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sha256:3ba356f83d9e658d79f0d9696dff7eb7557676eecd8bb438dbd69e431ac50c41 +size 67620 diff --git a/parse/train/H1lJJnR5Ym/H1lJJnR5Ym.md b/parse/train/H1lJJnR5Ym/H1lJJnR5Ym.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..37cb91ff22c9a78afa3cf99137b60db7f8f4af10 --- /dev/null +++ b/parse/train/H1lJJnR5Ym/H1lJJnR5Ym.md @@ -0,0 +1,386 @@ +# EXPLORATION BY RANDOM NETWORK DISTILLATION + +Anonymous authors Paper under double-blind review + +# ABSTRACT + +We introduce an exploration bonus for deep reinforcement learning methods that is easy to implement and adds minimal overhead to the computation performed. The bonus is the error of a neural network predicting features of the observations given by a fixed randomly initialized neural network. We also introduce a method to flexibly combine intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. We find that the random network distillation (RND) bonus combined with this increased flexibility enables significant progress on several hard exploration Atari games. In particular we establish state of the art performance on Montezuma’s Revenge, a game famously difficult for deep reinforcement learning methods. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first method that achieves better than average human performance on this game without using demonstrations or having access to the underlying state of the game, and occasionally completes the first level. This suggests that relatively simple methods that scale well can be sufficient to tackle challenging exploration problems. + +# 1 INTRODUCTION + +Reinforcement learning (RL) methods work by maximizing the expected return of a policy. This works well when the environment has dense rewards that are easy to find by taking random sequences of actions, but tends to fail when the rewards are sparse and hard to find. In reality it is often impractical to engineer dense reward functions for every task one wants an RL agent to solve. In these situations methods that explore the environment in a directed way are necessary. + +![](images/ab0191a2e302181a2fe9e1d8b350a53e737be3ef46f8f31be4adfd4d2c43d1f5.jpg) +Figure 1: RND exploration bonus over the course of the first episode where the agent picks up the torch (19-21). To do so the agent passes 17 rooms and collects gems, keys, a sword, an amulet, and opens two doors. Many of the spikes in the exploration bonus correspond to meaningful events: losing a life (2,8,10,21), narrowly escaping an enemy (3,5,6,11,12,13,14,15), passing a difficult obstacle (7,9,18), or picking up an object (20,21). The large spike at the end corresponds to a novel experience of interacting with the torch, while the smaller spikes correspond to relatively rare events that the agent has nevertheless experienced multiple times. See goo.gl/DGPC8E for videos. + +Recent developments in RL seem to suggest that solving the most challenging tasks (Silver et al., 2016; Zoph & Le, 2016; Horgan et al., 2018; Espeholt et al., 2018; OpenAI, 2018; OpenAI et al., 2018) requires processing large numbers of samples obtained from running many copies of the environment in parallel. In light of this it is desirable to have exploration methods that scale well with large amounts of experience. However many of the recently introduced exploration methods based on counts, pseudo-counts, information gain or prediction gain are difficult to scale up to large numbers of parallel environments. + +This paper introduces an exploration bonus that is particularly simple to implement, works well with high-dimensional observations, can be used with any policy optimization algorithm, and is efficient to compute as it requires only a single forward pass of a neural network on a batch of experience. Our exploration bonus is based on the observation that neural networks tend to have significantly lower prediction errors on examples similar to those on which they have been trained. This motivates the use of prediction errors of networks trained on the agent’s past experience to quantify the novelty of new experience. + +As pointed out by many authors, agents that maximize such prediction errors tend to get attracted to transitions where the answer to the prediction problem is a stochastic function of the inputs. For example if the prediction problem is that of predicting the next observation given the current observation and agent’s action (forward dynamics), an agent trying to maximize this prediction error will tend to seek out stochastic transitions, like those involving randomly changing static noise on a TV, or outcomes of random events such as coin tosses. This observation motivated the use of methods that quantify the relative improvement of the prediction, rather than its absolute error. Unfortunately, as previously mentioned, such methods are hard to implement efficiently. + +We propose an alternative solution to this undesirable stochasticity by defining an exploration bonus using a prediction problem where the answer is a deterministic function of its inputs. Namely we predict the output of a fixed randomly initialized neural network on the current observation. + +Atari games have been a standard benchmark for deep reinforcement learning algorithms since the pioneering work by Mnih et al. (2013). Bellemare et al. (2016) identified among these games the hard exploration games with sparse rewards: Freeway, Gravitar, Montezuma’s Revenge, Pitfall!, Private Eye, Solaris, and Venture. RL algorithms tend to struggle on these games, often not finding even a single positive reward. + +In particular, Montezuma’s Revenge is considered to be a difficult problem for RL agents, requiring a combination of mastery of multiple in-game skills to avoid deadly obstacles, and finding rewards that are hundreds of steps apart from each other even under optimal play. Significant progress has been achieved by methods with access to either expert demonstrations (Pohlen et al., 2018; Aytar et al., 2018; Garmulewicz et al., 2018), special access to the underlying emulator state (Tang et al., 2017; Stanton & Clune, 2018), or both (Salimans & Chen, 2018). However without such aids, progress on the exploration problem in Montezuma’s Revenge has been slow, with the best methods finding about half the rooms (Bellemare et al., 2016). For these reasons we provide extensive ablations of our method on this environment. + +We find that even when disregarding the extrinsic reward altogether, an agent maximizing the RND exploration bonus consistently finds more than half of the rooms in Montezuma’s Revenge. To combine the exploration bonus with the extrinsic rewards we introduce a modification of Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO, Schulman et al. (2017)) that uses two value heads for the two reward streams. This allows the use of different discount rates for the different rewards, and combining episodic and non-episodic returns. With this additional flexibility, our best agent often finds 22 out of the 24 rooms on the first level in Montezuma’s Revenge, and occasionally (though not frequently) passes the first level. The same method gets state of the art performance on Venture and Gravitar. + +# 2 METHOD + +# 2.1 EXPLORATION BONUSES + +Exploration bonuses are a class of methods that encourage an agent to explore even when the environment’s reward $e _ { t }$ is sparse. They do so by replacing $e _ { t }$ with a new reward $\boldsymbol { r } _ { t } = \boldsymbol { e } _ { t } + \boldsymbol { i } _ { t }$ , where $i _ { t }$ is the exploration bonus associated with the transition at time $t$ . + +To encourage the agent to visit novel states, it is desirable for $i _ { t }$ to be higher in novel states than in frequently visited ones. Count-based exploration methods provide an example of such bonuses. + +In a tabular setting with a finite number of states one can define $i _ { t }$ to be a decreasing function of the visitation count $n _ { t } ( s )$ of the state $\pmb { s }$ . In particular $i _ { t } = 1 / n _ { t } ( s )$ and $i _ { t } = 1 / \sqrt { n _ { t } ( s ) }$ have been used in prior work (Bellemare et al., 2016; Ostrovski et al., 2018). In non-tabular cases it is not straightforward to produce counts, as most states will be visited at most once. One possible generalization of counts to non-tabular settings is pseudo-counts (Bellemare et al., 2016) which uses changes in state density estimates as an exploration bonus. In this way the counts derived from the density model can be positive even for states that have not been visited in the past, provided they are similar to previously visited states. + +An alternative is to define $i _ { t }$ as the prediction error for a problem related to the agent’s transitions. Generic examples of such problems include forward dynamics and inverse dynamics (Schmidhuber, 1991b; Stadie et al., 2015; Achiam & Sastry, 2017; Pathak et al., 2017; Burda et al., 2018; Haber et al., 2018). Non-generic prediction problems can also be used if specialized information about the environment is available, like predicting physical properties of objects the agent interacts with (Denil et al., 2016). Such prediction errors tend to decrease as the agent collects more experience similar to the current one. For this reason even trivial prediction problems like predicting a constant zero function can work as exploration bonuses (Fox et al., 2018). + +# 2.2 RANDOM NETWORK DISTILLATION + +This paper introduces a different approach where the prediction problem is randomly generated. This involves two neural networks: a fixed and randomly initialized target network which sets the prediction problem, and a predictor network trained on data collected by the agent. The target network takes an observation to an embedding $f : \mathcal { O } \to \mathbb { R } ^ { k }$ and the predictor neural network $\hat { f } : \mathcal { O } \to \mathbb { R } ^ { k }$ is trained by gradient descent to minimize the expected MSE $\| \hat { f } ( \mathbf { x } ; \theta ) - f ( \mathbf { x } ) \| ^ { 2 }$ with respect to its parameters $\theta _ { \hat { f } }$ . This process distills a randomly initialized neural network into a trained one. The prediction error $i _ { t } = \| { \hat { f } } ( \mathbf { x } ) - f ( \mathbf { x } ) \| ^ { 2 }$ is expected to be higher for novel states dissimilar to the ones the predictor has been trained on. This allows to use $i _ { t }$ as an exploration bonus. + +To build intuition we consider a toy model of this process on MNIST. We train a predictor neural network to mimic a randomly initialized target network on training data consisting of a mixture of images with the label 0 and of a target class, varying the proportion of the classes, but not the total number of training examples. We then test the predictor network on the unseen test examples of the target class and report the MSE. In this model the zeros are playing the role of states that have been seen many times before, and the target class is playing the role of states that have been visited infrequently. The results are shown in Figure 2. The figure shows that test error decreases as a function of the number of training examples in the target class, suggesting that this method can be used to detect novelty. Figure 1 shows that the intrinsic reward is high in novel states in an episode of Montezuma’s Revenge. + +One objection to this method is that a sufficiently powerful optimization algorithm might find a predictor that mimics the target random network perfectly on any input (for example the target network itself would be such a predictor). However the above experiment on MNIST shows that standard gradient-based methods don’t overgeneralize in this undesirable way. + +# 2.2.1 SOURCES OF PREDICTION ERRORS + +In general, prediction errors can be attributed to a number of factors: + +1. Amount of training data. Prediction error is high where few similar examples were seen by the predictor (epistemic uncertainty). 2. Stochasticity. Prediction error is high because the target function is stochastic (aleatoric uncertainty). Stochastic transitions are a source of such error for forward dynamics prediction. 3. Model misspecification. Prediction error is high because necessary information is missing, or the model class is too limited to fit the complexity of the target function. 4. Learning dynamics. Prediction error is high because the optimization process fails to find a predictor in the model class that best approximates the target function. + +Factor 1 is what allows one to use prediction error as an exploration bonus. In practice the prediction error is caused by a combination of all of these factors, not all of them desirable. + +For instance if the prediction problem is forward dynamics, then factor 2 results in the ‘noisy-TV’ problem. This is the thought experiment where an agent that is rewarded for errors in the prediction of its forward dynamics model gets attracted to stochastic transitions in the environment. A TV randomly switching between channels would be such an attractor, as would a coin flip. + +To avoid the undesirable factors 2 and 3, methods such as those by Schmidhuber (1991a); Oudeyer et al. (2007); Lopes et al. (2012); Achiam & Sastry (2017) instead use a measurement of how much the prediction model improves upon seeing a new datapoint. However these approaches tend to be computationally expensive and hence difficult to scale. + +RND obviates factors 2 and 3 since the target network can be chosen to be deterministic and inside the model-class of the predictor network. + +# 2.2.2 RELATION TO UNCERTAINTY QUANTIFICATION + +In this section we highlight a link between the RND prediction error and an uncertainty quantification method introduced by Osband et al. (2018). Namely, consider a regression problem with data distribution $D = \{ x _ { i } , y _ { i } \} _ { i }$ . In the Bayesian setting we would consider a prior $p ( \theta ^ { * } )$ over the parameters of a mapping $f _ { \theta ^ { \ast } }$ and calculate the posterior after updating on the evidence. + +Let $\mathcal { F }$ be the distribution over functions $g _ { \theta } = f _ { \theta } + f _ { \theta ^ { \ast } }$ , where $\theta ^ { * }$ is drawn from $p ( \theta ^ { * } )$ and $\theta$ is given by minimizing the expected prediction error + +$$ +\theta = \underset { \theta } { \arg \operatorname* { m i n } } \mathbb { E } _ { ( \boldsymbol { x } _ { i } , \boldsymbol { y } _ { i } ) \sim D } \| f _ { \theta } ( \boldsymbol { x } _ { i } ) + f _ { \theta ^ { * } } ( \boldsymbol { x } _ { i } ) - \boldsymbol { y } _ { i } \| ^ { 2 } + \mathcal { R } ( \theta ) , +$$ + +where ${ \mathcal { R } } ( \theta )$ is a regularization term coming from the prior (see Lemma 3, Osband et al. (2018)). Osband et al. (2018) argue that the ensemble $\mathcal { F }$ is an approximation of the posterior. In the case of Bayesian linear regression this statement can be made precise. However even in the case where the functions are not linear, (Osband et al., 2018) experimentally validate that the same procedure can be used as a part of a heuristic for quantifying uncertainty. + +If we specialize the regression targets $y _ { i }$ to be zero, then the optimization problem $\begin{array} { r } { \arg \operatorname* { m i n } _ { \theta } \dot { \mathbb { E } } _ { ( x _ { i } , y _ { i } ) \sim D } \big \| f _ { \theta } ( x _ { i } ) + f _ { \theta ^ { * } } ( x _ { i } ) \big \| ^ { \overline { { 2 } } } } \end{array}$ is equivalent to distilling a randomly drawn function from the prior. (Here we omit the regularization term from the objective and assume that the prior is symmetric around the origin in the parameter space). Seen from this perspective, each coordinate of the output of the predictor and target networks would correspond to a member of an ensemble (with parameter sharing amongst the ensemble), and the MSE would be an estimate of the predictive variance of the ensemble (assuming the ensemble is unbiased). In other words the distillation error could be seen as a quantification of uncertainty in predicting the constant zero function. We believe that a similar mechanism might underlie the performance of RND and (Osband et al., 2018). + +# 2.3 COMBINING INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC RETURNS + +In preliminary experiments that used only intrinsic rewards, treating the problem as non-episodic resulted in better exploration. In that setting the return is not truncated at “game over”. We argue that this is a natural way to do exploration in simulated environments, since the agent’s intrinsic return should be related to all the novel states that it could find in the future, regardless of whether they all occur in one episode or are spread over several. It is also argued in (Burda et al., 2018) that using episodic intrinsic rewards can leak information about the task to the agent. + +We also argue that this is closer to how humans explore games. For example let’s say Alice is playing a videogame and is attempting a tricky maneuver to reach a suspected secret room. Because the maneuver is tricky the chance of a game over is high, but the payoff to Alice’s curiosity will be high if she succeeds. If Alice is modelled as an episodic reinforcement learning agent, then her future return will be exactly zero if she gets a game over, which might make her overly risk averse. The real cost of a game over to Alice is the opportunity cost incurred by having to play through the game from the beginning (which is presumably less interesting to Alice having played the game for some time). + +However using non-episodic returns for extrinsic rewards could be exploited by a strategy that finds a reward close to the beginning of the game, deliberately restarts the game by getting a game over, and repeats this in an endless cycle. + +![](images/93a1a5af091e14224e6c334fcc19af50ec939179be247f3f60872f83ea7a693d.jpg) +Figure 2: Novelty detection on MNIST: a predictor network mimics a randomly initialized target network. The training data consists of varying proportions of images from class $\mathbf { \ddot { \rho } } _ { 0 } , \mathbf { \vec { \rho } }$ and a target class. Each curve shows the test MSE on held out target class examples plotted against the number of training examples of the target class (log scale). Curves are an average over 10 random seeds. + +![](images/ca601f9a9a6278ec814eee7fc6a9863430a2a1fc548995f179b9822fd9797600.jpg) +Figure 3: Mean episodic return and number of rooms found by pure exploration agents on Montezuma’s Revenge trained without access to the extrinsic reward. The agents explores more in the non-episodic setting (see also Section 2.3). Curves are an average over 5 random seeds. + +It is not obvious how to estimate the combined value of the non-episodic stream of intrinsic rewards $i _ { t }$ and the episodic stream of extrinsic rewards $e _ { t }$ . Our solution is to observe that the return is linear in the rewards and so can be decomposed as a sum $R = R _ { E } + R _ { I }$ of the extrinsic and intrinsic returns respectively. Hence we can fit two value heads $V _ { E }$ and $V _ { I }$ separately using their respective returns, and combine them to give the value function $V = V _ { E } + V _ { I }$ . This same idea can also be used to combine reward streams with different discount factors. + +Note that even where one is not trying to combine episodic and non-episodic reward streams, or reward streams with different discount factors, there may still be a benefit to having separate value functions since there is an additional supervisory signal to the value function. This may be especially important for exploration bonuses since the extrinsic reward function is stationary whereas the intrinsic reward function is non-stationary. + +# 3 EXPERIMENTS + +We begin with an intrinsic reward only experiment on Montezuma’s Revenge in Section 3.1 to isolate the inductive bias of the RND bonus, follow by extensive ablations of RND on Montezuma’s Revenge in Sections 3.2-3.5 to understand the factors that contribute to RND’s performance, and conclude with a comparison to baseline methods on 6 hard exploration Atari games in Section 3.6. For details of hyperparameters and architectures we refer the reader to Appendices A.3 and A.4. Most experiments are run for 30K rollouts of length 128 per environment with 128 parallel environments, for a total of 1.97 billion frames of experience. Each curve is an average over a number of random seeds detailed in the caption, and the shaded region is a standard error. Both the mean and the standard error curves were smoothed by averaging over a sliding window of $1 . 3 \%$ of the datapoints to make the figures more legible. We use the PPO (Schulman et al., 2017) as our policy optimization algorithm for all experiments. + +# 3.1 PURE EXPLORATION + +In this section we explore the performance of RND in the absence of any extrinsic reward. In Section 2.3 we argued that exploration with RND might be more natural in the non-episodic setting. By comparing the performance of the pure exploration agent in episodic and non-episodic settings we can see if this observation translates to improved exploration performance. + +We report two measures of exploration performance in Figure 3: mean episodic return, and the number of rooms the agent finds over the training run. Since the pure exploration agent is not aware of the extrinsic rewards or number of rooms, it is not directly optimizing for any of these measures. However obtaining some rewards in Montezuma’s Revenge (like getting the key to open a door) is required for accessing more interesting states in new rooms, and hence we observe the extrinsic reward increasing over time up to some point. The best return is achieved when the agent interacts with some of the objects, but the agent has no incentive to keep doing the same once such interactions become repetitive, hence returns are not consistently high. + +![](images/61dca6b8e999dafc337c517cda622a65af1525f686c5306be4eb4745bb0869d6.jpg) +Figure 4: Performance of different discount factors for intrinsic and extrinsic reward streams. A higher discount factor for the extrinsic rewards leads to better performance, while for intrinsic rewards it hurts exploration. Curves are an average over 5 random seeds. + +![](images/4b6cf1f7df29e8a665c5217b92158ef80e2fbde10231faaee008438af93eafda.jpg) +Figure 5: Mean episodic return and number of discovered rooms improve as the number of parallel environments used for collecting the experience increases. The runs have processed 0.5,2,4, and 16B frames. Curves are an average over 10 random seeds. + +We clearly see in Figure 3 that on both measures of exploration the non-episodic agent performs best, consistent with the discussion in Section 2.3. The non-episodic setting with $\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9 9$ explores more rooms than $\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9$ , with one of the runs exploring 21 rooms. The best return achieved by 4 out 5 runs of this setting was 6,700. + +# 3.2 COMBINING EPISODIC AND NON-EPISODIC RETURNS + +In Section 3.1 we saw that the non-episodic setting resulted in more exploration than the episodic setting when exploring without any extrinsic rewards. Next we consider whether this holds in the case where we combine intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. As discussed in Section 2.3 in order to combine episodic and non-episodic reward streams we require two value heads. This also raises the question of whether it is better to have two value heads even when both reward streams are episodic. In Figure 6 we compare episodic intrinsic rewards to non-episodic intrinsic rewards combined with episodic extrinsic rewards, and additionally two value heads versus one for the episodic case. The discount factors are $\gamma _ { I } = \gamma _ { E } = 0 . 9 9$ . + +![](images/1b42b8a064a47299032e8d06a851ea87b6cd52c1786f9b487a675ffb9a70b67a.jpg) +Figure 6: Different ways of combining intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Combining non-episodic stream of intrinsic rewards with the episodic stream of extrinsic rewards outperforms combining episodic versions of both steams in terms of number of explored rooms, but performs similarly in terms of mean return. Single value estimate of the combined stream of episodic returns performs a little better than the dual value estimate. The differences are more pronounced with RNN policies. CNN runs are more stable than the RNN counterparts. Curves are an average over 5 random seeds. + +In Figure 6 we see that using a non-episodic intrinsic reward stream increases the number of rooms explored for both CNN and RNN policies, consistent with the experiments in Section 3.1, but that the difference is less dramatic, likely because the extrinsic reward is able to preserve useful behaviors. We also see that the difference is less pronounced for the CNN experiments, and that the RNN results tend to be less stable and perform worse overall. + +Contrary to our expectations (Section 2.3) using two value heads did not show any benefit over a single head in the episodic setting. Nevertheless having two value heads is necessary for combining reward streams with different characteristics (for example having different discount factors or combining episodic rewards with non-episodic reward), and so all further experiments use two value heads. + +# 3.3 DISCOUNT FACTORS + +Previous experiments (Salimans & Chen, 2018; Pohlen et al., 2018; Garmulewicz et al., 2018) solving Montezuma’s Revenge using expert demonstrations used a high discount factor to achieve the best performance, enabling the agent to anticipate rewards far into the future. We compare the performance of the RND agent with ${ \gamma _ { E } \in \{ 0 . 9 9 , 0 . 9 9 9 \} }$ and $\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9$ . We also investigate the effect of increasing $\gamma _ { I }$ to 0.999. The results are shown in Figure 4. + +In Figure 4 we see that increasing $\gamma _ { E }$ to 0.999 while holding $\gamma _ { I }$ at 0.99 greatly improves performance. This setting had a mean return of $1 1 . 