg \"FockeMuseum-05.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|upright\\|Oberneuland Mill](/wiki/File:MuehleOberneuland-1.jpg \"MuehleOberneuland-1.jpg\")\nIn addition to Haus Riensberg and the main building, the museum complex now includes three other historic buildings and an extension built in 2002\\. The extensive park is also used for exhibits and events.",
"### Main building",
"The 1964 building was modernised in 1996–98 and reopened with a new permanent exhibition on the history of Bremen, spanning over 1200 years from medieval archaeological finds to the rebuilding after the Second World War. Exhibits include the head of the [Bremen Roland](/wiki/Bremen_Roland \"Bremen Roland\"), sandstone statues from [Bremen Town Hall](/wiki/Bremen_Town_Hall \"Bremen Town Hall\"), cars by [Borgward](/wiki/Borgward \"Borgward\"), machinery from the [Koch \\& Bergfeld](/wiki/Koch_%26_Bergfeld \"Koch & Bergfeld\") silverware company, models representing shipbuilding in the state in the 20th century, and also a curiosity: the [Complimentarius](/wiki/Complimentarius \"Complimentarius\"), an automaton who used to greet people coming up the steps into the great hall of the [Schütting](/wiki/Sch%C3%BCtting_%28Bremen%29 \"Schütting (Bremen)\").",
"### Extension",
"The extension to the main building opened in 2002 and is known as the *Schaumagazin* (viewable storage). Designed by the Bremen architect [Gert Schulze](/wiki/Gert_Schulze \"Gert Schulze\"), it is in the form of a cube, clad in copper which gives it a green colour. Of the four storeys, one consists of space for special exhibitions and three are storage for the museum, two of which are open to visitors, adding {{convert\\|2000\\|m2\\|sqft}} of display space. It is connected to the main building by a glassed\\-walled passageway.",
"Storehouses have been placed on view since the 16th century.Peter\\-René Becker, [\"Das scheinbar doppelte Mäxchen. Vom Schaumagazin Übermaxx im Verbund mit dem Großkino CinemaxX\"](http://www.museumsbund.de/cms/index.php?id=406&L=0) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903090807/http://www.museumsbund.de/cms/index.php?id\\=406\\&L\\=0 \\|date\\=2014\\-09\\-03 }}, Deutscher Museumsbund, 2000 {{in lang\\|de}} However, the Focke Museum is the first institution in Europe to revive the idea in a long time. On these two floors, visitors can see items in the museum's collection that were previously hidden away; a wide variety of items are packed together much more closely than in display spaces. [Multimedia](/wiki/Multimedia \"Multimedia\") stations provide information, and there are also opportunities for play and for trying things out.",
"### Lifeboat",
"The decommissioned [lifeboat](/wiki/Lifeboat_%28rescue%29 \"Lifeboat (rescue)\") *[Paul Denker](/wiki/Paul_Denker \"Paul Denker\")*, the first all\\-aluminium craft built for the [German Maritime Search and Rescue Service](/wiki/German_Maritime_Search_and_Rescue_Service \"German Maritime Search and Rescue Service\"), is on display in the courtyard between the main building and the extension. She was retired in July 2005\\.",
"### Haus Riensberg",
"Haus Riensberg was built in the second half of the 18th century and was the main house of the Riensberg estate. It has been used by the museum since 1953 and was declared a protected landmark in 1973\\.{{WP\\-HB LfD\\|1129,T\\|Database Landesamt für Denkmalpflege Bremen}} Haus Riensberg {{in lang\\|de}} It currently houses the museum's displays on residential life in Bremen, European glass and the children's museum and toy collection. The displays are especially rich in furniture of the 16th to the 20th centuries, including [Heinrich Vogeler](/wiki/Heinrich_Vogeler \"Heinrich Vogeler\")'s 1906 design for \"a young lady's room\", a masterwork of the German [Jugendstil](/wiki/Jugendstil \"Jugendstil\"), and furniture by [Rudolf Alexander Schröder](/wiki/Rudolf_Alexander_Schr%C3%B6der \"Rudolf Alexander Schröder\"). In the attic is the Studio Focke, an experimental space for children and teenagers.",
"### Eichenhof",
"The Eichenhof is the former barn of the Riensberg estate. It is [thatched](/wiki/Thatching \"Thatching\") with reeds and houses the department of pre\\-history and early history, covering the cultural development of the region from 350,000 [BCE](/wiki/Common_Era \"Common Era\") until the 8th century. Amongst other topics, displays cover [Stone Age](/wiki/Stone_Age \"Stone Age\") farming cultures, archaeological finds resulting from excavating and gravel dredging in the [Weser](/wiki/Weser \"Weser\"), and [Bronze](/wiki/Bronze_Age \"Bronze Age\") and [Iron Age](/wiki/Iron_Age \"Iron Age\") grave finds. There is a large amount of material related to the [Saxon](/wiki/Saxons \"Saxons\") period, with exhibits in particular from the [Migration Age](/wiki/Migration_Age \"Migration Age\") and early medieval cemetery at Mahndorf. This building also includes a Renaissance bronze tournament helmet found in the [Lesum](/wiki/Lesum \"Lesum\").",
"### Haus Mittelsbüren",
"Haus Mittlesbüren is a farmhouse, built in 1586 or 1587\\. In the late 1950s the village of Mittelsbüren in the Burglesum section of north Bremen (previously a rural area) was cleared for a new steel works operated by Klöckner ([Klöckner Stahl](/wiki/Kl%C3%B6ckner_Stahl \"Klöckner Stahl\")). The farmhouse was dismantled in 1961 and rebuilt on the museum grounds in 1964\\.Hans Hermann Meyer, *Das Haus, das einer Hütte wich. Die Geschichte eines Bauernhauses aus dem Bremer Landgebiet*. Veröffentlichungen des Bremer Landesmuseums 95, Bremen 1994, {{ISBN\\|3\\-929902\\-52\\-4}} {{in lang\\|de}} It has been a protected landmark since 1973\\.{{WP\\-HB LfD\\|1701\\|Database Landesamt für Denkmalpflege Bremen}} Haus Mittelsbüren {{in lang\\|de}}",
"The house is used to display information on the life and daily work of rural families in the Büren area, including house construction, [flax](/wiki/Flax \"Flax\") preparation, seafaring and river fishing, as well as the movement of industry into rural areas.",
"### Tarmstedt barn",
"The barn from a farm in [Tarmstedt](/wiki/Tarmstedt \"Tarmstedt\") was erected by Johann and Tebke Böschen in 1803, according to the inscription on it. It was moved to the museum grounds in 1973/74 and is used to display farm tools and exhibits relating to agriculture, including [cattle](/wiki/Cattle \"Cattle\"), [dairy](/wiki/Dairy_farming \"Dairy farming\") and [arable](/wiki/Arable_farming \"Arable farming\") farming, [beekeeping](/wiki/Beekeeping \"Beekeeping\"), [haying](/wiki/Haying \"Haying\"), [peat](/wiki/Peat \"Peat\") cutting, [slaughtering](/wiki/Animal_slaughter \"Animal slaughter\") and rural transport.",
"### Park",
"The museum is set in {{convert\\|4\\.5\\|ha\\|acre}} of parkland, with the different buildings being connected by gardens with sculptures and [sundials](/wiki/Sundial \"Sundial\"). The oldest elements in the park are four tall [lime trees](/wiki/Tilia \"Tilia\") in front of Haus Riensberg which were probably planted when the house was remodelled in 1768, and a marble statue of the goddess [Terra](/wiki/Terra_%28mythology%29 \"Terra (mythology)\") which has been in the park since 1810\\. The park includes water features and both a botanical collection with many exotics and a farm garden at Haus Mittelsbüren displaying indigenous flowers and herbs. Open\\-air concerts are held in the park in summer.Sigrid Schuer, [\"Sommerliches Singspiel auf hohem Niveau\"](http://www.weser-kurier.de/bremen/stadtteile/ausgabe-nordost_artikel,-Sommerliches-Singspiel-auf-hohem-Niveau-_arid,923655.html), *Weser\\-Kurier*, 21 August 2014 {{in lang\\|de}}",
"### Oberneuland Mill",
"The Oberneuland Mill, in the Oberneuland section of Bremen, is an external site belonging to the museum. It is a [smock mill](/wiki/Smock_mill \"Smock mill\") of the gallery type built in 1848, and has been a protected landmark since 1973\\.{{WP\\-HB LfD\\|0933\\|Database Landesamt für Denkmalpflege Bremen}} Oberneulander Mühle {{in lang\\|de}} The mill has a permanent exhibit on the process of making bread from [corn](/wiki/Cereal \"Cereal\") and an educational programme.",
""
] |
Results
-------
### PISA 2012
{{collapse top\|title\=PISA 2012}}
[350px\|right\|thumb\|The results for the 2012 "Maths" section on a world map.](/wiki/File:PISA-Maths-2012.svg "PISA-Maths-2012.svg")
[350px\|right\|thumb\|The results for the 2012 "Science" section on a world map.](/wiki/File:PISA-Science-2012.svg "PISA-Science-2012.svg")
[350px\|right\|thumb\|The results for the 2012 "Reading" section on a world map.](/wiki/File:PISA-Reading-2012.svg "PISA-Reading-2012.svg")
{{PISA 2012}}
PISA 2012 was presented on 3 December 2013, with results for around 510,000 participating students in all 34 OECD member countries and 31 partner countries.{{citation\|title \= PISA 2012 Results in Focus\|publisher \= \[\[OECD]]\|date \= 3 December 2013\|accessdate \= 4 December 2013\|url \= http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa\-2012\-results\-overview.pdf}} This testing cycle had a particular focus on mathematics, where the mean score was 494\. A sample of 1,688 students from Puerto Rico took the assessment, scoring 379 in math, 404 in reading and 401 in science.CB Online Staff. ["PR scores low on global report card"](http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news/pr-scores-low-on-global-report-card-100911.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103080012/http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news/pr\-scores\-low\-on\-global\-report\-card\-100911\.html \|date\=2015\-01\-03 }}, *[Caribbean Business](/wiki/Caribbean_Business "Caribbean Business")*, 26 September 2014\. Retrieved on 3 January 2015\. A subgroup of 44 countries and economies with about 85 000 students also took part in an optional computer\-based assessment of problem solving.OECD (2014\): PISA 2012 results: Creative problem solving: Students’ skills in tackling real\-life problems (Volume V), [http://www.oecd\-ilibrary.org/education/pisa\-2012\-results\-skills\-for\-life\-volume\-v\_9789264208070\-en](http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/pisa-2012-results-skills-for-life-volume-v_9789264208070-en)
[Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai "Shanghai") had the highest score in all three subjects. It was followed by Singapore, Hong Kong, Chinese Taipei and Korea in mathematics; Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan and Korea in reading and Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan and Finland in science.
They were a sample of about 28 million in the same age group in 65 countries and economies,[PISA 2012 Results](http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results.htm) [OECD](/wiki/OECD "OECD"). Retrieved 4 December 2013 including the [OECD countries](/wiki/OECD%23Current_members "OECD#Current members"), several [Chinese](/wiki/China "China") cities, [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam"), [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia") and several countries in [South America](/wiki/South_America "South America").
The test lasted two hours, was paper\-based and included both open\-ended and [multiple\-choice questions](/wiki/Multiple-choice_questions "Multiple-choice questions").
The students and school staff also answered a [questionnaire](/wiki/Questionnaire "Questionnaire") to provide background information about the students and the schools.
PISA 2012 was presented on 3 December 2013, with results for around 510,000 participating students in all 34 OECD member countries and 31 partner countries. This testing cycle had a particular focus on mathematics, where the mean score was 494\. The mean score in reading was 496 and in science 501\.{{fact\|date\=July 2022}}
The results show distinct groups of high\-performers in mathematics: the East Asian countries, with [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai "Shanghai"), scoring the best result of 613, followed closely by [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"), [Chinese Taipei](/wiki/Chinese_Taipei "Chinese Taipei") and [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea"). Among the Europeans, [Liechtenstein](/wiki/Liechtenstein "Liechtenstein") and [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland") performed best, with [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands"), [Estonia](/wiki/Estonia "Estonia"), [Finland](/wiki/Finland "Finland"), [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland"), [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium "Belgium"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany"), [Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria") all posting mathematics scores "not significantly statistically different from" one another. The [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"), [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland "Ireland"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia") and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand "New Zealand") were similarly clustered around the OECD average of 494, with the USA trailing this group at 481\.
[Qatar](/wiki/Qatar "Qatar"), [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan") and [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia") were the countries which showed the greatest improvement in mathematics. The USA and the United Kingdom showed no significant change.{{citation\|first1 \= Ami\|last1 \= Sedghi\|first2 \= George\|last2 \= Arnett\|first3 \= Mona\|last3 \= Chalabi\|date \= 2013\-12\-03\|title \= Pisa 2012 results: which country does best at reading, maths and science?\|url \= https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/dec/03/pisa\-results\-country\-best\-reading\-maths\-science\|accessdate \= 2013\-02\-14\|work \= \[\[The Guardian]]}} Sweden had the greatest fall in mathematics performance over the last ten years, with a similar falling trend also in the two other subjects, and leading politicians in Sweden expressed great worry over the results.{{citation\|first \= Richard\|last \= Adams\|date \= 2013\-12\-03\|url \= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/03/swedish\-results\-fall\-free\-schools\-pisa\-oecd\|title \= Swedish results fall abruptly as free school revolution falters\|work \= \[\[The Guardian]]\|accessdate \= 2013\-12\-03}}{{citation\|first \= Jens\|last \= Kärrman\|date \= 2013\-12\-03\|url \= http://www.dn.se/nyheter/sverige/lofven\-om\-pisa\-nationell\-kris/\|title \= Löfven om Pisa: Nationell kris\|newspaper \= \[\[Dagens Nyheter]]\|accessdate \= 2013\-12\-03}}
On average boys scored better than girls in mathematics, girls scored better than boys in reading and the two sexes had quite similar scores in science.
Indonesia, Albania, Peru, Thailand and Colombia were the countries where most students reported being happy at school, while students in Korea, the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic, Estonia and Finland reported least happiness.
{{Clear}}
{{Collapse bottom}}
### PISA 2009
{{collapse top\|title\=PISA 2009}}
The PISA 2009 cycle included results in mathematics, science and reading for all 36 OECD member countries and 37 partner countries.{{citation\|url \= http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/46619703\.pdf\|date \= 2010\-12\-07\|publisher \= \[\[OECD]]\|title \= PISA 2009 Results: Executive Summary}}{{citation\|url \= http://pisa2009\.acer.edu.au/multidim.php\|title \= Multi\-dimensional Data Request\|publisher \= \[\[OECD]]\|year \= 2010\|accessdate \= 2012\-06\-28\|url\-status \= dead\|archiveurl \= https://web.archive.org/web/20120714072212/http://pisa2009\.acer.edu.au/multidim.php\|archivedate \= 2012\-07\-14}}{{citation\|url \= http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/54/12/46643496\.pdf\|title \= PISA 2009 Results: Executive Summary (Figure 1 only)\|publisher \= \[\[OECD]]\|accessdate \= 2012\-06\-28\|year \= 2010}}
Of the partner countries, only selected areas of three countries—[India](/wiki/India "India"), [Venezuela](/wiki/Venezuela "Venezuela") and [China](/wiki/China "China")—were assessed. PISA 2009\+, released in December 2011, included data from 10 additional partner countries which had testing delayed from 2009 to 2010 because of scheduling constraints.{{citation\|url \= http://www.acer.edu.au/media/acer\-releases\-results\-of\-pisa\-2009\-participant\-economies\|title \= ACER releases results of PISA 2009\+ participant economies\|publisher \= \[\[Australian Council for Educational Research\|ACER]]\|date \= 2011\-12\-16\|access\-date \= 2016\-04\-15\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20141008170044/http://www.acer.edu.au/media/acer\-releases\-results\-of\-pisa\-2009\-participant\-economies/\|archive\-date \= 2014\-10\-08\|url\-status \= dead}}{{citation\|title \= PISA 2009 Plus Results\|first \= Maurice\|last \= Walker\|year \= 2011\|publisher \= \[\[OECD]]\|url \= https://mypisa.acer.edu.au/images/mypisadoc/acer\_pisa%202009%2B%20international.pdf\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20111222065347/https://mypisa.acer.edu.au/images/mypisadoc/acer\_pisa%202009%2B%20international.pdf\|url\-status \= dead\|archive\-date \= 2011\-12\-22\|accessdate \= 2012\-06\-28}}
{{PISA 2009}}
{{Clear}}
{{Collapse bottom}}
### PISA 2006
{{collapse top\|title\=PISA 2006}}
{{PISA 2006}}
{{Clear}}
{{collapse bottom}}
### PISA 2003
The results for PISA 2003 were released on 14 December 2004\. This PISA cycle tested 275,000 15 year\-olds on mathematics, science, reading and problem solving and involved schools from 30 OECD member countries and 11 partner countries.{{citation\|url \= http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/programmeforinternationalstudentassessmentpisa/34002216\.pdf\|title \= Learning for Tomorrow's World First Results from PISA 2003\|publisher \= \[\[OECD]]\|date \= 2004\-12\-14\|accessdate\= 2014\-01\-06}} Note that for Science and Reading, the means displayed are for "All Students", but for these two subjects (domains), not all of the students answered questions in these domains. In the 2003 OECD Technical Report (pages 208, 209\), there are different country means (different than those displayed below) available for students who had exposure to these domains.{{citation\|url \= http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/programmeforinternationalstudentassessmentpisa/35188570\.pdf\|title \= PISA 2003 Technical Report\|publisher \= \[\[OECD]]}}
{{collapse top\|title\=PISA 2003}}
| \+OECD members at the time of the study are in **boldface**. | \+The United Kingdom was disqualified due to a low response rate. |
| --- | --- |
|Mathematics
Science
Reading
Problem solving
| | 1 | {{flagcountry\|Hong Kong}}, [China](/wiki/China "China") | 550 | | --- | --- | --- | | 2 | **{{flagcountry\|Finland}}** | 544 | | 3 | **{{flagcountry\|Korea}}** | 542 | | 4 | **{{flagcountry\|Netherlands}}** | 538 | | 5 | {{flagcountry\|Liechtenstein}} | 536 | | 6 | **{{flagcountry\|Japan}}** | 534 | | 7 | **{{flagcountry\|Canada}}** | 532 | | 8 | **{{flagcountry\|Belgium}}** | 529 | | 9 | {{flagcountry\|Macao}}, [China](/wiki/China "China") | 527 | | 10 | **{{flagcountry\|Switzerland}}** | 527 | | 11 | **{{flagcountry\|Australia}}** | 524 | | 12 | **{{flagcountry\|New Zealand}}** | 523 | | 13 | **{{flagcountry\|Czech Republic}}** | 516 | | 14 | **{{flagcountry\|Iceland}}** | 515 | | 15 | **{{flagcountry\|Denmark}}** | 514 | | 16 | **{{flagcountry\|France}}** | 511 | | 17 | **{{flagcountry\|Sweden}}** | 509 | | 18 | **{{flagcountry\|Austria}}** | 506 | | 19 | **{{flagcountry\|Germany}}** | 503 | | 20 | **{{flagcountry\|Ireland}}** | 503 | | 21 | **{{flagcountry\|Slovakia}}** | 498 | | 22 | **{{flagcountry\|Norway}}** | 495 | | 23 | **{{flagcountry\|Luxembourg}}** | 493 | | 24 | **{{flagcountry\|Poland}}** | 490 | | 25 | **{{flagcountry\|Hungary}}** | 490 | | 26 | **{{flagcountry\|Spain}}** | 485 | | 27 | {{flagcountry\|Latvia}} | 483 | | 28 | **{{flagcountry\|United States}}** | 483 | | 29 | {{flagcountry\|Russia}} | 468 | | 30 | **{{flagcountry\|Portugal}}** | 466 | | 31 | **{{flagcountry\|Italy\|2003}}** | 466 | | 32 | **{{flagcountry\|Greece}}** | 445 | | 33 | {{flagcountry\|Serbia and Montenegro}} | 437 | | 34 | **{{flagcountry\|Turkey}}** | 423 | | 35 | {{flagcountry\|Uruguay}} | 422 | | 36 | {{flagcountry\|Thailand}} | 417 | | 37 | **{{flagcountry\|Mexico}}** | 385 | | 38 | {{flagcountry\|Indonesia}} | 360 | | 39 | {{flagcountry\|Tunisia}} | 359 | | 40 | {{flagcountry\|Brazil}} | 356 | | | | 1 | **{{flagcountry\|Finland}}** | 548 | | --- | --- | --- | | 2 | **{{flagcountry\|Japan}}** | 548 | | 3 | {{flagcountry\|Hong Kong}}, [China](/wiki/China "China") | 539 | | 4 | **{{flagcountry\|Korea}}** | 538 | | 5 | {{flagcountry\|Liechtenstein}} | 525 | | 6 | **{{flagcountry\|Australia}}** | 525 | | 7 | {{flagcountry\|Macao}}, [China](/wiki/China "China") | 525 | | 8 | **{{flagcountry\|Netherlands}}** | 524 | | 9 | **{{flagcountry\|Czech Republic}}** | 523 | | 10 | **{{flagcountry\|New Zealand}}** | 521 | | 11 | **{{flagcountry\|Canada}}** | 519 | | 12 | **{{flagcountry\|Switzerland}}** | 513 | | 13 | **{{flagcountry\|France}}** | 511 | | 14 | **{{flagcountry\|Belgium}}** | 509 | | 15 | **{{flagcountry\|Sweden}}** | 506 | | 16 | **{{flagcountry\|Ireland}}** | 505 | | 17 | **{{flagcountry\|Hungary}}** | 503 | | 18 | **{{flagcountry\|Germany}}** | 502 | | 19 | **{{flagcountry\|Poland}}** | 498 | | 20 | **{{flagcountry\|Slovakia}}** | 495 | | 21 | **{{flagcountry\|Iceland}}** | 495 | | 22 | **{{flagcountry\|United States}}** | 491 | | 23 | **{{flagcountry\|Austria}}** | 491 | | 24 | {{flagcountry\|Russia}} | 489 | | 25 | {{flagcountry\|Latvia}} | 489 | | 26 | **{{flagcountry\|Spain}}** | 487 | | 27 | **{{flagcountry\|Italy\|2003}}** | 486 | | 28 | **{{flagcountry\|Norway}}** | 484 | | 29 | **{{flagcountry\|Luxembourg}}** | 483 | | 30 | **{{flagcountry\|Greece}}** | 481 | | 31 | **{{flagcountry\|Denmark}}** | 475 | | 32 | **{{flagcountry\|Portugal}}** | 468 | | 33 | {{flagcountry\|Uruguay}} | 438 | | 34 | {{flagcountry\|Serbia and Montenegro}} | 436 | | 35 | **{{flagcountry\|Turkey}}** | 434 | | 36 | {{flagcountry\|Thailand}} | 429 | | 37 | **{{flagcountry\|Mexico}}** | 405 | | 38 | {{flagcountry\|Indonesia}} | 395 | | 39 | {{flagcountry\|Brazil}} | 390 | | 40 | {{flagcountry\|Tunisia}} | 385 | | | | 1 | **{{flagcountry\|Finland}}** | 543 | | --- | --- | --- | | 2 | **{{flagcountry\|Korea}}** | 534 | | 3 | **{{flagcountry\|Canada}}** | 528 | | 4 | **{{flagcountry\|Australia}}** | 525 | | 5 | {{flagcountry\|Liechtenstein}} | 525 | | 6 | **{{flagcountry\|New Zealand}}** | 522 | | 7 | **{{flagcountry\|Ireland}}** | 515 | | 8 | **{{flagcountry\|Sweden}}** | 514 | | 9 | **{{flagcountry\|Netherlands}}** | 513 | | 10 | {{flagcountry\|Hong Kong}}, [China](/wiki/China "China") | 510 | | 11 | **{{flagcountry\|Belgium}}** | 507 | | 12 | **{{flagcountry\|Norway}}** | 500 | | 13 | **{{flagcountry\|Switzerland}}** | 499 | | 14 | **{{flagcountry\|Japan}}** | 498 | | 15 | {{flagcountry\|Macao}}, [China](/wiki/China "China") | 498 | | 16 | **{{flagcountry\|Poland}}** | 497 | | 17 | **{{flagcountry\|France}}** | 496 | | 18 | **{{flagcountry\|United States}}** | 495 | | 19 | **{{flagcountry\|Denmark}}** | 492 | | 20 | **{{flagcountry\|Iceland}}** | 492 | | 21 | **{{flagcountry\|Germany}}** | 491 | | 22 | **{{flagcountry\|Austria}}** | 491 | | 23 | {{flagcountry\|Latvia}} | 491 | | 24 | **{{flagcountry\|Czech Republic}}** | 489 | | 25 | **{{flagcountry\|Hungary}}** | 482 | | 26 | **{{flagcountry\|Spain}}** | 481 | | 27 | **{{flagcountry\|Luxembourg}}** | 479 | | 28 | **{{flagcountry\|Portugal}}** | 478 | | 29 | **{{flagcountry\|Italy\|2003}}** | 476 | | 30 | **{{flagcountry\|Greece}}** | 472 | | 31 | **{{flagcountry\|Slovakia}}** | 469 | | 32 | {{flagcountry\|Russia}} | 442 | | 33 | **{{flagcountry\|Turkey}}** | 441 | | 34 | {{flagcountry\|Uruguay}} | 434 | | 35 | {{flagcountry\|Thailand}} | 420 | | 36 | {{flagcountry\|Serbia and Montenegro}} | 412 | | 37 | {{flagcountry\|Brazil}} | 403 | | 38 | **{{flagcountry\|Mexico}}** | 400 | | 39 | {{flagcountry\|Indonesia}} | 382 | | 40 | {{flagcountry\|Tunisia}} | 375 | | | | 1 | **{{flagcountry\|Korea}}** | 550 | | --- | --- | --- | | 2 | {{flagcountry\|Hong Kong}}, [China](/wiki/China "China") | 548 | | 3 | **{{flagcountry\|Finland}}** | 548 | | 4 | **{{flagcountry\|Japan}}** | 547 | | 5 | **{{flagcountry\|New Zealand}}** | 533 | | 6 | {{flagcountry\|Macao}}, [China](/wiki/China "China") | 532 | | 7 | **{{flagcountry\|Australia}}** | 530 | | 8 | {{flagcountry\|Liechtenstein}} | 529 | | 9 | **{{flagcountry\|Canada}}** | 529 | | 10 | **{{flagcountry\|Belgium}}** | 525 | | 11 | **{{flagcountry\|Switzerland}}** | 521 | | 12 | **{{flagcountry\|Netherlands}}** | 520 | | 13 | **{{flagcountry\|France}}** | 519 | | 14 | **{{flagcountry\|Denmark}}** | 517 | | 15 | **{{flagcountry\|Czech Republic}}** | 516 | | 16 | **{{flagcountry\|Germany}}** | 513 | | 17 | **{{flagcountry\|Sweden}}** | 509 | | 18 | **{{flagcountry\|Austria}}** | 506 | | 19 | **{{flagcountry\|Iceland}}** | 505 | | 20 | **{{flagcountry\|Hungary}}** | 501 | | 21 | **{{flagcountry\|Ireland}}** | 498 | | 22 | **{{flagcountry\|Luxembourg}}** | 494 | | 23 | **{{flagcountry\|Slovakia}}** | 492 | | 24 | **{{flagcountry\|Norway}}** | 490 | | 25 | **{{flagcountry\|Poland}}** | 487 | | 26 | {{flagcountry\|Latvia}} | 483 | | 27 | **{{flagcountry\|Spain}}** | 482 | | 28 | {{flagcountry\|Russia}} | 479 | | 29 | **{{flagcountry\|United States}}** | 477 | | 30 | **{{flagcountry\|Portugal}}** | 470 | | 31 | **{{flagcountry\|Italy\|2003}}** | 469 | | 32 | **{{flagcountry\|Greece}}** | 448 | | 33 | {{flagcountry\|Thailand}} | 425 | | 34 | {{flagcountry\|Serbia and Montenegro}} | 420 | | 35 | {{flagcountry\|Uruguay}} | 411 | | 36 | **{{flagcountry\|Turkey}}** | 408 | | 37 | **{{flagcountry\|Mexico}}** | 384 | | 38 | {{flagcountry\|Brazil}} | 371 | | 39 | {{flagcountry\|Indonesia}} | 361 | | 40 | {{flagcountry\|Tunisia}} | 345 | | |
{{Clear}}
{{Collapse bottom}}
### PISA 2000
The results for the first cycle of the PISA survey were released on 14 November 2001\. 265,000 15 year\-olds were tested in 28 OECD countries and 4 partner countries on mathematics, science and reading. An additional 11 countries were tested later in 2002\.{{citation\|url \= http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/programmeforinternationalstudentassessmentpisa/33690591\.pdf\|title \= Literacy Skills for the World of Tomorrow: Further Results from PISA 2000\|publisher \= \[\[OECD]]\|year \= 2003\|accessdate \= 2014\-01\-06}}
{{collapse top\|title\=PISA 2000}}
{{PISA 2000 2003 2006}}
{{Clear}}
{{collapse bottom}}
|
[
"Results\n-------",
"### PISA 2012",
"{{collapse top\\|title\\=PISA 2012}}\n[350px\\|right\\|thumb\\|The results for the 2012 \"Maths\" section on a world map.](/wiki/File:PISA-Maths-2012.svg \"PISA-Maths-2012.svg\")\n[350px\\|right\\|thumb\\|The results for the 2012 \"Science\" section on a world map.](/wiki/File:PISA-Science-2012.svg \"PISA-Science-2012.svg\")\n[350px\\|right\\|thumb\\|The results for the 2012 \"Reading\" section on a world map.](/wiki/File:PISA-Reading-2012.svg \"PISA-Reading-2012.svg\")\n{{PISA 2012}}\nPISA 2012 was presented on 3 December 2013, with results for around 510,000 participating students in all 34 OECD member countries and 31 partner countries.{{citation\\|title \\= PISA 2012 Results in Focus\\|publisher \\= \\[\\[OECD]]\\|date \\= 3 December 2013\\|accessdate \\= 4 December 2013\\|url \\= http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa\\-2012\\-results\\-overview.pdf}} This testing cycle had a particular focus on mathematics, where the mean score was 494\\. A sample of 1,688 students from Puerto Rico took the assessment, scoring 379 in math, 404 in reading and 401 in science.CB Online Staff. [\"PR scores low on global report card\"](http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news/pr-scores-low-on-global-report-card-100911.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103080012/http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news/pr\\-scores\\-low\\-on\\-global\\-report\\-card\\-100911\\.html \\|date\\=2015\\-01\\-03 }}, *[Caribbean Business](/wiki/Caribbean_Business \"Caribbean Business\")*, 26 September 2014\\. Retrieved on 3 January 2015\\. A subgroup of 44 countries and economies with about 85 000 students also took part in an optional computer\\-based assessment of problem solving.OECD (2014\\): PISA 2012 results: Creative problem solving: Students’ skills in tackling real\\-life problems (Volume V), [http://www.oecd\\-ilibrary.org/education/pisa\\-2012\\-results\\-skills\\-for\\-life\\-volume\\-v\\_9789264208070\\-en](http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/pisa-2012-results-skills-for-life-volume-v_9789264208070-en)",
"[Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai \"Shanghai\") had the highest score in all three subjects. It was followed by Singapore, Hong Kong, Chinese Taipei and Korea in mathematics; Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan and Korea in reading and Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan and Finland in science.",
"They were a sample of about 28 million in the same age group in 65 countries and economies,[PISA 2012 Results](http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results.htm) [OECD](/wiki/OECD \"OECD\"). Retrieved 4 December 2013 including the [OECD countries](/wiki/OECD%23Current_members \"OECD#Current members\"), several [Chinese](/wiki/China \"China\") cities, [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam \"Vietnam\"), [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\") and several countries in [South America](/wiki/South_America \"South America\").",
"The test lasted two hours, was paper\\-based and included both open\\-ended and [multiple\\-choice questions](/wiki/Multiple-choice_questions \"Multiple-choice questions\").",
"The students and school staff also answered a [questionnaire](/wiki/Questionnaire \"Questionnaire\") to provide background information about the students and the schools.",
"PISA 2012 was presented on 3 December 2013, with results for around 510,000 participating students in all 34 OECD member countries and 31 partner countries. This testing cycle had a particular focus on mathematics, where the mean score was 494\\. The mean score in reading was 496 and in science 501\\.{{fact\\|date\\=July 2022}}",
"The results show distinct groups of high\\-performers in mathematics: the East Asian countries, with [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai \"Shanghai\"), scoring the best result of 613, followed closely by [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"), [Chinese Taipei](/wiki/Chinese_Taipei \"Chinese Taipei\") and [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\"). Among the Europeans, [Liechtenstein](/wiki/Liechtenstein \"Liechtenstein\") and [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\") performed best, with [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\"), [Estonia](/wiki/Estonia \"Estonia\"), [Finland](/wiki/Finland \"Finland\"), [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\"), [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium \"Belgium\"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"), [Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\") all posting mathematics scores \"not significantly statistically different from\" one another. The [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\"), [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland \"Ireland\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand \"New Zealand\") were similarly clustered around the OECD average of 494, with the USA trailing this group at 481\\.",
"[Qatar](/wiki/Qatar \"Qatar\"), [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan \"Kazakhstan\") and [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia \"Malaysia\") were the countries which showed the greatest improvement in mathematics. The USA and the United Kingdom showed no significant change.{{citation\\|first1 \\= Ami\\|last1 \\= Sedghi\\|first2 \\= George\\|last2 \\= Arnett\\|first3 \\= Mona\\|last3 \\= Chalabi\\|date \\= 2013\\-12\\-03\\|title \\= Pisa 2012 results: which country does best at reading, maths and science?\\|url \\= https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/dec/03/pisa\\-results\\-country\\-best\\-reading\\-maths\\-science\\|accessdate \\= 2013\\-02\\-14\\|work \\= \\[\\[The Guardian]]}} Sweden had the greatest fall in mathematics performance over the last ten years, with a similar falling trend also in the two other subjects, and leading politicians in Sweden expressed great worry over the results.{{citation\\|first \\= Richard\\|last \\= Adams\\|date \\= 2013\\-12\\-03\\|url \\= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/03/swedish\\-results\\-fall\\-free\\-schools\\-pisa\\-oecd\\|title \\= Swedish results fall abruptly as free school revolution falters\\|work \\= \\[\\[The Guardian]]\\|accessdate \\= 2013\\-12\\-03}}{{citation\\|first \\= Jens\\|last \\= Kärrman\\|date \\= 2013\\-12\\-03\\|url \\= http://www.dn.se/nyheter/sverige/lofven\\-om\\-pisa\\-nationell\\-kris/\\|title \\= Löfven om Pisa: Nationell kris\\|newspaper \\= \\[\\[Dagens Nyheter]]\\|accessdate \\= 2013\\-12\\-03}}",
"On average boys scored better than girls in mathematics, girls scored better than boys in reading and the two sexes had quite similar scores in science.",
"Indonesia, Albania, Peru, Thailand and Colombia were the countries where most students reported being happy at school, while students in Korea, the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic, Estonia and Finland reported least happiness.",
"{{Clear}}\n{{Collapse bottom}}",
"### PISA 2009",
"{{collapse top\\|title\\=PISA 2009}}\nThe PISA 2009 cycle included results in mathematics, science and reading for all 36 OECD member countries and 37 partner countries.{{citation\\|url \\= http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/46619703\\.pdf\\|date \\= 2010\\-12\\-07\\|publisher \\= \\[\\[OECD]]\\|title \\= PISA 2009 Results: Executive Summary}}{{citation\\|url \\= http://pisa2009\\.acer.edu.au/multidim.php\\|title \\= Multi\\-dimensional Data Request\\|publisher \\= \\[\\[OECD]]\\|year \\= 2010\\|accessdate \\= 2012\\-06\\-28\\|url\\-status \\= dead\\|archiveurl \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20120714072212/http://pisa2009\\.acer.edu.au/multidim.php\\|archivedate \\= 2012\\-07\\-14}}{{citation\\|url \\= http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/54/12/46643496\\.pdf\\|title \\= PISA 2009 Results: Executive Summary (Figure 1 only)\\|publisher \\= \\[\\[OECD]]\\|accessdate \\= 2012\\-06\\-28\\|year \\= 2010}}",
"Of the partner countries, only selected areas of three countries—[India](/wiki/India \"India\"), [Venezuela](/wiki/Venezuela \"Venezuela\") and [China](/wiki/China \"China\")—were assessed. PISA 2009\\+, released in December 2011, included data from 10 additional partner countries which had testing delayed from 2009 to 2010 because of scheduling constraints.{{citation\\|url \\= http://www.acer.edu.au/media/acer\\-releases\\-results\\-of\\-pisa\\-2009\\-participant\\-economies\\|title \\= ACER releases results of PISA 2009\\+ participant economies\\|publisher \\= \\[\\[Australian Council for Educational Research\\|ACER]]\\|date \\= 2011\\-12\\-16\\|access\\-date \\= 2016\\-04\\-15\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20141008170044/http://www.acer.edu.au/media/acer\\-releases\\-results\\-of\\-pisa\\-2009\\-participant\\-economies/\\|archive\\-date \\= 2014\\-10\\-08\\|url\\-status \\= dead}}{{citation\\|title \\= PISA 2009 Plus Results\\|first \\= Maurice\\|last \\= Walker\\|year \\= 2011\\|publisher \\= \\[\\[OECD]]\\|url \\= https://mypisa.acer.edu.au/images/mypisadoc/acer\\_pisa%202009%2B%20international.pdf\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20111222065347/https://mypisa.acer.edu.au/images/mypisadoc/acer\\_pisa%202009%2B%20international.pdf\\|url\\-status \\= dead\\|archive\\-date \\= 2011\\-12\\-22\\|accessdate \\= 2012\\-06\\-28}}\n{{PISA 2009}}\n{{Clear}}\n{{Collapse bottom}}",
"### PISA 2006",
"{{collapse top\\|title\\=PISA 2006}}\n{{PISA 2006}}\n{{Clear}}\n{{collapse bottom}}",
"### PISA 2003",
"The results for PISA 2003 were released on 14 December 2004\\. This PISA cycle tested 275,000 15 year\\-olds on mathematics, science, reading and problem solving and involved schools from 30 OECD member countries and 11 partner countries.{{citation\\|url \\= http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/programmeforinternationalstudentassessmentpisa/34002216\\.pdf\\|title \\= Learning for Tomorrow's World First Results from PISA 2003\\|publisher \\= \\[\\[OECD]]\\|date \\= 2004\\-12\\-14\\|accessdate\\= 2014\\-01\\-06}} Note that for Science and Reading, the means displayed are for \"All Students\", but for these two subjects (domains), not all of the students answered questions in these domains. In the 2003 OECD Technical Report (pages 208, 209\\), there are different country means (different than those displayed below) available for students who had exposure to these domains.{{citation\\|url \\= http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/programmeforinternationalstudentassessmentpisa/35188570\\.pdf\\|title \\= PISA 2003 Technical Report\\|publisher \\= \\[\\[OECD]]}} \n{{collapse top\\|title\\=PISA 2003}}",
"| \\+OECD members at the time of the study are in **boldface**. | \\+The United Kingdom was disqualified due to a low response rate. |\n| --- | --- |\n|Mathematics",
"Science",
"Reading",
"Problem solving",
"| | 1 | {{flagcountry\\|Hong Kong}}, [China](/wiki/China \"China\") | 550 | | --- | --- | --- | | 2 | **{{flagcountry\\|Finland}}** | 544 | | 3 | **{{flagcountry\\|Korea}}** | 542 | | 4 | **{{flagcountry\\|Netherlands}}** | 538 | | 5 | {{flagcountry\\|Liechtenstein}} | 536 | | 6 | **{{flagcountry\\|Japan}}** | 534 | | 7 | **{{flagcountry\\|Canada}}** | 532 | | 8 | **{{flagcountry\\|Belgium}}** | 529 | | 9 | {{flagcountry\\|Macao}}, [China](/wiki/China \"China\") | 527 | | 10 | **{{flagcountry\\|Switzerland}}** | 527 | | 11 | **{{flagcountry\\|Australia}}** | 524 | | 12 | **{{flagcountry\\|New Zealand}}** | 523 | | 13 | **{{flagcountry\\|Czech Republic}}** | 516 | | 14 | **{{flagcountry\\|Iceland}}** | 515 | | 15 | **{{flagcountry\\|Denmark}}** | 514 | | 16 | **{{flagcountry\\|France}}** | 511 | | 17 | **{{flagcountry\\|Sweden}}** | 509 | | 18 | **{{flagcountry\\|Austria}}** | 506 | | 19 | **{{flagcountry\\|Germany}}** | 503 | | 20 | **{{flagcountry\\|Ireland}}** | 503 | | 21 | **{{flagcountry\\|Slovakia}}** | 498 | | 22 | **{{flagcountry\\|Norway}}** | 495 | | 23 | **{{flagcountry\\|Luxembourg}}** | 493 | | 24 | **{{flagcountry\\|Poland}}** | 490 | | 25 | **{{flagcountry\\|Hungary}}** | 490 | | 26 | **{{flagcountry\\|Spain}}** | 485 | | 27 | {{flagcountry\\|Latvia}} | 483 | | 28 | **{{flagcountry\\|United States}}** | 483 | | 29 | {{flagcountry\\|Russia}} | 468 | | 30 | **{{flagcountry\\|Portugal}}** | 466 | | 31 | **{{flagcountry\\|Italy\\|2003}}** | 466 | | 32 | **{{flagcountry\\|Greece}}** | 445 | | 33 | {{flagcountry\\|Serbia and Montenegro}} | 437 | | 34 | **{{flagcountry\\|Turkey}}** | 423 | | 35 | {{flagcountry\\|Uruguay}} | 422 | | 36 | {{flagcountry\\|Thailand}} | 417 | | 37 | **{{flagcountry\\|Mexico}}** | 385 | | 38 | {{flagcountry\\|Indonesia}} | 360 | | 39 | {{flagcountry\\|Tunisia}} | 359 | | 40 | {{flagcountry\\|Brazil}} | 356 | | | | 1 | **{{flagcountry\\|Finland}}** | 548 | | --- | --- | --- | | 2 | **{{flagcountry\\|Japan}}** | 548 | | 3 | {{flagcountry\\|Hong Kong}}, [China](/wiki/China \"China\") | 539 | | 4 | **{{flagcountry\\|Korea}}** | 538 | | 5 | {{flagcountry\\|Liechtenstein}} | 525 | | 6 | **{{flagcountry\\|Australia}}** | 525 | | 7 | {{flagcountry\\|Macao}}, [China](/wiki/China \"China\") | 525 | | 8 | **{{flagcountry\\|Netherlands}}** | 524 | | 9 | **{{flagcountry\\|Czech Republic}}** | 523 | | 10 | **{{flagcountry\\|New Zealand}}** | 521 | | 11 | **{{flagcountry\\|Canada}}** | 519 | | 12 | **{{flagcountry\\|Switzerland}}** | 513 | | 13 | **{{flagcountry\\|France}}** | 511 | | 14 | **{{flagcountry\\|Belgium}}** | 509 | | 15 | **{{flagcountry\\|Sweden}}** | 506 | | 16 | **{{flagcountry\\|Ireland}}** | 505 | | 17 | **{{flagcountry\\|Hungary}}** | 503 | | 18 | **{{flagcountry\\|Germany}}** | 502 | | 19 | **{{flagcountry\\|Poland}}** | 498 | | 20 | **{{flagcountry\\|Slovakia}}** | 495 | | 21 | **{{flagcountry\\|Iceland}}** | 495 | | 22 | **{{flagcountry\\|United States}}** | 491 | | 23 | **{{flagcountry\\|Austria}}** | 491 | | 24 | {{flagcountry\\|Russia}} | 489 | | 25 | {{flagcountry\\|Latvia}} | 489 | | 26 | **{{flagcountry\\|Spain}}** | 487 | | 27 | **{{flagcountry\\|Italy\\|2003}}** | 486 | | 28 | **{{flagcountry\\|Norway}}** | 484 | | 29 | **{{flagcountry\\|Luxembourg}}** | 483 | | 30 | **{{flagcountry\\|Greece}}** | 481 | | 31 | **{{flagcountry\\|Denmark}}** | 475 | | 32 | **{{flagcountry\\|Portugal}}** | 468 | | 33 | {{flagcountry\\|Uruguay}} | 438 | | 34 | {{flagcountry\\|Serbia and Montenegro}} | 436 | | 35 | **{{flagcountry\\|Turkey}}** | 434 | | 36 | {{flagcountry\\|Thailand}} | 429 | | 37 | **{{flagcountry\\|Mexico}}** | 405 | | 38 | {{flagcountry\\|Indonesia}} | 395 | | 39 | {{flagcountry\\|Brazil}} | 390 | | 40 | {{flagcountry\\|Tunisia}} | 385 | | | | 1 | **{{flagcountry\\|Finland}}** | 543 | | --- | --- | --- | | 2 | **{{flagcountry\\|Korea}}** | 534 | | 3 | **{{flagcountry\\|Canada}}** | 528 | | 4 | **{{flagcountry\\|Australia}}** | 525 | | 5 | {{flagcountry\\|Liechtenstein}} | 525 | | 6 | **{{flagcountry\\|New Zealand}}** | 522 | | 7 | **{{flagcountry\\|Ireland}}** | 515 | | 8 | **{{flagcountry\\|Sweden}}** | 514 | | 9 | **{{flagcountry\\|Netherlands}}** | 513 | | 10 | {{flagcountry\\|Hong Kong}}, [China](/wiki/China \"China\") | 510 | | 11 | **{{flagcountry\\|Belgium}}** | 507 | | 12 | **{{flagcountry\\|Norway}}** | 500 | | 13 | **{{flagcountry\\|Switzerland}}** | 499 | | 14 | **{{flagcountry\\|Japan}}** | 498 | | 15 | {{flagcountry\\|Macao}}, [China](/wiki/China \"China\") | 498 | | 16 | **{{flagcountry\\|Poland}}** | 497 | | 17 | **{{flagcountry\\|France}}** | 496 | | 18 | **{{flagcountry\\|United States}}** | 495 | | 19 | **{{flagcountry\\|Denmark}}** | 492 | | 20 | **{{flagcountry\\|Iceland}}** | 492 | | 21 | **{{flagcountry\\|Germany}}** | 491 | | 22 | **{{flagcountry\\|Austria}}** | 491 | | 23 | {{flagcountry\\|Latvia}} | 491 | | 24 | **{{flagcountry\\|Czech Republic}}** | 489 | | 25 | **{{flagcountry\\|Hungary}}** | 482 | | 26 | **{{flagcountry\\|Spain}}** | 481 | | 27 | **{{flagcountry\\|Luxembourg}}** | 479 | | 28 | **{{flagcountry\\|Portugal}}** | 478 | | 29 | **{{flagcountry\\|Italy\\|2003}}** | 476 | | 30 | **{{flagcountry\\|Greece}}** | 472 | | 31 | **{{flagcountry\\|Slovakia}}** | 469 | | 32 | {{flagcountry\\|Russia}} | 442 | | 33 | **{{flagcountry\\|Turkey}}** | 441 | | 34 | {{flagcountry\\|Uruguay}} | 434 | | 35 | {{flagcountry\\|Thailand}} | 420 | | 36 | {{flagcountry\\|Serbia and Montenegro}} | 412 | | 37 | {{flagcountry\\|Brazil}} | 403 | | 38 | **{{flagcountry\\|Mexico}}** | 400 | | 39 | {{flagcountry\\|Indonesia}} | 382 | | 40 | {{flagcountry\\|Tunisia}} | 375 | | | | 1 | **{{flagcountry\\|Korea}}** | 550 | | --- | --- | --- | | 2 | {{flagcountry\\|Hong Kong}}, [China](/wiki/China \"China\") | 548 | | 3 | **{{flagcountry\\|Finland}}** | 548 | | 4 | **{{flagcountry\\|Japan}}** | 547 | | 5 | **{{flagcountry\\|New Zealand}}** | 533 | | 6 | {{flagcountry\\|Macao}}, [China](/wiki/China \"China\") | 532 | | 7 | **{{flagcountry\\|Australia}}** | 530 | | 8 | {{flagcountry\\|Liechtenstein}} | 529 | | 9 | **{{flagcountry\\|Canada}}** | 529 | | 10 | **{{flagcountry\\|Belgium}}** | 525 | | 11 | **{{flagcountry\\|Switzerland}}** | 521 | | 12 | **{{flagcountry\\|Netherlands}}** | 520 | | 13 | **{{flagcountry\\|France}}** | 519 | | 14 | **{{flagcountry\\|Denmark}}** | 517 | | 15 | **{{flagcountry\\|Czech Republic}}** | 516 | | 16 | **{{flagcountry\\|Germany}}** | 513 | | 17 | **{{flagcountry\\|Sweden}}** | 509 | | 18 | **{{flagcountry\\|Austria}}** | 506 | | 19 | **{{flagcountry\\|Iceland}}** | 505 | | 20 | **{{flagcountry\\|Hungary}}** | 501 | | 21 | **{{flagcountry\\|Ireland}}** | 498 | | 22 | **{{flagcountry\\|Luxembourg}}** | 494 | | 23 | **{{flagcountry\\|Slovakia}}** | 492 | | 24 | **{{flagcountry\\|Norway}}** | 490 | | 25 | **{{flagcountry\\|Poland}}** | 487 | | 26 | {{flagcountry\\|Latvia}} | 483 | | 27 | **{{flagcountry\\|Spain}}** | 482 | | 28 | {{flagcountry\\|Russia}} | 479 | | 29 | **{{flagcountry\\|United States}}** | 477 | | 30 | **{{flagcountry\\|Portugal}}** | 470 | | 31 | **{{flagcountry\\|Italy\\|2003}}** | 469 | | 32 | **{{flagcountry\\|Greece}}** | 448 | | 33 | {{flagcountry\\|Thailand}} | 425 | | 34 | {{flagcountry\\|Serbia and Montenegro}} | 420 | | 35 | {{flagcountry\\|Uruguay}} | 411 | | 36 | **{{flagcountry\\|Turkey}}** | 408 | | 37 | **{{flagcountry\\|Mexico}}** | 384 | | 38 | {{flagcountry\\|Brazil}} | 371 | | 39 | {{flagcountry\\|Indonesia}} | 361 | | 40 | {{flagcountry\\|Tunisia}} | 345 | | |",
"{{Clear}}\n{{Collapse bottom}}",
"### PISA 2000",
"The results for the first cycle of the PISA survey were released on 14 November 2001\\. 265,000 15 year\\-olds were tested in 28 OECD countries and 4 partner countries on mathematics, science and reading. An additional 11 countries were tested later in 2002\\.{{citation\\|url \\= http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/programmeforinternationalstudentassessmentpisa/33690591\\.pdf\\|title \\= Literacy Skills for the World of Tomorrow: Further Results from PISA 2000\\|publisher \\= \\[\\[OECD]]\\|year \\= 2003\\|accessdate \\= 2014\\-01\\-06}}\n{{collapse top\\|title\\=PISA 2000}}\n{{PISA 2000 2003 2006}}\n{{Clear}}\n{{collapse bottom}}",
""
] |
### PISA 2012
{{collapse top\|title\=PISA 2012}}
[350px\|right\|thumb\|The results for the 2012 "Maths" section on a world map.](/wiki/File:PISA-Maths-2012.svg "PISA-Maths-2012.svg")
[350px\|right\|thumb\|The results for the 2012 "Science" section on a world map.](/wiki/File:PISA-Science-2012.svg "PISA-Science-2012.svg")
[350px\|right\|thumb\|The results for the 2012 "Reading" section on a world map.](/wiki/File:PISA-Reading-2012.svg "PISA-Reading-2012.svg")
{{PISA 2012}}
PISA 2012 was presented on 3 December 2013, with results for around 510,000 participating students in all 34 OECD member countries and 31 partner countries.{{citation\|title \= PISA 2012 Results in Focus\|publisher \= \[\[OECD]]\|date \= 3 December 2013\|accessdate \= 4 December 2013\|url \= http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa\-2012\-results\-overview.pdf}} This testing cycle had a particular focus on mathematics, where the mean score was 494\. A sample of 1,688 students from Puerto Rico took the assessment, scoring 379 in math, 404 in reading and 401 in science.CB Online Staff. ["PR scores low on global report card"](http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news/pr-scores-low-on-global-report-card-100911.html) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103080012/http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news/pr\-scores\-low\-on\-global\-report\-card\-100911\.html \|date\=2015\-01\-03 }}, *[Caribbean Business](/wiki/Caribbean_Business "Caribbean Business")*, 26 September 2014\. Retrieved on 3 January 2015\. A subgroup of 44 countries and economies with about 85 000 students also took part in an optional computer\-based assessment of problem solving.OECD (2014\): PISA 2012 results: Creative problem solving: Students’ skills in tackling real\-life problems (Volume V), [http://www.oecd\-ilibrary.org/education/pisa\-2012\-results\-skills\-for\-life\-volume\-v\_9789264208070\-en](http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/pisa-2012-results-skills-for-life-volume-v_9789264208070-en)
[Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai "Shanghai") had the highest score in all three subjects. It was followed by Singapore, Hong Kong, Chinese Taipei and Korea in mathematics; Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan and Korea in reading and Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan and Finland in science.
They were a sample of about 28 million in the same age group in 65 countries and economies,[PISA 2012 Results](http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results.htm) [OECD](/wiki/OECD "OECD"). Retrieved 4 December 2013 including the [OECD countries](/wiki/OECD%23Current_members "OECD#Current members"), several [Chinese](/wiki/China "China") cities, [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam "Vietnam"), [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia "Indonesia") and several countries in [South America](/wiki/South_America "South America").
The test lasted two hours, was paper\-based and included both open\-ended and [multiple\-choice questions](/wiki/Multiple-choice_questions "Multiple-choice questions").
The students and school staff also answered a [questionnaire](/wiki/Questionnaire "Questionnaire") to provide background information about the students and the schools.
PISA 2012 was presented on 3 December 2013, with results for around 510,000 participating students in all 34 OECD member countries and 31 partner countries. This testing cycle had a particular focus on mathematics, where the mean score was 494\. The mean score in reading was 496 and in science 501\.{{fact\|date\=July 2022}}
The results show distinct groups of high\-performers in mathematics: the East Asian countries, with [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai "Shanghai"), scoring the best result of 613, followed closely by [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong "Hong Kong"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan "Japan"), [Chinese Taipei](/wiki/Chinese_Taipei "Chinese Taipei") and [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea "South Korea"). Among the Europeans, [Liechtenstein](/wiki/Liechtenstein "Liechtenstein") and [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland "Switzerland") performed best, with [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands "Netherlands"), [Estonia](/wiki/Estonia "Estonia"), [Finland](/wiki/Finland "Finland"), [Poland](/wiki/Poland "Poland"), [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium "Belgium"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany "Germany"), [Austria](/wiki/Austria "Austria") all posting mathematics scores "not significantly statistically different from" one another. The [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom "United Kingdom"), [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland "Ireland"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia "Australia") and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand "New Zealand") were similarly clustered around the OECD average of 494, with the USA trailing this group at 481\.
[Qatar](/wiki/Qatar "Qatar"), [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan "Kazakhstan") and [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia "Malaysia") were the countries which showed the greatest improvement in mathematics. The USA and the United Kingdom showed no significant change.{{citation\|first1 \= Ami\|last1 \= Sedghi\|first2 \= George\|last2 \= Arnett\|first3 \= Mona\|last3 \= Chalabi\|date \= 2013\-12\-03\|title \= Pisa 2012 results: which country does best at reading, maths and science?\|url \= https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/dec/03/pisa\-results\-country\-best\-reading\-maths\-science\|accessdate \= 2013\-02\-14\|work \= \[\[The Guardian]]}} Sweden had the greatest fall in mathematics performance over the last ten years, with a similar falling trend also in the two other subjects, and leading politicians in Sweden expressed great worry over the results.{{citation\|first \= Richard\|last \= Adams\|date \= 2013\-12\-03\|url \= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/03/swedish\-results\-fall\-free\-schools\-pisa\-oecd\|title \= Swedish results fall abruptly as free school revolution falters\|work \= \[\[The Guardian]]\|accessdate \= 2013\-12\-03}}{{citation\|first \= Jens\|last \= Kärrman\|date \= 2013\-12\-03\|url \= http://www.dn.se/nyheter/sverige/lofven\-om\-pisa\-nationell\-kris/\|title \= Löfven om Pisa: Nationell kris\|newspaper \= \[\[Dagens Nyheter]]\|accessdate \= 2013\-12\-03}}
On average boys scored better than girls in mathematics, girls scored better than boys in reading and the two sexes had quite similar scores in science.
Indonesia, Albania, Peru, Thailand and Colombia were the countries where most students reported being happy at school, while students in Korea, the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic, Estonia and Finland reported least happiness.
{{Clear}}
{{Collapse bottom}}
|
[
"### PISA 2012",
"{{collapse top\\|title\\=PISA 2012}}\n[350px\\|right\\|thumb\\|The results for the 2012 \"Maths\" section on a world map.](/wiki/File:PISA-Maths-2012.svg \"PISA-Maths-2012.svg\")\n[350px\\|right\\|thumb\\|The results for the 2012 \"Science\" section on a world map.](/wiki/File:PISA-Science-2012.svg \"PISA-Science-2012.svg\")\n[350px\\|right\\|thumb\\|The results for the 2012 \"Reading\" section on a world map.](/wiki/File:PISA-Reading-2012.svg \"PISA-Reading-2012.svg\")\n{{PISA 2012}}\nPISA 2012 was presented on 3 December 2013, with results for around 510,000 participating students in all 34 OECD member countries and 31 partner countries.{{citation\\|title \\= PISA 2012 Results in Focus\\|publisher \\= \\[\\[OECD]]\\|date \\= 3 December 2013\\|accessdate \\= 4 December 2013\\|url \\= http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa\\-2012\\-results\\-overview.pdf}} This testing cycle had a particular focus on mathematics, where the mean score was 494\\. A sample of 1,688 students from Puerto Rico took the assessment, scoring 379 in math, 404 in reading and 401 in science.CB Online Staff. [\"PR scores low on global report card\"](http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news/pr-scores-low-on-global-report-card-100911.html) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103080012/http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news/pr\\-scores\\-low\\-on\\-global\\-report\\-card\\-100911\\.html \\|date\\=2015\\-01\\-03 }}, *[Caribbean Business](/wiki/Caribbean_Business \"Caribbean Business\")*, 26 September 2014\\. Retrieved on 3 January 2015\\. A subgroup of 44 countries and economies with about 85 000 students also took part in an optional computer\\-based assessment of problem solving.OECD (2014\\): PISA 2012 results: Creative problem solving: Students’ skills in tackling real\\-life problems (Volume V), [http://www.oecd\\-ilibrary.org/education/pisa\\-2012\\-results\\-skills\\-for\\-life\\-volume\\-v\\_9789264208070\\-en](http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/pisa-2012-results-skills-for-life-volume-v_9789264208070-en)",
"[Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai \"Shanghai\") had the highest score in all three subjects. It was followed by Singapore, Hong Kong, Chinese Taipei and Korea in mathematics; Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan and Korea in reading and Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan and Finland in science.",
"They were a sample of about 28 million in the same age group in 65 countries and economies,[PISA 2012 Results](http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/pisa-2012-results.htm) [OECD](/wiki/OECD \"OECD\"). Retrieved 4 December 2013 including the [OECD countries](/wiki/OECD%23Current_members \"OECD#Current members\"), several [Chinese](/wiki/China \"China\") cities, [Vietnam](/wiki/Vietnam \"Vietnam\"), [Indonesia](/wiki/Indonesia \"Indonesia\") and several countries in [South America](/wiki/South_America \"South America\").",
"The test lasted two hours, was paper\\-based and included both open\\-ended and [multiple\\-choice questions](/wiki/Multiple-choice_questions \"Multiple-choice questions\").",
"The students and school staff also answered a [questionnaire](/wiki/Questionnaire \"Questionnaire\") to provide background information about the students and the schools.",
"PISA 2012 was presented on 3 December 2013, with results for around 510,000 participating students in all 34 OECD member countries and 31 partner countries. This testing cycle had a particular focus on mathematics, where the mean score was 494\\. The mean score in reading was 496 and in science 501\\.{{fact\\|date\\=July 2022}}",
"The results show distinct groups of high\\-performers in mathematics: the East Asian countries, with [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai \"Shanghai\"), scoring the best result of 613, followed closely by [Hong Kong](/wiki/Hong_Kong \"Hong Kong\"), [Japan](/wiki/Japan \"Japan\"), [Chinese Taipei](/wiki/Chinese_Taipei \"Chinese Taipei\") and [South Korea](/wiki/South_Korea \"South Korea\"). Among the Europeans, [Liechtenstein](/wiki/Liechtenstein \"Liechtenstein\") and [Switzerland](/wiki/Switzerland \"Switzerland\") performed best, with [Netherlands](/wiki/Netherlands \"Netherlands\"), [Estonia](/wiki/Estonia \"Estonia\"), [Finland](/wiki/Finland \"Finland\"), [Poland](/wiki/Poland \"Poland\"), [Belgium](/wiki/Belgium \"Belgium\"), [Germany](/wiki/Germany \"Germany\"), [Austria](/wiki/Austria \"Austria\") all posting mathematics scores \"not significantly statistically different from\" one another. The [United Kingdom](/wiki/United_Kingdom \"United Kingdom\"), [Ireland](/wiki/Ireland \"Ireland\"), [Australia](/wiki/Australia \"Australia\") and [New Zealand](/wiki/New_Zealand \"New Zealand\") were similarly clustered around the OECD average of 494, with the USA trailing this group at 481\\.",
"[Qatar](/wiki/Qatar \"Qatar\"), [Kazakhstan](/wiki/Kazakhstan \"Kazakhstan\") and [Malaysia](/wiki/Malaysia \"Malaysia\") were the countries which showed the greatest improvement in mathematics. The USA and the United Kingdom showed no significant change.{{citation\\|first1 \\= Ami\\|last1 \\= Sedghi\\|first2 \\= George\\|last2 \\= Arnett\\|first3 \\= Mona\\|last3 \\= Chalabi\\|date \\= 2013\\-12\\-03\\|title \\= Pisa 2012 results: which country does best at reading, maths and science?\\|url \\= https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/dec/03/pisa\\-results\\-country\\-best\\-reading\\-maths\\-science\\|accessdate \\= 2013\\-02\\-14\\|work \\= \\[\\[The Guardian]]}} Sweden had the greatest fall in mathematics performance over the last ten years, with a similar falling trend also in the two other subjects, and leading politicians in Sweden expressed great worry over the results.{{citation\\|first \\= Richard\\|last \\= Adams\\|date \\= 2013\\-12\\-03\\|url \\= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/dec/03/swedish\\-results\\-fall\\-free\\-schools\\-pisa\\-oecd\\|title \\= Swedish results fall abruptly as free school revolution falters\\|work \\= \\[\\[The Guardian]]\\|accessdate \\= 2013\\-12\\-03}}{{citation\\|first \\= Jens\\|last \\= Kärrman\\|date \\= 2013\\-12\\-03\\|url \\= http://www.dn.se/nyheter/sverige/lofven\\-om\\-pisa\\-nationell\\-kris/\\|title \\= Löfven om Pisa: Nationell kris\\|newspaper \\= \\[\\[Dagens Nyheter]]\\|accessdate \\= 2013\\-12\\-03}}",
"On average boys scored better than girls in mathematics, girls scored better than boys in reading and the two sexes had quite similar scores in science.",
"Indonesia, Albania, Peru, Thailand and Colombia were the countries where most students reported being happy at school, while students in Korea, the Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic, Estonia and Finland reported least happiness.",
"{{Clear}}\n{{Collapse bottom}}",
""
] |
Reception
---------
The results from PISA 2003 and PISA 2006 were featured in the 2010 documentary [Waiting for "Superman"](/wiki/Waiting_for_%22Superman%22 "Waiting for ").{{cite web\|url\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\=ZKTfaro96dg\|title\=Waiting for "Superman" trailer\|website\=\[\[YouTube]] \|date\=7 May 2010 \|accessdate\=8 October 2010}}
### China
Education professor Yong Zhao has noted that PISA 2009 did not receive much attention in the Chinese media, and that the high scores in China are due to excessive workload and testing, adding that it's "no news that the [Chinese education system](/wiki/Chinese_Education_System "Chinese Education System") is excellent in preparing outstanding test takers, just like other education systems within the [Confucian cultural circle](/wiki/East_Asian_cultural_sphere "East Asian cultural sphere"): Singapore, Korea, Japan, and Hong Kong."{{citation\|url \= http://zhaolearning.com/2010/12/10/a\-true\-wake\-up\-call\-for\-arne\-duncan\-the\-real\-reason\-behind\-chinese\-students\-top\-pisa\-performance\|title \= A True Wake\-up Call for Arne Duncan: The Real Reason Behind Chinese Students Top PISA Performance\|author \= Yong Zhao\|date \= 10 December 2010}}
Students from [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai "Shanghai"), [China](/wiki/China "China"), had the top scores of every category ([Mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics "Mathematics"), [Reading](/wiki/Reading_%28process%29 "Reading (process)") and [Science](/wiki/Science "Science")) in PISA 2009\. In discussing these results, PISA spokesman [Andreas Schleicher](/wiki/Andreas_Schleicher "Andreas Schleicher"), Deputy Director for Education and head of the analysis division at the OECD’s directorate for education, described Shanghai as a pioneer of educational reform in which "there has been a sea change in pedagogy". Schleicher stated that Shanghai abandoned its "focus on educating a small elite, and instead worked to construct a more inclusive system. They also significantly increased teacher pay and training, reducing the emphasis on rote learning and focusing classroom activities on problem solving."{{citation\|url \= http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2035586,00\.html\#ixzz17XACd2S2\|title \= China Beats Out Finland for Top Marks in Education\|first \= Peter\|last \= Gumbel\|magazine \= \[\[Time (magazine)\|Time]]\|date \= 7 December 2010\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20101210114159/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2035586,00\.html\#ixzz17XACd2S2\|accessdate \= 27 June 2012\|archive\-date \= 10 December 2010}}
Schleicher also states that PISA tests administered in rural China have produced some results approaching the OECD average: Citing further, as\-yet\-unpublished OECD research, Schleicher said, "We have actually done Pisa in 12 of the provinces in China. Even in some of the very poor areas you get performance close to the OECD average."{{citation\|url \= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/20770bf6\-01e7\-11e0\-b66c\-00144feabdc0\.html\|work \= \[\[Financial Times]]\|date \= 7 December 2010\|title \= Shanghai tops global state school rankings\|first \= Chris\|last \= Cook\|accessdate \= 28 June 2012}} Schleicher says that for a developing country, China's 99\.4% enrollment in primary education is "the envy of many countries". He maintains that junior secondary school participation rates in China are now 99%; and in Shanghai, not only has senior secondary school enrollment attained 98%, but admissions into higher education have achieved 80% of the relevant age group. Schleicher believes that this growth reflects quality, not just quantity, which he contends the top PISA ranking of Shanghai's secondary education confirms. Schleicher believes that China has also expanded school access and has moved away from learning by rote.{{citation\|url \= http://blogs.ft.com/beyond\-brics/2010/12/07/why\-are\-chinese\-schoolkids\-so\-good/\|title \= Why are Chinese schoolkids so good?\|first \= Henry\|last \= Mance\|date \= 7 December 2010\|accessdate \= 28 June 2012\|work \= \[\[Financial Times]]}} According to Schleicher, Russia performs well in rote\-based assessments, but not in PISA, whereas China does well in both rote\-based and broader assessments.
### Denmark
[University of Copenhagen](/wiki/University_of_Copenhagen "University of Copenhagen") Professor Svend Kreiner, who examined in detail PISA's 2006 reading results, noted that in 2006 only about ten percent of the students who took part in PISA were tested on all 28 reading questions. "This in itself is ridiculous," Kreiner told Stewart. "Most people don't know that half of the students taking part in PISA (2006\) do not respond to any reading item at all. Despite that, PISA assigns reading scores to these children."{{Cite web \|url\=https://ifsv.sund.ku.dk/biostat/biostat\_annualreport/images/c/ca/ResearchReport\-2011\-1\.pdf \|title\=Archived copy \|access\-date\=15 April 2016 \|archive\-date\=4 March 2016 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034725/https://ifsv.sund.ku.dk/biostat/biostat\_annualreport/images/c/ca/ResearchReport\-2011\-1\.pdf \|url\-status\=dead }}
### Finland
The stable, high marks of Finnish students have attracted a lot of attention. According to Hannu Simola{{citation\|last \= Simola\|first \= Hannu\|year \= 2005\|url \= http://www.mv.helsinki.fi/home/hsimola/Finnish%20PISA%20Miracle%2005\.pdf\|title \= The Finnish miracle of PISA: Historical and sociological remarks on teaching and teacher education\|journal \= Comparative Education\|volume \= 41\|issue \= 4\|pages \= 455–470\|doi \= 10\.1080/03050060500317810\|s2cid \= 145325152}} the results reflect a paradoxical mix of progressive policies implemented through a rather conservative pedagogic setting, where the high levels of teachers' academic preparation, social status, professionalism and motivation for the job are concomitant with the adherence to traditional roles and methods by both teachers and pupils in Finland's changing, but still quite paternalistic culture. Others advance Finland's low poverty rate as a reason for its success. Finnish education reformer Pasi Sahlberg attributes Finland's high educational achievements to its emphasis on social and educational equality and stress on cooperation and collaboration, as opposed to the competition among teachers and schools that prevails in other nations.{{cite web\|last\=Cleland \|first\=Elizabeth \|url\=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2011/12/what\-americans\-keep\-ignoring\-about\-finlands\-school\-success/250564/ \|title\=What Americans Keep Ignoring About Finland's School Success – Anu Partanen \|work\=The Atlantic \|date\=29 December 2011 }}
### India
Of the 74 countries tested in the PISA 2009 cycle including the "\+" nations, the two Indian states came up 72nd and 73rd out of 74 in both reading and mathematics, and 73rd and 74th in science. India's poor performance may not be linguistic as some suggested. 12\.87% of US students, for example, indicated that the language of the test differed from the language spoken at home. while 30\.77% of Himachal Pradesh students indicated that the language of the test differed from the language spoken at home, a significantly higher percent{{cite web \|url\=http://pisa2009\.acer.edu.au/interactive\_results.php \|title\=Database – PISA 2009 \|publisher\=Pisa2009\.acer.edu.au \|access\-date\=2016\-04\-15 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322032020/http://pisa2009\.acer.edu.au/interactive\_results.php \|archive\-date\=2016\-03\-22 \|url\-status\=dead }} However, unlike American students, those Indian students with a different language at home did better on the PISA test than those with the same language. India's poor performance on the PISA test is consistent with India's poor performance in the only other instance when India's government allowed an international organization to test its students[http://ddp\-ext.worldbank.org/EdStats/INDprwp08b.pdf](http://ddp-ext.worldbank.org/EdStats/INDprwp08b.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\|date\=March 2022}} and consistent with India's own testing of its elite students in a study titled *Student Learning in the Metros 2006\.* {{citation\|url \= http://www.ei\-india.com/wp\-content/uploads/2012/07/Student\-Learning\-in\-the\-Metros\-Issue\-2\.pdf\|title \= Student Learning in the Metros\|first \= Educational\|last \= Initiatives\|date \= November 2006\|work \= Educational Initiatives}} These studies were conducted using TIMSS questions. The poor result in PISA was greeted with dismay in the Indian media.{{citation\|url \= http://www.indianexpress.com/news/poor\-pisa\-ranks\-hrd\-seeks\-reason/896777\|title \= Poor PISA ranks: HRD seeks reason\|first \= Anubhuti\|last \= Vishnoi\|date \= 7 January 2012\|work \= The Indian Express}} The BBC reported that as of 2008, only 15% of India's students reach high school.{{cite news\|url \= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7267315\.stm\|publisher \= BBC News\|first \= Zareer\|last \= Masani\|title \= India still Asia's reluctant tiger\|date \= 27 February 2008}}
### Italy / South Tyrol
In 2003 [South Tyrol](/wiki/South_Tyrol "South Tyrol") (Provincia Autonoma di Bolzano / Autonome Provinz Bozen), a predominantly German\-speaking province in the north of Italy, took part in the PISA project for the first time in order to have a regional result as an *adjudicated region*. In the rest of Italy PISA is conducted by INVALSI (Istituto nazionale per la valutazione del sistema educativo di istruzione e di formazione), a formally independent research institution affiliated to the Ministry of Education, whereas in South Tyrol PISA was carried out by the regional Education Authority itself (*Intendenza scolastica* / *Schulamt*, since 2018 renamed into *Bildungsdirektion*),Cf. [http://www.provincia.bz.it/bildung\-sprache/deutschsprachige\-schule/mitteilungen.asp?publ\_action\=300\&publ\_image\_id\=469121](http://www.provincia.bz.it/bildung-sprache/deutschsprachige-schule/mitteilungen.asp?publ_action=300&publ_image_id=469121). Retrieved 11 April 2021\. which is part of the South Tyrolean regional government.
