#LEAD Fellows
Meet our Inaugural 2019 Jane Jie Sun Women in Global Health LEAD Fellows
Harvard Announces First Class of New LEAD Fellowship:
Four Female Global Health Pioneers to Join Harvard in Fall 2019
Cambridge, MA – The Harvard Global Health Institute (HGHI) and the Women and Health Initiative at Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health have accepted four global health pioneers into the inaugural 2019 Jane Jie Sun cohort of the Women in Global Health LEAD Fellowship at Harvard University. The group includes the founder of a non-profit tackling HIV/AIDS in 36 Indian states, a pioneer of people-centered care from Moldova, a health systems leader from Pakistan, and an award-winning youth- and reproductive health-advocate from Malawi. They will join the program in August 2019.
Learn, Engage, Advance, Disrupt: Why we need a LEAD fellowship
The evidence is clear: Women in leadership positions are change agents, enabling policies that create better lives for individuals, families, communities and nations. They find ways to support and lift up those who experience a disproportionate burden of disease and death worldwide. Still, women remain underrepresented in leadership in public health, medicine and in health and life sciences: While an estimated 70 percent of the global health workforce are female, only about 25 percent of high-level positions in the field are occupied by women.
In an effort to address this inequality and equip and empower more women in global health – and the communities they serve – HGHI and the Women and Health Initiative developed a new fellowship program specifically designed for rising female leaders from low- and middle-income countries. The response to the call for applications was swift and overwhelming: Over 300 applicants from 29 nations competed for this innovative opportunity, which is anchored in an initial semester at Harvard, and is followed by an additional year of mentorship as fellows execute their leadership plans back at their home institutions.
"It indeed is a moment of pride for not only my country but also for each and every Pakistani woman who struggles every day while pushing the boundaries, trying to break the socio-cultural barriers and the centuries old traditions in her stride to advance in the direction of her dreams', said Shabnum Sarfraz, a health systems leader from Pakistan, upon receiving the news of her selection as one of five inaugural LEAD fellows. "The LEAD Fellowship at Harvard University is a tremendous opportunity for me to explore unchartered territories, while stretching the horizons and paving the way for the next generations of women leaders in my country."
"The time to support women leaders in global health is now," said Ana Langer, Director of the Women and Health Initiative and Professor of the Practice at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. "We are proud to announce this novel program that will give some of the most talented and committed women leaders in the world the opportunity to benefit from Harvard University's wealth of resources, while enriching our community with their unique perspectives and experiences."
"It was such a tremendous honor to review the applications submitted to the LEAD Fellowship", said Ingrid Katz, Associate Faculty Director at the Harvard Global Health Institute and Assistant Professor at the Harvard Medical School. "These applicants represent some of the best and brightest minds in global health across Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Latin America and the Caribbean. They have courageously focused on developing novel solutions to some of the most vexing problems across the globe.""We know that when women lead, the global health community is stronger and more effective. Yet, too few women are in leadership positions in global public health," said Ashish K. Jha, the Faculty Director at HGHI and Dean for Global Strategy at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. "We are proud to partner with the Women and Health Initiative to ensure that Harvard is part of the solution, enabling the next generation of leaders to have even greater impact. And I am particularly grateful to Ms. Jane Jie Sun, a visionary supporter of our effort."
The fellowship is made possible by leading supporter, Jane Sun, CEO of Ctrip.com International, Ltd. It will include a rigorous semester of mentorship, custom leadership training, speaking engagements, and protected time for fellows to focus on their research while in residence at Harvard. While on campus, the fellows will be hosted by the Department of Global Health and Population at the T.H. Chan School of Public Health. Details at https://globalhealth.harvard.edu/women-gh-lead-fellowship/womenleadgh
Meet the 2019 Women in Global health LEAD fellows
Stela Bivol, MD, MPH | Moldova
Stela Bivol is director of the Center for Health Policy and Studies (PAS Center), a non-profit focused on disease response and health systems strengthening in Eastern Europe. A trained family physician, Bivol's passion lies in bringing a people-centered model of care to Eastern Europe and Central Asia. She has led region-wide efforts to improve the TB response, funded by the Global Fund, contributing to accelerated health reforms in countries such as Belarus and Kazakhstan. While at Harvard, Bivol will focus on what it will take to move Eastern European nations from foreign-funded emergency responses to infectious diseases towards sustainable, more resilient health systems.
Maureen Luba, B.S. | Malawi
Maureen Luba is Africa region advocacy advisor for the AIDS Vaccine Advocacy Coalition (AVAC) and an award-winning advocate based in Malawi. A rising force in community work around HIV/AIDS treatment and prevention, Luba also founded a mentorship program for girls focused on education and sexual and reproductive health. Working successfully across organizations, geographies and fault lines to build strong civil society organization coalitions, Luba brings Africa-centered leadership and locally-derived agendas to the HIV/AIDS response. While at Harvard, she will explore how to make data tools available for advocacy, and how to drive evidence-based health policy change in her region.
Sai Subhasree Raghavan, PhD | India
Sai Subhasree Raghavan is the founding president of SAATHII (Solidarity and Action Against the HIV Infection in India), a non-profit working towards universal access to healthcare, justice, and social welfare for marginalized communities across 36 states in India. Under her stewardship, SAATHII implements HIV prevention, care, and treatment programs as well as initiatives on maternal and infant mortality. At Harvard, Raghavan will research how to expand on SAATHI's lessons learned and develop a strategic plan that will add new interventions, such as cervical cancer screening and treatment, to SAATHI's portfolio.
Shabnum Sarfraz, MBBS, MBA | Pakistan
Shabnum Sarfraz is senior advisor for health systems and policy research at P2Impact Associates, an organization focused on evidence-informed pathways to transforming the health, education and social sectors in Pakistan. A doctor with an MBA, Sarfaz has found her calling in health systems management, and policy reforms. She has managed large-scale, high-impact health projects while working with the government of Pakistan and partners such as DFID, USAID, and WHO. She is leading the women in Global Health drive in her country. While at Harvard, Sarfraz will conduct research looking at barriers to women in health career advancement in Pakistan.
In selecting the 2019 LEAD fellows, HGHI Faculty Director Ashish K. Jha and Associate Faculty Director Ingrid Katz as well as Women in Health Initiative Director Ana Langer were supported by a diverse review committee including:
Anne Becker, Maude and Lillian Presley Professor of Global Health and Social Medicine, Harvard Medical School
Marcia Castro, Andelot Professor of Demography and Chair of the Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health
Bernice Dahn, Vice President for Health Sciences, University of Liberia; former Minister of Health, the Republic of Liberia
Wafaa El-Sadr, University Professor of Epidemiology and Medicine and Director of ICAP, Columbia University; Director of the Global Health Initiative, Mailman School of Public Health
Louise Ivers, Executive Director, Massachusetts General Hospital Center for Global Health; Associate Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School
Kathryn Rexrode, Chief of the Division of Women's Health, Brigham and Women's Hospital; Associate Professor, Harvard Medical School
Sania Nishtar, Special Assistant to the Prime Minister of Pakistan on Poverty Alleviation and Social Protection, Federal Minister Government of Pakistan; Co-chair, WHO High-Level Independent Commission on Non-communicable diseases; Chair, United Nations University Institute of Global Health
NOTE: This release originally announced the selection of five women LEAD fellows. It has been updated as of August 15, 2019 to reflect the decision of Antionette Habinshuti of Rwanda to forgo her Women in Global Health LEADFellowship and accept a new leadership role with an international humanitarian aid organization in Africa. The LEAD program supports Habinshuti's decision and looks forward to seeing her continued positive impact in the field.
For media inquiries and other questions, please contact:Olivia Mulvey Senior Coordinator Harvard Global Health Instituteolivia_guiney@harvard.edu
About the Harvard Global Health Institute
The Harvard Global Health Institute pioneers the next generation of global health research, education and policy translation to address some of the most vexing challenges in human health. Recognizing that the factors that drive health around the world today go beyond what medicine and public health can address individually, we bring design, business, law, environmental studies, history, computing and other expertise from across Harvard and our worldwide partners together to work on innovative, collaborative, evidence-based solutions. We convene diverse perspectives, identify gaps, initiate novel research, and design new learning opportunities. Join us at globalhealth.harvard.edu
About the Women and Health Initiative at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health
The Women and Health Initiative (W&HI) at the Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health recognizes that, due to persistent social and gender inequality around the world, girls and women experience increased risk of ill-health and injustice within the health sector, where they play dual roles as both consumers and providers of health care. The W&HI holistically conceptualizes women as both the beneficiaries of health care interventions and as critical caregivers within the health system. The Initiative is unprecedented in its balanced focus on improving women's health and catalyzing women's contributions to the health and wealth of societies. Details at https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/women-and-health-initiative/


in: Levitation
At least some content in this article is derived from information featured in: Hogwarts Legacy & Harry Potter: Wizards Unite & Harry Potter: Hogwarts Mystery.
This article is about magical flight in general. You may be looking for the Hogwarts subject.
"He mounted the broom and kicked hard against the ground and up, up he soared; air rushed through his hair, and his robes whipped out behind him — and in a rush of fierce joy he realised he'd found something he could do without being taught — this was easy, this was wonderful."
— Harry Potter's first time on a broomstick[src]
Quidditch players flying on broomsticks
Flight was one of the primary methods of wizarding transportation, along with Floo powder, Portkeys and Apparition. It involved a person or persons using an object that had been bewitched to fly through the air to another location. Magical objects used for this purposes included broomsticks and flying carpets.
1.1 Broomstick
1.2 Other vehicles
1.3 Magical creatures
1.4 Unsupported flight
1.5 Animagi
Main article: Broomstick
Nimbus 2000 broomstick
Compared to other methods, flying was the slowest method of transportation available. However, some bewitched objects could fly much faster than others and it was the most common method of transportation, as witches and wizards who couldn't or did not want to Apparate or use Floo powder used it.