5 \mathrm { K }$ at the end of training, setting a new state of the art. We also see that further increasing $\gamma _ { I }$ to 0.999 hurts performance. This is at odds with the results in Figure 3 where increasing $\gamma _ { I }$ did not significantly impact performance. We note that the effect of increasing $\gamma _ { E }$ is hard to disentangle from the effective increase in the weight of the extrinsic reward in the return. To address this ambiguity we would need to run an extensive hyperparameter sweep of the weights of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards and $\gamma _ { E }$ . + +# 3.4 RECURRENCE + +Montezuma’s Revenge is a partially observable environment even though large parts of the game state can be inferred from the screen. For example the number of keys the agent has appears on the screen, but not where they come from, how many keys have been used in the past, or what doors have been opened. To deal with this partial observability, an agent should maintain a state summarizing the past, for example the state of a recurrent policy. Hence it would be natural to hope for better performance from agents with recurrent policies. Contrary to expectations in Figure 6 recurrent policies performed worse than non-recurrent counterparts. We provide an additional experiment confirming this finding in the Appendix (fig. 8). However this finding did not hold true for other games as shown in Section 3.6. + +# 3.5 SCALING UP RNN TRAINING + +In this section we report experiments showing the effect of increased scale on RNN training. The intrinsic rewards are non-episodic with $\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9$ , and $\gamma _ { E } = 0 . 9 9 9$ . + +To hold the rate at which the intrinsic reward decreases over time constant across experiments with different numbers of parallel environments, we downsample the batch size when training the predictor to match the batch size with 32 parallel environments (for full details see Appendix A.4). Larger numbers of environments results in larger batch sizes per update for training the policy, whereas the predictor network batch size remains constant. Since the intrinsic reward disappears over time it is important for the policy to learn to find and exploit these transitory rewards, since they act as stepping-stones to nearby novel states. + +Figure 5 shows that agents trained with larger batches of experience collected from more parallel environments obtain higher mean returns after similar numbers of updates. They also achieve better final performance. + +We allowed the experiment with 32 parallel environments to run for more time, eventually reaching a mean return of 7,570 after processing 1.6 billion frames over 1.6 million parameter updates. One of these runs visited all 24 rooms, and passed the first level once, achieving a best return of 17,500. The experiment with 1024 parallel environments had mean return of 10,070 at the end of training, and yielded one run with mean return of 14,415. + +# 3.6 COMPARISON TO BASELINES + +In this section we compare RND to two baselines: PPO without an exploration bonus and an alternative exploration bonus based on forward dynamics error. We evaluate RND’s performance on six hard exploration Atari games: Gravitar, Montezuma’s Revenge, Pitfall!, Private Eye, Solaris, and Venture. We first compare to the performance of a baseline PPO implementation without intrinsic reward. For RND the intrinsic rewards are non-episodic with $\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9$ , while $\gamma _ { E } = 0 . 9 9 9$ for both PPO and RND. The results are shown in Figure 7. + +In Gravitar we see that RND does not consistently exceed the performance of PPO. However both exceed average human performance with an RNN policy, as well as the previous state of the art. On Montezuma’s Revenge and Venture RND significantly outperforms PPO, and exceeds state of the art performance and average human performance. On Pitfall! both algorithms fail to find any positive rewards. This is a typical result for this game, as the extrinsic positive reward is very sparse. On Private Eye RND’s performance exceeds that of PPO. On Solaris RND’s performance is comparable to that of PPO. + +![](images/a0506de551a67c05446cd8412d0e1fc163664795a085fd893cc73084486f208f.jpg) +Figure 7: Mean episodic return of RND, dynamics-based exploration method, and PPO with extrinsic reward only on 6 hard exploration Atari games. RND achieves state of the art performance on Gravitar, Montezuma’s Revenge, and Venture, significantly outperforming PPO on the latter two. Curves are an average over 3 random seeds. Horizontal axes show numbers of parameter updates at the bottom of the graphs and the numbers of frames at the top. + +Next we consider an alternative exploration bonus based on forward dynamics error. There are numerous previous works using such a bonus (Schmidhuber, 1991b; Stadie et al., 2015; Achiam & Sastry, 2017; Pathak et al., 2017; Burda et al., 2018). Fortuitously Burda et al. (2018) show that training a forward dynamics model in a random feature space typically works as well as any other feature space when used to create an exploration bonus. This means that we can easily implement an apples to apples comparison and change the loss in RND so the predictor network predicts the random features of the next observation given the current observation and action, while holding fixed all other parts of our method such as dual value heads, non-episodic intrinsic returns, normalization schemes etc. This provides an ablation of the prediction problem defining the exploration bonus, while also being representative of a class of prior work using forward dynamics error. Our expectation was that these methods should be fairly similar except where the dynamics-based agent is able to exploit non-determinism in the environment to get intrinsic reward. + +Figure 7 shows that dynamics-based exploration performs significantly worse than RND with the same CNN policy on Montezuma’s Revenge, PrivateEye, and Solaris, and performs similarly on Venture, Pitfall, and Gravitar. By analyzing agent’s behavior at convergence we notice that in Montezuma’s Revenge the agent oscillates between two rooms. This leads to an irreducibly high prediction error, as the non-determinism of sticky actions makes it impossible to know whether, once the agent is close to crossing a room boundary, making one extra step will result in it staying in the same room, or crossing to the next one. This is a manifestation of the ‘noisy TV’ problem, or aleatoric uncertainty discussed in Section 2.2.1. Similar behavior emerges in PrivateEye and Pitfall!. Table 5 in Appendix A.6 contains further details on the final mean performance of each algorithm. + +# 3.7 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS: DANCING WITH SKULLS + +By observing the RND agent (goo.gl/DGPC8E), we notice that frequently once it obtains all the extrinsic rewards that it knows how to obtain reliably (as judged by the extrinsic value function), the agent settles into a pattern of behavior where it keeps interacting with potentially dangerous objects. For instance in Montezuma’s Revenge the agent jumps back and forth over a moving skull, moves in between laser gates, and gets on and off disappearing bridges. We also observe similar behavior in Pitfall!. It might be related to the very fact that such dangerous states are difficult to achieve, and hence are rarely represented in agent’s past experience compared to safer states. + +# 4 RELATED WORK + +Exploration. Count-based exploration bonuses are a natural and effective way to do exploration (Strehl & Littman, 2008) and a lot of work has studied how to tractably generalize count bonuses to large state spaces (Bellemare et al., 2016; Fu et al., 2017; Ostrovski et al., 2018; Tang et al., 2017; Machado et al., 2018; Fox et al., 2018). + +Another class of exploration methods rely on errors in predicting dynamics (Schmidhuber, 1991b; Stadie et al., 2015; Achiam & Sastry, 2017; Pathak et al., 2017; Burda et al., 2018). As discussed in Section 2.2, these methods are subject to the ‘noisy TV’ problem in stochastic or partially-observable environments. This has motivated work on exploration via quantification of uncertainty (Still & Precup, 2012; Houthooft et al., 2016) or prediction improvement measures (Schmidhuber, 1991a; Oudeyer et al., 2007; Lopes et al., 2012; Achiam & Sastry, 2017). + +Other methods of exploration include adversarial self-play (Sukhbaatar et al., 2018), maximizing empowerment (Gregor et al., 2017), parameter noise (Plappert et al., 2017; Fortunato et al., 2017), identifying diverse policies (Eysenbach et al., 2018; Achiam et al., 2018), and using ensembles of value functions (Osband et al., 2018; 2016; Chen et al., 2017). + +Montezuma’s Revenge. Early neural-network based reinforcement learning algorithms that were successful on a significant portion of Atari games (Mnih et al., 2015; 2016; Hessel et al., 2017) failed to make meaningful progress on Montezuma’s Revenge, not finding a way out of the first room reliably. This is not necessarily a failure of exploration, as even a random agent finds the key in the first room once every few hundred thousand steps, and escapes the first room every few million steps. Indeed, a mean return of about 2,500 can be reliably achieved without special exploration methods (Horgan et al., 2018; Espeholt et al., 2018; Oh et al., 2018). + +Combining DQN with a pseudo-count exploration bonus Bellemare et al. (2016) set a new state of the art performance, exploring 15 rooms and getting best return of 6,600. Since then a number of other works have achieved similar performance (O’Donoghue et al., 2017; Ostrovski et al., 2018; Machado et al., 2018; Osband et al., 2018), without exceeding it. + +Special access to the underlying RAM state can also be used to improve exploration by using it to hand-craft exploration bonuses (Kulkarni et al., 2016; Tang et al., 2017; Stanton & Clune, 2018). Even with such access previous work achieves performance inferior to average human performance. + +Expert demonstrations can be used effectively to simplify the exploration problem in Montezuma’s Revenge, and a number of works (Salimans & Chen, 2018; Pohlen et al., 2018; Aytar et al., 2018; Garmulewicz et al., 2018) have achieved performance comparable to or better than that of human experts. Learning from expert demonstrations benefits from the game’s determinism. The suggested training method (Machado et al., 2017) to prevent an agent from simply memorizing the correct sequence of actions is to use sticky actions (i.e. randomly repeating previous action) has not been used in these works. In this work we use sticky actions and thus don’t rely on determinism. + +Random features. Features of randomly initialized neural networks have been extensively studied in the context of supervised learning (Rahimi & Recht, 2008; Saxe et al., 2011; Jarrett et al., 2009; Yang et al., 2015). More recently they have been used in the context of exploration (Osband et al., 2018; Burda et al., 2018). The work Osband et al. (2018) provides motivation for random network distillation as discussed in Section 2.2. + +Vectorized value functions. Pong et al. (2018) find that a vectorized value function (with coordinates corresponding to additive factors of the reward) improves their method. Bellemare et al. (2017) parametrize the value as a linear combination of value heads that estimate probabilities of discretized returns. However the Bellman backup equation used there is not itself vectorized. More broadly, the issue of how to approach optimizing multiple objectives is an important topic in reinforcement learning, see (Roijers et al., 2013). + +# 5 DISCUSSION + +This paper introduced an exploration method based on random network distillation and experimentally showed that the method is capable of performing directed exploration on several Atari games with very sparse rewards. These experiments suggest that progress on hard exploration games is possible with relatively simple generic methods, especially when applied at scale. They also suggest that methods that are able to treat the stream of intrinsic rewards separately from the stream of extrinsic rewards (for instance by having separate value heads) can benefit from such flexibility. + +We find that the RND exploration bonus is sufficient to deal with local exploration, i.e. exploring the consequences of short-term decisions, like whether to interact with a particular object, or avoid it. However global exploration that involves coordinated decisions over long time horizons is beyond the reach of our method. + +To solve the first level of Montezuma’s Revenge, the agent must enter a room locked behind two doors. There are four keys and six doors spread throughout the level. Any of the four keys can open any of the six doors, but are consumed in the process. To open the final two doors the agent must therefore forego opening two of the doors that are easier to find and that would immediately reward it for opening them. + +To incentivize this behavior the agent should receive enough intrinsic reward for saving the keys to balance the loss of extrinsic reward from using them early on. From our analysis of the RND agent’s behavior, it does not get a large enough incentive to try this strategy, and only stumbles upon it rarely. + +Solving this and similar problems that require high level exploration is an important direction for future work. + +# REFERENCES + +Joshua Achiam and Shankar Sastry. Surprise-based intrinsic motivation for deep reinforcement learning. arXiv:1703.01732, 2017. + +Joshua Achiam, Harrison Edwards, Dario Amodei, and Pieter Abbeel. Variational option discovery algorithms. arXiv preprint arXiv:1807.10299, 2018. + +Yusuf Aytar, Tobias Pfaff, David Budden, Tom Le Paine, Ziyu Wang, and Nando de Freitas. 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Neural architecture search with reinforcement learning. arXiv preprint arXiv:1611.01578, 2016. + +# A APPENDIX + +A.1 ADDITIONAL METHODOLOGICAL DETAILS + +# A.1.1 REWARD AND OBSERVATION NORMALIZATION + +One issue with using prediction error as an exploration bonus is that the scale of the reward can vary greatly between different environments and at different points in time, making it difficult to choose hyperparameters that work in all settings. In order to keep the rewards on a consistent scale we normalized the intrinsic reward by dividing it by a running estimate of the standard deviations of the intrinsic returns. + +Observation normalization is often important in deep learning but it is crucial when using a random neural network as a target, since the parameters are frozen and hence cannot adjust to the scale of different datasets. Lack of normalization can result in the variance of the embedding being extremely low and carrying little information about the inputs. To address this issue we use an observation normalization scheme often used in continuous control problems whereby we whiten each dimension by subtracting the running mean and then dividing by the running standard deviation. We then clip the normalized observations to be between -5 and 5. We initialize the normalization parameters by stepping a random agent in the environment for a small number of steps before beginning optimization. We use the same observation normalization for both predictor and target networks but not the policy network. + +# A.1.2 REINFORCEMENT LEARNING ALGORITHM + +An exploration bonus can be used with any RL algorithm by modifying the rewards used to train the model (i.e., $\boldsymbol { r } _ { t } = \boldsymbol { i } _ { t } + \boldsymbol { e } _ { t } ,$ ). We combine our proposed exploration bonus with a baseline reinforcement learning algorithm PPO (Schulman et al., 2017). PPO is a policy gradient method that we have found to require little tuning for good performance. For algorithmic details see Algorithm 1. + +# A.2 RND PSEUDO-CODE + +Algorithm 1 gives an overall picture of the RND method. Exact details of the method can be found in the code accompanying this paper (goo.gl/DGPC8E). + +# Algorithm 1 RND pseudo-code + +
N ←number of rollouts Nopt ← number of optimization steps
K←length of rollout
M ← number of initial steps for initializing observation normalization t=0
Sample state So ~ po(so) for m = 1 to M do
sample at ~ Uniform(at)
sample St+1 ~ p(St+1lst, at)
Update observation normalization parameters using St+1
t+=1
end for
fori=1 to N do
for j = 1 to K do
sample at ~ π(at|St)
sample St+1,et ~p(St+1,et|St, at)
calculate intrinsic reward it = |lf(St+1) - f(St+1)ll²
add St, St+1,at, et,it to optimization batch Bi
Update running estimate of reward standard deviation using it
t+=1
end for
Normalize the intrinsic rewards contained in Bi
Calculate returns R1,i and advantages A1,i for intrinsic reward
Calculate returns RE,i and advantages AE,i for extrinsic reward
Calculate combined advantages Ai = A1,i + AE,i
Update observation normalization parameters using Bi
for j = 1 to Nopt do
optimize 0π wrt PPO loss on batch Bi,Ri,Ai using Adam
optimize 0f wrt distillation loss on Bi using Adam
end for
end for
+ +# A.3 PREPROCESSING DETAILS + +Table 1 contains details of how we preprocessed the environment for our experiments. We followed the recommendations in Machado et al. (2017) in using sticky actions in order to make the environments non-deterministic so that memorization of action sequences is not possible. In Table 2 we show additional preprocessing details for the policy and value networks. In Table 3 we show additional preprocessing details for the predictor and target networks. + +Table 1: Preprocessing details for the environments for all experiments. + +
HyperparameterValue
Grey-scaling Observation downsamplingTrue (84,84)
Extrinsic reward clipping[-1,1]
Intrinsic reward clippingFalse
Max frames per episode18K
Terminal on loss of lifeFalse
Max and skip frames4
Random starts Sticky action probabilityFalse 0.25
+ +Table 2: Preprocessing details for policy and value network for all experiments. + +
HyperparameterValue
Framesstacked Observation4
normalizationxx/255
+ +Table 3: Preprocessing details for target and predictor networks for all experiments. + +
HyperparameterValue
Framesstacked Observation normalization1 x →CLIP((x- μ)/σ,[-5,5])
+ +# A.4 PPO AND RND HYPERPARAMETERS + +In Table 4 the hyperparameters for the PPO RL algorithm along with any additional hyperparameters used for RND are shown. Complete details for how these hyperparameters are used can be found in the code accompanying this paper. + +Table 4: Default hyperparameters for PPO and RND algorithms for experiments where applicable. Any differences to these defaults are detailed in the main text. + +
HyperparameterValue
Rollout length128
Total number of rollouts per environment30K
Number of minibatches4
Number of optimization epochs4
Coefficient of extrinsic reward2
Coefficient of intrinsic reward1
Number of parallel environments128
Learning rate0.0001
Optimization algorithmAdam (Kingma& Ba (2015))
入(Schulman et al., 2017)0.95
Entropy coefficient0.001
Proportion of experience used for training predictor0.25
YE0.999
Y10.99
Clip range[0.9,1.1]
+ +Initial preliminary experiments with RND were run with only 32 parallel environments. We expected that increasing the number of parallel environments would improve performance by allowing the policy to adapt more quickly to transient intrinsic rewards. This effect could have been mitigated however if the predictor network also learned more quickly. To avoid this situation when scaling up from 32 to 128 environments we kept the effective batch size for the predictor network the same by randomly dropping out elements of the batch with keep probability 0.25. Similarly in our experiments with 256 and 1,024 environments we dropped experience for the predictor with respective probabilities 0.125 and 0.03125. + +# A.5 ARCHITECTURES + +In this paper we use two policy architectures: an RNN and a CNN. Both contain convolutional encoders identical of those in the standard architecture from (Mnih et al., 2015). The RNN architecture additionally contains GRU (Cho et al., 2014) cells to capture longer contexts. The architectures of the target and predictor networks also have convolutional encoders identical to the ones in (Mnih et al., 2015) followed by dense layers. Exact details are given in the code accompanying this paper (goo.gl/DGPC8E). + +# A.6 ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS + +Figure 8 compares the performance of a recurrent policy to a CNN policy with access to only the last 16 most recent frames with a matched number of parameters. The intrinsic rewards were non-episodic with $\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9$ . Here again we see that the CNN policy consistently outperforms the RNN policy on Montezuma’s Revenge. + +![](images/7c276cdb57223fd4922625d1b815a932fe1f3c9461a67267c4a5fa2aedfd92a6.jpg) +Figure 8: Comparison of recurrent and nonrecurrent policies with the same number of parameters with extrinsic reward discount factors ${ \gamma _ { E } } \in \{ 0 . 9 9 , 0 . 9 9 9 \}$ . Similar to the results in Figure 4, higher discount factors lead to better performance. Contrary to our expectations recurrent policies perform worse than non-recurrent counterparts. Curves are an average over 5 random seeds. + +![](images/17ec87dd5f2e52d5cf8fb54f8d5510330bb246860ef0c688879d1a22df3e058f.jpg) +Figure 9: Comparison of RND with a CNN policy with $\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9$ and $\gamma _ { E } = 0 . 9 9 9$ with an exploration defined by the reconstruction error of an autoencoder, holding all other choices constant (e.g. using dual value, treating intrinsic return as non-episodic etc). The performance of the autoencoder-based agent is worse than that of RND, but exceeds that of baseline PPO. Curves are an average over 5 random seeds. + +Figure 9 compares the performance of RND with an identical algorithm, but with the exploration bonus defined as the reconstruction error of an autoencoder. The autoencoding task is similar in nature to the random network distillation, as it also obviates the second (though not necessarily the third) sources of prediction error from section 2.2.1. The experiment shows that the autoencoding task can also be successfully used for exploration. + +In Table 5 we see more details of the experiments in Section 3.6. There the final training performance for each algorithm is listed, alongside the state of the art from previous work and average human performance. + +Table 5: Comparison to baselines results. Final mean performance for various methods. State of the art results taken from: [1] (Fortunato et al., 2017) [2] (Bellemare et al., 2016) [3] (Horgan et al., 2018) + +
GravitarMontezuma's RevengePitfall!PrivateEyeSolarisVenture
RND RNN3,9068,152-38,6663,2821,859
PPO RNN3,4262,49701053,3870
RND CNN2,21711,347-210,1171,0501,878
DYN CNN2,654400-1315151,807
PPO CNN2,3701,79701001,4950
SOTA2,20913,700²015,806212,38011,8133
Avg. Human3,3514,7536,46469,57112,3271,188
+ +# A.7 ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS + +In Table 6 we show the number of seeds used for each experiment, indexed by figure. + +
Figure numberNumberof seeds
1NA
210
35
45
510
65
73
85
95