At the end of 2004, in the months prior to the announcement of the test results, the regional Education Authority in Bolzano / Bozen downplayed the validity of the PISA assessment and commissioned alternative school evaluations, preparing the public for a mediocre test result. According to the official PISA report 2003, however, South Tyrol seemed to even beat the PISA world champion Finland.
**Critique**
Right from the beginning, there was scepticism as to how South Tyrol succeeded in outdoing the neighbouring Italian and Austrian provinces. On the front page of its weekend edition for 29/30 January 2005, the South Tyrolean newspaper *Neue Südtiroler Tageszeitung* published a harsh critique and revealed that the South Tyrolean Education Authority had secretly eliminated more than 300 students from the 1500 students officially drawn as South Tyrolean test sample by the PISA Consortium, and soon more inconsistencies were to surface:
* **Lack of independence of the South Tyrolean PISA board:** In South Tyrol, PISA was not conducted by a nominally independent body like the local university *Freie Universität Bozen* or the European Academy EURAC, both of which have ample expertise in the field of education, but by the so\-called Pedagogical Institute (Pädagogisches Institut, director: Rudolf Meraner), which was part of the Education Authority, which in its turn was part of the regional government. A few years later the Pedagogical Institute was nominally absorbed into the Education Authority and renamed into Department for Innovation and Counselling (with the same director: Rudolf Meraner).
* **Exploitation for political ends**: In the most influential mass media, the regional PISA results were presented as a triumph of the regional government and the SVP (*Südtiroler Volkspartei* or South Tyrolean People’s Party) ruling party’s policy, although the legal framework for all high schools in Italy is a purely national domain. For all the political autonomy granted to South Tyrol, this region still has the same types of schools and follows the same curricula as do all Italian regions. Mass media like the most\-read South Tyrolean newspaper, *Dolomiten*, whose owner Michel Ebner is a prominent party member of the ruling SVP, did not either try to explain why the secondary schools attended by the Italian speaking students in the same Province did considerably worse, although it is the same regional government run by the SVP which is in charge of the Italian and the German school administration.Cf. *INFO,* December 2004 (i.e. a Circular Letter edited by the regional Education Authority): «In all fields, the South Tyrolean schools achieved a first\-rate performance» (p. 2\); Mr Höllrigl, then director of the Education Authority, and Mr Meraner, then head of the PISA board, in *INFO,* January 2005: «I am surprised that we have already become world leaders» (p. 12\); Mr Meraner in the most\-read daily *Dolomiten,* 18 February 2005: «We are the world champions even in Problem Solving».
* **Harassment of Critics:** People who criticized the official PISA results and pointed out violations of the technical rules were officially threatened by the provincial governor, Luis Durnwalder, with libel action for slandering South Tyrol. On 16 March 2006, Durnwalder announced in a press conference that an Austrian teacher would be prosecuted and sued for damages simply because the teacher, in a letter sent to the Austrian Ministry of Education, had mentioned the fact that the South Tyrolean Education Authority had eliminated 17 percent of the students from the regional sample, thereby rendering invalid the regional PISA result. A year later, however, Mr Durnwalder had to admit that he had never taken legal action against the teacher and that there were no legal proceedings obviously because the critique was correct.Cf. the South Tyrolean weekly *FF,* 17 February 2005, p. 10: "Land klagt Lehrer \[Regional Government’s Action against Teacher", and *FF,* 16 March 2006, in which Mr Durnwalder admits to the failed legal suit. It is also noteworthy that the director of the Pedagogical Institute, Rudolf Meraner, and others have constantly deleted the original German Wikipedia article about the South Tyrolean PISA results, replacing it with public government statements.
* **Regional results deliberately misrepresented as national results:** By definition, the PISA result of South Tyrol is a *subregional result,* which is not fully valid because of the small sample of 1500 students. Such regional results mainly serve documentary purposes and cannot be compared with national results. Nonetheless, the South Tyrolean Education Authority and the regional government repeatedly, and falsely, claimed that the South Tyrolean test results are national, i.e. fully valid results, whereas the neighbouring regions like Tyrol (Austria) and Trentino (Italy), according to South Tyrolean press releases, only had subnational results.Cf. *Dolomiten,* 27 January 2005: Mr Hilpold misinformed the press on behalf of the regional government: «South Tyrol was assessed as a nation \[Land]. It is due to the fact that we were assessed as a nation that we may compare our results with other nations.» Mr Meraner, director of the Pedagogical Institute, also wrongly claimed that the South Tyrolean overall result may be compared to that of other «nations» because, as he falsely stated, South Tyrol had a national result of its own.
* **Manipulation of the sample: Elimination of 17 percent of students:** For a subnational result, regions had to test 1500 students. Among all regions with a subnational result, worldwide, South Tyrol was the only one that failed to test 1500 students. For reasons never specified, the Education Authority had eliminated 292 students (i.e. 17 percent) from the 1500 students sample, testing only 1208 of the students selected by the PISA consortium. Failing to test all 1500 students, the South Tyrolean Education Authority violated the technical PISA rules and deprived the PISA result even of its limited technical validity as a subnational result. Later on the Education Authority had to admit that it had actually excluded all vocational students, whose performance is generally considered to be inferior to that of high schools, and all students of the third forms of so\-called middle schools (scuole medie / Mittelschulen), who would have been part of the sample only if they repeated a class and were considered underachievers because normally 15 year old students are enrolled at high schools. From the official PISA report this manipulation can be easily deduced as the difference between *total population of 15\-year\-olds* (4\.908\) and *total enrolled population of 15\-year\-olds at grade 7 or above* (4\.087\).Cf. the PISA report: *Learning for Tomorrow’s World. First Results from PISA 2003\.* Paris, 2004\. p. 469; online version: [http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/1/60/34002216\.pdf](http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/1/60/34002216.pdf). Retrieved 8 March 2012\. In subsequent PISA assessments, the OECD or rather the PISA consortium did not publish these key figures so that it was no longer possible to ascertain the number of students eliminated from the sample against the rules.
* **Incorrect figures about *Target Population* and actual sample:** In Italy, according to the figures officially made available by the INVALSI, the number of all 15\-year\-old students (574\.611\) paradoxically exceeds the number of all 15\-year\-old people (561\.304\).Cf. the PISA report: *Learning for Tomorrow’s World. First Results from PISA 2003\.* Paris, 2004\. p. 321; online version: [http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/1/60/34002216\.pdf](http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/1/60/34002216.pdf). Due to this mistake, it is impossible to establish how many Italian students were actually identified as Italian *target population*, and it is also impossible to find out which percentage of South Tyrolean students had actually been presented as *target population* to the PISA consortium. In theory, the Education Authority could have excluded certain types of students from the target population even before the sample of 1500 students was drawn by the PISA consortium, from which the Education Authority later on eliminated 17 percent.
**Comparison with similar assessments**
The stunning South Tyrolean 2003 PISA results can hardly be reconciled with similar high school evaluations, which were not conducted or influenced by the South Tyrolean Education Authority itself. Three international or national large scale assessment projects painted a gloomy picture of the South Tyrolean students’ performance.
* **Admission Test at Austrian Universities of Medicine (EMS \= Eignungstest für das Medizinstudium):** Over the last two decades, candidates graduating from South Tyrolean high schools have traditionally scored very badly at the entry examination. The quota system at Austrian Universities of Medicine makes sure that 75 percent of all applicants admitted to Medicine are Austrian nationals or students from South Tyrol, who are considered an Austrian minority in Italy. Hence, for Austrians and South Tyroleans it is easier to get a place at an Austrian University of Medicine, even with bad scores, than for Germans and other EU nationals because the number of EU students must not exceed 20 percent. Nevertheless, according to a study financed by the Austrian Ministry of Education, not even within the big 75 percent quota, South Tyroleans could get a place because of their mediocre entrance test results. South Tyrolean applicants had an average score of 96,5 whereas e.g. German applicants had an average score of 103,1\. Interestingly, South Tyrolean applicants did even worse than Austrian applicants although Italian high school graduates are one year older. What is even worse, South Tyrolean high school graduates show a sharp gender gap with female candidates doing much worse than their male colleagues, which reflects the Italian high school system: Certain types of high schools popular with female students (e.g. *licei linguistici, licei scienze umane*) have little mathematics and sciences. The difference between the average female and the average male South Tyrolean score in the 2007 EMS was dramatic: 94,8 versus 100,1 points.Cf. the EMS study published by the Austrian Ministry of Research in 2007: <http://www.bmwf.gv.at/startseite/mini_menue/service/publikationen/wissenschaft/universitaetswesen/spiel_studie/>. Retrieved 1 April 2012\. Abridged version: [https://docplayer.org/18915390\-Evaluation\-der\-eignungstests\-fuer\-das\-medizinstudium\-in\-oesterreich.html](https://docplayer.org/18915390-Evaluation-der-eignungstests-fuer-das-medizinstudium-in-oesterreich.html) \= Evaluation der Eignungstests für das Medizinstudium in Österreich \- PDF Free Download (docplayer.org) – retrieved 10 January 2021\. Later on the Swiss EMS organisation disallowed the Austrian Universities of Medicine to use its EMS test and the Austrian universities introduced a new entrance test scheme with an extra quota for female students. South Tyrolean mass media did not cover the EMS debacle at all. Within the South Tyrolean parliament, however, there have been debates as to the reasons of the poor performance of South Tyrolean high school students.E.g. in the year 2007: c.f. the parliamentary question of an opposition party: [https://suedtiroler\-freiheit.com/2007/08/16/landtagsanfrage\-zu\-den\-medizinstudium\-ausbildungsplaetzen](https://suedtiroler-freiheit.com/2007/08/16/landtagsanfrage-zu-den-medizinstudium-ausbildungsplaetzen). Retrieved 6 April 2021\. Or the more recent article in an online newspaper: [https://www.salto.bz/de/article/25082016/braucht\-suedtirol\-die\-oesterreicher\-quote](https://www.salto.bz/de/article/25082016/braucht-suedtirol-die-oesterreicher-quote). Retrieved 6 April 2021\. As a consequence of the EMS debacle, the former South Tyrolean governor, Luis Durnwalder, envisaged a collaboration between the University of Medicine in Innsbruck and the Hospital in Bolzano (Bozen) which should have led to a Euregio Medical School open to all North Tyrolean (i.e. Austrian) and South Tyrolean applicants without any entrance exam. Eventually, the South Tyrolean government adopted a more pragmatic approach, it subsidized, as it were, extra places for South Tyrolean students. This seems to be a breach of the national quota system and the entrance requirements as outlined by Austrian laws. The former South Tyrolean governor, Luis Durnwalder, however, frankly admitted to resort to this solution when he complained about the high amount of money South Tyrol paid to the University of Medicine in Innsbruck for buying extra places for South Tyrolean students.Cf. the interview in the Austrian daily *Tiroler Tageszeitung,* 3 November 2008, p. 4\.
* **German DESI assessment of linguistic skills in German (mother tongue) and English (foreign language):** Parallel with the 2003 PISA assessment, the South Tyrolean Education Authority commissioned a second assessment, obviously because the Education Authority expected a mediocre PISA result and had downplayed the importance of PISA. Like PISA, the DESI assessment was conducted against the technical rules because, again, all vocational students attending a vocational school (*Berufsschule*) and working part\-time in a workshop or small firm, i.e. one third of the target population was excluded from the test. The South Tyrolean Education Authority also excluded the whole English test section from DESI, thereby depriving DESI of its main purpose, namely a comparison of German speaking students’ language competence in L1 and L2\. The South Tyrolean Education Authority argued that in (bilingual) South Tyrol, German speaking students start with Italian as their first foreign language at elementary schools. This explanation, however, lacks credibility because in Germany, as well, many students assessed by DESI had main foreign languages other than English, e.g. French or even Latin (Bavaria), and the amount of weekly classroom teaching in English from the first form at elementary schools is the same in Germany and South Tyrol. In their official report, the German experts responsible for the DESI assessment in South Tyrol generally praised the quality of teaching, but the concrete results in the report reveal drastic shortcomings. For instance, in the semantic field of *railway station* (*Bahnhof*), not even one South Tyrolean student with German as his or her mother tongue knew the German word for a signal box (*Stellwerk*). Instead of marking such errors as errors, however, the German experts resorted to a methodologically disputable assumption. They claimed, without checking, that all words which South Tyrolean students did not know are, by definition, not used in the South Tyrolean variant of German and that these words must be excluded from the test (*item bias*), thus counting only correct answers. The DESI testers from Germany, however, did not check if the words excluded from DESI because of *item bias* actually were unknown. In fact, all words excluded from the South Tyrolean DESI questionnaire are common German words used in South Tyrol as well, i.e. for these words there are no South Tyrolean variants at all. For all the technical exceptions and modifications, the 2003 South Tyrolean DESI result was very disappointing. Only 14 percent of the South Tyrolean high school students came into the best achievement group, whereas in Germany almost half of the 15 year old students belong to this group. On the other hand, one fourth of the South Tyrolean German speaking students came into the lowest achievement group, which in Germany, in spite of all social problems in big towns, comprises only 7 percent of all students.An abridged version of the South Tyrolean DESI report was published by the Pedagogical Institute on its site: [http://www.provinz.bz.it/news/de/news.asp?news\_action\=5\&news\_article\_id\=138926](http://www.provinz.bz.it/news/de/news.asp?news_action=5&news_article_id=138926). Retrieved 8 April 2021\.
* **Italian INVALSI assessments:** Traditionally, the annual assessments conducted by the Italian INVALSI in the pre\-PISA period painted a sorry picture of the northernmost Italian *Regione Autonoma di Trentino e Alto Adige* comprising the two autonomous provinces called Trentino (Italian speaking) and South Tyrol (predominantly German speaking). Schools in Trentino and South Tyrol did constantly worse than those in all other North Italian regions and even lagged behind the Italian average, though it is not clear if the sample of German speaking students was representative because, again, the South Tyrolean Education Authority was entitled to eliminate bad schools from the sample, thereby manipulating the validity of the assessment.Cf. the reports published by INVALSI, or its predecessor SNV, Servizio nazionale di evaluazione: [http://www.invalsi.it/invalsi/index.php?page\=snv](http://www.invalsi.it/invalsi/index.php?page=snv). Retrieved 27 December 2009\. To some extent, two South Tyrolean anomalies may account for the traditional bad performance of South Tyrolean students in international evaluations. Until recently, no pedagogical qualifications were required for teachers, not even for permanently employed teachers (*insegnanti di ruolo / Stammrollenlehrer*) appointed by the Education Authority in Bolzano (Bozen) through a so\-called *concorso*. Besides, the admission criteria for the South Tyrolean *concorsi* have always been inconsistent. For example, a South Tyrolean student who studied at an Italian university German as a Foreign Language or Art History, automatically obtained the teaching license for completely unrelated subjects, like History and Latin, at South Tyrolean high schools.
### United States
Two studies have compared high achievers in mathematics on the PISA and those on the U.S. [National Assessment of Educational Progress](/wiki/National_Assessment_of_Educational_Progress "National Assessment of Educational Progress") (NAEP). Comparisons were made between those scoring at the "advanced" and "proficient" levels in mathematics on the NAEP with the corresponding performance on the PISA. Overall, 30 nations had higher percentages than the U.S. of students at the "advanced" level of mathematics. The only [OECD](/wiki/OECD "OECD") countries with worse results were Portugal, Greece, Turkey, and Mexico. Six percent of U.S. students were "advanced" in mathematics compared to 28 percent in Taiwan. The highest ranked state in the U.S. (Massachusetts) was just 15th in the world if it was compared with the nations participating in the PISA. 31 nations had higher percentages of "proficient" students than the U.S. Massachusetts was again the best U.S. state, but it ranked just ninth in the world if compared with the nations participating in the PISA.[Paul E. Peterson](/wiki/Paul_E._Peterson "Paul E. Peterson"), Ludger Woessmann, [Eric A. Hanushek](/wiki/Eric_Hanushek "Eric Hanushek"), and Carlos X. Lastra\-Anadón (2011\) "Are U.S. students ready to compete? The latest on each state's international standing." *Education Next* 11:4 (Fall): 51–59\. [http://educationnext.org/are\-u\-s\-students\-ready\-to\-compete/](http://educationnext.org/are-u-s-students-ready-to-compete/)[Eric A. Hanushek](/wiki/Eric_Hanushek "Eric Hanushek"), [Paul E. Peterson](/wiki/Paul_E._Peterson "Paul E. Peterson"), and Ludger Woessmann (2011\) "Teaching math to the talented." *Education Next* 11, no. 1 (Winter): 10–18\. [http://educationnext.org/teaching\-math\-to\-the\-talented/](http://educationnext.org/teaching-math-to-the-talented/)
Comparisons with results for the [Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study](/wiki/Trends_in_International_Mathematics_and_Science_Study "Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study") (TIMSS) appear to give different results—suggesting that the U.S. states actually do better in world rankings.Gary W. Phillips (2007\) *Chance favors the prepared mind: Mathematics and science indicators for comparing states.* Washington: American Institutes for Research (14 November); Gary W. Phillips (2009\) *The Second Derivative:International Benchmarks in Mathematics For U.S. States and School Districts.* Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research (June). This can likely be traced to the different material being covered and the United States teaching mathematics in a style less harmonious with the "Realistic Mathematics Education" which forms the basis of the exam.{{cite web\|title\=PISA Mathematics: A Teacher's Guide\|date\=13 August 2019 \|url\=https://www.education.ie/en/Publications/Inspection\-Reports\-Publications/Evaluation\-Reports\-Guidelines/insp\_pisa\_maths\_teach\_guide\_pdf.pdf}} Countries that commonly use this teaching method score higher on PISA, and less highly on TIMSS and other assessments.{{cite web\|last1\=Loveless\|first1\=Tom\|title\=International Tests Are Not All the Same\|url\=http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2013/01/09\-timss\-pisa\-loveless\|website\=Brookings Institution}}
#### Poverty
Stephen Krassen, professor emeritus at the University of Southern California,quoted in [Valerie Strauss, "How poverty affected U.S. PISA scores", *The Washington Post*, 9 December 2010\.](https://web.archive.org/web/20101219034611/http://voices.washingtonpost.com/answer-sheet/research/how-poverty-affected-us-pisa-s.html) and Mel Riddile of the [NASSP](/wiki/National_Association_of_Secondary_School_Principals "National Association of Secondary School Principals") attributed the relatively low performance of students in the United States to the country's high rate of child [poverty](/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States "Poverty in the United States"), which exceeds that of other OECD countries."[The Economics Behind International Education Rankings](http://neatoday.org/2010/12/09/a-look-at-the-economic-numbers-on-international-education-rankings/)" National Educational Association{{citation\|url \= http://nasspblogs.org/principaldifference/2010/12/pisa\_its\_poverty\_not\_stupid\_1\.html\|title \= PISA: It's Poverty Not Stupid\|date \= 15 December 2010\|first \= Mel\|last \= Riddile\|publisher \= \[\[National Association of Secondary School Principals]]\|access\-date \= 15 April 2016\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20140122143137/http://nasspblogs.org/principaldifference/2010/12/pisa\_its\_poverty\_not\_stupid\_1\.html\|archive\-date \= 22 January 2014\|url\-status \= dead}} However, individual US schools with poverty rates comparable to Finland's (below 10%), as measured by reduced\-price school lunch participation, outperform Finland; and US schools in the 10–24% reduced\-price lunch range are not far behind.{{cite web\|url\=http://simplystatistics.org/2013/08/23/stratifying\-pisa\-scores\-by\-poverty\-rates\-suggests\-imitating\-finland\-is\-not\-necessarily\-the\-way\-to\-go\-for\-us\-schools/ \|title\=Stratifying PISA scores by poverty rates suggests imitating Finland is not necessarily the way to go for US schools \|publisher\=Simply Statistics \|date\=23 August 2013}}
[Reduced school lunch](/wiki/Reduced_price_meal "Reduced price meal") participation is the only available intra\-poverty indicator for US schoolchildren. In the United States, schools in locations in which less than 10% of the students qualified for free or reduced\-price lunch averaged PISA scores of 551 (higher than any other OECD country). This can be compared with the other OECD countries (which have tabled figures on children living in relative poverty):
| Country | Percent of reduced school lunches (US) Percent of relative child poverty (Other OECD countries)"[Child poverty statistics: how the UK compares to other countries](https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2009/sep/11/child-poverty-statistics-uk-countries)", *The Guardian*. The same UNICEF figures were used by Riddile. | PISA score*[Highlights From PISA 2009](http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2011/2011004.pdf),* Table 3\. |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **United States** | **\< 10%** | **551** |
| Finland | 3\.4% | 536 |
| Netherlands | 9\.0% | 508 |
| Belgium | 6\.7% | 506 |
| **United States** | **10%–24\.9%** | **527** |
| Canada | 13\.6% | 524 |
| New Zealand | 16\.3% | 521 |
| Japan | 14\.3% | 520 |
| Australia | 11\.6% | 515 |
| **United States** | **25–49\.9%** | **502** |
| Estonia | 40\.1% | 501 |
| **United States** | **50–74\.9%** | **471** |
| Russian Federation | 58\.3% | 459 |
| **United States** | **\> 75%** | **446** |
#### Sampling errors
In 2013 Martin Carnoy of the Stanford University Graduate School of Education and Richard Rothstein of the [Economic Policy Institute](/wiki/Economic_Policy_Institute "Economic Policy Institute") released a report, "What do international tests really show about U.S. student performance?", analyzing the 2009 PISA data base. Their report found that U.S. PISA test scores had been lowered by a sampling error that over\-represented adolescents from the most disadvantaged American schools in the test\-taking sample.See, [Martin Carnoy and Richard Rothstein, "What do international tests really show about U.S. student performance?", Economic Policy Institute, 28 January 2013](http://www.epi.org/publication/us-student-performance-testing/). The authors cautioned that international test scores are often "interpreted to show that American students perform poorly when compared to students internationally" and that school reformers then conclude that "U.S. public education is failing." Such inferences, made before the data has been carefully analyzed, they say, "are too glib"[Valerie Strauss, "U.S. scores on international test lowered by sampling error: report", *Washington Post*, 15 January 2013](https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/wp/2013/01/15/u-s-scores-on-international-test-lowered-by-sampling-error-report/). and "may lead policymakers to pursue inappropriate and even harmful reforms."Carnoy and Rothstein, "What do international tests really show about U.S. student performance?", Economic Policy Institute, 28 January 2013
Carnoy and Rothstein observe that in all countries, students from disadvantaged backgrounds perform worse than those from advantaged backgrounds, and the US has a greater percentage of students from disadvantaged backgrounds. The sampling error on the PISA results lowered U.S. scores for 15\-year\-olds even further, they say. The authors add, however, that in countries such as Finland, the scores of disadvantaged students tends to be stagnant, whereas in the U.S the scores of disadvantaged students have been steadily rising over time, albeit still lagging behind their those of their more advantaged peers. When the figures are adjusted for social class, the PISA scores of all US students would still remain behind those of the highest scoring countries, nevertheless, the scores of US students of all social backgrounds have shown a trajectory of improvement over time, notably in mathematics, a circumstance PISA's report fails to take into account.
Carnoy and Rothstein write that PISA spokesman Schleicher has been quoted saying that "international education benchmarks make disappointing reading for the U.S." and that "in the U.S. in particular, poverty was destiny. Low\-income American students did (and still do) much worse than high\-income ones on PISA. But poor kids in Finland and Canada do far better relative to their more privileged peers, despite their disadvantages" (Ripley 2011\).Schleicher was quoted by Amanda Ripley to this effect in her 2011 book, *The Smartest Kids in The World* (Simon and Schuster). Carnoy and Rothstein state that their report's analysis shows Schleicher and Ripley's claims to be untrue. They further fault the way PISA's results have persistently been released to the press before experts have time to evaluate them; and they charge the OECD reports with inconsistency in explaining such factors as the role of parental education. Carnoy and Rothstein also note with alarm that the US secretary of education [Arne Duncan](/wiki/Arne_Duncan "Arne Duncan") regularly consults with PISA's Andreas Schleicher in formulating educational policy before other experts have been given a chance to analyze the results.Carnoy and Rothstein, "What do international tests really show about U.S. student performance?", EPI, 28 January 2013\. Another scholar, Matthew di Carlo of the Albert Shanker Institute, criticized PISA for reporting its results in the form of national rankings, since rankings can give a misleading impression that differences between countries' scores are far larger than is actually the case. Di Carlo also faulted PISA's methodology for disregarding factors such as margin of error. See [Matthew di Carlo, "Pisa For Our Time: A Balanced Look"](http://shankerblog.org/?p=1535), [Albert Shanker Institute](/wiki/Albert_Shanker_Institute "Albert Shanker Institute") website, 10 January 2011\. Carnoy and Rothstein's report (written before the release of the 2011 database) concludes:
> We are most certain of this: To make judgments only on the basis of national average scores, on only one test, at only one point in time, without comparing trends on different tests that purport to measure the same thing, and without disaggregation by social class groups, is the worst possible choice. But, unfortunately, this is how most policymakers and analysts approach the field.
> The most recent test for which an international database is presently available is PISA, administered in 2009\. A database for TIMSS 2011 is scheduled for release in mid\-January 2013\. In December 2013, PISA will announce results and make data available from its 2012 test administration. Scholars will then be able to dig into TIMSS 2011 and PISA 2012 databases so they can place the publicly promoted average national results in proper context. The analyses we have presented in this report should caution policymakers to await understanding of this context before drawing conclusions about lessons from TIMSS or PISA assessments.Carnoy and Rothstein, "What do international tests really show about U.S. student performance?", EPI, January 28, 2013\.
|
[
"Reception\n---------",
"The results from PISA 2003 and PISA 2006 were featured in the 2010 documentary [Waiting for \"Superman\"](/wiki/Waiting_for_%22Superman%22 \"Waiting for \").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v\\=ZKTfaro96dg\\|title\\=Waiting for \"Superman\" trailer\\|website\\=\\[\\[YouTube]] \\|date\\=7 May 2010 \\|accessdate\\=8 October 2010}}",
"### China",
"Education professor Yong Zhao has noted that PISA 2009 did not receive much attention in the Chinese media, and that the high scores in China are due to excessive workload and testing, adding that it's \"no news that the [Chinese education system](/wiki/Chinese_Education_System \"Chinese Education System\") is excellent in preparing outstanding test takers, just like other education systems within the [Confucian cultural circle](/wiki/East_Asian_cultural_sphere \"East Asian cultural sphere\"): Singapore, Korea, Japan, and Hong Kong.\"{{citation\\|url \\= http://zhaolearning.com/2010/12/10/a\\-true\\-wake\\-up\\-call\\-for\\-arne\\-duncan\\-the\\-real\\-reason\\-behind\\-chinese\\-students\\-top\\-pisa\\-performance\\|title \\= A True Wake\\-up Call for Arne Duncan: The Real Reason Behind Chinese Students Top PISA Performance\\|author \\= Yong Zhao\\|date \\= 10 December 2010}}",
"Students from [Shanghai](/wiki/Shanghai \"Shanghai\"), [China](/wiki/China \"China\"), had the top scores of every category ([Mathematics](/wiki/Mathematics \"Mathematics\"), [Reading](/wiki/Reading_%28process%29 \"Reading (process)\") and [Science](/wiki/Science \"Science\")) in PISA 2009\\. In discussing these results, PISA spokesman [Andreas Schleicher](/wiki/Andreas_Schleicher \"Andreas Schleicher\"), Deputy Director for Education and head of the analysis division at the OECD’s directorate for education, described Shanghai as a pioneer of educational reform in which \"there has been a sea change in pedagogy\". Schleicher stated that Shanghai abandoned its \"focus on educating a small elite, and instead worked to construct a more inclusive system. They also significantly increased teacher pay and training, reducing the emphasis on rote learning and focusing classroom activities on problem solving.\"{{citation\\|url \\= http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2035586,00\\.html\\#ixzz17XACd2S2\\|title \\= China Beats Out Finland for Top Marks in Education\\|first \\= Peter\\|last \\= Gumbel\\|magazine \\= \\[\\[Time (magazine)\\|Time]]\\|date \\= 7 December 2010\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20101210114159/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2035586,00\\.html\\#ixzz17XACd2S2\\|accessdate \\= 27 June 2012\\|archive\\-date \\= 10 December 2010}}",
"Schleicher also states that PISA tests administered in rural China have produced some results approaching the OECD average: Citing further, as\\-yet\\-unpublished OECD research, Schleicher said, \"We have actually done Pisa in 12 of the provinces in China. Even in some of the very poor areas you get performance close to the OECD average.\"{{citation\\|url \\= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/20770bf6\\-01e7\\-11e0\\-b66c\\-00144feabdc0\\.html\\|work \\= \\[\\[Financial Times]]\\|date \\= 7 December 2010\\|title \\= Shanghai tops global state school rankings\\|first \\= Chris\\|last \\= Cook\\|accessdate \\= 28 June 2012}} Schleicher says that for a developing country, China's 99\\.4% enrollment in primary education is \"the envy of many countries\". He maintains that junior secondary school participation rates in China are now 99%; and in Shanghai, not only has senior secondary school enrollment attained 98%, but admissions into higher education have achieved 80% of the relevant age group. Schleicher believes that this growth reflects quality, not just quantity, which he contends the top PISA ranking of Shanghai's secondary education confirms. Schleicher believes that China has also expanded school access and has moved away from learning by rote.{{citation\\|url \\= http://blogs.ft.com/beyond\\-brics/2010/12/07/why\\-are\\-chinese\\-schoolkids\\-so\\-good/\\|title \\= Why are Chinese schoolkids so good?\\|first \\= Henry\\|last \\= Mance\\|date \\= 7 December 2010\\|accessdate \\= 28 June 2012\\|work \\= \\[\\[Financial Times]]}} According to Schleicher, Russia performs well in rote\\-based assessments, but not in PISA, whereas China does well in both rote\\-based and broader assessments.",
"### Denmark",
"[University of Copenhagen](/wiki/University_of_Copenhagen \"University of Copenhagen\") Professor Svend Kreiner, who examined in detail PISA's 2006 reading results, noted that in 2006 only about ten percent of the students who took part in PISA were tested on all 28 reading questions. \"This in itself is ridiculous,\" Kreiner told Stewart. \"Most people don't know that half of the students taking part in PISA (2006\\) do not respond to any reading item at all. Despite that, PISA assigns reading scores to these children.\"{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://ifsv.sund.ku.dk/biostat/biostat\\_annualreport/images/c/ca/ResearchReport\\-2011\\-1\\.pdf \\|title\\=Archived copy \\|access\\-date\\=15 April 2016 \\|archive\\-date\\=4 March 2016 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304034725/https://ifsv.sund.ku.dk/biostat/biostat\\_annualreport/images/c/ca/ResearchReport\\-2011\\-1\\.pdf \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}",
"### Finland",
"The stable, high marks of Finnish students have attracted a lot of attention. According to Hannu Simola{{citation\\|last \\= Simola\\|first \\= Hannu\\|year \\= 2005\\|url \\= http://www.mv.helsinki.fi/home/hsimola/Finnish%20PISA%20Miracle%2005\\.pdf\\|title \\= The Finnish miracle of PISA: Historical and sociological remarks on teaching and teacher education\\|journal \\= Comparative Education\\|volume \\= 41\\|issue \\= 4\\|pages \\= 455–470\\|doi \\= 10\\.1080/03050060500317810\\|s2cid \\= 145325152}} the results reflect a paradoxical mix of progressive policies implemented through a rather conservative pedagogic setting, where the high levels of teachers' academic preparation, social status, professionalism and motivation for the job are concomitant with the adherence to traditional roles and methods by both teachers and pupils in Finland's changing, but still quite paternalistic culture. Others advance Finland's low poverty rate as a reason for its success. Finnish education reformer Pasi Sahlberg attributes Finland's high educational achievements to its emphasis on social and educational equality and stress on cooperation and collaboration, as opposed to the competition among teachers and schools that prevails in other nations.{{cite web\\|last\\=Cleland \\|first\\=Elizabeth \\|url\\=https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2011/12/what\\-americans\\-keep\\-ignoring\\-about\\-finlands\\-school\\-success/250564/ \\|title\\=What Americans Keep Ignoring About Finland's School Success – Anu Partanen \\|work\\=The Atlantic \\|date\\=29 December 2011 }}",
"### India",
"Of the 74 countries tested in the PISA 2009 cycle including the \"\\+\" nations, the two Indian states came up 72nd and 73rd out of 74 in both reading and mathematics, and 73rd and 74th in science. India's poor performance may not be linguistic as some suggested. 12\\.87% of US students, for example, indicated that the language of the test differed from the language spoken at home. while 30\\.77% of Himachal Pradesh students indicated that the language of the test differed from the language spoken at home, a significantly higher percent{{cite web \\|url\\=http://pisa2009\\.acer.edu.au/interactive\\_results.php \\|title\\=Database – PISA 2009 \\|publisher\\=Pisa2009\\.acer.edu.au \\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-04\\-15 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322032020/http://pisa2009\\.acer.edu.au/interactive\\_results.php \\|archive\\-date\\=2016\\-03\\-22 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} However, unlike American students, those Indian students with a different language at home did better on the PISA test than those with the same language. India's poor performance on the PISA test is consistent with India's poor performance in the only other instance when India's government allowed an international organization to test its students[http://ddp\\-ext.worldbank.org/EdStats/INDprwp08b.pdf](http://ddp-ext.worldbank.org/EdStats/INDprwp08b.pdf) {{Bare URL PDF\\|date\\=March 2022}} and consistent with India's own testing of its elite students in a study titled *Student Learning in the Metros 2006\\.* {{citation\\|url \\= http://www.ei\\-india.com/wp\\-content/uploads/2012/07/Student\\-Learning\\-in\\-the\\-Metros\\-Issue\\-2\\.pdf\\|title \\= Student Learning in the Metros\\|first \\= Educational\\|last \\= Initiatives\\|date \\= November 2006\\|work \\= Educational Initiatives}} These studies were conducted using TIMSS questions. The poor result in PISA was greeted with dismay in the Indian media.{{citation\\|url \\= http://www.indianexpress.com/news/poor\\-pisa\\-ranks\\-hrd\\-seeks\\-reason/896777\\|title \\= Poor PISA ranks: HRD seeks reason\\|first \\= Anubhuti\\|last \\= Vishnoi\\|date \\= 7 January 2012\\|work \\= The Indian Express}} The BBC reported that as of 2008, only 15% of India's students reach high school.{{cite news\\|url \\= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7267315\\.stm\\|publisher \\= BBC News\\|first \\= Zareer\\|last \\= Masani\\|title \\= India still Asia's reluctant tiger\\|date \\= 27 February 2008}}",
"### Italy / South Tyrol",
"In 2003 [South Tyrol](/wiki/South_Tyrol \"South Tyrol\") (Provincia Autonoma di Bolzano / Autonome Provinz Bozen), a predominantly German\\-speaking province in the north of Italy, took part in the PISA project for the first time in order to have a regional result as an *adjudicated region*. In the rest of Italy PISA is conducted by INVALSI (Istituto nazionale per la valutazione del sistema educativo di istruzione e di formazione), a formally independent research institution affiliated to the Ministry of Education, whereas in South Tyrol PISA was carried out by the regional Education Authority itself (*Intendenza scolastica* / *Schulamt*, since 2018 renamed into *Bildungsdirektion*),Cf. [http://www.provincia.bz.it/bildung\\-sprache/deutschsprachige\\-schule/mitteilungen.asp?publ\\_action\\=300\\&publ\\_image\\_id\\=469121](http://www.provincia.bz.it/bildung-sprache/deutschsprachige-schule/mitteilungen.asp?publ_action=300&publ_image_id=469121). Retrieved 11 April 2021\\. which is part of the South Tyrolean regional government.\nAt the end of 2004, in the months prior to the announcement of the test results, the regional Education Authority in Bolzano / Bozen downplayed the validity of the PISA assessment and commissioned alternative school evaluations, preparing the public for a mediocre test result. According to the official PISA report 2003, however, South Tyrol seemed to even beat the PISA world champion Finland.",
"**Critique**",
"Right from the beginning, there was scepticism as to how South Tyrol succeeded in outdoing the neighbouring Italian and Austrian provinces. On the front page of its weekend edition for 29/30 January 2005, the South Tyrolean newspaper *Neue Südtiroler Tageszeitung* published a harsh critique and revealed that the South Tyrolean Education Authority had secretly eliminated more than 300 students from the 1500 students officially drawn as South Tyrolean test sample by the PISA Consortium, and soon more inconsistencies were to surface:\n* **Lack of independence of the South Tyrolean PISA board:** In South Tyrol, PISA was not conducted by a nominally independent body like the local university *Freie Universität Bozen* or the European Academy EURAC, both of which have ample expertise in the field of education, but by the so\\-called Pedagogical Institute (Pädagogisches Institut, director: Rudolf Meraner), which was part of the Education Authority, which in its turn was part of the regional government. A few years later the Pedagogical Institute was nominally absorbed into the Education Authority and renamed into Department for Innovation and Counselling (with the same director: Rudolf Meraner).\n* **Exploitation for political ends**: In the most influential mass media, the regional PISA results were presented as a triumph of the regional government and the SVP (*Südtiroler Volkspartei* or South Tyrolean People’s Party) ruling party’s policy, although the legal framework for all high schools in Italy is a purely national domain. For all the political autonomy granted to South Tyrol, this region still has the same types of schools and follows the same curricula as do all Italian regions. Mass media like the most\\-read South Tyrolean newspaper, *Dolomiten*, whose owner Michel Ebner is a prominent party member of the ruling SVP, did not either try to explain why the secondary schools attended by the Italian speaking students in the same Province did considerably worse, although it is the same regional government run by the SVP which is in charge of the Italian and the German school administration.Cf. *INFO,* December 2004 (i.e. a Circular Letter edited by the regional Education Authority): «In all fields, the South Tyrolean schools achieved a first\\-rate performance» (p. 2\\); Mr Höllrigl, then director of the Education Authority, and Mr Meraner, then head of the PISA board, in *INFO,* January 2005: «I am surprised that we have already become world leaders» (p. 12\\); Mr Meraner in the most\\-read daily *Dolomiten,* 18 February 2005: «We are the world champions even in Problem Solving».\n* **Harassment of Critics:** People who criticized the official PISA results and pointed out violations of the technical rules were officially threatened by the provincial governor, Luis Durnwalder, with libel action for slandering South Tyrol. On 16 March 2006, Durnwalder announced in a press conference that an Austrian teacher would be prosecuted and sued for damages simply because the teacher, in a letter sent to the Austrian Ministry of Education, had mentioned the fact that the South Tyrolean Education Authority had eliminated 17 percent of the students from the regional sample, thereby rendering invalid the regional PISA result. A year later, however, Mr Durnwalder had to admit that he had never taken legal action against the teacher and that there were no legal proceedings obviously because the critique was correct.Cf. the South Tyrolean weekly *FF,* 17 February 2005, p. 10: \"Land klagt Lehrer \\[Regional Government’s Action against Teacher\", and *FF,* 16 March 2006, in which Mr Durnwalder admits to the failed legal suit. It is also noteworthy that the director of the Pedagogical Institute, Rudolf Meraner, and others have constantly deleted the original German Wikipedia article about the South Tyrolean PISA results, replacing it with public government statements.\n* **Regional results deliberately misrepresented as national results:** By definition, the PISA result of South Tyrol is a *subregional result,* which is not fully valid because of the small sample of 1500 students. Such regional results mainly serve documentary purposes and cannot be compared with national results. Nonetheless, the South Tyrolean Education Authority and the regional government repeatedly, and falsely, claimed that the South Tyrolean test results are national, i.e. fully valid results, whereas the neighbouring regions like Tyrol (Austria) and Trentino (Italy), according to South Tyrolean press releases, only had subnational results.Cf. *Dolomiten,* 27 January 2005: Mr Hilpold misinformed the press on behalf of the regional government: «South Tyrol was assessed as a nation \\[Land]. It is due to the fact that we were assessed as a nation that we may compare our results with other nations.» Mr Meraner, director of the Pedagogical Institute, also wrongly claimed that the South Tyrolean overall result may be compared to that of other «nations» because, as he falsely stated, South Tyrol had a national result of its own.\n* **Manipulation of the sample: Elimination of 17 percent of students:** For a subnational result, regions had to test 1500 students. Among all regions with a subnational result, worldwide, South Tyrol was the only one that failed to test 1500 students. For reasons never specified, the Education Authority had eliminated 292 students (i.e. 17 percent) from the 1500 students sample, testing only 1208 of the students selected by the PISA consortium. Failing to test all 1500 students, the South Tyrolean Education Authority violated the technical PISA rules and deprived the PISA result even of its limited technical validity as a subnational result. Later on the Education Authority had to admit that it had actually excluded all vocational students, whose performance is generally considered to be inferior to that of high schools, and all students of the third forms of so\\-called middle schools (scuole medie / Mittelschulen), who would have been part of the sample only if they repeated a class and were considered underachievers because normally 15 year old students are enrolled at high schools. From the official PISA report this manipulation can be easily deduced as the difference between *total population of 15\\-year\\-olds* (4\\.908\\) and *total enrolled population of 15\\-year\\-olds at grade 7 or above* (4\\.087\\).Cf. the PISA report: *Learning for Tomorrow’s World. First Results from PISA 2003\\.* Paris, 2004\\. p. 469; online version: [http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/1/60/34002216\\.pdf](http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/1/60/34002216.pdf). Retrieved 8 March 2012\\. In subsequent PISA assessments, the OECD or rather the PISA consortium did not publish these key figures so that it was no longer possible to ascertain the number of students eliminated from the sample against the rules.\n* **Incorrect figures about *Target Population* and actual sample:** In Italy, according to the figures officially made available by the INVALSI, the number of all 15\\-year\\-old students (574\\.611\\) paradoxically exceeds the number of all 15\\-year\\-old people (561\\.304\\).Cf. the PISA report: *Learning for Tomorrow’s World. First Results from PISA 2003\\.* Paris, 2004\\. p. 321; online version: [http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/1/60/34002216\\.pdf](http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/1/60/34002216.pdf). Due to this mistake, it is impossible to establish how many Italian students were actually identified as Italian *target population*, and it is also impossible to find out which percentage of South Tyrolean students had actually been presented as *target population* to the PISA consortium. In theory, the Education Authority could have excluded certain types of students from the target population even before the sample of 1500 students was drawn by the PISA consortium, from which the Education Authority later on eliminated 17 percent.",
"**Comparison with similar assessments**",
"The stunning South Tyrolean 2003 PISA results can hardly be reconciled with similar high school evaluations, which were not conducted or influenced by the South Tyrolean Education Authority itself. Three international or national large scale assessment projects painted a gloomy picture of the South Tyrolean students’ performance.\n* **Admission Test at Austrian Universities of Medicine (EMS \\= Eignungstest für das Medizinstudium):** Over the last two decades, candidates graduating from South Tyrolean high schools have traditionally scored very badly at the entry examination. The quota system at Austrian Universities of Medicine makes sure that 75 percent of all applicants admitted to Medicine are Austrian nationals or students from South Tyrol, who are considered an Austrian minority in Italy. Hence, for Austrians and South Tyroleans it is easier to get a place at an Austrian University of Medicine, even with bad scores, than for Germans and other EU nationals because the number of EU students must not exceed 20 percent. Nevertheless, according to a study financed by the Austrian Ministry of Education, not even within the big 75 percent quota, South Tyroleans could get a place because of their mediocre entrance test results. South Tyrolean applicants had an average score of 96,5 whereas e.g. German applicants had an average score of 103,1\\. Interestingly, South Tyrolean applicants did even worse than Austrian applicants although Italian high school graduates are one year older. What is even worse, South Tyrolean high school graduates show a sharp gender gap with female candidates doing much worse than their male colleagues, which reflects the Italian high school system: Certain types of high schools popular with female students (e.g. *licei linguistici, licei scienze umane*) have little mathematics and sciences. The difference between the average female and the average male South Tyrolean score in the 2007 EMS was dramatic: 94,8 versus 100,1 points.Cf. the EMS study published by the Austrian Ministry of Research in 2007: <http://www.bmwf.gv.at/startseite/mini_menue/service/publikationen/wissenschaft/universitaetswesen/spiel_studie/>. Retrieved 1 April 2012\\. Abridged version: [https://docplayer.org/18915390\\-Evaluation\\-der\\-eignungstests\\-fuer\\-das\\-medizinstudium\\-in\\-oesterreich.html](https://docplayer.org/18915390-Evaluation-der-eignungstests-fuer-das-medizinstudium-in-oesterreich.html) \\= Evaluation der Eignungstests für das Medizinstudium in Österreich \\- PDF Free Download (docplayer.org) – retrieved 10 January 2021\\. Later on the Swiss EMS organisation disallowed the Austrian Universities of Medicine to use its EMS test and the Austrian universities introduced a new entrance test scheme with an extra quota for female students. South Tyrolean mass media did not cover the EMS debacle at all. Within the South Tyrolean parliament, however, there have been debates as to the reasons of the poor performance of South Tyrolean high school students.E.g. in the year 2007: c.f. the parliamentary question of an opposition party: [https://suedtiroler\\-freiheit.com/2007/08/16/landtagsanfrage\\-zu\\-den\\-medizinstudium\\-ausbildungsplaetzen](https://suedtiroler-freiheit.com/2007/08/16/landtagsanfrage-zu-den-medizinstudium-ausbildungsplaetzen). Retrieved 6 April 2021\\. Or the more recent article in an online newspaper: [https://www.salto.bz/de/article/25082016/braucht\\-suedtirol\\-die\\-oesterreicher\\-quote](https://www.salto.bz/de/article/25082016/braucht-suedtirol-die-oesterreicher-quote). Retrieved 6 April 2021\\. As a consequence of the EMS debacle, the former South Tyrolean governor, Luis Durnwalder, envisaged a collaboration between the University of Medicine in Innsbruck and the Hospital in Bolzano (Bozen) which should have led to a Euregio Medical School open to all North Tyrolean (i.e. Austrian) and South Tyrolean applicants without any entrance exam. Eventually, the South Tyrolean government adopted a more pragmatic approach, it subsidized, as it were, extra places for South Tyrolean students. This seems to be a breach of the national quota system and the entrance requirements as outlined by Austrian laws. The former South Tyrolean governor, Luis Durnwalder, however, frankly admitted to resort to this solution when he complained about the high amount of money South Tyrol paid to the University of Medicine in Innsbruck for buying extra places for South Tyrolean students.Cf. the interview in the Austrian daily *Tiroler Tageszeitung,* 3 November 2008, p. 4\\.\n* **German DESI assessment of linguistic skills in German (mother tongue) and English (foreign language):** Parallel with the 2003 PISA assessment, the South Tyrolean Education Authority commissioned a second assessment, obviously because the Education Authority expected a mediocre PISA result and had downplayed the importance of PISA. Like PISA, the DESI assessment was conducted against the technical rules because, again, all vocational students attending a vocational school (*Berufsschule*) and working part\\-time in a workshop or small firm, i.e. one third of the target population was excluded from the test. The South Tyrolean Education Authority also excluded the whole English test section from DESI, thereby depriving DESI of its main purpose, namely a comparison of German speaking students’ language competence in L1 and L2\\. The South Tyrolean Education Authority argued that in (bilingual) South Tyrol, German speaking students start with Italian as their first foreign language at elementary schools. This explanation, however, lacks credibility because in Germany, as well, many students assessed by DESI had main foreign languages other than English, e.g. French or even Latin (Bavaria), and the amount of weekly classroom teaching in English from the first form at elementary schools is the same in Germany and South Tyrol. In their official report, the German experts responsible for the DESI assessment in South Tyrol generally praised the quality of teaching, but the concrete results in the report reveal drastic shortcomings. For instance, in the semantic field of *railway station* (*Bahnhof*), not even one South Tyrolean student with German as his or her mother tongue knew the German word for a signal box (*Stellwerk*). Instead of marking such errors as errors, however, the German experts resorted to a methodologically disputable assumption. They claimed, without checking, that all words which South Tyrolean students did not know are, by definition, not used in the South Tyrolean variant of German and that these words must be excluded from the test (*item bias*), thus counting only correct answers. The DESI testers from Germany, however, did not check if the words excluded from DESI because of *item bias* actually were unknown. In fact, all words excluded from the South Tyrolean DESI questionnaire are common German words used in South Tyrol as well, i.e. for these words there are no South Tyrolean variants at all. For all the technical exceptions and modifications, the 2003 South Tyrolean DESI result was very disappointing. Only 14 percent of the South Tyrolean high school students came into the best achievement group, whereas in Germany almost half of the 15 year old students belong to this group. On the other hand, one fourth of the South Tyrolean German speaking students came into the lowest achievement group, which in Germany, in spite of all social problems in big towns, comprises only 7 percent of all students.An abridged version of the South Tyrolean DESI report was published by the Pedagogical Institute on its site: [http://www.provinz.bz.it/news/de/news.asp?news\\_action\\=5\\&news\\_article\\_id\\=138926](http://www.provinz.bz.it/news/de/news.asp?news_action=5&news_article_id=138926). Retrieved 8 April 2021\\.\n* **Italian INVALSI assessments:** Traditionally, the annual assessments conducted by the Italian INVALSI in the pre\\-PISA period painted a sorry picture of the northernmost Italian *Regione Autonoma di Trentino e Alto Adige* comprising the two autonomous provinces called Trentino (Italian speaking) and South Tyrol (predominantly German speaking). Schools in Trentino and South Tyrol did constantly worse than those in all other North Italian regions and even lagged behind the Italian average, though it is not clear if the sample of German speaking students was representative because, again, the South Tyrolean Education Authority was entitled to eliminate bad schools from the sample, thereby manipulating the validity of the assessment.Cf. the reports published by INVALSI, or its predecessor SNV, Servizio nazionale di evaluazione: [http://www.invalsi.it/invalsi/index.php?page\\=snv](http://www.invalsi.it/invalsi/index.php?page=snv). Retrieved 27 December 2009\\. To some extent, two South Tyrolean anomalies may account for the traditional bad performance of South Tyrolean students in international evaluations. Until recently, no pedagogical qualifications were required for teachers, not even for permanently employed teachers (*insegnanti di ruolo / Stammrollenlehrer*) appointed by the Education Authority in Bolzano (Bozen) through a so\\-called *concorso*. Besides, the admission criteria for the South Tyrolean *concorsi* have always been inconsistent. For example, a South Tyrolean student who studied at an Italian university German as a Foreign Language or Art History, automatically obtained the teaching license for completely unrelated subjects, like History and Latin, at South Tyrolean high schools.",
"### United States",
"Two studies have compared high achievers in mathematics on the PISA and those on the U.S. [National Assessment of Educational Progress](/wiki/National_Assessment_of_Educational_Progress \"National Assessment of Educational Progress\") (NAEP). Comparisons were made between those scoring at the \"advanced\" and \"proficient\" levels in mathematics on the NAEP with the corresponding performance on the PISA. Overall, 30 nations had higher percentages than the U.S. of students at the \"advanced\" level of mathematics. The only [OECD](/wiki/OECD \"OECD\") countries with worse results were Portugal, Greece, Turkey, and Mexico. Six percent of U.S. students were \"advanced\" in mathematics compared to 28 percent in Taiwan. The highest ranked state in the U.S. (Massachusetts) was just 15th in the world if it was compared with the nations participating in the PISA. 31 nations had higher percentages of \"proficient\" students than the U.S. Massachusetts was again the best U.S. state, but it ranked just ninth in the world if compared with the nations participating in the PISA.[Paul E. Peterson](/wiki/Paul_E._Peterson \"Paul E. Peterson\"), Ludger Woessmann, [Eric A. Hanushek](/wiki/Eric_Hanushek \"Eric Hanushek\"), and Carlos X. Lastra\\-Anadón (2011\\) \"Are U.S. students ready to compete? The latest on each state's international standing.\" *Education Next* 11:4 (Fall): 51–59\\. [http://educationnext.org/are\\-u\\-s\\-students\\-ready\\-to\\-compete/](http://educationnext.org/are-u-s-students-ready-to-compete/)[Eric A. Hanushek](/wiki/Eric_Hanushek \"Eric Hanushek\"), [Paul E. Peterson](/wiki/Paul_E._Peterson \"Paul E. Peterson\"), and Ludger Woessmann (2011\\) \"Teaching math to the talented.\" *Education Next* 11, no. 1 (Winter): 10–18\\. [http://educationnext.org/teaching\\-math\\-to\\-the\\-talented/](http://educationnext.org/teaching-math-to-the-talented/)",
"Comparisons with results for the [Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study](/wiki/Trends_in_International_Mathematics_and_Science_Study \"Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study\") (TIMSS) appear to give different results—suggesting that the U.S. states actually do better in world rankings.Gary W. Phillips (2007\\) *Chance favors the prepared mind: Mathematics and science indicators for comparing states.* Washington: American Institutes for Research (14 November); Gary W. Phillips (2009\\) *The Second Derivative:International Benchmarks in Mathematics For U.S. States and School Districts.* Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research (June). This can likely be traced to the different material being covered and the United States teaching mathematics in a style less harmonious with the \"Realistic Mathematics Education\" which forms the basis of the exam.{{cite web\\|title\\=PISA Mathematics: A Teacher's Guide\\|date\\=13 August 2019 \\|url\\=https://www.education.ie/en/Publications/Inspection\\-Reports\\-Publications/Evaluation\\-Reports\\-Guidelines/insp\\_pisa\\_maths\\_teach\\_guide\\_pdf.pdf}} Countries that commonly use this teaching method score higher on PISA, and less highly on TIMSS and other assessments.{{cite web\\|last1\\=Loveless\\|first1\\=Tom\\|title\\=International Tests Are Not All the Same\\|url\\=http://www.brookings.edu/research/papers/2013/01/09\\-timss\\-pisa\\-loveless\\|website\\=Brookings Institution}}",
"#### Poverty",
"Stephen Krassen, professor emeritus at the University of Southern California,quoted in [Valerie Strauss, \"How poverty affected U.S. PISA scores\", *The Washington Post*, 9 December 2010\\.](https://web.archive.org/web/20101219034611/http://voices.washingtonpost.com/answer-sheet/research/how-poverty-affected-us-pisa-s.html) and Mel Riddile of the [NASSP](/wiki/National_Association_of_Secondary_School_Principals \"National Association of Secondary School Principals\") attributed the relatively low performance of students in the United States to the country's high rate of child [poverty](/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States \"Poverty in the United States\"), which exceeds that of other OECD countries.\"[The Economics Behind International Education Rankings](http://neatoday.org/2010/12/09/a-look-at-the-economic-numbers-on-international-education-rankings/)\" National Educational Association{{citation\\|url \\= http://nasspblogs.org/principaldifference/2010/12/pisa\\_its\\_poverty\\_not\\_stupid\\_1\\.html\\|title \\= PISA: It's Poverty Not Stupid\\|date \\= 15 December 2010\\|first \\= Mel\\|last \\= Riddile\\|publisher \\= \\[\\[National Association of Secondary School Principals]]\\|access\\-date \\= 15 April 2016\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140122143137/http://nasspblogs.org/principaldifference/2010/12/pisa\\_its\\_poverty\\_not\\_stupid\\_1\\.html\\|archive\\-date \\= 22 January 2014\\|url\\-status \\= dead}} However, individual US schools with poverty rates comparable to Finland's (below 10%), as measured by reduced\\-price school lunch participation, outperform Finland; and US schools in the 10–24% reduced\\-price lunch range are not far behind.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://simplystatistics.org/2013/08/23/stratifying\\-pisa\\-scores\\-by\\-poverty\\-rates\\-suggests\\-imitating\\-finland\\-is\\-not\\-necessarily\\-the\\-way\\-to\\-go\\-for\\-us\\-schools/ \\|title\\=Stratifying PISA scores by poverty rates suggests imitating Finland is not necessarily the way to go for US schools \\|publisher\\=Simply Statistics \\|date\\=23 August 2013}}",
"[Reduced school lunch](/wiki/Reduced_price_meal \"Reduced price meal\") participation is the only available intra\\-poverty indicator for US schoolchildren. In the United States, schools in locations in which less than 10% of the students qualified for free or reduced\\-price lunch averaged PISA scores of 551 (higher than any other OECD country). This can be compared with the other OECD countries (which have tabled figures on children living in relative poverty):",
"",
"| Country | Percent of reduced school lunches (US) Percent of relative child poverty (Other OECD countries)\"[Child poverty statistics: how the UK compares to other countries](https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2009/sep/11/child-poverty-statistics-uk-countries)\", *The Guardian*. The same UNICEF figures were used by Riddile. | PISA score*[Highlights From PISA 2009](http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2011/2011004.pdf),* Table 3\\. |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| **United States** | **\\< 10%** | **551** |\n| Finland | 3\\.4% | 536 |\n| Netherlands | 9\\.0% | 508 |\n| Belgium | 6\\.7% | 506 |\n| **United States** | **10%–24\\.9%** | **527** |\n| Canada | 13\\.6% | 524 |\n| New Zealand | 16\\.3% | 521 |\n| Japan | 14\\.3% | 520 |\n| Australia | 11\\.6% | 515 |\n| **United States** | **25–49\\.9%** | **502** |\n| Estonia | 40\\.1% | 501 |\n| **United States** | **50–74\\.9%** | **471** |\n| Russian Federation | 58\\.3% | 459 |\n| **United States** | **\\> 75%** | **446** |",
"#### Sampling errors",
"In 2013 Martin Carnoy of the Stanford University Graduate School of Education and Richard Rothstein of the [Economic Policy Institute](/wiki/Economic_Policy_Institute \"Economic Policy Institute\") released a report, \"What do international tests really show about U.S. student performance?\", analyzing the 2009 PISA data base. Their report found that U.S. PISA test scores had been lowered by a sampling error that over\\-represented adolescents from the most disadvantaged American schools in the test\\-taking sample.See, [Martin Carnoy and Richard Rothstein, \"What do international tests really show about U.S. student performance?\", Economic Policy Institute, 28 January 2013](http://www.epi.org/publication/us-student-performance-testing/). The authors cautioned that international test scores are often \"interpreted to show that American students perform poorly when compared to students internationally\" and that school reformers then conclude that \"U.S. public education is failing.\" Such inferences, made before the data has been carefully analyzed, they say, \"are too glib\"[Valerie Strauss, \"U.S. scores on international test lowered by sampling error: report\", *Washington Post*, 15 January 2013](https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer-sheet/wp/2013/01/15/u-s-scores-on-international-test-lowered-by-sampling-error-report/). and \"may lead policymakers to pursue inappropriate and even harmful reforms.\"Carnoy and Rothstein, \"What do international tests really show about U.S. student performance?\", Economic Policy Institute, 28 January 2013",
"Carnoy and Rothstein observe that in all countries, students from disadvantaged backgrounds perform worse than those from advantaged backgrounds, and the US has a greater percentage of students from disadvantaged backgrounds. The sampling error on the PISA results lowered U.S. scores for 15\\-year\\-olds even further, they say. The authors add, however, that in countries such as Finland, the scores of disadvantaged students tends to be stagnant, whereas in the U.S the scores of disadvantaged students have been steadily rising over time, albeit still lagging behind their those of their more advantaged peers. When the figures are adjusted for social class, the PISA scores of all US students would still remain behind those of the highest scoring countries, nevertheless, the scores of US students of all social backgrounds have shown a trajectory of improvement over time, notably in mathematics, a circumstance PISA's report fails to take into account.",
"Carnoy and Rothstein write that PISA spokesman Schleicher has been quoted saying that \"international education benchmarks make disappointing reading for the U.S.\" and that \"in the U.S. in particular, poverty was destiny. Low\\-income American students did (and still do) much worse than high\\-income ones on PISA. But poor kids in Finland and Canada do far better relative to their more privileged peers, despite their disadvantages\" (Ripley 2011\\).Schleicher was quoted by Amanda Ripley to this effect in her 2011 book, *The Smartest Kids in The World* (Simon and Schuster). Carnoy and Rothstein state that their report's analysis shows Schleicher and Ripley's claims to be untrue. They further fault the way PISA's results have persistently been released to the press before experts have time to evaluate them; and they charge the OECD reports with inconsistency in explaining such factors as the role of parental education. Carnoy and Rothstein also note with alarm that the US secretary of education [Arne Duncan](/wiki/Arne_Duncan \"Arne Duncan\") regularly consults with PISA's Andreas Schleicher in formulating educational policy before other experts have been given a chance to analyze the results.Carnoy and Rothstein, \"What do international tests really show about U.S. student performance?\", EPI, 28 January 2013\\. Another scholar, Matthew di Carlo of the Albert Shanker Institute, criticized PISA for reporting its results in the form of national rankings, since rankings can give a misleading impression that differences between countries' scores are far larger than is actually the case. Di Carlo also faulted PISA's methodology for disregarding factors such as margin of error. See [Matthew di Carlo, \"Pisa For Our Time: A Balanced Look\"](http://shankerblog.org/?p=1535), [Albert Shanker Institute](/wiki/Albert_Shanker_Institute \"Albert Shanker Institute\") website, 10 January 2011\\. Carnoy and Rothstein's report (written before the release of the 2011 database) concludes:\n> We are most certain of this: To make judgments only on the basis of national average scores, on only one test, at only one point in time, without comparing trends on different tests that purport to measure the same thing, and without disaggregation by social class groups, is the worst possible choice. But, unfortunately, this is how most policymakers and analysts approach the field.",
"> The most recent test for which an international database is presently available is PISA, administered in 2009\\. A database for TIMSS 2011 is scheduled for release in mid\\-January 2013\\. In December 2013, PISA will announce results and make data available from its 2012 test administration. Scholars will then be able to dig into TIMSS 2011 and PISA 2012 databases so they can place the publicly promoted average national results in proper context. The analyses we have presented in this report should caution policymakers to await understanding of this context before drawing conclusions about lessons from TIMSS or PISA assessments.Carnoy and Rothstein, \"What do international tests really show about U.S. student performance?\", EPI, January 28, 2013\\.",
"",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early life
Brent is a native of [Winnipeg](/wiki/Winnipeg "Winnipeg"), [Manitoba](/wiki/Manitoba "Manitoba"), Canada where he grew up with his parents Mervyn and Audrey Fitz and a sister, Brenda, who is also a professional musician.[Helen Fitz](http://passages.winnipegfreepress.com/passage-details/id-74610/name-Helen_Fitz/) (grandmother) obituary, published in the Winnipeg Free Press, January 2, 2003\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://twitter.com/brenda\_fitz\|title\=Brenda Fitz (@Brenda\_Fitz) {{!}} Twitter\|website\=twitter.com\|access\-date\=2016\-11\-23}} He attended and graduated from [John Taylor Collegiate](/wiki/John_Taylor_Collegiate "John Taylor Collegiate") in 1988\. His parents continue to take a keen interest in his career, with his mother Audrey cited as saying "we get to look at his tour schedule and follow him across the world".{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/rock\-drummer\-rolls\-back\-into\-winnipeg\-163149086\.html\|title \= Rock drummer rolls back into Winnipeg\|date \= July 20, 2012\|access\-date \= October 6, 2014\|website \= Winnipeg Free Press\|last \= Scurfield\|first \= Maureen}} After leaving Winnipeg in the mid 1990s, he lived for some time in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"), [California](/wiki/California "California") and currently resides in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas%2C_Nevada "Las Vegas, Nevada"), [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada "Nevada"), as does his sister.Brenda Fitz LinkedIn [entry](https://www.linkedin.com/in/brenda-fitz-5aa3a17).{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.52peakclub.com/brenda\-fitz.html\|title\=Brenda Fitz\|website\=52 Peak Club\|access\-date\=2016\-11\-23}}
Fitz started piano lessons at the age of five and drums at the age of ten, playing percussion in his middle school and high school jazz and concert band music programs. He received piano and theory training through [The Royal Conservatory of Music](/wiki/Royal_Conservatory_of_Music_%28Toronto%29 "Royal Conservatory of Music (Toronto)") in [Toronto, Ontario](/wiki/Toronto "Toronto") and graduated in 1994\.Resume on [Linkedin](https://www.linkedin.com/pub/brent-fitz/9/a17/741). In 1985, Brent answered an ad for a teaching job at a local drum shop in Winnipeg, and despite being only 15 at the time, was hired based on his excelled musical ability and people skills.
#### Move to LA
Fitz got his professional start at age 15, playing in various Winnipeg clubs and outlying areas in a cover band named New Alliance. After graduating high school, he formed the band Seventh Heaven with two local musicians and two Los Angeles natives that had recently relocated to Winnipeg.{{cite news
\|url\=http://www.maidenfans.com/index.php?ACT\=module\&name\=rwnews\&area\=article\&nid\=1845\|title\=Maidenfans.com – Interview with Chris Jericho}} After several years of touring, Brent formed another band with Seventh Heaven's guitarist, which evolved into Shake Naked.{{cite news
\|url\= http://members.ozemail.com.au/\~cruekiss/97\.htm
\|title\= Paul Miles – Chronologically Crue
\|access\-date\= 2008\-02\-26
\|archive\-date\= 2014\-02\-28
\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140228161349/http://members.ozemail.com.au/\~cruekiss/97\.htm
\|url\-status\= dead
}} Of this period, his father related that 'we used to go to every gig he played in Winnipeg bars, ladies of the night would pass us, going through to go to the bathroom". Schedules with Seventh Heaven and Shake Naked were much more extensive and involved touring most of [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada"). In 1993, Fitz joined Kenny Shields from the band [Streetheart](/wiki/Streetheart_%28band%29 "Streetheart (band)") and toured across Canada for the next three years. In 1996, while attending the NAMM music trade show in Anaheim, California, connections to the city of [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles") within the band Seventh Heaven, allowed Fitz to have the opportunity to seek work in that market as a performer and session player.
Working with previous Shake Naked vocalist Lenita Erickson later proved fruitful as Erickson's friend [Bruce Kulick](/wiki/Bruce_Kulick "Bruce Kulick") of [Kiss](/wiki/Kiss_%28band%29 "Kiss (band)") fame invited Fitz to join him in a recording effort after first hearing him play piano, and later seeing him play drums at The Roxy in Hollywood, with former [Duran Duran](/wiki/Duran_Duran "Duran Duran") singer, [Lamya](/wiki/Lamya "Lamya") . That band would become known as [Union](/wiki/Union_%28band%29 "Union (band)"){{cite news
\|url\=http://hometown.aol.com/kissunderground2/brentfitzinterview.html
\|title\=kissunderground – Interview with Brent Fitz
\|access\-date\=2008\-02\-27
\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050310142601/http://hometown.aol.com/kissunderground2/brentfitzinterview.html
\|archive\-date\=2005\-03\-10
\|url\-status\=dead
}} and would also include [John Corabi](/wiki/John_Corabi "John Corabi") on vocals (formerly of [The Scream](/wiki/The_Scream_%28band%29 "The Scream (band)") and [Mötley Crüe](/wiki/M%C3%B6tley_Cr%C3%BCe "Mötley Crüe")), [James Hunting](/wiki/James_Hunting "James Hunting") of [David Lee Roth](/wiki/David_Lee_Roth "David Lee Roth") on bass, with Kulick on guitar. This four\-piece released their self\-titled debut in 1998\.Discogs.com [listing](http://www.discogs.com/Union-Union/release/3233499) of the (re\-)release with credits. A live record titled "Live In The Galaxy" was released in 1999, and the band recorded a second album titled "The Blue Room" that was released in February, 2000\.
