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crs_R45910 | crs_R45910_0 | O ver the past decade, Google, Amazon, Facebook, and Appleâcollectively known as the "Big Four" or "Big Tech"âhave revolutionized the internet economy and affected the daily lives of billions of people worldwide. Google operates a search engine that processes over 3.5 billion searches a day (Google Search), runs th... | Over the past decade, Google, Amazon, Facebook, and Apple ("Big Tech" or the "Big Four") have revolutionized the internet economy and affected the daily lives of billions of people worldwide. While these companies are responsible for momentous technological breakthroughs and massive wealth creation, they have also rece... |
crs_R46266 | crs_R46266_0 | Introduction
Coal mining and production in the United States during in the 20 th century contributed to the nation meeting its energy requirements and left a legacy of unreclaimed lands. Prior to the enactment of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act in 1977 (SMCRA; P.L. 95-87 ), no federal law had authorize... | Coal mining and production in the United States during the 20 th century contributed to the nation meeting its energy requirements and left a legacy of unreclaimed lands. Title IV of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA, P.L. 95-87 ) established the Abandoned Mine Reclamation Fund. The Office o... |
crs_R46330 | crs_R46330_0 | Introduction
Throughout U.S. history, Congress has created advisory commissions to assist in the development of public policy. Among other contexts, commissions have been used following crisis situations, including the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks and the 2008 financial crisis. In such situations, advisory c... | Throughout U.S. history, Congress has created advisory commissions to assist in the development of public policy. Among other contexts, commissions have been used following crisis situations, including the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks and the 2008 financial crisis. In such situations, advisory commissions may ... |
crs_R45926 | crs_R45926_0 | F or more than a decade, federal agencies have grappled with how to address climate change effects when implementing the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA, or the Act). The ESA aims to protect threatened and endangered fish, wildlife, and plants from extinction. As set forth by Congress, one of the main purposes of t... | For more than a decade, federal agencies have grappled with how to address climate change effects when implementing the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA). The ESA aims to protect threatened and endangered fish, wildlife, and plants from extinction. As set forth by Congress, one of the main purposes of the ESA is to ... |
crs_R46255 | crs_R46255_0 | Introduction
The U.S. government administers multiple international food assistance programs that aim to alleviate hunger and improve food security in other countries. Some of these programs provide emergency assistance to people affected by conflict or natural disaster. Other programs provide nonemergency assistance... | U.S. international food assistance programs provide food, or the means to purchase food, to people around the world at risk of hunger. Congress funds these programs through two appropriations bills: the Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related Agencies Appropriations Actâalso known as... |
crs_R45933 | crs_R45933_0 | Introduction
On August 1, 2018 , the World Health Organization (WHO) reported a new Ebola outbreak in eastern DRC, about a week after having declared the end of a separate outbreak in the west of the country. As of September 24, 2019, the WHO had reported 3,175 cases in the current outbreak, including 2,119 deaths. A... | The Ebola outbreak in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) that began in August 2018 has eluded international containment efforts and posed significant challenges to local and international policymakers. The current outbreak is the 10 th and largest on record in DRC, and the world's second largest ever (after the 201... |
crs_R45974 | crs_R45974_0 | Status of FY2020 Agriculture Appropriations
On December 20, 2019, Congress passed and the President signed into law a full-year FY2020 appropriationâthe Further Consolidated Appropriations Act ( P.L. 116-94 , Committee Print 38-679 )âthat included Agriculture appropriations in Division B ( Table 1 ).
During the r... | The Agriculture appropriations bill funds the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) except for the U.S. Forest Service. It also funds the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) andâin even-numbered fiscal yearsâthe Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC).
Agriculture appropriations include both mandatory and discre... |
crs_RS20871 | crs_RS20871_0 | Overview and Objectives
Sanctions have been a significant component of U.S. Iran policy since Iran's 1979 Islamic Revolution that toppled the Shah of Iran, a U.S. ally. In the 1980s and 1990s, U.S. sanctions were intended to try to compel Iran to cease supporting acts of terrorism and to limit Iran's strategic power ... | Successive Administrations have used sanctions extensively to try to change Iran's behavior. Sanctions have had a substantial effect on Iran's economy but little, if any, observable effect on Iran's conventional defense programs or regional malign activities. During 2012-2015, when the global community was relatively u... |
crs_R45235 | crs_R45235_0 | T his report provides an overview of economic and fiscal conditions in the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI). The political status of the U.S. Virgin Islands and responses to Hurricanes Irma and Maria are not covered in depth here. Fiscal and economic challenges facing the USVI government raise several issues for Congress. Fi... | Fiscal and economic challenges facing the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI) government raise several issues for Congress. Congress may choose to maintain oversight of federal policies that could affect the USVI's long-term fiscal stability. Congress also may consider further legislation that would extend or restructure long-r... |
crs_R46317 | crs_R46317_0 | Introduction
The President is responsible for appointing individuals to certain positions in the federal government. In some instances, the President makes these appointments using authorities granted to the President alone. Other appointments, generally referred to with the abbreviation PAS, are made by the Presiden... | The President makes appointments to certain positions within the federal government, either using authorities granted to the President alone or with the advice and consent of the Senate. There are some 151 full-time leadership positions on 34 federal regulatory and other collegial boards and commissions for which the S... |
crs_R45941 | crs_R45941_0 | Introduction
Budget Authority and Budgetary Resources
The Constitution reserves to Congress the power of the purse, exercised through legislation that grants federal agencies legal authority to enter into financial obligations that will result in outlays of federal funds.
When Congress enacts authority for agenci... | The Budget Control Act of 2011 (BCA; P.L. 112-25 ) included two parts: discretionary spending caps, plus a "Joint Committee process" to achieve an additional $1.2 trillion in budgetary savings over FY2013-FY2021.
For the initial tranche of savings, the BCA placed statutory limits on discretionary spending for each fisc... |
crs_R46251 | crs_R46251_0 | Jurisdiction of House Committees
When legislation is introduced in the House or received from the Senate, it is referred to one or more committees primarily on the basis of the jurisdictional statements contained in clause 1 of House Rule X. These statements define the policy subjects on which each standing committee... | When legislation is introduced in the House or received from the Senate, it is referred to one or more committees primarily on the basis of the jurisdictional statements contained in clause 1 of House Rule X. These statements define the policy subjects on which each standing committee may exercise jurisdiction on behal... |
crs_R46184 | crs_R46184_0 | U nder the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA or the Act), the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS ) and the National Marine Fisheries Service (together, the Services) determine which species to "list" as "endangered species " or "threatened species ," terms defined in the Act . Species, subspecies, and distinct popul... | Under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA or the Act; 16 U.S.C. §§ 1531-1544), the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) (together, the Services) determine which species to "list" as "endangered species" or "threatened species," terms defined in the Act. Species, su... |
crs_R46000 | crs_R46000_0 | Introduction
In 2018, approximately 38.1 million people, or 11.8% of the population, had incomes below the official definition of poverty in the United States. The poverty rate (the percentage that were in poverty) fell from 12.3% in 2017, while the number of persons in poverty declined from 39.6 million.