+ +Table 6: The numbers of seeds run for each experiment is shown in the table. The results of each seed are then averaged to provide a mean curve in each figure, and the standard error is used make the shaded region surrounding each curve. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/parse/train/H1lJJnR5Ym/H1lJJnR5Ym_content_list.json b/parse/train/H1lJJnR5Ym/H1lJJnR5Ym_content_list.json new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..e9fda33d2b0a6fa9b8f6c7df2ea6f8d31db096ec --- /dev/null +++ b/parse/train/H1lJJnR5Ym/H1lJJnR5Ym_content_list.json @@ -0,0 +1,2147 @@ +[ + { + "type": "text", + "text": "EXPLORATION BY RANDOM NETWORK DISTILLATION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 98, + 821, + 121 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Anonymous authors Paper under double-blind review ", + "bbox": [ + 183, + 145, + 400, + 172 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "ABSTRACT ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 454, + 210, + 544, + 226 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We introduce an exploration bonus for deep reinforcement learning methods that is easy to implement and adds minimal overhead to the computation performed. The bonus is the error of a neural network predicting features of the observations given by a fixed randomly initialized neural network. We also introduce a method to flexibly combine intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. We find that the random network distillation (RND) bonus combined with this increased flexibility enables significant progress on several hard exploration Atari games. In particular we establish state of the art performance on Montezuma’s Revenge, a game famously difficult for deep reinforcement learning methods. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first method that achieves better than average human performance on this game without using demonstrations or having access to the underlying state of the game, and occasionally completes the first level. This suggests that relatively simple methods that scale well can be sufficient to tackle challenging exploration problems. ", + "bbox": [ + 233, + 242, + 766, + 435 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "1 INTRODUCTION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 464, + 336, + 479 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Reinforcement learning (RL) methods work by maximizing the expected return of a policy. This works well when the environment has dense rewards that are easy to find by taking random sequences of actions, but tends to fail when the rewards are sparse and hard to find. In reality it is often impractical to engineer dense reward functions for every task one wants an RL agent to solve. In these situations methods that explore the environment in a directed way are necessary. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 496, + 825, + 566 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/ab0191a2e302181a2fe9e1d8b350a53e737be3ef46f8f31be4adfd4d2c43d1f5.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 1: RND exploration bonus over the course of the first episode where the agent picks up the torch (19-21). To do so the agent passes 17 rooms and collects gems, keys, a sword, an amulet, and opens two doors. Many of the spikes in the exploration bonus correspond to meaningful events: losing a life (2,8,10,21), narrowly escaping an enemy (3,5,6,11,12,13,14,15), passing a difficult obstacle (7,9,18), or picking up an object (20,21). The large spike at the end corresponds to a novel experience of interacting with the torch, while the smaller spikes correspond to relatively rare events that the agent has nevertheless experienced multiple times. See goo.gl/DGPC8E for videos. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 173, + 580, + 821, + 819 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Recent developments in RL seem to suggest that solving the most challenging tasks (Silver et al., 2016; Zoph & Le, 2016; Horgan et al., 2018; Espeholt et al., 2018; OpenAI, 2018; OpenAI et al., 2018) requires processing large numbers of samples obtained from running many copies of the environment in parallel. In light of this it is desirable to have exploration methods that scale well with large amounts of experience. However many of the recently introduced exploration methods based on counts, pseudo-counts, information gain or prediction gain are difficult to scale up to large numbers of parallel environments. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 825, + 200 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "This paper introduces an exploration bonus that is particularly simple to implement, works well with high-dimensional observations, can be used with any policy optimization algorithm, and is efficient to compute as it requires only a single forward pass of a neural network on a batch of experience. Our exploration bonus is based on the observation that neural networks tend to have significantly lower prediction errors on examples similar to those on which they have been trained. This motivates the use of prediction errors of networks trained on the agent’s past experience to quantify the novelty of new experience. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 208, + 825, + 305 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "As pointed out by many authors, agents that maximize such prediction errors tend to get attracted to transitions where the answer to the prediction problem is a stochastic function of the inputs. For example if the prediction problem is that of predicting the next observation given the current observation and agent’s action (forward dynamics), an agent trying to maximize this prediction error will tend to seek out stochastic transitions, like those involving randomly changing static noise on a TV, or outcomes of random events such as coin tosses. This observation motivated the use of methods that quantify the relative improvement of the prediction, rather than its absolute error. Unfortunately, as previously mentioned, such methods are hard to implement efficiently. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 313, + 825, + 424 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We propose an alternative solution to this undesirable stochasticity by defining an exploration bonus using a prediction problem where the answer is a deterministic function of its inputs. Namely we predict the output of a fixed randomly initialized neural network on the current observation. ", + "bbox": [ + 178, + 431, + 820, + 472 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Atari games have been a standard benchmark for deep reinforcement learning algorithms since the pioneering work by Mnih et al. (2013). Bellemare et al. (2016) identified among these games the hard exploration games with sparse rewards: Freeway, Gravitar, Montezuma’s Revenge, Pitfall!, Private Eye, Solaris, and Venture. RL algorithms tend to struggle on these games, often not finding even a single positive reward. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 479, + 825, + 549 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In particular, Montezuma’s Revenge is considered to be a difficult problem for RL agents, requiring a combination of mastery of multiple in-game skills to avoid deadly obstacles, and finding rewards that are hundreds of steps apart from each other even under optimal play. Significant progress has been achieved by methods with access to either expert demonstrations (Pohlen et al., 2018; Aytar et al., 2018; Garmulewicz et al., 2018), special access to the underlying emulator state (Tang et al., 2017; Stanton & Clune, 2018), or both (Salimans & Chen, 2018). However without such aids, progress on the exploration problem in Montezuma’s Revenge has been slow, with the best methods finding about half the rooms (Bellemare et al., 2016). For these reasons we provide extensive ablations of our method on this environment. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 556, + 825, + 681 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We find that even when disregarding the extrinsic reward altogether, an agent maximizing the RND exploration bonus consistently finds more than half of the rooms in Montezuma’s Revenge. To combine the exploration bonus with the extrinsic rewards we introduce a modification of Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO, Schulman et al. (2017)) that uses two value heads for the two reward streams. This allows the use of different discount rates for the different rewards, and combining episodic and non-episodic returns. With this additional flexibility, our best agent often finds 22 out of the 24 rooms on the first level in Montezuma’s Revenge, and occasionally (though not frequently) passes the first level. The same method gets state of the art performance on Venture and Gravitar. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 688, + 825, + 800 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2 METHOD ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 809, + 282, + 825 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2.1 EXPLORATION BONUSES ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 832, + 385, + 844 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Exploration bonuses are a class of methods that encourage an agent to explore even when the environment’s reward $e _ { t }$ is sparse. They do so by replacing $e _ { t }$ with a new reward $\\boldsymbol { r } _ { t } = \\boldsymbol { e } _ { t } + \\boldsymbol { i } _ { t }$ , where $i _ { t }$ is the exploration bonus associated with the transition at time $t$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 847, + 825, + 888 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "To encourage the agent to visit novel states, it is desirable for $i _ { t }$ to be higher in novel states than in frequently visited ones. Count-based exploration methods provide an example of such bonuses. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 895, + 823, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In a tabular setting with a finite number of states one can define $i _ { t }$ to be a decreasing function of the visitation count $n _ { t } ( s )$ of the state $\\pmb { s }$ . In particular $i _ { t } = 1 / n _ { t } ( s )$ and $i _ { t } = 1 / \\sqrt { n _ { t } ( s ) }$ have been used in prior work (Bellemare et al., 2016; Ostrovski et al., 2018). In non-tabular cases it is not straightforward to produce counts, as most states will be visited at most once. One possible generalization of counts to non-tabular settings is pseudo-counts (Bellemare et al., 2016) which uses changes in state density estimates as an exploration bonus. In this way the counts derived from the density model can be positive even for states that have not been visited in the past, provided they are similar to previously visited states. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 103, + 825, + 217 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "An alternative is to define $i _ { t }$ as the prediction error for a problem related to the agent’s transitions. Generic examples of such problems include forward dynamics and inverse dynamics (Schmidhuber, 1991b; Stadie et al., 2015; Achiam & Sastry, 2017; Pathak et al., 2017; Burda et al., 2018; Haber et al., 2018). Non-generic prediction problems can also be used if specialized information about the environment is available, like predicting physical properties of objects the agent interacts with (Denil et al., 2016). Such prediction errors tend to decrease as the agent collects more experience similar to the current one. For this reason even trivial prediction problems like predicting a constant zero function can work as exploration bonuses (Fox et al., 2018). ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 223, + 825, + 335 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2.2 RANDOM NETWORK DISTILLATION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 342, + 462, + 356 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "This paper introduces a different approach where the prediction problem is randomly generated. This involves two neural networks: a fixed and randomly initialized target network which sets the prediction problem, and a predictor network trained on data collected by the agent. The target network takes an observation to an embedding $f : \\mathcal { O } \\to \\mathbb { R } ^ { k }$ and the predictor neural network $\\hat { f } : \\mathcal { O } \\to \\mathbb { R } ^ { k }$ is trained by gradient descent to minimize the expected MSE $\\| \\hat { f } ( \\mathbf { x } ; \\theta ) - f ( \\mathbf { x } ) \\| ^ { 2 }$ with respect to its parameters $\\theta _ { \\hat { f } }$ . This process distills a randomly initialized neural network into a trained one. The prediction error $i _ { t } = \\| { \\hat { f } } ( \\mathbf { x } ) - f ( \\mathbf { x } ) \\| ^ { 2 }$ is expected to be higher for novel states dissimilar to the ones the predictor has been trained on. This allows to use $i _ { t }$ as an exploration bonus. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 358, + 825, + 479 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "To build intuition we consider a toy model of this process on MNIST. We train a predictor neural network to mimic a randomly initialized target network on training data consisting of a mixture of images with the label 0 and of a target class, varying the proportion of the classes, but not the total number of training examples. We then test the predictor network on the unseen test examples of the target class and report the MSE. In this model the zeros are playing the role of states that have been seen many times before, and the target class is playing the role of states that have been visited infrequently. The results are shown in Figure 2. The figure shows that test error decreases as a function of the number of training examples in the target class, suggesting that this method can be used to detect novelty. Figure 1 shows that the intrinsic reward is high in novel states in an episode of Montezuma’s Revenge. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 484, + 825, + 625 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "One objection to this method is that a sufficiently powerful optimization algorithm might find a predictor that mimics the target random network perfectly on any input (for example the target network itself would be such a predictor). However the above experiment on MNIST shows that standard gradient-based methods don’t overgeneralize in this undesirable way. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 631, + 825, + 688 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2.2.1 SOURCES OF PREDICTION ERRORS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 704, + 465, + 718 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In general, prediction errors can be attributed to a number of factors: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 728, + 622, + 742 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "1. Amount of training data. Prediction error is high where few similar examples were seen by the predictor (epistemic uncertainty). 2. Stochasticity. Prediction error is high because the target function is stochastic (aleatoric uncertainty). Stochastic transitions are a source of such error for forward dynamics prediction. 3. Model misspecification. Prediction error is high because necessary information is missing, or the model class is too limited to fit the complexity of the target function. 4. Learning dynamics. Prediction error is high because the optimization process fails to find a predictor in the model class that best approximates the target function. ", + "bbox": [ + 210, + 755, + 825, + 883 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Factor 1 is what allows one to use prediction error as an exploration bonus. In practice the prediction error is caused by a combination of all of these factors, not all of them desirable. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 895, + 823, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "For instance if the prediction problem is forward dynamics, then factor 2 results in the ‘noisy-TV’ problem. This is the thought experiment where an agent that is rewarded for errors in the prediction of its forward dynamics model gets attracted to stochastic transitions in the environment. A TV randomly switching between channels would be such an attractor, as would a coin flip. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 823, + 159 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "To avoid the undesirable factors 2 and 3, methods such as those by Schmidhuber (1991a); Oudeyer et al. (2007); Lopes et al. (2012); Achiam & Sastry (2017) instead use a measurement of how much the prediction model improves upon seeing a new datapoint. However these approaches tend to be computationally expensive and hence difficult to scale. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 166, + 825, + 222 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "RND obviates factors 2 and 3 since the target network can be chosen to be deterministic and inside the model-class of the predictor network. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 229, + 823, + 257 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2.2.2 RELATION TO UNCERTAINTY QUANTIFICATION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 276, + 550, + 290 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section we highlight a link between the RND prediction error and an uncertainty quantification method introduced by Osband et al. (2018). Namely, consider a regression problem with data distribution $D = \\{ x _ { i } , y _ { i } \\} _ { i }$ . In the Bayesian setting we would consider a prior $p ( \\theta ^ { * } )$ over the parameters of a mapping $f _ { \\theta ^ { \\ast } }$ and calculate the posterior after updating on the evidence. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 300, + 825, + 358 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Let $\\mathcal { F }$ be the distribution over functions $g _ { \\theta } = f _ { \\theta } + f _ { \\theta ^ { \\ast } }$ , where $\\theta ^ { * }$ is drawn from $p ( \\theta ^ { * } )$ and $\\theta$ is given by minimizing the expected prediction error ", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 364, + 823, + 392 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/40e1e4406954898d308ac611b74ea3beb5d882a734223f1766538c2807c2be5a.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\theta = \\underset { \\theta } { \\arg \\operatorname* { m i n } } \\mathbb { E } _ { ( \\boldsymbol { x } _ { i } , \\boldsymbol { y } _ { i } ) \\sim D } \\| f _ { \\theta } ( \\boldsymbol { x } _ { i } ) + f _ { \\theta ^ { * } } ( \\boldsymbol { x } _ { i } ) - \\boldsymbol { y } _ { i } \\| ^ { 2 } + \\mathcal { R } ( \\theta ) ,\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 303, + 400, + 692, + 426 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where ${ \\mathcal { R } } ( \\theta )$ is a regularization term coming from the prior (see Lemma 3, Osband et al. (2018)). Osband et al. (2018) argue that the ensemble $\\mathcal { F }$ is an approximation of the posterior. In the case of Bayesian linear regression this statement can be made precise. However even in the case where the functions are not linear, (Osband et al., 2018) experimentally validate that the same procedure can be used as a part of a heuristic for quantifying uncertainty. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 436, + 825, + 507 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "If we specialize the regression targets $y _ { i }$ to be zero, then the optimization problem $\\begin{array} { r } { \\arg \\operatorname* { m i n } _ { \\theta } \\dot { \\mathbb { E } } _ { ( x _ { i } , y _ { i } ) \\sim D } \\big \\| f _ { \\theta } ( x _ { i } ) + f _ { \\theta ^ { * } } ( x _ { i } ) \\big \\| ^ { \\overline { { 2 } } } } \\end{array}$ is equivalent to distilling a randomly drawn function from the prior. (Here we omit the regularization term from the objective and assume that the prior is symmetric around the origin in the parameter space). Seen from this perspective, each coordinate of the output of the predictor and target networks would correspond to a member of an ensemble (with parameter sharing amongst the ensemble), and the MSE would be an estimate of the predictive variance of the ensemble (assuming the ensemble is unbiased). In other words the distillation error could be seen as a quantification of uncertainty in predicting the constant zero function. We believe that a similar mechanism might underlie the performance of RND and (Osband et al., 2018). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 513, + 825, + 640 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2.3 COMBINING INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC RETURNS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 660, + 558, + 674 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In preliminary experiments that used only intrinsic rewards, treating the problem as non-episodic resulted in better exploration. In that setting the return is not truncated at “game over”. We argue that this is a natural way to do exploration in simulated environments, since the agent’s intrinsic return should be related to all the novel states that it could find in the future, regardless of whether they all occur in one episode or are spread over several. It is also argued in (Burda et al., 2018) that using episodic intrinsic rewards can leak information about the task to the agent. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 686, + 825, + 770 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We also argue that this is closer to how humans explore games. For example let’s say Alice is playing a videogame and is attempting a tricky maneuver to reach a suspected secret room. Because the maneuver is tricky the chance of a game over is high, but the payoff to Alice’s curiosity will be high if she succeeds. If Alice is modelled as an episodic reinforcement learning agent, then her future return will be exactly zero if she gets a game over, which might make her overly risk averse. The real cost of a game over to Alice is the opportunity cost incurred by having to play through the game from the beginning (which is presumably less interesting to Alice having played the game for some time). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 776, + 825, + 875 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "However using non-episodic returns for extrinsic rewards could be exploited by a strategy that finds a reward close to the beginning of the game, deliberately restarts the game by getting a game over, and repeats this in an endless cycle. ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 882, + 823, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/93a1a5af091e14224e6c334fcc19af50ec939179be247f3f60872f83ea7a693d.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 2: Novelty detection on MNIST: a predictor network mimics a randomly initialized target network. The training data consists of varying proportions of images from class $\\mathbf { \\ddot { \\rho } } _ { 0 } , \\mathbf { \\vec { \\rho } }$ and a target class. Each curve shows the test MSE on held out target class examples plotted against the number of training examples of the target class (log scale). Curves are an average over 10 random seeds. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 173, + 102, + 498, + 210 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/ca601f9a9a6278ec814eee7fc6a9863430a2a1fc548995f179b9822fd9797600.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 3: Mean episodic return and number of rooms found by pure exploration agents on Montezuma’s Revenge trained without access to the extrinsic reward. The agents explores more in the non-episodic setting (see also Section 2.3). Curves are an average over 5 random seeds. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 514, + 101, + 813, + 218 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "It is not obvious how to estimate the combined value of the non-episodic stream of intrinsic rewards $i _ { t }$ and the episodic stream of extrinsic rewards $e _ { t }$ . Our solution is to observe that the return is linear in the rewards and so can be decomposed as a sum $R = R _ { E } + R _ { I }$ of the extrinsic and intrinsic returns respectively. Hence we can fit two value heads $V _ { E }$ and $V _ { I }$ separately using their respective returns, and combine them to give the value function $V = V _ { E } + V _ { I }$ . This same idea can also be used to combine reward streams with different discount factors. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 349, + 825, + 433 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Note that even where one is not trying to combine episodic and non-episodic reward streams, or reward streams with different discount factors, there may still be a benefit to having separate value functions since there is an additional supervisory signal to the value function. This may be especially important for exploration bonuses since the extrinsic reward function is stationary whereas the intrinsic reward function is non-stationary. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 439, + 825, + 510 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3 EXPERIMENTS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 534, + 326, + 549 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We begin with an intrinsic reward only experiment on Montezuma’s Revenge in Section 3.1 to isolate the inductive bias of the RND bonus, follow by extensive ablations of RND on Montezuma’s Revenge in Sections 3.2-3.5 to understand the factors that contribute to RND’s performance, and conclude with a comparison to baseline methods on 6 hard exploration Atari games in Section 3.6. For details of hyperparameters and architectures we refer the reader to Appendices A.3 and A.4. Most experiments are run for 30K rollouts of length 128 per environment with 128 parallel environments, for a total of 1.97 billion frames of experience. Each curve is an average over a number of random seeds detailed in the caption, and the shaded region is a standard error. Both the mean and the standard error curves were smoothed by averaging over a sliding window of $1 . 3 \\%$ of the datapoints to make the figures more legible. We use the PPO (Schulman et al., 2017) as our policy optimization algorithm for all experiments. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 563, + 825, + 715 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.1 PURE EXPLORATION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 729, + 354, + 743 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section we explore the performance of RND in the absence of any extrinsic reward. In Section 2.3 we argued that exploration with RND might be more natural in the non-episodic setting. By comparing the performance of the pure exploration agent in episodic and non-episodic settings we can see if this observation translates to improved exploration performance. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 750, + 825, + 805 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We report two measures of exploration performance in Figure 3: mean episodic return, and the number of rooms the agent finds over the training run. Since the pure exploration agent is not aware of the extrinsic rewards or number of rooms, it is not directly optimizing for any of these measures. However obtaining some rewards in Montezuma’s Revenge (like getting the key to open a door) is required for accessing more interesting states in new rooms, and hence we observe the extrinsic reward increasing over time up to some point. The best return is achieved when the agent interacts with some of the objects, but the agent has no incentive to keep doing the same once such interactions become repetitive, hence returns are not consistently high. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 813, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/61dca6b8e999dafc337c517cda622a65af1525f686c5306be4eb4745bb0869d6.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 4: Performance of different discount factors for intrinsic and extrinsic reward streams. A higher discount factor for the extrinsic rewards leads to better performance, while for intrinsic rewards it hurts exploration. Curves are an average over 5 random seeds. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 178, + 99, + 491, + 223 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/4b6cf1f7df29e8a665c5217b92158ef80e2fbde10231faaee008438af93eafda.