#### Vince Neil
In September 2000, Fitz briefly joined the [Bulletboys](/wiki/Bulletboys "Bulletboys") on tour in support of their Best Of collection,[Listing](http://www.rockdetector.com/artist/united+states/california/los+angeles/bulletboys) and overview of members and former members of the band. and recorded several new songs at Cherokee Studios in Los Angeles with famed Led Zeppelin producer, Andy Johns. Soon after, he also toured and recorded with [Gilby Clarke](/wiki/Gilby_Clarke "Gilby Clarke"), and recorded drum tracks for the Slimmer Twins album Lack Of Luxury, featuring Kix guitarist Ronnie Younkins.The Slimmer Twin [bio](http://slimmertwins.com/bio.html) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827105522/http://slimmertwins.com/bio.html \|date\=August 27, 2011 }}, indicating he played on their album Lack of Luxury (2000\).[Credited](http://www.discogs.com/Gilby-Clarke-Swag/release/1826915) on the song 'Warm Country Sun' featured on the Gilby Clarke album *Swag* (March 2002\). In early 2001, Fitz received an invitation to tour with [Vince Neil](/wiki/Vince_Neil "Vince Neil") who re\-released his two solo\-records that summer.{{Cite web\|url \= http://idobi.com/news/2001/05/motley\-crues\-vince\-neil\-to\-reissue\-two\-albums\-on\-beyond\-musicvns\-records/\|title \= Motley Crue's Vince Neil to Re\-issue two albums on Beyond Music/VNS Records\|date \= May 14, 2001\|access\-date \= October 5, 2014\|website \= idobi.com\|last \= Fiasco\|first \= Lance}} Performing on several international tours, and recorded the album "Live At The Whisky" in 2002\.Allmusic.com listing of the [album](http://www.discogs.com/Gilby-Clarke-Swag/release/1826915). In the same year he joined Neil for the [Rock Never Stops](/wiki/Rock_Never_Stops_Tour "Rock Never Stops Tour") Tour from may through to July,Tourdates [listing](http://www.knac.com/article.asp?ArticleID=745) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006223723/http://www.knac.com/article.asp?ArticleID\=745 \|date\=October 6, 2014 }} with (promo) details on KNAC.com. followed by a support slot for [Poison](/wiki/Poison_%28American_band%29 "Poison (American band)") in 2003\.Blabbermouth.net [news item](http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/poison-vince-neil-skid-row-first-tour-dates-announced/) from March 5, 2003\. He continued to feature with Neil on tour, although the imminent Mötley Crüe reunion at the end of 2004 put the band on hiatus.{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.mtv.com/news/1480624/motley\-crue\-reuniting\-for\-tour\-possible\-lp\-tommy\-vince\-have\-yet\-to\-speak/\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20140625041419/http://www.mtv.com/news/1480624/motley\-crue\-reuniting\-for\-tour\-possible\-lp\-tommy\-vince\-have\-yet\-to\-speak/\|url\-status \= dead\|archive\-date \= June 25, 2014\|title \= Motley Crue Reuniting For Tour, Possible LP; Tommy, Vince Have Yet To Speak.\|date \= November 24, 2003\|access\-date \= October 5, 2014\|website \= MTV.com\|publisher \= Viacom\|last \= Kaufman\|first \= Gil}}
#### Alice Cooper
In the first half of 2005 Fitz joined the Canadian band [Theory of a Deadman](/wiki/Theory_of_a_Deadman "Theory of a Deadman") as the band embarked on tour to support the album "Gasoline".{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.billboard.com/artist/419497/theory\-deadman/biography\|title \= Theory of a Deadman: Biography\|date \= 2012\|access\-date \= October 7, 2014\|website \= Billboard.com\|publisher \= Rovi\|last \= Rivadavia\|first \= Eduardo\|archive\-date \= July 27, 2014\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20140727143533/http://www.billboard.com/artist/419497/theory\-deadman/biography\|url\-status \= dead}} The band had fired their original drummer Tim Hart, while Robin Diaz played the parts on the album. According to guitarist David Brenner, Fitz is 'a music theory nut' who also contributed backing vocals and piano. He was 'able to come in and play these other guys' parts and really make them his own'.{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.ultimate\-guitar.com/interviews/interviews/theory\_of\_a\_deadman\_rock\_n\_roll\_quality.html\|title \= Theory Of A Deadman: Rock N' Roll Quality\|date \= September 28, 2006\|access\-date \= October 7, 2014\|website \= Ultimate\-Guitar.com\|last \= Rosen\|first \= Steven}} Fitz appeared in four music videos with the band, and made several TV appearances including [The Tonight Show with Jay Leno](/wiki/The_Tonight_Show_with_Jay_Leno "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno").
In July 2006, while still touring with Theory of a Deadman, Fitz temporarily left the band to tour with [Alice Cooper](/wiki/Alice_Cooper "Alice Cooper"), filling in on drums for [Eric Singer](/wiki/Eric_Singer "Eric Singer") while Singer was touring with [Kiss](/wiki/Kiss_%28band%29 "Kiss (band)").Blabbermouth.net News [item](http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/drummer-brent-fitz-to-play-more-dates-with-alice-cooper/). Later that year, Fitz toured the US with Mato Nanji as [Indigenous](/wiki/Indigenous_%28band%29 "Indigenous (band)") in support of the album *Chasing the Sun*.{{Cite web\|url \= https://www.mcall.com/2006/10/12/waidestock\-is\-hip\-deep\-in\-punk\-emo\-and\-rock\-bands/\|title \= Waidestock! is hip deep in punk, emo and rock bands (p. 2\)\|date \= October 12, 2006\|access\-date \= October 7, 2014\|website \= The Morning Call\|last \= Righi\|first \= Len}} He also took part in the sessions for the [Harlequin](/wiki/Harlequin_%28band%29 "Harlequin (band)") album *Waking the Jester* released in 2007\.Allmusic.com [credits](http://www.allmusic.com/album/waking-the-jester-mw0001104442/credits) for the album.
In 2007, Fitz recorded with the recently reformed Canadian rock act [Econoline Crush](/wiki/Econoline_Crush "Econoline Crush") on the album *[Ignite](/wiki/Ignite_%28Econoline_Crush_album%29 "Ignite (Econoline Crush album)")*.Allmusic.com [credits](http://www.allmusic.com/album/ignite-mw0001641221/credits) for the Ignite album. He subsequently became a permanent member of the band, while still remaining as regular back\-up drummer with [Alice Cooper](/wiki/Alice_Cooper "Alice Cooper").Bravewords.com news\-item on his participation in the Australian tour. Dates May 13, 2007\. Fitz appeared in the video for the Econoline Crush hit song "Dirty".
#### Bruce Kulick
In 2009, Fitz joined the Las Vegas\-based production of 'Monster Circus' as keyboardist/guitarist/vocalist. Monster Circus performed at The Hilton Hotel and Casino in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Strip "Las Vegas Strip"), Nevada. The band featured [Dee Snider](/wiki/Dee_Snider "Dee Snider") of [Twisted Sister](/wiki/Twisted_Sister "Twisted Sister"), bassist [Rudy Sarzo](/wiki/Rudy_Sarzo "Rudy Sarzo"), guitarist Tony Montana of [Great White](/wiki/Great_White_%28band%29 "Great White (band)"), guitarist [Dave Kushner](/wiki/Dave_Kushner "Dave Kushner") from [Velvet Revolver](/wiki/Velvet_Revolver "Velvet Revolver"), and [John Corabi](/wiki/John_Corabi "John Corabi") and [Bruce Kulick](/wiki/Bruce_Kulick "Bruce Kulick") (from Fitz's former band Union).
In June 2009, Fitz appeared on the television show [Gene Simmons Family Jewels](/wiki/Gene_Simmons_Family_Jewels "Gene Simmons Family Jewels") (season 4, episode 2: Memphis Blues); he and [Bruce Kulick](/wiki/Bruce_Kulick "Bruce Kulick") helped with some recording studio work [Gene Simmons](/wiki/Gene_Simmons "Gene Simmons") arranged for his son [Nick's](/wiki/Nick_Simmons "Nick Simmons") musical aspirations. Fitz also recorded drums for most of the tracks on Kulick's 2010 album release *BK3*, including tracks featuring guest artists [Gene Simmons](/wiki/Gene_Simmons "Gene Simmons"), Nick Simmons, [John Corabi](/wiki/John_Corabi "John Corabi"), and [Doug Fieger](/wiki/Doug_Fieger "Doug Fieger") of [The Knack](/wiki/The_Knack "The Knack"). Fitz appeared on a second episode in June 2010, this time performing live with Bruce Kulick and Nick Simmons at The Cat Club in Hollywood, California.
#### Slash
In March 2010, Fitz became drummer for then\-former [Guns N' Roses](/wiki/Guns_N%27_Roses "Guns N' Roses")/[Velvet Revolver](/wiki/Velvet_Revolver "Velvet Revolver") guitarist [Slash](/wiki/Slash_%28musician%29 "Slash (musician)").{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.musicradar.com/rhythm/brent\-fitz\-talks\-slash\-grohl\-freese\-and\-more\-260744\|title \= Brent Fitz talks Slash, Grohl, Freese and more\|date \= July 9, 2010\|access\-date \= October 5, 2014\|website \= Musicradar.com\|last \= Chamberlain\|first \= Rich}} The band which also features [Alter Bridge](/wiki/Alter_Bridge "Alter Bridge") singer [Myles Kennedy](/wiki/Myles_Kennedy "Myles Kennedy"), eventually became known as Slash Featuring Myles Kennedy and The Conspirators, and released four albums: 'Apocalyptic Love' in 2012, 'World on Fire' in 2014, 'Living The Dream' in 2018, and '4' in 2022\. Four live albums have been recorded also, 'Live in Manchester' in 2010, 'Made in Stoke' 2011, 'Live at The Roxy' in 2015, and Living the Dream Tour in 2019\. With the band, Fitz has performed on several US talk shows in including: The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Jimmy Fallon, Jimmy Kimmel, Ellen, Conan (twice), Lopez Tonight (twice) and The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson, as well as performed live on Howard Stern. Fitz also appeared in several music videos including 'By The Sword', 'Back From Cali', 'Beautiful Dangerous' featuring [Fergie](/wiki/Fergie_%28singer%29 "Fergie (singer)"), 'You're A Lie', 'Bad Rain' and 'Anastasia'. The band has two \#1 singles on the US Active Rock charts: 'You're A Lie', and 'World on Fire', as well as two top 5 songs: 'Standing In The Sun' and 'Bent to Fly' (which spent over 27 weeks on the chart). The band headlined the 2014 MTV Euro Awards in Glasgow, Scotland, playing 'Crazy Train', with a tribute to [Ozzy Osbourne](/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne "Ozzy Osbourne"), who received the lifetime achievement award from MTV.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early life",
"Brent is a native of [Winnipeg](/wiki/Winnipeg \"Winnipeg\"), [Manitoba](/wiki/Manitoba \"Manitoba\"), Canada where he grew up with his parents Mervyn and Audrey Fitz and a sister, Brenda, who is also a professional musician.[Helen Fitz](http://passages.winnipegfreepress.com/passage-details/id-74610/name-Helen_Fitz/) (grandmother) obituary, published in the Winnipeg Free Press, January 2, 2003\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://twitter.com/brenda\\_fitz\\|title\\=Brenda Fitz (@Brenda\\_Fitz) {{!}} Twitter\\|website\\=twitter.com\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-11\\-23}} He attended and graduated from [John Taylor Collegiate](/wiki/John_Taylor_Collegiate \"John Taylor Collegiate\") in 1988\\. His parents continue to take a keen interest in his career, with his mother Audrey cited as saying \"we get to look at his tour schedule and follow him across the world\".{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/rock\\-drummer\\-rolls\\-back\\-into\\-winnipeg\\-163149086\\.html\\|title \\= Rock drummer rolls back into Winnipeg\\|date \\= July 20, 2012\\|access\\-date \\= October 6, 2014\\|website \\= Winnipeg Free Press\\|last \\= Scurfield\\|first \\= Maureen}} After leaving Winnipeg in the mid 1990s, he lived for some time in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"), [California](/wiki/California \"California\") and currently resides in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas%2C_Nevada \"Las Vegas, Nevada\"), [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada \"Nevada\"), as does his sister.Brenda Fitz LinkedIn [entry](https://www.linkedin.com/in/brenda-fitz-5aa3a17).{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.52peakclub.com/brenda\\-fitz.html\\|title\\=Brenda Fitz\\|website\\=52 Peak Club\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-11\\-23}}",
"Fitz started piano lessons at the age of five and drums at the age of ten, playing percussion in his middle school and high school jazz and concert band music programs. He received piano and theory training through [The Royal Conservatory of Music](/wiki/Royal_Conservatory_of_Music_%28Toronto%29 \"Royal Conservatory of Music (Toronto)\") in [Toronto, Ontario](/wiki/Toronto \"Toronto\") and graduated in 1994\\.Resume on [Linkedin](https://www.linkedin.com/pub/brent-fitz/9/a17/741). In 1985, Brent answered an ad for a teaching job at a local drum shop in Winnipeg, and despite being only 15 at the time, was hired based on his excelled musical ability and people skills.",
"#### Move to LA",
"Fitz got his professional start at age 15, playing in various Winnipeg clubs and outlying areas in a cover band named New Alliance. After graduating high school, he formed the band Seventh Heaven with two local musicians and two Los Angeles natives that had recently relocated to Winnipeg.{{cite news\n\\|url\\=http://www.maidenfans.com/index.php?ACT\\=module\\&name\\=rwnews\\&area\\=article\\&nid\\=1845\\|title\\=Maidenfans.com – Interview with Chris Jericho}} After several years of touring, Brent formed another band with Seventh Heaven's guitarist, which evolved into Shake Naked.{{cite news\n\\|url\\= http://members.ozemail.com.au/\\~cruekiss/97\\.htm\n\\|title\\= Paul Miles – Chronologically Crue\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2008\\-02\\-26\n\\|archive\\-date\\= 2014\\-02\\-28\n\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140228161349/http://members.ozemail.com.au/\\~cruekiss/97\\.htm\n\\|url\\-status\\= dead\n}} Of this period, his father related that 'we used to go to every gig he played in Winnipeg bars, ladies of the night would pass us, going through to go to the bathroom\". Schedules with Seventh Heaven and Shake Naked were much more extensive and involved touring most of [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\"). In 1993, Fitz joined Kenny Shields from the band [Streetheart](/wiki/Streetheart_%28band%29 \"Streetheart (band)\") and toured across Canada for the next three years. In 1996, while attending the NAMM music trade show in Anaheim, California, connections to the city of [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\") within the band Seventh Heaven, allowed Fitz to have the opportunity to seek work in that market as a performer and session player.",
"Working with previous Shake Naked vocalist Lenita Erickson later proved fruitful as Erickson's friend [Bruce Kulick](/wiki/Bruce_Kulick \"Bruce Kulick\") of [Kiss](/wiki/Kiss_%28band%29 \"Kiss (band)\") fame invited Fitz to join him in a recording effort after first hearing him play piano, and later seeing him play drums at The Roxy in Hollywood, with former [Duran Duran](/wiki/Duran_Duran \"Duran Duran\") singer, [Lamya](/wiki/Lamya \"Lamya\") . That band would become known as [Union](/wiki/Union_%28band%29 \"Union (band)\"){{cite news\n\\|url\\=http://hometown.aol.com/kissunderground2/brentfitzinterview.html\n\\|title\\=kissunderground – Interview with Brent Fitz\n\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-02\\-27\n\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050310142601/http://hometown.aol.com/kissunderground2/brentfitzinterview.html\n\\|archive\\-date\\=2005\\-03\\-10\n\\|url\\-status\\=dead\n}} and would also include [John Corabi](/wiki/John_Corabi \"John Corabi\") on vocals (formerly of [The Scream](/wiki/The_Scream_%28band%29 \"The Scream (band)\") and [Mötley Crüe](/wiki/M%C3%B6tley_Cr%C3%BCe \"Mötley Crüe\")), [James Hunting](/wiki/James_Hunting \"James Hunting\") of [David Lee Roth](/wiki/David_Lee_Roth \"David Lee Roth\") on bass, with Kulick on guitar. This four\\-piece released their self\\-titled debut in 1998\\.Discogs.com [listing](http://www.discogs.com/Union-Union/release/3233499) of the (re\\-)release with credits. A live record titled \"Live In The Galaxy\" was released in 1999, and the band recorded a second album titled \"The Blue Room\" that was released in February, 2000\\.",
"#### Vince Neil",
"In September 2000, Fitz briefly joined the [Bulletboys](/wiki/Bulletboys \"Bulletboys\") on tour in support of their Best Of collection,[Listing](http://www.rockdetector.com/artist/united+states/california/los+angeles/bulletboys) and overview of members and former members of the band. and recorded several new songs at Cherokee Studios in Los Angeles with famed Led Zeppelin producer, Andy Johns. Soon after, he also toured and recorded with [Gilby Clarke](/wiki/Gilby_Clarke \"Gilby Clarke\"), and recorded drum tracks for the Slimmer Twins album Lack Of Luxury, featuring Kix guitarist Ronnie Younkins.The Slimmer Twin [bio](http://slimmertwins.com/bio.html) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827105522/http://slimmertwins.com/bio.html \\|date\\=August 27, 2011 }}, indicating he played on their album Lack of Luxury (2000\\).[Credited](http://www.discogs.com/Gilby-Clarke-Swag/release/1826915) on the song 'Warm Country Sun' featured on the Gilby Clarke album *Swag* (March 2002\\). In early 2001, Fitz received an invitation to tour with [Vince Neil](/wiki/Vince_Neil \"Vince Neil\") who re\\-released his two solo\\-records that summer.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://idobi.com/news/2001/05/motley\\-crues\\-vince\\-neil\\-to\\-reissue\\-two\\-albums\\-on\\-beyond\\-musicvns\\-records/\\|title \\= Motley Crue's Vince Neil to Re\\-issue two albums on Beyond Music/VNS Records\\|date \\= May 14, 2001\\|access\\-date \\= October 5, 2014\\|website \\= idobi.com\\|last \\= Fiasco\\|first \\= Lance}} Performing on several international tours, and recorded the album \"Live At The Whisky\" in 2002\\.Allmusic.com listing of the [album](http://www.discogs.com/Gilby-Clarke-Swag/release/1826915). In the same year he joined Neil for the [Rock Never Stops](/wiki/Rock_Never_Stops_Tour \"Rock Never Stops Tour\") Tour from may through to July,Tourdates [listing](http://www.knac.com/article.asp?ArticleID=745) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006223723/http://www.knac.com/article.asp?ArticleID\\=745 \\|date\\=October 6, 2014 }} with (promo) details on KNAC.com. followed by a support slot for [Poison](/wiki/Poison_%28American_band%29 \"Poison (American band)\") in 2003\\.Blabbermouth.net [news item](http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/poison-vince-neil-skid-row-first-tour-dates-announced/) from March 5, 2003\\. He continued to feature with Neil on tour, although the imminent Mötley Crüe reunion at the end of 2004 put the band on hiatus.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.mtv.com/news/1480624/motley\\-crue\\-reuniting\\-for\\-tour\\-possible\\-lp\\-tommy\\-vince\\-have\\-yet\\-to\\-speak/\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140625041419/http://www.mtv.com/news/1480624/motley\\-crue\\-reuniting\\-for\\-tour\\-possible\\-lp\\-tommy\\-vince\\-have\\-yet\\-to\\-speak/\\|url\\-status \\= dead\\|archive\\-date \\= June 25, 2014\\|title \\= Motley Crue Reuniting For Tour, Possible LP; Tommy, Vince Have Yet To Speak.\\|date \\= November 24, 2003\\|access\\-date \\= October 5, 2014\\|website \\= MTV.com\\|publisher \\= Viacom\\|last \\= Kaufman\\|first \\= Gil}}",
"#### Alice Cooper",
"In the first half of 2005 Fitz joined the Canadian band [Theory of a Deadman](/wiki/Theory_of_a_Deadman \"Theory of a Deadman\") as the band embarked on tour to support the album \"Gasoline\".{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.billboard.com/artist/419497/theory\\-deadman/biography\\|title \\= Theory of a Deadman: Biography\\|date \\= 2012\\|access\\-date \\= October 7, 2014\\|website \\= Billboard.com\\|publisher \\= Rovi\\|last \\= Rivadavia\\|first \\= Eduardo\\|archive\\-date \\= July 27, 2014\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140727143533/http://www.billboard.com/artist/419497/theory\\-deadman/biography\\|url\\-status \\= dead}} The band had fired their original drummer Tim Hart, while Robin Diaz played the parts on the album. According to guitarist David Brenner, Fitz is 'a music theory nut' who also contributed backing vocals and piano. He was 'able to come in and play these other guys' parts and really make them his own'.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.ultimate\\-guitar.com/interviews/interviews/theory\\_of\\_a\\_deadman\\_rock\\_n\\_roll\\_quality.html\\|title \\= Theory Of A Deadman: Rock N' Roll Quality\\|date \\= September 28, 2006\\|access\\-date \\= October 7, 2014\\|website \\= Ultimate\\-Guitar.com\\|last \\= Rosen\\|first \\= Steven}} Fitz appeared in four music videos with the band, and made several TV appearances including [The Tonight Show with Jay Leno](/wiki/The_Tonight_Show_with_Jay_Leno \"The Tonight Show with Jay Leno\").",
"In July 2006, while still touring with Theory of a Deadman, Fitz temporarily left the band to tour with [Alice Cooper](/wiki/Alice_Cooper \"Alice Cooper\"), filling in on drums for [Eric Singer](/wiki/Eric_Singer \"Eric Singer\") while Singer was touring with [Kiss](/wiki/Kiss_%28band%29 \"Kiss (band)\").Blabbermouth.net News [item](http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/drummer-brent-fitz-to-play-more-dates-with-alice-cooper/). Later that year, Fitz toured the US with Mato Nanji as [Indigenous](/wiki/Indigenous_%28band%29 \"Indigenous (band)\") in support of the album *Chasing the Sun*.{{Cite web\\|url \\= https://www.mcall.com/2006/10/12/waidestock\\-is\\-hip\\-deep\\-in\\-punk\\-emo\\-and\\-rock\\-bands/\\|title \\= Waidestock! is hip deep in punk, emo and rock bands (p. 2\\)\\|date \\= October 12, 2006\\|access\\-date \\= October 7, 2014\\|website \\= The Morning Call\\|last \\= Righi\\|first \\= Len}} He also took part in the sessions for the [Harlequin](/wiki/Harlequin_%28band%29 \"Harlequin (band)\") album *Waking the Jester* released in 2007\\.Allmusic.com [credits](http://www.allmusic.com/album/waking-the-jester-mw0001104442/credits) for the album.",
"In 2007, Fitz recorded with the recently reformed Canadian rock act [Econoline Crush](/wiki/Econoline_Crush \"Econoline Crush\") on the album *[Ignite](/wiki/Ignite_%28Econoline_Crush_album%29 \"Ignite (Econoline Crush album)\")*.Allmusic.com [credits](http://www.allmusic.com/album/ignite-mw0001641221/credits) for the Ignite album. He subsequently became a permanent member of the band, while still remaining as regular back\\-up drummer with [Alice Cooper](/wiki/Alice_Cooper \"Alice Cooper\").Bravewords.com news\\-item on his participation in the Australian tour. Dates May 13, 2007\\. Fitz appeared in the video for the Econoline Crush hit song \"Dirty\".",
"#### Bruce Kulick",
"In 2009, Fitz joined the Las Vegas\\-based production of 'Monster Circus' as keyboardist/guitarist/vocalist. Monster Circus performed at The Hilton Hotel and Casino in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Strip \"Las Vegas Strip\"), Nevada. The band featured [Dee Snider](/wiki/Dee_Snider \"Dee Snider\") of [Twisted Sister](/wiki/Twisted_Sister \"Twisted Sister\"), bassist [Rudy Sarzo](/wiki/Rudy_Sarzo \"Rudy Sarzo\"), guitarist Tony Montana of [Great White](/wiki/Great_White_%28band%29 \"Great White (band)\"), guitarist [Dave Kushner](/wiki/Dave_Kushner \"Dave Kushner\") from [Velvet Revolver](/wiki/Velvet_Revolver \"Velvet Revolver\"), and [John Corabi](/wiki/John_Corabi \"John Corabi\") and [Bruce Kulick](/wiki/Bruce_Kulick \"Bruce Kulick\") (from Fitz's former band Union).",
"In June 2009, Fitz appeared on the television show [Gene Simmons Family Jewels](/wiki/Gene_Simmons_Family_Jewels \"Gene Simmons Family Jewels\") (season 4, episode 2: Memphis Blues); he and [Bruce Kulick](/wiki/Bruce_Kulick \"Bruce Kulick\") helped with some recording studio work [Gene Simmons](/wiki/Gene_Simmons \"Gene Simmons\") arranged for his son [Nick's](/wiki/Nick_Simmons \"Nick Simmons\") musical aspirations. Fitz also recorded drums for most of the tracks on Kulick's 2010 album release *BK3*, including tracks featuring guest artists [Gene Simmons](/wiki/Gene_Simmons \"Gene Simmons\"), Nick Simmons, [John Corabi](/wiki/John_Corabi \"John Corabi\"), and [Doug Fieger](/wiki/Doug_Fieger \"Doug Fieger\") of [The Knack](/wiki/The_Knack \"The Knack\"). Fitz appeared on a second episode in June 2010, this time performing live with Bruce Kulick and Nick Simmons at The Cat Club in Hollywood, California.",
"#### Slash",
"In March 2010, Fitz became drummer for then\\-former [Guns N' Roses](/wiki/Guns_N%27_Roses \"Guns N' Roses\")/[Velvet Revolver](/wiki/Velvet_Revolver \"Velvet Revolver\") guitarist [Slash](/wiki/Slash_%28musician%29 \"Slash (musician)\").{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.musicradar.com/rhythm/brent\\-fitz\\-talks\\-slash\\-grohl\\-freese\\-and\\-more\\-260744\\|title \\= Brent Fitz talks Slash, Grohl, Freese and more\\|date \\= July 9, 2010\\|access\\-date \\= October 5, 2014\\|website \\= Musicradar.com\\|last \\= Chamberlain\\|first \\= Rich}} The band which also features [Alter Bridge](/wiki/Alter_Bridge \"Alter Bridge\") singer [Myles Kennedy](/wiki/Myles_Kennedy \"Myles Kennedy\"), eventually became known as Slash Featuring Myles Kennedy and The Conspirators, and released four albums: 'Apocalyptic Love' in 2012, 'World on Fire' in 2014, 'Living The Dream' in 2018, and '4' in 2022\\. Four live albums have been recorded also, 'Live in Manchester' in 2010, 'Made in Stoke' 2011, 'Live at The Roxy' in 2015, and Living the Dream Tour in 2019\\. With the band, Fitz has performed on several US talk shows in including: The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Jimmy Fallon, Jimmy Kimmel, Ellen, Conan (twice), Lopez Tonight (twice) and The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson, as well as performed live on Howard Stern. Fitz also appeared in several music videos including 'By The Sword', 'Back From Cali', 'Beautiful Dangerous' featuring [Fergie](/wiki/Fergie_%28singer%29 \"Fergie (singer)\"), 'You're A Lie', 'Bad Rain' and 'Anastasia'. The band has two \\#1 singles on the US Active Rock charts: 'You're A Lie', and 'World on Fire', as well as two top 5 songs: 'Standing In The Sun' and 'Bent to Fly' (which spent over 27 weeks on the chart). The band headlined the 2014 MTV Euro Awards in Glasgow, Scotland, playing 'Crazy Train', with a tribute to [Ozzy Osbourne](/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne \"Ozzy Osbourne\"), who received the lifetime achievement award from MTV.",
""
] |
### Early life
Brent is a native of [Winnipeg](/wiki/Winnipeg "Winnipeg"), [Manitoba](/wiki/Manitoba "Manitoba"), Canada where he grew up with his parents Mervyn and Audrey Fitz and a sister, Brenda, who is also a professional musician.[Helen Fitz](http://passages.winnipegfreepress.com/passage-details/id-74610/name-Helen_Fitz/) (grandmother) obituary, published in the Winnipeg Free Press, January 2, 2003\.{{Cite web\|url\=https://twitter.com/brenda\_fitz\|title\=Brenda Fitz (@Brenda\_Fitz) {{!}} Twitter\|website\=twitter.com\|access\-date\=2016\-11\-23}} He attended and graduated from [John Taylor Collegiate](/wiki/John_Taylor_Collegiate "John Taylor Collegiate") in 1988\. His parents continue to take a keen interest in his career, with his mother Audrey cited as saying "we get to look at his tour schedule and follow him across the world".{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/rock\-drummer\-rolls\-back\-into\-winnipeg\-163149086\.html\|title \= Rock drummer rolls back into Winnipeg\|date \= July 20, 2012\|access\-date \= October 6, 2014\|website \= Winnipeg Free Press\|last \= Scurfield\|first \= Maureen}} After leaving Winnipeg in the mid 1990s, he lived for some time in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles"), [California](/wiki/California "California") and currently resides in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas%2C_Nevada "Las Vegas, Nevada"), [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada "Nevada"), as does his sister.Brenda Fitz LinkedIn [entry](https://www.linkedin.com/in/brenda-fitz-5aa3a17).{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.52peakclub.com/brenda\-fitz.html\|title\=Brenda Fitz\|website\=52 Peak Club\|access\-date\=2016\-11\-23}}
Fitz started piano lessons at the age of five and drums at the age of ten, playing percussion in his middle school and high school jazz and concert band music programs. He received piano and theory training through [The Royal Conservatory of Music](/wiki/Royal_Conservatory_of_Music_%28Toronto%29 "Royal Conservatory of Music (Toronto)") in [Toronto, Ontario](/wiki/Toronto "Toronto") and graduated in 1994\.Resume on [Linkedin](https://www.linkedin.com/pub/brent-fitz/9/a17/741). In 1985, Brent answered an ad for a teaching job at a local drum shop in Winnipeg, and despite being only 15 at the time, was hired based on his excelled musical ability and people skills.
#### Move to LA
Fitz got his professional start at age 15, playing in various Winnipeg clubs and outlying areas in a cover band named New Alliance. After graduating high school, he formed the band Seventh Heaven with two local musicians and two Los Angeles natives that had recently relocated to Winnipeg.{{cite news
\|url\=http://www.maidenfans.com/index.php?ACT\=module\&name\=rwnews\&area\=article\&nid\=1845\|title\=Maidenfans.com – Interview with Chris Jericho}} After several years of touring, Brent formed another band with Seventh Heaven's guitarist, which evolved into Shake Naked.{{cite news
\|url\= http://members.ozemail.com.au/\~cruekiss/97\.htm
\|title\= Paul Miles – Chronologically Crue
\|access\-date\= 2008\-02\-26
\|archive\-date\= 2014\-02\-28
\|archive\-url\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140228161349/http://members.ozemail.com.au/\~cruekiss/97\.htm
\|url\-status\= dead
}} Of this period, his father related that 'we used to go to every gig he played in Winnipeg bars, ladies of the night would pass us, going through to go to the bathroom". Schedules with Seventh Heaven and Shake Naked were much more extensive and involved touring most of [Canada](/wiki/Canada "Canada"). In 1993, Fitz joined Kenny Shields from the band [Streetheart](/wiki/Streetheart_%28band%29 "Streetheart (band)") and toured across Canada for the next three years. In 1996, while attending the NAMM music trade show in Anaheim, California, connections to the city of [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles "Los Angeles") within the band Seventh Heaven, allowed Fitz to have the opportunity to seek work in that market as a performer and session player.
Working with previous Shake Naked vocalist Lenita Erickson later proved fruitful as Erickson's friend [Bruce Kulick](/wiki/Bruce_Kulick "Bruce Kulick") of [Kiss](/wiki/Kiss_%28band%29 "Kiss (band)") fame invited Fitz to join him in a recording effort after first hearing him play piano, and later seeing him play drums at The Roxy in Hollywood, with former [Duran Duran](/wiki/Duran_Duran "Duran Duran") singer, [Lamya](/wiki/Lamya "Lamya") . That band would become known as [Union](/wiki/Union_%28band%29 "Union (band)"){{cite news
\|url\=http://hometown.aol.com/kissunderground2/brentfitzinterview.html
\|title\=kissunderground – Interview with Brent Fitz
\|access\-date\=2008\-02\-27
\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050310142601/http://hometown.aol.com/kissunderground2/brentfitzinterview.html
\|archive\-date\=2005\-03\-10
\|url\-status\=dead
}} and would also include [John Corabi](/wiki/John_Corabi "John Corabi") on vocals (formerly of [The Scream](/wiki/The_Scream_%28band%29 "The Scream (band)") and [Mötley Crüe](/wiki/M%C3%B6tley_Cr%C3%BCe "Mötley Crüe")), [James Hunting](/wiki/James_Hunting "James Hunting") of [David Lee Roth](/wiki/David_Lee_Roth "David Lee Roth") on bass, with Kulick on guitar. This four\-piece released their self\-titled debut in 1998\.Discogs.com [listing](http://www.discogs.com/Union-Union/release/3233499) of the (re\-)release with credits. A live record titled "Live In The Galaxy" was released in 1999, and the band recorded a second album titled "The Blue Room" that was released in February, 2000\.
#### Vince Neil
In September 2000, Fitz briefly joined the [Bulletboys](/wiki/Bulletboys "Bulletboys") on tour in support of their Best Of collection,[Listing](http://www.rockdetector.com/artist/united+states/california/los+angeles/bulletboys) and overview of members and former members of the band. and recorded several new songs at Cherokee Studios in Los Angeles with famed Led Zeppelin producer, Andy Johns. Soon after, he also toured and recorded with [Gilby Clarke](/wiki/Gilby_Clarke "Gilby Clarke"), and recorded drum tracks for the Slimmer Twins album Lack Of Luxury, featuring Kix guitarist Ronnie Younkins.The Slimmer Twin [bio](http://slimmertwins.com/bio.html) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827105522/http://slimmertwins.com/bio.html \|date\=August 27, 2011 }}, indicating he played on their album Lack of Luxury (2000\).[Credited](http://www.discogs.com/Gilby-Clarke-Swag/release/1826915) on the song 'Warm Country Sun' featured on the Gilby Clarke album *Swag* (March 2002\). In early 2001, Fitz received an invitation to tour with [Vince Neil](/wiki/Vince_Neil "Vince Neil") who re\-released his two solo\-records that summer.{{Cite web\|url \= http://idobi.com/news/2001/05/motley\-crues\-vince\-neil\-to\-reissue\-two\-albums\-on\-beyond\-musicvns\-records/\|title \= Motley Crue's Vince Neil to Re\-issue two albums on Beyond Music/VNS Records\|date \= May 14, 2001\|access\-date \= October 5, 2014\|website \= idobi.com\|last \= Fiasco\|first \= Lance}} Performing on several international tours, and recorded the album "Live At The Whisky" in 2002\.Allmusic.com listing of the [album](http://www.discogs.com/Gilby-Clarke-Swag/release/1826915). In the same year he joined Neil for the [Rock Never Stops](/wiki/Rock_Never_Stops_Tour "Rock Never Stops Tour") Tour from may through to July,Tourdates [listing](http://www.knac.com/article.asp?ArticleID=745) {{webarchive \|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006223723/http://www.knac.com/article.asp?ArticleID\=745 \|date\=October 6, 2014 }} with (promo) details on KNAC.com. followed by a support slot for [Poison](/wiki/Poison_%28American_band%29 "Poison (American band)") in 2003\.Blabbermouth.net [news item](http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/poison-vince-neil-skid-row-first-tour-dates-announced/) from March 5, 2003\. He continued to feature with Neil on tour, although the imminent Mötley Crüe reunion at the end of 2004 put the band on hiatus.{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.mtv.com/news/1480624/motley\-crue\-reuniting\-for\-tour\-possible\-lp\-tommy\-vince\-have\-yet\-to\-speak/\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20140625041419/http://www.mtv.com/news/1480624/motley\-crue\-reuniting\-for\-tour\-possible\-lp\-tommy\-vince\-have\-yet\-to\-speak/\|url\-status \= dead\|archive\-date \= June 25, 2014\|title \= Motley Crue Reuniting For Tour, Possible LP; Tommy, Vince Have Yet To Speak.\|date \= November 24, 2003\|access\-date \= October 5, 2014\|website \= MTV.com\|publisher \= Viacom\|last \= Kaufman\|first \= Gil}}
#### Alice Cooper
In the first half of 2005 Fitz joined the Canadian band [Theory of a Deadman](/wiki/Theory_of_a_Deadman "Theory of a Deadman") as the band embarked on tour to support the album "Gasoline".{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.billboard.com/artist/419497/theory\-deadman/biography\|title \= Theory of a Deadman: Biography\|date \= 2012\|access\-date \= October 7, 2014\|website \= Billboard.com\|publisher \= Rovi\|last \= Rivadavia\|first \= Eduardo\|archive\-date \= July 27, 2014\|archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20140727143533/http://www.billboard.com/artist/419497/theory\-deadman/biography\|url\-status \= dead}} The band had fired their original drummer Tim Hart, while Robin Diaz played the parts on the album. According to guitarist David Brenner, Fitz is 'a music theory nut' who also contributed backing vocals and piano. He was 'able to come in and play these other guys' parts and really make them his own'.{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.ultimate\-guitar.com/interviews/interviews/theory\_of\_a\_deadman\_rock\_n\_roll\_quality.html\|title \= Theory Of A Deadman: Rock N' Roll Quality\|date \= September 28, 2006\|access\-date \= October 7, 2014\|website \= Ultimate\-Guitar.com\|last \= Rosen\|first \= Steven}} Fitz appeared in four music videos with the band, and made several TV appearances including [The Tonight Show with Jay Leno](/wiki/The_Tonight_Show_with_Jay_Leno "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno").
In July 2006, while still touring with Theory of a Deadman, Fitz temporarily left the band to tour with [Alice Cooper](/wiki/Alice_Cooper "Alice Cooper"), filling in on drums for [Eric Singer](/wiki/Eric_Singer "Eric Singer") while Singer was touring with [Kiss](/wiki/Kiss_%28band%29 "Kiss (band)").Blabbermouth.net News [item](http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/drummer-brent-fitz-to-play-more-dates-with-alice-cooper/). Later that year, Fitz toured the US with Mato Nanji as [Indigenous](/wiki/Indigenous_%28band%29 "Indigenous (band)") in support of the album *Chasing the Sun*.{{Cite web\|url \= https://www.mcall.com/2006/10/12/waidestock\-is\-hip\-deep\-in\-punk\-emo\-and\-rock\-bands/\|title \= Waidestock! is hip deep in punk, emo and rock bands (p. 2\)\|date \= October 12, 2006\|access\-date \= October 7, 2014\|website \= The Morning Call\|last \= Righi\|first \= Len}} He also took part in the sessions for the [Harlequin](/wiki/Harlequin_%28band%29 "Harlequin (band)") album *Waking the Jester* released in 2007\.Allmusic.com [credits](http://www.allmusic.com/album/waking-the-jester-mw0001104442/credits) for the album.
In 2007, Fitz recorded with the recently reformed Canadian rock act [Econoline Crush](/wiki/Econoline_Crush "Econoline Crush") on the album *[Ignite](/wiki/Ignite_%28Econoline_Crush_album%29 "Ignite (Econoline Crush album)")*.Allmusic.com [credits](http://www.allmusic.com/album/ignite-mw0001641221/credits) for the Ignite album. He subsequently became a permanent member of the band, while still remaining as regular back\-up drummer with [Alice Cooper](/wiki/Alice_Cooper "Alice Cooper").Bravewords.com news\-item on his participation in the Australian tour. Dates May 13, 2007\. Fitz appeared in the video for the Econoline Crush hit song "Dirty".
#### Bruce Kulick
In 2009, Fitz joined the Las Vegas\-based production of 'Monster Circus' as keyboardist/guitarist/vocalist. Monster Circus performed at The Hilton Hotel and Casino in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Strip "Las Vegas Strip"), Nevada. The band featured [Dee Snider](/wiki/Dee_Snider "Dee Snider") of [Twisted Sister](/wiki/Twisted_Sister "Twisted Sister"), bassist [Rudy Sarzo](/wiki/Rudy_Sarzo "Rudy Sarzo"), guitarist Tony Montana of [Great White](/wiki/Great_White_%28band%29 "Great White (band)"), guitarist [Dave Kushner](/wiki/Dave_Kushner "Dave Kushner") from [Velvet Revolver](/wiki/Velvet_Revolver "Velvet Revolver"), and [John Corabi](/wiki/John_Corabi "John Corabi") and [Bruce Kulick](/wiki/Bruce_Kulick "Bruce Kulick") (from Fitz's former band Union).
In June 2009, Fitz appeared on the television show [Gene Simmons Family Jewels](/wiki/Gene_Simmons_Family_Jewels "Gene Simmons Family Jewels") (season 4, episode 2: Memphis Blues); he and [Bruce Kulick](/wiki/Bruce_Kulick "Bruce Kulick") helped with some recording studio work [Gene Simmons](/wiki/Gene_Simmons "Gene Simmons") arranged for his son [Nick's](/wiki/Nick_Simmons "Nick Simmons") musical aspirations. Fitz also recorded drums for most of the tracks on Kulick's 2010 album release *BK3*, including tracks featuring guest artists [Gene Simmons](/wiki/Gene_Simmons "Gene Simmons"), Nick Simmons, [John Corabi](/wiki/John_Corabi "John Corabi"), and [Doug Fieger](/wiki/Doug_Fieger "Doug Fieger") of [The Knack](/wiki/The_Knack "The Knack"). Fitz appeared on a second episode in June 2010, this time performing live with Bruce Kulick and Nick Simmons at The Cat Club in Hollywood, California.
#### Slash
In March 2010, Fitz became drummer for then\-former [Guns N' Roses](/wiki/Guns_N%27_Roses "Guns N' Roses")/[Velvet Revolver](/wiki/Velvet_Revolver "Velvet Revolver") guitarist [Slash](/wiki/Slash_%28musician%29 "Slash (musician)").{{Cite web\|url \= http://www.musicradar.com/rhythm/brent\-fitz\-talks\-slash\-grohl\-freese\-and\-more\-260744\|title \= Brent Fitz talks Slash, Grohl, Freese and more\|date \= July 9, 2010\|access\-date \= October 5, 2014\|website \= Musicradar.com\|last \= Chamberlain\|first \= Rich}} The band which also features [Alter Bridge](/wiki/Alter_Bridge "Alter Bridge") singer [Myles Kennedy](/wiki/Myles_Kennedy "Myles Kennedy"), eventually became known as Slash Featuring Myles Kennedy and The Conspirators, and released four albums: 'Apocalyptic Love' in 2012, 'World on Fire' in 2014, 'Living The Dream' in 2018, and '4' in 2022\. Four live albums have been recorded also, 'Live in Manchester' in 2010, 'Made in Stoke' 2011, 'Live at The Roxy' in 2015, and Living the Dream Tour in 2019\. With the band, Fitz has performed on several US talk shows in including: The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Jimmy Fallon, Jimmy Kimmel, Ellen, Conan (twice), Lopez Tonight (twice) and The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson, as well as performed live on Howard Stern. Fitz also appeared in several music videos including 'By The Sword', 'Back From Cali', 'Beautiful Dangerous' featuring [Fergie](/wiki/Fergie_%28singer%29 "Fergie (singer)"), 'You're A Lie', 'Bad Rain' and 'Anastasia'. The band has two \#1 singles on the US Active Rock charts: 'You're A Lie', and 'World on Fire', as well as two top 5 songs: 'Standing In The Sun' and 'Bent to Fly' (which spent over 27 weeks on the chart). The band headlined the 2014 MTV Euro Awards in Glasgow, Scotland, playing 'Crazy Train', with a tribute to [Ozzy Osbourne](/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne "Ozzy Osbourne"), who received the lifetime achievement award from MTV.
|
[
"### Early life",
"Brent is a native of [Winnipeg](/wiki/Winnipeg \"Winnipeg\"), [Manitoba](/wiki/Manitoba \"Manitoba\"), Canada where he grew up with his parents Mervyn and Audrey Fitz and a sister, Brenda, who is also a professional musician.[Helen Fitz](http://passages.winnipegfreepress.com/passage-details/id-74610/name-Helen_Fitz/) (grandmother) obituary, published in the Winnipeg Free Press, January 2, 2003\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://twitter.com/brenda\\_fitz\\|title\\=Brenda Fitz (@Brenda\\_Fitz) {{!}} Twitter\\|website\\=twitter.com\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-11\\-23}} He attended and graduated from [John Taylor Collegiate](/wiki/John_Taylor_Collegiate \"John Taylor Collegiate\") in 1988\\. His parents continue to take a keen interest in his career, with his mother Audrey cited as saying \"we get to look at his tour schedule and follow him across the world\".{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/rock\\-drummer\\-rolls\\-back\\-into\\-winnipeg\\-163149086\\.html\\|title \\= Rock drummer rolls back into Winnipeg\\|date \\= July 20, 2012\\|access\\-date \\= October 6, 2014\\|website \\= Winnipeg Free Press\\|last \\= Scurfield\\|first \\= Maureen}} After leaving Winnipeg in the mid 1990s, he lived for some time in [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\"), [California](/wiki/California \"California\") and currently resides in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas%2C_Nevada \"Las Vegas, Nevada\"), [Nevada](/wiki/Nevada \"Nevada\"), as does his sister.Brenda Fitz LinkedIn [entry](https://www.linkedin.com/in/brenda-fitz-5aa3a17).{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.52peakclub.com/brenda\\-fitz.html\\|title\\=Brenda Fitz\\|website\\=52 Peak Club\\|access\\-date\\=2016\\-11\\-23}}",
"Fitz started piano lessons at the age of five and drums at the age of ten, playing percussion in his middle school and high school jazz and concert band music programs. He received piano and theory training through [The Royal Conservatory of Music](/wiki/Royal_Conservatory_of_Music_%28Toronto%29 \"Royal Conservatory of Music (Toronto)\") in [Toronto, Ontario](/wiki/Toronto \"Toronto\") and graduated in 1994\\.Resume on [Linkedin](https://www.linkedin.com/pub/brent-fitz/9/a17/741). In 1985, Brent answered an ad for a teaching job at a local drum shop in Winnipeg, and despite being only 15 at the time, was hired based on his excelled musical ability and people skills.",
"#### Move to LA",
"Fitz got his professional start at age 15, playing in various Winnipeg clubs and outlying areas in a cover band named New Alliance. After graduating high school, he formed the band Seventh Heaven with two local musicians and two Los Angeles natives that had recently relocated to Winnipeg.{{cite news\n\\|url\\=http://www.maidenfans.com/index.php?ACT\\=module\\&name\\=rwnews\\&area\\=article\\&nid\\=1845\\|title\\=Maidenfans.com – Interview with Chris Jericho}} After several years of touring, Brent formed another band with Seventh Heaven's guitarist, which evolved into Shake Naked.{{cite news\n\\|url\\= http://members.ozemail.com.au/\\~cruekiss/97\\.htm\n\\|title\\= Paul Miles – Chronologically Crue\n\\|access\\-date\\= 2008\\-02\\-26\n\\|archive\\-date\\= 2014\\-02\\-28\n\\|archive\\-url\\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140228161349/http://members.ozemail.com.au/\\~cruekiss/97\\.htm\n\\|url\\-status\\= dead\n}} Of this period, his father related that 'we used to go to every gig he played in Winnipeg bars, ladies of the night would pass us, going through to go to the bathroom\". Schedules with Seventh Heaven and Shake Naked were much more extensive and involved touring most of [Canada](/wiki/Canada \"Canada\"). In 1993, Fitz joined Kenny Shields from the band [Streetheart](/wiki/Streetheart_%28band%29 \"Streetheart (band)\") and toured across Canada for the next three years. In 1996, while attending the NAMM music trade show in Anaheim, California, connections to the city of [Los Angeles](/wiki/Los_Angeles \"Los Angeles\") within the band Seventh Heaven, allowed Fitz to have the opportunity to seek work in that market as a performer and session player.",
"Working with previous Shake Naked vocalist Lenita Erickson later proved fruitful as Erickson's friend [Bruce Kulick](/wiki/Bruce_Kulick \"Bruce Kulick\") of [Kiss](/wiki/Kiss_%28band%29 \"Kiss (band)\") fame invited Fitz to join him in a recording effort after first hearing him play piano, and later seeing him play drums at The Roxy in Hollywood, with former [Duran Duran](/wiki/Duran_Duran \"Duran Duran\") singer, [Lamya](/wiki/Lamya \"Lamya\") . That band would become known as [Union](/wiki/Union_%28band%29 \"Union (band)\"){{cite news\n\\|url\\=http://hometown.aol.com/kissunderground2/brentfitzinterview.html\n\\|title\\=kissunderground – Interview with Brent Fitz\n\\|access\\-date\\=2008\\-02\\-27\n\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20050310142601/http://hometown.aol.com/kissunderground2/brentfitzinterview.html\n\\|archive\\-date\\=2005\\-03\\-10\n\\|url\\-status\\=dead\n}} and would also include [John Corabi](/wiki/John_Corabi \"John Corabi\") on vocals (formerly of [The Scream](/wiki/The_Scream_%28band%29 \"The Scream (band)\") and [Mötley Crüe](/wiki/M%C3%B6tley_Cr%C3%BCe \"Mötley Crüe\")), [James Hunting](/wiki/James_Hunting \"James Hunting\") of [David Lee Roth](/wiki/David_Lee_Roth \"David Lee Roth\") on bass, with Kulick on guitar. This four\\-piece released their self\\-titled debut in 1998\\.Discogs.com [listing](http://www.discogs.com/Union-Union/release/3233499) of the (re\\-)release with credits. A live record titled \"Live In The Galaxy\" was released in 1999, and the band recorded a second album titled \"The Blue Room\" that was released in February, 2000\\.",
"#### Vince Neil",
"In September 2000, Fitz briefly joined the [Bulletboys](/wiki/Bulletboys \"Bulletboys\") on tour in support of their Best Of collection,[Listing](http://www.rockdetector.com/artist/united+states/california/los+angeles/bulletboys) and overview of members and former members of the band. and recorded several new songs at Cherokee Studios in Los Angeles with famed Led Zeppelin producer, Andy Johns. Soon after, he also toured and recorded with [Gilby Clarke](/wiki/Gilby_Clarke \"Gilby Clarke\"), and recorded drum tracks for the Slimmer Twins album Lack Of Luxury, featuring Kix guitarist Ronnie Younkins.The Slimmer Twin [bio](http://slimmertwins.com/bio.html) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827105522/http://slimmertwins.com/bio.html \\|date\\=August 27, 2011 }}, indicating he played on their album Lack of Luxury (2000\\).[Credited](http://www.discogs.com/Gilby-Clarke-Swag/release/1826915) on the song 'Warm Country Sun' featured on the Gilby Clarke album *Swag* (March 2002\\). In early 2001, Fitz received an invitation to tour with [Vince Neil](/wiki/Vince_Neil \"Vince Neil\") who re\\-released his two solo\\-records that summer.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://idobi.com/news/2001/05/motley\\-crues\\-vince\\-neil\\-to\\-reissue\\-two\\-albums\\-on\\-beyond\\-musicvns\\-records/\\|title \\= Motley Crue's Vince Neil to Re\\-issue two albums on Beyond Music/VNS Records\\|date \\= May 14, 2001\\|access\\-date \\= October 5, 2014\\|website \\= idobi.com\\|last \\= Fiasco\\|first \\= Lance}} Performing on several international tours, and recorded the album \"Live At The Whisky\" in 2002\\.Allmusic.com listing of the [album](http://www.discogs.com/Gilby-Clarke-Swag/release/1826915). In the same year he joined Neil for the [Rock Never Stops](/wiki/Rock_Never_Stops_Tour \"Rock Never Stops Tour\") Tour from may through to July,Tourdates [listing](http://www.knac.com/article.asp?ArticleID=745) {{webarchive \\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006223723/http://www.knac.com/article.asp?ArticleID\\=745 \\|date\\=October 6, 2014 }} with (promo) details on KNAC.com. followed by a support slot for [Poison](/wiki/Poison_%28American_band%29 \"Poison (American band)\") in 2003\\.Blabbermouth.net [news item](http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/poison-vince-neil-skid-row-first-tour-dates-announced/) from March 5, 2003\\. He continued to feature with Neil on tour, although the imminent Mötley Crüe reunion at the end of 2004 put the band on hiatus.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.mtv.com/news/1480624/motley\\-crue\\-reuniting\\-for\\-tour\\-possible\\-lp\\-tommy\\-vince\\-have\\-yet\\-to\\-speak/\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140625041419/http://www.mtv.com/news/1480624/motley\\-crue\\-reuniting\\-for\\-tour\\-possible\\-lp\\-tommy\\-vince\\-have\\-yet\\-to\\-speak/\\|url\\-status \\= dead\\|archive\\-date \\= June 25, 2014\\|title \\= Motley Crue Reuniting For Tour, Possible LP; Tommy, Vince Have Yet To Speak.\\|date \\= November 24, 2003\\|access\\-date \\= October 5, 2014\\|website \\= MTV.com\\|publisher \\= Viacom\\|last \\= Kaufman\\|first \\= Gil}}",
"#### Alice Cooper",
"In the first half of 2005 Fitz joined the Canadian band [Theory of a Deadman](/wiki/Theory_of_a_Deadman \"Theory of a Deadman\") as the band embarked on tour to support the album \"Gasoline\".{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.billboard.com/artist/419497/theory\\-deadman/biography\\|title \\= Theory of a Deadman: Biography\\|date \\= 2012\\|access\\-date \\= October 7, 2014\\|website \\= Billboard.com\\|publisher \\= Rovi\\|last \\= Rivadavia\\|first \\= Eduardo\\|archive\\-date \\= July 27, 2014\\|archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20140727143533/http://www.billboard.com/artist/419497/theory\\-deadman/biography\\|url\\-status \\= dead}} The band had fired their original drummer Tim Hart, while Robin Diaz played the parts on the album. According to guitarist David Brenner, Fitz is 'a music theory nut' who also contributed backing vocals and piano. He was 'able to come in and play these other guys' parts and really make them his own'.{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.ultimate\\-guitar.com/interviews/interviews/theory\\_of\\_a\\_deadman\\_rock\\_n\\_roll\\_quality.html\\|title \\= Theory Of A Deadman: Rock N' Roll Quality\\|date \\= September 28, 2006\\|access\\-date \\= October 7, 2014\\|website \\= Ultimate\\-Guitar.com\\|last \\= Rosen\\|first \\= Steven}} Fitz appeared in four music videos with the band, and made several TV appearances including [The Tonight Show with Jay Leno](/wiki/The_Tonight_Show_with_Jay_Leno \"The Tonight Show with Jay Leno\").",
"In July 2006, while still touring with Theory of a Deadman, Fitz temporarily left the band to tour with [Alice Cooper](/wiki/Alice_Cooper \"Alice Cooper\"), filling in on drums for [Eric Singer](/wiki/Eric_Singer \"Eric Singer\") while Singer was touring with [Kiss](/wiki/Kiss_%28band%29 \"Kiss (band)\").Blabbermouth.net News [item](http://www.blabbermouth.net/news/drummer-brent-fitz-to-play-more-dates-with-alice-cooper/). Later that year, Fitz toured the US with Mato Nanji as [Indigenous](/wiki/Indigenous_%28band%29 \"Indigenous (band)\") in support of the album *Chasing the Sun*.{{Cite web\\|url \\= https://www.mcall.com/2006/10/12/waidestock\\-is\\-hip\\-deep\\-in\\-punk\\-emo\\-and\\-rock\\-bands/\\|title \\= Waidestock! is hip deep in punk, emo and rock bands (p. 2\\)\\|date \\= October 12, 2006\\|access\\-date \\= October 7, 2014\\|website \\= The Morning Call\\|last \\= Righi\\|first \\= Len}} He also took part in the sessions for the [Harlequin](/wiki/Harlequin_%28band%29 \"Harlequin (band)\") album *Waking the Jester* released in 2007\\.Allmusic.com [credits](http://www.allmusic.com/album/waking-the-jester-mw0001104442/credits) for the album.",
"In 2007, Fitz recorded with the recently reformed Canadian rock act [Econoline Crush](/wiki/Econoline_Crush \"Econoline Crush\") on the album *[Ignite](/wiki/Ignite_%28Econoline_Crush_album%29 \"Ignite (Econoline Crush album)\")*.Allmusic.com [credits](http://www.allmusic.com/album/ignite-mw0001641221/credits) for the Ignite album. He subsequently became a permanent member of the band, while still remaining as regular back\\-up drummer with [Alice Cooper](/wiki/Alice_Cooper \"Alice Cooper\").Bravewords.com news\\-item on his participation in the Australian tour. Dates May 13, 2007\\. Fitz appeared in the video for the Econoline Crush hit song \"Dirty\".",
"#### Bruce Kulick",
"In 2009, Fitz joined the Las Vegas\\-based production of 'Monster Circus' as keyboardist/guitarist/vocalist. Monster Circus performed at The Hilton Hotel and Casino in [Las Vegas](/wiki/Las_Vegas_Strip \"Las Vegas Strip\"), Nevada. The band featured [Dee Snider](/wiki/Dee_Snider \"Dee Snider\") of [Twisted Sister](/wiki/Twisted_Sister \"Twisted Sister\"), bassist [Rudy Sarzo](/wiki/Rudy_Sarzo \"Rudy Sarzo\"), guitarist Tony Montana of [Great White](/wiki/Great_White_%28band%29 \"Great White (band)\"), guitarist [Dave Kushner](/wiki/Dave_Kushner \"Dave Kushner\") from [Velvet Revolver](/wiki/Velvet_Revolver \"Velvet Revolver\"), and [John Corabi](/wiki/John_Corabi \"John Corabi\") and [Bruce Kulick](/wiki/Bruce_Kulick \"Bruce Kulick\") (from Fitz's former band Union).",
"In June 2009, Fitz appeared on the television show [Gene Simmons Family Jewels](/wiki/Gene_Simmons_Family_Jewels \"Gene Simmons Family Jewels\") (season 4, episode 2: Memphis Blues); he and [Bruce Kulick](/wiki/Bruce_Kulick \"Bruce Kulick\") helped with some recording studio work [Gene Simmons](/wiki/Gene_Simmons \"Gene Simmons\") arranged for his son [Nick's](/wiki/Nick_Simmons \"Nick Simmons\") musical aspirations. Fitz also recorded drums for most of the tracks on Kulick's 2010 album release *BK3*, including tracks featuring guest artists [Gene Simmons](/wiki/Gene_Simmons \"Gene Simmons\"), Nick Simmons, [John Corabi](/wiki/John_Corabi \"John Corabi\"), and [Doug Fieger](/wiki/Doug_Fieger \"Doug Fieger\") of [The Knack](/wiki/The_Knack \"The Knack\"). Fitz appeared on a second episode in June 2010, this time performing live with Bruce Kulick and Nick Simmons at The Cat Club in Hollywood, California.",
"#### Slash",
"In March 2010, Fitz became drummer for then\\-former [Guns N' Roses](/wiki/Guns_N%27_Roses \"Guns N' Roses\")/[Velvet Revolver](/wiki/Velvet_Revolver \"Velvet Revolver\") guitarist [Slash](/wiki/Slash_%28musician%29 \"Slash (musician)\").{{Cite web\\|url \\= http://www.musicradar.com/rhythm/brent\\-fitz\\-talks\\-slash\\-grohl\\-freese\\-and\\-more\\-260744\\|title \\= Brent Fitz talks Slash, Grohl, Freese and more\\|date \\= July 9, 2010\\|access\\-date \\= October 5, 2014\\|website \\= Musicradar.com\\|last \\= Chamberlain\\|first \\= Rich}} The band which also features [Alter Bridge](/wiki/Alter_Bridge \"Alter Bridge\") singer [Myles Kennedy](/wiki/Myles_Kennedy \"Myles Kennedy\"), eventually became known as Slash Featuring Myles Kennedy and The Conspirators, and released four albums: 'Apocalyptic Love' in 2012, 'World on Fire' in 2014, 'Living The Dream' in 2018, and '4' in 2022\\. Four live albums have been recorded also, 'Live in Manchester' in 2010, 'Made in Stoke' 2011, 'Live at The Roxy' in 2015, and Living the Dream Tour in 2019\\. With the band, Fitz has performed on several US talk shows in including: The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Jimmy Fallon, Jimmy Kimmel, Ellen, Conan (twice), Lopez Tonight (twice) and The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson, as well as performed live on Howard Stern. Fitz also appeared in several music videos including 'By The Sword', 'Back From Cali', 'Beautiful Dangerous' featuring [Fergie](/wiki/Fergie_%28singer%29 \"Fergie (singer)\"), 'You're A Lie', 'Bad Rain' and 'Anastasia'. The band has two \\#1 singles on the US Active Rock charts: 'You're A Lie', and 'World on Fire', as well as two top 5 songs: 'Standing In The Sun' and 'Bent to Fly' (which spent over 27 weeks on the chart). The band headlined the 2014 MTV Euro Awards in Glasgow, Scotland, playing 'Crazy Train', with a tribute to [Ozzy Osbourne](/wiki/Ozzy_Osbourne \"Ozzy Osbourne\"), who received the lifetime achievement award from MTV.",
""
] |
History
-------
{{Main\|History of Rijeka\|\|Timeline of Rijeka}}
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Historical affiliations
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\[\[Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102\)\|Kingdom of Croatia]] pre\-1102\.
\[\[Croatia in personal union with Hungary\|Kingdom of Croatia]]\-\[\[Kingdom of Hungary]]:1102–1466
{{flagicon image\|Banner of the Holy Roman Emperor with haloes (1400\-1806\).svg}} \[\[Holy Roman Empire]] (\[\[Habsburg monarchy]]), 1466–1809
{{flagicon image\|Flag of France (1794–1815, 1830–1974, 2020–present).svg}} \[\[First French Empire]], 1809–1814
{{flagicon image\|Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg}} \[\[Austrian Empire]], 1814–1867
{{flagicon image\|Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg}} \[\[Austria\-Hungary]] ({{flagicon image\|Flag of Hungary (1915\-1918; angels; 3\-2 aspect ratio).svg}} \[\[Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen\|Transleithania]]), 1867–1918
{{flagicon image\|Ensign of the Regency of Carnaro (1920\).svg}} \[\[Italian Regency of Carnaro]], 1919–1920
{{flagicon image\|Flag of the Free State of Fiume.svg}} \[\[Free State of Fiume]], 1920–1924
{{flagicon image\|Flag of Italy (1861\-1946\) crowned.svg}} \[\[Kingdom of Italy]], 1924–1943
{{flagicon image\|Flag of Germany (1935–1945\).svg}} \[\[Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral\|OZAK]], 1943–1945
{{flag\|SFR Yugoslavia\|name\=Yugoslavia}} ({{flag\|SR Croatia\|name\=SR Croatia}}), 1945–1991
{{flag\|Croatia}}, 1991–present
}}
### Ancient and Medieval times
[thumb\|left\|The Roman [arch](/wiki/Arch "Arch") (Rimski luk), the oldest architectural monument in Rijeka and an entrance to the old town](/wiki/File:Rijeka_Brama_rzymska.jpg "Rijeka Brama rzymska.jpg")
[200px\|thumb\|upright\|left\|[Trsat Castle](/wiki/Trsat_Castle "Trsat Castle") lies at the exact spot of an ancient Illyrian and Roman fortress.](/wiki/File:Rijeka%2C_Croatia_-_panoramio_%289%29.jpg "Rijeka, Croatia - panoramio (9).jpg")
Though traces of [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic "Neolithic") settlements can be found in the region, the earliest modern settlements on the site were [Celtic](/wiki/Celt "Celt") **Tharsatica** (modern [Trsat](/wiki/Trsat "Trsat"), now part of Rijeka) on the hill, and the tribe of mariners, the [Liburni](/wiki/Liburni "Liburni"), in the natural harbour below. The city long retained its dual character. Rijeka was first mentioned in the 1st century AD by [Pliny the Elder](/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder "Pliny the Elder") as Tarsatica in his *[Natural History](/wiki/Natural_History_%28Pliny%29 "Natural History (Pliny)")* (iii.140\).{{cite web\|url\=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny\_the\_Elder/3\*.html\|title\=Pliny the Elder: the Natural History, Liber III\|publisher\=University of Chicago\|access\-date\=12 July 2019\|archive\-date\=23 September 2023\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923024415/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny\_the\_Elder/3%2A.html\|url\-status\=live}} Rijeka (Tarsatica) is again mentioned around AD 150 by the Greek geographer and astronomer [Ptolemy](/wiki/Ptolemy "Ptolemy") in his [Geography](/wiki/Geography_%28Ptolemy%29 "Geography (Ptolemy)") when describing the "Location of Illyria or Liburnia, and of Dalmatia" (Fifth Map of Europe).{{cite web \|url\=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/\_Texts/Ptolemy/2/15\*.html \|title\=The Geography of Claudius Ptolemy, Book II, Chapter 15 \|publisher\=University of Chicago \|access\-date\=15 February 2020 \|archive\-date\=23 September 2023 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923024416/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/\_Texts/Ptolemy/2/15%2A.html \|url\-status\=live }} In the time of [Augustus](/wiki/Augustus "Augustus"), the [Romans](/wiki/Roman_Empire "Roman Empire") rebuilt Tarsatica as a *[municipium](/wiki/Municipium "Municipium")* **Flumen** (MacMullen 2000\), situated on the right bank of the small river Rječina (whose name means "the big river"). It became a city within the Roman Province of [Dalmatia](/wiki/Dalmatia_%28Roman_province%29 "Dalmatia (Roman province)") until the 6th century. In this period the city is part of the [Liburnia](/wiki/Liburnia "Liburnia") limes (system of walls and fortifications against raiding Barbarians). Remains of these walls are still visible in some places today.
[thumb\|right\|The [Baroque](/wiki/Baroque "Baroque") city clock tower above the arched gateway linking the *Korzo* to the inner city, designed by Filbert Bazarig in 1876](/wiki/File:Rijekacitytowernight.jpg "Rijekacitytowernight.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|Main street Korzo](/wiki/File:Rijeka_Korzo_in_July_2023.jpg "Rijeka Korzo in July 2023.jpg")
After the 4th century Rijeka was rededicated to [St. Vitus](/wiki/St._Vitus "St. Vitus"), the city's [patron saint](/wiki/Patron_saint "Patron saint"), as *Terra Fluminis sancti Sancti Viti* or in German *Sankt Veit am Pflaum*. From the 5th century onwards, the town was ruled successively by the [Ostrogoths](/wiki/Ostrogoths "Ostrogoths"), the [Byzantines](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire "Byzantine Empire"), the [Lombards](/wiki/Lombards "Lombards"), and the [Avars](/wiki/Pannonian_Avars "Pannonian Avars"). The city was burned down in 452 by the troops of [Attila](/wiki/Attila "Attila") the Hun as part of their [Aquileia](/wiki/Sack_of_Aquileia "Sack of Aquileia") campaign.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.matica.hr/vijenac/175/Rije%C4%8Dki%20ljetopis/ \|title\=Riječki Ljetopis (Rijeka Chronicle) \- in Croatian \|publisher\=Matica Hrvatska \|access\-date\=15 February 2020 \|archive\-date\=17 January 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117005132/http://www.matica.hr/vijenac/175/Rije%C4%8Dki%20ljetopis/ \|url\-status\=live }} [Croats](/wiki/Croats "Croats") settled the city starting in the 7th century giving it the Croatian name, *Rika svetoga Vida* ("the river of Saint Vitus"). At the time, Rijeka was a feudal stronghold surrounded by a wall. At the center of the city, its highest point, was a fortress.
In 799 Rijeka was attacked by the [Frankish](/wiki/Franks "Franks") troops of [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne "Charlemagne"). Their [Siege of Trsat](/wiki/Siege_of_Trsat "Siege of Trsat") was at first repulsed, during which the Frankish commander Duke [Eric of Friuli](/wiki/Eric_of_Friuli "Eric of Friuli") was killed. However, the Frankish forces finally occupied and devastated the castle, while the [Duchy of Croatia](/wiki/Duchy_of_Croatia "Duchy of Croatia") passed under the overlordship of the [Carolingian Empire](/wiki/Carolingian_Empire "Carolingian Empire"). From about 925, the town was part of the [Kingdom of Croatia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_%28925%E2%80%931102%29 "Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)"), from 1102 [in personal union with Hungary](/wiki/Croatia_in_the_union_with_Hungary "Croatia in the union with Hungary"). Trsat Castle and the town was rebuilt under the rule of the [House of Frankopan](/wiki/House_of_Frankopan "House of Frankopan"). In 1288 the Rijeka citizens signed the [Law codex of Vinodol](/wiki/Law_codex_of_Vinodol "Law codex of Vinodol"), one of the oldest codes of law in Europe.
In the period from about 1300 to 1466 Rijeka was ruled by a number of noble families, the most prominent of which was the German [Walsee family](/wiki/Walsee_family "Walsee family"). Rijeka even rivalled [Venice](/wiki/Republic_of_Venice "Republic of Venice") when in it was sold by Rambert II Walsee to the [Habsburg](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg "House of Habsburg") emperor [Frederick III](/wiki/Frederick_III%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor"), [Archduke of Austria](/wiki/Archduchy_of_Austria "Archduchy of Austria") in 1466\. It would remain under Austrian Habsburg rule for over 450 years (except for a brief period of French rule between 1809 and 1813\) until the end of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I") in 1918 when it was occupied by Croatian and subsequently by Italian irregulars.
### Under Habsburg rule
[thumb\|left\|Rijeka and Trsat](/wiki/File:Valvasor_-_Reka.jpg "Valvasor - Reka.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|River [Rječina](/wiki/Rje%C4%8Dina "Rječina") in city center](/wiki/File:RijekaRiver0.jpg "RijekaRiver0.jpg")
Austrian presence on the Adriatic Sea was seen as a threat by the [Republic of Venice](/wiki/Republic_of_Venice "Republic of Venice") and during the [War of the League of Cambrai](/wiki/War_of_the_League_of_Cambrai "War of the League of Cambrai") the Venetians raided and devastated the city with great loss of life in 1508 and again in 1509\. The city did however recover and remain under Austrian rule. For its fierce resistance to the Venetians it received the title of the "most loyal city" ("fidelissimum oppidium") as well as commercial privileges from the Austrian emperor [Maximilian I](/wiki/Maximilian_I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor") in 1515\.{{cite web \|url\=https://issuu.com/vedranaspadonitefanic/docs/klen \|title\=Danilo Klen: Stoljeće I Pol Prilika I Neprilika U Rijeci. I Oko Nje (1465\-1627\) \- Croatian \|date\=13 April 2016 \|publisher\=Historijski zbornik, god. XLI (1\), str. 17\-26 (1988\) Izvorni znanstveni članak UDK 949\.713 «14/16 \|access\-date\=12 February 2021 \|archive\-date\=18 December 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218223233/https://issuu.com/vedranaspadonitefanic/docs/klen \|url\-status\=live }} While [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Wars_in_Europe "Ottoman Wars in Europe") forces attacked the town several times, they never occupied it. From the 16th century onwards, Rijeka's present [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance_architecture "Renaissance architecture") and [Baroque](/wiki/Baroque_architecture "Baroque architecture") style started to take shape. Emperor [Charles VI](/wiki/Charles_VI%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor "Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor") declared the [Port of Rijeka](/wiki/Port_of_Rijeka "Port of Rijeka") a [free port](/wiki/Free_port "Free port") (together with the [Port of Trieste](/wiki/Port_of_Trieste "Port of Trieste")) in 1719 and had the trade route to Vienna expanded in 1725\.
On November 28, 1750 Rijeka was hit by a large earthquake. The devastation was so widespread that the city had to be almost completely rebuilt. In 1753, the Austrian Empress [Maria Theresa](/wiki/Maria_Theresa "Maria Theresa") approved the funding for rebuilding Rijeka as a "new city" ("Civitas nova"). The rebuilt Rijeka was significantly different \- it was transformed from a small medieval walled town into a larger commercial and maritime city centered around its port.{{cite web \|url\=http://fluminensia.org/potres\-1750\-promijenio\-lice\-rijeke \|title\=Goran Moravček: Potres 1750\. promijenio lice Rijeke \- Croatian \|date\=28 November 2012 \|publisher\=fluminensia.org \|access\-date\=12 February 2021 \|archive\-date\=22 January 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122211356/http://fluminensia.org/potres\-1750\-promijenio\-lice\-rijeke \|url\-status\=live }}
By order of Maria Theresa in 1779, the city was annexed to the [Kingdom of Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_%281526%E2%80%931867%29 "Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)") and governed as [*corpus separatum*](/wiki/Corpus_separatum_%28Fiume%29 "Corpus separatum (Fiume)") directly from Budapest by an appointed governor, as Hungary's only international port. From 1804, Rijeka was part of the [Austrian Empire](/wiki/Austrian_Empire "Austrian Empire") ([Kingdom of Croatia\-Slavonia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia-Slavonia "Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia") after the [Compromise of 1867](/wiki/Compromise_of_1867 "Compromise of 1867")), in the Croatia\-Slavonia province.Handbook of Austria and Lombardy\-Venetia Cancellations on the Postage Stamp Issues 1850–1864, by Edwin Mueller, 1961\.