Flying itself was a class taught at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry by Madam Hooch, for first year students.[1] Flying was also used in magical sporting events, such as the popular game of Quidditch.[2]
Flying Ford Anglia
Though broomsticks were the primary method of magical transportation in Britain, other enchanted objects were used elsewhere in the wizarding world.
In Asia and the Middle East, flying carpets were the primary form of wizarding transport, but were currently designated as muggle artefacts in Britain and were therefore illegal to enchant. They also couldn't be imported despite at least one merchant's continued efforts to do so. This ban seemed to be relatively recent as Bartemius Crouch Senior's grandfather owned a flying Axminster before they were made illegal.[3]
Vehicles such as cars[4][5][6] and motorcycles[7][8] could also be modified to be capable of flight, though this was also technically illegal under Misuse of Muggle Artefacts laws.
A range of flying creatures were also available for transport, such as Thestrals and Hippogriffs. When visiting Hogwarts for the 1994 Triwizard Tournament, the Beauxbatons students travelled in a carriage drawn by Abraxan winged horses.[9]
Unsupported flight
Main article: Unsupported flight
Voldemort flying without support
In defiance of magical law (that stated that a wizard could only fly using a vehicle, which itself could only have a flying charm) a few known wizards and witches had achieved this feat. The most infamous being Dark Wizard Lord Voldemort who managed to achieve a way to fly without any form of magical vehicle (though some form of magical assistance was certainly required to do this).
Voldemort's incident of unsupported flight was witnessed in battle with Order of the Phoenix operatives in 1997, and by Harry Potter during his connection with Voldemort's mind.[8] This method could be duplicated, as Voldemort taught his (supposedly) most loyal Death Eater Severus Snape how to fly the same way.[10]
Animagi
Main article: Animagus
Animagi who possessed the forms of animals capable of flight might enjoy the sensation of flight. However, Animagi themselves were extremely rare, let alone those who possessed forms capable of flight (since the species was predetermined by the Animagi's traits).[11] Known Animagi whose forms were capable of flight were Falco Aesalon (falcon), Cliodna (seabird), Morgan le Fay (bird), Rita Skeeter (beetle) and Talbott Winger (eagle).
Quirinus Quirrell flying
In the film version of Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, Professor Quirrell, most likely by learning the skill from Voldemort, flies clear across a chamber towards Harry during their encounter for the Philosopher's Stone.
When Hagrid is asked how he arrived to pick up Harry from the Dursleys in the first book he states that he "flew," but excluded what method he used to arrive. He later stated in the seventh book that brooms and Thestrals cannot take his weight. Sirius Black's Motorcycle is known to have been in Hagrid's possession at this time so it is the likely means.
In the films, as early as Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Voldemort's Death Eaters appear to be able to effectively fly by partially disapparating.
In the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, the members of the Order of the Phoenix seemed to fly, their body partially becomes smoke and they leave a smoke trail behind them, and whilst Death Eaters' trail was black, theirs was white. It should be noted that in the beginning of the film adaptation of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, Death Eaters flew in London and severed a bridge's wires while they were flying around it. This instance is therefore contradictory to the laws that wizards can only fly using a vehicle.
In the films, Dementors can fly freely without physical support. This is in contrast to their novel counterparts, who glide, rather than fly.
Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them (Mentioned only)
Harry Potter: Quidditch World Cup
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows: Motorbike Escape
Harry Potter: The Character Vault (Mentioned only)
Harry Potter: The Creature Vault
↑ Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, Chapter 11 (Quidditch)
↑ Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Chapter 7 (Bagman and Crouch)
↑ Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Chapter 3 (The Burrow)
↑ Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Chapter 5 (The Whomping Willow)
↑ Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Chapter 15 (Aragog)
↑ Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, Chapter 1 (The Boy Who Lived)
↑ 8.0 8.1 Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Chapter 4 (The Seven Potters)
↑ Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Chapter 15 (Beauxbatons and Durmstrang)
↑ Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Chapter 30 (The Sacking of Severus Snape)
↑ Quidditch Through the Ages
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Converge global worker Lynda Oatley: A legacy of love for children
Converge Content Specialist
As a Converge global worker and chaplain at the Reame children's shelter in greater Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, for 17 years, Lynda Oatley, who died Aug. 3 at age 68, lived out this verse to the letter.
"She gave her life to those whom many have overlooked," said Dan Nelson, Converge international leader: Latin America. "The last communication I received from Lynda was a photograph of families with bags of food that Reame had distributed to people who have been suffering."
Steve and Debra Rowe, fellow Converge global workers in Brazil, said Oatley "had special wisdom that we all recognized. She also had a unique love for the Lord and gave her all in ministry."
"Lynda was well prepared for cross-cultural ministry and had a special love and commitment to the ones she worked with," Steve Rowe said. "Her passion was to see others walking close to the Lord and growing in their relationship with him."
"Lynda was an example to me of unshakeable faith and complete trust in her Lord," said Ellie Lundquist, a Converge global worker in Brazil. "Her memory and the legacy she left in Brazil will live on for many years to come."
Oatley served at Reame in a multitude of ways, including treasurer, chaplain, mentor, discipleship and spiritual oversight of children. Oatley and Reame were planning a future ministry to help minors affected by trafficking.
"Hundreds of children and teens have had their lives changed through Lynda's influence, either directly or through the support she gave the Reame team," said Gislaine Freitas, Reame's founder. "Lynda had so much energy for Reame. She had the respect of the entire team as she involved herself with the problems the ministry confronted. She made sure the children could go to church."
Ivan Veldhuizen, executive director of Converge International Ministries, reflected on Oatley's legacy.
"Faithfulness, courage, compassion, perseverance, industriousness, to name a few. Most of all, though, she was Jesus to so many children. Just as Jesus' heart resonated with children — their innocence, faith, potential and love — so Lynda could not NOT love the children. She touched, changed and helped transform the lives of so many."
Converge International Ministries has established the Lynda Oatley Memorial Fund. The fund will assist global workers and their families when they have special needs due to an illness, dislocation or other crisis. Contributions can be made online or by mail to Converge, Lynda Oatley Memorial Fund #650716, 2002 S. Arlington Heights Road, Arlington Heights, IL 60005.
Michael Smith, Converge Content Specialist
Michael Smith serves as Converge's content specialist. He has nearly two decades in the newspaper publishing industry. Michael worked as a copy editor and designer for the Tampa Tribune for more than a dozen years. He also was a member of the editorial staff of Florida Baptist Witness and other publications across the Southeast.
Additional articles by Michael Smith
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State in Germany
Mäkelborg-Vörpommern (Low German)
53°37′N 12°42′E / 53.617°N 12.700°E / 53.617; 12.700Coordinates: 53°37′N 12°42′E / 53.617°N 12.700°E / 53.617; 12.700
Largest city
• Governing parties
SPD / Left
• Bundesrat votes
3 (of 69)
• Minister-President
Manuela Schwesig (SPD)
Landtag of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
• 2019 estimate
1,609,675[1]
69.46/km2 (179.9/sq mi)
DE-MV
GRP (nominal)
€47 billion (2019)[2]
GRP per capita
€29,000 (2019)
Formerly: MP (1945–1947), SM (1948–1953)[3]
NUTS Region
0.910[4]
very high · 15th of 16
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (MV; German: [ˈmeːklənbʊʁk ˈfoːɐ̯pɔmɐn], Mecklenburgian Low German: Mäkelborg-Vörpommern), internationally also known by its anglicized name Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, is a state in the north-east of Germany. Of the country's sixteen states, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern ranks 14th in population, 6th in area, and 16th in population density. Schwerin is the state capital and Rostock is the largest city. Other major cities include Neubrandenburg, Stralsund, Greifswald, Wismar and Güstrow.
The state was established in 1945 after World War II through the merger of the historic regions of Mecklenburg and the Prussian Western Pomerania by the Soviet military administration in Allied-occupied Germany. It became part of the German Democratic Republic in 1949, but was dissolved in 1952 during administrative reforms and its territory divided into the districts of Rostock, Schwerin, and Neubrandenburg. A state called in German Mecklenburg-Vorpommern was re-established in 1990 following German reunification, and became one of the new states of the Federal Republic of Germany.
On the state's coastline on the Baltic Sea are many holiday resorts and much unspoilt nature, including the islands of Rügen, Usedom, and others, as well as the Mecklenburg Lake District, making the state one of Germany's leading tourist destinations. Three of Germany's fourteen national parks, as well as several hundred nature conservation areas, are in the state. The University of Rostock, founded in 1419, and the University of Greifswald, established in 1456, are among the oldest universities in Europe. In 2007, the 33rd G8 summit took place at the Grand Hotel Heiligendamm on the Mecklenburg Baltic coast during the chancellorship of Angela Merkel, a native of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.
Due to its lengthy name, the state is often abbreviated as MV or (colloquially) shortened to MeckPomm.[5] In English, it is usually named as "Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania". Inhabitants are called either Mecklenburger or Pomeranians, the combined form is never used.