In this rep... | In 2018, approximately 38.1 million people, or 11.8% of the population, had incomes below the official definition of poverty in the United States. Poverty statistics provide a measure of economic hardship. The official definition of poverty for the United States uses dollar amounts called poverty thresholds that vary b... |
crs_R46182 | crs_R46182_0 | Introduction
As Congress continues to consider reforms to secure the Social Security program's solvency, a related discussion has e merged around targeted reforms for vulnerable groupsâwidows, low earners, caregivers, older beneficiaries, spouses, and never-married individualsâwho may deserve targeted benefit enh... | As Congress actively considers Social Security reform options, one area of interest is Social Security policy levers to aid vulnerable groupsâwidows, low earners, caregivers, older beneficiaries, spouses, and never-married individuals. In the context of widows, researchers and policymakers have raised concerns about ... |
crs_R41219 | crs_R41219_0 | Introduction
The United States and Russia signed a new strategic arms reduction treaty—known as New START—on April 8, 2010. This treaty replaced the 1991 Strategic Arms Reductions Treaty (START), which expired, after 15 years of implementation, on December 5, 2009. The U.S. Senate provided its advice and consent to r... | The United States and Russia signed the New START Treaty on April 8, 2010. After more than 20 hearings, the U.S. Senate gave its advice and consent to ratification on December 22, 2010, by a vote of 71-26. Both houses of the Russian parliament—the Duma and Federation Council—approved the treaty in late January 2011 and... |
crs_R45832 | crs_R45832_0 | Introduction
The federal government is the largest energy consumer in the United States. Within the federal government, the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) consumes more energy than any other agency. In FY2017, DOD consumed 707.9 trillion British thermal units (Btu) of energyâroughly 16 times that of the second la... | The U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) consumes more energy than any other federal agencyâ77% of the entire federal government's energy consumption. Energy management is integral to DOD operations. From running bases and training facilities to powering jets and ships, DOD relies on energy to maintain readiness and resi... |
crs_R46329 | crs_R46329_0 | Introduction1
Economic conditions have deteriorated rapidly as the spread of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has led policymakers to limit or close public institutions and business operations, increasing financial hardship for many Americans due to layoffs or time off work. Financial institutions, their regulator... | The Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act (CARES Act; H.R. 748 ) was signed into law as P.L. 116-136 on March 27, 2020, to assist those affected by the economic impact of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). This assistance is targeted to consumers, businesses, and the financial services sector. A key part... |
crs_R46214 | crs_R46214_0 | Introduction
The Congressional Research Service (CRS) regularly receives requests about spending on programs and activities that target low-income individuals and families for benefits and services. CRS has produced a series of reports that identify these programs and provides their spending amounts and recent spendi... | The Congressional Research Service (CRS) regularly receives requests about federal benefits and services targeted to low-income populations. This report is the latest update in a series of CRS reports that attempt to identify and provide information about federal spending targeted to this population. The report series ... |
crs_RL30378 | crs_RL30378_0 | Introduction
The 116 th Congress began with 57 African American Members, the highest number ever at the beginning of a Congress. After the death of an African American House Member in October 2019, the current 56 African American Members represent the following proportions of the entire Congress, and of the House and... | In total, 162 African Americans have served in Congress. This total includes
152 African Americans (146 Representatives and 6 Delegates) elected only to the House of Representatives; 9 African Americans elected or appointed only to the Senate; and 1 African American who has served in both chambers.
The first African Am... |
crs_R46353 | crs_R46353_0 | Introduction
The global pandemic of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is affecting communities around the world and throughout the United States, with case counts growing daily. Containment and mitigation efforts by federal, state, and local governments have been undertaken to flatten the curve âthat is, to curb ... | The legislative response to the global pandemic of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has included the enactment of laws to provide authorities and supplemental funding to prevent, prepare for, and respond to the pandemic. This report focuses on supplemental FY2020 discretionary appropriations provided to programs and... |
crs_R46109 | crs_R46109_0 | Introduction
Congress maintains an ongoing interest in the pace of U.S. innovation and technological advancement due to its influence on the economy, national security, public health, and other national goals. Historically, the federal government has played a significant role in supporting research and development (R... | Federal research and development (R&D) has played a significant role in strengthening the innovative capacity of the United States to achieve goals such as economic competitiveness, national security, improved healthcare, and protection of the environment. The results of federal R&D have led to scientific breakthroughs... |
crs_R40638 | crs_R40638_0 | The Congressional Role
Over the years, the federal intergovernmental system of governance has been characterized by many scholars as becoming increasingly centralized and coercive, with the federal government using federal grants, federal mandates, and federal preemption of state authority to expand its influence in ... | The federal government is expected to provide state and local governments about $750 billion in federal grants in FY2019, funding a wide range of public policies, such as health care, transportation, income security, education, job training, social services, community development, and environmental protection. Federal ... |
crs_R46142 | crs_R46142_0 | U nder long-standing Supreme Court precedent, Congress has "plenary power" to regulate immigration. This power, according to the Court, is the most complete that Congress possesses. It allows Congress to make laws concerning non-U.S. nationals (aliens) that would be unconstitutional if applied to citizens. And while th... | Supreme Court precedent establishes that inherent principles of sovereignty give Congress "plenary power" to regulate immigration. The core of this powerâthe part that has proven most impervious to judicial reviewâis the authority to determine which non-U.S. nationals (aliens) may enter the United States and under ... |
crs_R46196 | crs_R46196_0 | How Does Solar Energy Work?1
The energy in sunlight can be converted into electricity in either of two ways: by using solar photovoltaic cells or by concentrating solar energy to produce heat for electricity generation. Solar energy can also be used to heat water for direct use, but this report focuses only on electr... | Use of solar energy for electricity generation is growing in the United States and globally. In the United States, solar energy overall accounted for 2.2% of total electricity generation in 2018, up from 0.7% in 2014.