During the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars "Napoleonic Wars"), Rijeka was briefly captured by the [French Empire](/wiki/First_French_Empire "First French Empire") and included in the [Illyrian Provinces](/wiki/Illyrian_Provinces "Illyrian Provinces"). During the French rule, between 1809 and 1813, the critically important [Louisiana road](/wiki/Louisiana_road_%28Croatia%29 "Louisiana road (Croatia)") was completed (named after [Napoleon's](/wiki/Napoleon "Napoleon") wife [Marie Louise](/wiki/Marie_Louise%2C_Duchess_of_Parma "Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma")). The road was the shortest route from Rijeka to the interior ([Karlovac](/wiki/Karlovac "Karlovac")) and gave a strong impulse to the development of Rijeka's port. In 1813 the French rule came to an end when Rijeka was first bombarded by the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy "Royal Navy") and later re\-captured by the Austrians under the command of the Irish general [Laval Nugent von Westmeath](/wiki/Laval_Nugent_von_Westmeath "Laval Nugent von Westmeath").Antoljak, Stjepan. "Prekosavska Hrvatska i pitanje njene reinkorporacije (1813 \- 1822\)", in Stjepan Antoljak, Stjepan. 1994\. *Hrvati u povijesti*, Split, Književni krug, 1992\. (in Croatian) The British bombardment has an interesting side story. The city was apparently saved from annihilation by a young lady named Karolina Belinić who \- amid the chaos and destruction of the bombardment \- went to the English fleet commander and convinced him that further bombardment of the city was unnecessary (the small French garrison was quickly defeated and left the city). The legend of Karolina is warmly remembered by the population even today. She became a folk hero Karolina Riječka (Caroline of Rijeka) and has been celebrated in plays, movies and even in a rock opera.{{cite web \|url\=https://croatia.hr/en\-GB/experiences/culture\-and\-heritage/legends/caroline\-the\-woman\-who\-saved\-rijeka \|title\=Caroline, the Woman Who Saved Rijeka \|publisher\=croatia.hr \|access\-date\=12 February 2021 \|archive\-date\=29 October 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029105051/https://croatia.hr/en\-GB/experiences/culture\-and\-heritage/legends/caroline\-the\-woman\-who\-saved\-rijeka \|url\-status\=live }}
In the early 19th century, the most prominent economical and cultural leader of the city was [Andrija Ljudevit Adamić](/wiki/Andrija_Ljudevit_Adami%C4%87 "Andrija Ljudevit Adamić"). Fiume also had a significant naval base, and in the mid\-19th century it became the site of the Austro\-Hungarian Naval Academy (K.u.K. Marine\-Akademie), where the [Austro\-Hungarian Navy](/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Navy "Austro-Hungarian Navy") trained its officers.
### Hungarian Crown
During the [Hungarian revolution of 1848](/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848 "Hungarian Revolution of 1848"), when Hungary tried to gain independence from Austria, Rijeka was captured by the Croatian troops (loyal to Austria) commanded by [Ban](/wiki/Ban_of_Croatia "Ban of Croatia") [Josip Jelačić](/wiki/Josip_Jela%C4%8Di%C4%87 "Josip Jelačić"). The city was then annexed directly to Croatia, although it did keep a degree of autonomy.{{cite web\|url\=https://povijest.hr/nadanasnjidan/ban\-josip\-jelacic\-postao\-guvernerom\-rijeke\-1848/\|title\=Ban Josip Jelačić postao guvernerom Rijeke (1848\.)\|date\=December 2021\|access\-date\=12 February 2021\|archive\-date\=24 January 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124182054/https://povijest.hr/nadanasnjidan/ban\-josip\-jelacic\-postao\-guvernerom\-rijeke\-1848/\|url\-status\=live}}
[Giovanni de Ciotta](/wiki/Giovanni_de_Ciotta "Giovanni de Ciotta") (mayor from 1872 to 1896\) proved to be an authoritative local political leader. Under his leadership, an impressive phase of expansion of the city started, marked by major port development, fuelled by the general expansion of international trade and the city's connection (1873\) to the Austro\-Hungarian railway network. Modern industrial and commercial enterprises such as the Royal Hungarian Sea Navigation Company "[Adria](/wiki/Adria%2C_Rijeka "Adria, Rijeka")", a rival shipping company the Ungaro\-Croata (established in 1891\) and the Smith and Meynier paper mill (which operated the first steam engine in south\-east Europe), situated in the Rječina canyon, producing cigarette paper sold around the world.
The second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century (up to World War I) was a period of great prosperity, rapid economic growth and technological dynamism for Rijeka. Many authors and witnesses describe Rijeka of this time as a rich, tolerant, well\-to\-do town which offered a good standard of living, with endless possibilities for making one's fortune. The Pontifical Delegate Celso Costantini noted in his diary "the religious indifference and apathy of the town". The further industrial development of the city included the first industrial scale oil refinery in Europe in 1882{{cite web \|url\=https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/122737 \|title\=Rafinerija nafte Rijeka – europski pionir u preradi crnog zlata \|page\=116 \|website\=\[\[Hrčak]] \|access\-date\=12 February 2021 \|archive\-date\=31 July 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731123540/https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/122737 \|url\-status\=live }} and the first [torpedo](/wiki/Torpedo "Torpedo") factory in the world in 1866, after [Robert Whitehead](/wiki/Robert_Whitehead "Robert Whitehead"), manager of the "[Stabilimento Tecnico Fiumano](/wiki/Stabilimento_Tecnico_Fiumano "Stabilimento Tecnico Fiumano")" (an Austrian engineering company engaged in providing engines for the Austro\-Hungarian Navy), designed and successfully tested the world's first torpedo. In addition to the Whitehead torpedo factory, which opened in 1874, the oil refinery (1882\) and the paper mill, many other industrial and commercial enterprises were established or expanded in these years. These include a rice husking and starch factory (one of the largest in the world), a wood and furniture company, a wheat elevator and mill, the Ganz\-Danubius shipbuilding industries, a cocoa and chocolate factory, a brick factory, a tobacco factory (the largest in the Monarchy), a cognac distillery, a pasta factory, the Ossoinack barrel and chest factory, a large tannery, five foundries and many others.{{cite journal \|last\=Fried \|first\=Fiona \|year\=2020 \|title\='Out to Sea, Hungarians!' History, Myth, Memories. Fiume 1868–1945 \|journal\=Spiegelungen. Zeitschrift für deutsche Kultur und Geschichte Südosteuropas \|number\=1 \|volume\=15 \|pages\=99–109 \|url\=https://spiegelungen.net/out\-to\-sea\-hungarians }} At the beginning of the 20th century more than half of the industrial capacity in Croatia (which was at that time mostly agrarian) was located in Rijeka.{{cite web \|url\=https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/122737 \|title\=Rafinerija nafte Rijeka – europski pionir u preradi crnog zlata, page 114\. \|website\=\[\[Hrčak]] \|access\-date\=12 February 2021 \|archive\-date\=31 July 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731123540/https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/122737 \|url\-status\=live }}
Rijeka's Austro\-Hungarian Marine Academy became a pioneering centre for [high\-speed photography](/wiki/High-speed_photography "High-speed photography"). The Austrian physicist Peter Salcher working in the Academy took the first photograph of a bullet flying at supersonic speed in 1886, devising a technique that was later used by [Ernst Mach](/wiki/Ernst_Mach "Ernst Mach") in his studies of supersonic motion.Peter Salcher und Ernst Mach, [Schlierenfotografie von Überschall\-Projektilen](http://www.univie.ac.at/pluslucis/PlusLucis/031/s22.pdf) {{Webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106054333/http://www.univie.ac.at/pluslucis/PlusLucis/031/s22\.pdf \|date\=6 January 2012 }}, W. Gerhard Pohl, Universität Wien, Plus Lucis 2/2002 – 1/2003, ISSN 1606\-3015 (in German)
[thumb\|Casa Veneziana in Rijeka](/wiki/File:Casa_Veneziana_Rijeka.jpg "Casa Veneziana Rijeka.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|Leaning Tower](/wiki/File:Church_at_Dusk_in_Rijeka%2C_Croatia_2011.jpg "Church at Dusk in Rijeka, Croatia 2011.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|Saint Vitus cathedral](/wiki/File:Rijeka_Saint_Vitus_cathedral_front.jpg "Rijeka Saint Vitus cathedral front.jpg")
[thumb\|right\|[Jadrolinija](/wiki/Jadrolinija "Jadrolinija") headquarters](/wiki/File:Jadrolinija_Palaca_Jadran_Rijeka2.jpg "Jadrolinija Palaca Jadran Rijeka2.jpg")
Rijeka's port underwent tremendous development fuelled by generous Hungarian investments, becoming the main maritime outlet for Hungary and the eastern part of the [Austro\-Hungarian Empire](/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire "Austro-Hungarian Empire"). By 1913–14, the port of Fiume became the tenth\-busiest port in Europe. The population grew rapidly from only 21,000 in 1880 to 50,000 in 1910\. Major civic buildings constructed at this time include the Governor's Palace, designed by the Hungarian architect [Alajos Hauszmann](/wiki/Alajos_Hauszmann "Alajos Hauszmann"). There was an ongoing competition between Rijeka and Trieste, the main maritime outlet for Austria—reflecting the rivalry between the two components of the Dual Monarchy. The Austro\-Hungarian Navy sought to keep the balance by ordering new warships from the shipyards of both cities.
During this period{{When\|date\=May 2023\|reason\=To which period does this refer to? Every single census shows that in the early and mid\-19th century Rijeka had a Croat majority.}} the city had an Italian majority.{{Dubious\|date\=May 2023}} According to the census of 1880, in Rijeka there were 9,076 Italians, 7,991 Croats, 895 Germans and 383 Hungarians.Guerrino Perselli, I censimenti della popolazione dell'Istria, con Fiume e Trieste e di alcune città della Dalmazia tra il 1850 e il 1936, Centro di Ricerche Storiche \- Rovigno, Unione Italiana \- Fiume, Università Popolare di Trieste, Trieste\-Rovigno, 1993, pp. 429 Some historians claim that the city had a Slavic majority at the beginning of the 19th century, because the 1851 census reported a Croatian majority. However, this census is considered not very reliable by Italian historians.O.Mileta Mattiuz, Popolazioni dell'Istria, Fiume, Zara e Dalmazia (1850\-2002\). Ipotesi di quantificazione demografica, Trieste, ADES 2005 pp. 118 ss.; A.Depoli, Una statistica sorprendente, in Fiume, n. 3\-4, 1957, p. 180{{Better source needed\|reason\=The current source is insufficiently reliable (\[\[WP:NOTRS]]).\|date\=May 2023}}
At the last Austro\-Hungarian census in 1910, the *corpus separatum* had a population of 49,806 people and was composed of the following linguistic communities:{{cite web \|url\=http://konyvtar.ksh.hu/index.php?s\=kb\_statisztika \|title\=Magyar statisztikai közlemények (1–116\. kötet) \- in Hungarian \|publisher\=Hungarian Central Statistical Office \|access\-date\=8 March 2021 \|archive\-date\=9 March 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309190018/http://konyvtar.ksh.hu/index.php?s\=kb\_statisztika \|url\-status\=live }}
| **Languages in 1911** | 49,806 inhabitants | (100%) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| [Italian](/wiki/Italian_language "Italian language") | 23,283 | (46\.9%) |
| [Croatian](/wiki/Croatian_language "Croatian language") | 15,731 | (31\.7%) |
| [Slovenian](/wiki/Slovenian_language "Slovenian language") | 3,937 | (7\.9%) |
| [Hungarian](/wiki/Hungarian_language "Hungarian language") | 3,619 | (7\.3%) |
| [German](/wiki/German_language "German language") | 2,476 | (5\.0%) |
| [English](/wiki/English_language "English language") | 202 | (0\.4%) |
| [Czech](/wiki/Czech_language "Czech language") | 183 | (0\.3%) |
| [Serbian](/wiki/Serbian_language "Serbian language") | 70 | (0\.14%) |
| [French](/wiki/French_language "French language") | 40 | (0\.08%) |
| [Polish](/wiki/Polish_language "Polish language") | 36 | (0\.07%) |
| [Romanian](/wiki/Romanian_language "Romanian language") | 29 | (0\.06%) |
By religion, the census of 1910 indicates that \- from the total of 49,806 inhabitants \- there were 45,130 [Catholics](/wiki/Catholics "Catholics"), 1,696 [Jewish](/wiki/Jewish "Jewish"), 1,123 [Calvinist](/wiki/Calvinist "Calvinist"), 995 [Orthodox](/wiki/Eastern_orthodox "Eastern orthodox") and 311 [Lutheran](/wiki/Lutheran "Lutheran"). The Jewish population expanded rapidly, particularly in the 1870s\-1880s, and built a [large synagogue](/wiki/Rijeka_Synagogue "Rijeka Synagogue") in 1907 (which would be destroyed in 1944, during the German occupation, concurrent with the murder of most of the city's Jewish residents). On the eve of WWI, there were 165 inns, 10 hotels with restaurants, 17 cafés, 17 jewellers, 37 barbers and 265 tailor shops in Rijeka.
{{gallery
\|title\=Rijeka in early 20th century
\|mode\=packed
\|File:Rijeka tram old (3\).jpg\|\[\[Trams in Rijeka\|Tram in Rijeka]], L. Kossuth Street, c.1910
\|File:Fiume1900\-Roman Arch.jpg\|Rijeka, Roman Arch in the Old City, c.1900
\|File:Fiume1900\-Harbor.jpg\|Rijeka Harbor, c.1900
\|File:Fiume1900\-3\.jpg\|Rijeka \- Corso, c. 1900}}
### World War I
[thumb\|right\|Torpedo production in Rijeka, c. 1914](/wiki/File:Torpedo_production_in_Rijeka.jpg "Torpedo production in Rijeka.jpg")
World War I put an end to Rijeka's "golden era" of peace, stability and rapid economic growth. The city would never quite recover to the same level of prosperity. Initially there was a semblance of normalcy (the city was far from the frontlines), however \- a growing part of the male population started to be mobilized by the army and the navy. The city's war\-related industries continued to work full steam and contributed significantly to the Austro\-Hungarian war effort, especially to the navy. The shipyard [Ganz\-Danubius](/wiki/Ganz_Works "Ganz Works") produced a number of warships and submarines like the [U\-27\-class submarines](/wiki/U-27-class_submarine_%28Austria-Hungary%29 "U-27-class submarine (Austria-Hungary)"), the [Novara\-class cruisers](/wiki/Novara-class_cruiser "Novara-class cruiser"), the large battleship [SMS Szent István](/wiki/SMS_Szent_Istv%C3%A1n "SMS Szent István") and others. In total, between the early 1900s and 1918 the city's shipyards produced 1 battleship, 2 cruisers, 20 destroyers, 32 torpedo boats and 15 submarines for the navy.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.vecernji.hr/premium/usponi\-i\-padovi\-3\-maja\-nekad\-16\-na\-svijetu\-s\-prihodom\-od\-110\-milijuna\-dolara\-1352081 \|title\=Usponi i padovi 3\. maja: Nekad je bio 16\. na svijetu, s prihodom od 110 milijuna dolara \- Croatian \|publisher\=vecernji.hr \|access\-date\=28 May 2021 \|archive\-date\=2 June 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602212407/https://www.vecernji.hr/premium/usponi\-i\-padovi\-3\-maja\-nekad\-16\-na\-svijetu\-s\-prihodom\-od\-110\-milijuna\-dolara\-1352081 \|url\-status\=live }} Rijeka was also the main center for the production of torpedoes. However, a lot changed with the war becoming a protracted conflict and especially with the [Italian declaration of war on Austria\-Hungary](/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I "Italian entry into World War I") in May 1915\. This opened a [frontline](/wiki/Italian_front_%28World_War_I%29 "Italian front (World War I)") only 90 km from the city and caused a pervasive sense of anxiety among the large Italian population. Several hundred Italians, considered disloyal (enemy non\-combatants) by the authorities, were deported to camps in Hungary ([Tápiósüly](/wiki/S%C3%BClys%C3%A1p "Sülysáp") and [Kiskunhalas](/wiki/Kiskunhalas "Kiskunhalas")), where many died of malnutrition and diseases. The torpedo factory was attacked by the Italian [airship](/wiki/Rigid_airship "Rigid airship") "Citta\` di Novara" in 1915 (later shot down by Austrian hydroplanes) and suffered damages. As a consequence \- most of the torpedo production was moved to [Sankt Pölten](/wiki/Sankt_P%C3%B6lten "Sankt Pölten") in Austria, further away from the frontlines. The city was again attacked by Italian airplanes in 1916 and suffered minor damage. The Naval Academy ceased its activities and was converted to a war hospital (the ex\-naval academy buildings are still housing the city hospital to this day). On 10 February 1918 the Italian navy [raided the nearby bay of Bakar](/wiki/Bakar_mockery "Bakar mockery") causing little material damage but achieving a significant propaganda effect. As the war dragged on, the city's economy and the living standard of the population deteriorated rapidly. Due to a [maritime blockade](/wiki/Otranto_Barrage "Otranto Barrage"), the port traffic suffered a collapse \- from 2,892\.538 tons in 1913 (before the war) to only 330\.313 tons in 1918\. Many factories \- lacking manpower and/or raw materials \- reduced the production or simply closed. Shortages of food and other basic necessities became widespread. Even public safety became a problem with an increase in the number of thefts, violent incidents and war profiteering.{{cite web \|url\=https://hrcak.srce.hr/147658 \|title\=Markus Leideck:Crna kronika" (Kriminalfalle) in der Tageszeitung "Riečki novi list" Jahrgang 1914/1915 \- German, Croatian \|website\=\[\[Hrčak]] \|access\-date\=16 February 2021 \|archive\-date\=31 July 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731115141/https://hrcak.srce.hr/147658 \|url\-status\=live }} The crisis escalated on October 23, 1918, when the Croatian troops stationed in Rijeka (79th regiment) mutinied and temporarily took control of the city.{{cite journal \|url\=https://hrcak.srce.hr/49977 \|title\=Daniel Patafta:Economical Situation in Rijeka From 1918 to 1924 \- Croatian \|journal\=Ekonomska i Ekohistorija: Časopis za Gospodarsku Povijest i Povijest Okoliša \|date\=25 July 2005 \|volume\=1 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=115–137 \|via\=\[\[Hrčak]] \|access\-date\=12 February 2021 \|last1\=Patafta \|first1\=Daniel \|archive\-date\=31 July 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731125119/https://hrcak.srce.hr/49977 \|url\-status\=live }}Manfried Rauchensteiner:Prvi Svjetski Rat i Kraj Habsburške Monarhije 1914\-1918 \- in Croatian, Matica Hrvatska, Zagreb 2019, {{ISBN\|978\-953\-341\-102\-6}}, page 903\-904 Amid growing chaos, the [Austro\-Hungarian empire dissolved](/wiki/Dissolution_of_Austria-Hungary "Dissolution of Austria-Hungary") a few weeks later, on November 12, 1918, starting a long period of instability and uncertainty for the city.
### The "Fiume Question" and the Italian\-Yugoslav dispute
{{Main\|Fiume Question}}
[thumb\|left\|Residents of [Fiume](/wiki/Fiume "Fiume") cheering the arrival of [Gabriele D'Annunzio and his *Legionari*](/wiki/Impresa_di_Fiume "Impresa di Fiume") in September 1919, when Fiume had 22,488 (62% of the population) Italians in a total population of 35,839 inhabitants.](/wiki/File:Fiume_cheering_D%27Annunzio.jpg "Fiume cheering D'Annunzio.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|Trsat castle, south](/wiki/File:Ka%C5%A1tel_Trsat%2C_ju%C5%BEne_zidine_s_ulazom.jpg "Kaštel Trsat, južne zidine s ulazom.jpg")
Habsburg\-ruled Austria\-Hungary's disintegration in October 1918 during the closing weeks of World War I led to the establishment of rival Croatian\-Serbian and Italian administrations in the city; both Italy and the founders of the new [Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes](/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Serbs%2C_Croats_and_Slovenes "Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes") (later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia) claimed sovereignty based on their "[irredentist](/wiki/Irredentist "Irredentist")" ("unredeemed") ethnic populations.
{{Css Image Crop\|Image \= FIU\-S108\-Free State of Fiume (Provisional)\-10 Kronen (1920\).jpg\|bSize \= 220\|cWidth \= 220\|cHeight \= 118\|oTop \= 120\|oLeft \= 0\|Location \= right\|Description\={{center\|10 \[\[Fiume krone]] provisional banknote (1920\)}}}}
After a brief military occupation by the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, followed by the unilateral annexation of the former Corpus Separatum by Belgrade, an international force of British, Italian, French and American troops entered the city in November 1918\. Its future became a major [barrier to agreement](/wiki/Adriatic_Question "Adriatic Question") during the [Paris Peace Conference](/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference%2C_1919 "Paris Peace Conference, 1919") of 1919\. The US president Wilson even proposed to make Rijeka a free city and the headquarters of the newly formed [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations "League of Nations").Stanislav Krakov, Dolazak srpske vojske na Rijeku i severni Jadran, Beograd: *Jadranska Straza*,1928/29; The Arrival of the Serbian Army in Fiume and the Northern Adriatic{{cite journal \|title\=Gerthrude Slaughter: The Significance of Fiume \|journal\=The North American Review \|volume\=210 \|issue\=768 \|date\=November 1919 \|pages\=614–621 \|jstor\=25120377}}
[thumb\|right\|Location of the [Free State of Fiume](/wiki/Free_State_of_Fiume "Free State of Fiume") (1920–1924\)](/wiki/File:Free_State_of_Fiume_1920-1924.png "Free State of Fiume 1920-1924.png")
[thumb\|Adriatic Square and Adria Palace](/wiki/File:JadranskiTrgRijeka2.png "JadranskiTrgRijeka2.png")
The main problem arose from the fact that Rijeka was not assigned either to Italy or to Croatia (now Yugoslavia) in the [Treaty of London](/wiki/Treaty_of_London_%281915%29 "Treaty of London (1915)") which defined the post\-war borders in the area. It remained assigned to Austria\-Hungary because \- until the very end of WWI \- it was assumed that the Austro\-Hungarian empire would survive WWI in some form and Rijeka was to become its only seaport (Trieste was to be annexed by Italy). However, once the empire disintegrated, the status of the city became disputed. Italy based its claim on the fact that Italians comprised the largest single nationality within the city (46\.9% of the total population). Croats made up most of the remainder and were a majority in the surrounding area.[A. J. P. Taylor](/wiki/A._J._P._Taylor "A. J. P. Taylor"): The Habsburg Monarchy, 1809–1918, University of Chicago Press, Paperback edition, 1976, {{ISBN\|0\-226\-79145\-9}}, page 269 [Andrea Ossoinack](/wiki/Andrea_Ossoinack "Andrea Ossoinack"), who had been the last delegate from Fiume to the Hungarian Parliament, was admitted to the conference as a representative of Fiume, and essentially supported the Italian claims. Nevertheless, at this point the city had had for years a strong and very active Autonomist Party seeking for Rijeka a special independent status among nations as a multicultural Adriatic city. This movement even had its delegate at the Paris peace conference \- Ruggero Gotthardi.
### The Regency of Carnaro
{{Main\|Italian Regency of Carnaro}}
On 10 September 1919, the [Treaty of Saint\-Germain](/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_%281919%29 "Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)") was signed, declaring the Austro\-Hungarian monarchy dissolved. Negotiations over the future of the city were interrupted two days later when a force of Italian nationalist irregulars led by the poet [Gabriele D'Annunzio](/wiki/Gabriele_D%27Annunzio "Gabriele D'Annunzio") captured the city.Ledeen, Michael A. 1977\. The First Duce. D'Annunzio at Fiume, Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Because the Italian government, wishing to respect its international obligations, did not want to annex Fiume, D'Annunzio and the intellectuals at his side eventually established an independent state, the [Italian Regency of Carnaro](/wiki/Italian_Regency_of_Carnaro "Italian Regency of Carnaro"), a unique social experiment for the age and a revolutionary cultural experience in which various international intellectuals of diverse walks of life took part (like [Osbert Sitwell](/wiki/Osbert_Sitwell "Osbert Sitwell"), [Arturo Toscanini](/wiki/Arturo_Toscanini "Arturo Toscanini"), [Henry Furst](/wiki/Henry_Furst "Henry Furst"), [Filippo Tommaso Marinetti](/wiki/Filippo_Tommaso_Marinetti "Filippo Tommaso Marinetti"), [Harukichi Shimoi](/wiki/Harukichi_Shimoi "Harukichi Shimoi"), [Guglielmo Marconi](/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi "Guglielmo Marconi"), [Alceste De Ambris](/wiki/Alceste_De_Ambris "Alceste De Ambris"), [Whitney Warren](/wiki/Whitney_Warren "Whitney Warren") and Léon Kochnitzky).Ferdinando Gerra, L'impresa di Fiume, Longanesi, Milano, 1974
Among the many political experiments that took place during this experience, D'Annunzio and his men undertook a first attempt to establish a movement of non\-aligned nations in the so\-called [League of Fiume](/wiki/League_of_Fiume "League of Fiume"), an organisation antithetic to the Wilsonian League of Nations, which it saw as a means of perpetuating a corrupt and imperialist *status quo*. The organisation was aiming primarily at helping all oppressed nationalities in their struggle for political dignity and recognition, establishing links with many movements on various continents, but it never found the necessary external support and its main legacy remains today the Regency of Carnaro's recognition of [Soviet Russia](/wiki/Soviet_Russia "Soviet Russia"), the first state in the world to have done so.Claudia Salaris, Alla festa della rivoluzione. Artisti e libertari con D'Annunzio a Fiume, Il Mulino, BolognaRenzo De Felice, D'Annunzio politico (1918–1928\), Roma\-Bari, Giuseppe Laterza e figli, 1978Enrico Galmozzi, "Il soggetto senza limite. Interpretazione del dannunzianesimo", Milano, 1994
[thumb\|left\|Fiume (Rijeka) in 1937](/wiki/File:Granica_izme%C4%91u_Rijeke_i_Su%C5%A1aka_1937.JPG "Granica između Rijeke i Sušaka 1937.JPG")
The [Liberal](/wiki/Liberal_Union_%28Italy%29 "Liberal Union (Italy)") [Giovanni Giolitti](/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti "Giovanni Giolitti") became Premier of Italy again in June 1920; this signalled a hardening of official attitudes to D'Annunzio's *coup*. On 12 November, Italy and Yugoslavia concluded the [Treaty of Rapallo](/wiki/Treaty_of_Rapallo_%281920%29 "Treaty of Rapallo (1920)"), which envisaged Fiume becoming an independent state, the [Free State of Fiume](/wiki/Free_State_of_Fiume "Free State of Fiume"), under a government acceptable to both powers.Federzoni, Luigi. *Il Trattato di Rapallo*, Bologna, Zanichelli, 1921\. D'Annunzio's response was characteristically flamboyant and of doubtful judgment: his declaration of war against Italy invited the bombardment by Italian royal forces which led to his surrender of the city at the end of the year, after five days' resistance (known as [Bloody Christmas](/wiki/Bloody_Christmas_%281920%29 "Bloody Christmas (1920)")). Italian troops freed the city from D'Annunzio's militias in the last days of December 1920\. After a world war and additional two years of economic paralysis the city economy was nearing collapse and the population was exhausted.
### The Free State of Fiume
{{Main\|Free State of Fiume}}
In a subsequent democratic election the Fiuman electorate on 24 April 1921 approved the idea of a free state of Fiume\-Rijeka with a Fiuman\-Italo\-Yugoslav consortium ownership structure for the port, giving an overwhelming victory to the independentist candidates of the Autonomist Party. Fiume became consequently a full\-fledged member of the League of Nations and the ensuing election of Rijeka's first president, [Riccardo Zanella](/wiki/Riccardo_Zanella "Riccardo Zanella"), was met with official recognition and greetings from all major powers and countries worldwide. Despite many positive developments leading to the establishment of the new state's structures, the subsequent formation of a [constituent assembly](/wiki/Constituent_assembly "Constituent assembly") for the state did not put an end to strife within the city. A brief Italian nationalist seizure of power ended with the intervention of an Italian royal commissioner, and another short\-lived peace was interrupted by a local Fascist putsch in March 1922 which ended with a third Italian intervention to restore the previous order. Seven months later the [Kingdom of Italy](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy "Kingdom of Italy") itself fell under Fascist rule and Fiume's fate was therefore sealed, the [Italian Fascist Party](/wiki/National_Fascist_Party "National Fascist Party") being among the strongest proponents of the annexation of Fiume to Italy. The Free State of Fiume thus was to officially become the first country victim of fascist expansionism.
[thumb\|right\|Capuchin Church of Our Lady of Lourdes](/wiki/File:Capuchin_church_palace_Ploche_Rijeka_Croatia.jpg "Capuchin church palace Ploche Rijeka Croatia.jpg")
### The territory of Fiume part of the Kingdom of Italy
The period of diplomatic acrimony was closed by the bilateral [Treaty of Rome](/wiki/Treaty_of_Rome_%281924%29 "Treaty of Rome (1924)") (27 January 1924\), signed by Italy and Yugoslavia. With it the two neighbouring countries agreed to partition the territory of the small state. Most of the old Corpus Separatum territory became part of Italy, while a few Croatian/Slovenian\-speaking villages to the north of the city were annexed by Yugoslavia.Benedetti, Giulio. *La pace di Fiume*, Bologna, Zanichelli, 1924\. The annexation happened de facto on 16 March 1924, and it inaugurated about twenty years of Italian government for the city proper, to the detriment of the Croatian minority, which fell victim of discrimination and targeted assimilation policies.
The city became the seat of the newly formed [Province of Fiume](/wiki/Province_of_Fiume "Province of Fiume"). In this period Fiume lost its commercial hinterland and thus part of its economic potential as it became a border town with little strategic importance for the Kingdom of Italy. However, since it retained the Free Port status and its iconic image in the nation\-building myth, it gained many economic concessions and subsidies from the government in Rome. These included a separate tax treatment from the rest of Italy and a continuous inflow of investments from the Italian state (although not as generous as previous Hungarian ones). The city regained a good level of economic prosperity and was much richer than the surrounding Yugoslav lands, but the economic and demographic growth slowed down if compared to the previous Austro\-Hungarian period.
File:Fiume\-Stemma (1924\-1945\).svg\|alt\=Coat of Arms in use during the italian domain of the city, approved in 1935\[42]\|link\=https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fiume\-Stemma%20(1924\-1945\).svg\|Coat of Arms in use during the italian domain of the city, approved in 1935\<ref\>{{cite web\|access\-date\=2023\-06\-18\|title\=Fiume all'Italia (1924\-1925\) \- Società di Studi Fiumani \- Archivio Museo Storico di Fiume\|url\=http://www.webdeveloping.it/studifiumani/storia\-e\-immagini/non\-categorizzato/fiume\-vedute\-d\-epoca\-della\-citta\-5\|website\=www.webdeveloping.it\|archive\-date\=2 December 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202072036/http://www.webdeveloping.it/studifiumani/storia\-e\-immagini/non\-categorizzato/fiume\-vedute\-d\-epoca\-della\-citta\-5\|url\-status\=live}}\<!\-\- auto\-translated by Module:CS1 translator \-\-\>\</ref\>
File:Flag of Fiume (1924\-1945\).svg\|link\=https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag%20of%20Fiume%20(1924\-1945\).svg\|Flag in use during the italian domain of the city
File:Flag of Fiume (1924\-1945, Variant).svg\|alt\=Varinate della Bandiera con lo stemma\[2]\|link\=https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag%20of%20Fiume%20(1924\-1945,%20Variant).svg\|Varinat of the flag with the Coat of Arms\<ref\>{{cite web\|access\-date\=2023\-06\-18\|title\=Croazia città1\|url\=http://www.rbvex.it/croaziac1\.html\#fiume\|website\=www.rbvex.it\|archive\-date\=18 August 2022\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818045113/http://rbvex.it/croaziac1\.html\#fiume\|url\-status\=live}}\<!\-\- auto\-translated by Module:CS1 translator \-\-\>\</ref\>
### World War II and the German Operational Zone
[left\|thumb\|Rijeka under aerial bombardment by the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force "Royal Air Force"), 1944](/wiki/File:Fiume_%28Rijeka%29_bombing_by_RAF_in_1944.jpg "Fiume (Rijeka) bombing by RAF in 1944.jpg")
[right\|thumb\|Market](/wiki/File:Rijeka_market_trznica.jpg "Rijeka market trznica.jpg")
At the beginning of World War II Rijeka immediately found itself in an awkward position. The city's largest demographic was Italian followed by Croatian constituting most of the remainder, but its immediate surroundings and the city of Sušak, just across the Rječina river (today a part of Rijeka proper) were inhabited almost exclusively by Croatians and part of a potentially hostile power—[Yugoslavia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia "Kingdom of Yugoslavia"). Once the [Axis powers](/wiki/Axis_powers "Axis powers") [invaded Yugoslavia](/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia "Invasion of Yugoslavia") in April 1941, the Croatian areas surrounding the city were occupied by the Italian military, setting the stage for an intense and bloody insurgency which would last until the end of the war. [Partisan](/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans "Yugoslav Partisans") activity included guerrilla\-style attacks on isolated positions or supply columns, sabotage and killings of civilians believed to be connected to the Italian and (later) German authorities. This, in turn, was met by stiff reprisals from the Italian and German military. On 14 July 1942, in reprisal for the killing of four civilians of Italian origin by Partisans, the Italian military killed 100 men from the suburban village of Podhum, resettling the remaining 800 people to concentration camps.Jozo Tomasevich: War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, Stanford University Press, 2001, {{ISBN\|0\-8047\-3615\-4}}, page 134
After the [surrender of Italy to the Allies](/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile "Armistice of Cassibile") in September 1943, Rijeka and the surrounding territories were occupied and annexed by Germany, becoming part of the [Adriatic Littoral Zone](/wiki/Operational_Zone_of_the_Adriatic_Littoral "Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral"). Partisan activity continued and intensified. On 30 April 1944, in the nearby village of Lipa, German troops killed 263 civilians in reprisal for the killing of several soldiers during a Partisan attack.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.jutarnji.hr/naslovnica/tajna\-rupe\-kako\-je\-nestalo\-11\.000\-vojnika\-4021386 \|title\=Tajna Rupe: Kako je nestalo 11\.000 vojnika\|date\=30 April 2006\|language\=hr\|access\-date\=28 July 2020 \|url\-status\=live \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100201205203/http://www.jutarnji.hr/tajna\-rupe\-\-kako\-je\-nestalo\-11\-000\-vojnika/147211 \|archive\-date\=1 February 2010 }}
The German and Italian occupiers and their local collaborators deported some 80 percent of the city's roughly 500 Jews to [Auschwitz](/wiki/Auschwitz "Auschwitz"). A larger proportion of Rijeka's Jewish population was murdered in the Holocaust than that of any other city in Italian territory.{{cite web \|url\=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/20/arts/an\-italian\-saint\-in\-the\-making\-or\-a\-collaborator\-with\-nazis.html \|title\=Italian Praised for Saving Jews Is Now Seen as Nazi Collaborator \|work\=\[\[The New York Times]] \|date\=13 June 2013 \|access\-date\=31 October 2021 \|archive\-date\=31 October 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031191036/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/20/arts/an\-italian\-saint\-in\-the\-making\-or\-a\-collaborator\-with\-nazis.html \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2013/08/05/203292938/world\-war\-ii\-researchers\-say\-italian\-schindler\-was\-a\-myth \|title\=World War II Researchers Say 'Italian Schindler' Was A Myth \|publisher\=National Public Radio \|date\=5 August 2013 \|access\-date\=31 October 2021 \|archive\-date\=31 October 2021 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031191454/https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2013/08/05/203292938/world\-war\-ii\-researchers\-say\-italian\-schindler\-was\-a\-myth \|url\-status\=live }}
[right\|thumb\|Transadria building](/wiki/File:Zgrada_Transadrie_120409.jpg "Zgrada Transadrie 120409.jpg")
[right\|thumb\|Aerial view of downtown Rijeka](/wiki/file:RijekaCroatiaAerial2.jpg "RijekaCroatiaAerial2.jpg")
Because of its industries (oil refinery, torpedo factory, shipyards) and its port facilities, the city was also a target of more than 30 Anglo\-American air attacks,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.edit.hr/lavoce/2010/100430/cultura.htm \|title\=Fiume 1945, piovono i ricordi – Le conseguenze dei trenta bombardamenti e la difficile ricostruzione \|work\=\[\[La Voce del Popolo]] \|date\=30 April 2010 \|author\=Gianfranco Miksa \|access\-date\=21 April 2011 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721154032/http://www.edit.hr/lavoce/2010/100430/cultura.htm \|archive\-date\=21 July 2011 }} which caused widespread destruction and hundreds of civilian deaths. Some of the heaviest bombardments happened on 12 January 1944 (attack on the refinery, part of the [oil campaign](/wiki/Oil_campaign_of_World_War_II "Oil campaign of World War II")),{{cite web \|url\=http://www.b17pbemgame.com/317th\_bomb\_squadron\_roster.htm \|title\=317th Bomb Squadron Roster \|publisher\=B17pbemgame.com \|access\-date\=7 April 2012 \|archive\-date\=22 February 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222071904/http://www.b17pbemgame.com/317th\_bomb\_squadron\_roster.htm \|url\-status\=dead }} on 3–6 November 1944, when a series of attacks resulted in at least 125 deaths and between 15 and 25 February 1945 (200 dead, 300 wounded).Kako Je Potopljen Kiebitz?, Slavko Suzic, Susacka Revija 54/55, 2007, see [https://web.archive.org/web/20070627170704/http://www.klub\-susacana.hr/revija/clanak.asp?Num\=54\-55\&C\=8](https://web.archive.org/web/20070627170704/http://www.klub-susacana.hr/revija/clanak.asp?Num=54-55&C=8) (in Croatian)
The area of Rijeka was [heavily fortified even before World War II](/wiki/Alpine_Wall "Alpine Wall") (the remains of these fortifications can be seen today on the outskirts of the city). This was the fortified border between Italy and Yugoslavia which, at that time, cut across the city area and its surroundings. As Yugoslav troops approached the city in April 1945, one of the fiercest and largest battles in this area of Europe ensued. The 27,000 German and additional Italian [RSI](/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic "Italian Social Republic") troops fought tenaciously from behind these fortifications (renamed "Ingridstellung"—Ingrid Line—by the Germans). Under the command of the German general [Ludwig Kübler](/wiki/Ludwig_K%C3%BCbler "Ludwig Kübler") they inflicted thousands of casualties on the attacking Partisans, which were forced by their superiors to charge uphill against well\-fortified positions to the north and east of the city. The Yugoslav commanders did not spare casualties to speed up the capture of the city, fearing a possible English landing in area which would prevent their advance towards Trieste before the war was over. After an extremely bloody battle and heavy losses on the attackers side, the Germans were forced to retreat. Before leaving the city the German troops destroyed much of the harbour area and other important infrastructure with explosive charges. However, the German attempt to break out of the encirclement north\-west of the city was unsuccessful. Of the approximately 27,000 German and other troops retreating from the city, 11,000 were killed or executed after surrendering{{fact\|date\=September 2024}}, while the remaining 16,000 were taken as prisoners. Yugoslav troops entered Rijeka on 3 May 1945\.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.klub\-susacana.hr/revija/clanak.asp?Num\=49\&C\=21 \|title\=Rajko Samueli Kacic: Rijecka Bitka, SUŠACKA REVIJA, br. 49, 2005 \|publisher\=Klub\-susacana.hr \|access\-date\=7 April 2012 \|archive\-date\=20 March 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320231709/http://www.klub\-susacana.hr/revija/clanak.asp?Num\=49\&C\=21 \|url\-status\=live }}{{cite web \|url\=http://www.vojska.net/eng/world\-war\-2/operation/rijeka\-1945/ \|title\=Rijeka operation \|publisher\=Vojska.net \|date\=7 May 1945 \|access\-date\=7 April 2012 \|archive\-date\=20 March 2012 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320065335/http://www.vojska.net/eng/world\-war\-2/operation/rijeka\-1945/ \|url\-status\=live }} The city had suffered extensive damage in the war. The economic infrastructure was almost completely destroyed, and of the 5,400 buildings in the city at the time, 2,890 (53%) were either completely destroyed or damaged.Yugoslav communist authorities, as mentioned in the 1947 government documentary about the reconstruction of the city, see {{YouTube\|id\=hvXUvMczOKQ\#t\=3m35s}} (in Croatian)
### Aftermath of World War II
{{main\|Istrian\-Dalmatian exodus}}
[right\|thumb\|The Governor's Palace, Maritime and History Museum of the Croatian Littoral](/wiki/File:PPMHP_270508_ulaz.jpg "PPMHP 270508 ulaz.jpg")
[right\|thumb\|Highest residential skyscrapers in Croatia](/wiki/File:Skyscrapersrijeka.jpg "Skyscrapersrijeka.jpg")
{{More citations needed section\|date\=December 2016}}
The city's fate was once again solved by a combination of force and diplomacy. Despite insistent requests from the Fiuman government in exile collaboration with the partisans and calls to respect the city\-state's internationally recognized sovereignty, and despite generous initial promises given by the Yugoslav authorities of full independence and later of extensive autonomy for the city\-state (the locals were promised various degrees of autonomy at different moments during the war, most notably the possibility to be a state of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia), the city was annexed by Yugoslavia and incorporated as part of the federal state of Croatia. All the many voices of dissent within the population were silenced in the 12 months following the end of the war. The situation created by the Yugoslav forces on the ground was eventually formalized by the 1947 [Paris peace treaty](/wiki/Paris_Peace_Treaties%2C_1947 "Paris Peace Treaties, 1947") between Italy and the Allies on 10 February 1947, despite both the complaints by the last democratically elected government and its president\-in\-exile Riccardo Zanella and the attempts of the experienced Italian foreign minister [Carlo Sforza](/wiki/Carlo_Sforza "Carlo Sforza") to uphold the previous Wilsonian plans for a multicultural Free State solution, with a local headquarters for the newly created [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations "United Nations"). Once the change to Yugoslav sovereignty was formalized, and in particular in the years leading to the [Trieste Crisis](/wiki/Trieste_Crisis "Trieste Crisis") of 1954, 58,000 of the city's 66,000 inhabitants were gradually pushed either to emigrate (they became known in Italian as [*esuli* or the *exiled ones*](/wiki/Istrian%E2%80%93Dalmatian_exodus "Istrian–Dalmatian exodus") from Istria, [Fiume](/wiki/Fiume "Fiume") and [Dalmatia](/wiki/Dalmatia "Dalmatia")) or to endure harsh oppression by the new Yugoslav Communist regime. The [Yugoslav communist party](/wiki/Yugoslav_communist_party "Yugoslav communist party") opted for a markedly [Stalinist](/wiki/Stalinism "Stalinism") approach to solving the local ethnic question, in particular after the Autonomist sympathisers gained massive support in the first local elections held on the city's territory between 1945 and 1946\.
The discrimination and persecution that many inhabitants experienced at the hands of Yugoslav officials, in the last days of World War II and the first years of peace, still remain painful memories for the locals and the *esuli,* and are somewhat of a taboo topic for Rijeka's political milieu, which is still largely denying the events.{{Cite web\|url\=https://www.novilist.hr/rijeka\-regija/rijeka/doric\-tito\-je\-bio\-celnik\-totalitarnog\-rezima\-i\-ne\-zasluzuje\-rijecki\-trg/\|archiveurl\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029204206/http://www.novilist.hr/Vijesti/Rijeka/Doric\-Tito\-je\-bio\-celnik\-totalitarnog\-rezima\-i\-ne\-zasluzuje\-rijecki\-trg\|url\-status\=dead\|title\=Dorić: Tito je bio čelnik totalitarnog režima i ne zaslužuje riječki trg\|date\=30 August 2013\|archivedate\=29 October 2013\|website\=Novi list}} [Summary executions](/wiki/Summary_execution "Summary execution") of alleged Fascists (often well\-known anti\-fascists or openly apolitical), aimed at hitting the local intellectual class, the Autonomists, the commercial classes, the former Italian public servants, the military officials and often also ordinary civilians (at least 650 executions of Italians took place after the end of the war[Società di Studi Fiumani – Roma – Hrvatski Institut za Povijest – Zagreb,*Le vittime di nazionalita italiana a Fiume e dintorni (1943–1947\)*,*Žrtve talijanske nacionalnosti u Rijeci i okolici (1939\.\-1947 .)*, Rome 2002](http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/DGA-free/Sussidi/Sussidi_12.pdf) {{webarchive\|url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031131611/http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/DGA\-free/Sussidi/Sussidi\_12\.pdf \|date\=31 October 2008 }} {{ISBN\|88\-7125\-239\-X}}. Tablica ubijenima od 2\. svibnja 1945\. do 31\. prosinca 1947: "Statistički podaci", stranice 206 i 207\.) eventually forced most Italophones (of various ethnicities) to leave Rijeka/Fiume in order to avoid becoming victims of a harsher retaliation. The removal was a meticulously planned operation, aimed at convincing the hardly assimilable Italian part of the autochthonous population to leave the country, as testified decades later by representatives of the Yugoslav leadership.{{cite web\|url\=http://www.storiadelmondo.com/3/micich.esodo.pdf\|title\=''L'esodo dall'Istria, Fiume e Zara (1943–1958\) e l'accoglienza in Italia''\|author\=Marino Micich\|access\-date\=10 August 2018\|archive\-date\=14 January 2017\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114054001/http://www.storiadelmondo.com/3/micich.esodo.pdf\|url\-status\=live}}
[left\|thumb\|Swimming pool complex in Kantrida](/wiki/File:Rijeka-Croatia-swimmingpool.jpg "Rijeka-Croatia-swimmingpool.jpg")
[thumb\|left\|Astronomical Centre Rijeka](/wiki/File:Rijecka_zvjezdarnica_120409.jpg "Rijecka zvjezdarnica 120409.jpg")
The most notable victims of the political and ethnic repression of locals in this period was the [Fiume Autonomists purge](/wiki/Fiume_Autonomists_purge "Fiume Autonomists purge") hitting all the autonomist figures still living in the city, and now associated in the [Liburnian Autonomist Movement](/wiki/Liburnian_Autonomist_Movement "Liburnian Autonomist Movement"). The Autonomists actively helped the Yugoslav partisans in liberating the region from Fascist and Nazi occupation, and, despite receiving various promises of large political autonomy for the city, they were eventually all assassinated by the Yugoslav secret police [OZNA](/wiki/OZNA "OZNA") in the days leading up to the Yugoslav army's victorious march into city and its aftermath.
In subsequent years, the Yugoslav authorities joined the municipalities of Fiume and Sušak and, after 1954, less than one third of the original population of the now united municipalities (mostly what was previously the Croat minority in Fiume and the majority in Sušak) remained in the city, because the old municipality of Fiume lost in these years more than 85% of the original population. The Yugoslav plans for a more obedient demographic situation in RIjeka culminated in 1954 during the Trieste crisis, when the Yugoslav Communist Party rallied many local members to ruin or destroy the most notable vestiges of the Italian/Venetian language and all bilingual inscriptions in the city (which had been legally granted a fully bilingual status after the occupation in 1945\), eventually also 'de facto' (but not 'de jure') deleting bilinguilism, except in a handful of selected bilingual schools and inside the Italian Community's own building. After the war the local ethnic Italians of Rijeka left Yugoslavia for Italy ([Istrian\-Dalmatian exodus](/wiki/Istrian-Dalmatian_exodus "Istrian-Dalmatian exodus")).{{cite web\|url\=https://www.comune.modena.it/istitutostorico/fdownload.php?file\=MTIucGRm\|title\=L'esodo degli italiani dall'Istria e l'insediamento dei profughi nella provincia di Modena\|access\-date\=29 June 2021\|archive\-date\=29 June 2021\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629171129/https://www.comune.modena.it/istitutostorico/fdownload.php?file\=MTIucGRm\|url\-status\=live}}
The city was then resettled by immigrants from various parts of Yugoslavia, once more changing heavily the city's demographics and its linguistic composition. These years coincided also with a period of general reconstruction and new program of industrialization after the destruction of the war. During the period of the [Yugoslav](/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia") Communist administration between the 1950s and the 1980s, the city became the main port of the [Federal Republic](/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia") and started to grow once again, both demographically and economically, taking advantage of the newly re\-established hinterland that had been lacking during the Italian period, as well as the rebuilding after the war of its traditional manufacturing industries, its maritime economy and its port potential. This, paired with its rich commercial history, allowed the city to soon become the second richest (GDP per capita) district within [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Yugoslavia "Yugoslavia"). However, many of these industries and companies, being based on a socialist planned economic model were not able to survive the move to a market\-oriented economy in the early 1990s.
As Yugoslavia broke up in 1991, the former [Federal State of Croatia](/wiki/Federal_State_of_Croatia "Federal State of Croatia") became independent and, in the [Croatian War of Independence](/wiki/Croatian_War_of_Independence "Croatian War of Independence") that ensued, Rijeka became part of the newly independent [Croatia](/wiki/Croatia "Croatia"). Since then, the city has stagnated economically and its demography has plunged. Some of its largest industries and employers have gone out of business, the most prominent among them being the Jugolinija shipping company, the torpedo factory, the paper mill and many other small or medium manufacturing and commercial companies. Other companies have struggled to remain economically viable (like the city's landmark [3\. Maj](/wiki/3._Maj "3. Maj") shipyard). The number of people working in manufacturing dropped from more than 80,000 in 1990 to only 5,000 two decades later{{Citation needed\|date\=May 2021}}. Privatization scandals and the large scale corruption which marked Croatia's transition from socialism to capitalism as well as several years of [war economy](/wiki/Yugoslav_wars "Yugoslav wars") played a significant role in the collapse of the city's economy during the 1990s and early 2000s. A difficult and uncertain transition of the city's economy away from manufacturing and towards an economy based on services and tourism is still in progress.
In 2018, it was announced that, 65 years after the abolition of Italian as the official language of the city, new Croatian\-Italian bilingual signs will be placed back in the Fiume part of the modern united municipality.{{Cite news\|url\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/cronache/fiume\-torna\-italiana\-arriva\-segnaletica\-bilingue\-rijeka\-1581493\.html\|title\=Fiume "torna" italiana: arriva la segnaletica bilingue per Rijeka\|work\=ilGiornale.it\|access\-date\=2018\-10\-09\|language\=it\|archive\-date\=10 October 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181010012502/http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/cronache/fiume\-torna\-italiana\-arriva\-segnaletica\-bilingue\-rijeka\-1581493\.html\|url\-status\=live}}
In 2020, Rijeka was voted the [European Capital of Culture](/wiki/European_Capital_of_Culture "European Capital of Culture") alongside [Galway](/wiki/Galway "Galway"),{{Cite web\|url\=http://rijeka2020\.eu/\|title\=Rijeka 2020 – Europska prijestolnica kulture\|website\=rijeka2020\.eu\|language\=hr\-HR\|access\-date\=2018\-10\-09\|archive\-date\=9 October 2018\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009211651/http://rijeka2020\.eu/\|url\-status\=live}} with a planned program including more than 600 events of cultural and social importance.