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 5: Mean episodic return and number of discovered rooms improve as the number of parallel environments used for collecting the experience increases. The runs have processed 0.5,2,4, and 16B frames. Curves are an average over 10 random seeds. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 504, + 99, + 816, + 223 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We clearly see in Figure 3 that on both measures of exploration the non-episodic agent performs best, consistent with the discussion in Section 2.3. The non-episodic setting with $\\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9 9$ explores more rooms than $\\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9$ , with one of the runs exploring 21 rooms. The best return achieved by 4 out 5 runs of this setting was 6,700. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 328, + 825, + 383 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.2 COMBINING EPISODIC AND NON-EPISODIC RETURNS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 404, + 578, + 416 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In Section 3.1 we saw that the non-episodic setting resulted in more exploration than the episodic setting when exploring without any extrinsic rewards. Next we consider whether this holds in the case where we combine intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. As discussed in Section 2.3 in order to combine episodic and non-episodic reward streams we require two value heads. This also raises the question of whether it is better to have two value heads even when both reward streams are episodic. In Figure 6 we compare episodic intrinsic rewards to non-episodic intrinsic rewards combined with episodic extrinsic rewards, and additionally two value heads versus one for the episodic case. The discount factors are $\\gamma _ { I } = \\gamma _ { E } = 0 . 9 9$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 428, + 825, + 540 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/1b42b8a064a47299032e8d06a851ea87b6cd52c1786f9b487a675ffb9a70b67a.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 6: Different ways of combining intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Combining non-episodic stream of intrinsic rewards with the episodic stream of extrinsic rewards outperforms combining episodic versions of both steams in terms of number of explored rooms, but performs similarly in terms of mean return. Single value estimate of the combined stream of episodic returns performs a little better than the dual value estimate. The differences are more pronounced with RNN policies. CNN runs are more stable than the RNN counterparts. Curves are an average over 5 random seeds. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 171, + 554, + 816, + 693 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In Figure 6 we see that using a non-episodic intrinsic reward stream increases the number of rooms explored for both CNN and RNN policies, consistent with the experiments in Section 3.1, but that the difference is less dramatic, likely because the extrinsic reward is able to preserve useful behaviors. We also see that the difference is less pronounced for the CNN experiments, and that the RNN results tend to be less stable and perform worse overall. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 799, + 825, + 868 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Contrary to our expectations (Section 2.3) using two value heads did not show any benefit over a single head in the episodic setting. Nevertheless having two value heads is necessary for combining reward streams with different characteristics (for example having different discount factors or combining episodic rewards with non-episodic reward), and so all further experiments use two value heads. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 876, + 825, + 931 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.3 DISCOUNT FACTORS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 104, + 356, + 117 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Previous experiments (Salimans & Chen, 2018; Pohlen et al., 2018; Garmulewicz et al., 2018) solving Montezuma’s Revenge using expert demonstrations used a high discount factor to achieve the best performance, enabling the agent to anticipate rewards far into the future. We compare the performance of the RND agent with ${ \\gamma _ { E } \\in \\{ 0 . 9 9 , 0 . 9 9 9 \\} }$ and $\\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9$ . We also investigate the effect of increasing $\\gamma _ { I }$ to 0.999. The results are shown in Figure 4. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 119, + 825, + 189 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In Figure 4 we see that increasing $\\gamma _ { E }$ to 0.999 while holding $\\gamma _ { I }$ at 0.99 greatly improves performance. This setting had a mean return of $1 1 . 5 \\mathrm { K }$ at the end of training, setting a new state of the art. We also see that further increasing $\\gamma _ { I }$ to 0.999 hurts performance. This is at odds with the results in Figure 3 where increasing $\\gamma _ { I }$ did not significantly impact performance. We note that the effect of increasing $\\gamma _ { E }$ is hard to disentangle from the effective increase in the weight of the extrinsic reward in the return. To address this ambiguity we would need to run an extensive hyperparameter sweep of the weights of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards and $\\gamma _ { E }$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 195, + 825, + 294 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.4 RECURRENCE", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 300, + 312, + 314 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Montezuma’s Revenge is a partially observable environment even though large parts of the game state can be inferred from the screen. For example the number of keys the agent has appears on the screen, but not where they come from, how many keys have been used in the past, or what doors have been opened. To deal with this partial observability, an agent should maintain a state summarizing the past, for example the state of a recurrent policy. Hence it would be natural to hope for better performance from agents with recurrent policies. Contrary to expectations in Figure 6 recurrent policies performed worse than non-recurrent counterparts. We provide an additional experiment confirming this finding in the Appendix (fig. 8). However this finding did not hold true for other games as shown in Section 3.6. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 327, + 825, + 452 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.5 SCALING UP RNN TRAINING ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 469, + 415, + 483 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section we report experiments showing the effect of increased scale on RNN training. The intrinsic rewards are non-episodic with $\\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9$ , and $\\gamma _ { E } = 0 . 9 9 9$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 496, + 821, + 525 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "To hold the rate at which the intrinsic reward decreases over time constant across experiments with different numbers of parallel environments, we downsample the batch size when training the predictor to match the batch size with 32 parallel environments (for full details see Appendix A.4). Larger numbers of environments results in larger batch sizes per update for training the policy, whereas the predictor network batch size remains constant. Since the intrinsic reward disappears over time it is important for the policy to learn to find and exploit these transitory rewards, since they act as stepping-stones to nearby novel states. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 531, + 825, + 628 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Figure 5 shows that agents trained with larger batches of experience collected from more parallel environments obtain higher mean returns after similar numbers of updates. They also achieve better final performance. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 636, + 825, + 678 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We allowed the experiment with 32 parallel environments to run for more time, eventually reaching a mean return of 7,570 after processing 1.6 billion frames over 1.6 million parameter updates. One of these runs visited all 24 rooms, and passed the first level once, achieving a best return of 17,500. The experiment with 1024 parallel environments had mean return of 10,070 at the end of training, and yielded one run with mean return of 14,415. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 684, + 825, + 753 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.6 COMPARISON TO BASELINES", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 762, + 413, + 775 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section we compare RND to two baselines: PPO without an exploration bonus and an alternative exploration bonus based on forward dynamics error. We evaluate RND’s performance on six hard exploration Atari games: Gravitar, Montezuma’s Revenge, Pitfall!, Private Eye, Solaris, and Venture. We first compare to the performance of a baseline PPO implementation without intrinsic reward. For RND the intrinsic rewards are non-episodic with $\\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9$ , while $\\gamma _ { E } = 0 . 9 9 9$ for both PPO and RND. The results are shown in Figure 7. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 777, + 823, + 861 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In Gravitar we see that RND does not consistently exceed the performance of PPO. However both exceed average human performance with an RNN policy, as well as the previous state of the art. On Montezuma’s Revenge and Venture RND significantly outperforms PPO, and exceeds state of the art performance and average human performance. On Pitfall! both algorithms fail to find any positive rewards. This is a typical result for this game, as the extrinsic positive reward is very sparse. On Private Eye RND’s performance exceeds that of PPO. On Solaris RND’s performance is comparable to that of PPO. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 867, + 823, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/a0506de551a67c05446cd8412d0e1fc163664795a085fd893cc73084486f208f.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 7: Mean episodic return of RND, dynamics-based exploration method, and PPO with extrinsic reward only on 6 hard exploration Atari games. RND achieves state of the art performance on Gravitar, Montezuma’s Revenge, and Venture, significantly outperforming PPO on the latter two. Curves are an average over 3 random seeds. Horizontal axes show numbers of parameter updates at the bottom of the graphs and the numbers of frames at the top. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 825, + 325 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 439, + 825, + 481 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Next we consider an alternative exploration bonus based on forward dynamics error. There are numerous previous works using such a bonus (Schmidhuber, 1991b; Stadie et al., 2015; Achiam & Sastry, 2017; Pathak et al., 2017; Burda et al., 2018). Fortuitously Burda et al. (2018) show that training a forward dynamics model in a random feature space typically works as well as any other feature space when used to create an exploration bonus. This means that we can easily implement an apples to apples comparison and change the loss in RND so the predictor network predicts the random features of the next observation given the current observation and action, while holding fixed all other parts of our method such as dual value heads, non-episodic intrinsic returns, normalization schemes etc. This provides an ablation of the prediction problem defining the exploration bonus, while also being representative of a class of prior work using forward dynamics error. Our expectation was that these methods should be fairly similar except where the dynamics-based agent is able to exploit non-determinism in the environment to get intrinsic reward. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 488, + 825, + 655 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Figure 7 shows that dynamics-based exploration performs significantly worse than RND with the same CNN policy on Montezuma’s Revenge, PrivateEye, and Solaris, and performs similarly on Venture, Pitfall, and Gravitar. By analyzing agent’s behavior at convergence we notice that in Montezuma’s Revenge the agent oscillates between two rooms. This leads to an irreducibly high prediction error, as the non-determinism of sticky actions makes it impossible to know whether, once the agent is close to crossing a room boundary, making one extra step will result in it staying in the same room, or crossing to the next one. This is a manifestation of the ‘noisy TV’ problem, or aleatoric uncertainty discussed in Section 2.2.1. Similar behavior emerges in PrivateEye and Pitfall!. Table 5 in Appendix A.6 contains further details on the final mean performance of each algorithm. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 661, + 825, + 786 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.7 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS: DANCING WITH SKULLS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 811, + 563, + 825 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "By observing the RND agent (goo.gl/DGPC8E), we notice that frequently once it obtains all the extrinsic rewards that it knows how to obtain reliably (as judged by the extrinsic value function), the agent settles into a pattern of behavior where it keeps interacting with potentially dangerous objects. For instance in Montezuma’s Revenge the agent jumps back and forth over a moving skull, moves in between laser gates, and gets on and off disappearing bridges. We also observe similar behavior in Pitfall!. It might be related to the very fact that such dangerous states are difficult to achieve, and hence are rarely represented in agent’s past experience compared to safer states. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 833, + 825, + 931 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "4 RELATED WORK ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 102, + 344, + 117 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Exploration. Count-based exploration bonuses are a natural and effective way to do exploration (Strehl & Littman, 2008) and a lot of work has studied how to tractably generalize count bonuses to large state spaces (Bellemare et al., 2016; Fu et al., 2017; Ostrovski et al., 2018; Tang et al., 2017; Machado et al., 2018; Fox et al., 2018). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 130, + 825, + 185 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Another class of exploration methods rely on errors in predicting dynamics (Schmidhuber, 1991b; Stadie et al., 2015; Achiam & Sastry, 2017; Pathak et al., 2017; Burda et al., 2018). As discussed in Section 2.2, these methods are subject to the ‘noisy TV’ problem in stochastic or partially-observable environments. This has motivated work on exploration via quantification of uncertainty (Still & Precup, 2012; Houthooft et al., 2016) or prediction improvement measures (Schmidhuber, 1991a; Oudeyer et al., 2007; Lopes et al., 2012; Achiam & Sastry, 2017). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 193, + 825, + 276 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Other methods of exploration include adversarial self-play (Sukhbaatar et al., 2018), maximizing empowerment (Gregor et al., 2017), parameter noise (Plappert et al., 2017; Fortunato et al., 2017), identifying diverse policies (Eysenbach et al., 2018; Achiam et al., 2018), and using ensembles of value functions (Osband et al., 2018; 2016; Chen et al., 2017). ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 282, + 825, + 338 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Montezuma’s Revenge. Early neural-network based reinforcement learning algorithms that were successful on a significant portion of Atari games (Mnih et al., 2015; 2016; Hessel et al., 2017) failed to make meaningful progress on Montezuma’s Revenge, not finding a way out of the first room reliably. This is not necessarily a failure of exploration, as even a random agent finds the key in the first room once every few hundred thousand steps, and escapes the first room every few million steps. Indeed, a mean return of about 2,500 can be reliably achieved without special exploration methods (Horgan et al., 2018; Espeholt et al., 2018; Oh et al., 2018). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 345, + 825, + 443 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Combining DQN with a pseudo-count exploration bonus Bellemare et al. (2016) set a new state of the art performance, exploring 15 rooms and getting best return of 6,600. Since then a number of other works have achieved similar performance (O’Donoghue et al., 2017; Ostrovski et al., 2018; Machado et al., 2018; Osband et al., 2018), without exceeding it. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 450, + 825, + 506 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Special access to the underlying RAM state can also be used to improve exploration by using it to hand-craft exploration bonuses (Kulkarni et al., 2016; Tang et al., 2017; Stanton & Clune, 2018). Even with such access previous work achieves performance inferior to average human performance. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 513, + 825, + 555 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Expert demonstrations can be used effectively to simplify the exploration problem in Montezuma’s Revenge, and a number of works (Salimans & Chen, 2018; Pohlen et al., 2018; Aytar et al., 2018; Garmulewicz et al., 2018) have achieved performance comparable to or better than that of human experts. Learning from expert demonstrations benefits from the game’s determinism. The suggested training method (Machado et al., 2017) to prevent an agent from simply memorizing the correct sequence of actions is to use sticky actions (i.e. randomly repeating previous action) has not been used in these works. In this work we use sticky actions and thus don’t rely on determinism. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 561, + 825, + 659 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Random features. Features of randomly initialized neural networks have been extensively studied in the context of supervised learning (Rahimi & Recht, 2008; Saxe et al., 2011; Jarrett et al., 2009; Yang et al., 2015). More recently they have been used in the context of exploration (Osband et al., 2018; Burda et al., 2018). The work Osband et al. (2018) provides motivation for random network distillation as discussed in Section 2.2. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 666, + 825, + 736 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Vectorized value functions. Pong et al. (2018) find that a vectorized value function (with coordinates corresponding to additive factors of the reward) improves their method. Bellemare et al. (2017) parametrize the value as a linear combination of value heads that estimate probabilities of discretized returns. However the Bellman backup equation used there is not itself vectorized. More broadly, the issue of how to approach optimizing multiple objectives is an important topic in reinforcement learning, see (Roijers et al., 2013). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 743, + 825, + 827 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5 DISCUSSION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 840, + 310, + 856 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "This paper introduced an exploration method based on random network distillation and experimentally showed that the method is capable of performing directed exploration on several Atari games with very sparse rewards. These experiments suggest that progress on hard exploration games is possible with relatively simple generic methods, especially when applied at scale. They also suggest that methods that are able to treat the stream of intrinsic rewards separately from the stream of extrinsic rewards (for instance by having separate value heads) can benefit from such flexibility. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 867, + 823, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 103, + 821, + 132 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We find that the RND exploration bonus is sufficient to deal with local exploration, i.e. exploring the consequences of short-term decisions, like whether to interact with a particular object, or avoid it. However global exploration that involves coordinated decisions over long time horizons is beyond the reach of our method. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 138, + 825, + 194 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "To solve the first level of Montezuma’s Revenge, the agent must enter a room locked behind two doors. There are four keys and six doors spread throughout the level. Any of the four keys can open any of the six doors, but are consumed in the process. To open the final two doors the agent must therefore forego opening two of the doors that are easier to find and that would immediately reward it for opening them. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 202, + 825, + 271 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "To incentivize this behavior the agent should receive enough intrinsic reward for saving the keys to balance the loss of extrinsic reward from using them early on. From our analysis of the RND agent’s behavior, it does not get a large enough incentive to try this strategy, and only stumbles upon it rarely. 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An analysis of model-based interval estimation for markov decision processes. Journal of Computer and System Sciences, 74(8):1309–1331, 2008. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 199, + 823, + 228 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Sainbayar Sukhbaatar, Ilya Kostrikov, Arthur Szlam, and Rob Fergus. Intrinsic motivation and automatic curricula via asymmetric self-play. In ICLR, 2018. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 241, + 823, + 270 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Haoran Tang, Rein Houthooft, Davis Foote, Adam Stooke, Xi Chen, Yan Duan, John Schulman, Filip DeTurck, and Pieter Abbeel. # exploration: A study of count-based exploration for deep reinforcement learning. In NIPS, 2017. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 282, + 825, + 324 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Zichao Yang, Marcin Moczulski, Misha Denil, Nando de Freitas, Alex Smola, Le Song, and Ziyu Wang. Deep fried convnets. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, pp. 1476–1483, 2015. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 337, + 825, + 380 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Barret Zoph and Quoc V Le. Neural architecture search with reinforcement learning. arXiv preprint arXiv:1611.01578, 2016. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 392, + 823, + 421 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A APPENDIX ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 452, + 297, + 467 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.1 ADDITIONAL METHODOLOGICAL DETAILS ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 483, + 516, + 497 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.1.1 REWARD AND OBSERVATION NORMALIZATION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 510, + 557, + 523 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "One issue with using prediction error as an exploration bonus is that the scale of the reward can vary greatly between different environments and at different points in time, making it difficult to choose hyperparameters that work in all settings. In order to keep the rewards on a consistent scale we normalized the intrinsic reward by dividing it by a running estimate of the standard deviations of the intrinsic returns. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 535, + 825, + 604 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Observation normalization is often important in deep learning but it is crucial when using a random neural network as a target, since the parameters are frozen and hence cannot adjust to the scale of different datasets. Lack of normalization can result in the variance of the embedding being extremely low and carrying little information about the inputs. To address this issue we use an observation normalization scheme often used in continuous control problems whereby we whiten each dimension by subtracting the running mean and then dividing by the running standard deviation. We then clip the normalized observations to be between -5 and 5. We initialize the normalization parameters by stepping a random agent in the environment for a small number of steps before beginning optimization. We use the same observation normalization for both predictor and target networks but not the policy network. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 612, + 825, + 751 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.1.2 REINFORCEMENT LEARNING ALGORITHM ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 768, + 526, + 782 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "An exploration bonus can be used with any RL algorithm by modifying the rewards used to train the model (i.e., $\\boldsymbol { r } _ { t } = \\boldsymbol { i } _ { t } + \\boldsymbol { e } _ { t } ,$ ). We combine our proposed exploration bonus with a baseline reinforcement learning algorithm PPO (Schulman et al., 2017). PPO is a policy gradient method that we have found to require little tuning for good performance. For algorithmic details see Algorithm 1. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 794, + 825, + 849 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.2 RND PSEUDO-CODE ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 868, + 361, + 882 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Algorithm 1 gives an overall picture of the RND method. Exact details of the method can be found in the code accompanying this paper (goo.gl/DGPC8E). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 895, + 823, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Algorithm 1 RND pseudo-code ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 385, + 117 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/591c3503319b8f1bc4963d0f5d81b3980d44fad760389c28a54edeacdcf97fcc.jpg", + "table_caption": [], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