This report addresses a dozen frequently asked questions that may be of interest to lawmakers as the g... |
crs_R46326 | crs_R46326_0 | Introduction
On March 13, 2020, President Donald J. Trump declared an emergency under Section 501(b) of the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (Stafford Act; 42 U.S.C. §5191(b)) in response to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The President's emergency declaration authorized assistanc... | On March 13, 2020, President Donald J. Trump declared an emergency under Section 501(b) of the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (Stafford Act; 42 U.S.C. §§5121 et seq.) in response to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The declaration authorized assistance to all U.S. states, territor... |
crs_R45986 | crs_R45986_0 | Introduction
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a large, diverse group of fluorinated compounds that have been used in numerous commercial, industrial, and U.S. military applications. Among other uses, PFAS have been used in fire-fighting foams and in the processing and manufacture of many commercial prod... | Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of fluorinated compounds that have been used for various purposes, including numerous commercial, industrial, and U.S. military applications. Some common uses include food packaging, nonstick coatings, and stain-resistance fabrics, and as an ingredient in fire supp... |
crs_R46180 | crs_R46180_0 | Introduction
This report analyzes the effects of historic wet conditions during the 2019 growing season on major U.S. field crops, primarily corn and soybeans. These effects include record acres prevented from being planted, widespread delays in planting and harvesting of the corn and soybean crops, large crop insura... | U.S. agricultural production got off to a late start in 2019 due to prolonged cool, wet springtime conditions throughout the major growing regions, particularly in states across the northern plains and eastern Corn Belt. Saturated soils prevented many farmers from planting their intended cropsâsuch acres are referred... |
crs_R46003 | crs_R46003_0 | Introduction
A majority of the population of the United States has private health insurance coverage (i.e., coverage not available through a public program, such as Medicare or Medicaid). In 2017, about 55% of the U.S. population had private group coverage (e.g., a health plan offered by an employer) and 13.5% had pr... | Federal health insurance requirements generally apply to health plans sold in the private health insurance market in the United States (i.e., individual coverage, small- and large-group coverage, and self-insured plans). However, not all private health coverage arrangements comply with these requirements. This includes... |
crs_R46049 | crs_R46049_0 | Introduction
Space weather refers to the dynamic conditions in Earth's outer space environment. This includes conditions on the Sun, in the solar wind, and in Earth's upper atmosphere. Space weather phenomena include
solar flares or periodic intense bursts of radiation from the sun caused by the sudden release of ma... | Space weather refers to conditions on the sun, in the solar wind, and within the extreme reaches of Earth's upper atmosphere. In certain circumstances, space weather may pose hazards to space-borne and ground-based critical infrastructure systems and assets that are vulnerable to geomagnetically induced current, electr... |
crs_R45843 | crs_R45843_0 | E ach term, the Supreme Court typically hears arguments in one or more cases concerning the rights and status of Indian tribes and their members. Prominent issues addressed by the Sup reme Court in recent terms have included (1) tribes' civil jurisdiction over nonmembers, (2) the scope of tribal sovereign immunity, and... | Each term, the Supreme Court typically hears arguments in one or more cases concerning the rights and status of Indian tribes and their members. Prominent issues addressed by the Supreme Court in recent terms have included (1) tribes' civil jurisdiction over nonmembers, (2) the scope of tribal sovereign immunity, and (... |
crs_R45870 | crs_R45870_0 | Background
Congress uses an annual appropriations process to fund the routine activities of most federal agencies. This process anticipates the enactment of 12 regular appropriations bills to fund these activities before the beginning of the fiscal year. When this process has not been completed before the start of th... | This report provides a basic overview of interim continuing resolutions (CRs) and highlights some specific issues pertaining to operations of the Department of Defense (DOD) under a CR.
DOD has started the fiscal year under a CR for 13 of the past 18 years (FY2002-FY2019) and every year since FY2010 excluding FY2019. T... |
crs_R46282 | crs_R46282_0 | Introduction
The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) Caregiver Support Program was born from a new challenge facing veterans returning from recent conflicts. The conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq (Operation Enduring Freedom, Operation Iraqi Freedom, and subsequent operations, hereinafter referred to as OEF/OIF ) led ... | The conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan have presented a new challenge for the United States as servicemembers returned from combat with serious injuries that may have been fatal in previous conflicts. These servicemembers require ongoing personal care services, which are often provided by family members and loved ones. ... |
crs_R45755 | crs_R45755_0 | FY2020 Consideration: Overview of Actions
The first section of this report provides an overview of the consideration of FY2020 legislative branch appropriations, with subsections covering each action to date, including
the initial submission of the request on March 11, 2019; hearings held by the House Legislative Bra... | The legislative branch appropriations bill provides funding for the Senate; House of Representatives; Joint Items; Capitol Police; Office of Congressional Workplace Rights (formerly Office of Compliance); Congressional Budget Office (CBO); Architect of the Capitol (AOC); Library of Congress (LOC), including the Congres... |
crs_RL32048 | crs_RL32048_0 | Political History
Iran is a country of nearly 80 million people, located in the heart of the Persian Gulf region. The United States was an ally of the late Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi ("the Shah"), who ruled from 1941 until his ouster in February 1979. The Shah assumed the throne when Britain and Russia force... | U.S.-Iran relations have been mostly adversarial—but with varying degrees of intensity—since the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran. Since then, U.S. officials have consistently identified Iran's support for militant Middle East groups as a significant threat to U.S. interests and allies, and Iran's nuclear program took p... |
crs_R45913 | crs_R45913_0 | Introduction
Legislative proposals have been introduced since the 105 th Congress to create a national electricity portfolio standard that would require electric utilities to procure a certain share of the electricity they sell from specified sources. Twenty-nine states, three U.S. territories, and the District of Co... | Electricity portfolio standards, such as renewable portfolio standards and clean energy standards, are policies aimed at changing the energy sources used to generate electricity. Supporters identify multiple policy goals, including greenhouse gas reduction, technology inno vation, and job creation. Twenty-nine states, ... |
crs_R45878 | crs_R45878_0 | Introduction
Small businesses are owned by and employ a wide variety of entrepreneursâskilled trade technicians, medical professionals, financial consultants, technology innovators, and restaurateurs, among many others. As do large corporations, small businesses rely on loans to purchase inventory, to cover cash fl... | Small businesses are owned by and employ a wide variety of entrepreneursâskilled trade technicians, medical professionals, financial consultants, technology innovators, and restaurateurs, among many others. As do large corporations, small businesses rely on credit to purchase inventory, to cover cash flow shortages t... |
crs_R46111 | crs_R46111_0 | Introduction
Medicaid is a joint federal-state program that finances the delivery of primary and acute medical services, as well as long-term services and supports (LTSS), to a diverse low-income population. This population includes children, pregnant women, adults, individuals with disabilities, and those aged 65 an... | Medicaid is a joint federal-state program that finances the delivery of primary and acute medical services, as well as long-term services and supports (LTSS), to a diverse low-income population. In general, individuals qualify for Medicaid coverage by meeting the requirements of a specific eligibility pathway. An eligi... |