[right\|thumb\|City government building](/wiki/File:Gradsko_poglavarstvo%2C_Rijeka.jpg "Gradsko poglavarstvo, Rijeka.jpg")
|
[
"History\n-------",
"{{Main\\|History of Rijeka\\|\\|Timeline of Rijeka}}",
"{{Quote box\n\\| width \\= 25em\n\\| align \\= right\n\\| title\\_bg \\= \\#B0C4DE\n\\| title \\= Timeline of Rijeka \nHistorical affiliations\n\\| fontsize \\= 80%\n\\| quote \\= {{flagicon image\\|Flag of Croatia (Early 16th century–1526\\) (Border).svg}} \n\\[\\[Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102\\)\\|Kingdom of Croatia]] pre\\-1102\\.\n\\[\\[Croatia in personal union with Hungary\\|Kingdom of Croatia]]\\-\\[\\[Kingdom of Hungary]]:1102–1466",
"{{flagicon image\\|Banner of the Holy Roman Emperor with haloes (1400\\-1806\\).svg}} \\[\\[Holy Roman Empire]] (\\[\\[Habsburg monarchy]]), 1466–1809",
"{{flagicon image\\|Flag of France (1794–1815, 1830–1974, 2020–present).svg}} \\[\\[First French Empire]], 1809–1814",
"{{flagicon image\\|Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg}} \\[\\[Austrian Empire]], 1814–1867",
"{{flagicon image\\|Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg}} \\[\\[Austria\\-Hungary]] ({{flagicon image\\|Flag of Hungary (1915\\-1918; angels; 3\\-2 aspect ratio).svg}} \\[\\[Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen\\|Transleithania]]), 1867–1918",
"{{flagicon image\\|Ensign of the Regency of Carnaro (1920\\).svg}} \\[\\[Italian Regency of Carnaro]], 1919–1920",
"{{flagicon image\\|Flag of the Free State of Fiume.svg}} \\[\\[Free State of Fiume]], 1920–1924",
"{{flagicon image\\|Flag of Italy (1861\\-1946\\) crowned.svg}} \\[\\[Kingdom of Italy]], 1924–1943",
"{{flagicon image\\|Flag of Germany (1935–1945\\).svg}} \\[\\[Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral\\|OZAK]], 1943–1945",
"{{flag\\|SFR Yugoslavia\\|name\\=Yugoslavia}} ({{flag\\|SR Croatia\\|name\\=SR Croatia}}), 1945–1991",
"{{flag\\|Croatia}}, 1991–present\n}}",
"### Ancient and Medieval times",
"[thumb\\|left\\|The Roman [arch](/wiki/Arch \"Arch\") (Rimski luk), the oldest architectural monument in Rijeka and an entrance to the old town](/wiki/File:Rijeka_Brama_rzymska.jpg \"Rijeka Brama rzymska.jpg\")\n[200px\\|thumb\\|upright\\|left\\|[Trsat Castle](/wiki/Trsat_Castle \"Trsat Castle\") lies at the exact spot of an ancient Illyrian and Roman fortress.](/wiki/File:Rijeka%2C_Croatia_-_panoramio_%289%29.jpg \"Rijeka, Croatia - panoramio (9).jpg\") \nThough traces of [Neolithic](/wiki/Neolithic \"Neolithic\") settlements can be found in the region, the earliest modern settlements on the site were [Celtic](/wiki/Celt \"Celt\") **Tharsatica** (modern [Trsat](/wiki/Trsat \"Trsat\"), now part of Rijeka) on the hill, and the tribe of mariners, the [Liburni](/wiki/Liburni \"Liburni\"), in the natural harbour below. The city long retained its dual character. Rijeka was first mentioned in the 1st century AD by [Pliny the Elder](/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder \"Pliny the Elder\") as Tarsatica in his *[Natural History](/wiki/Natural_History_%28Pliny%29 \"Natural History (Pliny)\")* (iii.140\\).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny\\_the\\_Elder/3\\*.html\\|title\\=Pliny the Elder: the Natural History, Liber III\\|publisher\\=University of Chicago\\|access\\-date\\=12 July 2019\\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2023\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923024415/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny\\_the\\_Elder/3%2A.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}} Rijeka (Tarsatica) is again mentioned around AD 150 by the Greek geographer and astronomer [Ptolemy](/wiki/Ptolemy \"Ptolemy\") in his [Geography](/wiki/Geography_%28Ptolemy%29 \"Geography (Ptolemy)\") when describing the \"Location of Illyria or Liburnia, and of Dalmatia\" (Fifth Map of Europe).{{cite web \\|url\\=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/\\_Texts/Ptolemy/2/15\\*.html \\|title\\=The Geography of Claudius Ptolemy, Book II, Chapter 15 \\|publisher\\=University of Chicago \\|access\\-date\\=15 February 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=23 September 2023 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923024416/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/\\_Texts/Ptolemy/2/15%2A.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} In the time of [Augustus](/wiki/Augustus \"Augustus\"), the [Romans](/wiki/Roman_Empire \"Roman Empire\") rebuilt Tarsatica as a *[municipium](/wiki/Municipium \"Municipium\")* **Flumen** (MacMullen 2000\\), situated on the right bank of the small river Rječina (whose name means \"the big river\"). It became a city within the Roman Province of [Dalmatia](/wiki/Dalmatia_%28Roman_province%29 \"Dalmatia (Roman province)\") until the 6th century. In this period the city is part of the [Liburnia](/wiki/Liburnia \"Liburnia\") limes (system of walls and fortifications against raiding Barbarians). Remains of these walls are still visible in some places today.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|The [Baroque](/wiki/Baroque \"Baroque\") city clock tower above the arched gateway linking the *Korzo* to the inner city, designed by Filbert Bazarig in 1876](/wiki/File:Rijekacitytowernight.jpg \"Rijekacitytowernight.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Main street Korzo](/wiki/File:Rijeka_Korzo_in_July_2023.jpg \"Rijeka Korzo in July 2023.jpg\")\nAfter the 4th century Rijeka was rededicated to [St. Vitus](/wiki/St._Vitus \"St. Vitus\"), the city's [patron saint](/wiki/Patron_saint \"Patron saint\"), as *Terra Fluminis sancti Sancti Viti* or in German *Sankt Veit am Pflaum*. From the 5th century onwards, the town was ruled successively by the [Ostrogoths](/wiki/Ostrogoths \"Ostrogoths\"), the [Byzantines](/wiki/Byzantine_Empire \"Byzantine Empire\"), the [Lombards](/wiki/Lombards \"Lombards\"), and the [Avars](/wiki/Pannonian_Avars \"Pannonian Avars\"). The city was burned down in 452 by the troops of [Attila](/wiki/Attila \"Attila\") the Hun as part of their [Aquileia](/wiki/Sack_of_Aquileia \"Sack of Aquileia\") campaign.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.matica.hr/vijenac/175/Rije%C4%8Dki%20ljetopis/ \\|title\\=Riječki Ljetopis (Rijeka Chronicle) \\- in Croatian \\|publisher\\=Matica Hrvatska \\|access\\-date\\=15 February 2020 \\|archive\\-date\\=17 January 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117005132/http://www.matica.hr/vijenac/175/Rije%C4%8Dki%20ljetopis/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} [Croats](/wiki/Croats \"Croats\") settled the city starting in the 7th century giving it the Croatian name, *Rika svetoga Vida* (\"the river of Saint Vitus\"). At the time, Rijeka was a feudal stronghold surrounded by a wall. At the center of the city, its highest point, was a fortress.",
"In 799 Rijeka was attacked by the [Frankish](/wiki/Franks \"Franks\") troops of [Charlemagne](/wiki/Charlemagne \"Charlemagne\"). Their [Siege of Trsat](/wiki/Siege_of_Trsat \"Siege of Trsat\") was at first repulsed, during which the Frankish commander Duke [Eric of Friuli](/wiki/Eric_of_Friuli \"Eric of Friuli\") was killed. However, the Frankish forces finally occupied and devastated the castle, while the [Duchy of Croatia](/wiki/Duchy_of_Croatia \"Duchy of Croatia\") passed under the overlordship of the [Carolingian Empire](/wiki/Carolingian_Empire \"Carolingian Empire\"). From about 925, the town was part of the [Kingdom of Croatia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_%28925%E2%80%931102%29 \"Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)\"), from 1102 [in personal union with Hungary](/wiki/Croatia_in_the_union_with_Hungary \"Croatia in the union with Hungary\"). Trsat Castle and the town was rebuilt under the rule of the [House of Frankopan](/wiki/House_of_Frankopan \"House of Frankopan\"). In 1288 the Rijeka citizens signed the [Law codex of Vinodol](/wiki/Law_codex_of_Vinodol \"Law codex of Vinodol\"), one of the oldest codes of law in Europe.",
"In the period from about 1300 to 1466 Rijeka was ruled by a number of noble families, the most prominent of which was the German [Walsee family](/wiki/Walsee_family \"Walsee family\"). Rijeka even rivalled [Venice](/wiki/Republic_of_Venice \"Republic of Venice\") when in it was sold by Rambert II Walsee to the [Habsburg](/wiki/House_of_Habsburg \"House of Habsburg\") emperor [Frederick III](/wiki/Frederick_III%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor\"), [Archduke of Austria](/wiki/Archduchy_of_Austria \"Archduchy of Austria\") in 1466\\. It would remain under Austrian Habsburg rule for over 450 years (except for a brief period of French rule between 1809 and 1813\\) until the end of [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\") in 1918 when it was occupied by Croatian and subsequently by Italian irregulars.",
"### Under Habsburg rule",
"[thumb\\|left\\|Rijeka and Trsat](/wiki/File:Valvasor_-_Reka.jpg \"Valvasor - Reka.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|River [Rječina](/wiki/Rje%C4%8Dina \"Rječina\") in city center](/wiki/File:RijekaRiver0.jpg \"RijekaRiver0.jpg\")\nAustrian presence on the Adriatic Sea was seen as a threat by the [Republic of Venice](/wiki/Republic_of_Venice \"Republic of Venice\") and during the [War of the League of Cambrai](/wiki/War_of_the_League_of_Cambrai \"War of the League of Cambrai\") the Venetians raided and devastated the city with great loss of life in 1508 and again in 1509\\. The city did however recover and remain under Austrian rule. For its fierce resistance to the Venetians it received the title of the \"most loyal city\" (\"fidelissimum oppidium\") as well as commercial privileges from the Austrian emperor [Maximilian I](/wiki/Maximilian_I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor\") in 1515\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://issuu.com/vedranaspadonitefanic/docs/klen \\|title\\=Danilo Klen: Stoljeće I Pol Prilika I Neprilika U Rijeci. I Oko Nje (1465\\-1627\\) \\- Croatian \\|date\\=13 April 2016 \\|publisher\\=Historijski zbornik, god. XLI (1\\), str. 17\\-26 (1988\\) Izvorni znanstveni članak UDK 949\\.713 «14/16 \\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=18 December 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211218223233/https://issuu.com/vedranaspadonitefanic/docs/klen \\|url\\-status\\=live }} While [Ottoman](/wiki/Ottoman_Wars_in_Europe \"Ottoman Wars in Europe\") forces attacked the town several times, they never occupied it. From the 16th century onwards, Rijeka's present [Renaissance](/wiki/Renaissance_architecture \"Renaissance architecture\") and [Baroque](/wiki/Baroque_architecture \"Baroque architecture\") style started to take shape. Emperor [Charles VI](/wiki/Charles_VI%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor \"Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor\") declared the [Port of Rijeka](/wiki/Port_of_Rijeka \"Port of Rijeka\") a [free port](/wiki/Free_port \"Free port\") (together with the [Port of Trieste](/wiki/Port_of_Trieste \"Port of Trieste\")) in 1719 and had the trade route to Vienna expanded in 1725\\.",
"On November 28, 1750 Rijeka was hit by a large earthquake. The devastation was so widespread that the city had to be almost completely rebuilt. In 1753, the Austrian Empress [Maria Theresa](/wiki/Maria_Theresa \"Maria Theresa\") approved the funding for rebuilding Rijeka as a \"new city\" (\"Civitas nova\"). The rebuilt Rijeka was significantly different \\- it was transformed from a small medieval walled town into a larger commercial and maritime city centered around its port.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://fluminensia.org/potres\\-1750\\-promijenio\\-lice\\-rijeke \\|title\\=Goran Moravček: Potres 1750\\. promijenio lice Rijeke \\- Croatian \\|date\\=28 November 2012 \\|publisher\\=fluminensia.org \\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 January 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122211356/http://fluminensia.org/potres\\-1750\\-promijenio\\-lice\\-rijeke \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"By order of Maria Theresa in 1779, the city was annexed to the [Kingdom of Hungary](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_%281526%E2%80%931867%29 \"Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)\") and governed as [*corpus separatum*](/wiki/Corpus_separatum_%28Fiume%29 \"Corpus separatum (Fiume)\") directly from Budapest by an appointed governor, as Hungary's only international port. From 1804, Rijeka was part of the [Austrian Empire](/wiki/Austrian_Empire \"Austrian Empire\") ([Kingdom of Croatia\\-Slavonia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia-Slavonia \"Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia\") after the [Compromise of 1867](/wiki/Compromise_of_1867 \"Compromise of 1867\")), in the Croatia\\-Slavonia province.Handbook of Austria and Lombardy\\-Venetia Cancellations on the Postage Stamp Issues 1850–1864, by Edwin Mueller, 1961\\.",
"During the [Napoleonic Wars](/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars \"Napoleonic Wars\"), Rijeka was briefly captured by the [French Empire](/wiki/First_French_Empire \"First French Empire\") and included in the [Illyrian Provinces](/wiki/Illyrian_Provinces \"Illyrian Provinces\"). During the French rule, between 1809 and 1813, the critically important [Louisiana road](/wiki/Louisiana_road_%28Croatia%29 \"Louisiana road (Croatia)\") was completed (named after [Napoleon's](/wiki/Napoleon \"Napoleon\") wife [Marie Louise](/wiki/Marie_Louise%2C_Duchess_of_Parma \"Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma\")). The road was the shortest route from Rijeka to the interior ([Karlovac](/wiki/Karlovac \"Karlovac\")) and gave a strong impulse to the development of Rijeka's port. In 1813 the French rule came to an end when Rijeka was first bombarded by the [Royal Navy](/wiki/Royal_Navy \"Royal Navy\") and later re\\-captured by the Austrians under the command of the Irish general [Laval Nugent von Westmeath](/wiki/Laval_Nugent_von_Westmeath \"Laval Nugent von Westmeath\").Antoljak, Stjepan. \"Prekosavska Hrvatska i pitanje njene reinkorporacije (1813 \\- 1822\\)\", in Stjepan Antoljak, Stjepan. 1994\\. *Hrvati u povijesti*, Split, Književni krug, 1992\\. (in Croatian) The British bombardment has an interesting side story. The city was apparently saved from annihilation by a young lady named Karolina Belinić who \\- amid the chaos and destruction of the bombardment \\- went to the English fleet commander and convinced him that further bombardment of the city was unnecessary (the small French garrison was quickly defeated and left the city). The legend of Karolina is warmly remembered by the population even today. She became a folk hero Karolina Riječka (Caroline of Rijeka) and has been celebrated in plays, movies and even in a rock opera.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://croatia.hr/en\\-GB/experiences/culture\\-and\\-heritage/legends/caroline\\-the\\-woman\\-who\\-saved\\-rijeka \\|title\\=Caroline, the Woman Who Saved Rijeka \\|publisher\\=croatia.hr \\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=29 October 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029105051/https://croatia.hr/en\\-GB/experiences/culture\\-and\\-heritage/legends/caroline\\-the\\-woman\\-who\\-saved\\-rijeka \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"In the early 19th century, the most prominent economical and cultural leader of the city was [Andrija Ljudevit Adamić](/wiki/Andrija_Ljudevit_Adami%C4%87 \"Andrija Ljudevit Adamić\"). Fiume also had a significant naval base, and in the mid\\-19th century it became the site of the Austro\\-Hungarian Naval Academy (K.u.K. Marine\\-Akademie), where the [Austro\\-Hungarian Navy](/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Navy \"Austro-Hungarian Navy\") trained its officers.",
"### Hungarian Crown",
"During the [Hungarian revolution of 1848](/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1848 \"Hungarian Revolution of 1848\"), when Hungary tried to gain independence from Austria, Rijeka was captured by the Croatian troops (loyal to Austria) commanded by [Ban](/wiki/Ban_of_Croatia \"Ban of Croatia\") [Josip Jelačić](/wiki/Josip_Jela%C4%8Di%C4%87 \"Josip Jelačić\"). The city was then annexed directly to Croatia, although it did keep a degree of autonomy.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://povijest.hr/nadanasnjidan/ban\\-josip\\-jelacic\\-postao\\-guvernerom\\-rijeke\\-1848/\\|title\\=Ban Josip Jelačić postao guvernerom Rijeke (1848\\.)\\|date\\=December 2021\\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=24 January 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124182054/https://povijest.hr/nadanasnjidan/ban\\-josip\\-jelacic\\-postao\\-guvernerom\\-rijeke\\-1848/\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"[Giovanni de Ciotta](/wiki/Giovanni_de_Ciotta \"Giovanni de Ciotta\") (mayor from 1872 to 1896\\) proved to be an authoritative local political leader. Under his leadership, an impressive phase of expansion of the city started, marked by major port development, fuelled by the general expansion of international trade and the city's connection (1873\\) to the Austro\\-Hungarian railway network. Modern industrial and commercial enterprises such as the Royal Hungarian Sea Navigation Company \"[Adria](/wiki/Adria%2C_Rijeka \"Adria, Rijeka\")\", a rival shipping company the Ungaro\\-Croata (established in 1891\\) and the Smith and Meynier paper mill (which operated the first steam engine in south\\-east Europe), situated in the Rječina canyon, producing cigarette paper sold around the world.",
"The second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century (up to World War I) was a period of great prosperity, rapid economic growth and technological dynamism for Rijeka. Many authors and witnesses describe Rijeka of this time as a rich, tolerant, well\\-to\\-do town which offered a good standard of living, with endless possibilities for making one's fortune. The Pontifical Delegate Celso Costantini noted in his diary \"the religious indifference and apathy of the town\". The further industrial development of the city included the first industrial scale oil refinery in Europe in 1882{{cite web \\|url\\=https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/122737 \\|title\\=Rafinerija nafte Rijeka – europski pionir u preradi crnog zlata \\|page\\=116 \\|website\\=\\[\\[Hrčak]] \\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 July 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731123540/https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/122737 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and the first [torpedo](/wiki/Torpedo \"Torpedo\") factory in the world in 1866, after [Robert Whitehead](/wiki/Robert_Whitehead \"Robert Whitehead\"), manager of the \"[Stabilimento Tecnico Fiumano](/wiki/Stabilimento_Tecnico_Fiumano \"Stabilimento Tecnico Fiumano\")\" (an Austrian engineering company engaged in providing engines for the Austro\\-Hungarian Navy), designed and successfully tested the world's first torpedo. In addition to the Whitehead torpedo factory, which opened in 1874, the oil refinery (1882\\) and the paper mill, many other industrial and commercial enterprises were established or expanded in these years. These include a rice husking and starch factory (one of the largest in the world), a wood and furniture company, a wheat elevator and mill, the Ganz\\-Danubius shipbuilding industries, a cocoa and chocolate factory, a brick factory, a tobacco factory (the largest in the Monarchy), a cognac distillery, a pasta factory, the Ossoinack barrel and chest factory, a large tannery, five foundries and many others.{{cite journal \\|last\\=Fried \\|first\\=Fiona \\|year\\=2020 \\|title\\='Out to Sea, Hungarians!' History, Myth, Memories. Fiume 1868–1945 \\|journal\\=Spiegelungen. Zeitschrift für deutsche Kultur und Geschichte Südosteuropas \\|number\\=1 \\|volume\\=15 \\|pages\\=99–109 \\|url\\=https://spiegelungen.net/out\\-to\\-sea\\-hungarians }} At the beginning of the 20th century more than half of the industrial capacity in Croatia (which was at that time mostly agrarian) was located in Rijeka.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/122737 \\|title\\=Rafinerija nafte Rijeka – europski pionir u preradi crnog zlata, page 114\\. \\|website\\=\\[\\[Hrčak]] \\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 July 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731123540/https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/122737 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Rijeka's Austro\\-Hungarian Marine Academy became a pioneering centre for [high\\-speed photography](/wiki/High-speed_photography \"High-speed photography\"). The Austrian physicist Peter Salcher working in the Academy took the first photograph of a bullet flying at supersonic speed in 1886, devising a technique that was later used by [Ernst Mach](/wiki/Ernst_Mach \"Ernst Mach\") in his studies of supersonic motion.Peter Salcher und Ernst Mach, [Schlierenfotografie von Überschall\\-Projektilen](http://www.univie.ac.at/pluslucis/PlusLucis/031/s22.pdf) {{Webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106054333/http://www.univie.ac.at/pluslucis/PlusLucis/031/s22\\.pdf \\|date\\=6 January 2012 }}, W. Gerhard Pohl, Universität Wien, Plus Lucis 2/2002 – 1/2003, ISSN 1606\\-3015 (in German)",
"[thumb\\|Casa Veneziana in Rijeka](/wiki/File:Casa_Veneziana_Rijeka.jpg \"Casa Veneziana Rijeka.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|Leaning Tower](/wiki/File:Church_at_Dusk_in_Rijeka%2C_Croatia_2011.jpg \"Church at Dusk in Rijeka, Croatia 2011.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|Saint Vitus cathedral](/wiki/File:Rijeka_Saint_Vitus_cathedral_front.jpg \"Rijeka Saint Vitus cathedral front.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|right\\|[Jadrolinija](/wiki/Jadrolinija \"Jadrolinija\") headquarters](/wiki/File:Jadrolinija_Palaca_Jadran_Rijeka2.jpg \"Jadrolinija Palaca Jadran Rijeka2.jpg\")\nRijeka's port underwent tremendous development fuelled by generous Hungarian investments, becoming the main maritime outlet for Hungary and the eastern part of the [Austro\\-Hungarian Empire](/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire \"Austro-Hungarian Empire\"). By 1913–14, the port of Fiume became the tenth\\-busiest port in Europe. The population grew rapidly from only 21,000 in 1880 to 50,000 in 1910\\. Major civic buildings constructed at this time include the Governor's Palace, designed by the Hungarian architect [Alajos Hauszmann](/wiki/Alajos_Hauszmann \"Alajos Hauszmann\"). There was an ongoing competition between Rijeka and Trieste, the main maritime outlet for Austria—reflecting the rivalry between the two components of the Dual Monarchy. The Austro\\-Hungarian Navy sought to keep the balance by ordering new warships from the shipyards of both cities.",
"During this period{{When\\|date\\=May 2023\\|reason\\=To which period does this refer to? Every single census shows that in the early and mid\\-19th century Rijeka had a Croat majority.}} the city had an Italian majority.{{Dubious\\|date\\=May 2023}} According to the census of 1880, in Rijeka there were 9,076 Italians, 7,991 Croats, 895 Germans and 383 Hungarians.Guerrino Perselli, I censimenti della popolazione dell'Istria, con Fiume e Trieste e di alcune città della Dalmazia tra il 1850 e il 1936, Centro di Ricerche Storiche \\- Rovigno, Unione Italiana \\- Fiume, Università Popolare di Trieste, Trieste\\-Rovigno, 1993, pp. 429 Some historians claim that the city had a Slavic majority at the beginning of the 19th century, because the 1851 census reported a Croatian majority. However, this census is considered not very reliable by Italian historians.O.Mileta Mattiuz, Popolazioni dell'Istria, Fiume, Zara e Dalmazia (1850\\-2002\\). Ipotesi di quantificazione demografica, Trieste, ADES 2005 pp. 118 ss.; A.Depoli, Una statistica sorprendente, in Fiume, n. 3\\-4, 1957, p. 180{{Better source needed\\|reason\\=The current source is insufficiently reliable (\\[\\[WP:NOTRS]]).\\|date\\=May 2023}}\nAt the last Austro\\-Hungarian census in 1910, the *corpus separatum* had a population of 49,806 people and was composed of the following linguistic communities:{{cite web \\|url\\=http://konyvtar.ksh.hu/index.php?s\\=kb\\_statisztika \\|title\\=Magyar statisztikai közlemények (1–116\\. kötet) \\- in Hungarian \\|publisher\\=Hungarian Central Statistical Office \\|access\\-date\\=8 March 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=9 March 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309190018/http://konyvtar.ksh.hu/index.php?s\\=kb\\_statisztika \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"",
"| **Languages in 1911** | 49,806 inhabitants | (100%) |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| [Italian](/wiki/Italian_language \"Italian language\") | 23,283 | (46\\.9%) |\n| [Croatian](/wiki/Croatian_language \"Croatian language\") | 15,731 | (31\\.7%) |\n| [Slovenian](/wiki/Slovenian_language \"Slovenian language\") | 3,937 | (7\\.9%) |\n| [Hungarian](/wiki/Hungarian_language \"Hungarian language\") | 3,619 | (7\\.3%) |\n| [German](/wiki/German_language \"German language\") | 2,476 | (5\\.0%) |\n| [English](/wiki/English_language \"English language\") | 202 | (0\\.4%) |\n| [Czech](/wiki/Czech_language \"Czech language\") | 183 | (0\\.3%) |\n| [Serbian](/wiki/Serbian_language \"Serbian language\") | 70 | (0\\.14%) |\n| [French](/wiki/French_language \"French language\") | 40 | (0\\.08%) |\n| [Polish](/wiki/Polish_language \"Polish language\") | 36 | (0\\.07%) |\n| [Romanian](/wiki/Romanian_language \"Romanian language\") | 29 | (0\\.06%) |",
"By religion, the census of 1910 indicates that \\- from the total of 49,806 inhabitants \\- there were 45,130 [Catholics](/wiki/Catholics \"Catholics\"), 1,696 [Jewish](/wiki/Jewish \"Jewish\"), 1,123 [Calvinist](/wiki/Calvinist \"Calvinist\"), 995 [Orthodox](/wiki/Eastern_orthodox \"Eastern orthodox\") and 311 [Lutheran](/wiki/Lutheran \"Lutheran\"). The Jewish population expanded rapidly, particularly in the 1870s\\-1880s, and built a [large synagogue](/wiki/Rijeka_Synagogue \"Rijeka Synagogue\") in 1907 (which would be destroyed in 1944, during the German occupation, concurrent with the murder of most of the city's Jewish residents). On the eve of WWI, there were 165 inns, 10 hotels with restaurants, 17 cafés, 17 jewellers, 37 barbers and 265 tailor shops in Rijeka.",
"{{gallery \n\\|title\\=Rijeka in early 20th century\n\\|mode\\=packed \n\\|File:Rijeka tram old (3\\).jpg\\|\\[\\[Trams in Rijeka\\|Tram in Rijeka]], L. Kossuth Street, c.1910\n\\|File:Fiume1900\\-Roman Arch.jpg\\|Rijeka, Roman Arch in the Old City, c.1900\n\\|File:Fiume1900\\-Harbor.jpg\\|Rijeka Harbor, c.1900\n\\|File:Fiume1900\\-3\\.jpg\\|Rijeka \\- Corso, c. 1900}}",
"### World War I",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Torpedo production in Rijeka, c. 1914](/wiki/File:Torpedo_production_in_Rijeka.jpg \"Torpedo production in Rijeka.jpg\")\nWorld War I put an end to Rijeka's \"golden era\" of peace, stability and rapid economic growth. The city would never quite recover to the same level of prosperity. Initially there was a semblance of normalcy (the city was far from the frontlines), however \\- a growing part of the male population started to be mobilized by the army and the navy. The city's war\\-related industries continued to work full steam and contributed significantly to the Austro\\-Hungarian war effort, especially to the navy. The shipyard [Ganz\\-Danubius](/wiki/Ganz_Works \"Ganz Works\") produced a number of warships and submarines like the [U\\-27\\-class submarines](/wiki/U-27-class_submarine_%28Austria-Hungary%29 \"U-27-class submarine (Austria-Hungary)\"), the [Novara\\-class cruisers](/wiki/Novara-class_cruiser \"Novara-class cruiser\"), the large battleship [SMS Szent István](/wiki/SMS_Szent_Istv%C3%A1n \"SMS Szent István\") and others. In total, between the early 1900s and 1918 the city's shipyards produced 1 battleship, 2 cruisers, 20 destroyers, 32 torpedo boats and 15 submarines for the navy.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.vecernji.hr/premium/usponi\\-i\\-padovi\\-3\\-maja\\-nekad\\-16\\-na\\-svijetu\\-s\\-prihodom\\-od\\-110\\-milijuna\\-dolara\\-1352081 \\|title\\=Usponi i padovi 3\\. maja: Nekad je bio 16\\. na svijetu, s prihodom od 110 milijuna dolara \\- Croatian \\|publisher\\=vecernji.hr \\|access\\-date\\=28 May 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=2 June 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602212407/https://www.vecernji.hr/premium/usponi\\-i\\-padovi\\-3\\-maja\\-nekad\\-16\\-na\\-svijetu\\-s\\-prihodom\\-od\\-110\\-milijuna\\-dolara\\-1352081 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} Rijeka was also the main center for the production of torpedoes. However, a lot changed with the war becoming a protracted conflict and especially with the [Italian declaration of war on Austria\\-Hungary](/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I \"Italian entry into World War I\") in May 1915\\. This opened a [frontline](/wiki/Italian_front_%28World_War_I%29 \"Italian front (World War I)\") only 90 km from the city and caused a pervasive sense of anxiety among the large Italian population. Several hundred Italians, considered disloyal (enemy non\\-combatants) by the authorities, were deported to camps in Hungary ([Tápiósüly](/wiki/S%C3%BClys%C3%A1p \"Sülysáp\") and [Kiskunhalas](/wiki/Kiskunhalas \"Kiskunhalas\")), where many died of malnutrition and diseases. The torpedo factory was attacked by the Italian [airship](/wiki/Rigid_airship \"Rigid airship\") \"Citta\\` di Novara\" in 1915 (later shot down by Austrian hydroplanes) and suffered damages. As a consequence \\- most of the torpedo production was moved to [Sankt Pölten](/wiki/Sankt_P%C3%B6lten \"Sankt Pölten\") in Austria, further away from the frontlines. The city was again attacked by Italian airplanes in 1916 and suffered minor damage. The Naval Academy ceased its activities and was converted to a war hospital (the ex\\-naval academy buildings are still housing the city hospital to this day). On 10 February 1918 the Italian navy [raided the nearby bay of Bakar](/wiki/Bakar_mockery \"Bakar mockery\") causing little material damage but achieving a significant propaganda effect. As the war dragged on, the city's economy and the living standard of the population deteriorated rapidly. Due to a [maritime blockade](/wiki/Otranto_Barrage \"Otranto Barrage\"), the port traffic suffered a collapse \\- from 2,892\\.538 tons in 1913 (before the war) to only 330\\.313 tons in 1918\\. Many factories \\- lacking manpower and/or raw materials \\- reduced the production or simply closed. Shortages of food and other basic necessities became widespread. Even public safety became a problem with an increase in the number of thefts, violent incidents and war profiteering.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://hrcak.srce.hr/147658 \\|title\\=Markus Leideck:Crna kronika\" (Kriminalfalle) in der Tageszeitung \"Riečki novi list\" Jahrgang 1914/1915 \\- German, Croatian \\|website\\=\\[\\[Hrčak]] \\|access\\-date\\=16 February 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 July 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731115141/https://hrcak.srce.hr/147658 \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The crisis escalated on October 23, 1918, when the Croatian troops stationed in Rijeka (79th regiment) mutinied and temporarily took control of the city.{{cite journal \\|url\\=https://hrcak.srce.hr/49977 \\|title\\=Daniel Patafta:Economical Situation in Rijeka From 1918 to 1924 \\- Croatian \\|journal\\=Ekonomska i Ekohistorija: Časopis za Gospodarsku Povijest i Povijest Okoliša \\|date\\=25 July 2005 \\|volume\\=1 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=115–137 \\|via\\=\\[\\[Hrčak]] \\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2021 \\|last1\\=Patafta \\|first1\\=Daniel \\|archive\\-date\\=31 July 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731125119/https://hrcak.srce.hr/49977 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}Manfried Rauchensteiner:Prvi Svjetski Rat i Kraj Habsburške Monarhije 1914\\-1918 \\- in Croatian, Matica Hrvatska, Zagreb 2019, {{ISBN\\|978\\-953\\-341\\-102\\-6}}, page 903\\-904 Amid growing chaos, the [Austro\\-Hungarian empire dissolved](/wiki/Dissolution_of_Austria-Hungary \"Dissolution of Austria-Hungary\") a few weeks later, on November 12, 1918, starting a long period of instability and uncertainty for the city.",
"### The \"Fiume Question\" and the Italian\\-Yugoslav dispute",
"{{Main\\|Fiume Question}}\n[thumb\\|left\\|Residents of [Fiume](/wiki/Fiume \"Fiume\") cheering the arrival of [Gabriele D'Annunzio and his *Legionari*](/wiki/Impresa_di_Fiume \"Impresa di Fiume\") in September 1919, when Fiume had 22,488 (62% of the population) Italians in a total population of 35,839 inhabitants.](/wiki/File:Fiume_cheering_D%27Annunzio.jpg \"Fiume cheering D'Annunzio.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|Trsat castle, south](/wiki/File:Ka%C5%A1tel_Trsat%2C_ju%C5%BEne_zidine_s_ulazom.jpg \"Kaštel Trsat, južne zidine s ulazom.jpg\")",
"Habsburg\\-ruled Austria\\-Hungary's disintegration in October 1918 during the closing weeks of World War I led to the establishment of rival Croatian\\-Serbian and Italian administrations in the city; both Italy and the founders of the new [Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes](/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Serbs%2C_Croats_and_Slovenes \"Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes\") (later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia) claimed sovereignty based on their \"[irredentist](/wiki/Irredentist \"Irredentist\")\" (\"unredeemed\") ethnic populations.\n{{Css Image Crop\\|Image \\= FIU\\-S108\\-Free State of Fiume (Provisional)\\-10 Kronen (1920\\).jpg\\|bSize \\= 220\\|cWidth \\= 220\\|cHeight \\= 118\\|oTop \\= 120\\|oLeft \\= 0\\|Location \\= right\\|Description\\={{center\\|10 \\[\\[Fiume krone]] provisional banknote (1920\\)}}}}\nAfter a brief military occupation by the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, followed by the unilateral annexation of the former Corpus Separatum by Belgrade, an international force of British, Italian, French and American troops entered the city in November 1918\\. Its future became a major [barrier to agreement](/wiki/Adriatic_Question \"Adriatic Question\") during the [Paris Peace Conference](/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference%2C_1919 \"Paris Peace Conference, 1919\") of 1919\\. The US president Wilson even proposed to make Rijeka a free city and the headquarters of the newly formed [League of Nations](/wiki/League_of_Nations \"League of Nations\").Stanislav Krakov, Dolazak srpske vojske na Rijeku i severni Jadran, Beograd: *Jadranska Straza*,1928/29; The Arrival of the Serbian Army in Fiume and the Northern Adriatic{{cite journal \\|title\\=Gerthrude Slaughter: The Significance of Fiume \\|journal\\=The North American Review \\|volume\\=210 \\|issue\\=768 \\|date\\=November 1919 \\|pages\\=614–621 \\|jstor\\=25120377}}\n[thumb\\|right\\|Location of the [Free State of Fiume](/wiki/Free_State_of_Fiume \"Free State of Fiume\") (1920–1924\\)](/wiki/File:Free_State_of_Fiume_1920-1924.png \"Free State of Fiume 1920-1924.png\")\n[thumb\\|Adriatic Square and Adria Palace](/wiki/File:JadranskiTrgRijeka2.png \"JadranskiTrgRijeka2.png\")\nThe main problem arose from the fact that Rijeka was not assigned either to Italy or to Croatia (now Yugoslavia) in the [Treaty of London](/wiki/Treaty_of_London_%281915%29 \"Treaty of London (1915)\") which defined the post\\-war borders in the area. It remained assigned to Austria\\-Hungary because \\- until the very end of WWI \\- it was assumed that the Austro\\-Hungarian empire would survive WWI in some form and Rijeka was to become its only seaport (Trieste was to be annexed by Italy). However, once the empire disintegrated, the status of the city became disputed. Italy based its claim on the fact that Italians comprised the largest single nationality within the city (46\\.9% of the total population). Croats made up most of the remainder and were a majority in the surrounding area.[A. J. P. Taylor](/wiki/A._J._P._Taylor \"A. J. P. Taylor\"): The Habsburg Monarchy, 1809–1918, University of Chicago Press, Paperback edition, 1976, {{ISBN\\|0\\-226\\-79145\\-9}}, page 269 [Andrea Ossoinack](/wiki/Andrea_Ossoinack \"Andrea Ossoinack\"), who had been the last delegate from Fiume to the Hungarian Parliament, was admitted to the conference as a representative of Fiume, and essentially supported the Italian claims. Nevertheless, at this point the city had had for years a strong and very active Autonomist Party seeking for Rijeka a special independent status among nations as a multicultural Adriatic city. This movement even had its delegate at the Paris peace conference \\- Ruggero Gotthardi.",
"### The Regency of Carnaro",
"{{Main\\|Italian Regency of Carnaro}}\nOn 10 September 1919, the [Treaty of Saint\\-Germain](/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_%281919%29 \"Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)\") was signed, declaring the Austro\\-Hungarian monarchy dissolved. Negotiations over the future of the city were interrupted two days later when a force of Italian nationalist irregulars led by the poet [Gabriele D'Annunzio](/wiki/Gabriele_D%27Annunzio \"Gabriele D'Annunzio\") captured the city.Ledeen, Michael A. 1977\\. The First Duce. D'Annunzio at Fiume, Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Because the Italian government, wishing to respect its international obligations, did not want to annex Fiume, D'Annunzio and the intellectuals at his side eventually established an independent state, the [Italian Regency of Carnaro](/wiki/Italian_Regency_of_Carnaro \"Italian Regency of Carnaro\"), a unique social experiment for the age and a revolutionary cultural experience in which various international intellectuals of diverse walks of life took part (like [Osbert Sitwell](/wiki/Osbert_Sitwell \"Osbert Sitwell\"), [Arturo Toscanini](/wiki/Arturo_Toscanini \"Arturo Toscanini\"), [Henry Furst](/wiki/Henry_Furst \"Henry Furst\"), [Filippo Tommaso Marinetti](/wiki/Filippo_Tommaso_Marinetti \"Filippo Tommaso Marinetti\"), [Harukichi Shimoi](/wiki/Harukichi_Shimoi \"Harukichi Shimoi\"), [Guglielmo Marconi](/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi \"Guglielmo Marconi\"), [Alceste De Ambris](/wiki/Alceste_De_Ambris \"Alceste De Ambris\"), [Whitney Warren](/wiki/Whitney_Warren \"Whitney Warren\") and Léon Kochnitzky).Ferdinando Gerra, L'impresa di Fiume, Longanesi, Milano, 1974",
"Among the many political experiments that took place during this experience, D'Annunzio and his men undertook a first attempt to establish a movement of non\\-aligned nations in the so\\-called [League of Fiume](/wiki/League_of_Fiume \"League of Fiume\"), an organisation antithetic to the Wilsonian League of Nations, which it saw as a means of perpetuating a corrupt and imperialist *status quo*. The organisation was aiming primarily at helping all oppressed nationalities in their struggle for political dignity and recognition, establishing links with many movements on various continents, but it never found the necessary external support and its main legacy remains today the Regency of Carnaro's recognition of [Soviet Russia](/wiki/Soviet_Russia \"Soviet Russia\"), the first state in the world to have done so.Claudia Salaris, Alla festa della rivoluzione. Artisti e libertari con D'Annunzio a Fiume, Il Mulino, BolognaRenzo De Felice, D'Annunzio politico (1918–1928\\), Roma\\-Bari, Giuseppe Laterza e figli, 1978Enrico Galmozzi, \"Il soggetto senza limite. Interpretazione del dannunzianesimo\", Milano, 1994\n[thumb\\|left\\|Fiume (Rijeka) in 1937](/wiki/File:Granica_izme%C4%91u_Rijeke_i_Su%C5%A1aka_1937.JPG \"Granica između Rijeke i Sušaka 1937.JPG\")",
"The [Liberal](/wiki/Liberal_Union_%28Italy%29 \"Liberal Union (Italy)\") [Giovanni Giolitti](/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti \"Giovanni Giolitti\") became Premier of Italy again in June 1920; this signalled a hardening of official attitudes to D'Annunzio's *coup*. On 12 November, Italy and Yugoslavia concluded the [Treaty of Rapallo](/wiki/Treaty_of_Rapallo_%281920%29 \"Treaty of Rapallo (1920)\"), which envisaged Fiume becoming an independent state, the [Free State of Fiume](/wiki/Free_State_of_Fiume \"Free State of Fiume\"), under a government acceptable to both powers.Federzoni, Luigi. *Il Trattato di Rapallo*, Bologna, Zanichelli, 1921\\. D'Annunzio's response was characteristically flamboyant and of doubtful judgment: his declaration of war against Italy invited the bombardment by Italian royal forces which led to his surrender of the city at the end of the year, after five days' resistance (known as [Bloody Christmas](/wiki/Bloody_Christmas_%281920%29 \"Bloody Christmas (1920)\")). Italian troops freed the city from D'Annunzio's militias in the last days of December 1920\\. After a world war and additional two years of economic paralysis the city economy was nearing collapse and the population was exhausted.",
"### The Free State of Fiume",
"{{Main\\|Free State of Fiume}}\nIn a subsequent democratic election the Fiuman electorate on 24 April 1921 approved the idea of a free state of Fiume\\-Rijeka with a Fiuman\\-Italo\\-Yugoslav consortium ownership structure for the port, giving an overwhelming victory to the independentist candidates of the Autonomist Party. Fiume became consequently a full\\-fledged member of the League of Nations and the ensuing election of Rijeka's first president, [Riccardo Zanella](/wiki/Riccardo_Zanella \"Riccardo Zanella\"), was met with official recognition and greetings from all major powers and countries worldwide. Despite many positive developments leading to the establishment of the new state's structures, the subsequent formation of a [constituent assembly](/wiki/Constituent_assembly \"Constituent assembly\") for the state did not put an end to strife within the city. A brief Italian nationalist seizure of power ended with the intervention of an Italian royal commissioner, and another short\\-lived peace was interrupted by a local Fascist putsch in March 1922 which ended with a third Italian intervention to restore the previous order. Seven months later the [Kingdom of Italy](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy \"Kingdom of Italy\") itself fell under Fascist rule and Fiume's fate was therefore sealed, the [Italian Fascist Party](/wiki/National_Fascist_Party \"National Fascist Party\") being among the strongest proponents of the annexation of Fiume to Italy. The Free State of Fiume thus was to officially become the first country victim of fascist expansionism.",
"[thumb\\|right\\|Capuchin Church of Our Lady of Lourdes](/wiki/File:Capuchin_church_palace_Ploche_Rijeka_Croatia.jpg \"Capuchin church palace Ploche Rijeka Croatia.jpg\")",
"### The territory of Fiume part of the Kingdom of Italy",
"The period of diplomatic acrimony was closed by the bilateral [Treaty of Rome](/wiki/Treaty_of_Rome_%281924%29 \"Treaty of Rome (1924)\") (27 January 1924\\), signed by Italy and Yugoslavia. With it the two neighbouring countries agreed to partition the territory of the small state. Most of the old Corpus Separatum territory became part of Italy, while a few Croatian/Slovenian\\-speaking villages to the north of the city were annexed by Yugoslavia.Benedetti, Giulio. *La pace di Fiume*, Bologna, Zanichelli, 1924\\. The annexation happened de facto on 16 March 1924, and it inaugurated about twenty years of Italian government for the city proper, to the detriment of the Croatian minority, which fell victim of discrimination and targeted assimilation policies.",
"The city became the seat of the newly formed [Province of Fiume](/wiki/Province_of_Fiume \"Province of Fiume\"). In this period Fiume lost its commercial hinterland and thus part of its economic potential as it became a border town with little strategic importance for the Kingdom of Italy. However, since it retained the Free Port status and its iconic image in the nation\\-building myth, it gained many economic concessions and subsidies from the government in Rome. These included a separate tax treatment from the rest of Italy and a continuous inflow of investments from the Italian state (although not as generous as previous Hungarian ones). The city regained a good level of economic prosperity and was much richer than the surrounding Yugoslav lands, but the economic and demographic growth slowed down if compared to the previous Austro\\-Hungarian period.\nFile:Fiume\\-Stemma (1924\\-1945\\).svg\\|alt\\=Coat of Arms in use during the italian domain of the city, approved in 1935\\[42]\\|link\\=https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fiume\\-Stemma%20(1924\\-1945\\).svg\\|Coat of Arms in use during the italian domain of the city, approved in 1935\\<ref\\>{{cite web\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-18\\|title\\=Fiume all'Italia (1924\\-1925\\) \\- Società di Studi Fiumani \\- Archivio Museo Storico di Fiume\\|url\\=http://www.webdeveloping.it/studifiumani/storia\\-e\\-immagini/non\\-categorizzato/fiume\\-vedute\\-d\\-epoca\\-della\\-citta\\-5\\|website\\=www.webdeveloping.it\\|archive\\-date\\=2 December 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202072036/http://www.webdeveloping.it/studifiumani/storia\\-e\\-immagini/non\\-categorizzato/fiume\\-vedute\\-d\\-epoca\\-della\\-citta\\-5\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\\<!\\-\\- auto\\-translated by Module:CS1 translator \\-\\-\\>\\</ref\\>\nFile:Flag of Fiume (1924\\-1945\\).svg\\|link\\=https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag%20of%20Fiume%20(1924\\-1945\\).svg\\|Flag in use during the italian domain of the city\nFile:Flag of Fiume (1924\\-1945, Variant).svg\\|alt\\=Varinate della Bandiera con lo stemma\\[2]\\|link\\=https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag%20of%20Fiume%20(1924\\-1945,%20Variant).svg\\|Varinat of the flag with the Coat of Arms\\<ref\\>{{cite web\\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-06\\-18\\|title\\=Croazia città1\\|url\\=http://www.rbvex.it/croaziac1\\.html\\#fiume\\|website\\=www.rbvex.it\\|archive\\-date\\=18 August 2022\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818045113/http://rbvex.it/croaziac1\\.html\\#fiume\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\\<!\\-\\- auto\\-translated by Module:CS1 translator \\-\\-\\>\\</ref\\>",
"",
"### World War II and the German Operational Zone",
"[left\\|thumb\\|Rijeka under aerial bombardment by the [Royal Air Force](/wiki/Royal_Air_Force \"Royal Air Force\"), 1944](/wiki/File:Fiume_%28Rijeka%29_bombing_by_RAF_in_1944.jpg \"Fiume (Rijeka) bombing by RAF in 1944.jpg\")\n[right\\|thumb\\|Market](/wiki/File:Rijeka_market_trznica.jpg \"Rijeka market trznica.jpg\")",
"At the beginning of World War II Rijeka immediately found itself in an awkward position. The city's largest demographic was Italian followed by Croatian constituting most of the remainder, but its immediate surroundings and the city of Sušak, just across the Rječina river (today a part of Rijeka proper) were inhabited almost exclusively by Croatians and part of a potentially hostile power—[Yugoslavia](/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia \"Kingdom of Yugoslavia\"). Once the [Axis powers](/wiki/Axis_powers \"Axis powers\") [invaded Yugoslavia](/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia \"Invasion of Yugoslavia\") in April 1941, the Croatian areas surrounding the city were occupied by the Italian military, setting the stage for an intense and bloody insurgency which would last until the end of the war. [Partisan](/wiki/Yugoslav_Partisans \"Yugoslav Partisans\") activity included guerrilla\\-style attacks on isolated positions or supply columns, sabotage and killings of civilians believed to be connected to the Italian and (later) German authorities. This, in turn, was met by stiff reprisals from the Italian and German military. On 14 July 1942, in reprisal for the killing of four civilians of Italian origin by Partisans, the Italian military killed 100 men from the suburban village of Podhum, resettling the remaining 800 people to concentration camps.Jozo Tomasevich: War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, Stanford University Press, 2001, {{ISBN\\|0\\-8047\\-3615\\-4}}, page 134",
"After the [surrender of Italy to the Allies](/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile \"Armistice of Cassibile\") in September 1943, Rijeka and the surrounding territories were occupied and annexed by Germany, becoming part of the [Adriatic Littoral Zone](/wiki/Operational_Zone_of_the_Adriatic_Littoral \"Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral\"). Partisan activity continued and intensified. On 30 April 1944, in the nearby village of Lipa, German troops killed 263 civilians in reprisal for the killing of several soldiers during a Partisan attack.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.jutarnji.hr/naslovnica/tajna\\-rupe\\-kako\\-je\\-nestalo\\-11\\.000\\-vojnika\\-4021386 \\|title\\=Tajna Rupe: Kako je nestalo 11\\.000 vojnika\\|date\\=30 April 2006\\|language\\=hr\\|access\\-date\\=28 July 2020 \\|url\\-status\\=live \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100201205203/http://www.jutarnji.hr/tajna\\-rupe\\-\\-kako\\-je\\-nestalo\\-11\\-000\\-vojnika/147211 \\|archive\\-date\\=1 February 2010 }}",
"The German and Italian occupiers and their local collaborators deported some 80 percent of the city's roughly 500 Jews to [Auschwitz](/wiki/Auschwitz \"Auschwitz\"). A larger proportion of Rijeka's Jewish population was murdered in the Holocaust than that of any other city in Italian territory.{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/20/arts/an\\-italian\\-saint\\-in\\-the\\-making\\-or\\-a\\-collaborator\\-with\\-nazis.html \\|title\\=Italian Praised for Saving Jews Is Now Seen as Nazi Collaborator \\|work\\=\\[\\[The New York Times]] \\|date\\=13 June 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=31 October 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 October 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031191036/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/20/arts/an\\-italian\\-saint\\-in\\-the\\-making\\-or\\-a\\-collaborator\\-with\\-nazis.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2013/08/05/203292938/world\\-war\\-ii\\-researchers\\-say\\-italian\\-schindler\\-was\\-a\\-myth \\|title\\=World War II Researchers Say 'Italian Schindler' Was A Myth \\|publisher\\=National Public Radio \\|date\\=5 August 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=31 October 2021 \\|archive\\-date\\=31 October 2021 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031191454/https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2013/08/05/203292938/world\\-war\\-ii\\-researchers\\-say\\-italian\\-schindler\\-was\\-a\\-myth \\|url\\-status\\=live }}\n[right\\|thumb\\|Transadria building](/wiki/File:Zgrada_Transadrie_120409.jpg \"Zgrada Transadrie 120409.jpg\")\n[right\\|thumb\\|Aerial view of downtown Rijeka](/wiki/file:RijekaCroatiaAerial2.jpg \"RijekaCroatiaAerial2.jpg\")",
"Because of its industries (oil refinery, torpedo factory, shipyards) and its port facilities, the city was also a target of more than 30 Anglo\\-American air attacks,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.edit.hr/lavoce/2010/100430/cultura.htm \\|title\\=Fiume 1945, piovono i ricordi – Le conseguenze dei trenta bombardamenti e la difficile ricostruzione \\|work\\=\\[\\[La Voce del Popolo]] \\|date\\=30 April 2010 \\|author\\=Gianfranco Miksa \\|access\\-date\\=21 April 2011 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721154032/http://www.edit.hr/lavoce/2010/100430/cultura.htm \\|archive\\-date\\=21 July 2011 }} which caused widespread destruction and hundreds of civilian deaths. Some of the heaviest bombardments happened on 12 January 1944 (attack on the refinery, part of the [oil campaign](/wiki/Oil_campaign_of_World_War_II \"Oil campaign of World War II\")),{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.b17pbemgame.com/317th\\_bomb\\_squadron\\_roster.htm \\|title\\=317th Bomb Squadron Roster \\|publisher\\=B17pbemgame.com \\|access\\-date\\=7 April 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=22 February 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222071904/http://www.b17pbemgame.com/317th\\_bomb\\_squadron\\_roster.htm \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} on 3–6 November 1944, when a series of attacks resulted in at least 125 deaths and between 15 and 25 February 1945 (200 dead, 300 wounded).Kako Je Potopljen Kiebitz?, Slavko Suzic, Susacka Revija 54/55, 2007, see [https://web.archive.org/web/20070627170704/http://www.klub\\-susacana.hr/revija/clanak.asp?Num\\=54\\-55\\&C\\=8](https://web.archive.org/web/20070627170704/http://www.klub-susacana.hr/revija/clanak.asp?Num=54-55&C=8) (in Croatian)",
"The area of Rijeka was [heavily fortified even before World War II](/wiki/Alpine_Wall \"Alpine Wall\") (the remains of these fortifications can be seen today on the outskirts of the city). This was the fortified border between Italy and Yugoslavia which, at that time, cut across the city area and its surroundings. As Yugoslav troops approached the city in April 1945, one of the fiercest and largest battles in this area of Europe ensued. The 27,000 German and additional Italian [RSI](/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic \"Italian Social Republic\") troops fought tenaciously from behind these fortifications (renamed \"Ingridstellung\"—Ingrid Line—by the Germans). Under the command of the German general [Ludwig Kübler](/wiki/Ludwig_K%C3%BCbler \"Ludwig Kübler\") they inflicted thousands of casualties on the attacking Partisans, which were forced by their superiors to charge uphill against well\\-fortified positions to the north and east of the city. The Yugoslav commanders did not spare casualties to speed up the capture of the city, fearing a possible English landing in area which would prevent their advance towards Trieste before the war was over. After an extremely bloody battle and heavy losses on the attackers side, the Germans were forced to retreat. Before leaving the city the German troops destroyed much of the harbour area and other important infrastructure with explosive charges. However, the German attempt to break out of the encirclement north\\-west of the city was unsuccessful. Of the approximately 27,000 German and other troops retreating from the city, 11,000 were killed or executed after surrendering{{fact\\|date\\=September 2024}}, while the remaining 16,000 were taken as prisoners. Yugoslav troops entered Rijeka on 3 May 1945\\.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.klub\\-susacana.hr/revija/clanak.asp?Num\\=49\\&C\\=21 \\|title\\=Rajko Samueli Kacic: Rijecka Bitka, SUŠACKA REVIJA, br. 49, 2005 \\|publisher\\=Klub\\-susacana.hr \\|access\\-date\\=7 April 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 March 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320231709/http://www.klub\\-susacana.hr/revija/clanak.asp?Num\\=49\\&C\\=21 \\|url\\-status\\=live }}{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.vojska.net/eng/world\\-war\\-2/operation/rijeka\\-1945/ \\|title\\=Rijeka operation \\|publisher\\=Vojska.net \\|date\\=7 May 1945 \\|access\\-date\\=7 April 2012 \\|archive\\-date\\=20 March 2012 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320065335/http://www.vojska.net/eng/world\\-war\\-2/operation/rijeka\\-1945/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }} The city had suffered extensive damage in the war. The economic infrastructure was almost completely destroyed, and of the 5,400 buildings in the city at the time, 2,890 (53%) were either completely destroyed or damaged.Yugoslav communist authorities, as mentioned in the 1947 government documentary about the reconstruction of the city, see {{YouTube\\|id\\=hvXUvMczOKQ\\#t\\=3m35s}} (in Croatian)",
"### Aftermath of World War II",
"{{main\\|Istrian\\-Dalmatian exodus}}\n[right\\|thumb\\|The Governor's Palace, Maritime and History Museum of the Croatian Littoral](/wiki/File:PPMHP_270508_ulaz.jpg \"PPMHP 270508 ulaz.jpg\")\n[right\\|thumb\\|Highest residential skyscrapers in Croatia](/wiki/File:Skyscrapersrijeka.jpg \"Skyscrapersrijeka.jpg\")\n{{More citations needed section\\|date\\=December 2016}}\nThe city's fate was once again solved by a combination of force and diplomacy. Despite insistent requests from the Fiuman government in exile collaboration with the partisans and calls to respect the city\\-state's internationally recognized sovereignty, and despite generous initial promises given by the Yugoslav authorities of full independence and later of extensive autonomy for the city\\-state (the locals were promised various degrees of autonomy at different moments during the war, most notably the possibility to be a state of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia), the city was annexed by Yugoslavia and incorporated as part of the federal state of Croatia. All the many voices of dissent within the population were silenced in the 12 months following the end of the war. The situation created by the Yugoslav forces on the ground was eventually formalized by the 1947 [Paris peace treaty](/wiki/Paris_Peace_Treaties%2C_1947 \"Paris Peace Treaties, 1947\") between Italy and the Allies on 10 February 1947, despite both the complaints by the last democratically elected government and its president\\-in\\-exile Riccardo Zanella and the attempts of the experienced Italian foreign minister [Carlo Sforza](/wiki/Carlo_Sforza \"Carlo Sforza\") to uphold the previous Wilsonian plans for a multicultural Free State solution, with a local headquarters for the newly created [United Nations](/wiki/United_Nations \"United Nations\"). Once the change to Yugoslav sovereignty was formalized, and in particular in the years leading to the [Trieste Crisis](/wiki/Trieste_Crisis \"Trieste Crisis\") of 1954, 58,000 of the city's 66,000 inhabitants were gradually pushed either to emigrate (they became known in Italian as [*esuli* or the *exiled ones*](/wiki/Istrian%E2%80%93Dalmatian_exodus \"Istrian–Dalmatian exodus\") from Istria, [Fiume](/wiki/Fiume \"Fiume\") and [Dalmatia](/wiki/Dalmatia \"Dalmatia\")) or to endure harsh oppression by the new Yugoslav Communist regime. The [Yugoslav communist party](/wiki/Yugoslav_communist_party \"Yugoslav communist party\") opted for a markedly [Stalinist](/wiki/Stalinism \"Stalinism\") approach to solving the local ethnic question, in particular after the Autonomist sympathisers gained massive support in the first local elections held on the city's territory between 1945 and 1946\\.",
"The discrimination and persecution that many inhabitants experienced at the hands of Yugoslav officials, in the last days of World War II and the first years of peace, still remain painful memories for the locals and the *esuli,* and are somewhat of a taboo topic for Rijeka's political milieu, which is still largely denying the events.{{Cite web\\|url\\=https://www.novilist.hr/rijeka\\-regija/rijeka/doric\\-tito\\-je\\-bio\\-celnik\\-totalitarnog\\-rezima\\-i\\-ne\\-zasluzuje\\-rijecki\\-trg/\\|archiveurl\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029204206/http://www.novilist.hr/Vijesti/Rijeka/Doric\\-Tito\\-je\\-bio\\-celnik\\-totalitarnog\\-rezima\\-i\\-ne\\-zasluzuje\\-rijecki\\-trg\\|url\\-status\\=dead\\|title\\=Dorić: Tito je bio čelnik totalitarnog režima i ne zaslužuje riječki trg\\|date\\=30 August 2013\\|archivedate\\=29 October 2013\\|website\\=Novi list}} [Summary executions](/wiki/Summary_execution \"Summary execution\") of alleged Fascists (often well\\-known anti\\-fascists or openly apolitical), aimed at hitting the local intellectual class, the Autonomists, the commercial classes, the former Italian public servants, the military officials and often also ordinary civilians (at least 650 executions of Italians took place after the end of the war[Società di Studi Fiumani – Roma – Hrvatski Institut za Povijest – Zagreb,*Le vittime di nazionalita italiana a Fiume e dintorni (1943–1947\\)*,*Žrtve talijanske nacionalnosti u Rijeci i okolici (1939\\.\\-1947 .)*, Rome 2002](http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/DGA-free/Sussidi/Sussidi_12.pdf) {{webarchive\\|url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031131611/http://www.archivi.beniculturali.it/DGA\\-free/Sussidi/Sussidi\\_12\\.pdf \\|date\\=31 October 2008 }} {{ISBN\\|88\\-7125\\-239\\-X}}. Tablica ubijenima od 2\\. svibnja 1945\\. do 31\\. prosinca 1947: \"Statistički podaci\", stranice 206 i 207\\.) eventually forced most Italophones (of various ethnicities) to leave Rijeka/Fiume in order to avoid becoming victims of a harsher retaliation. The removal was a meticulously planned operation, aimed at convincing the hardly assimilable Italian part of the autochthonous population to leave the country, as testified decades later by representatives of the Yugoslav leadership.{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.storiadelmondo.com/3/micich.esodo.pdf\\|title\\=''L'esodo dall'Istria, Fiume e Zara (1943–1958\\) e l'accoglienza in Italia''\\|author\\=Marino Micich\\|access\\-date\\=10 August 2018\\|archive\\-date\\=14 January 2017\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114054001/http://www.storiadelmondo.com/3/micich.esodo.pdf\\|url\\-status\\=live}}\n[left\\|thumb\\|Swimming pool complex in Kantrida](/wiki/File:Rijeka-Croatia-swimmingpool.jpg \"Rijeka-Croatia-swimmingpool.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|left\\|Astronomical Centre Rijeka](/wiki/File:Rijecka_zvjezdarnica_120409.jpg \"Rijecka zvjezdarnica 120409.jpg\")\nThe most notable victims of the political and ethnic repression of locals in this period was the [Fiume Autonomists purge](/wiki/Fiume_Autonomists_purge \"Fiume Autonomists purge\") hitting all the autonomist figures still living in the city, and now associated in the [Liburnian Autonomist Movement](/wiki/Liburnian_Autonomist_Movement \"Liburnian Autonomist Movement\"). The Autonomists actively helped the Yugoslav partisans in liberating the region from Fascist and Nazi occupation, and, despite receiving various promises of large political autonomy for the city, they were eventually all assassinated by the Yugoslav secret police [OZNA](/wiki/OZNA \"OZNA\") in the days leading up to the Yugoslav army's victorious march into city and its aftermath.",
"In subsequent years, the Yugoslav authorities joined the municipalities of Fiume and Sušak and, after 1954, less than one third of the original population of the now united municipalities (mostly what was previously the Croat minority in Fiume and the majority in Sušak) remained in the city, because the old municipality of Fiume lost in these years more than 85% of the original population. The Yugoslav plans for a more obedient demographic situation in RIjeka culminated in 1954 during the Trieste crisis, when the Yugoslav Communist Party rallied many local members to ruin or destroy the most notable vestiges of the Italian/Venetian language and all bilingual inscriptions in the city (which had been legally granted a fully bilingual status after the occupation in 1945\\), eventually also 'de facto' (but not 'de jure') deleting bilinguilism, except in a handful of selected bilingual schools and inside the Italian Community's own building. After the war the local ethnic Italians of Rijeka left Yugoslavia for Italy ([Istrian\\-Dalmatian exodus](/wiki/Istrian-Dalmatian_exodus \"Istrian-Dalmatian exodus\")).{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.comune.modena.it/istitutostorico/fdownload.php?file\\=MTIucGRm\\|title\\=L'esodo degli italiani dall'Istria e l'insediamento dei profughi nella provincia di Modena\\|access\\-date\\=29 June 2021\\|archive\\-date\\=29 June 2021\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629171129/https://www.comune.modena.it/istitutostorico/fdownload.php?file\\=MTIucGRm\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"The city was then resettled by immigrants from various parts of Yugoslavia, once more changing heavily the city's demographics and its linguistic composition. These years coincided also with a period of general reconstruction and new program of industrialization after the destruction of the war. During the period of the [Yugoslav](/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia \"Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia\") Communist administration between the 1950s and the 1980s, the city became the main port of the [Federal Republic](/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia \"Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia\") and started to grow once again, both demographically and economically, taking advantage of the newly re\\-established hinterland that had been lacking during the Italian period, as well as the rebuilding after the war of its traditional manufacturing industries, its maritime economy and its port potential. This, paired with its rich commercial history, allowed the city to soon become the second richest (GDP per capita) district within [Yugoslavia](/wiki/Yugoslavia \"Yugoslavia\"). However, many of these industries and companies, being based on a socialist planned economic model were not able to survive the move to a market\\-oriented economy in the early 1990s.",
"As Yugoslavia broke up in 1991, the former [Federal State of Croatia](/wiki/Federal_State_of_Croatia \"Federal State of Croatia\") became independent and, in the [Croatian War of Independence](/wiki/Croatian_War_of_Independence \"Croatian War of Independence\") that ensued, Rijeka became part of the newly independent [Croatia](/wiki/Croatia \"Croatia\"). Since then, the city has stagnated economically and its demography has plunged. Some of its largest industries and employers have gone out of business, the most prominent among them being the Jugolinija shipping company, the torpedo factory, the paper mill and many other small or medium manufacturing and commercial companies. Other companies have struggled to remain economically viable (like the city's landmark [3\\. Maj](/wiki/3._Maj \"3. Maj\") shipyard). The number of people working in manufacturing dropped from more than 80,000 in 1990 to only 5,000 two decades later{{Citation needed\\|date\\=May 2021}}. Privatization scandals and the large scale corruption which marked Croatia's transition from socialism to capitalism as well as several years of [war economy](/wiki/Yugoslav_wars \"Yugoslav wars\") played a significant role in the collapse of the city's economy during the 1990s and early 2000s. A difficult and uncertain transition of the city's economy away from manufacturing and towards an economy based on services and tourism is still in progress.",
"In 2018, it was announced that, 65 years after the abolition of Italian as the official language of the city, new Croatian\\-Italian bilingual signs will be placed back in the Fiume part of the modern united municipality.{{Cite news\\|url\\=http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/cronache/fiume\\-torna\\-italiana\\-arriva\\-segnaletica\\-bilingue\\-rijeka\\-1581493\\.html\\|title\\=Fiume \"torna\" italiana: arriva la segnaletica bilingue per Rijeka\\|work\\=ilGiornale.it\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-10\\-09\\|language\\=it\\|archive\\-date\\=10 October 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181010012502/http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/cronache/fiume\\-torna\\-italiana\\-arriva\\-segnaletica\\-bilingue\\-rijeka\\-1581493\\.html\\|url\\-status\\=live}}",
"In 2020, Rijeka was voted the [European Capital of Culture](/wiki/European_Capital_of_Culture \"European Capital of Culture\") alongside [Galway](/wiki/Galway \"Galway\"),{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://rijeka2020\\.eu/\\|title\\=Rijeka 2020 – Europska prijestolnica kulture\\|website\\=rijeka2020\\.eu\\|language\\=hr\\-HR\\|access\\-date\\=2018\\-10\\-09\\|archive\\-date\\=9 October 2018\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20181009211651/http://rijeka2020\\.eu/\\|url\\-status\\=live}} with a planned program including more than 600 events of cultural and social importance.",
"[right\\|thumb\\|City government building](/wiki/File:Gradsko_poglavarstvo%2C_Rijeka.jpg \"Gradsko poglavarstvo, Rijeka.jpg\")",
""
] |
Education
---------
Public schools are administered by [School District 42 Maple Ridge\-Pitt Meadows](/wiki/School_District_42_Maple_Ridge-Pitt_Meadows "School District 42 Maple Ridge-Pitt Meadows"). The school district serves residents of Maple Ridge and neighbouring [Pitt Meadows](/wiki/Pitt_Meadows "Pitt Meadows"), along with students transferred in from other [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia "British Columbia") school districts. The district also accepts international students.
The school district operates eighteen elementary schools, five secondary schools, an adult learning centre, a community college, and several other educational facilities in Maple Ridge.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.sd42\.ca/schools \|title\=Schools \| SD42 \|publisher\=Sd42\.ca \|access\-date\=January 14, 2014 \|archive\-date\=October 20, 2020 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020203945/https://www.sd42\.ca/schools/ \|url\-status\=live }}
Several of the five public secondary schools have specialized in certain areas and/or started academy programs to attract more students.
[Thomas Haney Secondary School](/wiki/Thomas_Haney_Secondary_School "Thomas Haney Secondary School") operates on a self\-directed learning system that is designed to allow students to plot their own paths toward fulfilling ministry learning outcomes. The school also operates an equestrian academy for all abilities as well as music, theatre and athletic programs.
Samuel Robertson Technical Secondary School, opened in 2005, was designed to allow students to experience various technologies as well as their traditional education. The school offers various trades programs in partnership with local trade schools and colleges.
[Garibaldi Secondary School](/wiki/Garibaldi_Secondary_School "Garibaldi Secondary School") offers the [International Baccalaureate](/wiki/International_Baccalaureate "International Baccalaureate") program and DigiPen Technology Academy.
[Westview Secondary School](/wiki/Westview_Secondary_School "Westview Secondary School") and [Maple Ridge Secondary School](/wiki/Maple_Ridge_Secondary_School "Maple Ridge Secondary School") are the other two public high schools in Maple Ridge.
Several of the elementary schools also offer non\-traditional systems. These include Kanaka Creek Elementary, which operates a year\-round schooling system, exchanging a long summer break for shorter breaks throughout the year; and Alouette Elementary School, which operates a cyberschool program, enabling some students to work from home on a computer on certain days.
Several private schools are located in Maple Ridge. These include: [Meadowridge School](/wiki/Meadowridge_School "Meadowridge School"), a JK\-12 independent non\-denominational school; James Cameron School, a school for children in Grades 2–7 with learning disabilities; St. Patrick's, a Catholic school, and Maple Ridge Christian School which is K\-12\. These are not operated by the school district, but must still meet the British Columbia Ministry of Education standards.
Post\-secondary education in Maple Ridge is available through:
* [BCIT](/wiki/BCIT "BCIT"), which offers courses as part of the BCIT School of Business Entrepreneurship Associate Certificate Program;{{cite web \|url\=http://commons.bcit.ca/update/2013/07/bcit\-partners\-with\-district\-of\-maple\-ridge\-to\-offer\-business\-courses/ \|title\=BCIT partners with District of Maple Ridge to offer business courses \| Update \|publisher\=Commons.bcit.ca \|date\=July 10, 2013 \|access\-date\=January 14, 2014 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022002959/http://commons.bcit.ca/update/2013/07/bcit\-partners\-with\-district\-of\-maple\-ridge\-to\-offer\-business\-courses/ \|archive\-date\=October 22, 2013 \|url\-status\=dead }}
* [Douglas College](/wiki/Douglas_College "Douglas College"), which has a campus in Thomas Haney Secondary School{{cite web \|url\=http://www.bctransferguide.ca/system/douglas/ \|title\=Douglas College – BC Transfer Guide \|publisher\=Bctransferguide.ca \|access\-date\=January 14, 2014 \|url\-status\=dead \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022183107/http://www.bctransferguide.ca/system/douglas/ \|archive\-date\=October 22, 2013 \|df\=mdy\-all }} and also offers courses at the Ridge Meadows Maternity Clinic;{{cite web \|url\=http://www.douglas.bc.ca/programs/continuing\-education/programs\-courses/perinatal/p\_locations/p\_mridge.html \|title\=Maple Ridge – Prenatal \|publisher\=Douglas.bc.ca \|date\=December 5, 2013 \|access\-date\=January 14, 2014 \|archive\-date\=September 27, 2006 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927074532/http://www.douglas.bc.ca/programs/continuing\-education/programs\-courses/perinatal/p\_locations/p\_mridge.html \|url\-status\=live }} and
* [Sprott Shaw College](/wiki/Sprott_Shaw_College "Sprott Shaw College"), which is a private post\-secondary institution.
|
[
"Education\n---------",
"Public schools are administered by [School District 42 Maple Ridge\\-Pitt Meadows](/wiki/School_District_42_Maple_Ridge-Pitt_Meadows \"School District 42 Maple Ridge-Pitt Meadows\"). The school district serves residents of Maple Ridge and neighbouring [Pitt Meadows](/wiki/Pitt_Meadows \"Pitt Meadows\"), along with students transferred in from other [British Columbia](/wiki/British_Columbia \"British Columbia\") school districts. The district also accepts international students.",
"The school district operates eighteen elementary schools, five secondary schools, an adult learning centre, a community college, and several other educational facilities in Maple Ridge.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sd42\\.ca/schools \\|title\\=Schools \\| SD42 \\|publisher\\=Sd42\\.ca \\|access\\-date\\=January 14, 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=October 20, 2020 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020203945/https://www.sd42\\.ca/schools/ \\|url\\-status\\=live }}",
"Several of the five public secondary schools have specialized in certain areas and/or started academy programs to attract more students.",
"[Thomas Haney Secondary School](/wiki/Thomas_Haney_Secondary_School \"Thomas Haney Secondary School\") operates on a self\\-directed learning system that is designed to allow students to plot their own paths toward fulfilling ministry learning outcomes. The school also operates an equestrian academy for all abilities as well as music, theatre and athletic programs.",
"Samuel Robertson Technical Secondary School, opened in 2005, was designed to allow students to experience various technologies as well as their traditional education. The school offers various trades programs in partnership with local trade schools and colleges.",
"[Garibaldi Secondary School](/wiki/Garibaldi_Secondary_School \"Garibaldi Secondary School\") offers the [International Baccalaureate](/wiki/International_Baccalaureate \"International Baccalaureate\") program and DigiPen Technology Academy.",
"[Westview Secondary School](/wiki/Westview_Secondary_School \"Westview Secondary School\") and [Maple Ridge Secondary School](/wiki/Maple_Ridge_Secondary_School \"Maple Ridge Secondary School\") are the other two public high schools in Maple Ridge.",
"Several of the elementary schools also offer non\\-traditional systems. These include Kanaka Creek Elementary, which operates a year\\-round schooling system, exchanging a long summer break for shorter breaks throughout the year; and Alouette Elementary School, which operates a cyberschool program, enabling some students to work from home on a computer on certain days.",
"Several private schools are located in Maple Ridge. These include: [Meadowridge School](/wiki/Meadowridge_School \"Meadowridge School\"), a JK\\-12 independent non\\-denominational school; James Cameron School, a school for children in Grades 2–7 with learning disabilities; St. Patrick's, a Catholic school, and Maple Ridge Christian School which is K\\-12\\. These are not operated by the school district, but must still meet the British Columbia Ministry of Education standards.",
"Post\\-secondary education in Maple Ridge is available through:\n* [BCIT](/wiki/BCIT \"BCIT\"), which offers courses as part of the BCIT School of Business Entrepreneurship Associate Certificate Program;{{cite web \\|url\\=http://commons.bcit.ca/update/2013/07/bcit\\-partners\\-with\\-district\\-of\\-maple\\-ridge\\-to\\-offer\\-business\\-courses/ \\|title\\=BCIT partners with District of Maple Ridge to offer business courses \\| Update \\|publisher\\=Commons.bcit.ca \\|date\\=July 10, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=January 14, 2014 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022002959/http://commons.bcit.ca/update/2013/07/bcit\\-partners\\-with\\-district\\-of\\-maple\\-ridge\\-to\\-offer\\-business\\-courses/ \\|archive\\-date\\=October 22, 2013 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }}\n* [Douglas College](/wiki/Douglas_College \"Douglas College\"), which has a campus in Thomas Haney Secondary School{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.bctransferguide.ca/system/douglas/ \\|title\\=Douglas College – BC Transfer Guide \\|publisher\\=Bctransferguide.ca \\|access\\-date\\=January 14, 2014 \\|url\\-status\\=dead \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022183107/http://www.bctransferguide.ca/system/douglas/ \\|archive\\-date\\=October 22, 2013 \\|df\\=mdy\\-all }} and also offers courses at the Ridge Meadows Maternity Clinic;{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.douglas.bc.ca/programs/continuing\\-education/programs\\-courses/perinatal/p\\_locations/p\\_mridge.html \\|title\\=Maple Ridge – Prenatal \\|publisher\\=Douglas.bc.ca \\|date\\=December 5, 2013 \\|access\\-date\\=January 14, 2014 \\|archive\\-date\\=September 27, 2006 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927074532/http://www.douglas.bc.ca/programs/continuing\\-education/programs\\-courses/perinatal/p\\_locations/p\\_mridge.html \\|url\\-status\\=live }} and\n* [Sprott Shaw College](/wiki/Sprott_Shaw_College \"Sprott Shaw College\"), which is a private post\\-secondary institution.",
""
] |
Plot
----
Elliot Slater is a young, attractive, Australian professional photographer living in Southern California. Having always been uncomfortable with his sexual proclivities, which tend toward the [BDSM](/wiki/BDSM "BDSM") realm, he signs up for a [dominatrix](/wiki/Dominatrix "Dominatrix")\-themed vacation on a private tropical island known as "Eden" in the hopes of working through his discomfort.
Unbeknownst to him, before embarking on his journey of sexual discovery, he has unwittingly photographed an international jewel thief of whom no other photos exist. The jewel thief Omar and his criminal partner Nina are intent on recovering the film in order to retain Omar's anonymity.
They follow the photographer to the island resort run by the dominatrix, Mistress Lisa Emerson, posing as vacationers. Following a tip that Omar is on the island, undercover police officers Fred Lavery and Sheila Kingston also arrive, Sheila in the guise of a vacationer and Fred as a handyman. When a submissive asks Sheila what he can do to please her, she tells him to go paint her house.
Comedic antics ensue amid the activities of scantily clad guests and employees, acting out their dominant and submissive [fantasies](/wiki/Fantasy_%28psychology%29 "Fantasy (psychology)").
In the course of Elliot's experiences as Mistress Lisa's personal submissive, including a scene where she ties him up and fondles his naked body (especially, his bare buttocks, which she also spanks), the two begin to fall in love. The action comes to a climax on a quick trip to [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans "New Orleans"), where Lisa reluctantly admits her feelings for Elliot, all the while tailed by Omar, who attempts to kill them.
Fred and Sheila save the day, sending Omar and Nina to jail, and receive commendations for solving the case. Elliot returns to Eden and proposes to Lisa, who says yes. Also, the submissive who spoke to Sheila makes good on her request: he has her house painted.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"Elliot Slater is a young, attractive, Australian professional photographer living in Southern California. Having always been uncomfortable with his sexual proclivities, which tend toward the [BDSM](/wiki/BDSM \"BDSM\") realm, he signs up for a [dominatrix](/wiki/Dominatrix \"Dominatrix\")\\-themed vacation on a private tropical island known as \"Eden\" in the hopes of working through his discomfort.",
"Unbeknownst to him, before embarking on his journey of sexual discovery, he has unwittingly photographed an international jewel thief of whom no other photos exist. The jewel thief Omar and his criminal partner Nina are intent on recovering the film in order to retain Omar's anonymity.",
"They follow the photographer to the island resort run by the dominatrix, Mistress Lisa Emerson, posing as vacationers. Following a tip that Omar is on the island, undercover police officers Fred Lavery and Sheila Kingston also arrive, Sheila in the guise of a vacationer and Fred as a handyman. When a submissive asks Sheila what he can do to please her, she tells him to go paint her house.",
"Comedic antics ensue amid the activities of scantily clad guests and employees, acting out their dominant and submissive [fantasies](/wiki/Fantasy_%28psychology%29 \"Fantasy (psychology)\").",
"In the course of Elliot's experiences as Mistress Lisa's personal submissive, including a scene where she ties him up and fondles his naked body (especially, his bare buttocks, which she also spanks), the two begin to fall in love. The action comes to a climax on a quick trip to [New Orleans](/wiki/New_Orleans \"New Orleans\"), where Lisa reluctantly admits her feelings for Elliot, all the while tailed by Omar, who attempts to kill them.",
"Fred and Sheila save the day, sending Omar and Nina to jail, and receive commendations for solving the case. Elliot returns to Eden and proposes to Lisa, who says yes. Also, the submissive who spoke to Sheila makes good on her request: he has her house painted.",
""
] |
Academics
---------
| \+ {{nowrap\|School Profile}} |
| --- |
| Year | Enrollment | Student\-Teacher Ratio |
| 2018 | 1,317 | 19:1 |
| 2017 | 1,436 | 21:1 |
| 2016 | 1,462 | 22:1 |
| 2015 | 1,420 | 22:1 |
| 2014 | 1,380 | 21:1 |
| 2013 | 1,385 | 21:1 |
| 2012 | 1,396 | 21:1 |
### Jamaica Scholars
{{refbegin\|colwidth\=20em}}
* [Henry Vernon Wong](/wiki/Henry_Vernon_Wong "Henry Vernon Wong") (1957\)
* Eddison Leighton (1983\)
{{refend\|colwidth\=20em}}
### Rhodes Scholars
{{refbegin\|colwidth\=20em}}
* [Rex Nettleford](/wiki/Rex_Nettleford "Rex Nettleford") (1957\)
* [Henry Vernon Wong](/wiki/Henry_Vernon_Wong "Henry Vernon Wong") (1961\)
* Ernest Milton Hew (1964\)
* David McBean (1988\)
{{refend}}
{{cite web\|url\=https://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/alumni\-volunteers/rhodes\-scholar\-database/\|title\=Rhodes Scholar Database\|accessdate\=20 Aug 2020}}{{cite web\|url\=http://www.rhodes\-caribbean.com/register1\.html/\|title\=Register of Jamaican Rhodes Scholars\|accessdate\=20 Aug 2020}}
### Extracurricular activities
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=August 2017}}
Cornwall has been successful{{Vague\|date\=August 2017}} in extracurricular activities such as the performing arts, essay competitions, and debating competitions.
Additionally, achievements in the performing arts, one of the school's oldest and most successful, yet under\-appreciated/supported societies has done excellently over the years. The young men have copped several gold and silver medals and national awards in the annual JCDC festival of the arts competition (Music \& Speech) and have performed nationally at several functions island wide. Recently,{{When\|date\=August 2017}} the performing arts society underwent a change in the operations of its award\-winning boys choir (CCBC). The school's closest neighboring school – the Mount Alvernia high school for girls V was incorporated into the school's performing arts society. They are dubbed the MACC (pronounced 'mak) Singers \- (Mount Alvernia Cornwall College Singers) and serve as the combined choir for both schools. The choir has lived up to the expectations of both schools' high performance in music and have won numerous awards at music festival and the Dr. Olive Lewin Award for best choral music presentation twice (2012 and 2013\).
Cornwall College has an adequate Interact Club (of Rotary International) which is a major club of its sort in western Jamaica. Their ruling government is unknown.
The art department is a well\-known patron of many national poster competitions.
The Geography Club of Cornwall has participated in several events and return many trophies to the institution.
The Cornwall College Chess Club has a history of being one of the stronger chess teams in western Jamaica.
The Cornwall College cadet unit was placed first in the 4th battalion and third in the 2011 annual inspection. Cadets from Cornwall captured the top four positions on the star four examinations in February 2011\. This was the first time the top four positions were taken by cadets from the same unit. Cadets from Cornwall were engaged in World War II.
|
[
"Academics\n---------",
"",
"| \\+ {{nowrap\\|School Profile}} |\n| --- |\n| Year | Enrollment | Student\\-Teacher Ratio |\n| 2018 | 1,317 | 19:1 |\n| 2017 | 1,436 | 21:1 |\n| 2016 | 1,462 | 22:1 |\n| 2015 | 1,420 | 22:1 |\n| 2014 | 1,380 | 21:1 |\n| 2013 | 1,385 | 21:1 |\n| 2012 | 1,396 | 21:1 |",
"### Jamaica Scholars",
"{{refbegin\\|colwidth\\=20em}}\n* [Henry Vernon Wong](/wiki/Henry_Vernon_Wong \"Henry Vernon Wong\") (1957\\)\n* Eddison Leighton (1983\\)\n{{refend\\|colwidth\\=20em}}",
"### Rhodes Scholars",
"{{refbegin\\|colwidth\\=20em}}\n* [Rex Nettleford](/wiki/Rex_Nettleford \"Rex Nettleford\") (1957\\)\n* [Henry Vernon Wong](/wiki/Henry_Vernon_Wong \"Henry Vernon Wong\") (1961\\)\n* Ernest Milton Hew (1964\\)\n* David McBean (1988\\)\n{{refend}}\n{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.rhodeshouse.ox.ac.uk/alumni\\-volunteers/rhodes\\-scholar\\-database/\\|title\\=Rhodes Scholar Database\\|accessdate\\=20 Aug 2020}}{{cite web\\|url\\=http://www.rhodes\\-caribbean.com/register1\\.html/\\|title\\=Register of Jamaican Rhodes Scholars\\|accessdate\\=20 Aug 2020}}",
"### Extracurricular activities",
"{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=August 2017}}\nCornwall has been successful{{Vague\\|date\\=August 2017}} in extracurricular activities such as the performing arts, essay competitions, and debating competitions.",
"Additionally, achievements in the performing arts, one of the school's oldest and most successful, yet under\\-appreciated/supported societies has done excellently over the years. The young men have copped several gold and silver medals and national awards in the annual JCDC festival of the arts competition (Music \\& Speech) and have performed nationally at several functions island wide. Recently,{{When\\|date\\=August 2017}} the performing arts society underwent a change in the operations of its award\\-winning boys choir (CCBC). The school's closest neighboring school – the Mount Alvernia high school for girls V was incorporated into the school's performing arts society. They are dubbed the MACC (pronounced 'mak) Singers \\- (Mount Alvernia Cornwall College Singers) and serve as the combined choir for both schools. The choir has lived up to the expectations of both schools' high performance in music and have won numerous awards at music festival and the Dr. Olive Lewin Award for best choral music presentation twice (2012 and 2013\\).",
"Cornwall College has an adequate Interact Club (of Rotary International) which is a major club of its sort in western Jamaica. Their ruling government is unknown.",
"The art department is a well\\-known patron of many national poster competitions.",
"The Geography Club of Cornwall has participated in several events and return many trophies to the institution.",
"The Cornwall College Chess Club has a history of being one of the stronger chess teams in western Jamaica.",
"The Cornwall College cadet unit was placed first in the 4th battalion and third in the 2011 annual inspection. Cadets from Cornwall captured the top four positions on the star four examinations in February 2011\\. This was the first time the top four positions were taken by cadets from the same unit. Cadets from Cornwall were engaged in World War II.",
""
] |
### Extracurricular activities
{{Unreferenced section\|date\=August 2017}}
Cornwall has been successful{{Vague\|date\=August 2017}} in extracurricular activities such as the performing arts, essay competitions, and debating competitions.
Additionally, achievements in the performing arts, one of the school's oldest and most successful, yet under\-appreciated/supported societies has done excellently over the years. The young men have copped several gold and silver medals and national awards in the annual JCDC festival of the arts competition (Music \& Speech) and have performed nationally at several functions island wide. Recently,{{When\|date\=August 2017}} the performing arts society underwent a change in the operations of its award\-winning boys choir (CCBC). The school's closest neighboring school – the Mount Alvernia high school for girls V was incorporated into the school's performing arts society. They are dubbed the MACC (pronounced 'mak) Singers \- (Mount Alvernia Cornwall College Singers) and serve as the combined choir for both schools. The choir has lived up to the expectations of both schools' high performance in music and have won numerous awards at music festival and the Dr. Olive Lewin Award for best choral music presentation twice (2012 and 2013\).
Cornwall College has an adequate Interact Club (of Rotary International) which is a major club of its sort in western Jamaica. Their ruling government is unknown.
The art department is a well\-known patron of many national poster competitions.
The Geography Club of Cornwall has participated in several events and return many trophies to the institution.
The Cornwall College Chess Club has a history of being one of the stronger chess teams in western Jamaica.
The Cornwall College cadet unit was placed first in the 4th battalion and third in the 2011 annual inspection. Cadets from Cornwall captured the top four positions on the star four examinations in February 2011\. This was the first time the top four positions were taken by cadets from the same unit. Cadets from Cornwall were engaged in World War II.
|
[
"### Extracurricular activities",
"{{Unreferenced section\\|date\\=August 2017}}\nCornwall has been successful{{Vague\\|date\\=August 2017}} in extracurricular activities such as the performing arts, essay competitions, and debating competitions.",
"Additionally, achievements in the performing arts, one of the school's oldest and most successful, yet under\\-appreciated/supported societies has done excellently over the years. The young men have copped several gold and silver medals and national awards in the annual JCDC festival of the arts competition (Music \\& Speech) and have performed nationally at several functions island wide. Recently,{{When\\|date\\=August 2017}} the performing arts society underwent a change in the operations of its award\\-winning boys choir (CCBC). The school's closest neighboring school – the Mount Alvernia high school for girls V was incorporated into the school's performing arts society. They are dubbed the MACC (pronounced 'mak) Singers \\- (Mount Alvernia Cornwall College Singers) and serve as the combined choir for both schools. The choir has lived up to the expectations of both schools' high performance in music and have won numerous awards at music festival and the Dr. Olive Lewin Award for best choral music presentation twice (2012 and 2013\\).",
"Cornwall College has an adequate Interact Club (of Rotary International) which is a major club of its sort in western Jamaica. Their ruling government is unknown.",
"The art department is a well\\-known patron of many national poster competitions.",
"The Geography Club of Cornwall has participated in several events and return many trophies to the institution.",
"The Cornwall College Chess Club has a history of being one of the stronger chess teams in western Jamaica.",
"The Cornwall College cadet unit was placed first in the 4th battalion and third in the 2011 annual inspection. Cadets from Cornwall captured the top four positions on the star four examinations in February 2011\\. This was the first time the top four positions were taken by cadets from the same unit. Cadets from Cornwall were engaged in World War II.",
""
] |
Synopsis
--------
A king and queen made a vow that, if they had a child, they would make one fountain run with oil and another with wine. The queen gave birth to a son, and they set up the fountains so that everyone could take oil and wine. At the end of the seven years, the fountains were running dry, and an [ogress](/wiki/Ogre "Ogre") came to take the last with a sponge and pitcher. Once she had labored to collect it all, the prince threw a ball, breaking the pitcher. She cursed him to be unable to marry until he found Snow\-White\-Fire\-Red.
When he grew up, he remembered this and set out. One night he slept in a great plain where there was a large house. In the morning, he saw an ogress come and call to Snow\-White\-Fire\-Red to let down her hair. When the ogress left, he called to her, and she, thinking it was her mother (as she called the ogress), let down her hair. He climbed it and told her his tale. She told him the ogress would eat him, and so she hid him and asked the ogress how she could escape, if she wanted to. The ogress told her that she would have to enchant all the furniture to answer in her own voice, but that ogress would climb and find out in time, and so she would have to take seven balls of yarn and throw them down as the ogress caught up.
Snow\-White\-Fire\-Red enchanted all the furniture, took the yarn, and fled with the prince. The ogress called to the furniture, and it answered until finally she climbed and discovered that the girl was gone. She chased after, calling to Snow\-White\-Fire\-Red to turn around, which would have let her enchant her. Snow\-White\-Fire\-Red threw down the yarn, and each ball impeded and injured her until she cursed the prince to forget Snow\-White\-Fire\-Red as soon as his mother kissed him, and the ogress died.
The lovers went on, and the prince told Snow\-White\-Fire\-Red that he would get her suitable clothing to appear at court. He forbade his mother to kiss him, but she came into his bedroom at night and kissed him while he slept, and he forgot Snow\-White\-Fire\-Red.