The full name in German is pronounced [ˈmeːklənbʊʁk ˈfoːɐ̯pɔmɐn]. Sometimes, Mecklenburg is pronounced [ˈmɛklənbʊʁk], because the digraph ⟨ck⟩ marks a preceding short vowel in High German. However, Mecklenburg is within the historical Low German language area, and the ⟨c⟩ appeared in its name during the period of transition to Standard, High German usage (Low German authors wrote the name Meklenborg or Męklenborg, depicting proper Low German pronunciation, which itself was a syncope of Middle Low German Mekelenborg). The introduction of the ⟨c⟩ is explained as follows: Either the ⟨c⟩ signals the stretched pronunciation of the preceding ⟨e⟩ (Dehnungs-c), or it signals the pronunciation of the subsequent ⟨k⟩ as an occlusive [k] to prevent it from falsely being rendered as a fricative [χ] following a Low German trend.[6] Another explanation is that the ⟨c⟩ comes from a mannerism in High German officialese of writing unnecessary letters, a so-called Letternhäufelung (lit. 'letter accumulation', as was done sometimes in English with words such as "doubt"). The place name Vorpommern, at its base derives from West Slavic languages, with the prefix "po-" meaning along or at, and the base word "more" meaning sea — together "po more" means Land at the Sea — while the German prefix "vor-" denoted a closer location, and is the equivalent of the word "hither" in English.[7]
One of more than 1000 megalith sites in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, the Lancken-Granitz dolmen
In the aftermath of the Second World War and German reunification in 1990, the state was constituted from the historic region of Mecklenburg and Western Pomerania, both of which had long and rich independent histories.[8]
See also: Megaliths in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Slavic ring fortress at Cape Arkona, Rügen Island
Human settlement in the area of modern Mecklenburg and Vorpommern began after the Ice Age, about 10,000 BC. About two thousand years ago, Germanic peoples were recorded in the area. Most of them left during the Migration Period, heading towards Spain, Italy, and France, leaving the area relatively deserted. In the 6th century Polabian Slavs populated the area. While Mecklenburg was settled by the Obotrites, Pomerania was settled by the Veleti (later Liuticians) and the Rani.[9]
Along the coast, Vikings and Slavs established trade posts like Reric, Ralswiek and Menzlin. In the 12th century, Mecklenburg and Vorpommern were conquered by Henry the Lion and incorporated into the Duchy of Saxony, joining the Holy Roman Empire in the 1180s. Parts of Mecklenburg and Pomerania were settled with Germans in the Ostsiedlung process, starting in the 12th century.[9]
Main article: Mecklenburg
In the late 12th century, Henry the Lion, Duke of the Saxons, conquered the Obotrites, subjugated its Nikloting dynasty, and Christianized its people. In the course of time, German monks, nobility, peasants and traders arrived to settle here. After the 12th century, the territory remained stable and relatively independent of its neighbours; one of the few German territories for which this is true. Mecklenburg first became a duchy of the Holy Roman Empire in 1348. Though later partitioned and re-partitioned within the same dynasty, Mecklenburg always shared a common history and identity. The states of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz became Grand Duchies in 1815, and in 1870 they voluntarily joined the new German Empire, while retaining their own internal autonomy. After the First World War and the abdication of the German Kaiser, the monarchies of the duchies were abolished and republican governments of both Mecklenburg states were established, until the Nazi government merged the two states into a unified state of Mecklenburg [de], a virtually meaningless administrative decision under the centralised regime.
Western Pomerania
Main article: History of Pomerania
Late medieval Brick Gothic architecture in Stralsund, nowadays a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Flag of the State of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania
Vorpommern, literally Fore-Pomerania, is the smaller, western part of the former Prussian Province of Pomerania; the eastern part became part of Poland after the end of World War II.
In the Middle Ages, the area was ruled by the Pomeranian dukes as part of the Duchy of Pomerania. Pomerania was under Swedish rule after the Peace of Westphalia from 1648 until 1815 as Swedish Pomerania. Pomerania became a province of Prussia in 1815 and remained so until 1945.
In May 1945, the armies of the Soviet Union and the Western allies met east of Schwerin. Following the Potsdam Agreement, the Western allies handed over Mecklenburg to the Soviets. Mecklenburg-West Pomerania was established on 9 July 1945, by order No. 5 of Red Army Marshal Georgy Zhukov, head of the Soviet Military Administration in Germany (SMAD), as the Province of Mecklenburg and West Pomerania (zapadnoi Pomeranii).[10]
Division of Pomerania
During the war, the make-up of Mecklenburg and Vorpommern's population changed, due to wartime losses and the influx of evacuees (mainly from the Berlin and Hamburg metropolitan areas that were subject to air raids). After the war, people who fled and were expelled from the former eastern territories of Germany east of the Oder-Neisse line settled in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (and elsewhere in Germany), increasing the population by 40%. Before the war, Mecklenburg and Western Pomerania had a population of 1,278,700, of whom many perished during the war and others moved west in the course of the Red Army's advance. In 1947, some 1,426,000 refugees from the former eastern parts of Germany were counted. Most of them settled in rural communities, but the urban population also increased, most notably in Schwerin from 65,000 (1939) to 99,518 (January 1947), in Wismar from 29,463 to 44,173, and in Greifswald from 29,488 to 43,897.[11] Western Pomerania was additionally stripped of the area around the Pomeranian regional capital Stettin/Szczecin as well as the city itself, despite its location to the west of the river Oder.
Rostock was the major overseas port of East Germany, and is one of the most important Baltic Sea ports today. Pictured is Hanse Sail, one of the world's largest maritime events.
On 5 June 1946, a law enacted by the Soviets constituted a provisional German administration (Beratende Versammlung, English: "Consulting assembly") under Soviet supervision on 29 June 1946. After elections on 20 October 1946, a Landtag replaced the Beratende Versammlung and created the constitution of 16 January 1947, for the Land Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. On 18 April 1947, the state's name was shortened to Land Mecklenburg. Mecklenburg became a constituent state ("Land") of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) upon its formation in 1949. In 1952, the East German government abandoned the term Land in this context and redesignated its administrative territorial divisions as "districts" (German: Bezirke). The territory of Mecklenburg and Vorpommern was divided into three districts that covered roughly the same area: Bezirk Rostock, Bezirk Schwerin and Bezirk Neubrandenburg. These were commonly known as the Nordbezirke (northern districts) under the highly centralised GDR government. The East German government developed the shipyards in the old Hanseatic ports (the largest being in Rostock and Stralsund), and also established the Greifswald Nuclear Power Plant in Lubmin near Greifswald.
At the time of German reunification in 1990, the eastern states were reconstituted along their postwar boundaries (with minor adjustments) as they had existed until 1952, and the historic name Mecklenburg-Vorpommern was restored. Since 1990, the state has undergone dramatic changes. What had been largely an industrial and agricultural economy is increasingly driven by the service, tourism, and high-tech sectors. The old towns, hundreds of castles and manors, resort buildings, windmills, churches, and various other cultural monuments of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern have been renovated in recent years. Since 2013, net migration into the state has been positive again.
Map of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, showing locations, heights, and waters
Constituent regions and districts of the state, including the border of the historical Mecklenburg and Western Pomerania regions
Location and urban areas
See also: List of cities in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and List of cities in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern by population
Sixth-largest in area and fourteenth in overall population among Germany's sixteen Bundesländer (federal states), Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is bounded to the north by the Baltic Sea, to the west by Schleswig-Holstein, to the southwest by Lower Saxony, to the south by Brandenburg, and to the east by the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in Poland.
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern's state capital is Schwerin. The largest city is Rostock with approximately 205,000 people, followed by Schwerin. Other major cities include Neubrandenburg, Stralsund, Greifswald, Wismar and Güstrow.
Schwerin, the state capital of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Since 4 September 2011, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is divided into six Kreise (districts):
Also counting two independent urban districts:
Rostock (HRO)
Schwerin (SN)
The state's Baltic Sea coast is about 2,000 km long and features several islands, most notably Germany's two biggest islands Rügen and Usedom, but also a number of smaller islands such as Hiddensee and Poel. Mecklenburg-Vorpommern's varied coastline also has many peninsulas such as Fischland-Darß-Zingst and various lagoons (also known as Bodden or Haff).
A total of 283 nature reserves, 110 landscape reserves and three of Germany's fourteen national parks are scattered all over the state.
See also: List of lakes in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
The southern part of the state is characterized by a multitude of lakes within the Mecklenburg Lakeland, the largest of which is Lake Müritz (also the largest German lake), followed by Lake Schwerin, Plauer See and Lake Kummerow. The "land of a thousand lakes" (German: Land der tausend Seen) is hallmarked by its unspoilt nature. Due to its clean air and idyllic setting, medical tourism has become a notable tourism sector in the region.[12]
Size (km2)
Jasmund National Park 1990 30
Müritz National Park 1990 318
Western Pomeranian Lagoons National Park 1990 805
Over the centuries, Mecklenburg and Vorpommern have developed and maintained strong regional cultures. It can generally be described as North German and has similar linguistic and historic characteristics to other north German states, such as Schleswig-Holstein. People in Vorpommern, as a result of that territory being a former province of Prussia, tend to look slightly more towards Berlin and Brandenburg than people in Mecklenburg would.
The cities are characterised by a certain "Hanseatic" style also found in other parts of northern Germany (e.g. Lübeck) as well as in countries bordering the Baltic Sea like Estonia (e.g. Tallinn) or Latvia (e.g. Riga). A common feature of many towns in Mecklenburg and Vorpommern are red Brick Gothic churches and houses dating back to the Middle Ages. Also stepped and tailed gables are a typical feature of the Hanseatic old towns, such as Stralsund, Wismar and Greifswald.
The old towns are usually built around one or several market places with a church or the town hall. Often towns were founded at the Baltic Sea, one of the many lakes or a river for logistical and trade motives.
Rural areas of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern are often characterized by Brick Gothic village churches and agricultural heritage, like brick homesteads, thatched roof houses, windmills, manor houses and castles.
The central market square of Greifswald (Marktplatz), showing typical architecture of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Museums, art and theatres
See also: List of museums in Germany § Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
The Mecklenburg State Theatre in Schwerin
The Ozeaneum in Stralsund, Europe's museum of the year 2010 and Northern Germany's most popular museum (as part of the German Oceanographic Museum)
The largest publicly funded theatres in the state are the Mecklenburg State Theatre, the Rostock People's Theatre, the Theatre of West Pomerania, with venues in Stralsund, Putbus and Greifswald, and the Mecklenburg State Theatre of Neustrelitz with venues in Neubrandenburg and Neustrelitz. All four theatres offer both drama and musical theatre as well as orchestral music. Other important theatres are the Ernst Barlach Theatre of Güstrow, the Theatre of Parchim, the Anklam Theatre and the Wismar Theatre. There are also many small theatres on the Baltic coast and in individual artist's villages and resorts (e.g. the popular concert pavilions at the Baltic Sea). Since its growing importance for summer tourism, open-air theatres and festivals become more common again as well, such as the Störtebeker Festival on the island of Rügen, and the Vineta Festival on Usedom.