crs_R46175 | crs_R46175_0 | Overview
The Republic of Kosovo declared independence from Serbia in 2008, nearly a decade after the end of a brief but lethal conflict between Serbian forces and a Kosovo Albanian insurgency led by the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA). Since 2008, Kosovo has been recognized by more than 100 countries. The United States ... | Kosovo, a country in the Western Balkans with a predominantly Albanian-speaking population, declared independence from Serbia in 2008, less than a decade after a brief but lethal war. It has since been recognized by about 100 countries. The United States and most European Union (EU) member states recognize Kosovo. Serb... |
crs_R46368 | crs_R46368_0 | Introduction
This report is intended to serve as a primer on U.S. foreign assistance to sub-Saharan Africa ("Africa") to help inform Congress' authorization, appropriation, and oversight of U.S. foreign aid for the region. It focuses primarily on assistance administered by the State Department and U.S. Agency for Int... | Overview. Congress authorizes, appropriates, and oversees U.S. assistance to sub-Saharan Africa ("Africa"), which received over a quarter of U.S. aid obligated in FY2018. Annual State Department- and U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)-administered assistance to Africa increased more than five-fold over t... |
crs_R45982 | crs_R45982_0 | Introduction
Congress uses an annual appropriations process to fund discretionary spending, which supports the projects and activities of most federal government agencies. This process anticipates the enactment of 12 regular appropriations bills each fiscal year. If regular appropriations are not enacted prior to the... | This report provides an analysis of the continuing appropriations provisions for FY2020 included in Division A (Continuing Appropriations Act, 2020) of H.R. 4378 . The legislation also included a separate Division B (Health and Human Services Extenders and Other Matters), which extended multiple federal health care pro... |
crs_RL34499 | crs_RL34499_0 | Y oung people who have spent time in foster care as teenagers often face challenges during the transition to adulthood. Compared to their counterparts in the general population, these youth fare poorly in education, employment, and other outcomes. The federal government recognizes that foster youth may ultimately retur... | While many young people have access to emotional and financial support systems throughout their early adult years, older youth in foster care and those who are emancipated from care often lack such security. This can be an obstacle for them in developing independent living skills and building supports that might ease t... |
crs_R45903 | crs_R45903_0 | Introduction
Since early 2018, certain foreign nations have targeted U.S. food and agricultural products with retaliatory tariffs (for more on tariffs, see Box 1 ) in response to U.S. Section 232 tariffs on steel and aluminum imports and U.S. Section 301 tariffs levied on imports from China. The first U.S. trade acti... | Certain foreign nations have targeted U.S. food and agricultural products with retaliatory tariffs since early 2018 in response to U.S. Section 232 tariffs on steel and aluminum imports and Section 301 tariffs levied on U.S. imports from China. Retaliatory tariffs have made imports of U.S. agricultural products relativ... |
crs_R45753 | crs_R45753_0 | Introduction
The United States has more nuclear power reactors than any country worldwide. The 98 operable nuclear generating units provide approximately 20% of the electrical generation in the United States. Uranium is the fundamental element used to fuel nuclear power production. The front-end of the nuclear fuel c... | Nuclear power contributes roughly 20% of the electrical generation in the United States. Uranium is the fundamental element in fuel used for nuclear power production. The nuclear fuel cycle is the cradle-to-grave life cycle from extracting uranium ore from the earth through power production in a nuclear reactor to perm... |
crs_R46095 | crs_R46095_0 | Introduction
Congress is currently considering legislation for a long-term reauthorization of the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). The last long-term reauthorization of the NFIP was by the Biggert-Waters Flood Insurance Reform Act of 2012 (hereinafter BW-12), from July 6, 2012, to September 30, 2017. Congress... | The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) was established by the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968 (NFIA; 42 U.S.C. §4001 et seq.), and was most recently reauthorized until September 30, 2020 ( P.L. 116-93 ). The general purpose of the NFIP is both to offer primary flood insurance to properties with significant f... |
crs_R46204 | crs_R46204_0 | Introduction
Multiple decades of scientific studies find that human activities induce global climate change by emitting greenhouse gases (GHGs) from fuel combustion, certain industries, deforestation, and other activities. Scientists researched and assessed the science of GHG-induced climate change for more than 150 ... | The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has been the principle forum for cooperation among nations on greenhouse gas (GHG)-induced climate change since its adoption in 1992. Its objective is "to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that will prevent dangerous h... |
crs_R46176 | crs_R46176_0 | Introduction and Legislative Context
The Higher Education Act of 1965 (HEA; P.L. 89-329, as amended) authorizes programs and activities to provide support to individuals who are pursuing postsecondary education and to institutions of higher education (IHEs). The HEA was last comprehensively reauthorized by the Higher... | The Higher Education Act of 1965 (HEA; P.L. 89-329, as amended) authorizes programs and activities to provide support to individuals who are pursuing a postsecondary education and to institutions of higher education (IHEs). During the 116 th Congress, the House Committee on Education and Labor marked up and ordered to ... |
crs_R45971 | crs_R45971_0 | Introduction
The federal individual income tax is structured so that the poor owe little or no income tax (although they may pay other federal taxes, like payroll taxes as well as state and local taxes). In addition, the federal income tax increases the disposable income of many poor families via refundable tax credi... | The federal individual income tax is structured so that the poor owe little or no income tax. In addition, the federal individual income tax (hereinafter referred to simply as the income tax) increases the disposable income of many poor families via refundable tax creditsâprimarily the earned income tax credit (EITC)... |
crs_R46194 | crs_R46194_0 | Introduction
Social Security provides insured workers and their eligible family members with a measure of protection against the loss of income due to the worker's retirement, disability, or death. The amount of the monthly benefit payable to workers and their family members is based on the worker's career-average ea... | Social Security is a work-based federal insurance program that provides income support to workers and their eligible family members in the event of a worker's retirement, disability, or death. About 6% of workers in paid employment or self-employment in 2019 were not covered by Social Security. A quarter of state and l... |
crs_R46067 | crs_R46067_0 | Overview
The Chief Financial Officers Act of 1990 (CFO Act) requires annual financial audits of federal agencies' financial statements to "assure the issuance of reliable financial information ... deter fraud, waste and abuse of Government resources ... [and assist] the executive branch ... and Congress in the financ... | The Chief Financial Officers Act of 1990 (CFO Act, P.L. 101-576 ) requires annual financial audits of federal agencies' financial statements to "assure the issuance of reliable financial information ... deter fraud, waste and abuse of Government resources ... [and assist] the executive branch ... and Congress in the fi... |
crs_R46347 | crs_R46347_0 | Introduction
Since the novel coronavirusâdesignated Coronavirus Disease 2019, or COVID-19âfirst appeared in the United States in mid-January, it has contributed to substantial economic upheaval across the U.S. economy, including the agricultural sector.