N ←number of rollouts Nopt ← number of optimization steps
K←length of rollout
M ← number of initial steps for initializing observation normalization t=0
Sample state So ~ po(so) for m = 1 to M do
sample at ~ Uniform(at)
sample St+1 ~ p(St+1lst, at)
Update observation normalization parameters using St+1
t+=1
end for
fori=1 to N do
for j = 1 to K do
sample at ~ π(at|St)
sample St+1,et ~p(St+1,et|St, at)
calculate intrinsic reward it = |lf(St+1) - f(St+1)ll²
add St, St+1,at, et,it to optimization batch Bi
Update running estimate of reward standard deviation using it
t+=1
end for
Normalize the intrinsic rewards contained in Bi
Calculate returns R1,i and advantages A1,i for intrinsic reward
Calculate returns RE,i and advantages AE,i for extrinsic reward
Calculate combined advantages Ai = A1,i + AE,i
Update observation normalization parameters using Bi
for j = 1 to Nopt do
optimize 0π wrt PPO loss on batch Bi,Ri,Ai using Adam
optimize 0f wrt distillation loss on Bi using Adam
end for
end for
", + "bbox": [ + 179, + 117, + 818, + 559 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.3 PREPROCESSING DETAILS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 595, + 397, + 609 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Table 1 contains details of how we preprocessed the environment for our experiments. We followed the recommendations in Machado et al. (2017) in using sticky actions in order to make the environments non-deterministic so that memorization of action sequences is not possible. In Table 2 we show additional preprocessing details for the policy and value networks. In Table 3 we show additional preprocessing details for the predictor and target networks. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 626, + 825, + 696 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/06a0a467edba5c6b0b8bfc674d061963b204208f8d6233d3e58968002664507b.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 1: Preprocessing details for the environments for all experiments. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
HyperparameterValue
Grey-scaling Observation downsamplingTrue (84,84)
Extrinsic reward clipping[-1,1]
Intrinsic reward clippingFalse
Max frames per episode18K
Terminal on loss of lifeFalse
Max and skip frames4
Random starts Sticky action probabilityFalse 0.25
", + "bbox": [ + 364, + 718, + 633, + 867 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/917073517c8d7ef5e9fdff2d817b8df5221d75c1a3878ad16d48d08925eb29f0.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 2: Preprocessing details for policy and value network for all experiments. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
HyperparameterValue
Framesstacked Observation4
normalizationxx/255
", + "bbox": [ + 217, + 99, + 444, + 167 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/528d1793123be0719a02f4dfff5c83d1cd13e19dd99773c050ddd0b1fe0f3933.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 3: Preprocessing details for target and predictor networks for all experiments. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
HyperparameterValue
Framesstacked Observation normalization1 x →CLIP((x- μ)/σ,[-5,5])
", + "bbox": [ + 495, + 99, + 848, + 167 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.4 PPO AND RND HYPERPARAMETERS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 236, + 470, + 251 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In Table 4 the hyperparameters for the PPO RL algorithm along with any additional hyperparameters used for RND are shown. Complete details for how these hyperparameters are used can be found in the code accompanying this paper. ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 263, + 825, + 306 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/09a8bbe0f04efb5dcef2dfb92b0cafd63d0d8dd2c37d294af26ab56f825c81a5.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 4: Default hyperparameters for PPO and RND algorithms for experiments where applicable. Any differences to these defaults are detailed in the main text. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
HyperparameterValue
Rollout length128
Total number of rollouts per environment30K
Number of minibatches4
Number of optimization epochs4
Coefficient of extrinsic reward2
Coefficient of intrinsic reward1
Number of parallel environments128
Learning rate0.0001
Optimization algorithmAdam (Kingma& Ba (2015))
入(Schulman et al., 2017)0.95
Entropy coefficient0.001
Proportion of experience used for training predictor0.25
YE0.999
Y10.99
Clip range[0.9,1.1]
", + "bbox": [ + 214, + 320, + 784, + 549 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Initial preliminary experiments with RND were run with only 32 parallel environments. We expected that increasing the number of parallel environments would improve performance by allowing the policy to adapt more quickly to transient intrinsic rewards. This effect could have been mitigated however if the predictor network also learned more quickly. To avoid this situation when scaling up from 32 to 128 environments we kept the effective batch size for the predictor network the same by randomly dropping out elements of the batch with keep probability 0.25. Similarly in our experiments with 256 and 1,024 environments we dropped experience for the predictor with respective probabilities 0.125 and 0.03125. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 604, + 825, + 717 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.5 ARCHITECTURES ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 737, + 338, + 751 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this paper we use two policy architectures: an RNN and a CNN. Both contain convolutional encoders identical of those in the standard architecture from (Mnih et al., 2015). The RNN architecture additionally contains GRU (Cho et al., 2014) cells to capture longer contexts. The architectures of the target and predictor networks also have convolutional encoders identical to the ones in (Mnih et al., 2015) followed by dense layers. Exact details are given in the code accompanying this paper (goo.gl/DGPC8E). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 763, + 825, + 848 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.6 ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 869, + 486, + 882 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Figure 8 compares the performance of a recurrent policy to a CNN policy with access to only the last 16 most recent frames with a matched number of parameters. The intrinsic rewards were non-episodic with $\\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9$ . Here again we see that the CNN policy consistently outperforms the RNN policy on Montezuma’s Revenge. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 895, + 823, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/7c276cdb57223fd4922625d1b815a932fe1f3c9461a67267c4a5fa2aedfd92a6.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 8: Comparison of recurrent and nonrecurrent policies with the same number of parameters with extrinsic reward discount factors ${ \\gamma _ { E } } \\in \\{ 0 . 9 9 , 0 . 9 9 9 \\}$ . Similar to the results in Figure 4, higher discount factors lead to better performance. Contrary to our expectations recurrent policies perform worse than non-recurrent counterparts. Curves are an average over 5 random seeds. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 178, + 103, + 491, + 219 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/17ec87dd5f2e52d5cf8fb54f8d5510330bb246860ef0c688879d1a22df3e058f.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 9: Comparison of RND with a CNN policy with $\\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9$ and $\\gamma _ { E } = 0 . 9 9 9$ with an exploration defined by the reconstruction error of an autoencoder, holding all other choices constant (e.g. using dual value, treating intrinsic return as non-episodic etc). The performance of the autoencoder-based agent is worse than that of RND, but exceeds that of baseline PPO. Curves are an average over 5 random seeds. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 504, + 103, + 818, + 220 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 368, + 823, + 397 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Figure 9 compares the performance of RND with an identical algorithm, but with the exploration bonus defined as the reconstruction error of an autoencoder. The autoencoding task is similar in nature to the random network distillation, as it also obviates the second (though not necessarily the third) sources of prediction error from section 2.2.1. The experiment shows that the autoencoding task can also be successfully used for exploration. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 404, + 825, + 474 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In Table 5 we see more details of the experiments in Section 3.6. There the final training performance for each algorithm is listed, alongside the state of the art from previous work and average human performance. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 479, + 825, + 522 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/7c8ccbe845127dafd97ac3623702be8f1fdbc8dfcf940356f0730e7d55c117ef.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 5: Comparison to baselines results. Final mean performance for various methods. State of the art results taken from: [1] (Fortunato et al., 2017) [2] (Bellemare et al., 2016) [3] (Horgan et al., 2018) " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
GravitarMontezuma's RevengePitfall!PrivateEyeSolarisVenture
RND RNN3,9068,152-38,6663,2821,859
PPO RNN3,4262,49701053,3870
RND CNN2,21711,347-210,1171,0501,878
DYN CNN2,654400-1315151,807
PPO CNN2,3701,79701001,4950
SOTA2,20913,700²015,806212,38011,8133
Avg. Human3,3514,7536,46469,57112,3271,188
", + "bbox": [ + 209, + 534, + 789, + 655 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.7 ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 744, + 488, + 758 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In Table 6 we show the number of seeds used for each experiment, indexed by figure. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 770, + 730, + 786 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/b836d8f97044d2fefd4920578c75ae46f762c407d0337d8a641f85ce26548f08.jpg", + "table_caption": [], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
Figure numberNumberof seeds
1NA
210
35
45
510
65
73
85
95
", + "bbox": [ + 375, + 411, + 622, + 555 + ], + "page_idx": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Table 6: The numbers of seeds run for each experiment is shown in the table. The results of each seed are then averaged to provide a mean curve in each figure, and the standard error is used make the shaded region surrounding each curve. 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See goo.gl/DGPC8E for videos.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 30 + } + ], + "index": 27.5 + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 505, + 159 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 506, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 506, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Recent developments in RL seem to suggest that solving the most challenging tasks (Silver et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 92, + 507, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 92, + 507, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2016; Zoph & Le, 2016; Horgan et al., 2018; Espeholt et al., 2018; OpenAI, 2018; OpenAI et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 103, + 506, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 103, + 506, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2018) requires processing large numbers of samples obtained from running many copies of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 127 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 127 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment in parallel. In light of this it is desirable to have exploration methods that scale well", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 505, + 139 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 505, + 139 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with large amounts of experience. However many of the recently introduced exploration methods", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 136, + 505, + 151 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 136, + 505, + 151 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "based on counts, pseudo-counts, information gain or prediction gain are difficult to scale up to large", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 245, + 161 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 245, + 161 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "numbers of parallel environments.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 165, + 505, + 242 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 505, + 178 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 505, + 178 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This paper introduces an exploration bonus that is particularly simple to implement, works well with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 175, + 505, + 190 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 175, + 505, + 190 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "high-dimensional observations, can be used with any policy optimization algorithm, and is efficient", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 506, + 200 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 506, + 200 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to compute as it requires only a single forward pass of a neural network on a batch of experience.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 198, + 505, + 211 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 198, + 505, + 211 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our exploration bonus is based on the observation that neural networks tend to have significantly", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 208, + 505, + 222 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 208, + 505, + 222 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "lower prediction errors on examples similar to those on which they have been trained. This motivates", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 219, + 505, + 234 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 219, + 505, + 234 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the use of prediction errors of networks trained on the agent’s past experience to quantify the novelty", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 231, + 185, + 245 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 231, + 185, + 245 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of new experience.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 248, + 505, + 336 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 247, + 505, + 261 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 247, + 505, + 261 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "As pointed out by many authors, agents that maximize such prediction errors tend to get attracted", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 260, + 506, + 271 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 260, + 506, + 271 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to transitions where the answer to the prediction problem is a stochastic function of the inputs.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 506, + 282 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 506, + 282 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For example if the prediction problem is that of predicting the next observation given the current", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 281, + 506, + 293 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 281, + 506, + 293 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "observation and agent’s action (forward dynamics), an agent trying to maximize this prediction error", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 291, + 506, + 304 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 291, + 506, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "will tend to seek out stochastic transitions, like those involving randomly changing static noise on a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 302, + 506, + 315 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 302, + 506, + 315 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "TV, or outcomes of random events such as coin tosses. This observation motivated the use of methods", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 314, + 506, + 326 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 314, + 506, + 326 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that quantify the relative improvement of the prediction, rather than its absolute error. Unfortunately,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 401, + 338 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 401, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as previously mentioned, such methods are hard to implement efficiently.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 17.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 109, + 342, + 502, + 374 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 341, + 505, + 354 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 341, + 505, + 354 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We propose an alternative solution to this undesirable stochasticity by defining an exploration bonus", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 505, + 365 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 505, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using a prediction problem where the answer is a deterministic function of its inputs. Namely we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 363, + 473, + 375 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 363, + 473, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predict the output of a fixed randomly initialized neural network on the current observation.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 380, + 505, + 435 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 505, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 505, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Atari games have been a standard benchmark for deep reinforcement learning algorithms since the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 390, + 506, + 405 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 390, + 506, + 405 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "pioneering work by Mnih et al. (2013). Bellemare et al. (2016) identified among these games the hard", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 402, + 505, + 415 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 402, + 505, + 415 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "exploration games with sparse rewards: Freeway, Gravitar, Montezuma’s Revenge, Pitfall!, Private", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 413, + 506, + 426 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 413, + 506, + 426 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Eye, Solaris, and Venture. RL algorithms tend to struggle on these games, often not finding even a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 425, + 198, + 436 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 425, + 198, + 436 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "single positive reward.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 441, + 505, + 540 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 440, + 506, + 455 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 440, + 506, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In particular, Montezuma’s Revenge is considered to be a difficult problem for RL agents, requiring a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 452, + 505, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 452, + 505, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "combination of mastery of multiple in-game skills to avoid deadly obstacles, and finding rewards that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 464, + 506, + 475 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 464, + 506, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are hundreds of steps apart from each other even under optimal play. Significant progress has been", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 474, + 506, + 486 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 474, + 506, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "achieved by methods with access to either expert demonstrations (Pohlen et al., 2018; Aytar et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 485, + 506, + 498 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 485, + 506, + 498 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2018; Garmulewicz et al., 2018), special access to the underlying emulator state (Tang et al., 2017;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 506, + 509 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 506, + 509 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Stanton & Clune, 2018), or both (Salimans & Chen, 2018). However without such aids, progress", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 505, + 520 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 505, + 520 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the exploration problem in Montezuma’s Revenge has been slow, with the best methods finding", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 517, + 506, + 531 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 517, + 506, + 531 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "about half the rooms (Bellemare et al., 2016). For these reasons we provide extensive ablations of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 530, + 238, + 540 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 530, + 238, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "our method on this environment.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 545, + 505, + 634 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 545, + 505, + 559 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 545, + 505, + 559 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We find that even when disregarding the extrinsic reward altogether, an agent maximizing the RND", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 557, + 505, + 569 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 557, + 505, + 569 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "exploration bonus consistently finds more than half of the rooms in Montezuma’s Revenge. To", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 568, + 505, + 579 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 568, + 505, + 579 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "combine the exploration bonus with the extrinsic rewards we introduce a modification of Proximal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 579, + 505, + 590 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 579, + 505, + 590 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Policy Optimization (PPO, Schulman et al. (2017)) that uses two value heads for the two reward", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 589, + 506, + 603 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 589, + 506, + 603 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "streams. This allows the use of different discount rates for the different rewards, and combining", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 601, + 506, + 613 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 601, + 506, + 613 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "episodic and non-episodic returns. With this additional flexibility, our best agent often finds 22 out of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 611, + 506, + 624 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 611, + 506, + 624 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the 24 rooms on the first level in Montezuma’s Revenge, and occasionally (though not frequently)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 496, + 635 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 496, + 635 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "passes the first level. The same method gets state of the art performance on Venture and Gravitar.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + } + ], + "index": 42.