2007/2008[13]
Mecklenburg State Theatre, Schwerin 170,681
West Pomeranian Theatre and Symphony Orchestra, Greifswald/Stralsund 140,902
Neustrelitz/Neubrandenburg Theatre and Orchestre 120,042
Rostock People's Theatre 119,758
West Pomeranian State Theatre, Anklam 71,825
Mecklenburg State Theatre, Parchim 14,773
Since 1993, the Störtebeker Festival has taken place in Ralswiek on the island of Rügen. It is Germany's most successful open-air theatre.
Notable museums include, for example, the Schwerin State Museum and the Pomeranian State Museum at Greifswald. The German Oceanographic Museum with its Ozeaneum in Stralsund is the most popular museum in northern Germany. Furthermore, the German Amber Museum in Ribnitz-Damgarten, Rostock's Abbey of the Holy Cross and Rostock Art Gallery are of national importance. The oldest museum in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania is Stralsund's Cultural History Museum, the smallest is the Professor Wandschneider Sculpture Museum in Plau am See.
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is home to many cultural events throughout the year. During summer, many open-air concerts and operas are open to visitors. The Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Festival (Festspiele Mecklenburg-Vorpommern) attracts a sizeable audience by performing classical concerts in parks, churches and castles.
Caspar David Friedrich, a famous romanticist painter born in Greifswald, immortalised parts of the state in several of his paintings.
Low German dialects
Today the vast majority of people speak Standard German; a few centuries ago most people spoke Low German (German: Plattdeutsch or Niederdeutsch), a language that is still kept alive within various communities and cultural events.
See also: Pomeranian cuisine
Like most German regions, Mecklenburg and Vorpommern have their own traditional dishes, often including fish, beef and pork. Rostock has its own type of bratwurst called Rostocker Bratwurst. A famous dish from Western Pomerania is Bismarck Herring. Rote Grütze is a popular dessert. The largest beer breweries are Mecklenburgische Brauerei Lübz (Lübzer Pils), Hanseatische Brauerei Rostock, Darguner Brauerei and Störtebeker Braumanufaktur (Stralsund, multiple winner of the World Beer Cup). Besides, there are many smaller breweries and craft beer variations, such as the Mellenthin Castle Beer from Usedom Island.
Religion in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern − 2018
Other or none
EKD Protestants
Roman Catholics
As of 2018, the majority (81.8%) of the citizens of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania are not religious or adhere to other religions. 14.8% are members of the Evangelical Church in Germany and 3.4% of the Catholic Church.[14]
Following the Reformation, led in Germany by Martin Luther, as well as a period of Swedish rule, the traditional faith in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is Protestantism, specifically Lutheranism. There are also a number of Catholics and people of other faiths.
In May 2012 the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Mecklenburg merged with North Elbian Evangelical Lutheran Church and Pomeranian Evangelical Church into the new Evangelical Lutheran Church in Northern Germany.[15] Some parishes of the state belong to Evangelical Church of Berlin and Brandenburg.
There are also Jewish communities, in the state capital of Schwerin (including Wismar) and in the city of Rostock. Historically, there were also synagogues in smaller towns, of which some are still preserved (like Röbel, Krakow am See and Boizenburg). The state's Jewish organisation is part of the Central Council of Jews in Germany.
Largest immigrant communities[citation needed]:
Syria 12,695
Poland 10,789
Ukraine 4,190
Russia 3,905
Afghanistan 2,700
Romania 2,670
Vietnam 1,945
Bulgaria 1,505
Hungary 1,290
Turkey 1,285
Lithuania 1,235
Italy 1,100
Greece 1,075
Armenia 1,055
Ghana 1,050
Births from January to September 2016 = 10,224[16]
Births from January to September 2017 = 9,836
Deaths from January to September 2016 = 15,251
Natural growth from January to September 2016 = 5,027
The University of Rostock
The University of Greifswald
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern has the two oldest universities of the Baltic Sea region, also among the oldest of Germany and all of Europe:
University of Greifswald (established 1456)
University of Rostock (established 1419)
Also, there are further colleges / technological universities:
Fachhochschule des Mittelstands (FHM)[17] in Rostock and Schwerin (private)
Rostock University of Music and Theatre
Hochschule Wismar (University of Applied Sciences: Technology, Business and Design)
Fachhochschule Stralsund[18] (University of Applied Sciences)
Hochschule Neubrandenburg[19] (University of Applied Sciences)
Fachhochschule für öffentliche Verwaltung, Rechtspflege und Polizei Güstrow[20] (University of Administration, Judicature and Police in Güstrow)
Hochschule der Bundesagentur für Arbeit with its Schwerin campus
DesignSchule Schwerin with options to study design (private; game/fashion/media/web design)
The state's school system is centralised. There are two main types of schools, Regionalschule (for the majority of pupils) and Gymnasium (for the top 30% of each year's students, leading to the university entrance qualification "Abitur"). Besides, there are also independent schools, comprehensive schools and trade schools.
Article 20 of the State Constitution states that the Landtag is the "site of political decision-making".[21] The Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Landtag is elected democratically by the citizens of the state and sits for a 5-year legislative period.[21] The seat of the Landtag is located at Schwerin Palace in Schwerin.[21] The essential functions of the Landtag are to elect the Minister-President of the state; to discuss and decide on laws which have been proposed by the government, by any four members of the Landtag, or a people's initiative or petition for a referendum initiated directly by the people; and to control the state government.[21]
Main article: List of Ministers-President of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Manuela Schwesig, Minister-President since 2017
The executive is led by a cabinet, in turn led by a Minister-President, who is the official head of state and government. The election to determine the Minister-President is held no later than four weeks after the newly elected Landtag is convened.[21]
See also: 2021 Mecklenburg-Vorpommern state election
The Schwerin Palace, seat of the Landtag of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, is one of more than 2,000 palaces and castles in the state.
The last election of the Landtag of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern took place on 26 September 2021. The SPD won a landslide plurality of almost 40% of votes, a nine percentage point increase from 2016. The opposition Alternative for Germany (AfD) remained the second largest party but declined to under 17%. The CDU recorded its worst ever result in the state with 13.3%, while The Left also declined to 10%. Alliance 90/The Greens and the Free Democratic Party (FDP) both won around 6% of votes and re-entered the Landtag after previously falling out in 2016 and 2011, respectively.[22]
The Landtag has been led by Minister President Manuela Schwesig since 2017. On 13 October 2021, Schwesig announced the SPD would enter coalition talks with The Left. She stated her motivations for reorienting the coalition as a desire for "a new departure", and described The Left as a "social, pragmatic party" with decisive policy overlap with the SPD. She said that The Left had been a reliable partner to the government even while in opposition, and had assumed "state-political responsibility" during the COVID-19 pandemic.[23]
On 5 November 2021, the SPD and The Left agreed to a coalition government and plan to form a cabinet, which is to be approved by each party-congress by mid-November.[24]
Party list
Social Democratic Party (SPD) 313,224 34.41 +4.99 34 361,769 39.59 +9.03 0 34 +8
Alternative for Germany (AfD) 163,962 18.01 –3.88 1 152,775 16.72 –4.10 13 14 –4
Christian Democratic Union (CDU) 157,403 17.29 –4.50 1 121,583 13.30 –5.68 11 12 –4
The Left (DIE LINKE) 106,189 11.67 –3.20 0 90,881 9.94 –3.23 9 9 –2
Alliance 90/The Greens (GRÜNE) 59,544 6.54 +1.73 0 57,554 6.30 +1.48 5 5 +5
Free Democratic Party (FDP) 56,951 6.26 +2.91 0 52,963 5.80 +2.75 5 5 +5
Human Environment Animal Protection 6,902 0.76 +0.76 0 15,212 1.66 +0.46 0 0 ±0
Grassroots Democratic Party 16,319 1.79 New 0 15,221 1.67 New 0 0 New
Free Voters 18,324 2.01 +0.95 0 10,075 1.10 +0.51 0 0 ±0
National Democratic Party 0 0.00 – 0 7,063 0.77 –2.24 0 0 ±0
Die PARTEI 1,826 0.20 –0.11 0 7,023 0.77 +0.14 0 0 ±0
Animal Protection Here! 0 0.00 New 0 3,883 0.42 New 0 0 New
Pirate Party Germany 1,774 0.19 +0.15 0 3,706 0.41 –0.08 0 0 ±0
Free Horizon 2,491 0.27 –0.45 0 3,348 0.37 –0.45 0 0 ±0
Independents for Citizen-oriented Democracy 558 0.06 New 0 2,331 0.26 New 0 0 New
Party for Health Research 0 0.00 New 0 2,030 0.22 New 0 0 New
Team Todenhöfer 0 0.00 New 0 1,631 0.18 New 0 0 New
The Humanists 0 0.00 New 0 1,105 0.12 New 0 0 New
Ecological Democratic Party 0 0.00 New 0 936 0.10 New 0 0 New
Alliance C – Christians for Germany 186 0.02 –0.02 0 827 0.09 –0.01 0 0 ±0
German Communist Party 0 0.00 – 0 727 0.08 –0.08 0 0 ±0
Democracy in Motion 0 0.00 New 0 563 0.06 New 0 0 New
Free Parliamentary Alliance 708 0.08 New 0 436 0.05 New 0 0 New
Liberal Conservative Reformers 0 0.00 – 0 221 0.02 –0.28 0 0 ±0
Independents 3,808 0.42 –0.28 0 0 0.00 – 0 0 ±0
Total 910,169 100.00 – 36 913,863 100.00 – 43 79 –
Valid votes
910,169 97.99 +0.24 913,863 98.39 +0.24
Invalid/blank votes
18,638 2.01 –0.24 14,944 1.61 –0.24
928,807 100.00 – 928,807 100.00 –
Registered voters/turnout
1,312,471 70.77 +8.92 1,312,471 70.77 +8.92
Source: State Returning Officer
Popular vote
Landtag seats
The gross domestic product (GDP) of the state was 44.5 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 1.3% of German economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 25,400 euros or 84% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 83% of the EU average. The GDP per capita was the lowest of all German states.[25]
Airports in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is the least densely populated and least industrial German state, being the sixth largest in area, but only the 14th in population. Formerly, unemployment has been negatively affected by the breakdown of non-competitive former GDR industries after the German reunification in the 1990s. As of 2018 unemployment is the lowest in more than 15 years while the economy is growing and the number of jobs is increasing continually. Growing sectors are biotechnology, information technology, life sciences, maritime industry and tourist services.
In Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, approximately 732,200 people were gainfully employed in 2008 with 657,100 of them were white and blue collar workers. About 4,200 new jobs were created in 2007. Employees worked an average of 1,455 hours a year. The number of self-employed did not change in 2008. Three out of every four of all workers are employed in the service sector.[26] In October 2018 the unemployment rate stood at 7.1% and was the third highest rate in Germany.[27]
Year[28]
Unemployment rate in % 17.8 18.3 18.6 20.1 20.4 20.3 19.0 16.5 14.1 13.5 12.7 12.5 12.0 11.7 11.2 10.4 9.7 8.6 7.9
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is the top destination for intra-German tourism and is gaining importance for international tourism. The main tourist regions are:
Islands: Rugia and Usedom (Germany's two largest islands), Poel and Hiddensee;
Peninsula: Fischland-Darß-Zingst (with Ahrenshoop and Zingst);
Seaside resorts: Binz, Boltenhagen, Graal-Müritz, Heringsdorf (including Bansin and Ahlbeck), Heiligendamm, Kühlungsborn, Warnemünde and Zinnowitz;
Stettin Lagoon: Ueckermünde;
Hinterland: particularly the Mecklenburg Lakeland; and
Cities: Stralsund and Wismar (both listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites), Schwerin, Güstrow, Rostock and Greifswald, which have a diverse cultural heritage.
Night sky: Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is home to some of the most pristine night skies in Germany, especially in the area near Nationalpark Müritz. It is a potential site for a Dark Sky Park.
As a reminder of its rich history, nearly 2,000 castles, palaces and manor houses exist in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, many of which are used as venues for public events like concerts and festivals, such as Festpiele MV[29] (a classical music festival).
Medical tourism[12] based on the clean air and idyllic settings by the Baltic Sea has a growing importance to the regional tourism industry.[12]
Mecklenburg Lakeland, Röbel
Sellin on the island of Rügen
Moonrise over Nationalpark Müritz
V2 rocket replica in Peenemünde. These rockets were the first man-made objects to reach space.
Main sporting attractions include the German football league games of F.C. Hansa Rostock and the international sailing event Hanse Sail. If the bid for the 2012 summer Olympics in Leipzig had been successful, the sailing competitions would have taken place off the coast of Rostock.[30]
Angela Merkel's constituency is in Western Pomerania.
Notable from Mecklenburg-Vorpommern include:
Arts: Ernst Barlach, Friedrich von Flotow, Caspar David Friedrich, Marianne Hoppe, Till Lindemann, Philipp Otto Runge
Business: Ernst Heinkel, Carl Heinrich von Siemens, Leonhard Tietz, Georg Wertheim
Literature: Ernst Moritz Arndt, John Brinckman, Hans Fallada, Walter Kempowski, Fritz Reuter, Rudolf Tarnow, Ehm Welk
Politics: Ernst Moritz Arndt, Dietmar Bartsch, Joachim Gauck, Egon Krenz, Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, Angela Merkel, Helmuth von Moltke the Elder, Harald Ringstorff
Science: Theodor Billroth, Friedrich Chrysander, Walther Flemming, Gottlob Frege, Otto Lilienthal, Gustav Mie, Ferdinand von Mueller, Paul Pogge, Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Heinrich Schliemann, Johannes Stark
Sports: Tim Borowski, Andreas Dittmer, Thomas Doll, Carsten Jancker, Marita Koch, Toni Kroos, Sebastian Sylvester, Jan Ullrich, Jens Voigt
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern is Germany's number-one tourist location, the main destinations being the Baltic Sea coastline with islands such as Rügen or Usedom, spa towns like Heiligendamm, Kühlungsborn, Boltenhagen or Warnemünde and the Mecklenburg Lake District. It also offers important historical cities, such as Stralsund, Wismar, Greifswald and Rostock as former Hanseatic cities − or Schwerin, Güstrow, Ludwigslust and Neustrelitz as former residences.
The first rockets to reach outer space were launched in 1944 during World War II in Peenemünde on the present-day territory of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.[31]
During the chancellorship of Angela Merkel, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern hosted the first official public meeting with President George W. Bush in 2006 and the 33rd G8 summit in 2007. Both political events were financed by state and federal budgets.
Stralsund − aerial view of an old town, protected by UNESCO
Binz − typical German resort architecture (Bäderarchitektur) at the Baltic Sea
Beach Promenade of Warnemünde, part of Rostock
Rostock − Shopping street
Rostock − Brick Gothic gable house
Greifswald − Gable houses at market square
Schwerin − capital of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Harbour of Wismar, a historical Hanseatic city sharing its World Heritage Site status with Stralsund
Grabow − Half timbered town hall
Neubrandenburg − Concert Church St. Marien
Usedom − Benz windmill, one of many windmills in MV
Rügen − Ralswiek castle, one of many castles in MV
Rügen − Granitz Hunting Castle near Binz
Ahlbeck − Hotel "Ahlbecker Hof" (Usedom Island)
Ahrenshoop − steep coast, peninsula of Fischland-Darß-Zingst
Rügen Island − Jasmund National Park
Hiddensee Island − Dornbusch Lighthouse
Müritz Lake − near Röbel
Germany portal
Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania portal
History of Pomerania
List of places in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
List of towns in Vorpommern
^ "Bevölkerungsstand der Kreise, Ämter und Gemeinden in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern". Landesamt für innere Verwaltung Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (in German). 2019-07-03. Retrieved 2020-05-23.
^ "Bruttoinlandsprodukt – in jeweiligen Preisen – 1991 bis 2019". statistik-bw.de.
^ With the abolition of states in East Germany in 1952 vehicle registration followed the new Bezirk subdivisions. Since 1991, distinct prefixes are specified for each district.
^ "Sub-national HDI - Area Database - Global Data Lab". hdi.globaldatalab.org. Retrieved 2018-09-13.
^ Steinhauer, Anja (2014). Duden – Das Wörterbuch der Abkürzungen. Mannheim: Dudenverlag. p. 287. ISBN 978-3-411-90269-9.
^ Gesellschaft für Deutsche Sprache (1990), Der Sprachdienst (in German), 34, Wiesbaden, p. 128
^ Der Name Pommern (po more) ist slawischer Herkunft und bedeutet so viel wie "Land am Meer". Pommersches Landesmuseum
^ Michael North, Geschichte Mecklenburg-Vorpommerns (2008), p. 113
^ a b Michael North, The Baltic: A History (2015), pp. 187–189
^ Brunner, Detlev, Inventar der Befehle der Sowjetischen Militäradministration Mecklenburg (-Vorpommern) 1945−1949 in Texte und Materialien zur Zeitgeschichte 12, 2003, ISBN 3-598-11621-7
^ Beatrice Vierneisel, Fremde im Land: Aspekte zur kulturellen Integration von Umsiedlern in Mecklenburg und Vorpommern 1945 bis 1953, 2006, p.12, ISBN 3-8309-1762-7, ISBN 978-3-8309-1762-5
^ a b c "Branche mit Zukunft". Die Welt (in German). 2009-05-07. Retrieved 2009-05-08.
^ "(PDF) Visitor nos. at public theatres in M-V" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-10-16.
^ Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland – Kirchemitgliederzahlen Stand 31. Dezember 2018 EKD, January 2020
^ Nordkirche.de Archived 2014-05-12 at Wikiwix (in German)
^ "Bevölkerung". Statistische Ämter des Bundes Und der Länder. Retrieved 16 June 2018.
^ "University of Applied Sciences: fh-mittelstand.de". Archived from the original on 2015-08-15. Retrieved 2015-07-27.
^ "Fachhochschule Stralsund - University of Applied Science". Archived from the original on 2015-03-04.
^ "University NB: Hochschule Neubrandenburg". Archived from the original on 2012-10-08.
^ "FH Güstrow". Archived from the original on 2012-10-10.
^ a b c d e "State Parliament". Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Archived from the original on April 2, 2011. Retrieved March 30, 2011.
^ "State election MV: Schwesig's SPD triumphs - CDU experiences debacle". Norddeutscher Rundfunk (in German). 27 September 2021.
^ "Mecklenburg-Vorpommern: Schwesig wants to govern with the Left Party". tagesschau.de (in German). Tagesschau. 13 October 2021. Retrieved 14 October 2021.
^ "SPD and Left agree on coalition agreement". tagesschau.de (in German). Tagesschau. 13 October 2021. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
^ "Regional GDP per capita ranged from 30% to 263% of the EU average in 2018". Eurostat.
^ "Employment and Labour Market". Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Archived from the original on March 7, 2011. Retrieved March 30, 2011.
^ "Arbeitslosenquote nach Bundesländern in Deutschland 2018 | Statista". Statista (in German). Retrieved 2018-11-13.
^ (Destatis), © Statistisches Bundesamt (2018-11-13). "Federal Statistical Office Germany - GENESIS-Online". www-genesis.destatis.de. Retrieved 2018-11-13.
^ "Festspiele Mecklenburg-Vorpommern". Archived from the original on 2012-10-19.
^ "Deutsche Olympia-Bewerber - Leipzig und Rostock". n-tv.de (in German). 2003-04-12. Retrieved 2020-05-19.
^ Dyson, Marianne J. (2007). Space and astronomy: decade by decade. Infobase Publishing. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-8160-5536-4.