In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Congress has passed a... | As COVID-19 has spread throughout the United States, it has reduced domestic economic activity and disrupted domestic and international supply chains for goods and services, including food and agricultural products. These disruptions have produced an immediate and very strong demand shock on the U.S. food supply chain ... |
crs_R45973 | crs_R45973_0 | Background
Family reunification and the admission of immigrants with needed skills are two of the major principles underlying U.S. immigration policy. As a result, current law weights the allocation of immigrant visas heavily toward individuals with close family in the United States and, to a lesser extent, toward in... | The purpose of the diversity immigrant visa program (DV program, sometimes called "the green card lottery" or "the visa lottery") is, as the name suggests, to foster legal immigration from countries other than the major sending countries of current immigrants to the United States. Current law weights the allocation of ... |
crs_R45996 | crs_R45996_0 | Introduction
This report focuses on selected precision-guided munitions (PGMs) fielded by the Air Force, Army, Navy, and Marine Corps. Over the years, the U.S. military has relied on PGMs to execute ground, air, and naval military operations. PGMs have become ubiquitous in U.S. military operations; funding for these ... | Over the years, the U.S. military has become reliant on precision-guided munitions (PGMs) to execute military operations. PGMs are used in ground, air, and naval operations. Defined by the Department of Defense (DOD) as "[a] guided weapon intended to destroy a point target and minimize collateral damage," PGMs can incl... |
crs_R45757 | crs_R45757_0 | Introduction
This report provides background information and potential issues for Congress for three types of large unmanned vehicles (UVs) that the Navy wants to develop and procure in FY2021 and beyond:
Large Unmanned Surface Vehicles (LUSVs); Medium Unmanned Surface Vehicles (MUSVs); and Extra-large Unmanned Under... | The Navy in FY2021 and beyond wants to develop and procure three types of large unmanned vehicles (UVs). These large UVs are called Large Unmanned Surface Vehicles (LUSVs), Medium Unmanned Surface Vehicles (MUSVs), and Extra-Large Unmanned Undersea Vehicles (XLUUVs). The Navy is requesting $579.9 million in FY2021 rese... |
crs_R41184 | crs_R41184_0 | Small Business Administration Loan Guaranty Programs
The Small Business Administration (SBA) administers programs to support small businesses, including several loan guaranty programs designed to encourage lenders to provide loans to small businesses "that might not otherwise obtain financing on reasonable terms and ... | The Small Business Administration (SBA) administers programs to support small businesses, including several loan guaranty programs designed to encourage lenders to provide loans to small businesses "that might not otherwise obtain financing on reasonable terms and conditions." The SBA's 504 Certified Development Compan... |
crs_R46240 | crs_R46240_0 | Introduction
Evolution of the Framework for Budgetary Decisionmaking
Under the U.S. Constitution, Congress exercises the "power of the purse." This power is expressed through the application of several provisions. The power to lay and collect taxes and the power to borrow are among the enumerated powers of Congres... | Under the U.S. Constitution, Congress exercises the "power of the purse." This power is expressed through the application of several provisions. The power to lay and collect taxes and the power to borrow are among the enumerated powers of Congress under Article I, Section 8. Furthermore, Section 9 of Article I states t... |
crs_R46193 | crs_R46193_0 | Introduction
The federal tax treatment of the family is affected by several major structural elements of the income tax code applicable to all taxpayers: deductions such as the standard deduction, personal exemptions, and itemized deductions; the marginal tax rate structure (which varies by filing status); the earned... | The federal income tax treatment of the family is affected by several major structural elements applicable to all taxpayers: amounts deductible from taxable income through standard deductions, personal exemptions, and itemized deductions; the rate structure (which varies across taxpayer types); the earned income credit... |
crs_R45196 | crs_R45196_0 | Introduction
The present structure of congressional oversight of the Intelligence Community (IC) largely resulted from investigations by two congressional committees in the 1970sâin the Senate, chaired by Idaho Senator Frank Church, and in the House, chaired by Representative Otis Pikeâthat suggested a need for p... | Since the mid-1970s, Congress's oversight of the Intelligence Community (IC) has been a fundamental component of ensuring that the IC's seventeen diverse elements are held accountable for the effectiveness of their programs supporting United States national security. This has been especially true for covert action and ... |
crs_R46291 | crs_R46291_0 | Introduction
The United States currently has a population of almost 1 million lawfully present foreign workers and accompanying family members who have been approved for, but have not yet received, a green card or lawful permanent resident (LPR) status. This queue of prospective immigrantsâthe employment-based back... | Currently in the United States, almost 1 million lawfully present foreign workers and their family members have been approved for, and are waiting to receive, lawful permanent resident (LPR) status (a green card ). This employment-based backlog is projected to double by FY2030. It exists because the number of foreign w... |
crs_R45911 | crs_R45911_0 | Introduction
Household debt among older Americansâincluding mainly residential debt, auto loans, student loans, and credit cardsâhas grown substantially from 1989 to 2016. The proportion of households headed by individuals aged 65 and older (hereinafter referred to as elderly households ) who held any debt increa... | In the past three decades, debt has grown substantially among older Americans. The increase in debt among older Americans has raised concerns about financial security for people near or during retirement, not only because Americans aged 65 and older represent a large and growing proportion of the U.S. population, but a... |
crs_R46200 | crs_R46200_0 | Introduction: Recent Growth Trends
Economic growth (the percentage change in real gross domestic product [GDP]) is a core measure of economic progress and well-being. Over time, the rates of job growth and average income growth closely track economic growth.