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 641, + 173, + 654 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 639, + 174, + 657 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 639, + 174, + 657 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 METHOD", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 659, + 236, + 669 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 658, + 236, + 671 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 658, + 236, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.1 EXPLORATION BONUSES", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 671, + 505, + 704 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 671, + 505, + 684 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 671, + 505, + 684 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Exploration bonuses are a class of methods that encourage an agent to explore even when the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 682, + 505, + 694 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 682, + 193, + 694 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment’s reward", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 194, + 683, + 203, + 693 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "e _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 203, + 682, + 340, + 694 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is sparse. They do so by replacing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 340, + 683, + 349, + 693 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "e _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 350, + 682, + 425, + 694 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a new reward", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 425, + 682, + 475, + 693 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\boldsymbol { r } _ { t } = \\boldsymbol { e } _ { t } + \\boldsymbol { i } _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 475, + 682, + 505, + 694 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", where", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 693, + 371, + 704 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 694, + 114, + 704 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "i _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 693, + 362, + 704 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the exploration bonus associated with the transition at time", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 362, + 694, + 367, + 703 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 693, + 371, + 704 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 709, + 504, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 361, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To encourage the agent to visit novel states, it is desirable for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 362, + 711, + 370, + 721 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "i _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to be higher in novel states than", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in frequently visited ones. Count-based exploration methods provide an example of such bonuses.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + } + ], + "index": 52.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 1, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 308, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 763 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 763 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 505, + 159 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 506, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 506, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Recent developments in RL seem to suggest that solving the most challenging tasks (Silver et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 92, + 507, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 92, + 507, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2016; Zoph & Le, 2016; Horgan et al., 2018; Espeholt et al., 2018; OpenAI, 2018; OpenAI et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 103, + 506, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 103, + 506, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2018) requires processing large numbers of samples obtained from running many copies of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 127 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 127 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment in parallel. In light of this it is desirable to have exploration methods that scale well", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 505, + 139 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 505, + 139 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with large amounts of experience. However many of the recently introduced exploration methods", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 136, + 505, + 151 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 136, + 505, + 151 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "based on counts, pseudo-counts, information gain or prediction gain are difficult to scale up to large", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 245, + 161 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 245, + 161 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "numbers of parallel environments.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 3, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 83, + 507, + 161 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 165, + 505, + 242 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 505, + 178 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 505, + 178 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This paper introduces an exploration bonus that is particularly simple to implement, works well with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 175, + 505, + 190 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 175, + 505, + 190 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "high-dimensional observations, can be used with any policy optimization algorithm, and is efficient", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 506, + 200 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 506, + 200 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to compute as it requires only a single forward pass of a neural network on a batch of experience.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 198, + 505, + 211 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 198, + 505, + 211 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our exploration bonus is based on the observation that neural networks tend to have significantly", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 208, + 505, + 222 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 208, + 505, + 222 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "lower prediction errors on examples similar to those on which they have been trained. This motivates", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 219, + 505, + 234 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 219, + 505, + 234 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the use of prediction errors of networks trained on the agent’s past experience to quantify the novelty", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 231, + 185, + 245 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 231, + 185, + 245 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of new experience.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 10, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 165, + 506, + 245 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 248, + 505, + 336 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 247, + 505, + 261 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 247, + 505, + 261 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "As pointed out by many authors, agents that maximize such prediction errors tend to get attracted", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 260, + 506, + 271 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 260, + 506, + 271 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to transitions where the answer to the prediction problem is a stochastic function of the inputs.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 506, + 282 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 506, + 282 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For example if the prediction problem is that of predicting the next observation given the current", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 281, + 506, + 293 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 281, + 506, + 293 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "observation and agent’s action (forward dynamics), an agent trying to maximize this prediction error", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 291, + 506, + 304 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 291, + 506, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "will tend to seek out stochastic transitions, like those involving randomly changing static noise on a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 302, + 506, + 315 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 302, + 506, + 315 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "TV, or outcomes of random events such as coin tosses. This observation motivated the use of methods", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 314, + 506, + 326 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 314, + 506, + 326 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that quantify the relative improvement of the prediction, rather than its absolute error. Unfortunately,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 401, + 338 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 401, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as previously mentioned, such methods are hard to implement efficiently.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 17.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 247, + 506, + 338 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 109, + 342, + 502, + 374 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 341, + 505, + 354 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 341, + 505, + 354 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We propose an alternative solution to this undesirable stochasticity by defining an exploration bonus", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 505, + 365 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 505, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using a prediction problem where the answer is a deterministic function of its inputs. Namely we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 363, + 473, + 375 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 363, + 473, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predict the output of a fixed randomly initialized neural network on the current observation.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 23, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 341, + 505, + 375 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 380, + 505, + 435 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 505, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 505, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Atari games have been a standard benchmark for deep reinforcement learning algorithms since the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 390, + 506, + 405 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 390, + 506, + 405 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "pioneering work by Mnih et al. (2013). Bellemare et al. (2016) identified among these games the hard", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 402, + 505, + 415 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 402, + 505, + 415 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "exploration games with sparse rewards: Freeway, Gravitar, Montezuma’s Revenge, Pitfall!, Private", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 413, + 506, + 426 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 413, + 506, + 426 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Eye, Solaris, and Venture. RL algorithms tend to struggle on these games, often not finding even a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 425, + 198, + 436 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 425, + 198, + 436 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "single positive reward.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 27, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 380, + 506, + 436 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 441, + 505, + 540 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 440, + 506, + 455 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 440, + 506, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In particular, Montezuma’s Revenge is considered to be a difficult problem for RL agents, requiring a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 452, + 505, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 452, + 505, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "combination of mastery of multiple in-game skills to avoid deadly obstacles, and finding rewards that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 464, + 506, + 475 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 464, + 506, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are hundreds of steps apart from each other even under optimal play. Significant progress has been", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 474, + 506, + 486 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 474, + 506, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "achieved by methods with access to either expert demonstrations (Pohlen et al., 2018; Aytar et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 485, + 506, + 498 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 485, + 506, + 498 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2018; Garmulewicz et al., 2018), special access to the underlying emulator state (Tang et al., 2017;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 506, + 509 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 506, + 509 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Stanton & Clune, 2018), or both (Salimans & Chen, 2018). However without such aids, progress", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 505, + 520 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 505, + 520 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the exploration problem in Montezuma’s Revenge has been slow, with the best methods finding", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 517, + 506, + 531 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 517, + 506, + 531 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "about half the rooms (Bellemare et al., 2016). For these reasons we provide extensive ablations of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 530, + 238, + 540 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 530, + 238, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "our method on this environment.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 34, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 440, + 506, + 540 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 545, + 505, + 634 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 545, + 505, + 559 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 545, + 505, + 559 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We find that even when disregarding the extrinsic reward altogether, an agent maximizing the RND", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 557, + 505, + 569 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 557, + 505, + 569 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "exploration bonus consistently finds more than half of the rooms in Montezuma’s Revenge. To", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 568, + 505, + 579 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 568, + 505, + 579 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "combine the exploration bonus with the extrinsic rewards we introduce a modification of Proximal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 579, + 505, + 590 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 579, + 505, + 590 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Policy Optimization (PPO, Schulman et al. (2017)) that uses two value heads for the two reward", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 589, + 506, + 603 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 589, + 506, + 603 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "streams. This allows the use of different discount rates for the different rewards, and combining", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 601, + 506, + 613 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 601, + 506, + 613 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "episodic and non-episodic returns. With this additional flexibility, our best agent often finds 22 out of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 611, + 506, + 624 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 611, + 506, + 624 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the 24 rooms on the first level in Montezuma’s Revenge, and occasionally (though not frequently)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 496, + 635 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 496, + 635 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "passes the first level. The same method gets state of the art performance on Venture and Gravitar.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + } + ], + "index": 42.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 545, + 506, + 635 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 641, + 173, + 654 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 639, + 174, + 657 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 639, + 174, + 657 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 METHOD", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 659, + 236, + 669 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 658, + 236, + 671 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 658, + 236, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.1 EXPLORATION BONUSES", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 671, + 505, + 704 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 671, + 505, + 684 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 671, + 505, + 684 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Exploration bonuses are a class of methods that encourage an agent to explore even when the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 682, + 505, + 694 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 682, + 193, + 694 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment’s reward", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 194, + 683, + 203, + 693 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "e _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 203, + 682, + 340, + 694 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is sparse. They do so by replacing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 340, + 683, + 349, + 693 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "e _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 350, + 682, + 425, + 694 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a new reward", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 425, + 682, + 475, + 693 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\boldsymbol { r } _ { t } = \\boldsymbol { e } _ { t } + \\boldsymbol { i } _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 475, + 682, + 505, + 694 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", where", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 693, + 371, + 704 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 694, + 114, + 704 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "i _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 693, + 362, + 704 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the exploration bonus associated with the transition at time", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 362, + 694, + 367, + 703 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 693, + 371, + 704 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + } + ], + "index": 50, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 671, + 505, + 704 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 709, + 504, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 361, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To encourage the agent to visit novel states, it is desirable for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 362, + 711, + 370, + 721 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "i _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to be higher in novel states than", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in frequently visited ones. Count-based exploration methods provide an example of such bonuses.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + } + ], + "index": 52.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 505, + 172 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 504, + 94 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 378, + 94 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In a tabular setting with a finite number of states one can define", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 379, + 83, + 387, + 93 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "i _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 83, + 504, + 94 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to be a decreasing function", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 108 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 200, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the visitation count", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 95, + 224, + 107 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "n _ { t } ( s )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 224, + 94, + 274, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 275, + 97, + 281, + 105 + ], + "score": 0.32, + "content": "\\pmb { s }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 281, + 94, + 340, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". In particular", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 341, + 95, + 396, + 107 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "i _ { t } = 1 / n _ { t } ( s )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 397, + 94, + 416, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 416, + 93, + 482, + 108 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "i _ { t } = 1 / \\sqrt { n _ { t } ( s ) }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 482, + 94, + 505, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "have", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 107, + 505, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 107, + 505, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "been used in prior work (Bellemare et al., 2016; Ostrovski et al., 2018). In non-tabular cases it is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 117, + 505, + 129 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 117, + 505, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "not straightforward to produce counts, as most states will be visited at most once. One possible", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 128, + 506, + 141 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 128, + 506, + 141 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "generalization of counts to non-tabular settings is pseudo-counts (Bellemare et al., 2016) which uses", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 140, + 504, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 140, + 504, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "changes in state density estimates as an exploration bonus. In this way the counts derived from the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 505, + 162 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 505, + 162 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "density model can be positive even for states that have not been visited in the past, provided they are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 162, + 247, + 173 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 162, + 247, + 173 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "similar to previously visited states.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 3.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 177, + 505, + 266 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 178, + 506, + 190 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 178, + 213, + 190 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "An alternative is to define", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 178, + 221, + 189 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "i _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 178, + 506, + 190 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as the prediction error for a problem related to the agent’s transitions.