Official Mecklenburg-Vorpommern portal
Geographic data related to Mecklenburg-Vorpommern at OpenStreetMap
Off to MV - Official tourism website of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Germany.Travel - Federal Tourism Association: Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Mecklenburg-Vorpommernat Wikipedia's sister projects
Travel guides from Wikivoyage
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What we know about Crossfin, the fintech that ARC and Ethos are buying out
Home » What we know…
Crossfin, Print Media, TymeBank
A decade ago, the founders of Crossfin formed part of a small-cap JSE company that reeled under the financial crisis of 2008; this week, their fintech company received a big nod from Patrice Motsepe's African Rainbow Capital (ARC) and Ethos, a private equity investment firm.
On Wednesday, ARC announced that it was, together with Ethos buying out Crossfin in a R1.5 billion deal that is said to be one of the most significant transactions in the financial technology sector in South Africa.
The deal comprises a consortium of entities, including ARC Financial Services (50.1% owned by ARC itself and 49.9% owned by its ARC Fund), led by the Ethos Market Fund I.
ARC said it would pay R600 million or about 9% of its market cap for a 37.33% stake in Crossfin.
The genesis of Crossfin
Although Crossfin was formally established in May 2017, its genesis dates back to 2011 when Dean Sparrow, its CEO, and Anton Gaylard, the COO, formed part of the executive team of a company that used to be known as the UCS group, a retail IT services firm which used to be listed on the JSE.
After struggling to recover from the financial crisis of 2008, UCS went through a period of divestment where Sparrow and Gaylard spearheaded the sale of most of the company to information and communications technology group, Business Connexion.
"And what was left behind no longer warranted a listing. So, we delisted that vehicle, and essentially it was worth a net asset make up of about R100 million," Sparrow told the Business Insider South Africa.
UCS was later renamed Capital Eye Investments, and Crossfin forms part of its portfolio investments.
Using the capital, they had available to them and some that they could generate, the pair decided to branch out from being a niche financial technology provider for the retail sector and tapped into financial services to service the banking and insurance industries.
That led them to one of its biggest success stories; its 2012 investment in iKhokha, a merchant acceptance card acquiring business targeted at the informal market, which continues to be dominated by cash.
When they invested iKhokha, the pair were not yet exclusively focused on their Crossfin venture. Sparrow served as a non-executive director on the board of Business Connexion, and Gaylard was part of Capital Eye Investments, primarily responsible for its fintech portfolio.
Today, iKhokha has grown into a substantial business with over 35,000 active merchants across the country.
"iKhokha has effectively put a device into their hands [merchants in the informal sector] to enable them, [to have an] alternative way to accept cash. And as that story started building out, we landed up realising in about 2017, that we needed to bring it together and formalise it, which is what was effectively the foundation of Crossfin," Sparrow said.
The R1.5 billion cash injection will enable the company to pursue and invest in small businesses in the payment solutions space.
Edward Pitsi, the managing partner for the Ethos Mid-Market Fund, said Crossfin is ideally positioned to continue taking advantage of the fintech industry opportunities.
"The capital will be used to acquire new business, but to also grow businesses like iKhokha; inject more capital in more businesses like retail capital, because we actually think there's still lots of legs and lots of growth still available on the existing assets," Pitsi said.
"We see opportunity in the sector. South Africa is still largely a cash-based market, card prevalent but is not as prevalent as it can be from an SME funding perspective. There's still a huge funding gap; there's a half a trillion rand funding gap in the SME space," he said.
Sparrow said the company is targeting businesses in their early start-up phase that are complementary to Crossfin's portfolio, such as remittance platforms.
"We will be looking at the likes of remittances across sub-Saharan Africa. There are some bolt-on acquisitions, or our existing portfolio, [in which we will be] expanding our position in funding. Some of that, geographical."
Its presence spreads across 13 countries on the continent, including Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, Lesotho, Kenya, and Ghana, among others. On an annual basis, the company processes R80 billion worth of payments through its platforms, with 90% of the payments processed out of its South African home market.
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TymeBank attracts global investors as it outlines ambitious expansion plans
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Multiple Defendants in Charleston Car Accidents Cases
When multiple defendants in Charleston car accident cases are responsible for the injuries victims sustain, recovery is only made more challenging for those victims. Litigation becomes more complex, recovery is delayed, and medical bills continue to gather. However, all is not lost. With the help of an experienced car wreck attorney, you could rest assured that someone on your side could hold these negligent parties accountable while working to recover the compensation you need.
How Multiple Defendants Affects Litigation
If there are multiple defendants, the litigation proceeds by either agreement or by order of the court. The judge would tell the parties in which order they are going to go. For example, there could be an instance where a plaintiff and defendant join together and ascribe blame to a third party. While initially, a case may have involved only two people, there could be moments where the further investigation reveals that neither initial parties were to blame and in fact a third party was at fault.
In these cases, the original plaintiff would still be the one to have the lawsuit filed. Moving forward from that moment, a trial would follow all the standard procedures of civil court. Each party would have their chance to present their case, each lawyer would have the opportunity to cross-examine witnesses or present witnesses, and each party would have their opening and closing arguments.
Case Outcomes With Many Defendants
Have multiple defendants could certainly influence the outcome of a case. Multiple defendants sometimes adds to the confusion that a jury could experience, though these cases should be fact-based and driven. Many times, the defendant in the case points to the empty chair, an unknown third party who should be present and held accountable.
For the plaintiff, there is no way to collect against that empty chair if they are not a party to the case. If a jury were to decide 70 percent of the fault to that unknown third party, the plaintiff is going to be out of luck for 70 percent of their case. These instances affect cases greatly. However, many times, it could also be positive. There could be a confluence of multiple bad acts by multiple parties, and some of those actions could add up in the plaintiff's favor. Ultimately, these hypothetical situations involving multiple defendants for a Charleston car accident case are just that, and victims should keep in mind that each case is unique and needs to be treated as such.
Do Health Privacy Laws Affect Cases?
At the end of the day, the plaintiff has certain state and federal protections about the privacy about their health, but many of those protections are diminished or do not exist once they bring a lawsuit against the defendant and make their medical condition one of the issues in the case.
For example, somebody's prior psychiatric care and treatment may not be something that another party would be entitled to under normal circumstances, whether it is under HIPAA law or some other state or federal law, but when the plaintiff claims mental injury due to the accident, it becomes relevant. At that point, the defendants have the right, and most judges agree with this right, to get those records and explore that prior condition to understand what, if anything, changed or got worse from this accident and what, if anything, is their responsibility to pay for versus what preexisted for the plaintiff.
When someone, as a plaintiff, puts a case into suit, a lot of those protections are diminished or outright overcome by the defendant's need to investigate the case and determine what, if anything, they are going to have to pay.
How Car Accident Lawyers Fight These Challenges
A car accident lawyer navigates these difficulties during trial with their experience. If the plaintiff is arguing mental and physical injuries, and the other side is looking for medical records from their past, the lawyer never fights that issue. Most often, they do not fight the issue, because, in fairness, the defense has the right to access that information. Sometimes it could be abused. There are cases where defendants abuse their rights or their privilege in this area.
For the most part, if someone is going to claim that they have a physical injury to a body part, perhaps their back, it is fair game for the defense to determine what, if any, problems they have had with their back in their past medical history. Likewise, if they are claiming some type of psychological injury, it is fair game for the defense in most instances to look at their prior psychiatric history to see what, if anything, predated what they are claiming happened in the accident.
Just because someone may have a prior history, in a new accident, if they aggravated that preexisting condition or if they had a new injury that aggravated a preexisting condition, the law covers those events. Whatever has been caused by the defendant's negligence, wrongdoing, or bad conduct, they should be responsible to pay for whatever damages occurred to the plaintiff as a result of that wrongdoing or negligence.
Presenting Arguments to Multiple Defendants
A Charleston car accident lawyer would present their argument to multiple defendants in a few ways. For example, if part of the problem in a case is somebody runs a stop sign, is driving their truck, and fails to adequately maintain the brakes, victims' attorneys are bringing a case against the truck driving company. They are also bringing the case directly against the driver of the truck because perhaps they were on the cell phone at the time of the accident.
If the intersection had a problem like it was not up to code and that had something to do with making the accident worse than it would have been otherwise, attorneys for the victim have the defendant truck driver, the defendant truck driver's company, and the city or state involved as a defendant.
The challenges are the more information they have to gather, the more information they have to present to the jury and the more information that they have to take that is complex in nature and make as simple as they could to explain to the jury what the problems are, who bears the responsibility for the accident, and what percentages they bear.
To do that with one defendant is challenging enough. To do that with multiple defendants increases the amount of work and the amount of effort that is going to be needed to clearly and concisely present the plaintiff's case in a way that the jury could understand and award appropriate damages accordingly.
Let an Attorney Handle a Case with Multiple Defendants After a Charleston Car Wreck
If you were harmed in a car wreck, finding out who was responsible for you injuries and subsequent recovery could be challenging. Worse yet, multiple defendants in Charleston car accident cases could only further complicate the recovery process. Instead of doing nothing, choose to work with an attorney who could help. Speak with an experienced attorney today.
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India seeks deal for repatriation with more nations under 'Vande Bharat Mission'
By NDT Bureau August 19, 2020 August 19, 2020
India's greatest repatriation drive, Vande Bharat Mission (VBM), has been hailed both nationally and internationally as it has rescued the stranded people in the midst of the crisis.
As the fight against the pandemic continues, despite several lockdown measures being put at place, the Indian Government is now allowing its citizens to return on special flights, while also allowing some foreign citizens to return to their countries.
In the latest of the measure, India is seeking to strike deals with more countries under the Vande Bharat Mission (VBM). The repatriation drive allows special flights into the country amid a lockdown of its airspace due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
On August 18, India's Union Minister for Housing & Urban Affairs, Hardeep Singh Puri, said that the country was negotiating with 13 more countries, including two African countries – Kenya and Nigeria.
The other countries are- Australia, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Bahrain, Israel, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, South Korea and Thailand.