A notable feature of the current economic expansion, which... | The current economic expansion is the longest in recorded U.S. history, but it has not been characterized by rapid economic growth. From the beginning of the current economic expansion in the third quarter of 2009 to the second quarter of 2017, this expansion had the lowest economic growth rate of any expansion since W... |
crs_R46360 | crs_R46360_0 | Introduction
Credit unions are nonprofit depository financial institutions that are owned and operated entirely by their members. In other words, na tural person credit unions, also known as retail credit unions, are financial cooperatives that return profits to their memberships. For this reason, member deposits are... | Credit unions make loans to their members, other credit unions, and corporate credit unions that provide financial services to individual credit unions. Historically, credit unions have faced statutory restrictions on their lending activities, including restricting lending activities to their members. Other lending res... |
crs_98-988 | crs_98-988_0 | Introduction
The rules and practices of the House of Representatives governing quorums and voting on the floor are closely intertwined, and derive from two provisions of Article I of the Constitution. Regarding quorums, clause 1 of Section 5 states in part that "a Majority of each [House] shall constitute a Quorum to... | The Constitution requires that a quorum, defined as a majority of the House, be present on the floor when the House transacts business. The House, however, always presumes that a quorum is present unless and until its absence is demonstrated conclusively. The rules of the House strictly limit the occasions on which a R... |
crs_R45877 | crs_R45877_0 | Overview
The final status of the former princedom of Kashmir has remained unsettled since 1947. On August 5, 2019, the Indian government announced that it was formally ending the "special status" of its Muslim-majority Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) state, the two-thirds of Kashmir under New Delhi's control, specifically by... | In early August 2019, the Indian government announced that it would make major changes to the legal status of its Muslim-majority Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) state, specifically by repealing Article 370 of the Indian Constitution and Section 35A of its Annex, which provided the state "special" autonomous status, and by bif... |
crs_R46117 | crs_R46117_0 | Introduction
The Teacher Education Assistance for College and Higher Education (TEACH) Grant program provides grants to students who are completing or plan to complete the coursework required to begin a career in teaching. As a condition for receiving a TEACH Grant, a recipient must teach for at least four years in a... | The Teacher Education Assistance for College and Higher Education (TEACH) Grant program is intended to encourage individuals to enter the teaching profession by providing recipients with grants of up to $4,000 annually to pursue coursework that leads to a certification in teaching. Congress authorized the TEACH Grant p... |
crs_R45852 | crs_R45852_0 | Introduction
Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a manufacturing process used to create real-world parts from digital 3D design files. This process is of particular relevance to Congress because of its use in federal programs; economic potential; continued applications in scientific research and development; roles in ... | Three-dimensional (3D) printing, also known as additive manufacturing, is a highly flexible manufacturing process that has been used in product development and production for the past 30 years. Greater capabilities, lower prices, and an expanded range of manufacturing materials have vastly expanded adoption of 3D print... |
crs_R46260 | crs_R46260_0 | Introduction to the Payments in Lieu of Taxes (PILT) Program
The Payments in Lieu of Taxes (PILT) program provides compensation for certain entitlement lands that are exempt from state and local taxes. These lands include selected federal lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management, the National Park Service,... | The Payments in Lieu of Taxes (PILT; 31 U.S.C. §§6901-6907) program provides compensation for certain tax-exempt federal lands, known as entitlement lands . PILT payments are made annually to units of general local governmentâtypically countiesâthat contain entitlement lands. PILT was first enacted in 1976 () and... |
crs_R46226 | crs_R46226_0 | Introduction
The United States and Liberia have maintained diplomatic relations for more than 150 years. Close ties endured in the 20th centuryâunderpinned by U.S. investment in the rubber sector and robust political, development, and defense cooperation during the Cold Warâbut they came under strain during Liber... | Introduction . Congress has shown enduring interest in Liberia, a small coastal West African country of about 4.8 million people. The United States played a key role in the country's founding, and bilateral ties generally have remained close despite significant strains during Liberia's two civil wars (1989-1997 and 199... |
crs_R46147 | crs_R46147_0 | C ompanies that provide cable television service (cable operators) are subject to regulation at the federal, state, and local levels. Under the Communications Act of 1934 (Communications Act), as amended, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC or Commission) exercises regulatory authority over various operational a... | Companies that provide cable television service (cable operators) are subject to regulation at the federal, state, and local levels. Under the Communications Act of 1934, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC or Commission) exercises regulatory authority over various operational aspects of cable service. At the sa... |
crs_R46311 | crs_R46311_0 | Introduction
Robocalls are the top complaint received by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and a consistent congressional concern. A robocall, also known as "voice broadcasting," is any telephone call that delivers a pre-recorded message using an automatic (computerized) telephone dialing system, more commo... | The number of robocalls continues to grow in the United States, and the figures tend to fluctuate based on the introduction of new government and industry attempts to stop them and robocallers' changing tactics to thwart those attempts (see Figure ). In 2019, U.S. consumers received 58.5 billion robocalls, an increase ... |
crs_R46366 | crs_R46366_0 | Introduction
A pension is a voluntary benefit offered by employers to assist employees in preparing for retirement. Pension plans may be classified according to whether they are (1) defined benefit (DB) or defined contribution (DC) plans and (2) sponsored by one or more than one employer. In DB plans, participants ty... | To protect the interests of participants and beneficiaries in pension plans, Congress enacted the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA; P.L. 93-406 ). ERISA specified funding rules for single-employer defined benefit (DB) pension plans, among other provisions. Single-employer DB pension plans are spon... |
crs_R45985 | crs_R45985_0 | Introduction
Fully autonomous vehicles, which would carry out many or all of their functions without the intervention of a driver, may someday bring sweeping social and economic changes and "lead to breakthrough gains in transportation safety." Motor vehicle crashes caused an estimated 36,560 fatalities in 2018; a st... | Autonomous vehicles have the potential to bring major improvements in highway safety. Motor vehicle crashes caused an estimated 36,560 fatalities in 2018; a study by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has shown that 94% of crashes are due to human errors. For this and other reasons, federal over... |
crs_RL31675 | crs_RL31675_0 | Congressional Notification Requirements
This report reviews the process and procedures that currently apply to congressional consideration of foreign arms sales proposed by the President. This includes consideration of proposals to sell major defense equipment, defense articles and services, or the retransfer to othe... | This report reviews the process and procedures that currently apply to congressional consideration of foreign arms sales proposed by the President. This includes consideration of proposals to sell major defense equipment, defense articles and services, or the retransfer to third-party states of such military items. Und... |
crs_R45864 | crs_R45864_0 | T ax policy is one of several policy tools that can be used for disaster relief. At various points in time, Congress has passed legislation to provide tax relief and to support recovery following disaster incidents. Permanent tax relief provisions may take effect following qualifying disaster events. Targeted, temporar... | The Internal Revenue Code (IRC) contains a number of provisions intended to provide disaster relief. Following certain disasters, Congress has passed legislation with temporary and targeted tax relief policies. At other times, Congress has passed legislation providing tax relief to those affected by all federally decla... |
crs_R46316 | crs_R46316_0 | Introduction
The global pandemic of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is affecting communities around the world and throughout the United States, with case counts growing daily. Containment and mitigation efforts by federal, state, and local governments have been undertaken to "flatten the curve"âthat is, to slow... | The global pandemic of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) is affecting communities around the world and throughout the United States, with case counts growing daily. Containment and mitigation efforts by federal, state, and local governments have been undertaken to "flatten the curve"âthat is, to slow widespread tra... |