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 188, + 506, + 201 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 188, + 506, + 201 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Generic examples of such problems include forward dynamics and inverse dynamics (Schmidhuber,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 199, + 506, + 211 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 199, + 506, + 211 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1991b; Stadie et al., 2015; Achiam & Sastry, 2017; Pathak et al., 2017; Burda et al., 2018; Haber", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 211, + 505, + 223 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 211, + 505, + 223 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2018). Non-generic prediction problems can also be used if specialized information about the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 221, + 506, + 235 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 221, + 506, + 235 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment is available, like predicting physical properties of objects the agent interacts with (Denil", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 232, + 505, + 245 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 232, + 505, + 245 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2016). Such prediction errors tend to decrease as the agent collects more experience similar", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 243, + 505, + 256 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 243, + 505, + 256 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to the current one. For this reason even trivial prediction problems like predicting a constant zero", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 254, + 348, + 266 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 254, + 348, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "function can work as exploration bonuses (Fox et al., 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 11.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 271, + 283, + 282 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 270, + 284, + 284 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 270, + 284, + 284 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.2 RANDOM NETWORK DISTILLATION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 284, + 505, + 380 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 283, + 506, + 296 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 283, + 506, + 296 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This paper introduces a different approach where the prediction problem is randomly generated.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 294, + 505, + 306 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 294, + 505, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This involves two neural networks: a fixed and randomly initialized target network which sets the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 306, + 505, + 318 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 306, + 505, + 318 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prediction problem, and a predictor network trained on data collected by the agent. The target network", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 316, + 504, + 331 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 317, + 262, + 331 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "takes an observation to an embedding", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 317, + 315, + 330 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "f : \\mathcal { O } \\to \\mathbb { R } ^ { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 315, + 317, + 451, + 331 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the predictor neural network", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 452, + 316, + 504, + 330 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\hat { f } : \\mathcal { O } \\to \\mathbb { R } ^ { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 329, + 506, + 344 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 355, + 344 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is trained by gradient descent to minimize the expected MSE", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 356, + 329, + 429, + 343 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\| \\hat { f } ( \\mathbf { x } ; \\theta ) - f ( \\mathbf { x } ) \\| ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 430, + 330, + 506, + 344 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with respect to its", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 506, + 356 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 153, + 356 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameters", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 154, + 342, + 165, + 356 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\theta _ { \\hat { f } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 342, + 506, + 356 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". This process distills a randomly initialized neural network into a trained one. The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 355, + 506, + 371 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 356, + 171, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prediction error", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 171, + 355, + 256, + 369 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "i _ { t } = \\| { \\hat { f } } ( \\mathbf { x } ) - f ( \\mathbf { x } ) \\| ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 256, + 356, + 506, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is expected to be higher for novel states dissimilar to the ones", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 367, + 425, + 381 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 367, + 316, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the predictor has been trained on. This allows to use", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 317, + 369, + 325, + 379 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "i _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 325, + 367, + 425, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as an exploration bonus.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 20.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 384, + 505, + 495 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 385, + 505, + 397 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 385, + 505, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To build intuition we consider a toy model of this process on MNIST. We train a predictor neural", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 397, + 506, + 408 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 397, + 506, + 408 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "network to mimic a randomly initialized target network on training data consisting of a mixture of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 407, + 506, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 407, + 506, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "images with the label 0 and of a target class, varying the proportion of the classes, but not the total", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 419, + 506, + 430 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 419, + 506, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "number of training examples. We then test the predictor network on the unseen test examples of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 429, + 506, + 441 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 429, + 506, + 441 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the target class and report the MSE. In this model the zeros are playing the role of states that have", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 440, + 506, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 440, + 506, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "been seen many times before, and the target class is playing the role of states that have been visited", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 507, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 507, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "infrequently. The results are shown in Figure 2. The figure shows that test error decreases as a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 461, + 505, + 474 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 461, + 505, + 474 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "function of the number of training examples in the target class, suggesting that this method can be", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 473, + 506, + 485 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 473, + 506, + 485 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used to detect novelty. Figure 1 shows that the intrinsic reward is high in novel states in an episode of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 483, + 202, + 496 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 483, + 202, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Montezuma’s Revenge.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 29.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 500, + 505, + 545 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 501, + 506, + 513 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 501, + 506, + 513 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "One objection to this method is that a sufficiently powerful optimization algorithm might find a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 512, + 506, + 524 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 512, + 506, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictor that mimics the target random network perfectly on any input (for example the target", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 523, + 506, + 535 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 523, + 506, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "network itself would be such a predictor). However the above experiment on MNIST shows that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 421, + 547 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 421, + 547 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "standard gradient-based methods don’t overgeneralize in this undesirable way.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 36.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 558, + 285, + 569 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 557, + 287, + 570 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 557, + 287, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.2.1 SOURCES OF PREDICTION ERRORS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 577, + 381, + 588 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 576, + 383, + 590 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 576, + 383, + 590 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In general, prediction errors can be attributed to a number of factors:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 129, + 598, + 505, + 700 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 129, + 597, + 504, + 612 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 129, + 597, + 504, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1. Amount of training data. Prediction error is high where few similar examples were seen by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 610, + 292, + 622 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 610, + 292, + 622 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the predictor (epistemic uncertainty).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 129, + 624, + 506, + 637 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 129, + 624, + 506, + 637 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2. Stochasticity. Prediction error is high because the target function is stochastic (aleatoric un-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 636, + 506, + 648 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 636, + 506, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "certainty). Stochastic transitions are a source of such error for forward dynamics prediction.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 650, + 506, + 665 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 650, + 506, + 665 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3. Model misspecification. Prediction error is high because necessary information is missing,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 663, + 443, + 675 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 663, + 443, + 675 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "or the model class is too limited to fit the complexity of the target function.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 677, + 506, + 691 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 677, + 506, + 691 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4. Learning dynamics. Prediction error is high because the optimization process fails to find a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 689, + 425, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 689, + 425, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictor in the model class that best approximates the target function.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + } + ], + "index": 44.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 709, + 504, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Factor 1 is what allows one to use prediction error as an exploration bonus. In practice the prediction", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 429, + 732 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 429, + 732 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "error is caused by a combination of all of these factors, not all of them desirable.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + } + ], + "index": 49.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 2, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 308, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 25, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 25, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 762 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 762 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 505, + 172 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 504, + 94 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 378, + 94 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In a tabular setting with a finite number of states one can define", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 379, + 83, + 387, + 93 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "i _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 83, + 504, + 94 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to be a decreasing function", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 108 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 200, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the visitation count", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 95, + 224, + 107 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "n _ { t } ( s )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 224, + 94, + 274, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 275, + 97, + 281, + 105 + ], + "score": 0.32, + "content": "\\pmb { s }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 281, + 94, + 340, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". In particular", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 341, + 95, + 396, + 107 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "i _ { t } = 1 / n _ { t } ( s )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 397, + 94, + 416, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 416, + 93, + 482, + 108 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "i _ { t } = 1 / \\sqrt { n _ { t } ( s ) }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 482, + 94, + 505, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "have", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 107, + 505, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 107, + 505, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "been used in prior work (Bellemare et al., 2016; Ostrovski et al., 2018). In non-tabular cases it is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 117, + 505, + 129 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 117, + 505, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "not straightforward to produce counts, as most states will be visited at most once. One possible", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 128, + 506, + 141 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 128, + 506, + 141 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "generalization of counts to non-tabular settings is pseudo-counts (Bellemare et al., 2016) which uses", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 140, + 504, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 140, + 504, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "changes in state density estimates as an exploration bonus. In this way the counts derived from the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 505, + 162 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 505, + 162 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "density model can be positive even for states that have not been visited in the past, provided they are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 162, + 247, + 173 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 162, + 247, + 173 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "similar to previously visited states.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 3.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 83, + 506, + 173 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 177, + 505, + 266 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 178, + 506, + 190 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 178, + 213, + 190 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "An alternative is to define", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 178, + 221, + 189 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "i _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 178, + 506, + 190 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as the prediction error for a problem related to the agent’s transitions.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 188, + 506, + 201 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 188, + 506, + 201 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Generic examples of such problems include forward dynamics and inverse dynamics (Schmidhuber,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 199, + 506, + 211 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 199, + 506, + 211 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1991b; Stadie et al., 2015; Achiam & Sastry, 2017; Pathak et al., 2017; Burda et al., 2018; Haber", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 211, + 505, + 223 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 211, + 505, + 223 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2018). Non-generic prediction problems can also be used if specialized information about the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 221, + 506, + 235 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 221, + 506, + 235 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment is available, like predicting physical properties of objects the agent interacts with (Denil", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 232, + 505, + 245 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 232, + 505, + 245 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2016). Such prediction errors tend to decrease as the agent collects more experience similar", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 243, + 505, + 256 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 243, + 505, + 256 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to the current one. For this reason even trivial prediction problems like predicting a constant zero", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 254, + 348, + 266 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 254, + 348, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "function can work as exploration bonuses (Fox et al., 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 11.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 178, + 506, + 266 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 271, + 283, + 282 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 270, + 284, + 284 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 270, + 284, + 284 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.2 RANDOM NETWORK DISTILLATION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 284, + 505, + 380 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 283, + 506, + 296 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 283, + 506, + 296 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This paper introduces a different approach where the prediction problem is randomly generated.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 294, + 505, + 306 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 294, + 505, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This involves two neural networks: a fixed and randomly initialized target network which sets the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 306, + 505, + 318 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 306, + 505, + 318 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prediction problem, and a predictor network trained on data collected by the agent. The target network", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 316, + 504, + 331 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 317, + 262, + 331 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "takes an observation to an embedding", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 317, + 315, + 330 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "f : \\mathcal { O } \\to \\mathbb { R } ^ { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 315, + 317, + 451, + 331 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the predictor neural network", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 452, + 316, + 504, + 330 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\hat { f } : \\mathcal { O } \\to \\mathbb { R } ^ { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 329, + 506, + 344 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 355, + 344 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is trained by gradient descent to minimize the expected MSE", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 356, + 329, + 429, + 343 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\| \\hat { f } ( \\mathbf { x } ; \\theta ) - f ( \\mathbf { x } ) \\| ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 430, + 330, + 506, + 344 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with respect to its", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 506, + 356 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 153, + 356 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameters", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 154, + 342, + 165, + 356 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\theta _ { \\hat { f } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 342, + 506, + 356 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". This process distills a randomly initialized neural network into a trained one. The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 355, + 506, + 371 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 356, + 171, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prediction error", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 171, + 355, + 256, + 369 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "i _ { t } = \\| { \\hat { f } } ( \\mathbf { x } ) - f ( \\mathbf { x } ) \\| ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 256, + 356, + 506, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is expected to be higher for novel states dissimilar to the ones", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 367, + 425, + 381 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 367, + 316, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the predictor has been trained on. This allows to use", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 317, + 369, + 325, + 379 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "i _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 325, + 367, + 425, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as an exploration bonus.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 20.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 283, + 506, + 381 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 384, + 505, + 495 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 385, + 505, + 397 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 385, + 505, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To build intuition we consider a toy model of this process on MNIST. We train a predictor neural", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 397, + 506, + 408 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 397, + 506, + 408 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "network to mimic a randomly initialized target network on training data consisting of a mixture of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 407, + 506, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 407, + 506, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "images with the label 0 and of a target class, varying the proportion of the classes, but not the total", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 419, + 506, + 430 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 419, + 506, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "number of training examples. We then test the predictor network on the unseen test examples of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 429, + 506, + 441 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 429, + 506, + 441 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the target class and report the MSE. In this model the zeros are playing the role of states that have", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 440, + 506, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 440, + 506, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "been seen many times before, and the target class is playing the role of states that have been visited", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 507, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 507, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "infrequently. The results are shown in Figure 2. The figure shows that test error decreases as a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 461, + 505, + 474 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 461, + 505, + 474 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "function of the number of training examples in the target class, suggesting that this method can be", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 473, + 506, + 485 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 473, + 506, + 485 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used to detect novelty. Figure 1 shows that the intrinsic reward is high in novel states in an episode of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 483, + 202, + 496 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 483, + 202, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Montezuma’s Revenge.