An old woman took pity on Snow\-White\-Fire\-Red and took her home. Snow\-White\-Fire\-Red made marvelous things, and the old woman sold them. One day she told the old woman to get her scraps of cloth from the palace, and she dressed two doves that the old woman owned. The two birds flew to the palace, where everyone admired them, and the doves told the story of how the prince had won Snow\-White\-Fire\-Red. He remembered and ordered the birds to be followed, and soon he and Snow\-White\-Fire\-Red were married.
|
[
"Synopsis\n--------",
"A king and queen made a vow that, if they had a child, they would make one fountain run with oil and another with wine. The queen gave birth to a son, and they set up the fountains so that everyone could take oil and wine. At the end of the seven years, the fountains were running dry, and an [ogress](/wiki/Ogre \"Ogre\") came to take the last with a sponge and pitcher. Once she had labored to collect it all, the prince threw a ball, breaking the pitcher. She cursed him to be unable to marry until he found Snow\\-White\\-Fire\\-Red.",
"When he grew up, he remembered this and set out. One night he slept in a great plain where there was a large house. In the morning, he saw an ogress come and call to Snow\\-White\\-Fire\\-Red to let down her hair. When the ogress left, he called to her, and she, thinking it was her mother (as she called the ogress), let down her hair. He climbed it and told her his tale. She told him the ogress would eat him, and so she hid him and asked the ogress how she could escape, if she wanted to. The ogress told her that she would have to enchant all the furniture to answer in her own voice, but that ogress would climb and find out in time, and so she would have to take seven balls of yarn and throw them down as the ogress caught up.",
"Snow\\-White\\-Fire\\-Red enchanted all the furniture, took the yarn, and fled with the prince. The ogress called to the furniture, and it answered until finally she climbed and discovered that the girl was gone. She chased after, calling to Snow\\-White\\-Fire\\-Red to turn around, which would have let her enchant her. Snow\\-White\\-Fire\\-Red threw down the yarn, and each ball impeded and injured her until she cursed the prince to forget Snow\\-White\\-Fire\\-Red as soon as his mother kissed him, and the ogress died.",
"The lovers went on, and the prince told Snow\\-White\\-Fire\\-Red that he would get her suitable clothing to appear at court. He forbade his mother to kiss him, but she came into his bedroom at night and kissed him while he slept, and he forgot Snow\\-White\\-Fire\\-Red.",
"An old woman took pity on Snow\\-White\\-Fire\\-Red and took her home. Snow\\-White\\-Fire\\-Red made marvelous things, and the old woman sold them. One day she told the old woman to get her scraps of cloth from the palace, and she dressed two doves that the old woman owned. The two birds flew to the palace, where everyone admired them, and the doves told the story of how the prince had won Snow\\-White\\-Fire\\-Red. He remembered and ordered the birds to be followed, and soon he and Snow\\-White\\-Fire\\-Red were married.",
""
] |
Career
------
[thumb\|upright\|Burnand's photograph of furniture designer [Tim Gosling](/wiki/Tim_Gosling "Tim Gosling"), taken April 2012](/wiki/File:Tim_Gosling_-_Furniture_Designer.jpg "Tim Gosling - Furniture Designer.jpg")
Burnand became a professional photographer aged 27 and worked as the 'Bystander' photographer of high society for *[Tatler](/wiki/Tatler "Tatler")* magazine for 20 years.{{cite news\|last\=Spranklen\|first\=Annabelle\|url\=https://www.townandcountrymag.com/society/tradition/a27256185/prince\-william\-kate\-middleton\-wedding\-anniversary\-photographer\-hugo\-burnand\-interview/\|title\=Prince William and Kate Middleton Almost Didn't Take Their Most Iconic Wedding Photograph\|date\=21 April 2021\|work\=\[\[Town \& Country (magazine)\|Town \& Country]]\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331122830/https://www.townandcountrymag.com/society/tradition/a27256185/prince\-william\-kate\-middleton\-wedding\-anniversary\-photographer\-hugo\-burnand\-interview/ \|accessdate\=31 March 2023\|archive\-date\=31 March 2023 }} During his time at *Tatler* he photographed [Boy George](/wiki/Boy_George "Boy George") and [Margaret Thatcher](/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher "Margaret Thatcher"), [John F. Kennedy Jr.](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Jr. "John F. Kennedy Jr.") and [Carolyn Bessette\-Kennedy](/wiki/Carolyn_Bessette-Kennedy "Carolyn Bessette-Kennedy").{{cite news\|last1\=Low\|first1\=Valentine\|title\=Photographer who won confidence of Royal Family focuses on the task of capturing history\|url\=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/IF0504217799/TTDA?u\=wes\_ttda\&sid\=bookmark\-TTDA\&xid\=4d4b36f2\|accessdate\=31 March 2023\|work\=\[\[The Times]]\|issue\=70246\|date\=29 April 2011\|page\=14}} Burnand asked Thatcher and her husband [Denis](/wiki/Denis_Thatcher "Denis Thatcher") to hold hands when he photographed them for their golden wedding anniversary. Burnand recalled that the couple reluctantly held hands as took four shots before Margaret said "That's enough of that".
Burnand said in a 2021 interview that the reason why he takes photographs and travels the world is that he "...really, really enjoy\[s] it and want\[s] to keep doing it" and that he tries "not to fuck it up".
### Royal photography
Burnand was the official photographer for the [wedding of Prince Charles and Camilla Parker Bowles](/wiki/Wedding_of_Prince_Charles_and_Camilla_Parker_Bowles "Wedding of Prince Charles and Camilla Parker Bowles") in 2005\. At the time Camilla emailed him to ask if he was available to take photographs for "a big date" she had coming up in April 2005, Burnand was on a six\-month holiday with his family in South America and all his camera equipment had been stolen. In May 2024, he was granted a Royal Warrant for photography, granted by His Majesty King Charles III.
He subsequently started photographing Charles's sons, princes [William](/wiki/Prince_William_of_Wales "Prince William of Wales") and [Harry](/wiki/Prince_Harry%2C_Duke_of_Sussex "Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex") and was chosen to be the official photographer for the [wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton](/wiki/Wedding_of_Prince_William_and_Catherine_Middleton "Wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton") in 2011\. Burnand prepared for three weeks prior to the wedding and lit the Throne Room of [Buckingham Palace](/wiki/Buckingham_Palace "Buckingham Palace"). He and his staff performed dress rehearsals with stopwatches to accurately plan the photography which had to be completed before a fly past at 1:30 pm. His mother gave out [jelly beans](/wiki/Jelly_bean "Jelly bean") to ensure the behaviour of the many children who were [page boys and girls](/wiki/Page_boy_%28wedding_attendant%29 "Page boy (wedding attendant)"). Burnand and Catherine planned the staging of many of the photographs before the day of the wedding. Burnand's favourite photograph that he and Catherine planned was of William and Catherine with their page boys and girls. Burnand felt he may have been "subliminally" inspired by [Franz Winterhalter](/wiki/Franz_Winterhalter "Franz Winterhalter")'s 1846 painting of Queen Victoria and her children.
Burnand took the official 60th birthday photograph of Prince Charles, inspired by [James Tissot](/wiki/James_Tissot "James Tissot")'s 1870 portrait of the soldier and adventurer [Frederick Burnaby](/wiki/Frederick_Burnaby "Frederick Burnaby").{{cite news\|last1\=Low\|first1\=Valentine\|title\=He was a jolly good fellow: the laid\-back adventurer who inspired a royal portrait\|url\=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/IF0503762490/TTDA?u\=wes\_ttda\&sid\=bookmark\-TTDA\&xid\=630f6f8d\|accessdate\=31 March 2023\|work\=\[\[The Times]]\|issue\=69481\|date\=14 November 2008\|page\=4}}
In 2023 he was the official photographer for the [coronation of Charles III and Camilla](/wiki/Coronation_of_Charles_III_and_Camilla "Coronation of Charles III and Camilla"). In May 2024, it was announced that Burnand had has his Royal Warrant upheld, meaning that his business could bear the inscription ‘by appointment to His Majesty The King’.
### Other work
Burnand helped establish a wildlife conservation charity to help preserve wildlife in Panama. His 2017 exhibition of photographs of indigenous tribes were displayed at the [Victoria and Albert Museum](/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum "Victoria and Albert Museum").
|
[
"Career\n------",
"[thumb\\|upright\\|Burnand's photograph of furniture designer [Tim Gosling](/wiki/Tim_Gosling \"Tim Gosling\"), taken April 2012](/wiki/File:Tim_Gosling_-_Furniture_Designer.jpg \"Tim Gosling - Furniture Designer.jpg\")",
"Burnand became a professional photographer aged 27 and worked as the 'Bystander' photographer of high society for *[Tatler](/wiki/Tatler \"Tatler\")* magazine for 20 years.{{cite news\\|last\\=Spranklen\\|first\\=Annabelle\\|url\\=https://www.townandcountrymag.com/society/tradition/a27256185/prince\\-william\\-kate\\-middleton\\-wedding\\-anniversary\\-photographer\\-hugo\\-burnand\\-interview/\\|title\\=Prince William and Kate Middleton Almost Didn't Take Their Most Iconic Wedding Photograph\\|date\\=21 April 2021\\|work\\=\\[\\[Town \\& Country (magazine)\\|Town \\& Country]]\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331122830/https://www.townandcountrymag.com/society/tradition/a27256185/prince\\-william\\-kate\\-middleton\\-wedding\\-anniversary\\-photographer\\-hugo\\-burnand\\-interview/ \\|accessdate\\=31 March 2023\\|archive\\-date\\=31 March 2023 }} During his time at *Tatler* he photographed [Boy George](/wiki/Boy_George \"Boy George\") and [Margaret Thatcher](/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher \"Margaret Thatcher\"), [John F. Kennedy Jr.](/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Jr. \"John F. Kennedy Jr.\") and [Carolyn Bessette\\-Kennedy](/wiki/Carolyn_Bessette-Kennedy \"Carolyn Bessette-Kennedy\").{{cite news\\|last1\\=Low\\|first1\\=Valentine\\|title\\=Photographer who won confidence of Royal Family focuses on the task of capturing history\\|url\\=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/IF0504217799/TTDA?u\\=wes\\_ttda\\&sid\\=bookmark\\-TTDA\\&xid\\=4d4b36f2\\|accessdate\\=31 March 2023\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Times]]\\|issue\\=70246\\|date\\=29 April 2011\\|page\\=14}} Burnand asked Thatcher and her husband [Denis](/wiki/Denis_Thatcher \"Denis Thatcher\") to hold hands when he photographed them for their golden wedding anniversary. Burnand recalled that the couple reluctantly held hands as took four shots before Margaret said \"That's enough of that\".",
"Burnand said in a 2021 interview that the reason why he takes photographs and travels the world is that he \"...really, really enjoy\\[s] it and want\\[s] to keep doing it\" and that he tries \"not to fuck it up\".",
"### Royal photography",
"Burnand was the official photographer for the [wedding of Prince Charles and Camilla Parker Bowles](/wiki/Wedding_of_Prince_Charles_and_Camilla_Parker_Bowles \"Wedding of Prince Charles and Camilla Parker Bowles\") in 2005\\. At the time Camilla emailed him to ask if he was available to take photographs for \"a big date\" she had coming up in April 2005, Burnand was on a six\\-month holiday with his family in South America and all his camera equipment had been stolen. In May 2024, he was granted a Royal Warrant for photography, granted by His Majesty King Charles III.",
"He subsequently started photographing Charles's sons, princes [William](/wiki/Prince_William_of_Wales \"Prince William of Wales\") and [Harry](/wiki/Prince_Harry%2C_Duke_of_Sussex \"Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex\") and was chosen to be the official photographer for the [wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton](/wiki/Wedding_of_Prince_William_and_Catherine_Middleton \"Wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton\") in 2011\\. Burnand prepared for three weeks prior to the wedding and lit the Throne Room of [Buckingham Palace](/wiki/Buckingham_Palace \"Buckingham Palace\"). He and his staff performed dress rehearsals with stopwatches to accurately plan the photography which had to be completed before a fly past at 1:30 pm. His mother gave out [jelly beans](/wiki/Jelly_bean \"Jelly bean\") to ensure the behaviour of the many children who were [page boys and girls](/wiki/Page_boy_%28wedding_attendant%29 \"Page boy (wedding attendant)\"). Burnand and Catherine planned the staging of many of the photographs before the day of the wedding. Burnand's favourite photograph that he and Catherine planned was of William and Catherine with their page boys and girls. Burnand felt he may have been \"subliminally\" inspired by [Franz Winterhalter](/wiki/Franz_Winterhalter \"Franz Winterhalter\")'s 1846 painting of Queen Victoria and her children.",
"Burnand took the official 60th birthday photograph of Prince Charles, inspired by [James Tissot](/wiki/James_Tissot \"James Tissot\")'s 1870 portrait of the soldier and adventurer [Frederick Burnaby](/wiki/Frederick_Burnaby \"Frederick Burnaby\").{{cite news\\|last1\\=Low\\|first1\\=Valentine\\|title\\=He was a jolly good fellow: the laid\\-back adventurer who inspired a royal portrait\\|url\\=https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/IF0503762490/TTDA?u\\=wes\\_ttda\\&sid\\=bookmark\\-TTDA\\&xid\\=630f6f8d\\|accessdate\\=31 March 2023\\|work\\=\\[\\[The Times]]\\|issue\\=69481\\|date\\=14 November 2008\\|page\\=4}}",
"In 2023 he was the official photographer for the [coronation of Charles III and Camilla](/wiki/Coronation_of_Charles_III_and_Camilla \"Coronation of Charles III and Camilla\"). In May 2024, it was announced that Burnand had has his Royal Warrant upheld, meaning that his business could bear the inscription ‘by appointment to His Majesty The King’.",
"### Other work",
"Burnand helped establish a wildlife conservation charity to help preserve wildlife in Panama. His 2017 exhibition of photographs of indigenous tribes were displayed at the [Victoria and Albert Museum](/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum \"Victoria and Albert Museum\").",
""
] |
Geology
-------
Like many of the mountain ranges in County Kerry, such as the [MacGillycuddy Reeks](/wiki/MacGillycuddy_Reeks "MacGillycuddy Reeks") in the [Iveragh Peninsula](/wiki/Iveragh_Peninsula "Iveragh Peninsula"), the Slieve Mish Mountains are composed predominantly of [Devonian](/wiki/Devonian "Devonian") period [Old Red Sandstone](/wiki/Old_Red_Sandstone "Old Red Sandstone"), with a band of [Ordovician](/wiki/Ordovician "Ordovician") period [metasediments](/wiki/Metasediments "Metasediments") on the western slopes of the range.{{cite web \| url\=https://www.npws.ie/sites/default/files/protected\-sites/natura2000/NF002185\.pdf \| title\=Slieve Mish Mountains SAC \| date\=September 2017 \| accessdate\=20 July 2019 \| publisher\=\[\[National Parks and Wildlife Service (Ireland)]]}}{{cite web\|url\=https://www.npws.ie/sites/default/files/protected\-sites/synopsis/SY002185\.pdf\|title\=Site Name: Slieve Mish Mountains (Special Area of Conservation)\|publisher\=Department of Arts Heritage and the Gaeltacht \| date\=20 July 2016 \| accessdate\=20 July 2019 }}
The rocks of the Slieve Mish Mountains and the [Brandon Group](/wiki/Mount_Brandon "Mount Brandon") in the Dingle Peninsula are [Ordovician](/wiki/Ordovician "Ordovician") to Late [Carboniferous](/wiki/Carboniferous "Carboniferous") in age, 485 to 330 millions years ago (Ma).Williams B, 2020, The Dingle Peninsula: A Kerry Diamond, Geoexpro [https://geoexpro.com/the\-dingle\-peninsula\-a\-kerry\-diamond/](https://geoexpro.com/the-dingle-peninsula-a-kerry-diamond/)
At the time Ireland was in a hot equatorial setting.{{cite book \| last1 \= Ryan \| first1 \= Jim \| title \= Carrauntoohil and MacGillycuddy's Reeks: A Walking Guide to Ireland's Highest Mountains \| publisher \= Collins Press \| isbn \= 978\-1905172337 \| year \= 2006 }} During a 60 million year period, Ireland was the site of a major basin, known as the Munster basin, and Cork and Kerry were effectively a large alluvial floodplain.
The rocks in the Dinge Peninsula have an earlier, [Silurian](/wiki/Silurian "Silurian"), shallow marine [facies](/wiki/Facies "Facies") and a later, [Devonian](/wiki/Devonian "Devonian"), continental red\-bed facies. The transition between the two is [unconformable](/wiki/Unconformable "Unconformable") or [faulted](/wiki/Fault_%28geology%29 "Fault (geology)"). The island of [Inishnabro](/wiki/Inishnabro "Inishnabro") just off the peninsula is an exception in the area in that the contact between the two facies is conformable.
The rocks are purple–red due to the oxidation of iron\-rich sediments which accumulated in semi\-arid climate. In places they are green from chlorination. These colours are still visible today. There are virtually no fossils in Old Red Sandstone. The composition of Old Red Sandstone is variable. Largely fluvial [sandstones](/wiki/Sandstone "Sandstone") and [conglomerates](/wiki/Conglomerate_%28geology%29 "Conglomerate (geology)") dominate and there are [mudstones](/wiki/Mudstone "Mudstone"), [siltstones](/wiki/Siltstone "Siltstone"). Boulders containing quartz pebbles are visible throughout the range.
The [Palaeozoic](/wiki/Paleozoic "Paleozoic") rocks of the Dinge Peninsula have been affected by deformations caused by three [orogenies](/wiki/Orogenies "Orogenies") (mountain building events) the Early [Caledonian](/wiki/Caledonian_orogeny "Caledonian orogeny") (c. 470 Ma) [Acadian](/wiki/Caledonian_orogeny "Caledonian orogeny") (c. 400 Ma) and [Variscan](/wiki/Variscan_orogeny "Variscan orogeny") (c. 318–297 Ma) orogenies. The Variscan orogeny [uplifted](/wiki/Tectonic_uplift "Tectonic uplift") and deformed the [Devonian](/wiki/Devonian "Devonian") and Early [Carboniferous](/wiki/Carboniferous "Carboniferous") rocks, tightened the [folds](/wiki/Fold_%28geology%29 "Fold (geology)") of the Caledonian and Acadian orogenies and reactivated many of the older major [faults](/wiki/Fault_%28geology%29 "Fault (geology)"). Very large NE\-SE trending (in the west) and E\-W trending (in the east) open upright folds were created in the Dinge Peninsula. The Slieve Mish [Anticline](/wiki/Anticline "Anticline") in the east provides evidence of this. The [erosional](/wiki/Erosion_surface "Erosion surface") products of this were deposited in the Munster Basin.
The Slieve Mish range was also subject to significant glaciation with [corries](/wiki/Cirque "Cirque") (e.g. the upper lakes of the Derrymore Glen), [U\-shaped valleys](/wiki/U-shaped_valley "U-shaped valley") (e.g. the Derrymore Glen and the Curraheen Glen), however the range does not have the sharp rocky [arêtes](/wiki/Ar%C3%AAte "Arête") and ridges of the MacGillycuddy Reeks range.
|
[
"Geology\n-------",
"Like many of the mountain ranges in County Kerry, such as the [MacGillycuddy Reeks](/wiki/MacGillycuddy_Reeks \"MacGillycuddy Reeks\") in the [Iveragh Peninsula](/wiki/Iveragh_Peninsula \"Iveragh Peninsula\"), the Slieve Mish Mountains are composed predominantly of [Devonian](/wiki/Devonian \"Devonian\") period [Old Red Sandstone](/wiki/Old_Red_Sandstone \"Old Red Sandstone\"), with a band of [Ordovician](/wiki/Ordovician \"Ordovician\") period [metasediments](/wiki/Metasediments \"Metasediments\") on the western slopes of the range.{{cite web \\| url\\=https://www.npws.ie/sites/default/files/protected\\-sites/natura2000/NF002185\\.pdf \\| title\\=Slieve Mish Mountains SAC \\| date\\=September 2017 \\| accessdate\\=20 July 2019 \\| publisher\\=\\[\\[National Parks and Wildlife Service (Ireland)]]}}{{cite web\\|url\\=https://www.npws.ie/sites/default/files/protected\\-sites/synopsis/SY002185\\.pdf\\|title\\=Site Name: Slieve Mish Mountains (Special Area of Conservation)\\|publisher\\=Department of Arts Heritage and the Gaeltacht \\| date\\=20 July 2016 \\| accessdate\\=20 July 2019 }}",
"The rocks of the Slieve Mish Mountains and the [Brandon Group](/wiki/Mount_Brandon \"Mount Brandon\") in the Dingle Peninsula are [Ordovician](/wiki/Ordovician \"Ordovician\") to Late [Carboniferous](/wiki/Carboniferous \"Carboniferous\") in age, 485 to 330 millions years ago (Ma).Williams B, 2020, The Dingle Peninsula: A Kerry Diamond, Geoexpro [https://geoexpro.com/the\\-dingle\\-peninsula\\-a\\-kerry\\-diamond/](https://geoexpro.com/the-dingle-peninsula-a-kerry-diamond/)",
"At the time Ireland was in a hot equatorial setting.{{cite book \\| last1 \\= Ryan \\| first1 \\= Jim \\| title \\= Carrauntoohil and MacGillycuddy's Reeks: A Walking Guide to Ireland's Highest Mountains \\| publisher \\= Collins Press \\| isbn \\= 978\\-1905172337 \\| year \\= 2006 }} During a 60 million year period, Ireland was the site of a major basin, known as the Munster basin, and Cork and Kerry were effectively a large alluvial floodplain.",
"The rocks in the Dinge Peninsula have an earlier, [Silurian](/wiki/Silurian \"Silurian\"), shallow marine [facies](/wiki/Facies \"Facies\") and a later, [Devonian](/wiki/Devonian \"Devonian\"), continental red\\-bed facies. The transition between the two is [unconformable](/wiki/Unconformable \"Unconformable\") or [faulted](/wiki/Fault_%28geology%29 \"Fault (geology)\"). The island of [Inishnabro](/wiki/Inishnabro \"Inishnabro\") just off the peninsula is an exception in the area in that the contact between the two facies is conformable.",
"The rocks are purple–red due to the oxidation of iron\\-rich sediments which accumulated in semi\\-arid climate. In places they are green from chlorination. These colours are still visible today. There are virtually no fossils in Old Red Sandstone. The composition of Old Red Sandstone is variable. Largely fluvial [sandstones](/wiki/Sandstone \"Sandstone\") and [conglomerates](/wiki/Conglomerate_%28geology%29 \"Conglomerate (geology)\") dominate and there are [mudstones](/wiki/Mudstone \"Mudstone\"), [siltstones](/wiki/Siltstone \"Siltstone\"). Boulders containing quartz pebbles are visible throughout the range.",
"The [Palaeozoic](/wiki/Paleozoic \"Paleozoic\") rocks of the Dinge Peninsula have been affected by deformations caused by three [orogenies](/wiki/Orogenies \"Orogenies\") (mountain building events) the Early [Caledonian](/wiki/Caledonian_orogeny \"Caledonian orogeny\") (c. 470 Ma) [Acadian](/wiki/Caledonian_orogeny \"Caledonian orogeny\") (c. 400 Ma) and [Variscan](/wiki/Variscan_orogeny \"Variscan orogeny\") (c. 318–297 Ma) orogenies. The Variscan orogeny [uplifted](/wiki/Tectonic_uplift \"Tectonic uplift\") and deformed the [Devonian](/wiki/Devonian \"Devonian\") and Early [Carboniferous](/wiki/Carboniferous \"Carboniferous\") rocks, tightened the [folds](/wiki/Fold_%28geology%29 \"Fold (geology)\") of the Caledonian and Acadian orogenies and reactivated many of the older major [faults](/wiki/Fault_%28geology%29 \"Fault (geology)\"). Very large NE\\-SE trending (in the west) and E\\-W trending (in the east) open upright folds were created in the Dinge Peninsula. The Slieve Mish [Anticline](/wiki/Anticline \"Anticline\") in the east provides evidence of this. The [erosional](/wiki/Erosion_surface \"Erosion surface\") products of this were deposited in the Munster Basin.",
"The Slieve Mish range was also subject to significant glaciation with [corries](/wiki/Cirque \"Cirque\") (e.g. the upper lakes of the Derrymore Glen), [U\\-shaped valleys](/wiki/U-shaped_valley \"U-shaped valley\") (e.g. the Derrymore Glen and the Curraheen Glen), however the range does not have the sharp rocky [arêtes](/wiki/Ar%C3%AAte \"Arête\") and ridges of the MacGillycuddy Reeks range.",
""
] |
The dialogue
------------
### Introduction
The dialogue begins with an unnamed friend of Socrates asking him how his pursuit of the young Alcibiades, just now reputed to be growing his first beard, is proceeding. Socrates explains that while he has just been in the company of Alcibiades, his mind is now on more interesting matters. He says that the [Sophist](/wiki/Sophist "Sophist") [Protagoras](/wiki/Protagoras "Protagoras"), the wisest man alive (309c–d), is in town. Socrates relates the story of how his young friend, Hippocrates, son of Apollodorus, came knocking on his door before daybreak and roused him out of bed. Hippocrates was in a big hurry to be present when Protagoras held court, as he was expected to do, at the home of Callias, and wanted Socrates to introduce him as a potential student to the old Sophist, as Protagoras had a great reputation as a teacher.
### Socrates examines Hippocrates
Socrates warns the excitable Hippocrates that Sophists are dangerous. He tells him that the words of the Sophists go straight into the soul (*psychē*) and can corrupt a person straightaway. Socrates says that buying wisdom from a Sophist is different from buying food and drink at the market. With food and drink, you never know what you are getting, but you can consult experts for advice before consuming anything that might be dangerous (313a–314c).
Socrates says he regards Prodicus as a man of inspired genius (316a). He expresses the same admiration for Prodicus in another dialogue, the *[Theaetetus](/wiki/Theaetetus_%28dialogue%29 "Theaetetus (dialogue)")*. Socrates later notes that Prodicus was assigned to sleep in a storage room that his host had cleaned out for the visit (315d).
### At the house of Callias
Socrates accompanies Hippocrates to the home of Callias, and they stand in the doorway chatting about "some point which had come up along the road" (314c). A eunuch opens the door, takes one look at them, guesses they are Sophists, and slams the door in their faces (314d). They knock again, and this time assure the porter they are not Sophists, but only want to visit Protagoras. The porter lets them in, and it is at this point that Socrates recites the list of guests. Upon entering, Socrates and young Hippocrates witness the great Sophist Protagoras walking around the cloister, surrounded by numerous men, some of them famous Athenians which Socrates mentioned by name, like [Charmides](/wiki/Charmides "Charmides") and the [two sons of Pericles](/wiki/Paralus_and_Xanthippus "Paralus and Xanthippus"). Plato describes how the crowd opens and reassembles behind Protagoras every time the Sophist makes a turn while walking.
### Protagoras the sophist
Protagoras does not deny being a Sophist, and claims that it is an ancient and honorable art, the same art practiced by [Homer](/wiki/Homer "Homer") and [Hesiod](/wiki/Hesiod "Hesiod"). These poets, he says, used the arts as a screen, a front, to protect themselves from the charge. He says that he is more straightforward than the ancient artists, trainers, and musicians in frankly admitting that he is an educator. Protagoras says he is old enough now to be the father of any of the men present, and would like now to address himself to the whole company of people in the house. Socrates assumes that Prodicus would not want to miss the lecture, and so Callias and Alcibiades are sent to rouse him from his bed (317c–e).
### Protagoras' opening speech
Socrates asks Protagoras "in respect to what" Hippocrates will improve by associating with him, as, for example, he would improve in medicine by associating himself with a doctor (318d). Protagoras begins by saying that a good Sophist can make his students into good citizens by teaching civic virtue (πολιτικὴν τέχνην). Socrates says that this is fine and good, but that he personally believes that this is not feasible since virtue cannot be taught (319b). He adds that technical skill ([technē](/wiki/Techne "Techne")) can be imparted to students by teachers, but that wisdom cannot be. By way of example, Socrates points to the fact that while in matters concerning specialised labour one would take advice only from the appropriate specialist, like for example builders (τέκτονες) about construction, in matters of state everyone's opinions are considered, which proves that political virtue is within everyone, or that at least that is what Athenians in their democratic ideals believe. Another example is that Pericles did not manage to impart his wisdom to his sons (319e). Socrates then adds that Clinias, younger brother of Alcibiades, was taken from his family for fear that Alcibiades would corrupt him, and he was given back as a hopeless case. Socrates says he could give more examples, but thinks his point is sufficiently established.
### Protagoras' mythos
Protagoras says his claim that virtue can be taught is better illustrated by a myth than by reasoned arguments, and he recounts a myth about the origins of living things. After the gods had created the animals including man, they assigned two [Titan](/wiki/Titan_%28mythology%29 "Titan (mythology)") brothers, [Epimetheus](/wiki/Epimetheus "Epimetheus") ("afterthought") and [Prometheus](/wiki/Prometheus "Prometheus") ("forethought"), with the task of giving each their proper traits for survival. The two agreed that Epimetheus would do the dealing, while Prometheus would check on his brother's work. And so, Epimetheus began by giving strength to some, speed to some, and wings, claws, hooves, pelts and hides to others. But being a little foolish, or rather a "late\-thinker" as his name implies, Epimetheus forgot to save something for man. When Prometheus saw what had happened, he realised that without pelts or claws, mankind was doomed, and so he decided to go secretly into the gods' mountain home of [Olympus](/wiki/Mount_Olympus "Mount Olympus") and steal something to give back to man. Initially, Prometheus wanted to steal temperance ([sophrosyne](/wiki/Sophrosyne "Sophrosyne")), but this virtue was guarded inside the palace of Zeus by terrible guardians, and so, the Titan opted for the gift of fire straight from the workshop of [Hephaestus](/wiki/Hephaestus "Hephaestus") and practical wisdom from the goddess [Athena](/wiki/Athena "Athena"). Because Prometheus failed to enter the palace of Zeus, however, man was never granted civic wisdom, and so his race was still in danger of extinction. Seeing this, Zeus sent [Hermes](/wiki/Hermes "Hermes") to distribute shame and justice among human beings, and to do so equally. To Protagoras, this answers Socrates' question as to why people think that wisdom about architecture or medicine is limited to the few while wisdom about justice and politics is more broadly understood (322d).
### Protagoras' logos
Protagoras states that he has two good pieces of evidence that people agree with him. First, people do not rebuke the ugly, dwarfish, and weak, but pity them, because they cannot help being as they are, yet they punish the unjust and generally feel as though someone is responsible for not knowing something that can be taught (323d). Second, they do instruct people who are unjust and irreligious, hoping to impart goodness to them. He says that parents begin with their children from earliest childhood, and teachers carry on the task. Protagoras notes that none of this is surprising, but what would be surprising is if this were not the case (326e). He closes by addressing Socrates' question of why, if virtue is teachable, the sons of virtuous men often lack virtue. Protagoras lays out a [thought experiment](/wiki/Thought_experiment "Thought experiment") in which the survival of a hypothetical city\-state rests on the skill of [flute playing](/wiki/Flute "Flute"). Naturally, all parents would be eager to teach their sons how to play the flute, but given the importance of this skill, everyone would also be teaching everyone else, as it would be considered a crime to withhold this knowledge. The result would be a city where everyone would be at least decent in the art, but being taught constantly and by everyone, those naturally gifted would always be better than those who happen to have gifted parents. The same goes for virtue. It is considered so important that everyone is taught to a certain degree by everyone else, and to the point that it seems like a part of human nature, while children of virtuous men do not always exceed the rest (327b–d).
### Socrates' complaint
Socrates admits that Protagoras has given an excellent answer and that there is only one small thing to clarify, which he is certain that the Sophist will do easily. He asks Protagoras as to whether the attributes that form virtue, such as bravery, kindness and wisdom, are one thing, like for example the parts of a golden object which are fused together, or many things, like features of a face that form a whole while retaining their individual substance (329d). Protagoras answers the second, but avoids engaging in dialogue and digresses into rhetoric that does not answer the question sufficiently but still manages to arouse the excitement of their young public. It is a typical occurrence [Socratic Dialogues](/wiki/Socratic_dialogue "Socratic dialogue"), in which a Sophist uses eloquent speeches to hide the inconsistency of his arguments. Socrates' move is to pretend that he has a weak memory (334c), and that for the debate to continue, Protagoras needs to answer in a concise manner. This forces the Sophist to use Socrates' notorious [method](/wiki/Socratic_method "Socratic method"), his unique question/answer format that can lead to a logical conclusion, usually in Socrates' favour. Protagoras begins to bristle at this and replies that his answers are as long as they need to be, while Socrates reminds him that as a teacher of rhetoric, and one that advertises his ability to teach others all the different ways a debate can be had, he above all should be able to shorten his answers when the need arises. Their argument over form appears to be leading them nowhere, and Socrates gets up to leave, grousing that companionable talk is one thing while public speaking is another (336b). After the intervention of several of the listeners, the men agree to compromise their styles so the discussion can continue.
Socrates praises the Spartans as the best people in the world, not only because of their fierceness in battle but also because of their wisdom and philosophical skills. This is contrary to the common belief that the Spartans lacked these qualities and devoted themselves exclusively to physical training, but Socrates claims that they are masters at concealing their skills. While they appear to be unimpressive speakers, at just the right moment, they can provide pithy phrases of wisdom (342e). He adds that Laconic brevity was the earliest characteristic of philosophy (343b).
Then the debaters return to their previous analysis of [Pittacus](/wiki/Pittacus_of_Mytilene "Pittacus of Mytilene")' and [Simonides](/wiki/Simonides_of_Ceos "Simonides of Ceos")' poetry. On Socrates' interpretation, Pittacus claims that it is difficult to be a good man, but presumably possible. Simonides, on the other hand, claims that it is impossible to live without ever being a bad man, and even to be a good man on occasion is difficult (344a–45d). Simonides praises those who at least do not do wrong willingly. Socrates' interpretation is that, since Simonides was a wise man, he must know that no one does any wrong willingly; accordingly, he must mean that he will willingly praise those who do no wrong, not that some do wrong willingly and others unwillingly, with only the latter garnering his praise (345d–46b). Socrates thus argues that the authority of Simonides does not stand against his understanding of virtue and whether anyone willingly does wrong.
### Socrates' major argument
Socrates then repeats the initial question of whether virtue is one or many things, and he reminds Protagoras that his answer was the latter, that virtues are many (349b\-d). Protagoras accepts that this was indeed his original position, and that while the virtues are certainly connected, courage more than any other can be shown to be independent, as there are many who are both unwise *and* courageous. Socrates proceeds using his [method](/wiki/Socratic_method "Socratic method"), and asks whether the most courageous soldiers are those who are ignorant or knowledgeable of fighting. Protagoras says that while there are those who are courageous while being ignorant, their courage is more like madness, and that to be considered truly courageous, one needs to know what he is engaged in. But after agreeing that courageous people are necessarily knowledgeable, and therefore wise, Protagoras sees through Socrates' tricks, as the latter was indeed trying to push for a unification theory of virtue on the premise that everything, courage and justice included, are essentially wisdom, and therefore the same thing. Protagoras tells Socrates that while he agreed that the courageous are knowledgeable, he did not agree about the inverse, that wise men are also courageous. The link between courage and knowledge in other words is not [commutative](/wiki/Commutative_property "Commutative property") (350c\-351b). Socrates needs to start another thread.
Socrates finally asks why it is that men do harm to themselves, by overeating or overindulging in other pleasures, and asks Protagoras whether his view is the standard one, that these men do so because of pleasure. Protagoras agrees, and Socrates continues by saying that what we call bad is not necessarily unpleasant in the short term, but necessarily so in the long term, like certain foods that cause pleasurable sensations but harm the body in the long run.
Socrates then concludes that the only reason why people exchange good for bad, like the pleasant taste of food for the sickness that comes by eating it, is because they do not know that the first (the pleasure) is short, while the second (the pain) is long. The error they make is just like one in judging the sizes of different objects when they are far away, assuming one is smaller because it's further away. So if men were taught the art of calculating these things correctly, they would not act harmfully (357c–358d). To be "overcome by pleasure" then means just this, ignorance. So, in a way, all virtues are essentially knowledge and can be considered one and the same, more like parts of golden objects (as discussed above) rather than the parts of a face. And that's how the issue of courage can finally be addressed, after Socrates was cut short by Protagoras only a short time before. Given that courage is good, as both agree, then the lack of it, must necessarily be a lack of knowledge, and so Protagoras was wrong in saying that some courageous men are also ignorant.
### Conclusion: The mutual exchange of the debator's positions
While Socrates seems to have won the argument, he points to the fact that if all virtue is knowledge, it *can* in fact be taught. He draws the conclusion that to an observer he and Protagoras would seem crazy, having argued at great lengths only to mutually exchange positions, with Socrates now believing that virtue can be taught and Protagoras that all virtues are one (361a). Protagoras acknowledges that Socrates is a notable opponent in dispute while being much younger than he and predicts that he could become one of the wisest men alive. Socrates departs for whatever business he claimed he had when he wanted to end the dialogue earlier.
|
[
"The dialogue\n------------",
"### Introduction",
"The dialogue begins with an unnamed friend of Socrates asking him how his pursuit of the young Alcibiades, just now reputed to be growing his first beard, is proceeding. Socrates explains that while he has just been in the company of Alcibiades, his mind is now on more interesting matters. He says that the [Sophist](/wiki/Sophist \"Sophist\") [Protagoras](/wiki/Protagoras \"Protagoras\"), the wisest man alive (309c–d), is in town. Socrates relates the story of how his young friend, Hippocrates, son of Apollodorus, came knocking on his door before daybreak and roused him out of bed. Hippocrates was in a big hurry to be present when Protagoras held court, as he was expected to do, at the home of Callias, and wanted Socrates to introduce him as a potential student to the old Sophist, as Protagoras had a great reputation as a teacher.",
"### Socrates examines Hippocrates",
"Socrates warns the excitable Hippocrates that Sophists are dangerous. He tells him that the words of the Sophists go straight into the soul (*psychē*) and can corrupt a person straightaway. Socrates says that buying wisdom from a Sophist is different from buying food and drink at the market. With food and drink, you never know what you are getting, but you can consult experts for advice before consuming anything that might be dangerous (313a–314c).",
"Socrates says he regards Prodicus as a man of inspired genius (316a). He expresses the same admiration for Prodicus in another dialogue, the *[Theaetetus](/wiki/Theaetetus_%28dialogue%29 \"Theaetetus (dialogue)\")*. Socrates later notes that Prodicus was assigned to sleep in a storage room that his host had cleaned out for the visit (315d).",
"### At the house of Callias",
"Socrates accompanies Hippocrates to the home of Callias, and they stand in the doorway chatting about \"some point which had come up along the road\" (314c). A eunuch opens the door, takes one look at them, guesses they are Sophists, and slams the door in their faces (314d). They knock again, and this time assure the porter they are not Sophists, but only want to visit Protagoras. The porter lets them in, and it is at this point that Socrates recites the list of guests. Upon entering, Socrates and young Hippocrates witness the great Sophist Protagoras walking around the cloister, surrounded by numerous men, some of them famous Athenians which Socrates mentioned by name, like [Charmides](/wiki/Charmides \"Charmides\") and the [two sons of Pericles](/wiki/Paralus_and_Xanthippus \"Paralus and Xanthippus\"). Plato describes how the crowd opens and reassembles behind Protagoras every time the Sophist makes a turn while walking.",
"### Protagoras the sophist",
"Protagoras does not deny being a Sophist, and claims that it is an ancient and honorable art, the same art practiced by [Homer](/wiki/Homer \"Homer\") and [Hesiod](/wiki/Hesiod \"Hesiod\"). These poets, he says, used the arts as a screen, a front, to protect themselves from the charge. He says that he is more straightforward than the ancient artists, trainers, and musicians in frankly admitting that he is an educator. Protagoras says he is old enough now to be the father of any of the men present, and would like now to address himself to the whole company of people in the house. Socrates assumes that Prodicus would not want to miss the lecture, and so Callias and Alcibiades are sent to rouse him from his bed (317c–e).",
"### Protagoras' opening speech",
"Socrates asks Protagoras \"in respect to what\" Hippocrates will improve by associating with him, as, for example, he would improve in medicine by associating himself with a doctor (318d). Protagoras begins by saying that a good Sophist can make his students into good citizens by teaching civic virtue (πολιτικὴν τέχνην). Socrates says that this is fine and good, but that he personally believes that this is not feasible since virtue cannot be taught (319b). He adds that technical skill ([technē](/wiki/Techne \"Techne\")) can be imparted to students by teachers, but that wisdom cannot be. By way of example, Socrates points to the fact that while in matters concerning specialised labour one would take advice only from the appropriate specialist, like for example builders (τέκτονες) about construction, in matters of state everyone's opinions are considered, which proves that political virtue is within everyone, or that at least that is what Athenians in their democratic ideals believe. Another example is that Pericles did not manage to impart his wisdom to his sons (319e). Socrates then adds that Clinias, younger brother of Alcibiades, was taken from his family for fear that Alcibiades would corrupt him, and he was given back as a hopeless case. Socrates says he could give more examples, but thinks his point is sufficiently established.",
"### Protagoras' mythos",
"Protagoras says his claim that virtue can be taught is better illustrated by a myth than by reasoned arguments, and he recounts a myth about the origins of living things. After the gods had created the animals including man, they assigned two [Titan](/wiki/Titan_%28mythology%29 \"Titan (mythology)\") brothers, [Epimetheus](/wiki/Epimetheus \"Epimetheus\") (\"afterthought\") and [Prometheus](/wiki/Prometheus \"Prometheus\") (\"forethought\"), with the task of giving each their proper traits for survival. The two agreed that Epimetheus would do the dealing, while Prometheus would check on his brother's work. And so, Epimetheus began by giving strength to some, speed to some, and wings, claws, hooves, pelts and hides to others. But being a little foolish, or rather a \"late\\-thinker\" as his name implies, Epimetheus forgot to save something for man. When Prometheus saw what had happened, he realised that without pelts or claws, mankind was doomed, and so he decided to go secretly into the gods' mountain home of [Olympus](/wiki/Mount_Olympus \"Mount Olympus\") and steal something to give back to man. Initially, Prometheus wanted to steal temperance ([sophrosyne](/wiki/Sophrosyne \"Sophrosyne\")), but this virtue was guarded inside the palace of Zeus by terrible guardians, and so, the Titan opted for the gift of fire straight from the workshop of [Hephaestus](/wiki/Hephaestus \"Hephaestus\") and practical wisdom from the goddess [Athena](/wiki/Athena \"Athena\"). Because Prometheus failed to enter the palace of Zeus, however, man was never granted civic wisdom, and so his race was still in danger of extinction. Seeing this, Zeus sent [Hermes](/wiki/Hermes \"Hermes\") to distribute shame and justice among human beings, and to do so equally. To Protagoras, this answers Socrates' question as to why people think that wisdom about architecture or medicine is limited to the few while wisdom about justice and politics is more broadly understood (322d).",
"### Protagoras' logos",
"Protagoras states that he has two good pieces of evidence that people agree with him. First, people do not rebuke the ugly, dwarfish, and weak, but pity them, because they cannot help being as they are, yet they punish the unjust and generally feel as though someone is responsible for not knowing something that can be taught (323d). Second, they do instruct people who are unjust and irreligious, hoping to impart goodness to them. He says that parents begin with their children from earliest childhood, and teachers carry on the task. Protagoras notes that none of this is surprising, but what would be surprising is if this were not the case (326e). He closes by addressing Socrates' question of why, if virtue is teachable, the sons of virtuous men often lack virtue. Protagoras lays out a [thought experiment](/wiki/Thought_experiment \"Thought experiment\") in which the survival of a hypothetical city\\-state rests on the skill of [flute playing](/wiki/Flute \"Flute\"). Naturally, all parents would be eager to teach their sons how to play the flute, but given the importance of this skill, everyone would also be teaching everyone else, as it would be considered a crime to withhold this knowledge. The result would be a city where everyone would be at least decent in the art, but being taught constantly and by everyone, those naturally gifted would always be better than those who happen to have gifted parents. The same goes for virtue. It is considered so important that everyone is taught to a certain degree by everyone else, and to the point that it seems like a part of human nature, while children of virtuous men do not always exceed the rest (327b–d).",
"### Socrates' complaint",
"Socrates admits that Protagoras has given an excellent answer and that there is only one small thing to clarify, which he is certain that the Sophist will do easily. He asks Protagoras as to whether the attributes that form virtue, such as bravery, kindness and wisdom, are one thing, like for example the parts of a golden object which are fused together, or many things, like features of a face that form a whole while retaining their individual substance (329d). Protagoras answers the second, but avoids engaging in dialogue and digresses into rhetoric that does not answer the question sufficiently but still manages to arouse the excitement of their young public. It is a typical occurrence [Socratic Dialogues](/wiki/Socratic_dialogue \"Socratic dialogue\"), in which a Sophist uses eloquent speeches to hide the inconsistency of his arguments. Socrates' move is to pretend that he has a weak memory (334c), and that for the debate to continue, Protagoras needs to answer in a concise manner. This forces the Sophist to use Socrates' notorious [method](/wiki/Socratic_method \"Socratic method\"), his unique question/answer format that can lead to a logical conclusion, usually in Socrates' favour. Protagoras begins to bristle at this and replies that his answers are as long as they need to be, while Socrates reminds him that as a teacher of rhetoric, and one that advertises his ability to teach others all the different ways a debate can be had, he above all should be able to shorten his answers when the need arises. Their argument over form appears to be leading them nowhere, and Socrates gets up to leave, grousing that companionable talk is one thing while public speaking is another (336b). After the intervention of several of the listeners, the men agree to compromise their styles so the discussion can continue.",
"Socrates praises the Spartans as the best people in the world, not only because of their fierceness in battle but also because of their wisdom and philosophical skills. This is contrary to the common belief that the Spartans lacked these qualities and devoted themselves exclusively to physical training, but Socrates claims that they are masters at concealing their skills. While they appear to be unimpressive speakers, at just the right moment, they can provide pithy phrases of wisdom (342e). He adds that Laconic brevity was the earliest characteristic of philosophy (343b).",
"Then the debaters return to their previous analysis of [Pittacus](/wiki/Pittacus_of_Mytilene \"Pittacus of Mytilene\")' and [Simonides](/wiki/Simonides_of_Ceos \"Simonides of Ceos\")' poetry. On Socrates' interpretation, Pittacus claims that it is difficult to be a good man, but presumably possible. Simonides, on the other hand, claims that it is impossible to live without ever being a bad man, and even to be a good man on occasion is difficult (344a–45d). Simonides praises those who at least do not do wrong willingly. Socrates' interpretation is that, since Simonides was a wise man, he must know that no one does any wrong willingly; accordingly, he must mean that he will willingly praise those who do no wrong, not that some do wrong willingly and others unwillingly, with only the latter garnering his praise (345d–46b). Socrates thus argues that the authority of Simonides does not stand against his understanding of virtue and whether anyone willingly does wrong.",
"### Socrates' major argument",
"Socrates then repeats the initial question of whether virtue is one or many things, and he reminds Protagoras that his answer was the latter, that virtues are many (349b\\-d). Protagoras accepts that this was indeed his original position, and that while the virtues are certainly connected, courage more than any other can be shown to be independent, as there are many who are both unwise *and* courageous. Socrates proceeds using his [method](/wiki/Socratic_method \"Socratic method\"), and asks whether the most courageous soldiers are those who are ignorant or knowledgeable of fighting. Protagoras says that while there are those who are courageous while being ignorant, their courage is more like madness, and that to be considered truly courageous, one needs to know what he is engaged in. But after agreeing that courageous people are necessarily knowledgeable, and therefore wise, Protagoras sees through Socrates' tricks, as the latter was indeed trying to push for a unification theory of virtue on the premise that everything, courage and justice included, are essentially wisdom, and therefore the same thing. Protagoras tells Socrates that while he agreed that the courageous are knowledgeable, he did not agree about the inverse, that wise men are also courageous. The link between courage and knowledge in other words is not [commutative](/wiki/Commutative_property \"Commutative property\") (350c\\-351b). Socrates needs to start another thread.",
"Socrates finally asks why it is that men do harm to themselves, by overeating or overindulging in other pleasures, and asks Protagoras whether his view is the standard one, that these men do so because of pleasure. Protagoras agrees, and Socrates continues by saying that what we call bad is not necessarily unpleasant in the short term, but necessarily so in the long term, like certain foods that cause pleasurable sensations but harm the body in the long run.",
"Socrates then concludes that the only reason why people exchange good for bad, like the pleasant taste of food for the sickness that comes by eating it, is because they do not know that the first (the pleasure) is short, while the second (the pain) is long. The error they make is just like one in judging the sizes of different objects when they are far away, assuming one is smaller because it's further away. So if men were taught the art of calculating these things correctly, they would not act harmfully (357c–358d). To be \"overcome by pleasure\" then means just this, ignorance. So, in a way, all virtues are essentially knowledge and can be considered one and the same, more like parts of golden objects (as discussed above) rather than the parts of a face. And that's how the issue of courage can finally be addressed, after Socrates was cut short by Protagoras only a short time before. Given that courage is good, as both agree, then the lack of it, must necessarily be a lack of knowledge, and so Protagoras was wrong in saying that some courageous men are also ignorant.",
"### Conclusion: The mutual exchange of the debator's positions",
"While Socrates seems to have won the argument, he points to the fact that if all virtue is knowledge, it *can* in fact be taught. He draws the conclusion that to an observer he and Protagoras would seem crazy, having argued at great lengths only to mutually exchange positions, with Socrates now believing that virtue can be taught and Protagoras that all virtues are one (361a). Protagoras acknowledges that Socrates is a notable opponent in dispute while being much younger than he and predicts that he could become one of the wisest men alive. Socrates departs for whatever business he claimed he had when he wanted to end the dialogue earlier.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
### Early years (1990–2001\)
Di Martino was born in [Cava de' Tirreni](/wiki/Cava_de%27_Tirreni "Cava de' Tirreni"). Her [athletics](/wiki/Athletics_%28sport%29 "Athletics (sport)") history began at the age of 12 at the Youth Games, which highlighted her beginnings. Coincidentally, the [high jump](/wiki/High_jump "High jump") was not her first specialty. For much of her youth, she practiced the [javelin throw](/wiki/Javelin_throw "Javelin throw") and continued trying for multiple disciplines. She debuted in the national team for [heptathlon](/wiki/Heptathlon "Heptathlon") in the [European Cup](/wiki/European_Cup_%28athletics%29 "European Cup (athletics)") in 2001\.
### Early achievements (2001–2006\)
Her skills as a [high jumper](/wiki/High_jump "High jump") were first discovered in July 2001, during the [Italian Championship](/wiki/Italian_Athletics_Championships "Italian Athletics Championships") in [Catania](/wiki/Catania "Catania") when her jump raised her personal best from 1\.93 to 1\.98 meters, thus equalling the personal best of accomplished Italian high\-jumper [Antonella Bevilacqua](/wiki/Antonella_Bevilacqua "Antonella Bevilacqua"). A month later, she was able to reach the world finals where she finished twelfth at the [2001 World Championships](/wiki/2001_World_Championships_in_Athletics "2001 World Championships in Athletics") in [Edmonton](/wiki/Edmonton "Edmonton"). In 2006, she finished fifth at the [World Indoor Championships](/wiki/2006_IAAF_World_Indoor_Championships "2006 IAAF World Indoor Championships") in Moscow and tenth at the [European Championships](/wiki/2006_European_Athletics_Championships "2006 European Athletics Championships") in [Gothenburg](/wiki/Gothenburg "Gothenburg").
### The Golden year \- 2007
In February 2007, she cleared 2\.00 metres in [Banská Bystrica](/wiki/Bansk%C3%A1_Bystrica "Banská Bystrica"), breaking [Sara Simeoni](/wiki/Sara_Simeoni "Sara Simeoni")'s previous Italian indoor record of 1\.98 m. She followed this up with a silver medal at the 2007 European Indoor Championships,{{cite news \|first\=Ed \|last\=Gordon \|title\=Holm 2\.37, and Veneva 2\.02 in Banská Bystrica \|url\=http://www.iaaf.org/news/Kind\=2/newsId\=37589\.html \|work\=IAAF \|date\=14 February 2007 \|access\-date\=4 March 2007}} where she jumped 1\.96 m.
Di Martino also won the silver medal at 2007 World Championships, having jumped 2\.03 m. Her 2008 season was not so successful and she managed only the tenth position at the [2008 Beijing Olympics](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_2008_Summer_Olympics "Athletics at the 2008 Summer Olympics") and closed the year carrying a serious toe injury, making her consider retiring from the sport.Sampaolo, Diego (21 January 2010\). [From brink of retirement, Di Martino finds new motivation](http://www.iaaf.org/news/kind=103/newsid=55332.html). [IAAF](/wiki/IAAF "IAAF"). Retrieved on 2010\-01\-30\.
### Her return (2009–2012\)
[thumb\|left\|215px\|Di Martino in action at [ISTAF](/wiki/Internationales_Stadionfest "Internationales Stadionfest") (2010\)](/wiki/File:Di_Martino_ISTAF_Berlino_2010.jpg "Di Martino ISTAF Berlino 2010.jpg")
In September 2009, she changed coach and a resurgence in her form. She won the Italian Indoor Championships, but illness ruled her out of the [2009 European Indoor Championships](/wiki/2009_European_Athletics_Indoor_Championships "2009 European Athletics Indoor Championships") a few months later. She took [bronze](/wiki/Bronze_medal "Bronze medal") at the [2009 European Team Championships](/wiki/2009_European_Team_Championships "2009 European Team Championships") and soon after, she beat [Blanka Vlašić](/wiki/Blanka_Vla%C5%A1i%C4%87 "Blanka Vlašić") to win the [Golden Gala](/wiki/Golden_Gala "Golden Gala") meeting, jumping 2\.00 m in [Rome](/wiki/Rome "Rome").{{Cite web \|url\=https://www.iaaf.org/news/report/gay\-powers\-back\-with\-977\-in\-rome\-report\-a \|title\=IAAF: Gay powers back with 9\.77 in Rome – REPORT \- ÅF Golden League{{!}} News {{!}} iaaf.org \|last\=Ramsak \|first\=Bob \|date\=10 July 2009 \|website\=iaaf.org \|access\-date\=12 February 2018}} She cleared 1\.99 m at the [2009 World Championships in Athletics](/wiki/2009_World_Championships_in_Athletics "2009 World Championships in Athletics"), securing a fourth\-place finish. She capped off the year with a bronze at the final edition of the [World Athletics Final](/wiki/2009_IAAF_World_Athletics_Final "2009 IAAF World Athletics Final").
Antonietta Di Martino won the gold medal at the [2010 European Team Championships](/wiki/2010_European_Team_Championships "2010 European Team Championships"), but did not even pass the qualifying round at the [2010 European Athletics Championships](/wiki/2010_European_Athletics_Championships "2010 European Athletics Championships"). She rebounded at the start of the 2011 season, jumping to an Italian indoor record of 2\.04 m in [Banská Bystrica](/wiki/Bansk%C3%A1_Bystrica "Banská Bystrica") in [Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia "Slovakia").Gordon, Ed (10 February 2011\). [Ukhov again over 2\.38m, Di Martino surprises with 2\.04m in Banska Bystrica](http://www.iaaf.org/news/kind=100/newsid=59265.html). [IAAF](/wiki/IAAF "IAAF"). Retrieved on 2011\-02\-14\. She continued with her good form in March by winning the [European Indoor Championship](/wiki/2011_European_Athletics_Indoor_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_high_jump "2011 European Athletics Indoor Championships – Women's high jump") in [Paris](/wiki/Paris "Paris") with 2\.01 m.
### Records and achievements
Her personal best outdoor jump is 2\.03 metres, achieved on 24 June 2007, in [Milan](/wiki/Milan "Milan") by surpassing her own previous Italian record of 2\.02 m, while her best indoor result came at an indoor high jump meeting in [Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia "Slovakia") on 9 February 2011 with a new national record of 2\.04 m. Standing at only 1\.69 m, this jump is the unofficial women's [world record](/wiki/World_record "World record") for the highest jump over her own height (at 35 cm).{{cite web \|url\=http://www.scholm.com/eng50\.asp \|title\=List for unofficial world record of difference between personal best and standing height \|publisher\=Homepage of \[\[Stefan Holm]] \|access\-date\=16 November 2012 \|website\=STEFAN HOLM\|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100402003224/http://www.scholm.com/eng50\.asp \|archive\-date\=2 April 2010}} Di Martino used to be active in [heptathlon](/wiki/Heptathlon "Heptathlon"), achieving a personal best of 5542 points (2001\).
### Missing the 2012 Summer Olympics
Di Martino suffered an [injury](/wiki/Injury "Injury") on her knee in April 2012,{{cite web \|url\=http://www.fidal.it/content/Esami\-clinici\-per\-la\-Di\-Martino/50564 \|title\=Esami clinici per la Di Martino \|website\=FIDAL\|publisher\=fidal.it \|language\=it \|access\-date\=16 November 2012}} just four months before the [Olympic Games](/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics "2012 Summer Olympics"). She was forced to temporarily stop training. However, the [National Athletics Federation](/wiki/Federazione_Italiana_di_Atletica_Leggera "Federazione Italiana di Atletica Leggera") (FIDAL) underestimate the nature of the injury, which was diagnosed in the three weeks of rehabilitation. But less than a month before the [Olympics](/wiki/Summer_Olympics "Summer Olympics"), they learned that the injury was more serious than expected, forcing her to undergo surgery, ruling her out of London.{{cite web \|url\=http://www.fidal.it/content/Di\-Martino\-l\-Olimpiade\-ancora\-in\-forse/50589 \|title\=Di Martino l'Olimpiade ancora in forse \|website\=FIDAL\|publisher\=fidal.it \|language\=it \|access\-date\=16 November 2012}} Her [knee](/wiki/Knee "Knee") surgery was performed just a few days before the race in the Olympics [high jump](/wiki/High_jump "High jump").{{cite web \|url\=http://www.fidal.it/content/Di\-Martino\-operata\-al\-ginocchio/50630 \|title\=Di Martino operata al ginocchio \|website\=FIDAL\|publisher\=fidal.it \|language\=it \|access\-date\=16 November 2012}}
Her [coach](/wiki/Coach_%28sport%29 "Coach (sport)") in an interview, accused the [FIDAL](/wiki/Federazione_Italiana_di_Atletica_Leggera "Federazione Italiana di Atletica Leggera") have underestimated the nature of the injury and failing to ensure an athlete who has contributed immensely to [Italian sport](/wiki/Sport_in_Italy "Sport in Italy") the right care at the time of [rehabilitation](/wiki/Physical_therapy "Physical therapy").
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"### Early years (1990–2001\\)",
"Di Martino was born in [Cava de' Tirreni](/wiki/Cava_de%27_Tirreni \"Cava de' Tirreni\"). Her [athletics](/wiki/Athletics_%28sport%29 \"Athletics (sport)\") history began at the age of 12 at the Youth Games, which highlighted her beginnings. Coincidentally, the [high jump](/wiki/High_jump \"High jump\") was not her first specialty. For much of her youth, she practiced the [javelin throw](/wiki/Javelin_throw \"Javelin throw\") and continued trying for multiple disciplines. She debuted in the national team for [heptathlon](/wiki/Heptathlon \"Heptathlon\") in the [European Cup](/wiki/European_Cup_%28athletics%29 \"European Cup (athletics)\") in 2001\\.",
"### Early achievements (2001–2006\\)",
"Her skills as a [high jumper](/wiki/High_jump \"High jump\") were first discovered in July 2001, during the [Italian Championship](/wiki/Italian_Athletics_Championships \"Italian Athletics Championships\") in [Catania](/wiki/Catania \"Catania\") when her jump raised her personal best from 1\\.93 to 1\\.98 meters, thus equalling the personal best of accomplished Italian high\\-jumper [Antonella Bevilacqua](/wiki/Antonella_Bevilacqua \"Antonella Bevilacqua\"). A month later, she was able to reach the world finals where she finished twelfth at the [2001 World Championships](/wiki/2001_World_Championships_in_Athletics \"2001 World Championships in Athletics\") in [Edmonton](/wiki/Edmonton \"Edmonton\"). In 2006, she finished fifth at the [World Indoor Championships](/wiki/2006_IAAF_World_Indoor_Championships \"2006 IAAF World Indoor Championships\") in Moscow and tenth at the [European Championships](/wiki/2006_European_Athletics_Championships \"2006 European Athletics Championships\") in [Gothenburg](/wiki/Gothenburg \"Gothenburg\").",
"### The Golden year \\- 2007",
"In February 2007, she cleared 2\\.00 metres in [Banská Bystrica](/wiki/Bansk%C3%A1_Bystrica \"Banská Bystrica\"), breaking [Sara Simeoni](/wiki/Sara_Simeoni \"Sara Simeoni\")'s previous Italian indoor record of 1\\.98 m. She followed this up with a silver medal at the 2007 European Indoor Championships,{{cite news \\|first\\=Ed \\|last\\=Gordon \\|title\\=Holm 2\\.37, and Veneva 2\\.02 in Banská Bystrica \\|url\\=http://www.iaaf.org/news/Kind\\=2/newsId\\=37589\\.html \\|work\\=IAAF \\|date\\=14 February 2007 \\|access\\-date\\=4 March 2007}} where she jumped 1\\.96 m.",
"Di Martino also won the silver medal at 2007 World Championships, having jumped 2\\.03 m. Her 2008 season was not so successful and she managed only the tenth position at the [2008 Beijing Olympics](/wiki/Athletics_at_the_2008_Summer_Olympics \"Athletics at the 2008 Summer Olympics\") and closed the year carrying a serious toe injury, making her consider retiring from the sport.Sampaolo, Diego (21 January 2010\\). [From brink of retirement, Di Martino finds new motivation](http://www.iaaf.org/news/kind=103/newsid=55332.html). [IAAF](/wiki/IAAF \"IAAF\"). Retrieved on 2010\\-01\\-30\\.",
"### Her return (2009–2012\\)",
"[thumb\\|left\\|215px\\|Di Martino in action at [ISTAF](/wiki/Internationales_Stadionfest \"Internationales Stadionfest\") (2010\\)](/wiki/File:Di_Martino_ISTAF_Berlino_2010.jpg \"Di Martino ISTAF Berlino 2010.jpg\")\nIn September 2009, she changed coach and a resurgence in her form. She won the Italian Indoor Championships, but illness ruled her out of the [2009 European Indoor Championships](/wiki/2009_European_Athletics_Indoor_Championships \"2009 European Athletics Indoor Championships\") a few months later. She took [bronze](/wiki/Bronze_medal \"Bronze medal\") at the [2009 European Team Championships](/wiki/2009_European_Team_Championships \"2009 European Team Championships\") and soon after, she beat [Blanka Vlašić](/wiki/Blanka_Vla%C5%A1i%C4%87 \"Blanka Vlašić\") to win the [Golden Gala](/wiki/Golden_Gala \"Golden Gala\") meeting, jumping 2\\.00 m in [Rome](/wiki/Rome \"Rome\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=https://www.iaaf.org/news/report/gay\\-powers\\-back\\-with\\-977\\-in\\-rome\\-report\\-a \\|title\\=IAAF: Gay powers back with 9\\.77 in Rome – REPORT \\- ÅF Golden League{{!}} News {{!}} iaaf.org \\|last\\=Ramsak \\|first\\=Bob \\|date\\=10 July 2009 \\|website\\=iaaf.org \\|access\\-date\\=12 February 2018}} She cleared 1\\.99 m at the [2009 World Championships in Athletics](/wiki/2009_World_Championships_in_Athletics \"2009 World Championships in Athletics\"), securing a fourth\\-place finish. She capped off the year with a bronze at the final edition of the [World Athletics Final](/wiki/2009_IAAF_World_Athletics_Final \"2009 IAAF World Athletics Final\").",
"Antonietta Di Martino won the gold medal at the [2010 European Team Championships](/wiki/2010_European_Team_Championships \"2010 European Team Championships\"), but did not even pass the qualifying round at the [2010 European Athletics Championships](/wiki/2010_European_Athletics_Championships \"2010 European Athletics Championships\"). She rebounded at the start of the 2011 season, jumping to an Italian indoor record of 2\\.04 m in [Banská Bystrica](/wiki/Bansk%C3%A1_Bystrica \"Banská Bystrica\") in [Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia \"Slovakia\").Gordon, Ed (10 February 2011\\). [Ukhov again over 2\\.38m, Di Martino surprises with 2\\.04m in Banska Bystrica](http://www.iaaf.org/news/kind=100/newsid=59265.html). [IAAF](/wiki/IAAF \"IAAF\"). Retrieved on 2011\\-02\\-14\\. She continued with her good form in March by winning the [European Indoor Championship](/wiki/2011_European_Athletics_Indoor_Championships_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_high_jump \"2011 European Athletics Indoor Championships – Women's high jump\") in [Paris](/wiki/Paris \"Paris\") with 2\\.01 m.",
"### Records and achievements",
"Her personal best outdoor jump is 2\\.03 metres, achieved on 24 June 2007, in [Milan](/wiki/Milan \"Milan\") by surpassing her own previous Italian record of 2\\.02 m, while her best indoor result came at an indoor high jump meeting in [Slovakia](/wiki/Slovakia \"Slovakia\") on 9 February 2011 with a new national record of 2\\.04 m. Standing at only 1\\.69 m, this jump is the unofficial women's [world record](/wiki/World_record \"World record\") for the highest jump over her own height (at 35 cm).{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.scholm.com/eng50\\.asp \\|title\\=List for unofficial world record of difference between personal best and standing height \\|publisher\\=Homepage of \\[\\[Stefan Holm]] \\|access\\-date\\=16 November 2012 \\|website\\=STEFAN HOLM\\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20100402003224/http://www.scholm.com/eng50\\.asp \\|archive\\-date\\=2 April 2010}} Di Martino used to be active in [heptathlon](/wiki/Heptathlon \"Heptathlon\"), achieving a personal best of 5542 points (2001\\).",
"### Missing the 2012 Summer Olympics",
"Di Martino suffered an [injury](/wiki/Injury \"Injury\") on her knee in April 2012,{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.fidal.it/content/Esami\\-clinici\\-per\\-la\\-Di\\-Martino/50564 \\|title\\=Esami clinici per la Di Martino \\|website\\=FIDAL\\|publisher\\=fidal.it \\|language\\=it \\|access\\-date\\=16 November 2012}} just four months before the [Olympic Games](/wiki/2012_Summer_Olympics \"2012 Summer Olympics\"). She was forced to temporarily stop training. However, the [National Athletics Federation](/wiki/Federazione_Italiana_di_Atletica_Leggera \"Federazione Italiana di Atletica Leggera\") (FIDAL) underestimate the nature of the injury, which was diagnosed in the three weeks of rehabilitation. But less than a month before the [Olympics](/wiki/Summer_Olympics \"Summer Olympics\"), they learned that the injury was more serious than expected, forcing her to undergo surgery, ruling her out of London.{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.fidal.it/content/Di\\-Martino\\-l\\-Olimpiade\\-ancora\\-in\\-forse/50589 \\|title\\=Di Martino l'Olimpiade ancora in forse \\|website\\=FIDAL\\|publisher\\=fidal.it \\|language\\=it \\|access\\-date\\=16 November 2012}} Her [knee](/wiki/Knee \"Knee\") surgery was performed just a few days before the race in the Olympics [high jump](/wiki/High_jump \"High jump\").{{cite web \\|url\\=http://www.fidal.it/content/Di\\-Martino\\-operata\\-al\\-ginocchio/50630 \\|title\\=Di Martino operata al ginocchio \\|website\\=FIDAL\\|publisher\\=fidal.it \\|language\\=it \\|access\\-date\\=16 November 2012}}",
"Her [coach](/wiki/Coach_%28sport%29 \"Coach (sport)\") in an interview, accused the [FIDAL](/wiki/Federazione_Italiana_di_Atletica_Leggera \"Federazione Italiana di Atletica Leggera\") have underestimated the nature of the injury and failing to ensure an athlete who has contributed immensely to [Italian sport](/wiki/Sport_in_Italy \"Sport in Italy\") the right care at the time of [rehabilitation](/wiki/Physical_therapy \"Physical therapy\").",
""
] |
Categories
----------
### Enzymes
Peripheral enzymes participate in [metabolism](/wiki/Metabolism "Metabolism") of different membrane components, such as lipids ([phospholipases](/wiki/Phospholipase "Phospholipase") and [cholesterol oxidases](/wiki/Cholesterol_oxidase "Cholesterol oxidase")), [cell wall](/wiki/Cell_wall "Cell wall") [oligosaccharides](/wiki/Oligosaccharides "Oligosaccharides") ([glycosyltransferase](/wiki/Glycosyltransferase "Glycosyltransferase") and [transglycosidases](/wiki/Transglycosidases "Transglycosidases")), or proteins ([signal peptidase](/wiki/Signal_peptidase "Signal peptidase") and [palmitoyl protein thioesterases](/wiki/Palmitoyl_protein_thioesterase "Palmitoyl protein thioesterase")). [Lipases](/wiki/Lipases "Lipases") can also digest lipids that form [micelles](/wiki/Micelle "Micelle") or nonpolar droplets in water.