crs_R45791 | crs_R45791_0 | Introduction
The poverty rate among Americans aged 65 and older has declined by almost 70% in the past five decades. In 2017, 4.7 million people aged 65 and older had income below the federal poverty thresholds. The poverty rate (i.e., the percentage who were in poverty) among the aged fell from 28.5% in 1966 to 9.2%... | The poverty rate among Americans aged 65 and older has declined by almost 70% in the past five decades. In 2017, approximately 9.2% of Americans aged 65 and older had income below the poverty thresholds. However, the number of aged poor has increased since the mid-1970s as the total number of elderly has grown. In 2017... |
crs_R40957 | crs_R40957_0 | An Overview of UMRA, Its Origins, and Provisions
Overview
The Unfunded Mandates Reform Act of 1995 (UMRA) established requirements for enacting certain legislation and issuing certain regulations that would impose enforceable duties on state, local, or tribal governments or on the private sector. UMRA refers to ob... | The Unfunded Mandates Reform Act of 1995 (UMRA) culminated years of effort by state and local government officials and business interests to control, if not eliminate, the imposition of unfunded intergovernmental and private-sector federal mandates. Advocates argued the statute was needed to forestall federal legislati... |
crs_R46277 | crs_R46277_0 | Introduction
Serious disruptions for certain industries caused by the COVID-19 (coronavirus) pandemic have led to calls for federal government assistance to affected industries. Although out of the ordinary, this would not be the first occasion on which the federal government has provided aid to troubled or financial... | Serious disruptions for certain industries caused by the COVID-19 (coronavirus) pandemic have led to calls for federal government assistance to affected industries. Direct federal financial assistance to the private sector on a large scale is unusual, except for geographically narrow assistance following natural disast... |
crs_R45897 | crs_R45897_0 | Introduction
On July 2, 1862, with the passage of the first Morrill Act (12 Stat. 503; 7 U.S.C. 301 et seq.), the United States began a then novel policy of providing federal support for post-secondary education, specifically for agriculture and the mechanical arts. The national system of land-grant colleges and univ... | With the passage of the first Morrill Act in 1862, the United States began a then-novel policy of providing federal support for post-secondary education, focused on agriculture and the mechanical arts. The national system of land-grant colleges and universities that has developed since then is recognized for its breadt... |
crs_R41510 | crs_R41510_0 | T he House pay-as-you-go (PAYGO) rule is generally intended to discourage or prevent Congress from taking certain legislative action that would increase the deficit. It prohibits the consideration of direct spending and revenue legislation that is projected to increase the deficit over either a 6-year or an 11-year per... | The House pay-as-you-go (PAYGO) rule is generally intended to discourage or prevent Congress from taking certain legislative action that would increase the deficit. The rule requires that legislation affecting direct spending or revenues not increase the projected deficit over either a 6-year or an 11-year period. In e... |
crs_R46341 | crs_R46341_0 | Introduction
The 116 th Congress continues its interest in U.S. research and development (R&D) and in evaluating support for federal R&D activities. The federal government has played an important role in supporting R&D efforts that have led to scientific breakthroughs and new technologies, from jet aircraft and the i... | President Trump's budget request for FY2021 includes approximately $142.2 billion for research and development (R&D) for FY2021, $13.8 billion (8.8%) below the FY2020 enacted level of $156.0 billion. In constant FY2020 dollars, the President's FY2021 R&D request would result in a decrease of $16.6 billion (10.6%) from ... |
crs_R45992 | crs_R45992_0 | T he Constitution contains three provisions that mention the term "emolument":
1. The Foreign Emoluments Clause . Article I, Section 9, Clause 8 provides that "no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under [the United States], shall, without the Consent of Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or... | Recent litigation involving the President has raised legal issues concerning formerly obscure constitutional provisions that prohibit the acceptance or receipt of "emoluments" in certain circumstances. First, the Foreign Emoluments Clause (Article I, Section 9, Clause 8 of the Constitution) prohibits any person "holdin... |
crs_R46185 | crs_R46185_0 | Introduction
Under the terms of the U.S. Constitution, it is the responsibility of the House to impeach (meaning, formally accuse) a federal officer of high crimes and misdemeanors, and the responsibility of the Senate to try and then possibly convict that officer. The Senate therefore does not initiate impeachment p... | After the House impeaches a federal officer, the Senate conducts a trial to determine if the individual should be removed from office. The Senate has a set of rules specific to the conduct of an impeachment trial, most of which originated in the early 19 th century.
The impeachment rules lay out specific steps that the... |
crs_R45749 | crs_R45749_0 | Overview
The remnants of the Vietnam War (1963-1975) and other regional conflicts have left mainland Southeast Asia as a region heavily contaminated with unexploded ordnance, or UXO. More than 45 years after the United States ceased its extensive bombing of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam, hundreds of civilians are still... | More than 40 years after the end of the Vietnam War, unexploded ordnance (UXO) from numerous conflicts, but primarily dropped by U.S. forces over Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam during the Vietnam War, continues to cause casualties in those countries. Over the past 25 years, the United States has provided a total of over $... |
crs_R45998 | crs_R45998_0 | Introduction
Over the past couple of decades, national attention to "emerging contaminants" or "contaminants of emerging concern" (CECs) in surface water and groundwater has been increasing. Although there is no federal statutor y or regulatory definition of CECs, generally, the term refers to unregulated substances ... | Recent decades have seen increased national attention to the presence of "emerging contaminants" or "contaminants of emerging concern" (CECs) in surface water and groundwater. Although there is no federal statutory or regulatory definition of CECs, generally, the term refers to unregulated substances detected in the en... |
crs_R46195 | crs_R46195_0 | T he Gulf of Mexico Energy Security Act of 2006 (GOMESA) altered federal offshore oil and gas leasing policy in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico. The law imposed an oil and gas leasing moratorium through June 30, 2022, throughout most of the Eastern Gulf of Mexico (off the Florida coast) and a small part of the Central Gulf. In... | Almost all U.S. offshore oil and gas production occurs in the Gulf of Mexico. Federal oil and gas leasing in the Gulf is governed primarily by two lawsâthe Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA; 43 U.S.C. §§1331-1356b), which broadly controls oil and gas leasing throughout the U.S. outer continental shelf (OCS);... |
crs_R46338 | crs_R46338_0 | T he constitutional system of checks and balances and the separation of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches is a cornerstone of the American system of government. By separating and checking powers in this way, the Framers hoped to prevent any person or group from seizing control over the nati... | The Framers checked congressional legislative power by providing the President the power to veto legislation and, in turn, checked the President's veto power by providing Congress a means to override that veto. Over time, it has become clear that the presidential veto power, even if not formally exercised, provides the... |
crs_R46258 | crs_R46258_0 | Regional Political and Economic Environment
With 33 countriesâranging from the Caribbean nation of St. Kitts and Nevis, one of the world's smallest states, to the South American giant of Brazil, the world's fifth-largest countryâthe Latin American and Caribbean region has made significant advances over the past f... | The United States maintains strong linkages with neighboring Latin America and the Caribbean based on geographic proximity and diverse U.S. interests, including economic, political, and security concerns. The United States is a major trading partner and source of foreign investment for many countries in the region, wit... |
crs_R45884 | crs_R45884_0 | T he Supreme Court term that began on October 1, 2018, was a term of transition, with the Court issuing a number of rulings that, at times, signaled but did not fully adopt broader transformations in its jurisprudence. The term followed the retirement of Justice Kennedy, who was a critical vote on the Court for much of... | The Supreme Court term that began on October 1, 2018, was a term of transition, with the Court issuing a number of rulings that, at times, suggested but did not fully adopt broader transformations in its jurisprudence. The term followed the retirement of Justice Kennedy, who was a critical vote on the Court for much of... |
crs_R46361 | crs_R46361_0 | Introduction
This report provides an overview of the FY2020 Defense Appropriations Act ( P.L. 116-93 ) and serves as an access portal to other CRS products providing additional context, detail, and analysis relevant to particular aspects of that legislation.