Hardeep Singh Puri said, "Air Travel arrangements are already in place with USA, UK, France, Germany, UAE, Qatar & Maldives."
"The ongoing negotiations will benefit stranded Indians and nationals of these countries," he added.
Twin Quakes Strike Off Indonesia, Reports US Geological Survey
Flooding at Home, Tensions Abroad Raise Concern for China's Food Security
Bastar tribals to get free nutritious food, medical facilities, announces Chhattisgarh CM
Editor June 19, 2019
Nearing 7 lakh COVID-19 cases, India surpasses Russia as third worst-hit country
NDT Bureau July 6, 2020 July 6, 2020
Citing Commerce Ministry report, Modi says UPA Govt. has praised Gujarat land acquisition policy
Editor May 7, 2014


See You at OFC 2022
Everything You Want to Know About Coherent Optics for Access Networks (But Were Afraid to Ask)
Forward Error Correction (FEC): A Primer on the Essential Element for Optical Transmission Interoperability
What is Full Duplex Coherent Optics?
Doubling up on Fiber Capacity: A Winning Strategy for Full Duplex Coherent Optics
It's Only Wireless for THIS long
The 2022 Optical Fiber Communication Conference and Exhibition (OFC)—the hub of the optical industry and the premier event in fiber communications and networking—will take place March 6–10, 2022, at the San Diego Convention Center in San Diego, California. This year, the event will be presented in a hybrid format that offers both in-person and virtual sessions.
For over 40 years, OFC has been the world's largest conference and exhibition for optical communications and networking professionals. The event has drawn attendees from all corners of the globe to focus on the latest market trends, technology advances and groundbreaking innovations. The program is truly comprehensive—from near- and long-term research to the latest deployments, from fiber/components to comprehensive systems and networks, and from five-day technical sessions to one-stop-shop exhibitions.
Optical fiber communication technologies are critical to cable operators' success in supporting broadband, wireless and enterprise connectivity services. Cable operators have long invested in deploying more fiber deeper into their networks.
At CableLabs, our Optical Center of Excellence continues to be at the forefront of developing innovative approaches for high-performance fiber connectivity in cable operators' networks, including point-to-point and point-to-multipoint transport applications from the network core, in aggregation, at the edge, and to homes. These innovations demonstrate long-term evolution toward a converged network, a roadmap to extend the life of cable's infrastructure while continuing to lower the cost per bit, and methodologies for provisioning optical connectivity faster and more reliably.
Below is a list of CableLabs optical experts who will address a broad range of industry trends and technologies at the 2022 OFC conference.
Sunday, 6 March
Dr. Jing Wang, Presenter
Dr. Zhensheng Jia, Workshop Organizer
Monday, 7 March
Dr. Haipeng Zhang, Presenter
Tuesday, 8 March
Dr. L. Alberto Campos, Panel Organizer
Dr. Curtis Knittle, Presenter
Thursday, 10 March
Dr. Mu Xu, Panel Organizer
Dr. Zhensheng Jia, Presenter
Dr. L. Alberto Campos, Presenter
(invited)
Dr. Mu Xu, Presenter
We also have a collaborative project with the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) that will demonstrate a novel C-band wavelength selective switch well equipped to handle the demands of scaling access at the edge network. Please join us to discuss how these technologies will shape the future of our broadband network.
In addition to my participation in two of these sessions, I'm honored to have been elected Optica Fellow (formerly Optical Society of America) for outstanding contributions to the development of interoperable coherent optical systems and fiber-wireless converged technologies for broadband access networks. I will be recognized at the OFC Awards Ceremony & Luncheon. I hope to see you there!
The Future of Cable
At CableLabs, we're committed to inventing new ways to keep people connected and improve their broadband experience. Now, with the 10G Platform initiative in the cable industry, there's no doubt that optical fiber transport will play an increasingly important role in enabling the delivery of fast and affordable bandwidth for all services, with lower latencies, enhanced reliability and better security in a scalable manner. Over the past few years, CableLabs has successfully developed a series of specifications to enable the development of interoperable transceivers using P2P coherent optics that are access-optimized to address the increasing traffic-aggregation needs of cable and shorter-length distribution networks in terms of capacity, network topologies and deployment scenarios.
Currently, we're working on a coherent passive optical network (CPON) project to develop a suite of specifications for next-generation 100G single-wavelength PON to enable service providers the ultimate cable connectivity platform and stay ahead of their convergence, business and residential needs. If you'd like to participate in the CPON working group activities, please submit your email request to workinggroups@cablelabs.com.
See you at the 2022 Optical Fiber Communication Conference and Exhibition!
The cable industry has been well served by its extensive fiber deployment that took place during the initial hybrid fiber-coax (HFC) buildout. Even though cable operators have answered capacity demand through fiber node-splits in specific high demand scenarios, only recently have operators embarked on deeper-fiber roll-out strategies as part of a comprehensive long-term evolution plan.
The exponential growth in demand for capacity prompted CableLabs to explore how to best use cable's optical infrastructure resources. This exploration led to research activities for the introduction of coherent optics in the access environment. We're delighted to announce the publication of the book "Coherent Optics for Access Networks" by CRC Press (Taylor & Francis Group), highlighting many of CableLabs' research activities.
The book discusses how coherent optics in the access network is re-engineered to simultaneously achieve lower complexity and higher performance afforded by the generous link margins characteristic in shorter links. This instantiation of coherent optics is not only suitable for cable access but also for telco and cellular fiber access networks.
Recent developments in the field of coherent optics for access network applications that will support point-to-point (P2P) aggregation use cases and point-to-multipoint (P2MP) fiber to the user's passive optical network are examined. Optical industry trends as well as the conventional intensity modulation and direct detection (IM-DD) systems and newly developed advanced direct-detection architectures leveraging four-level pulse amplitude modulation format, Stokes receivers and Kramers–Krönig receivers are also presented.
This book focuses on how to adapt coherent optics technology to the access environment in ways that address major cost challenges, such as simplified transceiver design and photonic integration. An example, is the introduction of full-duplex coherent optics, which enables simultaneous bidirectional transmission on the same wavelength thereby doubling fiber's capacity. Full-duplex coherent optics is an approach that is feasible to implement in the shorter-link-length access environment.
The book provides economical modeling for aggregation uses cases in comparison with traditional 10G IM-DD DWDM based solutions. Implementation requirements, unique to the access environment, are also provided when introducing coherent optics into access scenarios, including coexistence with existing services and security challenges. Progress on recent-specification development activities is reviewed for many industry organizations that focus on short-distance coherent optics interoperability.
In writing this book, the authors have benefitted from the numerous interactions with experts within the optical telecommunication components and systems community, in particular with the vendor and operator members that contributed to CableLabs' point-to-point coherent optics specification. This book represents a first look of technological advances in coherent optics, in the interest of future proofing of our access networks.
Favorable coherent component cost-reduction trends are expected to continue, technological advancements will enable higher performance and simpler implementations will make coherent technology more pervasive in the access network so that exponential growth in capacity is achieved. Given the headway gained in specification generation bodies and the development progress of optical component and transceiver manufacturers focusing on shorter link distances, a future with coherent optics in the access network is upon us.
Forward error correction (FEC) has been a powerful tool in the cable industry for many years. In fact, perhaps the single biggest performance improvement in the DOCSIS 3.1 specifications was achieved by changing the FEC being used in previous versions – Reed-Soloman (RS) – to a new coding scheme with improved performance: low-density parity check (LDPC). Similarly, FEC has also become an indispensable element for high-speed optical transmission systems, especially in current coherent optical transmission age.
FEC is an effective digital signal processing method that improves the bit error rate of communication links by adding redundant information (parity bits) to the data at the transmitter side so that the receiver side then uses the redundant information to detect and correct errors that may have been introduced in the transmission link. As the following figure shows, the signal encoding that takes place at the transmitter has to be properly decoded by the receiver in order to extract the original signal information. Precise definition and implementation of the encoding rules are required to avoid misinterpretation of the information by the receiver decoding the signal. Successful interoperability will only take place when both the transmitter and receiver follow and implement the same encoding and decoding rules.
As you can see, FEC is the essential element that needs to be defined to enable the development of interoperable transceivers using optical technology over point-to-point links. The industry trends are currently moving toward removing proprietary aspects and becoming interoperable when the operators advocate more open and disaggregated transport in high-volume short-reach applications.
When considering which FEC to choose for a new specification, you need to consider some key metrics, including the following:
Coding overhead rate— The ratio of the number of redundant bits to information bits
Net coding gain (NCG)— The improvement of received optical sensitivity with and without using FEC associated with increasing bit rate
Pre-FEC BER threshold— A predefined threshold for error-free post-FEC transmission determined by NCG
Other considerations include hardware complexity, latency, and power consumption.
One major decision point for FEC coding and decoding is between Hard-Decision FEC (HD-FEC) and Soft-Decision FEC (SD-FEC). HD-FEC performs decisions whether 1s or 0s have occurred based on exact thresholds, whereas SD-FEC makes decisions based on probabilities that a 1 or 0 has occurred. SD-FEC can provide higher NCG to get closer to the ideal Shannon limit with the sacrifice of higher complexity and more power consumption.
The first-generation FEC code, standardized for optical communication, is RS code. RS is used for long-haul optical transmission as defined by ITU-T G.709 and G.975 recommendations. In this RS implementation, each codeword contains 255 code word bytes, of which 239 bytes are data and 16 bytes are parity, usually expressed as RS (255,239) with the name of Generic FEC (GFEC). Several FEC coding schemes were recommended in ITU-T G. 975.1 for high bit-rate dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) submarine systems in the second-generation of FEC codes. The common mechanism for increased NCG was the use of concatenated coding schemes with iterative hard-decision decoding. The most commonly-implemented example is the Enhanced FEC (EFEC) from G.975.1 Clause I.4 for 10G and 40G optical interfaces.