|Class
Function
Physiology
Structure
| |
| [Alpha/beta hydrolase fold](/wiki/Alpha/beta_hydrolase_fold "Alpha/beta hydrolase fold") | Catalyzes the [hydrolysis](/wiki/Hydrolysis "Hydrolysis") of chemical bonds.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00561 \|title\=Pfam entry Abhydrolase 1 \|access\-date\=2007\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929115310/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00561 \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-29 \|url\-status\=dead }} | Includes [bacterial](/wiki/Bacteria "Bacteria"), [fungal](/wiki/Fungal "Fungal"), gastric and pancreatic [lipases](/wiki/Lipase "Lipase"), palmitoyl protein [thioesterases](/wiki/Thioesterase "Thioesterase"), [cutinase](/wiki/Cutin "Cutin"), and [cholinesterases](/wiki/Cholinesterase "Cholinesterase") | central beta sheet inserted in between two layers of alpha helices{{Cite journal \|last1\=Bauer \|first1\=Tabea L. \|last2\=Buchholz \|first2\=Patrick C. F. \|last3\=Pleiss \|first3\=Jürgen \|date\=March 2020 \|title\=The modular structure of α/β\-hydrolases \|journal\=The FEBS Journal \|language\=en \|volume\=287 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=1035–1053 \|doi\=10\.1111/febs.15071 \|issn\=1742\-464X\|doi\-access\=free \|pmid\=31545554 }} |
| [Phospholipase A2](/wiki/Phospholipase_A2 "Phospholipase A2") (secretory and cytosolic) | Hydrolysis of sn\-2 [fatty acid](/wiki/Fatty_acid "Fatty acid") bond of [phospholipids](/wiki/Phospholipid "Phospholipid").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00068 \|title\=Pfam entry: Phospholipase A2 \|access\-date\=2007\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929110908/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00068 \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-29 \|url\-status\=dead }} | Lipid digestion, membrane disruption, and [lipid signaling](/wiki/Lipid_signaling "Lipid signaling"). | contains catalytic amino acid triad: [aspartic acid](/wiki/Aspartic_acid "Aspartic acid"), [serine](/wiki/Serine "Serine"), and [histidine](/wiki/Histidine "Histidine"){{Citation \|last1\=Casale \|first1\=Jarett \|title\=Biochemistry, Phospholipase A2 \|date\=2023 \|url\=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534851/ \|work\=StatPearls \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-29 \|place\=Treasure Island (FL) \|publisher\=StatPearls Publishing \|pmid\=30521272 \|last2\=Kacimi \|first2\=Salah Eddine O. \|last3\=Varacallo \|first3\=Matthew}} |
| [Phospholipase C](/wiki/Phospholipase_C "Phospholipase C") | Hydrolyzes PIP2, a [phosphatidylinositol](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol "Phosphatidylinositol"), into two second messagers, [inositol triphosphate](/wiki/Inositol_triphosphate "Inositol triphosphate") and [diacylglycerol](/wiki/Diglyceride "Diglyceride").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00388 \|title\=Pfam entry: Phosphatidylinositol\-specific phospholipase C, X domain \|access\-date\=2007\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929084148/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00388 \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-29 \|url\-status\=dead }} | [Lipid signaling](/wiki/Lipid_signaling "Lipid signaling") | core structure composed of a split [triosephosphate isomerase](/wiki/Triosephosphate_isomerase "Triosephosphate isomerase") (TIM) barrel which has an active site, catalytic residues, and a Ca2\+ binding site {{Citation \|title\=Phospholipase C \|date\=2023\-08\-16 \|url\=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title\=Phospholipase\_C\&oldid\=1170655893 \|work\=Wikipedia \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-29 \|language\=en}} |
| [Cholesterol oxidases](/wiki/Cholesterol_oxidase "Cholesterol oxidase") | [Oxidizes](/wiki/Oxidize "Oxidize") and isomerizes [cholesterol](/wiki/Cholesterol "Cholesterol") to cholest\-4\-en\-3\-one.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF09129 \|title\=Pfam entry: Cholesterol oxidase \|access\-date\=2007\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929083056/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF09129 \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-29 \|url\-status\=dead }} | Depletes [cellular membranes](/wiki/Cellular_membrane "Cellular membrane") of cholesterol, used in bacterial [pathogenesis](/wiki/Pathogenesis "Pathogenesis"). | two loops of residue which act as a lid on the [active site](/wiki/Active_site "Active site"){{Cite journal \|last1\=Yue \|first1\=Q. Kimberley \|last2\=Kass \|first2\=Ignatius J. \|last3\=Sampson \|first3\=Nicole S. \|last4\=Vrielink \|first4\=Alice \|date\=1999\-04\-01 \|title\=Crystal Structure Determination of Cholesterol Oxidase from Streptomyces and Structural Characterization of Key Active Site Mutants \|url\=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10\.1021/bi982497j \|journal\=Biochemistry \|language\=en \|volume\=38 \|issue\=14 \|pages\=4277–4286 \|doi\=10\.1021/bi982497j \|pmid\=10194345 \|issn\=0006\-2960}} |
| [Carotenoid oxygenase](/wiki/Carotenoid_oxygenase "Carotenoid oxygenase") | Cleaves [carotenoids](/wiki/Carotenoids "Carotenoids").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF03055 \|title\=Pfam entry: Retinal pigment epithelial membrane protein \|access\-date\=2007\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929104832/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF03055 \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-29 \|url\-status\=dead }} | Carotenoids function in both plants and animals as [hormones](/wiki/Hormone "Hormone") (includes [vitamin A](/wiki/Vitamin_A "Vitamin A") in humans), [pigments](/wiki/Pigment "Pigment"), [flavors](/wiki/Flavor_%28taste%29 "Flavor (taste)"), floral scents and defense compounds. | composed of multiple enzymes attached together forming branch\-like structures{{Citation \|title\=Carotenoid oxygenase \|date\=2023\-11\-29 \|url\=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title\=Carotenoid\_oxygenase\&oldid\=1187404336 \|work\=Wikipedia \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-29 \|language\=en}} |
| [Lipoxygenases](/wiki/Lipoxygenase "Lipoxygenase") | [Iron](/wiki/Iron "Iron")\-containing enzymes that [catalyze](/wiki/Catalyze "Catalyze") the [dioxygenation](/wiki/Lipoxygenase "Lipoxygenase") of polyunsaturated [fatty acids](/wiki/Fatty_acid "Fatty acid").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00305 \|title\=Pfam entry: Lipoxygenase \|access\-date\=2007\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929104653/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00305 \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-29 \|url\-status\=dead }} | In animals lipoxygenases are involved in the synthesis of [inflammatory](/wiki/Inflammation "Inflammation") mediators known as [leukotrienes](/wiki/Leukotrienes "Leukotrienes"). | hundreds of [amino acids](/wiki/Amino_acid "Amino acid") that makes up a protein are organized into two domains: beta\-sheet N terminal and helical C terminal{{Cite journal \|last1\=Prigge \|first1\=S. T. \|last2\=Boyington \|first2\=J. C. \|last3\=Faig \|first3\=M. \|last4\=Doctor \|first4\=K. S. \|last5\=Gaffney \|first5\=B. J. \|last6\=Amzel \|first6\=L. M. \|date\=1997\-11\-01 \|title\=Structure and mechanism of lipoxygenases \|journal\=Biochimie \|volume\=79 \|issue\=11 \|pages\=629–636 \|doi\=10\.1016/S0300\-9084(97\)83495\-5 \|issn\=0300\-9084\|doi\-access\=free \|pmid\=9479444 }} |
| [Alpha toxins](/wiki/Clostridium_perfringens_alpha_toxin "Clostridium perfringens alpha toxin") | Cleave [phospholipids](/wiki/Phospholipid "Phospholipid") in the cell membrane, similar to Phospholipase C.[PDBsum entry: Alpha Toxin](http://www.ebi.ac.uk/thornton-srv/databases/cgi-bin/pdbsum/GetPage.pl?pdbcode=1kho) | Bacterial pathogenesis, particularly by *[Clostridium perfringens](/wiki/Clostridium_perfringens "Clostridium perfringens")*. | soluble monomer with oligomeric pre\-pore complexes{{Cite web \|title\=Alpha Toxin \- an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics \|url\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/nursing\-and\-health\-professions/alpha\-toxin \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-29 \|website\=www.sciencedirect.com}} |
| [Sphingomyelinase](/wiki/Sphingomyelinase "Sphingomyelinase") C | A [phosphodiesterase](/wiki/Phosphodiesterase "Phosphodiesterase"), cleaves phosphodiester bonds.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF01663 \|title\=Pfam entry: Type I phosphodiesterase \|access\-date\=2007\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929084034/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF01663 \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-29 \|url\-status\=dead}} | Processing of lipids such as [sphingomyelin](/wiki/Sphingomyelin "Sphingomyelin"). | [saposin](/wiki/Saposin_protein_domain "Saposin protein domain") domain and connector regions with a metallophosphate catalytic domain {{Cite journal \|last1\=Xiong \|first1\=Zi\-Jian \|last2\=Huang \|first2\=Jingjing \|last3\=Poda \|first3\=Gennady \|last4\=Pomès \|first4\=Régis \|last5\=Privé \|first5\=Gilbert G. \|date\=2016\-07\-31 \|title\=Structure of Human Acid Sphingomyelinase Reveals the Role of the Saposin Domain in Activating Substrate Hydrolysis \|url\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022283616302200 \|journal\=Journal of Molecular Biology \|volume\=428 \|issue\=15 \|pages\=3026–3042 \|doi\=10\.1016/j.jmb.2016\.06\.012 \|pmid\=27349982 \|issn\=0022\-2836}} |
| [Glycosyltransferases](/wiki/Glycosyltransferase "Glycosyltransferase"): MurG and Transglycosidases | Catalyzes the transfer of sugar moieties from activated donor molecules to specific acceptor molecules, forming [glycosidic](/wiki/Glycosidic "Glycosidic") bonds.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00534 \|title\=Pfam entry: Glycosyl transferases group 1 \|access\-date\=2007\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929120820/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00534 \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-29 \|url\-status\=dead }} | Biosynthesis of [disaccharides](/wiki/Disaccharide "Disaccharide"), [oligosaccharides](/wiki/Oligosaccharide "Oligosaccharide") and [polysaccharides](/wiki/Polysaccharide "Polysaccharide") (glycoconjugates), MurG is involved in bacterial [peptidoglycan](/wiki/Peptidoglycan "Peptidoglycan") biosynthesis. | three glycine rich loops: one in the C terminal and two in the N terminal {{Cite journal \|last1\=Ünligil \|first1\=Uluğ M \|last2\=Rini \|first2\=James M \|date\=2000\-10\-01 \|title\=Glycosyltransferase structure and mechanism \|url\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959440X0000124X \|journal\=Current Opinion in Structural Biology \|volume\=10 \|issue\=5 \|pages\=510–517 \|doi\=10\.1016/S0959\-440X(00\)00124\-X \|pmid\=11042447 \|issn\=0959\-440X}} |
| [Ferrochelatase](/wiki/Ferrochelatase "Ferrochelatase") | Converts [protoporphyrin IX](/wiki/Protoporphyrin_IX "Protoporphyrin IX") into [heme](/wiki/Heme "Heme").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00762 \|title\=Pfam entry: Ferrochelatase \|access\-date\=2007\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929120511/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00762 \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-29 \|url\-status\=dead }} | Involved in [porphyrin](/wiki/Porphyrin "Porphyrin") metabolism, [protoporphyrins](/wiki/Protoporphyrin "Protoporphyrin") are used to strengthen [egg shells](/wiki/Egg_shell "Egg shell"). | [polypeptide](/wiki/Polypeptide "Polypeptide") folded into two domains that each have a four\-stranded parallel [beta sheet](/wiki/Beta_sheet "Beta sheet") flanked by alpha [helices](/wiki/A-helices "A-helices"){{Cite journal \|last1\=Al\-Karadaghi \|first1\=Salam \|last2\=Hansson \|first2\=Mats \|last3\=Nikonov \|first3\=Stanislav \|last4\=Jönsson \|first4\=Bodil \|last5\=Hederstedt \|first5\=Lars \|date\=November 1997 \|title\=Crystal structure of ferrochelatase: the terminal enzyme in heme biosynthesis \|journal\=Structure \|volume\=5 \|issue\=11 \|pages\=1501–1510 \|doi\=10\.1016/s0969\-2126(97\)00299\-2 \|issn\=0969\-2126\|doi\-access\=free \|pmid\=9384565 }} |
| Myotubularin\-related protein family | Lipid [phosphatase](/wiki/Phosphatase "Phosphatase") that dephosphorylates [PtdIns3P](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_3-phosphate "Phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate") and [PtdIns(3,5\)P2](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_%283%2C5%29-bisphosphate "Phosphatidylinositol (3,5)-bisphosphate").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF06602 \|title\=Pfam entry:Myotubularin\-related \|access\-date\=2007\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926215455/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF06602 \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-26 \|url\-status\=dead }} | Required for [muscle](/wiki/Muscle "Muscle") cell differentiation. | contains a [GRAM domain](/wiki/GRAM_domain "GRAM domain"), [SET](/wiki/SET_domain "SET domain") interacting domain, and a [PDZ](/wiki/PDZ_domain "PDZ domain") binding domain{{Cite book \|title\=Emery and Rimoin's Principles and Practice of Medical Genetics \|url\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780123838346/emery\-and\-rimoins\-principles\-and\-practice\-of\-medical\-genetics \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-29 \|isbn\=978\-0\-12\-383834\-6 \|language\=en}} |
| [Dihydroorotate dehydrogenases](/wiki/Dihydroorotate_dehydrogenase "Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase") | [Oxidation](/wiki/Oxidation "Oxidation") of dihydroorotate (DHO) to orotate.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF01180 \|title\=Pfam entry:Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase \|access\-date\=2007\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926220055/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF01180 \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-26 \|url\-status\=dead }} | Biosynthesis of [pyrimidine](/wiki/Pyrimidine "Pyrimidine") [nucleotides](/wiki/Nucleotide "Nucleotide") in [prokaryotic](/wiki/Prokaryotic "Prokaryotic") and [eukaryotic](/wiki/Eukaryotic "Eukaryotic") cells. | composed of two domains: [alpha/beta barrel](/wiki/Alpha_beta_barrel "Alpha beta barrel") domain that contains the active site and an [alpha\-helical](/wiki/Alpha-helical "Alpha-helical") domain that forms the opening tunnel to the active site {{Cite journal \|last1\=Liu \|first1\=Shenping \|last2\=Neidhardt \|first2\=Edie A \|last3\=Grossman \|first3\=Trudy H \|last4\=Ocain \|first4\=Tim \|last5\=Clardy \|first5\=Jon \|date\=January 2000 \|title\=Structures of human dihydroorotate dehydrogenase in complex with antiproliferative agents \|journal\=Structure \|volume\=8 \|issue\=1 \|pages\=25–33 \|doi\=10\.1016/s0969\-2126(00\)00077\-0 \|issn\=0969\-2126\|doi\-access\=free \|pmid\=10673429 }} |
| [Glycolate oxidase](/wiki/Glycolate_oxidase "Glycolate oxidase") | Catalyses the [oxidation](/wiki/Oxidation "Oxidation") of α\-[hydroxycarboxylic acids](/wiki/Hydroxycarboxylic_acid "Hydroxycarboxylic acid") to the corresponding α\-[ketoacids](/wiki/Ketoacid "Ketoacid").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF01070 \|title\=Pfam entry: FMN\-dependent dehydrogenase \|access\-date\=2007\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929111635/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF01070 \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-29 \|url\-status\=dead }} | In green [plants](/wiki/Plant "Plant"), the enzyme participates in [photorespiration](/wiki/Photorespiration "Photorespiration"). In animals, the enzyme participates in production of [oxalate](/wiki/Oxalate "Oxalate"). | β8/α8 fold containing alpha helices, beta strands, and loops and turns{{Cite web \|title\=Glycolate oxidase \- Proteopedia, life in 3D \|url\=https://proteopedia.org/wiki/index.php/Glycolate\_oxidase\#:\~:text\=The%20biological%20assembly%20of%20human,are%20shown%20as%20red%20spheres. \|access\-date\=2023\-11\-28 \|website\=proteopedia.org \|language\=en}} |
### Membrane\-targeting domains (“lipid clamps")
[thumb\|right\|170px\| [C1 domain](/wiki/C1_domain "C1 domain") of PKC\-delta (1ptr)
Middle plane of the lipid bilayer – black dots. Boundary of the hydrocarbon core region – blue dots (cytoplasmic side). Layer of lipid phosphates – yellow dots.](/wiki/Image:1ptr.png "1ptr.png")
Membrane\-targeting domains associate specifically with head groups of their lipid ligands embedded into the membrane. These lipid ligands are present in different concentrations in distinct types of biological membranes (for example, [PtdIns3P](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_3-phosphate "Phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate") can be found mostly in membranes of early [endosomes](/wiki/Endosome "Endosome"), [PtdIns(3,5\)P2](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_%283%2C5%29-bisphosphate "Phosphatidylinositol (3,5)-bisphosphate") in late [endosomes](/wiki/Endosome "Endosome"), and [PtdIns4P](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_4-phosphate "Phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate") in the [Golgi](/wiki/Golgi_apparatus "Golgi apparatus")). Hence, each domain is targeted to a specific membrane.
* [C1 domains](/wiki/C1_domain "C1 domain") and [phorbol esters](/wiki/Phorbol "Phorbol").
* [C2 domains](/wiki/C2_domain "C2 domain") bind [phosphatidylserine](/wiki/Phosphatidylserine "Phosphatidylserine"), [phosphatidylcholine](/wiki/Phosphatidylcholine "Phosphatidylcholine") or [PtdIns(3,4\)P2](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_%283%2C4%29-bisphosphate "Phosphatidylinositol (3,4)-bisphosphate") or [PtdIns(4,5\)P2](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_%284%2C5%29-bisphosphate "Phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate").
* [Pleckstrin homology domains](/wiki/Pleckstrin_homology_domain "Pleckstrin homology domain"), [PX domains](/wiki/PX_domain "PX domain"), and [Tubby domains](/wiki/Tubby_protein "Tubby protein") bind different [phosphoinositides](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol "Phosphatidylinositol")
* [FYVE domains](/wiki/FYVE_domain "FYVE domain") are more specific for PtdIns3P.
* [ENTH domains](/wiki/ENTH_domain "ENTH domain") bind [PtdIns(3,4\)P2](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_%283%2C4%29-bisphosphate "Phosphatidylinositol (3,4)-bisphosphate") or [PtdIns(4,5\)P2](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_%284%2C5%29-bisphosphate "Phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate").
* [ANTH](/wiki/ANTH "ANTH") domain binds PtdIns(4,5\)P2\.
* Proteins from [ERM (ezrin/radixin/moesin) family](/wiki/Merlin_%28protein%29 "Merlin (protein)") bind PtdIns(4,5\)P2\.
* Other [phosphoinositide](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol "Phosphatidylinositol")\-binding proteins include [phosphotyrosine](/wiki/Phosphotyrosine "Phosphotyrosine")\-binding domain and certain [PDZ domains](/wiki/PDZ_domain "PDZ domain"). They bind PtdIns(4,5\)P2\.
* Discoidin domains of blood [coagulation](/wiki/Coagulation "Coagulation") factors
* [ENTH](/wiki/ENTH "ENTH"), VHS and [ANTH](/wiki/ANTH "ANTH") domains
### Structural domains
Structural domains mediate attachment of other proteins to membranes. Their binding to membranes can be mediated by [calcium](/wiki/Calcium "Calcium") ions (Ca2\+) that form bridges between the acidic protein residues and phosphate groups of lipids, as in annexins or GLA domains.
|Class
Function
Physiology
Structure
| |
| [Annexins](/wiki/Annexin "Annexin") | [Calcium](/wiki/Calcium "Calcium")\-dependent intracellular membrane/ [phospholipid](/wiki/Phospholipid "Phospholipid") binding.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00191 \|title\=Pfam entry: Annexin \|access\-date\=2007\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929104531/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00191 \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-29 \|url\-status\=dead }} | Functions include [vesicle](/wiki/Vesicle_%28biology%29 "Vesicle (biology)") trafficking, membrane fusion and [ion channel](/wiki/Ion_channel "Ion channel") formation. | |
| [Synapsin I](/wiki/Synapsin "Synapsin") | Coats [synaptic vesicles](/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle "Synaptic vesicle") and binds to several [cytoskeletal](/wiki/Cytoskeletal "Cytoskeletal") elements.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF02078 \|title\=Pfam entry Synapsin N \|access\-date\=2007\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926215343/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF02078 \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-26 \|url\-status\=dead }} | Functions in the regulation of [neurotransmitter](/wiki/Neurotransmitter "Neurotransmitter") release. | |
| [Synuclein](/wiki/Synuclein "Synuclein") | Unknown cellular function.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF01387 \|title\=Pfam entry Synuclein \|access\-date\=2007\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926215944/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF01387 \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-26 \|url\-status\=dead }} | Thought to play a role in regulating the stability and/or turnover of the [plasma membrane](/wiki/Plasma_membrane "Plasma membrane"). Associated with both [Parkinson's disease](/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease "Parkinson's disease") and [Alzheimer's disease](/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease "Alzheimer's disease"). | |
| GLA\-domains of the [coagulation system](/wiki/Coagulation "Coagulation") | [Gamma\-carboxyglutamate](/wiki/Gamma-carboxyglutamate "Gamma-carboxyglutamate") (GLA) domains are responsible for the high\-affinity binding of calcium ions.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00594 \|title\=Pfam entry: Gla \|access\-date\=2007\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929111243/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00594 \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-29 \|url\-status\=dead }} | Involved in function of clotting factors in the [blood coagulation cascade.](/wiki/Coagulation%23The_coagulation_cascade "Coagulation#The coagulation cascade") | |
| [Spectrin](/wiki/Spectrin "Spectrin") and α\-[actinin](/wiki/Actinin "Actinin")\-2 | Found in several cytoskeletal and [microfilament](/wiki/Microfilament "Microfilament") proteins.{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00435 \|title\=Pfam entry Spectrin \|access\-date\=2007\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926215853/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00435 \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-26 \|url\-status\=dead }} | Maintenance of [plasma membrane](/wiki/Plasma_membrane "Plasma membrane") integrity and cytoskeletal structure. | |
### Transporters of small hydrophobic molecules
These peripheral proteins function as carriers of non\-polar compounds between different types of cell membranes or between membranes and cytosolic protein complexes. The transported substances are phosphatidylinositol, tocopherol, gangliosides, glycolipids, sterol derivatives, retinol, fatty acids, water, macromolecules, red blood cells, phospholipids, and nucleotides.
* [Glycolipid transfer proteins](/wiki/Glycolipid_transfer_protein "Glycolipid transfer protein")
* [Lipocalins](/wiki/Lipocalin "Lipocalin") including [retinol binding proteins](/wiki/Retinol_binding_protein "Retinol binding protein") and [fatty acid](/wiki/Fatty_acid "Fatty acid")\-binding proteins
* Polyisoprenoid\-binding protein, such as [YceI protein domain](/wiki/YceI_protein_domain "YceI protein domain")
* [Ganglioside GM2 activator proteins](/wiki/Ganglioside_GM2_activator_protein "Ganglioside GM2 activator protein")
* [CRAL\-TRIO domain](/wiki/CRAL-TRIO_domain "CRAL-TRIO domain") (α\-[Tocopherol](/wiki/Tocopherol "Tocopherol") and [phosphatidylinositol](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol "Phosphatidylinositol") sec14p transfer proteins)
* [Sterol carrier proteins](/wiki/Sterol_carrier_protein "Sterol carrier protein")
* [Phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins and STAR domains](/wiki/Steroidogenic_acute_regulatory_protein "Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein")
* [Oxysterol\-binding protein](/wiki/Oxysterol-binding_protein "Oxysterol-binding protein")
### Electron carriers
These proteins are involved in [electron transport chains](/wiki/Electron_transport_chain "Electron transport chain"). They include [cytochrome c](/wiki/Cytochrome_c "Cytochrome c"), [cupredoxins](/wiki/Copper_proteins "Copper proteins"), [high potential iron protein](/wiki/Iron%E2%80%93sulfur_protein "Iron–sulfur protein"), adrenodoxin reductase, some [flavoproteins](/wiki/Flavoprotein "Flavoprotein"), and others.
### Polypeptide hormones, toxins, and antimicrobial peptides
Many hormones, [toxins](/wiki/Neurotoxin "Neurotoxin"), [inhibitors](/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor "Enzyme inhibitor"), or [antimicrobial peptides](/wiki/Antimicrobial_peptides "Antimicrobial peptides") interact specifically with [transmembrane protein](/wiki/Transmembrane_protein "Transmembrane protein") complexes. They can also accumulate at the lipid bilayer surface, prior to binding their protein targets. Such polypeptide ligands are often positively charged and interact [electrostatically](/wiki/Ionic_bond "Ionic bond") with [anionic](/wiki/Anionic "Anionic") membranes.
Some water\-soluble proteins and peptides can also form [transmembrane channels](/wiki/Ion_channel "Ion channel"). They usually undergo [oligomerization](/wiki/Oligomer "Oligomer"), significant [conformational changes](/wiki/Conformational_change "Conformational change"), and associate with membranes irreversibly. 3D structure of one such transmembrane channel, [α\-hemolysin](/wiki/Hemolysis_%28microbiology%29 "Hemolysis (microbiology)"), has been determined. In other cases, the experimental structure represents a water\-soluble conformation that interacts with the lipid bilayer peripherally, although some of the channel\-forming peptides are rather hydrophobic and therefore were studied by [NMR spectroscopy](/wiki/NMR_spectroscopy "NMR spectroscopy") in organic solvents or in the presence of [micelles](/wiki/Micelles "Micelles").
|Class
Proteins
Physiology
| |
| [Venom](/wiki/Venom "Venom") [toxins](/wiki/Toxin "Toxin") | [Scorpion venom](/wiki/Scorpion "Scorpion") [Snake venom](/wiki/Snake_venom "Snake venom") [Conotoxins](/wiki/Conotoxins "Conotoxins") [Poneratoxin](/wiki/Poneratoxin "Poneratoxin") (insect) | Well known types of biotoxins include [neurotoxins](/wiki/Neurotoxins "Neurotoxins"), [cytotoxins](/wiki/Cytotoxin "Cytotoxin"), [hemotoxins](/wiki/Hemotoxin "Hemotoxin") and [necrotoxins](/wiki/Necrotoxin "Necrotoxin"). Biotoxins have two primary functions: predation ([snake](/wiki/Snake "Snake"), [scorpion](/wiki/Scorpion "Scorpion") and [cone snail](/wiki/Cone_snail "Cone snail") toxins) and defense ([honeybee](/wiki/Honeybee "Honeybee") and [ant](/wiki/Ant "Ant") toxins).{{cite book \| veditors \= Rochat H, Martin\-Eauclaire MF \|title\=Animal toxins: facts and protocols \| url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=kDDWg\_oJYHIC\&q\=peptide\+venom\+toxin\&pg\=PA149\| publisher\=Birkhũser Verlag \|location\=Basel \|year\=2000 \|isbn\=3\-7643\-6020\-8}} |
| [Sea anemone](/wiki/Sea_anemone "Sea anemone") toxins | Sea anemone [sodium channel](/wiki/Sodium_channel "Sodium channel") inhibitory toxin [Neurotoxin III](/wiki/Neurotoxin "Neurotoxin") [Cytolysins](/wiki/Cytolysin "Cytolysin") | Inhibition of sodium and [potassium channels](/wiki/Potassium_channel "Potassium channel") and [membrane pore formation](/wiki/Pore_forming_toxins "Pore forming toxins") are the primary actions of over 40 known Sea anemone peptide toxins. Sea anemone are [carnivorous](/wiki/Carnivorous "Carnivorous") animals and use toxins in [predation](/wiki/Predation "Predation") and defense; anemone toxin is of similar [toxicity](/wiki/Toxicity "Toxicity") as the most toxic [organophosphate](/wiki/Organophosphate "Organophosphate") [chemical warfare](/wiki/Chemical_warfare "Chemical warfare") agents.{{cite web \| vauthors \= Patocka J, Strunecka A \| date \= 1999 \| url \= http://www.asanltr.com/ASANews\-99/991b.htm \| title \= Sea Anemone Toxins \| archive\-url \= https://web.archive.org/web/20130615144536/http://www.asanltr.com/ASANews\-99/991b.htm \| archive\-date\= 15 June 2013 \| work \= The ASA Newsletter }} |
| [Bacterial](/wiki/Bacterial "Bacterial") toxins | [Perfringolysin O](/wiki/Clostridium_perfringens "Clostridium perfringens") [Botulinum toxin](/wiki/Botulinum_toxin "Botulinum toxin") B Heat\-stable [enterotoxin](/wiki/Enterotoxin "Enterotoxin") B δ\-[Endotoxins](/wiki/Endotoxin "Endotoxin") [Bacteriocins](/wiki/Bacteriocin "Bacteriocin"), such as [microcin](/wiki/Microcin "Microcin")) [Lantibiotic](/wiki/Lantibiotic "Lantibiotic") peptides, such as [nisin](/wiki/Nisin "Nisin")) [Gramicidin S](/wiki/Gramicidin_S "Gramicidin S") | [Microbial](/wiki/Microbial "Microbial") toxins are the primary [virulence factors](/wiki/Virulence_factor "Virulence factor") for a variety of [pathogenic](/wiki/Pathogenic "Pathogenic") bacteria. Some toxins, are [Pore forming toxins](/wiki/Pore_forming_toxins "Pore forming toxins") that lyse cellular membranes. Other toxins inhibit [protein synthesis](/wiki/Protein_biosynthesis "Protein biosynthesis") or activate [second messenger](/wiki/Second_messenger "Second messenger") pathways causing dramatic alterations to [signal transduction](/wiki/Signal_transduction "Signal transduction") pathways critical in maintaining a variety of cellular functions. Several bacterial toxins can act directly on the [immune system](/wiki/Immune_system "Immune system"), by acting as [superantigens](/wiki/Superantigen "Superantigen") and causing massive [T cell](/wiki/T_cell "T cell") [proliferation](/wiki/Cell_growth "Cell growth"), which overextends the immune system. Botulinum toxin is a neurotoxin that prevents neuro\-secretory vesicles from docking/fusing with the nerve [synapse](/wiki/Synapse "Synapse") plasma membrane, inhibiting [neurotransmitter](/wiki/Neurotransmitter "Neurotransmitter") release.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Schmitt CK, Meysick KC, O'Brien AD \| title \= Bacterial toxins: friends or foes? \| journal \= Emerging Infectious Diseases \| volume \= 5 \| issue \= 2 \| pages \= 224–234 \| year \= 1999 \| pmid \= 10221874 \| pmc \= 2640701 \| doi \= 10\.3201/eid0502\.990206 }} |
| [Fungal](/wiki/Fungal "Fungal") toxins | Cyclic [lipopeptide](/wiki/Lipopeptide "Lipopeptide") antibiotics [Surfactin](/wiki/Surfactin "Surfactin") and [daptomycin](/wiki/Daptomycin "Daptomycin") [Peptaibols](/wiki/Peptaibol "Peptaibol") | These peptides are characterized by the presence of an unusual amino acid, [α\-aminoisobutyric acid](/wiki/2-Aminoisobutyric_acid "2-Aminoisobutyric acid"), and exhibit [antibiotic](/wiki/Antibiotic "Antibiotic") and [antifungal](/wiki/Fungicide "Fungicide") properties due to their membrane channel\-forming activities.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Chugh JK, Wallace BA \| title \= Peptaibols: models for ion channels \| journal \= Biochemical Society Transactions \| volume \= 29 \| issue \= Pt 4 \| pages \= 565–570 \| date \= August 2001 \| pmid \= 11498029 \| doi \= 10\.1042/BST0290565 }} |
| [Antimicrobial peptides](/wiki/Antimicrobial_peptide "Antimicrobial peptide") | [HP](/wiki/Helicobacter_pylori "Helicobacter pylori") peptide [Saposin](/wiki/Saposin "Saposin") B and [NK\-lysin](/wiki/NK-lysin "NK-lysin") [Lactoferricin](/wiki/Lactoferricin "Lactoferricin") B [Magainin](/wiki/Magainin "Magainin"), and [Pleurocidin](/wiki/Pleurocidin "Pleurocidin") | The modes of action by which antimicrobial peptides kill bacteria is varied and includes disrupting membranes, interfering with [metabolism](/wiki/Metabolism "Metabolism"), and targeting [cytoplasmic](/wiki/Cytoplasm "Cytoplasm") components. In contrast to many conventional antibiotics these peptides appear to be [bacteriocidal](/wiki/Bacteriocidal "Bacteriocidal") instead of [bacteriostatic](/wiki/Bacteriostatic "Bacteriostatic"). |
| [Defensins](/wiki/Defensin "Defensin") | [Insect defensins](/wiki/Insect_defensin "Insect defensin") [Plant defensins](/wiki/Plant_defensin "Plant defensin"), including [Cyclotides](/wiki/Cyclotides "Cyclotides") and [thionins](/wiki/Thionin "Thionin") | Defensins are a type of antimicrobial peptide; and are an important component of virtually all [innate host defenses](/wiki/Innate_immune_system "Innate immune system") against microbial invasion. Defensins penetrate microbial cell membranes by way of electrical attraction, and form a pore in the membrane allowing efflux, which ultimately leads to the lysis of microorganisms.{{cite journal \| vauthors \= Oppenheim JJ, Biragyn A, Kwak LW, Yang D \| title \= Roles of antimicrobial peptides such as defensins in innate and adaptive immunity \| journal \= Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases \| volume \= 62 \| issue \= Suppl 2 \| pages \= ii17–ii21 \| date \= November 2003 \| pmid \= 14532141 \| pmc \= 1766745 \| doi \= 10\.1136/ard.62\.suppl\_2\.ii17 }} |
| [Neuronal](/wiki/Neuronal "Neuronal") peptides | [Tachykinin](/wiki/Tachykinin "Tachykinin") peptides | These proteins excite neurons, evoke [behavioral](/wiki/Behavioral "Behavioral") responses, are potent [vasodilatators](/wiki/Vasodilation "Vasodilation"), and are responsible for contraction in many types of [smooth muscle](/wiki/Smooth_muscle "Smooth muscle").{{Cite web \|url\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF02202 \|title\=Pfam entry Tachykinin \|access\-date\=2007\-01\-25 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926215842/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF02202 \|archive\-date\=2007\-09\-26 \|url\-status\=dead}} |
| [Apoptosis](/wiki/Apoptosis "Apoptosis") regulators | [Bcl\-2](/wiki/Bcl-2 "Bcl-2") | Members of the Bcl\-2 family govern [mitochondrial](/wiki/Mitochondria "Mitochondria") outer membrane permeability. Bcl\-2 itself suppresses apoptosis in a variety of cell types including [lymphocytes](/wiki/Lymphocyte "Lymphocyte") and [neuronal cells](/wiki/Neurons "Neurons"). |
|
[
"Categories\n----------",
"### Enzymes",
"Peripheral enzymes participate in [metabolism](/wiki/Metabolism \"Metabolism\") of different membrane components, such as lipids ([phospholipases](/wiki/Phospholipase \"Phospholipase\") and [cholesterol oxidases](/wiki/Cholesterol_oxidase \"Cholesterol oxidase\")), [cell wall](/wiki/Cell_wall \"Cell wall\") [oligosaccharides](/wiki/Oligosaccharides \"Oligosaccharides\") ([glycosyltransferase](/wiki/Glycosyltransferase \"Glycosyltransferase\") and [transglycosidases](/wiki/Transglycosidases \"Transglycosidases\")), or proteins ([signal peptidase](/wiki/Signal_peptidase \"Signal peptidase\") and [palmitoyl protein thioesterases](/wiki/Palmitoyl_protein_thioesterase \"Palmitoyl protein thioesterase\")). [Lipases](/wiki/Lipases \"Lipases\") can also digest lipids that form [micelles](/wiki/Micelle \"Micelle\") or nonpolar droplets in water.",
"",
"|Class",
"Function",
"Physiology",
"Structure",
"| |\n| [Alpha/beta hydrolase fold](/wiki/Alpha/beta_hydrolase_fold \"Alpha/beta hydrolase fold\") | Catalyzes the [hydrolysis](/wiki/Hydrolysis \"Hydrolysis\") of chemical bonds.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00561 \\|title\\=Pfam entry Abhydrolase 1 \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929115310/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00561 \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-29 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} | Includes [bacterial](/wiki/Bacteria \"Bacteria\"), [fungal](/wiki/Fungal \"Fungal\"), gastric and pancreatic [lipases](/wiki/Lipase \"Lipase\"), palmitoyl protein [thioesterases](/wiki/Thioesterase \"Thioesterase\"), [cutinase](/wiki/Cutin \"Cutin\"), and [cholinesterases](/wiki/Cholinesterase \"Cholinesterase\") | central beta sheet inserted in between two layers of alpha helices{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Bauer \\|first1\\=Tabea L. \\|last2\\=Buchholz \\|first2\\=Patrick C. F. \\|last3\\=Pleiss \\|first3\\=Jürgen \\|date\\=March 2020 \\|title\\=The modular structure of α/β\\-hydrolases \\|journal\\=The FEBS Journal \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=287 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=1035–1053 \\|doi\\=10\\.1111/febs.15071 \\|issn\\=1742\\-464X\\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|pmid\\=31545554 }} |\n| [Phospholipase A2](/wiki/Phospholipase_A2 \"Phospholipase A2\") (secretory and cytosolic) | Hydrolysis of sn\\-2 [fatty acid](/wiki/Fatty_acid \"Fatty acid\") bond of [phospholipids](/wiki/Phospholipid \"Phospholipid\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00068 \\|title\\=Pfam entry: Phospholipase A2 \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929110908/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00068 \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-29 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} | Lipid digestion, membrane disruption, and [lipid signaling](/wiki/Lipid_signaling \"Lipid signaling\"). | contains catalytic amino acid triad: [aspartic acid](/wiki/Aspartic_acid \"Aspartic acid\"), [serine](/wiki/Serine \"Serine\"), and [histidine](/wiki/Histidine \"Histidine\"){{Citation \\|last1\\=Casale \\|first1\\=Jarett \\|title\\=Biochemistry, Phospholipase A2 \\|date\\=2023 \\|url\\=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534851/ \\|work\\=StatPearls \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-29 \\|place\\=Treasure Island (FL) \\|publisher\\=StatPearls Publishing \\|pmid\\=30521272 \\|last2\\=Kacimi \\|first2\\=Salah Eddine O. \\|last3\\=Varacallo \\|first3\\=Matthew}} |\n| [Phospholipase C](/wiki/Phospholipase_C \"Phospholipase C\") | Hydrolyzes PIP2, a [phosphatidylinositol](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol \"Phosphatidylinositol\"), into two second messagers, [inositol triphosphate](/wiki/Inositol_triphosphate \"Inositol triphosphate\") and [diacylglycerol](/wiki/Diglyceride \"Diglyceride\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00388 \\|title\\=Pfam entry: Phosphatidylinositol\\-specific phospholipase C, X domain \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929084148/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00388 \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-29 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} | [Lipid signaling](/wiki/Lipid_signaling \"Lipid signaling\") | core structure composed of a split [triosephosphate isomerase](/wiki/Triosephosphate_isomerase \"Triosephosphate isomerase\") (TIM) barrel which has an active site, catalytic residues, and a Ca2\\+ binding site {{Citation \\|title\\=Phospholipase C \\|date\\=2023\\-08\\-16 \\|url\\=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title\\=Phospholipase\\_C\\&oldid\\=1170655893 \\|work\\=Wikipedia \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-29 \\|language\\=en}} |\n| [Cholesterol oxidases](/wiki/Cholesterol_oxidase \"Cholesterol oxidase\") | [Oxidizes](/wiki/Oxidize \"Oxidize\") and isomerizes [cholesterol](/wiki/Cholesterol \"Cholesterol\") to cholest\\-4\\-en\\-3\\-one.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF09129 \\|title\\=Pfam entry: Cholesterol oxidase \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929083056/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF09129 \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-29 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} | Depletes [cellular membranes](/wiki/Cellular_membrane \"Cellular membrane\") of cholesterol, used in bacterial [pathogenesis](/wiki/Pathogenesis \"Pathogenesis\"). | two loops of residue which act as a lid on the [active site](/wiki/Active_site \"Active site\"){{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Yue \\|first1\\=Q. Kimberley \\|last2\\=Kass \\|first2\\=Ignatius J. \\|last3\\=Sampson \\|first3\\=Nicole S. \\|last4\\=Vrielink \\|first4\\=Alice \\|date\\=1999\\-04\\-01 \\|title\\=Crystal Structure Determination of Cholesterol Oxidase from Streptomyces and Structural Characterization of Key Active Site Mutants \\|url\\=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10\\.1021/bi982497j \\|journal\\=Biochemistry \\|language\\=en \\|volume\\=38 \\|issue\\=14 \\|pages\\=4277–4286 \\|doi\\=10\\.1021/bi982497j \\|pmid\\=10194345 \\|issn\\=0006\\-2960}} |\n| [Carotenoid oxygenase](/wiki/Carotenoid_oxygenase \"Carotenoid oxygenase\") | Cleaves [carotenoids](/wiki/Carotenoids \"Carotenoids\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF03055 \\|title\\=Pfam entry: Retinal pigment epithelial membrane protein \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929104832/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF03055 \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-29 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} | Carotenoids function in both plants and animals as [hormones](/wiki/Hormone \"Hormone\") (includes [vitamin A](/wiki/Vitamin_A \"Vitamin A\") in humans), [pigments](/wiki/Pigment \"Pigment\"), [flavors](/wiki/Flavor_%28taste%29 \"Flavor (taste)\"), floral scents and defense compounds. | composed of multiple enzymes attached together forming branch\\-like structures{{Citation \\|title\\=Carotenoid oxygenase \\|date\\=2023\\-11\\-29 \\|url\\=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title\\=Carotenoid\\_oxygenase\\&oldid\\=1187404336 \\|work\\=Wikipedia \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-29 \\|language\\=en}} |\n| [Lipoxygenases](/wiki/Lipoxygenase \"Lipoxygenase\") | [Iron](/wiki/Iron \"Iron\")\\-containing enzymes that [catalyze](/wiki/Catalyze \"Catalyze\") the [dioxygenation](/wiki/Lipoxygenase \"Lipoxygenase\") of polyunsaturated [fatty acids](/wiki/Fatty_acid \"Fatty acid\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00305 \\|title\\=Pfam entry: Lipoxygenase \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929104653/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00305 \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-29 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} | In animals lipoxygenases are involved in the synthesis of [inflammatory](/wiki/Inflammation \"Inflammation\") mediators known as [leukotrienes](/wiki/Leukotrienes \"Leukotrienes\"). | hundreds of [amino acids](/wiki/Amino_acid \"Amino acid\") that makes up a protein are organized into two domains: beta\\-sheet N terminal and helical C terminal{{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Prigge \\|first1\\=S. T. \\|last2\\=Boyington \\|first2\\=J. C. \\|last3\\=Faig \\|first3\\=M. \\|last4\\=Doctor \\|first4\\=K. S. \\|last5\\=Gaffney \\|first5\\=B. J. \\|last6\\=Amzel \\|first6\\=L. M. \\|date\\=1997\\-11\\-01 \\|title\\=Structure and mechanism of lipoxygenases \\|journal\\=Biochimie \\|volume\\=79 \\|issue\\=11 \\|pages\\=629–636 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S0300\\-9084(97\\)83495\\-5 \\|issn\\=0300\\-9084\\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|pmid\\=9479444 }} |\n| [Alpha toxins](/wiki/Clostridium_perfringens_alpha_toxin \"Clostridium perfringens alpha toxin\") | Cleave [phospholipids](/wiki/Phospholipid \"Phospholipid\") in the cell membrane, similar to Phospholipase C.[PDBsum entry: Alpha Toxin](http://www.ebi.ac.uk/thornton-srv/databases/cgi-bin/pdbsum/GetPage.pl?pdbcode=1kho) | Bacterial pathogenesis, particularly by *[Clostridium perfringens](/wiki/Clostridium_perfringens \"Clostridium perfringens\")*. | soluble monomer with oligomeric pre\\-pore complexes{{Cite web \\|title\\=Alpha Toxin \\- an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics \\|url\\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/nursing\\-and\\-health\\-professions/alpha\\-toxin \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-29 \\|website\\=www.sciencedirect.com}} |\n| [Sphingomyelinase](/wiki/Sphingomyelinase \"Sphingomyelinase\") C | A [phosphodiesterase](/wiki/Phosphodiesterase \"Phosphodiesterase\"), cleaves phosphodiester bonds.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF01663 \\|title\\=Pfam entry: Type I phosphodiesterase \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929084034/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF01663 \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-29 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} | Processing of lipids such as [sphingomyelin](/wiki/Sphingomyelin \"Sphingomyelin\"). | [saposin](/wiki/Saposin_protein_domain \"Saposin protein domain\") domain and connector regions with a metallophosphate catalytic domain {{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Xiong \\|first1\\=Zi\\-Jian \\|last2\\=Huang \\|first2\\=Jingjing \\|last3\\=Poda \\|first3\\=Gennady \\|last4\\=Pomès \\|first4\\=Régis \\|last5\\=Privé \\|first5\\=Gilbert G. \\|date\\=2016\\-07\\-31 \\|title\\=Structure of Human Acid Sphingomyelinase Reveals the Role of the Saposin Domain in Activating Substrate Hydrolysis \\|url\\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022283616302200 \\|journal\\=Journal of Molecular Biology \\|volume\\=428 \\|issue\\=15 \\|pages\\=3026–3042 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/j.jmb.2016\\.06\\.012 \\|pmid\\=27349982 \\|issn\\=0022\\-2836}} |\n| [Glycosyltransferases](/wiki/Glycosyltransferase \"Glycosyltransferase\"): MurG and Transglycosidases | Catalyzes the transfer of sugar moieties from activated donor molecules to specific acceptor molecules, forming [glycosidic](/wiki/Glycosidic \"Glycosidic\") bonds.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00534 \\|title\\=Pfam entry: Glycosyl transferases group 1 \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929120820/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00534 \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-29 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} | Biosynthesis of [disaccharides](/wiki/Disaccharide \"Disaccharide\"), [oligosaccharides](/wiki/Oligosaccharide \"Oligosaccharide\") and [polysaccharides](/wiki/Polysaccharide \"Polysaccharide\") (glycoconjugates), MurG is involved in bacterial [peptidoglycan](/wiki/Peptidoglycan \"Peptidoglycan\") biosynthesis. | three glycine rich loops: one in the C terminal and two in the N terminal {{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Ünligil \\|first1\\=Uluğ M \\|last2\\=Rini \\|first2\\=James M \\|date\\=2000\\-10\\-01 \\|title\\=Glycosyltransferase structure and mechanism \\|url\\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959440X0000124X \\|journal\\=Current Opinion in Structural Biology \\|volume\\=10 \\|issue\\=5 \\|pages\\=510–517 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/S0959\\-440X(00\\)00124\\-X \\|pmid\\=11042447 \\|issn\\=0959\\-440X}} |\n| [Ferrochelatase](/wiki/Ferrochelatase \"Ferrochelatase\") | Converts [protoporphyrin IX](/wiki/Protoporphyrin_IX \"Protoporphyrin IX\") into [heme](/wiki/Heme \"Heme\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00762 \\|title\\=Pfam entry: Ferrochelatase \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929120511/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00762 \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-29 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} | Involved in [porphyrin](/wiki/Porphyrin \"Porphyrin\") metabolism, [protoporphyrins](/wiki/Protoporphyrin \"Protoporphyrin\") are used to strengthen [egg shells](/wiki/Egg_shell \"Egg shell\"). | [polypeptide](/wiki/Polypeptide \"Polypeptide\") folded into two domains that each have a four\\-stranded parallel [beta sheet](/wiki/Beta_sheet \"Beta sheet\") flanked by alpha [helices](/wiki/A-helices \"A-helices\"){{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Al\\-Karadaghi \\|first1\\=Salam \\|last2\\=Hansson \\|first2\\=Mats \\|last3\\=Nikonov \\|first3\\=Stanislav \\|last4\\=Jönsson \\|first4\\=Bodil \\|last5\\=Hederstedt \\|first5\\=Lars \\|date\\=November 1997 \\|title\\=Crystal structure of ferrochelatase: the terminal enzyme in heme biosynthesis \\|journal\\=Structure \\|volume\\=5 \\|issue\\=11 \\|pages\\=1501–1510 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/s0969\\-2126(97\\)00299\\-2 \\|issn\\=0969\\-2126\\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|pmid\\=9384565 }} |\n| Myotubularin\\-related protein family | Lipid [phosphatase](/wiki/Phosphatase \"Phosphatase\") that dephosphorylates [PtdIns3P](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_3-phosphate \"Phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate\") and [PtdIns(3,5\\)P2](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_%283%2C5%29-bisphosphate \"Phosphatidylinositol (3,5)-bisphosphate\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF06602 \\|title\\=Pfam entry:Myotubularin\\-related \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926215455/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF06602 \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-26 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} | Required for [muscle](/wiki/Muscle \"Muscle\") cell differentiation. | contains a [GRAM domain](/wiki/GRAM_domain \"GRAM domain\"), [SET](/wiki/SET_domain \"SET domain\") interacting domain, and a [PDZ](/wiki/PDZ_domain \"PDZ domain\") binding domain{{Cite book \\|title\\=Emery and Rimoin's Principles and Practice of Medical Genetics \\|url\\=https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780123838346/emery\\-and\\-rimoins\\-principles\\-and\\-practice\\-of\\-medical\\-genetics \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-29 \\|isbn\\=978\\-0\\-12\\-383834\\-6 \\|language\\=en}} |\n| [Dihydroorotate dehydrogenases](/wiki/Dihydroorotate_dehydrogenase \"Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase\") | [Oxidation](/wiki/Oxidation \"Oxidation\") of dihydroorotate (DHO) to orotate.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF01180 \\|title\\=Pfam entry:Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926220055/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF01180 \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-26 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} | Biosynthesis of [pyrimidine](/wiki/Pyrimidine \"Pyrimidine\") [nucleotides](/wiki/Nucleotide \"Nucleotide\") in [prokaryotic](/wiki/Prokaryotic \"Prokaryotic\") and [eukaryotic](/wiki/Eukaryotic \"Eukaryotic\") cells. | composed of two domains: [alpha/beta barrel](/wiki/Alpha_beta_barrel \"Alpha beta barrel\") domain that contains the active site and an [alpha\\-helical](/wiki/Alpha-helical \"Alpha-helical\") domain that forms the opening tunnel to the active site {{Cite journal \\|last1\\=Liu \\|first1\\=Shenping \\|last2\\=Neidhardt \\|first2\\=Edie A \\|last3\\=Grossman \\|first3\\=Trudy H \\|last4\\=Ocain \\|first4\\=Tim \\|last5\\=Clardy \\|first5\\=Jon \\|date\\=January 2000 \\|title\\=Structures of human dihydroorotate dehydrogenase in complex with antiproliferative agents \\|journal\\=Structure \\|volume\\=8 \\|issue\\=1 \\|pages\\=25–33 \\|doi\\=10\\.1016/s0969\\-2126(00\\)00077\\-0 \\|issn\\=0969\\-2126\\|doi\\-access\\=free \\|pmid\\=10673429 }} |\n| [Glycolate oxidase](/wiki/Glycolate_oxidase \"Glycolate oxidase\") | Catalyses the [oxidation](/wiki/Oxidation \"Oxidation\") of α\\-[hydroxycarboxylic acids](/wiki/Hydroxycarboxylic_acid \"Hydroxycarboxylic acid\") to the corresponding α\\-[ketoacids](/wiki/Ketoacid \"Ketoacid\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF01070 \\|title\\=Pfam entry: FMN\\-dependent dehydrogenase \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929111635/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF01070 \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-29 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} | In green [plants](/wiki/Plant \"Plant\"), the enzyme participates in [photorespiration](/wiki/Photorespiration \"Photorespiration\"). In animals, the enzyme participates in production of [oxalate](/wiki/Oxalate \"Oxalate\"). | β8/α8 fold containing alpha helices, beta strands, and loops and turns{{Cite web \\|title\\=Glycolate oxidase \\- Proteopedia, life in 3D \\|url\\=https://proteopedia.org/wiki/index.php/Glycolate\\_oxidase\\#:\\~:text\\=The%20biological%20assembly%20of%20human,are%20shown%20as%20red%20spheres. \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-11\\-28 \\|website\\=proteopedia.org \\|language\\=en}} |",
"### Membrane\\-targeting domains (“lipid clamps\")",
"[thumb\\|right\\|170px\\| [C1 domain](/wiki/C1_domain \"C1 domain\") of PKC\\-delta (1ptr)\nMiddle plane of the lipid bilayer – black dots. Boundary of the hydrocarbon core region – blue dots (cytoplasmic side). Layer of lipid phosphates – yellow dots.](/wiki/Image:1ptr.png \"1ptr.png\")\nMembrane\\-targeting domains associate specifically with head groups of their lipid ligands embedded into the membrane. These lipid ligands are present in different concentrations in distinct types of biological membranes (for example, [PtdIns3P](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_3-phosphate \"Phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate\") can be found mostly in membranes of early [endosomes](/wiki/Endosome \"Endosome\"), [PtdIns(3,5\\)P2](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_%283%2C5%29-bisphosphate \"Phosphatidylinositol (3,5)-bisphosphate\") in late [endosomes](/wiki/Endosome \"Endosome\"), and [PtdIns4P](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_4-phosphate \"Phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate\") in the [Golgi](/wiki/Golgi_apparatus \"Golgi apparatus\")). Hence, each domain is targeted to a specific membrane.\n* [C1 domains](/wiki/C1_domain \"C1 domain\") and [phorbol esters](/wiki/Phorbol \"Phorbol\").\n* [C2 domains](/wiki/C2_domain \"C2 domain\") bind [phosphatidylserine](/wiki/Phosphatidylserine \"Phosphatidylserine\"), [phosphatidylcholine](/wiki/Phosphatidylcholine \"Phosphatidylcholine\") or [PtdIns(3,4\\)P2](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_%283%2C4%29-bisphosphate \"Phosphatidylinositol (3,4)-bisphosphate\") or [PtdIns(4,5\\)P2](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_%284%2C5%29-bisphosphate \"Phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate\").\n* [Pleckstrin homology domains](/wiki/Pleckstrin_homology_domain \"Pleckstrin homology domain\"), [PX domains](/wiki/PX_domain \"PX domain\"), and [Tubby domains](/wiki/Tubby_protein \"Tubby protein\") bind different [phosphoinositides](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol \"Phosphatidylinositol\")\n* [FYVE domains](/wiki/FYVE_domain \"FYVE domain\") are more specific for PtdIns3P.\n* [ENTH domains](/wiki/ENTH_domain \"ENTH domain\") bind [PtdIns(3,4\\)P2](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_%283%2C4%29-bisphosphate \"Phosphatidylinositol (3,4)-bisphosphate\") or [PtdIns(4,5\\)P2](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_%284%2C5%29-bisphosphate \"Phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate\").\n* [ANTH](/wiki/ANTH \"ANTH\") domain binds PtdIns(4,5\\)P2\\.\n* Proteins from [ERM (ezrin/radixin/moesin) family](/wiki/Merlin_%28protein%29 \"Merlin (protein)\") bind PtdIns(4,5\\)P2\\.\n* Other [phosphoinositide](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol \"Phosphatidylinositol\")\\-binding proteins include [phosphotyrosine](/wiki/Phosphotyrosine \"Phosphotyrosine\")\\-binding domain and certain [PDZ domains](/wiki/PDZ_domain \"PDZ domain\"). They bind PtdIns(4,5\\)P2\\.\n* Discoidin domains of blood [coagulation](/wiki/Coagulation \"Coagulation\") factors\n* [ENTH](/wiki/ENTH \"ENTH\"), VHS and [ANTH](/wiki/ANTH \"ANTH\") domains",
"### Structural domains",
"Structural domains mediate attachment of other proteins to membranes. Their binding to membranes can be mediated by [calcium](/wiki/Calcium \"Calcium\") ions (Ca2\\+) that form bridges between the acidic protein residues and phosphate groups of lipids, as in annexins or GLA domains.",
"",
"|Class",
"Function",
"Physiology",
"Structure",
"| |\n| [Annexins](/wiki/Annexin \"Annexin\") | [Calcium](/wiki/Calcium \"Calcium\")\\-dependent intracellular membrane/ [phospholipid](/wiki/Phospholipid \"Phospholipid\") binding.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00191 \\|title\\=Pfam entry: Annexin \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929104531/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00191 \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-29 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} | Functions include [vesicle](/wiki/Vesicle_%28biology%29 \"Vesicle (biology)\") trafficking, membrane fusion and [ion channel](/wiki/Ion_channel \"Ion channel\") formation. | |\n| [Synapsin I](/wiki/Synapsin \"Synapsin\") | Coats [synaptic vesicles](/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle \"Synaptic vesicle\") and binds to several [cytoskeletal](/wiki/Cytoskeletal \"Cytoskeletal\") elements.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF02078 \\|title\\=Pfam entry Synapsin N \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926215343/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF02078 \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-26 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} | Functions in the regulation of [neurotransmitter](/wiki/Neurotransmitter \"Neurotransmitter\") release. | |\n| [Synuclein](/wiki/Synuclein \"Synuclein\") | Unknown cellular function.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF01387 \\|title\\=Pfam entry Synuclein \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926215944/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF01387 \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-26 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} | Thought to play a role in regulating the stability and/or turnover of the [plasma membrane](/wiki/Plasma_membrane \"Plasma membrane\"). Associated with both [Parkinson's disease](/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease \"Parkinson's disease\") and [Alzheimer's disease](/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease \"Alzheimer's disease\"). | |\n| GLA\\-domains of the [coagulation system](/wiki/Coagulation \"Coagulation\") | [Gamma\\-carboxyglutamate](/wiki/Gamma-carboxyglutamate \"Gamma-carboxyglutamate\") (GLA) domains are responsible for the high\\-affinity binding of calcium ions.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00594 \\|title\\=Pfam entry: Gla \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929111243/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00594 \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-29 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} | Involved in function of clotting factors in the [blood coagulation cascade.](/wiki/Coagulation%23The_coagulation_cascade \"Coagulation#The coagulation cascade\") | |\n| [Spectrin](/wiki/Spectrin \"Spectrin\") and α\\-[actinin](/wiki/Actinin \"Actinin\")\\-2 | Found in several cytoskeletal and [microfilament](/wiki/Microfilament \"Microfilament\") proteins.{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00435 \\|title\\=Pfam entry Spectrin \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926215853/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF00435 \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-26 \\|url\\-status\\=dead }} | Maintenance of [plasma membrane](/wiki/Plasma_membrane \"Plasma membrane\") integrity and cytoskeletal structure. | |",
"### Transporters of small hydrophobic molecules",
"These peripheral proteins function as carriers of non\\-polar compounds between different types of cell membranes or between membranes and cytosolic protein complexes. The transported substances are phosphatidylinositol, tocopherol, gangliosides, glycolipids, sterol derivatives, retinol, fatty acids, water, macromolecules, red blood cells, phospholipids, and nucleotides.\n* [Glycolipid transfer proteins](/wiki/Glycolipid_transfer_protein \"Glycolipid transfer protein\")\n* [Lipocalins](/wiki/Lipocalin \"Lipocalin\") including [retinol binding proteins](/wiki/Retinol_binding_protein \"Retinol binding protein\") and [fatty acid](/wiki/Fatty_acid \"Fatty acid\")\\-binding proteins\n* Polyisoprenoid\\-binding protein, such as [YceI protein domain](/wiki/YceI_protein_domain \"YceI protein domain\")\n* [Ganglioside GM2 activator proteins](/wiki/Ganglioside_GM2_activator_protein \"Ganglioside GM2 activator protein\")\n* [CRAL\\-TRIO domain](/wiki/CRAL-TRIO_domain \"CRAL-TRIO domain\") (α\\-[Tocopherol](/wiki/Tocopherol \"Tocopherol\") and [phosphatidylinositol](/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol \"Phosphatidylinositol\") sec14p transfer proteins)\n* [Sterol carrier proteins](/wiki/Sterol_carrier_protein \"Sterol carrier protein\")\n* [Phosphatidylinositol transfer proteins and STAR domains](/wiki/Steroidogenic_acute_regulatory_protein \"Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein\")\n* [Oxysterol\\-binding protein](/wiki/Oxysterol-binding_protein \"Oxysterol-binding protein\")",
"### Electron carriers",
"These proteins are involved in [electron transport chains](/wiki/Electron_transport_chain \"Electron transport chain\"). They include [cytochrome c](/wiki/Cytochrome_c \"Cytochrome c\"), [cupredoxins](/wiki/Copper_proteins \"Copper proteins\"), [high potential iron protein](/wiki/Iron%E2%80%93sulfur_protein \"Iron–sulfur protein\"), adrenodoxin reductase, some [flavoproteins](/wiki/Flavoprotein \"Flavoprotein\"), and others.",
"### Polypeptide hormones, toxins, and antimicrobial peptides",
"Many hormones, [toxins](/wiki/Neurotoxin \"Neurotoxin\"), [inhibitors](/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor \"Enzyme inhibitor\"), or [antimicrobial peptides](/wiki/Antimicrobial_peptides \"Antimicrobial peptides\") interact specifically with [transmembrane protein](/wiki/Transmembrane_protein \"Transmembrane protein\") complexes. They can also accumulate at the lipid bilayer surface, prior to binding their protein targets. Such polypeptide ligands are often positively charged and interact [electrostatically](/wiki/Ionic_bond \"Ionic bond\") with [anionic](/wiki/Anionic \"Anionic\") membranes.",
"Some water\\-soluble proteins and peptides can also form [transmembrane channels](/wiki/Ion_channel \"Ion channel\"). They usually undergo [oligomerization](/wiki/Oligomer \"Oligomer\"), significant [conformational changes](/wiki/Conformational_change \"Conformational change\"), and associate with membranes irreversibly. 3D structure of one such transmembrane channel, [α\\-hemolysin](/wiki/Hemolysis_%28microbiology%29 \"Hemolysis (microbiology)\"), has been determined. In other cases, the experimental structure represents a water\\-soluble conformation that interacts with the lipid bilayer peripherally, although some of the channel\\-forming peptides are rather hydrophobic and therefore were studied by [NMR spectroscopy](/wiki/NMR_spectroscopy \"NMR spectroscopy\") in organic solvents or in the presence of [micelles](/wiki/Micelles \"Micelles\").",
"",
"|Class",
"Proteins",
"Physiology",
"| |\n| [Venom](/wiki/Venom \"Venom\") [toxins](/wiki/Toxin \"Toxin\") | [Scorpion venom](/wiki/Scorpion \"Scorpion\") [Snake venom](/wiki/Snake_venom \"Snake venom\") [Conotoxins](/wiki/Conotoxins \"Conotoxins\") [Poneratoxin](/wiki/Poneratoxin \"Poneratoxin\") (insect) | Well known types of biotoxins include [neurotoxins](/wiki/Neurotoxins \"Neurotoxins\"), [cytotoxins](/wiki/Cytotoxin \"Cytotoxin\"), [hemotoxins](/wiki/Hemotoxin \"Hemotoxin\") and [necrotoxins](/wiki/Necrotoxin \"Necrotoxin\"). Biotoxins have two primary functions: predation ([snake](/wiki/Snake \"Snake\"), [scorpion](/wiki/Scorpion \"Scorpion\") and [cone snail](/wiki/Cone_snail \"Cone snail\") toxins) and defense ([honeybee](/wiki/Honeybee \"Honeybee\") and [ant](/wiki/Ant \"Ant\") toxins).{{cite book \\| veditors \\= Rochat H, Martin\\-Eauclaire MF \\|title\\=Animal toxins: facts and protocols \\| url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=kDDWg\\_oJYHIC\\&q\\=peptide\\+venom\\+toxin\\&pg\\=PA149\\| publisher\\=Birkhũser Verlag \\|location\\=Basel \\|year\\=2000 \\|isbn\\=3\\-7643\\-6020\\-8}} |\n| [Sea anemone](/wiki/Sea_anemone \"Sea anemone\") toxins | Sea anemone [sodium channel](/wiki/Sodium_channel \"Sodium channel\") inhibitory toxin [Neurotoxin III](/wiki/Neurotoxin \"Neurotoxin\") [Cytolysins](/wiki/Cytolysin \"Cytolysin\") | Inhibition of sodium and [potassium channels](/wiki/Potassium_channel \"Potassium channel\") and [membrane pore formation](/wiki/Pore_forming_toxins \"Pore forming toxins\") are the primary actions of over 40 known Sea anemone peptide toxins. Sea anemone are [carnivorous](/wiki/Carnivorous \"Carnivorous\") animals and use toxins in [predation](/wiki/Predation \"Predation\") and defense; anemone toxin is of similar [toxicity](/wiki/Toxicity \"Toxicity\") as the most toxic [organophosphate](/wiki/Organophosphate \"Organophosphate\") [chemical warfare](/wiki/Chemical_warfare \"Chemical warfare\") agents.{{cite web \\| vauthors \\= Patocka J, Strunecka A \\| date \\= 1999 \\| url \\= http://www.asanltr.com/ASANews\\-99/991b.htm \\| title \\= Sea Anemone Toxins \\| archive\\-url \\= https://web.archive.org/web/20130615144536/http://www.asanltr.com/ASANews\\-99/991b.htm \\| archive\\-date\\= 15 June 2013 \\| work \\= The ASA Newsletter }} |\n| [Bacterial](/wiki/Bacterial \"Bacterial\") toxins | [Perfringolysin O](/wiki/Clostridium_perfringens \"Clostridium perfringens\") [Botulinum toxin](/wiki/Botulinum_toxin \"Botulinum toxin\") B Heat\\-stable [enterotoxin](/wiki/Enterotoxin \"Enterotoxin\") B δ\\-[Endotoxins](/wiki/Endotoxin \"Endotoxin\") [Bacteriocins](/wiki/Bacteriocin \"Bacteriocin\"), such as [microcin](/wiki/Microcin \"Microcin\")) [Lantibiotic](/wiki/Lantibiotic \"Lantibiotic\") peptides, such as [nisin](/wiki/Nisin \"Nisin\")) [Gramicidin S](/wiki/Gramicidin_S \"Gramicidin S\") | [Microbial](/wiki/Microbial \"Microbial\") toxins are the primary [virulence factors](/wiki/Virulence_factor \"Virulence factor\") for a variety of [pathogenic](/wiki/Pathogenic \"Pathogenic\") bacteria. Some toxins, are [Pore forming toxins](/wiki/Pore_forming_toxins \"Pore forming toxins\") that lyse cellular membranes. Other toxins inhibit [protein synthesis](/wiki/Protein_biosynthesis \"Protein biosynthesis\") or activate [second messenger](/wiki/Second_messenger \"Second messenger\") pathways causing dramatic alterations to [signal transduction](/wiki/Signal_transduction \"Signal transduction\") pathways critical in maintaining a variety of cellular functions. Several bacterial toxins can act directly on the [immune system](/wiki/Immune_system \"Immune system\"), by acting as [superantigens](/wiki/Superantigen \"Superantigen\") and causing massive [T cell](/wiki/T_cell \"T cell\") [proliferation](/wiki/Cell_growth \"Cell growth\"), which overextends the immune system. Botulinum toxin is a neurotoxin that prevents neuro\\-secretory vesicles from docking/fusing with the nerve [synapse](/wiki/Synapse \"Synapse\") plasma membrane, inhibiting [neurotransmitter](/wiki/Neurotransmitter \"Neurotransmitter\") release.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Schmitt CK, Meysick KC, O'Brien AD \\| title \\= Bacterial toxins: friends or foes? \\| journal \\= Emerging Infectious Diseases \\| volume \\= 5 \\| issue \\= 2 \\| pages \\= 224–234 \\| year \\= 1999 \\| pmid \\= 10221874 \\| pmc \\= 2640701 \\| doi \\= 10\\.3201/eid0502\\.990206 }} |\n| [Fungal](/wiki/Fungal \"Fungal\") toxins | Cyclic [lipopeptide](/wiki/Lipopeptide \"Lipopeptide\") antibiotics [Surfactin](/wiki/Surfactin \"Surfactin\") and [daptomycin](/wiki/Daptomycin \"Daptomycin\") [Peptaibols](/wiki/Peptaibol \"Peptaibol\") | These peptides are characterized by the presence of an unusual amino acid, [α\\-aminoisobutyric acid](/wiki/2-Aminoisobutyric_acid \"2-Aminoisobutyric acid\"), and exhibit [antibiotic](/wiki/Antibiotic \"Antibiotic\") and [antifungal](/wiki/Fungicide \"Fungicide\") properties due to their membrane channel\\-forming activities.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Chugh JK, Wallace BA \\| title \\= Peptaibols: models for ion channels \\| journal \\= Biochemical Society Transactions \\| volume \\= 29 \\| issue \\= Pt 4 \\| pages \\= 565–570 \\| date \\= August 2001 \\| pmid \\= 11498029 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1042/BST0290565 }} |\n| [Antimicrobial peptides](/wiki/Antimicrobial_peptide \"Antimicrobial peptide\") | [HP](/wiki/Helicobacter_pylori \"Helicobacter pylori\") peptide [Saposin](/wiki/Saposin \"Saposin\") B and [NK\\-lysin](/wiki/NK-lysin \"NK-lysin\") [Lactoferricin](/wiki/Lactoferricin \"Lactoferricin\") B [Magainin](/wiki/Magainin \"Magainin\"), and [Pleurocidin](/wiki/Pleurocidin \"Pleurocidin\") | The modes of action by which antimicrobial peptides kill bacteria is varied and includes disrupting membranes, interfering with [metabolism](/wiki/Metabolism \"Metabolism\"), and targeting [cytoplasmic](/wiki/Cytoplasm \"Cytoplasm\") components. In contrast to many conventional antibiotics these peptides appear to be [bacteriocidal](/wiki/Bacteriocidal \"Bacteriocidal\") instead of [bacteriostatic](/wiki/Bacteriostatic \"Bacteriostatic\"). |\n| [Defensins](/wiki/Defensin \"Defensin\") | [Insect defensins](/wiki/Insect_defensin \"Insect defensin\") [Plant defensins](/wiki/Plant_defensin \"Plant defensin\"), including [Cyclotides](/wiki/Cyclotides \"Cyclotides\") and [thionins](/wiki/Thionin \"Thionin\") | Defensins are a type of antimicrobial peptide; and are an important component of virtually all [innate host defenses](/wiki/Innate_immune_system \"Innate immune system\") against microbial invasion. Defensins penetrate microbial cell membranes by way of electrical attraction, and form a pore in the membrane allowing efflux, which ultimately leads to the lysis of microorganisms.{{cite journal \\| vauthors \\= Oppenheim JJ, Biragyn A, Kwak LW, Yang D \\| title \\= Roles of antimicrobial peptides such as defensins in innate and adaptive immunity \\| journal \\= Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases \\| volume \\= 62 \\| issue \\= Suppl 2 \\| pages \\= ii17–ii21 \\| date \\= November 2003 \\| pmid \\= 14532141 \\| pmc \\= 1766745 \\| doi \\= 10\\.1136/ard.62\\.suppl\\_2\\.ii17 }} |\n| [Neuronal](/wiki/Neuronal \"Neuronal\") peptides | [Tachykinin](/wiki/Tachykinin \"Tachykinin\") peptides | These proteins excite neurons, evoke [behavioral](/wiki/Behavioral \"Behavioral\") responses, are potent [vasodilatators](/wiki/Vasodilation \"Vasodilation\"), and are responsible for contraction in many types of [smooth muscle](/wiki/Smooth_muscle \"Smooth muscle\").{{Cite web \\|url\\=http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF02202 \\|title\\=Pfam entry Tachykinin \\|access\\-date\\=2007\\-01\\-25 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926215842/http://www.sanger.ac.uk//cgi\\-bin/Pfam/getacc?PF02202 \\|archive\\-date\\=2007\\-09\\-26 \\|url\\-status\\=dead}} |\n| [Apoptosis](/wiki/Apoptosis \"Apoptosis\") regulators | [Bcl\\-2](/wiki/Bcl-2 \"Bcl-2\") | Members of the Bcl\\-2 family govern [mitochondrial](/wiki/Mitochondria \"Mitochondria\") outer membrane permeability. Bcl\\-2 itself suppresses apoptosis in a variety of cell types including [lymphocytes](/wiki/Lymphocyte \"Lymphocyte\") and [neuronal cells](/wiki/Neurons \"Neurons\"). |",
""
] |
Plot
----
In 1770, [William Pitt the Elder](/wiki/William_Pitt%2C_1st_Earl_of_Chatham "William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham") gives a speech in Parliament strongly advising against [war with the American colonies](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War "American Revolutionary War"), and then advises his second son, a young man also named William Pitt, to avoid seeking fame through war. Years later, the ministry of [Charles James Fox](/wiki/Charles_James_Fox "Charles James Fox") and [Lord North](/wiki/Lord_North "Lord North") falls. Pitt the Younger is only 24, unpopular due to his opposition to the war in America and with a reputation as a reformer, and with no majority in the House of Commons. However, despite all this, King [George III](/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom "George III of the United Kingdom") summons him and asks him to form a government.
Pitt tries to gain Fox's support, but is rebuffed. He is ridiculed in Parliament, but despite having no majority, refuses to resign. He is even subject to a night ambush, but noted boxers [Dan Mendoza](/wiki/Dan_Mendoza "Dan Mendoza") and [Gentleman Jackson](/wiki/Gentleman_Jackson "Gentleman Jackson") help drive the assailants away. Reassured by the boxers' claims of strong support for him amongst the general public, Pitt calls an election on a platform of peace and prosperity, which gives him a majority. Against Fox's constant opposition, he then institutes reforms and strengthens the Royal Navy, whilst intermittently events in Napoleon Bonaparte's childhood and military training are shown.