The following Overview tracks the legislative history of th... | The FY2020 Defense Appropriations Act, enacted as Division A of H.R. 1158 , the Consolidated Appropriations Act for FY2020, provides a total of $687.8 billion in discretionary budget authority, all to fund activities of the Department of Defense (DOD), except for $1.1 billion for certain activities of the intelligence ... |
crs_R46016 | crs_R46016_0 | Introduction
The current trajectory of democracy around the world is an issue of interest for Congress, which has contributed to U.S. democracy promotion objectives overseas. For decades, U.S. policy has broadly reflected the view that the spread of democracy around the world is favorable to U.S. interests. This repo... | This report provides a regional snapshot of the political climate in Latin America and the Caribbean, based on the U.S. Department of State's description of each country's political system and selected nongovernmental indices that measure democracy trends worldwide. Using tables and graphs to illustrate regional trends... |
crs_R45906 | crs_R45906_0 | Introduction
Congress annually considers 12 regular appropriations bills for the fiscal year that begins on October 1. These billsâtogether with other legislative measures providing appropriations known as supplemental and continuing appropriations (also referred to as continuing resolutions or CRs)âprovide annua... | Congress annually considers 12 regular appropriations measures to provide discretionary funding for federal government activities and operations. For FY2019, appropriations actions spanned two Congresses, between which there was a change in the majority party in the House.
The process of drafting, considering, and enac... |
crs_R45862 | crs_R45862_0 | Introduction
The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA; P.L. 114-95 ) amended the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) to add a new Part E to Title I entitled "Flexibility for Equitable Per-Pupil Spending." Under Title I-E, the Secretary of Education (the Secretary) has the authority to provide local educational ... | The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA; P.L. 114-95 ) amended the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) to add the "Flexibility for Equitable Per-Pupil Spending" authority as Title I, Part E. Under Title I-E, the Secretary of Education (the Secretary) has authority to provide local educational agencies (LEAs) wit... |
crs_R45951 | crs_R45951_0 | Introduction
Every 10 years, the U.S. population is counted through the national census, and districts for the U.S. House of Representatives are readjusted to reflect the new population level and its distribution across states through the federal apportionment and state redistricting processes. The requirement to hav... | The census, apportionment, and redistricting are interrelated activities that affect representation in the U.S. House of Representatives. Congressional apportionment (or reapportionment) is the process of dividing seats for the House among the 50 states following the decennial census. Redistricting refers to the proces... |
crs_R45260 | crs_R45260_0 | Overview
Ghana, a country of 28 million people on West Africa's Atlantic coast, faces diverse development challenges, but has built a robust democracy notable for consistent peaceful turnovers of executive power since a transition to multiparty rule in the early 1990s. The country also has made progress toward many o... | Ghana, a country of 28 million people on West Africa's Atlantic coast, faces diverse development challenges, but has built a robust democracy notable for consistent peaceful turnovers of executive power since a transition to multiparty rule in the early 1990s. The country also has made progress toward many of the socio... |
crs_R45820 | crs_R45820_0 | About the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS)
The mission of HHS is to "enhance the health and well-being of Americans by providing for effective health and human services and by fostering sound, sustained advances in the sciences underlying medicine, public health, and social services."
HHS is curren... | Historically, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) has been one of the larger federal departments in terms of budgetary resources. Estimates by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) indicate that HHS has accounted for at least 20% of all federal outlays in each year since FY1995. Most recently, HH... |
crs_R45977 | crs_R45977_0 | Introduction
The primary source of federal aid to elementary and secondary education is the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)âparticularly its Title I-A program, which authorizes federal aid for the education of disadvantaged students. The ESEA was initially enacted in 1965 (P.L. 89-10) "to strengthen a... | The primary source of federal aid for elementary and secondary education is the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)âparticularly its Title I-A program, which authorizes federal aid for the education of disadvantaged students. The ESEA was initially enacted in 1965 (P.L. 89-10), and was most recently compreh... |
crs_R45927 | crs_R45927_0 | T his report examines technological innovation in payment systems generally and particular policy issues as a result of retail (i.e., point of sale) payment innovation. The report also discusses wholesale payment, clearing, and settlement systems that send payment messages between banks and transfer funds, including th... | Technological advances in digitization and data processing and storage have greatly increased the availability and convenience of electronic payments. New products and services offer faster, more convenient payment for individuals and businesses, and the numerous options on offer foster competition and innovation among... |
crs_R45987 | crs_R45987_0 | Introduction
This report provides background on Department of Defense's legacy Electronic Health Record (EHR) systems, reviews previous EHR modernization efforts, and describes DOD's process to acquire and implement a new EHR system known as MHS Genesis . DOD's new EHR system presents several potential issu es for Co... | Since 1968, the Department of Defense (DOD) has developed, procured, and sustained a variety of electronic systems to document the health care services delivered to servicemembers, military retirees, and their family members. DOD currently operates a number of legacy electronic health record (EHR) systems. Each system ... |
crs_R46274 | crs_R46274_0 | Introduction and Issues for Congress
This report provides background information and analysis on two amendments to the Anti-Terrorism Act (ATA, 18 U.S.C. §§ 2331 et seq. ): the Anti-Terrorism Clarification Act of 2018 (ATCA, P.L. 115-253 ), which became law in October 2018; and the Promoting Security and Justice fo... | Two recent amendments to the Anti-Terrorism Act (ATA, 18 U.S.C. §§ 2331 et seq. ) have significant implications for U.S. aid to the Palestinians and U.S. courts' ability to exercise jurisdiction over Palestinian entities. They are the Anti-Terrorism Clarification Act of 2018 (ATCA, P.L. 115-253 ) and the Promoting Se... |
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