At the 100 Gbps data rate, CableLabs has adopted Hard-Decision (HD) Staircase FEC, defined in ITU-T G.709.2 and included in the CableLabs P2P Coherent Optics Physical Layer v1.0 (PHYv1.0) Specification. This Staircase FEC, also known as high-gain FEC (HG-FEC), is the first coherent FEC that provides an NCG of 9.38 dB with the pre-FEC BER of 4.5E-3. The 100G line-side interoperability has been verified in the very first CableLabs' Point-to-Point (P2P) Coherent Optics Interoperability Event.
At the 200 Gbps data rate, openFEC (oFEC) was selected in CableLabs most-recent release of P2P Coherent Optics PHYv2.0 Specification. The oFEC provides an NCG of 11.1 dB for Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying (QPSK) with pre-FEC BER of 2E-2 and 11.6 dB for 16QAM format after 3 soft-decision iterations to cover multiple use cases. This oFEC was also standardized by Open ROADM targeting metro applications.
Although CableLabs has not specified 400G coherent optical transport, the Optical Interworking Forum (OIF) has adopted a 400G concatenated FEC (cFEC) with soft-decision inner Hamming code and hard-decision outer Staircase code in its 400G ZR standard; this same FEC has been selected as a baseline proposal in the IEEE 802.3ct Task Force. This 400G implementation agreement (IA) provides an NCG of 10.8 dB and pre-FEC BER of 1.22E-2 for coherent dual-polarized 16QAM modulation format specially for the Data Center Interconnection (DCI).
The following table summarizes performance metrics for standardized FEC in optical fiber transmission systems.
CableLabs is the first specification organization to demonstrate 100G coherent optics interoperability with a significant level of participants. Please register for our next coherent optics interoperability testing.
A brand new innovation, Full Duplex Coherent Optics uses the same wavelength, in two different directions, over the same fiber at the same time. As a result, Full Duplex Coherent Optics technology supports over 200 times more capacity compared to non-coherent digital transmission over a single fiber. This makes Coherent Optics technology well suited for deployment in many more cable access network fibers. Watch our video to see how this technology will significantly increase the value of the currently deployed fiber infrastructure.
Click below to learn more about Full Duplex Coherent Optics.
During our 2017 Winter Conference, CableLabs announced the launch of the point-to-point (P2P) Coherent Optics specification project, potentially multiplying the capacity of each existing cable access network fiber by over 100 times and possibly indefinitely deferring new fiber builds on existing routes. Now, a new CableLabs innovation, Full Duplex Coherent Optics:
Doubles the bi-directional capacity of each fiber
Multiplies the capacity of each existing access network fiber by over 200 times
Simultaneously makes Coherent Optics technology well suited for deployment in many more cable access network fibers
Why CableLabs Began the Coherent Optics Project
Most cable operators have a somewhat limited fiber count between the headend and the fiber node, so maximizing the capacity provided by this scarce resource has real economic advantages for cable operators. Getting more capacity out of the existing fibers can eliminate the need to dig more trenches to lay more fiber. This allows operators to best leverage the existing fiber infrastructure to withstand the exponential growth in capacity and services for residential and business subscribers.
Transport Methodologies
There are two fundamental topologies to achieve bidirectional P2P coherent transport:
dual-fiber
single-fiber
According to a recent operators survey, 20 percent of existing cable access networks use a single-fiber topology. That means that downstream and upstream transmission to nodes takes place on a single strand of fiber. It is estimated that over the next 5 years, this number will grow to 60 percent. Therefore, bidirectional transmission over a single fiber is needed for coherent signals to support single-fiber topologies and to facilitate the redundancy of optical links.
The Dual-Fiber Approach
Today, achieving bidirectional transmission in an optical domain with a single laser requires two fibers. This is the standard practice using today's coherent optical technology. One laser in a transceiver performs two functions:
as the optical signal source in the transmitter
as the reference local oscillator signal in the receiver
Because of the use of the same wavelength from the same laser, a second fiber must be available for the other direction—one fiber for downstream and a second fiber for upstream.
The Single-Fiber Approach
The second typical approach is to use a single fiber but transmit at different frequencies or wavelengths, similar to the upstream and downstream spectrum split that we implement in our HFC networks. To accomplish this frequency/wavelength multiplexing approach, two lasers operating at different wavelengths are needed. Wavelength multiplexers and demultiplexers following a wavelength management and allocation strategy are needed to combine these different wavelengths over the same fiber. The second laser ends up costing a lot more than money—increasing power consumption, operational complexity, and transceiver footprint.
CableLabs' Full Duplex Coherent Optics Approach
CableLabs proposes an alternative method to achieve full duplex coherent optics. We leverage two optical circulators on each end in a special configuration. The circulator is a low-cost, passive, but directional device—much like a traffic roundabout for cars, but this is an optical roundabout. Instead of using two fibers, a single fiber is connected for bidirectional transmission. Most importantly, instead of using two lasers, a single laser is employed for single-fiber coherent systems.
How Does It Work in a Cable?
Many scenarios in cable focus on the access environment with limited transmission distances. Unlike backbone and metropolitan coherent optical networks, access networks don't require multiple directional optical amplifiers in cascade. By definition, the introduction of directional components hampers bidirectional transmission.
When dealing with coherent signals, we have much higher Optical Signal to Noise Ratio (OSNR) sensitivity and higher tolerance to the impairments from the spontaneous Rayleigh backscattering than intensity-modulated systems. In addition, the threshold of the stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) nonlinear effect is much higher because of the nature of phase-modulated signals on the reduction of optical carrier power and the increase of effective linewidth.
With this new dimension of direction-division multiplexing (DDM) in the optical domain, any coherent wavelength can be used twice, once in each direction, thus doubling the whole fiber system capacity. This full duplex implementation is not bandwidth-limited. It works for 100G, 200G and future 400G. It is also not wavelength-selective. It works for short wavelengths and for long wavelengths, and it would cover not only the entire C-Band but, with different optical sources, the entire fiber spectrum. All these features have been experimentally verified in CableLabs' Optical Center of Excellence (OCE) over distances of up to 100 kilometers.
Impacts/Benefits of Full Duplex Coherent Optics
Full duplex coherent optics will significantly increase the value of the currently-deployed fiber infrastructure. It has been implemented in an elegant way, without the requirement of redesigning new chips for digital signal processing. This scheme can be seamlessly incorporated into the ongoing CableLabs' P2P Coherent Optics specification effort, which will be issued in mid-2018.
Dr. Alberto Campos, a CableLabs Fellow, also contributed to this article.
Interested in learning more about our point-to-point (P2P) Coherent Optics specification project? A follow-up video containing more information on the technology will be posted next week. Click below to join our working group.
Why the underlying fiber network is critical to mobile communications. -- The explosion in popularity of the mobile game Pokémon Go has triggered unprecedented attention on virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR). Many believe that Pokémon Go is just the first step into the fully-immersive VR and AR applications, which, from a bandwidth demand perspective, are on the high end of the Internet of Things (IoT) connections. By the end of this decade, analysts predict that 50 billion IoT sensors will connect to mobile networks consuming 1000 times as much data as today's mobile gadgets alone. Along with cloud, machine to machine, and new video streaming applications, the underlying network infrastructure that enables such constant high-quality connectivity is critical to ultimate user experiences. None of the existing radio access technologies will be able to individually provide the capabilities to effectively meet market demands. The next generation 5G mobile system is being designed specifically to support this vision of satisfying the increasing demand for higher data rates, lower network latencies, better energy efficiency, and reliable ubiquitous connectivity.
However, the success of 5G will not just be about new wireless technologies! The deployment of 5G technologies will be dependent on the ability of the wireline transport network connected to the radio access networks (RANs). This is because all the air bits will be transported from the wireline systems, most likely high-speed fiber optic networks. The network architecture and topology are evolving too (see Figure) and we expect to see a proliferation of small cells deeper in the network closer to the end-user. Small cells have a range of 10 to 200-meter cell radius within urban and in-building locations, to 1 or 2 km in rural areas. Centralized or Coordinated-RAN solutions, where the baseband units are placed together and share information at a centralized location, require the extremely high speed and low latency only available using fiber networks. The reality is… in mobile networks the bits are only air bits for a very short part of their life!
Historically, the transition to new mobile technologies has resulted in the need for a fourfold to fivefold increase in backhaul capacity. With the advancement from 3G to 4G, RANs reached a capacity of 1 Gb/s to 10 Gb/s per cell. If you consider the effective throughput for each user and the deployment of multi-antenna technologies, future 5G RANs will require ten times the backhaul capacity of today's networks. If 5G network technology is deployed at scale, wireless networks will have to xhaul (backhaul, midhaul, and fronthaul) massive amounts of data between cell sites and core networks.
Compared to alternatives like mm-wave self-backhauling, deploying optical fiber provides a superior technical solution due to bandwidth scaling, low and deterministic latency and jitter, and high system reliability. Optical techniques can also provide the leverage to enhance inter-cell coordination, achieve wide network coherence, and also decrease timing jitter in high order vector modulation and simplify remote radio head architecture. In this sense, fiber is not only the transmission pipe, it can integrate with wireless systems for end-to-end seamless networking purpose to affect network control and power efficiency, minimize latency, provide network system protection and restoration, and decrease digital data processing overhead.
Fiber and optical transport technologies are expected to play more and more important roles in the RANs to meet the aggressive performance goals of 5G. CableLabs is heavily involved in both the wireless and wireline portions of RANs. On the wireless portion, CableLabs is contributing to the ongoing formation of 5G technologies and network architectures including multi-gigabit wireless transmission over millimeter-waves and dense mobile and fixed wireless access. On the wireline portion, CableLabs is exploring new fiber optic technologies that increase capacity and lower latency, while also leveraging the unique characteristics of Hybrid Fiber Coax networks. Leveraging our expanded efforts toward university research, we are exploring the melding of wireless and wireline through collaboration with the National Science Foundation's Fiber-Wireless Integration and Networking (FiWIN) center led by Georgia Tech.