The [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution "French Revolution") erupts and France invades Belgium. With France and Britain both nominally committed to Dutch neutrality, [Talleyrand](/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord "Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord") fails to convince Pitt into an alliance with France or at least pro\-French neutrality and a French invasion of the [Dutch Republic](/wiki/Dutch_Republic "Dutch Republic") soon afterwards triggers a British declaration of war. Public opinion turns against the war as early successes turn to defeats such as the [Siege of Toulon](/wiki/Siege_of_Toulon "Siege of Toulon"), won by Napoleon's artillery knowledge, but even when Britain's continental allies fall, Pitt refuses to sue for peace.
Pitt's friend [William Wilberforce](/wiki/William_Wilberforce "William Wilberforce") continues to support peace negotiations and abstains from a vote on the matter. Via Melvill, an American intermediary, Talleyrand sends word to Pitt that French moderates are willing to make peace, but before Pitt can exploit this, Napoleon seizes power. Learning of this during one of his regular visits to [Walmer Castle](/wiki/Walmer_Castle "Walmer Castle"), Pitt realises Napoleon's desire is for world domination and commits himself totally to the arduous struggle ahead, sacrificing even his hopes for marriage to [Eleanor Eden](/wiki/Eleanor_Eden "Eleanor Eden"). He also discovers that he has neglected his personal finances and is now deeply in debt, though these debts are soon paid off by an unknown friend.
He institutes a bold but risky strategy, going on the offensive in the Mediterranean, and chooses [Horatio Nelson](/wiki/Horatio_Nelson "Horatio Nelson") over more senior admirals to lead the naval squadron assigned the task. Napoleon sails from [Toulon](/wiki/Toulon "Toulon") to [invade Egypt](/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria "French campaign in Egypt and Syria") while Nelson's blockading ships are scattered by a gale. Meanwhile, Pitt collapses from overwork and is warned by his doctor about his health. Nelson finds and destroys the French fleet at the [Battle of the Nile](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile "Battle of the Nile"). The people cheer Pitt, but the war continues until Napoleon personally writes to George III, superficially to suggest peace negotiations but in fact to exacerbate pro\- and anti\-war divisions in Britain. Pitt is forced to resign, just before receiving news of Eleanor's impending wedding. A peace treaty is signed, giving Napoleon time to build up his armies and his fleet, whilst [Addington](/wiki/Henry_Addington%2C_1st_Viscount_Sidmouth "Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth")'s administration naively hopes for a lasting peace and neglects Britain's defences.
Napoleon gathers his forces on the French coast facing England and popular opinion thrusts Pitt back into power, replacing Addington, despite his doctor's warnings. He gains the support of the king and even of Fox as he rearms Britain and institutes a system of [fencibles](/wiki/Fencibles "Fencibles") and [militia](/wiki/Militia "Militia") for home defence. The decisive British victory at the [Battle of Trafalgar](/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar "Battle of Trafalgar") puts an end to the invasion threat, though in a speech at the [Guildhall](/wiki/Guildhall_%28London%29 "Guildhall (London)") Pitt states that victory has been achieved not just by him but the whole nation, also predicting that Britain will go on to save Europe.
|
[
"Plot\n----",
"In 1770, [William Pitt the Elder](/wiki/William_Pitt%2C_1st_Earl_of_Chatham \"William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham\") gives a speech in Parliament strongly advising against [war with the American colonies](/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War \"American Revolutionary War\"), and then advises his second son, a young man also named William Pitt, to avoid seeking fame through war. Years later, the ministry of [Charles James Fox](/wiki/Charles_James_Fox \"Charles James Fox\") and [Lord North](/wiki/Lord_North \"Lord North\") falls. Pitt the Younger is only 24, unpopular due to his opposition to the war in America and with a reputation as a reformer, and with no majority in the House of Commons. However, despite all this, King [George III](/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom \"George III of the United Kingdom\") summons him and asks him to form a government.",
"Pitt tries to gain Fox's support, but is rebuffed. He is ridiculed in Parliament, but despite having no majority, refuses to resign. He is even subject to a night ambush, but noted boxers [Dan Mendoza](/wiki/Dan_Mendoza \"Dan Mendoza\") and [Gentleman Jackson](/wiki/Gentleman_Jackson \"Gentleman Jackson\") help drive the assailants away. Reassured by the boxers' claims of strong support for him amongst the general public, Pitt calls an election on a platform of peace and prosperity, which gives him a majority. Against Fox's constant opposition, he then institutes reforms and strengthens the Royal Navy, whilst intermittently events in Napoleon Bonaparte's childhood and military training are shown.",
"The [French Revolution](/wiki/French_Revolution \"French Revolution\") erupts and France invades Belgium. With France and Britain both nominally committed to Dutch neutrality, [Talleyrand](/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord \"Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord\") fails to convince Pitt into an alliance with France or at least pro\\-French neutrality and a French invasion of the [Dutch Republic](/wiki/Dutch_Republic \"Dutch Republic\") soon afterwards triggers a British declaration of war. Public opinion turns against the war as early successes turn to defeats such as the [Siege of Toulon](/wiki/Siege_of_Toulon \"Siege of Toulon\"), won by Napoleon's artillery knowledge, but even when Britain's continental allies fall, Pitt refuses to sue for peace.",
"Pitt's friend [William Wilberforce](/wiki/William_Wilberforce \"William Wilberforce\") continues to support peace negotiations and abstains from a vote on the matter. Via Melvill, an American intermediary, Talleyrand sends word to Pitt that French moderates are willing to make peace, but before Pitt can exploit this, Napoleon seizes power. Learning of this during one of his regular visits to [Walmer Castle](/wiki/Walmer_Castle \"Walmer Castle\"), Pitt realises Napoleon's desire is for world domination and commits himself totally to the arduous struggle ahead, sacrificing even his hopes for marriage to [Eleanor Eden](/wiki/Eleanor_Eden \"Eleanor Eden\"). He also discovers that he has neglected his personal finances and is now deeply in debt, though these debts are soon paid off by an unknown friend.",
"He institutes a bold but risky strategy, going on the offensive in the Mediterranean, and chooses [Horatio Nelson](/wiki/Horatio_Nelson \"Horatio Nelson\") over more senior admirals to lead the naval squadron assigned the task. Napoleon sails from [Toulon](/wiki/Toulon \"Toulon\") to [invade Egypt](/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria \"French campaign in Egypt and Syria\") while Nelson's blockading ships are scattered by a gale. Meanwhile, Pitt collapses from overwork and is warned by his doctor about his health. Nelson finds and destroys the French fleet at the [Battle of the Nile](/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile \"Battle of the Nile\"). The people cheer Pitt, but the war continues until Napoleon personally writes to George III, superficially to suggest peace negotiations but in fact to exacerbate pro\\- and anti\\-war divisions in Britain. Pitt is forced to resign, just before receiving news of Eleanor's impending wedding. A peace treaty is signed, giving Napoleon time to build up his armies and his fleet, whilst [Addington](/wiki/Henry_Addington%2C_1st_Viscount_Sidmouth \"Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth\")'s administration naively hopes for a lasting peace and neglects Britain's defences.",
"Napoleon gathers his forces on the French coast facing England and popular opinion thrusts Pitt back into power, replacing Addington, despite his doctor's warnings. He gains the support of the king and even of Fox as he rearms Britain and institutes a system of [fencibles](/wiki/Fencibles \"Fencibles\") and [militia](/wiki/Militia \"Militia\") for home defence. The decisive British victory at the [Battle of Trafalgar](/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar \"Battle of Trafalgar\") puts an end to the invasion threat, though in a speech at the [Guildhall](/wiki/Guildhall_%28London%29 \"Guildhall (London)\") Pitt states that victory has been achieved not just by him but the whole nation, also predicting that Britain will go on to save Europe.",
""
] |
Musical theater
---------------
Petkoff's first musical was with the [Chicago Shakespeare Theater](/wiki/Chicago_Shakespeare_Theater "Chicago Shakespeare Theater"), when he starred as George in *[Sunday in the Park with George](/wiki/Sunday_in_the_Park_with_George "Sunday in the Park with George")*, directed by Gary Griffin in 2002\.
Petkoff's first appearance on Broadway in a musical was as Perchik in the 2004 production of *[Fiddler on the Roof](/wiki/Fiddler_on_the_Roof "Fiddler on the Roof")*, starring [Alfred Molina](/wiki/Alfred_Molina "Alfred Molina"). Directed by David Leveaux, the revival was nominated for the 2004 Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical and the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Musical.
In 2007, he joined the national tour of *[Spamalot](/wiki/Spamalot "Spamalot")* as Sir Robin for a year, and then played the role on Broadway, replacing Martin Moran in the role before Clay Aiken took over and then returned when Clay departed.
In 2009, Petkoff appeared in *Happiness* at [Lincoln Center Theater](/wiki/Lincoln_Center_Theater "Lincoln Center Theater"), directed by [Susan Stroman](/wiki/Susan_Stroman "Susan Stroman"), playing the part of Neil.
Petkoff has also worked with several musical theater workshops, including a reading of new musical version of *Enchanted April* in the role of Mr. Briggs in March 2010\.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.playbill.com/news/article/137810\-Paice\-Luker\-Dvorsky\-and\-Petkoff\-Read\-Enchanted\-April\-Musical\-in\-Manhattan\|title\=Paice, Luker, Dvorsky and Petkoff Read Enchanted April Musical in Manhattan \- Playbill.com}}
Petkoff also appeared as Guy Fawkes in the New York Stage \& Film's Powerhouse Theater production of *Bonfire Night*, directed by Alex Timbers.{{Cite web\|url\=http://www.playbill.com/news/article/140502\-Fontana\-Conlee\-Wright\-Petkoff\-to\-Appear\-in\-Levines\-Bonfire\-Night\-at\-Powerhouse\-Theater\|title\=Fontana, Conlee, Wright, Petkoff to Appear in Levine's Bonfire Night at Powerhouse Theater \- Playbill.com}}
Petkoff appeared in the *Like Water for Chocolate* musical workshop with Tony Award winner [Chita Rivera](/wiki/Chita_Rivera "Chita Rivera") at the [Sundance Institute](/wiki/Sundance_Institute "Sundance Institute")'s 2011 Theatre Lab in Alberta, Canada, in April 2011\. In addition to Chita Rivera (*Kiss of the Spider Woman*, *Chicago*, *The Rink*), and Robert Petkoff (*Ragtime*, *Spamalot*, *Fiddler on the Roof*), the cast included Nicholas Rodriguez (*Tarzan*, *One Life to Live*).
|
[
"Musical theater\n---------------",
"Petkoff's first musical was with the [Chicago Shakespeare Theater](/wiki/Chicago_Shakespeare_Theater \"Chicago Shakespeare Theater\"), when he starred as George in *[Sunday in the Park with George](/wiki/Sunday_in_the_Park_with_George \"Sunday in the Park with George\")*, directed by Gary Griffin in 2002\\.",
"Petkoff's first appearance on Broadway in a musical was as Perchik in the 2004 production of *[Fiddler on the Roof](/wiki/Fiddler_on_the_Roof \"Fiddler on the Roof\")*, starring [Alfred Molina](/wiki/Alfred_Molina \"Alfred Molina\"). Directed by David Leveaux, the revival was nominated for the 2004 Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical and the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Musical.",
"In 2007, he joined the national tour of *[Spamalot](/wiki/Spamalot \"Spamalot\")* as Sir Robin for a year, and then played the role on Broadway, replacing Martin Moran in the role before Clay Aiken took over and then returned when Clay departed.",
"In 2009, Petkoff appeared in *Happiness* at [Lincoln Center Theater](/wiki/Lincoln_Center_Theater \"Lincoln Center Theater\"), directed by [Susan Stroman](/wiki/Susan_Stroman \"Susan Stroman\"), playing the part of Neil.",
"Petkoff has also worked with several musical theater workshops, including a reading of new musical version of *Enchanted April* in the role of Mr. Briggs in March 2010\\.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/news/article/137810\\-Paice\\-Luker\\-Dvorsky\\-and\\-Petkoff\\-Read\\-Enchanted\\-April\\-Musical\\-in\\-Manhattan\\|title\\=Paice, Luker, Dvorsky and Petkoff Read Enchanted April Musical in Manhattan \\- Playbill.com}}",
"Petkoff also appeared as Guy Fawkes in the New York Stage \\& Film's Powerhouse Theater production of *Bonfire Night*, directed by Alex Timbers.{{Cite web\\|url\\=http://www.playbill.com/news/article/140502\\-Fontana\\-Conlee\\-Wright\\-Petkoff\\-to\\-Appear\\-in\\-Levines\\-Bonfire\\-Night\\-at\\-Powerhouse\\-Theater\\|title\\=Fontana, Conlee, Wright, Petkoff to Appear in Levine's Bonfire Night at Powerhouse Theater \\- Playbill.com}}",
"Petkoff appeared in the *Like Water for Chocolate* musical workshop with Tony Award winner [Chita Rivera](/wiki/Chita_Rivera \"Chita Rivera\") at the [Sundance Institute](/wiki/Sundance_Institute \"Sundance Institute\")'s 2011 Theatre Lab in Alberta, Canada, in April 2011\\. In addition to Chita Rivera (*Kiss of the Spider Woman*, *Chicago*, *The Rink*), and Robert Petkoff (*Ragtime*, *Spamalot*, *Fiddler on the Roof*), the cast included Nicholas Rodriguez (*Tarzan*, *One Life to Live*).",
""
] |
Service history
---------------
### *Scindia*, 1898–1901
Following a round\-trip voyage carrying coal from New York to [Guantánamo Bay](/wiki/Guant%C3%A1namo_Bay_%28Cuba%29 "Guantánamo Bay (Cuba)"), Cuba from 2 June – 1 July 1898, the ship departed New York on 12 October with a cargo of coal for the [Hawaiian Islands](/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands "Hawaiian Islands"). She made a number of goodwill calls *en route*—both before and after rounding [Cape Horn](/wiki/Cape_Horn "Cape Horn")—and delivered her cargo at [Honolulu](/wiki/Honolulu "Honolulu"). *Scindia* then headed east for the California coast and, after reaching [San Francisco Bay](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay "San Francisco Bay") early in the spring of 1899, was surveyed at the [Mare Island Navy Yard](/wiki/Mare_Island_Navy_Yard "Mare Island Navy Yard") and decommissioned there on 27 May for repairs to her boilers and machinery.
Recommissioned on 23 December 1899, the collier got underway on 18 January 1900 and headed westward across the Pacific and proceeded via [Guam](/wiki/Guam "Guam") to the newly acquired [Philippine Islands](/wiki/Philippine_Islands "Philippine Islands") laden with coal for the ships of the [Asiatic Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Asiatic_Fleet "United States Asiatic Fleet"). After unloading at [Manila](/wiki/Manila "Manila"), she transited the [Strait of Malacca](/wiki/Strait_of_Malacca "Strait of Malacca"), crossed the Indian Ocean, and continued on via the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal "Suez Canal") and the [Strait of Gibraltar](/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar "Strait of Gibraltar") to [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff "Cardiff"), Wales, where she filled her bunkers with coal before crossing the Atlantic to [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia "Norfolk, Virginia"), where she arrived on 1 March 1901\. During her first circumnavigation of Earth, the steamer was renamed *Ajax* on 1 January 1901\. She was decommissioned on 16 March.
### *Ajax*, 1901–1909
Reactivated on 16 October 1901, the ship made two more round\-the\-world voyages carrying coal to the [Asiatic Station](/wiki/Asiatic_Station "Asiatic Station") and then returned to the Philippines in September 1903 for operations with the Asiatic Fleet through the end of 1904\. She then returned to the east coast of the United States along which she operated until placed out of service at Norfolk on 4 November 1905\.
Reactivated on 20 January 1907, *Ajax* again served along the east coast until departing [Hampton Roads](/wiki/Hampton_Roads "Hampton Roads") in December of that year to support the cruise of the [Great White Fleet](/wiki/Great_White_Fleet "Great White Fleet") around the world to demonstrate the good will of the United States and to make known to any potential enemy the power of the U.S. Navy. She returned to Norfolk on Washington's Birthday in 1909 and, after serving the [Atlantic Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Forces_Command "United States Fleet Forces Command") through the spring, was placed out of service at the [Portsmouth Navy Yard](/wiki/Portsmouth_Navy_Yard "Portsmouth Navy Yard") in June.
### 1910–1920
Laid up until 30 April 1910, he put in over two more years supporting the Atlantic Fleet along the coast and in the [Caribbean Sea](/wiki/Caribbean_Sea "Caribbean Sea") before she was ordered to the Orient for the last time. In December 1912, she took on a cargo of coal at Hampton Roads and loaded the [submarines](/wiki/Submarine "Submarine") {{USS\|B\-2\|SS\-11\|2}} and {{USS\|B\-3\|SS\-12\|2}} on her decks before sailing via the North Atlantic, the [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea "Mediterranean Sea"), the Suez Canal, and the Indian Ocean to the Philippine Islands. She arrived in [Manila Bay](/wiki/Manila_Bay "Manila Bay") on 30 April 1913, and—after launching her two submarines—began shuttling coal to American warships at ports in such placed as Guam, the Philippines, China, Japan, and even Burma. Soon after the United States entered the [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I "World War I"), she towed the formerly interned German ship *Elsass* from Samoa to [Honolulu, Hawaii](/wiki/Honolulu%2C_Hawaii "Honolulu, Hawaii"). During the American intervention in [Siberia](/wiki/Siberia "Siberia") at the end of World War I, she made deliveries to [Vladivostok](/wiki/Vladivostok "Vladivostok").
### 1921–1925
The ship was laid up at the [Cavite Navy Yard](/wiki/Cavite_Navy_Yard "Cavite Navy Yard") from 20 April\-17 October 1921 and then became the [receiving ship](/wiki/Receiving_ship "Receiving ship") there for the [16th Naval District](/wiki/16th_Naval_District "16th Naval District") and was redesignated AC\-14\.
During this period, she served briefly in 1923 as [tender](/wiki/Submarine_tender "Submarine tender") to the submarines of Submarine Division 18 (SubDiv 18\), Asiatic Fleet, and was based at [Chefoo](/wiki/Chefoo "Chefoo"), China. After resuming her role as receiving ship at Cavite in September 1923, *Ajax* became the [tender](/wiki/Seaplane_tender "Seaplane tender") for the seaplanes of the Asiatic Fleet aircraft squadrons in February 1924\. On 24 June, naval aviator Commander [Albert C. Read](/wiki/Albert_Cushing_Read "Albert Cushing Read") assumed command of both *Ajax* and the aircraft squadrons.{{cite book \|url\=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5538319 \|title\=The Amphibians Came to Conquer: The Story of Admiral Richmond Kelly Turner \|first\=George Carroll \|last\=Dyer \|date\=1972 \|page\=92 \|volume\=1 \|publisher\=U.S. Department of the Navy \|access\-date\=2020\-07\-15}} On 1 July, she was reclassified as a miscellaneous auxiliary and redesignated AG\-15\.
Relieved of all duty in June 1925 after the arrival of {{USS\|Jason\|AC\-12\|6}} in the Philippines, she was decommissioned on 8 July 1925 and her name was simultaneously stricken from the [Naval Vessel Register](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register "Naval Vessel Register"). The former *Ajax* was sold at the Cavite Navy Yard to S. R. Paterno on 14 August. S.R. Paterno was apparently a broker or agent for Madrigal as the ship was sold to Madrigal \& Co, Manila, one of the larger Philippine shipowners, and renamed "Consuelo" and used in the interisland trade. In 1930 the ship was sold to Fernando Go Chioco of Amoy and renamed "Hua Tong". In 1932 the ship was sold (or transferred) to the newly established Singapore company Hua Khiow Steamship Co (1932\) Ltd and in November 1933 the ship was scrapped in China.Lloyds Register, various years
|
[
"Service history\n---------------",
"### *Scindia*, 1898–1901",
"Following a round\\-trip voyage carrying coal from New York to [Guantánamo Bay](/wiki/Guant%C3%A1namo_Bay_%28Cuba%29 \"Guantánamo Bay (Cuba)\"), Cuba from 2 June – 1 July 1898, the ship departed New York on 12 October with a cargo of coal for the [Hawaiian Islands](/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands \"Hawaiian Islands\"). She made a number of goodwill calls *en route*—both before and after rounding [Cape Horn](/wiki/Cape_Horn \"Cape Horn\")—and delivered her cargo at [Honolulu](/wiki/Honolulu \"Honolulu\"). *Scindia* then headed east for the California coast and, after reaching [San Francisco Bay](/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay \"San Francisco Bay\") early in the spring of 1899, was surveyed at the [Mare Island Navy Yard](/wiki/Mare_Island_Navy_Yard \"Mare Island Navy Yard\") and decommissioned there on 27 May for repairs to her boilers and machinery.",
"Recommissioned on 23 December 1899, the collier got underway on 18 January 1900 and headed westward across the Pacific and proceeded via [Guam](/wiki/Guam \"Guam\") to the newly acquired [Philippine Islands](/wiki/Philippine_Islands \"Philippine Islands\") laden with coal for the ships of the [Asiatic Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Asiatic_Fleet \"United States Asiatic Fleet\"). After unloading at [Manila](/wiki/Manila \"Manila\"), she transited the [Strait of Malacca](/wiki/Strait_of_Malacca \"Strait of Malacca\"), crossed the Indian Ocean, and continued on via the [Suez Canal](/wiki/Suez_Canal \"Suez Canal\") and the [Strait of Gibraltar](/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar \"Strait of Gibraltar\") to [Cardiff](/wiki/Cardiff \"Cardiff\"), Wales, where she filled her bunkers with coal before crossing the Atlantic to [Norfolk, Virginia](/wiki/Norfolk%2C_Virginia \"Norfolk, Virginia\"), where she arrived on 1 March 1901\\. During her first circumnavigation of Earth, the steamer was renamed *Ajax* on 1 January 1901\\. She was decommissioned on 16 March.",
"### *Ajax*, 1901–1909",
"Reactivated on 16 October 1901, the ship made two more round\\-the\\-world voyages carrying coal to the [Asiatic Station](/wiki/Asiatic_Station \"Asiatic Station\") and then returned to the Philippines in September 1903 for operations with the Asiatic Fleet through the end of 1904\\. She then returned to the east coast of the United States along which she operated until placed out of service at Norfolk on 4 November 1905\\.",
"Reactivated on 20 January 1907, *Ajax* again served along the east coast until departing [Hampton Roads](/wiki/Hampton_Roads \"Hampton Roads\") in December of that year to support the cruise of the [Great White Fleet](/wiki/Great_White_Fleet \"Great White Fleet\") around the world to demonstrate the good will of the United States and to make known to any potential enemy the power of the U.S. Navy. She returned to Norfolk on Washington's Birthday in 1909 and, after serving the [Atlantic Fleet](/wiki/United_States_Fleet_Forces_Command \"United States Fleet Forces Command\") through the spring, was placed out of service at the [Portsmouth Navy Yard](/wiki/Portsmouth_Navy_Yard \"Portsmouth Navy Yard\") in June.",
"### 1910–1920",
"Laid up until 30 April 1910, he put in over two more years supporting the Atlantic Fleet along the coast and in the [Caribbean Sea](/wiki/Caribbean_Sea \"Caribbean Sea\") before she was ordered to the Orient for the last time. In December 1912, she took on a cargo of coal at Hampton Roads and loaded the [submarines](/wiki/Submarine \"Submarine\") {{USS\\|B\\-2\\|SS\\-11\\|2}} and {{USS\\|B\\-3\\|SS\\-12\\|2}} on her decks before sailing via the North Atlantic, the [Mediterranean Sea](/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea \"Mediterranean Sea\"), the Suez Canal, and the Indian Ocean to the Philippine Islands. She arrived in [Manila Bay](/wiki/Manila_Bay \"Manila Bay\") on 30 April 1913, and—after launching her two submarines—began shuttling coal to American warships at ports in such placed as Guam, the Philippines, China, Japan, and even Burma. Soon after the United States entered the [World War I](/wiki/World_War_I \"World War I\"), she towed the formerly interned German ship *Elsass* from Samoa to [Honolulu, Hawaii](/wiki/Honolulu%2C_Hawaii \"Honolulu, Hawaii\"). During the American intervention in [Siberia](/wiki/Siberia \"Siberia\") at the end of World War I, she made deliveries to [Vladivostok](/wiki/Vladivostok \"Vladivostok\").",
"### 1921–1925",
"The ship was laid up at the [Cavite Navy Yard](/wiki/Cavite_Navy_Yard \"Cavite Navy Yard\") from 20 April\\-17 October 1921 and then became the [receiving ship](/wiki/Receiving_ship \"Receiving ship\") there for the [16th Naval District](/wiki/16th_Naval_District \"16th Naval District\") and was redesignated AC\\-14\\.",
"During this period, she served briefly in 1923 as [tender](/wiki/Submarine_tender \"Submarine tender\") to the submarines of Submarine Division 18 (SubDiv 18\\), Asiatic Fleet, and was based at [Chefoo](/wiki/Chefoo \"Chefoo\"), China. After resuming her role as receiving ship at Cavite in September 1923, *Ajax* became the [tender](/wiki/Seaplane_tender \"Seaplane tender\") for the seaplanes of the Asiatic Fleet aircraft squadrons in February 1924\\. On 24 June, naval aviator Commander [Albert C. Read](/wiki/Albert_Cushing_Read \"Albert Cushing Read\") assumed command of both *Ajax* and the aircraft squadrons.{{cite book \\|url\\=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q5538319 \\|title\\=The Amphibians Came to Conquer: The Story of Admiral Richmond Kelly Turner \\|first\\=George Carroll \\|last\\=Dyer \\|date\\=1972 \\|page\\=92 \\|volume\\=1 \\|publisher\\=U.S. Department of the Navy \\|access\\-date\\=2020\\-07\\-15}} On 1 July, she was reclassified as a miscellaneous auxiliary and redesignated AG\\-15\\.",
"Relieved of all duty in June 1925 after the arrival of {{USS\\|Jason\\|AC\\-12\\|6}} in the Philippines, she was decommissioned on 8 July 1925 and her name was simultaneously stricken from the [Naval Vessel Register](/wiki/Naval_Vessel_Register \"Naval Vessel Register\"). The former *Ajax* was sold at the Cavite Navy Yard to S. R. Paterno on 14 August. S.R. Paterno was apparently a broker or agent for Madrigal as the ship was sold to Madrigal \\& Co, Manila, one of the larger Philippine shipowners, and renamed \"Consuelo\" and used in the interisland trade. In 1930 the ship was sold to Fernando Go Chioco of Amoy and renamed \"Hua Tong\". In 1932 the ship was sold (or transferred) to the newly established Singapore company Hua Khiow Steamship Co (1932\\) Ltd and in November 1933 the ship was scrapped in China.Lloyds Register, various years",
""
] |
Television career
-----------------
Oleg Borisovich Dobrodeev began his career in television in 1983 as an employee of the Central Television of the [USSR State Radio and Television (TsT)](/wiki/Soviet_Central_Television "Soviet Central Television").{{Cite web \|date\=2017\-04\-20 \|title\=Биография Олега Добродеева \- РИА Новости, 12\.06\.2012 \|url\=https://ria.ru/spravka/20120612/671581031\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-21 \|archive\-url\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420045338/https://ria.ru/spravka/20120612/671581031\.html \|archive\-date\=2017\-04\-20 }} He began his work here as a junior editor, then was a correspondent, commentator on the Vremya program and deputy editor\-in\-chief of the Main Editorial Information.
For a short time Dobrodeev led the program *120 minutes*. In 1990 he created weekly program of the Central Television *Seven days*. From 1990 to September 1991, he was the director of the news program *Vesti*.{{Cite book \|last\=Ostrovsky \|first\=Arkday \|title\=The invention of Russia: The rise of Putin and the age of fake news \|publisher\=Penguin \|year\=2017}}
From September 1991 to September 1993 Oleg Borisovich Dobrodeev was chief editor of the Information Television Agency of the Russian State Television and Radio Company "Ostankino". On January 5, 1992, ten days after the fall of the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union "Soviet Union") Dobdrodeev launched the show [Itogi](/wiki/Itogi "Itogi") in the [Vremya](/wiki/Vremya "Vremya") time slot.
Oleg Borisovich Dobrodeev founded of the commercial television company NTV with Evgeny Kiselev and Vladimir Gusinky. Since September 1993, he has been the editor\-in\-chief of the Information Program Service of the NTV television company. From 1993 to 1997 \- Vice President of the NTV television company. Since July 1996 \- one of the founders of NTV\-Plus CJSC . Since January 1997 \- one of the founders of CJSC " Media\-Most ". From December 1997 to January 2000 \- General Director of NTV Television Company. Since April 13, 2000, he has also been the editor\-in\-chief of the United Editorial Office of Electronic Media of the Rossiya Channel and the Vesti State Television Company.
Dobrodeev also founded the state channel [Russia\-24](/wiki/Russia-24 "Russia-24") owned by [VGTRK](/wiki/VGTRK "VGTRK") which has a stated goal to broadcast stories of Russian life beyond the borders and has broadcast since 2006\.{{Cite book \|last1\=Cuciureanu \|first1\=Gheorghe \|url\=http://dx.doi.org/10\.57066/idsi22\.2 \|title\=Strategia cercetării științifice: evidențe din Republica Moldova \|last2\=Cojocaru \|first2\=Igor \|last3\=Minciuna \|first3\=Vitalie \|last4\=Turcan \|first4\=Nelly \|date\=January 2023 \|publisher\=Information Society Development Institute, Republic of Moldova \|doi\=10\.57066/idsi22\.2 \|isbn\=978\-9975\-3564\-5\-9}} The channel is banned in the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union "European Union"),{{Cite web \|last\=Ó Fathaigh \|first\=Ronan \|date\=2022\-06\-02 \|title\=Three additional Russian media outlets added to list of banned media in the EU \|url\=https://merlin.obs.coe.int/article/9541}}[Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine "Ukraine"),{{Cite web \|title\=DOBRODEEV Oleg Borisovich \- biography, dossier, assets {{!}} War and sanctions \|url\=https://sanctions.nazk.gov.ua/en/sanction\-person/4027/ \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-21 \|website\=sanctions.nazk.gov.ua \|language\=en}}[Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan "Kyrgyzstan"),{{Cite news \|last\=Service \|first\=RFE/RL's Kyrgyz \|title\=Some Russian TV Satellite Signals Cut In Central Asia Over Sanctions \|language\=en \|work\=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty \|url\=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia\-tv\-blocked\-kyrgyzstan\-turkmenistan/31875157\.html \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-21}} [Moldova](/wiki/Moldova "Moldova"),{{Cite web \|title\=Moldova bans Russia 24 TV news channel from broadcasting in its territory \|url\=https://tass.com/world/739033 \|access\-date\=2023\-05\-21 \|website\=TASS}} United Kingdom,{{Cite journal \|last\=Mills \|first\=Claire \|date\=2023\-03\-22 \|title\=Sanctions against Russia \|url\=https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP\-9481/CBP\-9481\.pdf \|journal\=Research Briefing \|via\=House of Commons}} Turkmenistan.
On July 23, 2018, Oleg Borisovich Dobrodeev oversaw at the opening of the [VGTRK](/wiki/VGTRK "VGTRK") branch in the occupied [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea "Crimea"). He noted, "And this is really the main element in this information chain,” to talk “,about the final informational return of [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea "Crimea") to the Homeland".
|
[
"Television career\n-----------------",
"Oleg Borisovich Dobrodeev began his career in television in 1983 as an employee of the Central Television of the [USSR State Radio and Television (TsT)](/wiki/Soviet_Central_Television \"Soviet Central Television\").{{Cite web \\|date\\=2017\\-04\\-20 \\|title\\=Биография Олега Добродеева \\- РИА Новости, 12\\.06\\.2012 \\|url\\=https://ria.ru/spravka/20120612/671581031\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-21 \\|archive\\-url\\=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420045338/https://ria.ru/spravka/20120612/671581031\\.html \\|archive\\-date\\=2017\\-04\\-20 }} He began his work here as a junior editor, then was a correspondent, commentator on the Vremya program and deputy editor\\-in\\-chief of the Main Editorial Information.",
"For a short time Dobrodeev led the program *120 minutes*. In 1990 he created weekly program of the Central Television *Seven days*. From 1990 to September 1991, he was the director of the news program *Vesti*.{{Cite book \\|last\\=Ostrovsky \\|first\\=Arkday \\|title\\=The invention of Russia: The rise of Putin and the age of fake news \\|publisher\\=Penguin \\|year\\=2017}}",
"From September 1991 to September 1993 Oleg Borisovich Dobrodeev was chief editor of the Information Television Agency of the Russian State Television and Radio Company \"Ostankino\". On January 5, 1992, ten days after the fall of the [Soviet Union](/wiki/Soviet_Union \"Soviet Union\") Dobdrodeev launched the show [Itogi](/wiki/Itogi \"Itogi\") in the [Vremya](/wiki/Vremya \"Vremya\") time slot.",
"Oleg Borisovich Dobrodeev founded of the commercial television company NTV with Evgeny Kiselev and Vladimir Gusinky. Since September 1993, he has been the editor\\-in\\-chief of the Information Program Service of the NTV television company. From 1993 to 1997 \\- Vice President of the NTV television company. Since July 1996 \\- one of the founders of NTV\\-Plus CJSC . Since January 1997 \\- one of the founders of CJSC \" Media\\-Most \". From December 1997 to January 2000 \\- General Director of NTV Television Company. Since April 13, 2000, he has also been the editor\\-in\\-chief of the United Editorial Office of Electronic Media of the Rossiya Channel and the Vesti State Television Company.",
"Dobrodeev also founded the state channel [Russia\\-24](/wiki/Russia-24 \"Russia-24\") owned by [VGTRK](/wiki/VGTRK \"VGTRK\") which has a stated goal to broadcast stories of Russian life beyond the borders and has broadcast since 2006\\.{{Cite book \\|last1\\=Cuciureanu \\|first1\\=Gheorghe \\|url\\=http://dx.doi.org/10\\.57066/idsi22\\.2 \\|title\\=Strategia cercetării științifice: evidențe din Republica Moldova \\|last2\\=Cojocaru \\|first2\\=Igor \\|last3\\=Minciuna \\|first3\\=Vitalie \\|last4\\=Turcan \\|first4\\=Nelly \\|date\\=January 2023 \\|publisher\\=Information Society Development Institute, Republic of Moldova \\|doi\\=10\\.57066/idsi22\\.2 \\|isbn\\=978\\-9975\\-3564\\-5\\-9}} The channel is banned in the [European Union](/wiki/European_Union \"European Union\"),{{Cite web \\|last\\=Ó Fathaigh \\|first\\=Ronan \\|date\\=2022\\-06\\-02 \\|title\\=Three additional Russian media outlets added to list of banned media in the EU \\|url\\=https://merlin.obs.coe.int/article/9541}}[Ukraine](/wiki/Ukraine \"Ukraine\"),{{Cite web \\|title\\=DOBRODEEV Oleg Borisovich \\- biography, dossier, assets {{!}} War and sanctions \\|url\\=https://sanctions.nazk.gov.ua/en/sanction\\-person/4027/ \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-21 \\|website\\=sanctions.nazk.gov.ua \\|language\\=en}}[Kyrgyzstan](/wiki/Kyrgyzstan \"Kyrgyzstan\"),{{Cite news \\|last\\=Service \\|first\\=RFE/RL's Kyrgyz \\|title\\=Some Russian TV Satellite Signals Cut In Central Asia Over Sanctions \\|language\\=en \\|work\\=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty \\|url\\=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia\\-tv\\-blocked\\-kyrgyzstan\\-turkmenistan/31875157\\.html \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-21}} [Moldova](/wiki/Moldova \"Moldova\"),{{Cite web \\|title\\=Moldova bans Russia 24 TV news channel from broadcasting in its territory \\|url\\=https://tass.com/world/739033 \\|access\\-date\\=2023\\-05\\-21 \\|website\\=TASS}} United Kingdom,{{Cite journal \\|last\\=Mills \\|first\\=Claire \\|date\\=2023\\-03\\-22 \\|title\\=Sanctions against Russia \\|url\\=https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP\\-9481/CBP\\-9481\\.pdf \\|journal\\=Research Briefing \\|via\\=House of Commons}} Turkmenistan.",
"On July 23, 2018, Oleg Borisovich Dobrodeev oversaw at the opening of the [VGTRK](/wiki/VGTRK \"VGTRK\") branch in the occupied [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea \"Crimea\"). He noted, \"And this is really the main element in this information chain,” to talk “,about the final informational return of [Crimea](/wiki/Crimea \"Crimea\") to the Homeland\".",
""
] |
Racing career
-------------
### Flat career
Knock Hard began his career [on the flat](/wiki/Flat_racing "Flat racing") and developed into a high\-class [handicapper](/wiki/Handicap_%28horse_racing%29 "Handicap (horse racing)"). In November 1950 he was the subject of a major gamble for the Irish Cesarewitch but was beaten by his stablemate Hatton's Grace after his amateur jockey ignored the trainer's instructions and went to the front too soon. In the following spring he won the apparently competitive Irish Lincoln Handicap over one mile, opening up a clear lead after three furlongs and winning by six [lengths](/wiki/Horse_length "Horse length"). O'Brien actually admitted that Knock Hard was essentially a flat racer and had "no natural aptitude for jumping".
### 1951/52 National Hunt season
Knock Hard had been tried over fences before his win in the Irish Lincoln and in the 1951/52 National Hunt season he developed into a high\-class steeplechaser. In December he was sent to race in England for the first time for the [King George VI Chase](/wiki/King_George_VI_Chase "King George VI Chase") but fell in a race won by the six\-year\-old Statecraft. He was going well at the time and his rider [Phonsie O'Brien](/wiki/Phonsie_O%27Brien "Phonsie O'Brien") (younger brother of the trainer) stated that if he had not fallen he would have won by fifteen lengths.
On 6 March 1952 Knock Hard made his first attempt to win the Cheltenham Gold Cup and started the [5/1](/wiki/Fractional_odds "Fractional odds") second favourite in a thirteen\-runner field.{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=1946\&dat\=19520307\&id\=9IAtAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=3085,963244\&hl\=en\|title\=Mont Tremblant cops Cheltenham Gold Cup\|date\=7 March 1952\|work\=\[\[Montreal Gazette]]}} Ridden again by Phonsie O'Brien he was closing on the leaders and looked likely to win when falling at the penultimate obstacle.{{cite book \| last \= Harman \| first \= Bob \| title \= The Ultimate Dream: The History of the Cheltenham Gold Cup\| publisher\=Mainstream Publishing \| year \= 2000\| isbn \= 1\-84018\-381\-0}}
### 1952/53 National Hunt season
In the late autumn of 1952 Knock Hard returned to the flat and finished second to the three\-year\-old Summer Rain (winner of the [Chester Vase](/wiki/Chester_Vase "Chester Vase")) in the [November Handicap](/wiki/November_Handicap "November Handicap") at [Manchester Racecourse](/wiki/Manchester_Racecourse "Manchester Racecourse").{{cite web\|url\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\=2507\&dat\=19521226\&id\=pEFAAAAAIBAJ\&pg\=2794,5185408\&hl\=en\|title\=King George VI Chase\|date\=26 December 1952\|author\=White and Gold\|work\=\[\[Glasgow Herald]]}} He jumped poorly when unplaced behind [Halloween](/wiki/Halloween_%28horse%29 "Halloween (horse)") in the King George VI Chase and was beaten again when conceding 20 pounds to Mariner's Log at [Leopardstown](/wiki/Leopardstown_Racecourse "Leopardstown Racecourse"). The horse's performance in the latter race saw O'Brien summoned to appear before the stewards of the Irish Turf Club who suspected that Knock Hard's poor performance had been engineered by his connections to improve his odds in future races. After two disappointing runs Vincent O'Brien had the gelding examined by a Dublin [vet](/wiki/Veterinary_surgeon "Veterinary surgeon") who diagnosed a potentially serious heart problem. O'Brien decided to continue racing the horse but only after explaining the risks to his owner and to his jockey [Tim Molony](/wiki/Tim_Molony "Tim Molony"). Knock Hard was back in England in early 1953 for the [Great Yorkshire Chase](/wiki/Great_Yorkshire_Chase "Great Yorkshire Chase") at [Doncaster Racecourse](/wiki/Doncaster_Racecourse "Doncaster Racecourse") and won from the [1952 Grand National](/wiki/1952_Grand_National "1952 Grand National") winner [Teal](/wiki/Teal_%28horse%29 "Teal (horse)") to whom he was conceding weight.
On a cold, misty day at Cheltenham on 5 March he made his second attempt to win the Gold Cup. He started at odds of 11/2 against eleven opponents including Halloween (the favourite), [Mont Tremblant](/wiki/Mont_Tremblant_%28horse%29 "Mont Tremblant (horse)"), [E.S.B.](/wiki/E.S.B._%28horse%29 "E.S.B. (horse)"), Mariners Log and Teal. Knock Hard was not amongst the early leaders and when the horses emerged from the fog approaching the third last he appeared to be out of contention as E.S.B., Mont Tremblant, Galloway Braes and Rose Park disputed the lead. Mont Tremblant soon weakened and Rose Park fell at the second last but Knock Hard began to make rapid progress. He took the lead at the last and drew away up the run\-in to win by five lengths and two lengths from Halloween and Galloway Braes.{{cite book\|url\=https://books.google.com/books?id\=y5AAj7CVrC8C\&dq\=%22Mont\+Tremblant%22\+%22Cheltenham%22\&pg\=PA85\|title\=Vincent O'Brien: The Official Biography\|author\=Jacqueline O'Brien \& Ivor Herbert\|year\=2005\|publisher\=Bantam Books\|isbn\=9780553817393}}
### Later career, retirement and death
In March 1954 Knock Hard attempted to repeat his 1953 success in the Gold Cup but struggled on the [heavy ground](/wiki/Going_%28horse_racing%29 "Going (horse racing)") and finished fifth of the nine runners behind [Four Ten](/wiki/Four_Ten "Four Ten"), Mariner's Log, Halloween and Mont Tremblant.
Knock Hard later was bought by Francis More O'Ferrall. His form deteriorated further and he was given away to Lady Jane Lumley, the daughter of [Lord Scarbrough](/wiki/Roger_Lumley%2C_11th_Earl_of_Scarbrough "Roger Lumley, 11th Earl of Scarbrough") and he was moved to England to become a [hunter](/wiki/Field_hunter "Field hunter"). He collapsed and died approximately two years later, probably due to a recurrence of his heart condition.
|
[
"Racing career\n-------------",
"### Flat career",
"Knock Hard began his career [on the flat](/wiki/Flat_racing \"Flat racing\") and developed into a high\\-class [handicapper](/wiki/Handicap_%28horse_racing%29 \"Handicap (horse racing)\"). In November 1950 he was the subject of a major gamble for the Irish Cesarewitch but was beaten by his stablemate Hatton's Grace after his amateur jockey ignored the trainer's instructions and went to the front too soon. In the following spring he won the apparently competitive Irish Lincoln Handicap over one mile, opening up a clear lead after three furlongs and winning by six [lengths](/wiki/Horse_length \"Horse length\"). O'Brien actually admitted that Knock Hard was essentially a flat racer and had \"no natural aptitude for jumping\".",
"### 1951/52 National Hunt season",
"Knock Hard had been tried over fences before his win in the Irish Lincoln and in the 1951/52 National Hunt season he developed into a high\\-class steeplechaser. In December he was sent to race in England for the first time for the [King George VI Chase](/wiki/King_George_VI_Chase \"King George VI Chase\") but fell in a race won by the six\\-year\\-old Statecraft. He was going well at the time and his rider [Phonsie O'Brien](/wiki/Phonsie_O%27Brien \"Phonsie O'Brien\") (younger brother of the trainer) stated that if he had not fallen he would have won by fifteen lengths.",
"On 6 March 1952 Knock Hard made his first attempt to win the Cheltenham Gold Cup and started the [5/1](/wiki/Fractional_odds \"Fractional odds\") second favourite in a thirteen\\-runner field.{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=1946\\&dat\\=19520307\\&id\\=9IAtAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=3085,963244\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=Mont Tremblant cops Cheltenham Gold Cup\\|date\\=7 March 1952\\|work\\=\\[\\[Montreal Gazette]]}} Ridden again by Phonsie O'Brien he was closing on the leaders and looked likely to win when falling at the penultimate obstacle.{{cite book \\| last \\= Harman \\| first \\= Bob \\| title \\= The Ultimate Dream: The History of the Cheltenham Gold Cup\\| publisher\\=Mainstream Publishing \\| year \\= 2000\\| isbn \\= 1\\-84018\\-381\\-0}}",
"### 1952/53 National Hunt season",
"In the late autumn of 1952 Knock Hard returned to the flat and finished second to the three\\-year\\-old Summer Rain (winner of the [Chester Vase](/wiki/Chester_Vase \"Chester Vase\")) in the [November Handicap](/wiki/November_Handicap \"November Handicap\") at [Manchester Racecourse](/wiki/Manchester_Racecourse \"Manchester Racecourse\").{{cite web\\|url\\=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid\\=2507\\&dat\\=19521226\\&id\\=pEFAAAAAIBAJ\\&pg\\=2794,5185408\\&hl\\=en\\|title\\=King George VI Chase\\|date\\=26 December 1952\\|author\\=White and Gold\\|work\\=\\[\\[Glasgow Herald]]}} He jumped poorly when unplaced behind [Halloween](/wiki/Halloween_%28horse%29 \"Halloween (horse)\") in the King George VI Chase and was beaten again when conceding 20 pounds to Mariner's Log at [Leopardstown](/wiki/Leopardstown_Racecourse \"Leopardstown Racecourse\"). The horse's performance in the latter race saw O'Brien summoned to appear before the stewards of the Irish Turf Club who suspected that Knock Hard's poor performance had been engineered by his connections to improve his odds in future races. After two disappointing runs Vincent O'Brien had the gelding examined by a Dublin [vet](/wiki/Veterinary_surgeon \"Veterinary surgeon\") who diagnosed a potentially serious heart problem. O'Brien decided to continue racing the horse but only after explaining the risks to his owner and to his jockey [Tim Molony](/wiki/Tim_Molony \"Tim Molony\"). Knock Hard was back in England in early 1953 for the [Great Yorkshire Chase](/wiki/Great_Yorkshire_Chase \"Great Yorkshire Chase\") at [Doncaster Racecourse](/wiki/Doncaster_Racecourse \"Doncaster Racecourse\") and won from the [1952 Grand National](/wiki/1952_Grand_National \"1952 Grand National\") winner [Teal](/wiki/Teal_%28horse%29 \"Teal (horse)\") to whom he was conceding weight.",
"On a cold, misty day at Cheltenham on 5 March he made his second attempt to win the Gold Cup. He started at odds of 11/2 against eleven opponents including Halloween (the favourite), [Mont Tremblant](/wiki/Mont_Tremblant_%28horse%29 \"Mont Tremblant (horse)\"), [E.S.B.](/wiki/E.S.B._%28horse%29 \"E.S.B. (horse)\"), Mariners Log and Teal. Knock Hard was not amongst the early leaders and when the horses emerged from the fog approaching the third last he appeared to be out of contention as E.S.B., Mont Tremblant, Galloway Braes and Rose Park disputed the lead. Mont Tremblant soon weakened and Rose Park fell at the second last but Knock Hard began to make rapid progress. He took the lead at the last and drew away up the run\\-in to win by five lengths and two lengths from Halloween and Galloway Braes.{{cite book\\|url\\=https://books.google.com/books?id\\=y5AAj7CVrC8C\\&dq\\=%22Mont\\+Tremblant%22\\+%22Cheltenham%22\\&pg\\=PA85\\|title\\=Vincent O'Brien: The Official Biography\\|author\\=Jacqueline O'Brien \\& Ivor Herbert\\|year\\=2005\\|publisher\\=Bantam Books\\|isbn\\=9780553817393}}",
"### Later career, retirement and death",
"In March 1954 Knock Hard attempted to repeat his 1953 success in the Gold Cup but struggled on the [heavy ground](/wiki/Going_%28horse_racing%29 \"Going (horse racing)\") and finished fifth of the nine runners behind [Four Ten](/wiki/Four_Ten \"Four Ten\"), Mariner's Log, Halloween and Mont Tremblant.",
"Knock Hard later was bought by Francis More O'Ferrall. His form deteriorated further and he was given away to Lady Jane Lumley, the daughter of [Lord Scarbrough](/wiki/Roger_Lumley%2C_11th_Earl_of_Scarbrough \"Roger Lumley, 11th Earl of Scarbrough\") and he was moved to England to become a [hunter](/wiki/Field_hunter \"Field hunter\"). He collapsed and died approximately two years later, probably due to a recurrence of his heart condition.",
""
] |
Thermal switch
--------------
[thumb\|Two thermal switches (Thermal Cut)](/wiki/File:Thermal_switches.jpg "Thermal switches.jpg")
[thumb\|Schematic symbol for a thermal overload switch](/wiki/File:Thermo_relay_1-pole.JPG "Thermo relay 1-pole.JPG")
A **thermal switch** (sometimes **thermal reset** or **thermal cutout** (TCO)) is a device which normally opens at a high temperature (often with a faint "plink" sound) and re\-closes when the temperature drops. The thermal switch may be a [bimetallic strip](/wiki/Bimetallic_strip "Bimetallic strip"), often encased in a tubular glass bulb to protect it from [dust](/wiki/Dust "Dust") or [short circuit](/wiki/Short_circuit "Short circuit"). Another common design uses a bimetallic shallow dome\-shaped cap which "clicks" to an inside\-out inverted cap shape when heated, such as the "Klixon" brand of thermal cutouts.Alan R. Earls, Robert E. Edwards, *Raytheon Company: The First Sixty Years*Arcadia Publishing, 2005
{{ISBN\|0738537470}}, page 9
Unlike a thermal fuse, a thermal switch is usually reusable and is therefore suited to protecting against temporary situations which are common and user\-correctable. Thermal switches are used in [power supplies](/wiki/Power_supplies "Power supplies") in case of [overload](/wiki/Electrical_overload "Electrical overload"), and also as [thermostats](/wiki/Thermostats "Thermostats"), and overheat protection in some heating and cooling systems. They are found in virtually every refrigerator, microwave, clothes dryer, space heater, and many more appliances found throughout the home.
Another type of thermal switch is a PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) [thermistor](/wiki/Thermistor "Thermistor"); these thermistors have a "cutting off" temperature at which the resistance suddenly rises rapidly, limiting the current through the circuit. When used in conjunction with a thermistor relay, the PTC will switch off an electrical system at a desired temperature. Typical use is for motor overheat protection. These devices are not a true “switch” as they do not disengage completely and there is always some resistance across the switch.
Thermal switches are included in [turn signals](/wiki/Turn_signals "Turn signals") on older vehicles, some [light fixtures](/wiki/Light_fixture "Light fixture"), particularly with [recessed lights](/wiki/Recessed_light "Recessed light"), where excessive heat is most likely to occur. This may lead to "cycling" ([flashing](/wiki/Headlight_flashing "Headlight flashing")), where a light turns off and back on every few minutes. Flashing incandescent [Christmas lights](/wiki/Christmas_lights_%28holiday_decoration%29 "Christmas lights (holiday decoration)") take advantage of this effect. Some flasher bulbs interrupt power when heated, while other twinkle/sparkle mini\-bulbs momentarily [shunt](/wiki/Shunt_%28electrical%29 "Shunt (electrical)") current around the [filament](/wiki/Electrical_filament "Electrical filament").
Thermal switches are part of the normal operation of older [fluorescent light](/wiki/Fluorescent_light "Fluorescent light") fixtures, where they are the major part of the [starter](/wiki/Glow_switch_starter "Glow switch starter") module.
[GE](/wiki/General_Electric "General Electric") trademarked the name "Guardette" for the thermal protection switches used on their refrigeration compressors.
Thermal switches on [microprocessors](/wiki/Microprocessor "Microprocessor") often stop only the fetching of instructions to execute, reducing the [clock rate](/wiki/Clock_rate "Clock rate") to zero until a lower temperature is reached, while maintaining power to the [cache](/wiki/CPU_cache "CPU cache") to prevent data loss (although a second switch, with a higher triggering temperature, usually turns off even the cache and forces the computer to reboot). This mitigates the impact of programs resembling [power viruses](/wiki/Power_virus "Power virus") on the processor's longevity, while still accommodating their possible legitimate uses; it can also make [overclocking](/wiki/Overclocking "Overclocking") possible with less risk.
### Manual reset
Some thermal switches must be reset manually after having tripped. This type is used when an automatic and unattended restart would create a hazardous condition, such as sudden startup of a powerful motor without warning. These types of thermal cutouts are usually reset by pressing a [push\-button](/wiki/Push-button "Push-button") by hand or with a special tool.
|
[
"Thermal switch\n--------------",
"[thumb\\|Two thermal switches (Thermal Cut)](/wiki/File:Thermal_switches.jpg \"Thermal switches.jpg\")\n[thumb\\|Schematic symbol for a thermal overload switch](/wiki/File:Thermo_relay_1-pole.JPG \"Thermo relay 1-pole.JPG\")\nA **thermal switch** (sometimes **thermal reset** or **thermal cutout** (TCO)) is a device which normally opens at a high temperature (often with a faint \"plink\" sound) and re\\-closes when the temperature drops. The thermal switch may be a [bimetallic strip](/wiki/Bimetallic_strip \"Bimetallic strip\"), often encased in a tubular glass bulb to protect it from [dust](/wiki/Dust \"Dust\") or [short circuit](/wiki/Short_circuit \"Short circuit\"). Another common design uses a bimetallic shallow dome\\-shaped cap which \"clicks\" to an inside\\-out inverted cap shape when heated, such as the \"Klixon\" brand of thermal cutouts.Alan R. Earls, Robert E. Edwards, *Raytheon Company: The First Sixty Years*Arcadia Publishing, 2005\n{{ISBN\\|0738537470}}, page 9",
"Unlike a thermal fuse, a thermal switch is usually reusable and is therefore suited to protecting against temporary situations which are common and user\\-correctable. Thermal switches are used in [power supplies](/wiki/Power_supplies \"Power supplies\") in case of [overload](/wiki/Electrical_overload \"Electrical overload\"), and also as [thermostats](/wiki/Thermostats \"Thermostats\"), and overheat protection in some heating and cooling systems. They are found in virtually every refrigerator, microwave, clothes dryer, space heater, and many more appliances found throughout the home.",
"Another type of thermal switch is a PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) [thermistor](/wiki/Thermistor \"Thermistor\"); these thermistors have a \"cutting off\" temperature at which the resistance suddenly rises rapidly, limiting the current through the circuit. When used in conjunction with a thermistor relay, the PTC will switch off an electrical system at a desired temperature. Typical use is for motor overheat protection. These devices are not a true “switch” as they do not disengage completely and there is always some resistance across the switch.",
"Thermal switches are included in [turn signals](/wiki/Turn_signals \"Turn signals\") on older vehicles, some [light fixtures](/wiki/Light_fixture \"Light fixture\"), particularly with [recessed lights](/wiki/Recessed_light \"Recessed light\"), where excessive heat is most likely to occur. This may lead to \"cycling\" ([flashing](/wiki/Headlight_flashing \"Headlight flashing\")), where a light turns off and back on every few minutes. Flashing incandescent [Christmas lights](/wiki/Christmas_lights_%28holiday_decoration%29 \"Christmas lights (holiday decoration)\") take advantage of this effect. Some flasher bulbs interrupt power when heated, while other twinkle/sparkle mini\\-bulbs momentarily [shunt](/wiki/Shunt_%28electrical%29 \"Shunt (electrical)\") current around the [filament](/wiki/Electrical_filament \"Electrical filament\").",
"Thermal switches are part of the normal operation of older [fluorescent light](/wiki/Fluorescent_light \"Fluorescent light\") fixtures, where they are the major part of the [starter](/wiki/Glow_switch_starter \"Glow switch starter\") module.",
"[GE](/wiki/General_Electric \"General Electric\") trademarked the name \"Guardette\" for the thermal protection switches used on their refrigeration compressors.",
"Thermal switches on [microprocessors](/wiki/Microprocessor \"Microprocessor\") often stop only the fetching of instructions to execute, reducing the [clock rate](/wiki/Clock_rate \"Clock rate\") to zero until a lower temperature is reached, while maintaining power to the [cache](/wiki/CPU_cache \"CPU cache\") to prevent data loss (although a second switch, with a higher triggering temperature, usually turns off even the cache and forces the computer to reboot). This mitigates the impact of programs resembling [power viruses](/wiki/Power_virus \"Power virus\") on the processor's longevity, while still accommodating their possible legitimate uses; it can also make [overclocking](/wiki/Overclocking \"Overclocking\") possible with less risk.",
"### Manual reset",
"Some thermal switches must be reset manually after having tripped. This type is used when an automatic and unattended restart would create a hazardous condition, such as sudden startup of a powerful motor without warning. These types of thermal cutouts are usually reset by pressing a [push\\-button](/wiki/Push-button \"Push-button\") by hand or with a special tool.",
""
] |
Biography
---------
[thumb\|217x217px\|Gaydarov, 1909\|left](/wiki/File:Ibrahim_bey_Haydarov_2.jpg "Ibrahim bey Haydarov 2.jpg")
### Early life
Ibrahim\-bek was born in a noble family, as the son of Isa\-bek Gaydarov. He was a [Lezgin](/wiki/Lezgins "Lezgins"){{Cite web\|title\=Просмотр документа \- dlib.rsl.ru\|url\=https://dlib.rsl.ru/viewer/01003800760\#?page\=487\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-03\|website\=dlib.rsl.ru}} [Muslim](/wiki/Muslims "Muslims") noble, nationalist activist and one of the Northern Caucasian intellectuals, along with his brother Omar Bey.
After completing the best school of the region, Temir\-Khan\-Shura school in 1897, he entered the prestigious [St. Petersburg State Transport University](/wiki/St._Petersburg_State_Transport_University "St. Petersburg State Transport University") and graduated in 1907\. After completing his studies and graduating, finally reaching great levels of education, Gaydarov returned to his homeland.
He worked as a communication engineer in Baku in various industries. Gaydarov, who was among the leaders of the Baku Society in 1907, was elected to the State Duma of the Russian Empire from the Dagestan region and the Zagatala region on October 14, 1907 at the age of 28 and went to Saint Petersburg. At first, Gaydarov, who had a Social Democratic ideology, first joined the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party in the Duma and took part in the Bolshevik faction of the Party. However, he left this party and joined the Muslim party, considering that the Russian Bolsheviks did not give any importance to the interests of the national minorities and had a negative view of Islam. He participated in the work of five commissions: agriculture, work, communication, budget and fisheries.{{Cite web\|last\=kkc\|title\=İBRAHİM HAYDAR\|url\=https://www.kuzeykafkasyacumhuriyeti.org/biyografi/ibrahim\-haydar.html\|access\-date\=2021\-02\-03\|website\=www.kuzeykafkasyacumhuriyeti.org\|language\=tr\-tr}}Berzeg, Sefer E. (Mart 2003\). *Kuzey Kafkasya Cumhuriyeti 1917\-1922, Kafkasya Dağlıları Birliği’nin Kuruluşu* (I. Cilt). İstanbul : Birleşik Kafkasya Derneği.Berzeg, Sefer E. (Ocak 2006\). *Kuzey Kafkasya Cumhuriyeti 1917\-1922, Sovyet Karanlığına Girerken* (III. Cilt). İstanbul : Birleşik Kafkasya Derneği.Abdurazak, Ş.T (2011\). ИДЕЙНОЕ НАСЛЕДИЕ ИБРАГИМ\-БЕКА ГАЙДАРОВА. *Mahaçkale Bülteni*, *Sayı: 11*, S: 172\-175\. (IBRAHIM\-BEK GAIDAROV'UN İDEAL MİRASI)Tagirzade, A. W. ve Tagir, O.A. (20 Ekim 2014\). ИБРАГИМ\-БЕК ИСА\-БЕК ОГЛУ ГАЙДАРОВ (ГАЙДАРОГЛУ)*.* Erişim Tarihi : 02\.03\.2018, <http://www.gazavat.ru/> (IBRAHIM\-BEK ISA\-BEK OGLU GAYDAROV (GAYDAROĞLU))
Returning to Baku after the completion of his duty to the Duma, Gaydarov assumed duties in many non\-governmental organizations. He founded an oil company called "Deyanat" in order to gain funds in order to support Caucasians. He participated and played a big role in the charity organisations "Safa" and "Nijat". He also participated in organisastions teaching the [Azerbaijani language](/wiki/Azerbaijani_language "Azerbaijani language") and [Islam](/wiki/Islam "Islam") to young children. After the February 1917 revolution and the overthrow of the Tsarist rule, he chaired the Transcaucasus Muslims Committee. Upon the appointment of the Transcaucasus Special Committee, he was appointed Commissar of Dagestan Region (April 5, 1917\). He was elected as a member of the First Congress of Caucasian Muslims held in Baku.
### Struggle for Caucasian independence
After the [Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus](/wiki/Mountainous_Republic_of_the_Northern_Caucasus "Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus") declared its independence, he joined them and contributed to the state affairs as an intellectual and worked for the development of the Caucasus.
In the newly formed Caucasus government, Gaydarov served as the Minister of Transport, Post and Telegraph. Together with a delegation headed by [Abdulmajid Tapa Tchermoeff](/wiki/Abdulmajid_Tapa_Tchermoeff "Abdulmajid Tapa Tchermoeff"), they negotiated with the representatives of the Allied Forces to recognize the independence of the Caucasus. Gaydarov, an authorized representative of his government, signed an agreement with the Azerbaijan Republic on November 28, 1918\. He was appointed to the same post by [Pshemakho Kotsev](/wiki/Pshemakho_Kotsev "Pshemakho Kotsev"), who succeeded him after Abdulmajid Tchermoeff resigned due to the obligation of Ottoman support forces to leave the Caucasus in accordance with the provisions of the Armistice of Mondros. In January 1919, he was assigned to the government delegation sent to the World Peace Conference in Paris to promote the independence of the North Caucasus to other countries. [thumb\|249x249px\|Gaydarov's dagger\|leftHe](/wiki/File:Dagger_owned_by_Ibrahim_Heydarov.jpg "Dagger owned by Ibrahim Heydarov.jpg") took part in the armed struggle against the reoccupation of Caucasus by the Russian White Army. In the spring of 1920, he was tricked and arrested in Baku, where he had to retreat after the Red Army invasion. After the hard efforts of the leader of Azerbaijan Bolsheviks and his old friend, [Nariman Narimanov](/wiki/Nariman_Narimanov "Nariman Narimanov"), he was temporarily appointed as the Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs, he managed to escape and went to Tbilisi. After [Red Army invasion of Georgia](/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Georgia "Red Army invasion of Georgia"), he went to France with his family.
### Life in Turkey
Gaydarov came to Turkey where he was known as İbrahim Haydar upon the special invitation of [Mustafa Kemal Atatürk](/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk "Mustafa Kemal Atatürk") in 1925 and he helped the [Ankara](/wiki/Ankara "Ankara")\-[Kayseri](/wiki/Kayseri "Kayseri") railway construction. He, then, worked in various sections of the [Sivas railway](/wiki/Sivas_railway_station "Sivas railway station"). He proved himself at the construction of railways in Turkey itself not only as a skilled professional, at the same time as a scientist. He predicted shift in the wind of Turkey with the rise of racism and in order to promote the Caucasus, he translated books from Russian into Turkish in 1937, released in Istanbul. In the winter of 1939, he went to Ankara as a result of the loss of his young colleagues in [Erzincan earthquake](/wiki/1939_Erzincan_earthquake "1939 Erzincan earthquake"). In the period from 1940 until his death he served high positions in the Republic of Turkey Ministry of Railways.
Gaydarov, who was married to Nisa Hanım, had one boy and three daughters. Gaydarov, who was a member of the High Scientific Council of Turkey, died in Ankara on 20 March 1949 and was buried in Cebeci cemetery.
|
[
"Biography\n---------",
"[thumb\\|217x217px\\|Gaydarov, 1909\\|left](/wiki/File:Ibrahim_bey_Haydarov_2.jpg \"Ibrahim bey Haydarov 2.jpg\")",
"### Early life",
"Ibrahim\\-bek was born in a noble family, as the son of Isa\\-bek Gaydarov. He was a [Lezgin](/wiki/Lezgins \"Lezgins\"){{Cite web\\|title\\=Просмотр документа \\- dlib.rsl.ru\\|url\\=https://dlib.rsl.ru/viewer/01003800760\\#?page\\=487\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-03\\|website\\=dlib.rsl.ru}} [Muslim](/wiki/Muslims \"Muslims\") noble, nationalist activist and one of the Northern Caucasian intellectuals, along with his brother Omar Bey.",
"After completing the best school of the region, Temir\\-Khan\\-Shura school in 1897, he entered the prestigious [St. Petersburg State Transport University](/wiki/St._Petersburg_State_Transport_University \"St. Petersburg State Transport University\") and graduated in 1907\\. After completing his studies and graduating, finally reaching great levels of education, Gaydarov returned to his homeland.",
"He worked as a communication engineer in Baku in various industries. Gaydarov, who was among the leaders of the Baku Society in 1907, was elected to the State Duma of the Russian Empire from the Dagestan region and the Zagatala region on October 14, 1907 at the age of 28 and went to Saint Petersburg. At first, Gaydarov, who had a Social Democratic ideology, first joined the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party in the Duma and took part in the Bolshevik faction of the Party. However, he left this party and joined the Muslim party, considering that the Russian Bolsheviks did not give any importance to the interests of the national minorities and had a negative view of Islam. He participated in the work of five commissions: agriculture, work, communication, budget and fisheries.{{Cite web\\|last\\=kkc\\|title\\=İBRAHİM HAYDAR\\|url\\=https://www.kuzeykafkasyacumhuriyeti.org/biyografi/ibrahim\\-haydar.html\\|access\\-date\\=2021\\-02\\-03\\|website\\=www.kuzeykafkasyacumhuriyeti.org\\|language\\=tr\\-tr}}Berzeg, Sefer E. (Mart 2003\\). *Kuzey Kafkasya Cumhuriyeti 1917\\-1922, Kafkasya Dağlıları Birliği’nin Kuruluşu* (I. Cilt). İstanbul : Birleşik Kafkasya Derneği.Berzeg, Sefer E. (Ocak 2006\\). *Kuzey Kafkasya Cumhuriyeti 1917\\-1922, Sovyet Karanlığına Girerken* (III. Cilt). İstanbul : Birleşik Kafkasya Derneği.Abdurazak, Ş.T (2011\\). ИДЕЙНОЕ НАСЛЕДИЕ ИБРАГИМ\\-БЕКА ГАЙДАРОВА. *Mahaçkale Bülteni*, *Sayı: 11*, S: 172\\-175\\. (IBRAHIM\\-BEK GAIDAROV'UN İDEAL MİRASI)Tagirzade, A. W. ve Tagir, O.A. (20 Ekim 2014\\). ИБРАГИМ\\-БЕК ИСА\\-БЕК ОГЛУ ГАЙДАРОВ (ГАЙДАРОГЛУ)*.* Erişim Tarihi : 02\\.03\\.2018, <http://www.gazavat.ru/> (IBRAHIM\\-BEK ISA\\-BEK OGLU GAYDAROV (GAYDAROĞLU))",
"Returning to Baku after the completion of his duty to the Duma, Gaydarov assumed duties in many non\\-governmental organizations. He founded an oil company called \"Deyanat\" in order to gain funds in order to support Caucasians. He participated and played a big role in the charity organisations \"Safa\" and \"Nijat\". He also participated in organisastions teaching the [Azerbaijani language](/wiki/Azerbaijani_language \"Azerbaijani language\") and [Islam](/wiki/Islam \"Islam\") to young children. After the February 1917 revolution and the overthrow of the Tsarist rule, he chaired the Transcaucasus Muslims Committee. Upon the appointment of the Transcaucasus Special Committee, he was appointed Commissar of Dagestan Region (April 5, 1917\\). He was elected as a member of the First Congress of Caucasian Muslims held in Baku.",
"### Struggle for Caucasian independence",
"After the [Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus](/wiki/Mountainous_Republic_of_the_Northern_Caucasus \"Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus\") declared its independence, he joined them and contributed to the state affairs as an intellectual and worked for the development of the Caucasus.",
"In the newly formed Caucasus government, Gaydarov served as the Minister of Transport, Post and Telegraph. Together with a delegation headed by [Abdulmajid Tapa Tchermoeff](/wiki/Abdulmajid_Tapa_Tchermoeff \"Abdulmajid Tapa Tchermoeff\"), they negotiated with the representatives of the Allied Forces to recognize the independence of the Caucasus. Gaydarov, an authorized representative of his government, signed an agreement with the Azerbaijan Republic on November 28, 1918\\. He was appointed to the same post by [Pshemakho Kotsev](/wiki/Pshemakho_Kotsev \"Pshemakho Kotsev\"), who succeeded him after Abdulmajid Tchermoeff resigned due to the obligation of Ottoman support forces to leave the Caucasus in accordance with the provisions of the Armistice of Mondros. In January 1919, he was assigned to the government delegation sent to the World Peace Conference in Paris to promote the independence of the North Caucasus to other countries. [thumb\\|249x249px\\|Gaydarov's dagger\\|leftHe](/wiki/File:Dagger_owned_by_Ibrahim_Heydarov.jpg \"Dagger owned by Ibrahim Heydarov.jpg\") took part in the armed struggle against the reoccupation of Caucasus by the Russian White Army. In the spring of 1920, he was tricked and arrested in Baku, where he had to retreat after the Red Army invasion. After the hard efforts of the leader of Azerbaijan Bolsheviks and his old friend, [Nariman Narimanov](/wiki/Nariman_Narimanov \"Nariman Narimanov\"), he was temporarily appointed as the Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs, he managed to escape and went to Tbilisi. After [Red Army invasion of Georgia](/wiki/Red_Army_invasion_of_Georgia \"Red Army invasion of Georgia\"), he went to France with his family.",
"### Life in Turkey",
"Gaydarov came to Turkey where he was known as İbrahim Haydar upon the special invitation of [Mustafa Kemal Atatürk](/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk \"Mustafa Kemal Atatürk\") in 1925 and he helped the [Ankara](/wiki/Ankara \"Ankara\")\\-[Kayseri](/wiki/Kayseri \"Kayseri\") railway construction. He, then, worked in various sections of the [Sivas railway](/wiki/Sivas_railway_station \"Sivas railway station\"). He proved himself at the construction of railways in Turkey itself not only as a skilled professional, at the same time as a scientist. He predicted shift in the wind of Turkey with the rise of racism and in order to promote the Caucasus, he translated books from Russian into Turkish in 1937, released in Istanbul. In the winter of 1939, he went to Ankara as a result of the loss of his young colleagues in [Erzincan earthquake](/wiki/1939_Erzincan_earthquake \"1939 Erzincan earthquake\"). In the period from 1940 until his death he served high positions in the Republic of Turkey Ministry of Railways.",
"Gaydarov, who was married to Nisa Hanım, had one boy and three daughters. Gaydarov, who was a member of the High Scientific Council of Turkey, died in Ankara on 20 March 1949 and was buried in Cebeci cemetery.",
""
] |
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