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 29.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 385, + 507, + 496 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 500, + 505, + 545 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 501, + 506, + 513 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 501, + 506, + 513 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "One objection to this method is that a sufficiently powerful optimization algorithm might find a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 512, + 506, + 524 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 512, + 506, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictor that mimics the target random network perfectly on any input (for example the target", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 523, + 506, + 535 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 523, + 506, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "network itself would be such a predictor). However the above experiment on MNIST shows that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 421, + 547 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 421, + 547 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "standard gradient-based methods don’t overgeneralize in this undesirable way.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 36.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 501, + 506, + 547 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 558, + 285, + 569 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 557, + 287, + 570 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 557, + 287, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.2.1 SOURCES OF PREDICTION ERRORS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 577, + 381, + 588 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 576, + 383, + 590 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 576, + 383, + 590 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In general, prediction errors can be attributed to a number of factors:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 40, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 576, + 383, + 590 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 129, + 598, + 505, + 700 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 129, + 597, + 504, + 612 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 129, + 597, + 504, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1. Amount of training data. Prediction error is high where few similar examples were seen by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 610, + 292, + 622 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 610, + 292, + 622 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the predictor (epistemic uncertainty).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 129, + 624, + 506, + 637 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 129, + 624, + 506, + 637 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2. Stochasticity. Prediction error is high because the target function is stochastic (aleatoric un-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 636, + 506, + 648 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 636, + 506, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "certainty). Stochastic transitions are a source of such error for forward dynamics prediction.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 650, + 506, + 665 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 650, + 506, + 665 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3. Model misspecification. Prediction error is high because necessary information is missing,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 663, + 443, + 675 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 663, + 443, + 675 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "or the model class is too limited to fit the complexity of the target function.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 677, + 506, + 691 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 677, + 506, + 691 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4. Learning dynamics. Prediction error is high because the optimization process fails to find a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 689, + 425, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 689, + 425, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictor in the model class that best approximates the target function.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + } + ], + "index": 44.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 128, + 597, + 506, + 701 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 709, + 504, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Factor 1 is what allows one to use prediction error as an exploration bonus. In practice the prediction", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 429, + 732 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 429, + 732 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "error is caused by a combination of all of these factors, not all of them desirable.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + } + ], + "index": 49.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 732 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 504, + 126 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For instance if the prediction problem is forward dynamics, then factor 2 results in the ‘noisy-TV’", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 105 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 105 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "problem. This is the thought experiment where an agent that is rewarded for errors in the prediction", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 506, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 506, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of its forward dynamics model gets attracted to stochastic transitions in the environment. A TV", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 454, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 454, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "randomly switching between channels would be such an attractor, as would a coin flip.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + } + ], + "index": 1.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 132, + 505, + 176 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 131, + 506, + 145 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 131, + 506, + 145 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To avoid the undesirable factors 2 and 3, methods such as those by Schmidhuber (1991a); Oudeyer", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 144, + 505, + 155 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 144, + 505, + 155 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. (2007); Lopes et al. (2012); Achiam & Sastry (2017) instead use a measurement of how much", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 506, + 168 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 506, + 168 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the prediction model improves upon seeing a new datapoint. However these approaches tend to be", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 166, + 327, + 177 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 166, + 327, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "computationally expensive and hence difficult to scale.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 5.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 504, + 204 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 505, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 505, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "RND obviates factors 2 and 3 since the target network can be chosen to be deterministic and inside", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 193, + 272, + 205 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 193, + 272, + 205 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the model-class of the predictor network.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 8.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 219, + 337, + 230 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 219, + 338, + 231 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 219, + 338, + 231 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.2.2 RELATION TO UNCERTAINTY QUANTIFICATION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 238, + 505, + 284 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 238, + 505, + 251 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 238, + 505, + 251 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section we highlight a link between the RND prediction error and an uncertainty quantification", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 250, + 506, + 263 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 250, + 506, + 263 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method introduced by Osband et al. (2018). Namely, consider a regression problem with data", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 261, + 505, + 274 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 261, + 157, + 274 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 261, + 219, + 273 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "D = \\{ x _ { i } , y _ { i } \\} _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 261, + 442, + 274 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". In the Bayesian setting we would consider a prior", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 443, + 261, + 466, + 273 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "p ( \\theta ^ { * } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 466, + 261, + 505, + 274 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "over the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 272, + 456, + 285 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 272, + 208, + 285 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameters of a mapping", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 208, + 273, + 222, + 284 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "f _ { \\theta ^ { \\ast } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 272, + 456, + 285 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and calculate the posterior after updating on the evidence.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 12.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 289, + 504, + 311 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 288, + 505, + 302 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 288, + 122, + 302 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 122, + 290, + 132, + 299 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "\\mathcal { F }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 288, + 265, + 302 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be the distribution over functions", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 265, + 289, + 323, + 301 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "g _ { \\theta } = f _ { \\theta } + f _ { \\theta ^ { \\ast } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 324, + 288, + 353, + 302 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 354, + 289, + 365, + 299 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\theta ^ { * }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 365, + 288, + 423, + 302 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is drawn from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 423, + 289, + 447, + 301 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "p ( \\theta ^ { * } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 447, + 288, + 464, + 302 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 465, + 290, + 471, + 299 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "\\theta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 471, + 288, + 505, + 302 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is given", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 300, + 286, + 313 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 300, + 286, + 313 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by minimizing the expected prediction error", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 15.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 186, + 317, + 424, + 338 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 317, + 424, + 338 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 317, + 424, + 338 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\theta = \\underset { \\theta } { \\arg \\operatorname* { m i n } } \\mathbb { E } _ { ( \\boldsymbol { x } _ { i } , \\boldsymbol { y } _ { i } ) \\sim D } \\| f _ { \\theta } ( \\boldsymbol { x } _ { i } ) + f _ { \\theta ^ { * } } ( \\boldsymbol { x } _ { i } ) - \\boldsymbol { y } _ { i } \\| ^ { 2 } + \\mathcal { R } ( \\theta ) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "40e1e4406954898d308ac611b74ea3beb5d882a734223f1766538c2807c2be5a.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 17, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 317, + 424, + 338 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 17 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 346, + 505, + 402 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 506, + 360 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 134, + 360 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 134, + 347, + 156, + 359 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "{ \\mathcal { R } } ( \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 346, + 506, + 360 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is a regularization term coming from the prior (see Lemma 3, Osband et al. (2018)).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 506, + 371 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 289, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Osband et al. (2018) argue that the ensemble", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 289, + 358, + 299, + 368 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\mathcal { F }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 357, + 506, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is an approximation of the posterior. In the case of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 370, + 505, + 381 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 370, + 505, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Bayesian linear regression this statement can be made precise. However even in the case where the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 505, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 505, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "functions are not linear, (Osband et al., 2018) experimentally validate that the same procedure can be", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 390, + 329, + 405 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 390, + 329, + 405 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used as a part of a heuristic for quantifying uncertainty.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 407, + 505, + 507 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 505, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 289, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "If we specialize the regression targets", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 289, + 410, + 299, + 419 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "y _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 406, + 505, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to be zero, then the optimization problem", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 417, + 506, + 432 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 418, + 272, + 432 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\arg \\operatorname* { m i n } _ { \\theta } \\dot { \\mathbb { E } } _ { ( x _ { i } , y _ { i } ) \\sim D } \\big \\| f _ { \\theta } ( x _ { i } ) + f _ { \\theta ^ { * } } ( x _ { i } ) \\big \\| ^ { \\overline { { 2 } } } } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 273, + 417, + 506, + 432 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is equivalent to distilling a randomly drawn function from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 429, + 505, + 441 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 429, + 505, + 441 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the prior. (Here we omit the regularization term from the objective and assume that the prior is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 440, + 505, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 440, + 505, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "symmetric around the origin in the parameter space). Seen from this perspective, each coordinate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 506, + 465 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 506, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the output of the predictor and target networks would correspond to a member of an ensemble", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 462, + 504, + 474 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 462, + 504, + 474 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(with parameter sharing amongst the ensemble), and the MSE would be an estimate of the predictive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 474, + 505, + 486 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 474, + 505, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "variance of the ensemble (assuming the ensemble is unbiased). In other words the distillation error", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 484, + 506, + 497 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 484, + 506, + 497 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "could be seen as a quantification of uncertainty in predicting the constant zero function. We believe", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 496, + 477, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 496, + 477, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that a similar mechanism might underlie the performance of RND and (Osband et al., 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 523, + 342, + 534 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 523, + 343, + 535 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 523, + 343, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.3 COMBINING INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC RETURNS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 544, + 505, + 610 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 544, + 505, + 557 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 544, + 505, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In preliminary experiments that used only intrinsic rewards, treating the problem as non-episodic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 505, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 505, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "resulted in better exploration. In that setting the return is not truncated at “game over”. We argue that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 567, + 505, + 578 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 567, + 505, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "this is a natural way to do exploration in simulated environments, since the agent’s intrinsic return", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 577, + 505, + 589 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 577, + 505, + 589 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "should be related to all the novel states that it could find in the future, regardless of whether they all", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 506, + 601 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 506, + 601 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "occur in one episode or are spread over several. It is also argued in (Burda et al., 2018) that using", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 599, + 405, + 612 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 599, + 405, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "episodic intrinsic rewards can leak information about the task to the agent.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 35.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 615, + 505, + 693 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 505, + 630 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 505, + 630 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We also argue that this is closer to how humans explore games. For example let’s say Alice is playing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 505, + 640 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 505, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a videogame and is attempting a tricky maneuver to reach a suspected secret room. Because the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 505, + 650 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 505, + 650 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "maneuver is tricky the chance of a game over is high, but the payoff to Alice’s curiosity will be high", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 649, + 505, + 662 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 649, + 505, + 662 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "if she succeeds. If Alice is modelled as an episodic reinforcement learning agent, then her future", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 506, + 673 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 506, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "return will be exactly zero if she gets a game over, which might make her overly risk averse. The real", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 672, + 505, + 683 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 672, + 505, + 683 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "cost of a game over to Alice is the opportunity cost incurred by having to play through the game from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 682, + 506, + 694 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 682, + 506, + 694 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the beginning (which is presumably less interesting to Alice having played the game for some time).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 699, + 504, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "However using non-episodic returns for extrinsic rewards could be exploited by a strategy that finds a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 710, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 710, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reward close to the beginning of the game, deliberately restarts the game by getting a game over, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 234, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 234, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "repeats this in an endless cycle.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "page_idx": 3, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 308, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 25, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 25, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 752, + 308, + 759 + ], + "lines": [] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 504, + 126 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For instance if the prediction problem is forward dynamics, then factor 2 results in the ‘noisy-TV’", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 105 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 105 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "problem. This is the thought experiment where an agent that is rewarded for errors in the prediction", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 506, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 506, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of its forward dynamics model gets attracted to stochastic transitions in the environment. A TV", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 454, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 454, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "randomly switching between channels would be such an attractor, as would a coin flip.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + } + ], + "index": 1.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 128 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 132, + 505, + 176 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 131, + 506, + 145 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 131, + 506, + 145 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To avoid the undesirable factors 2 and 3, methods such as those by Schmidhuber (1991a); Oudeyer", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 144, + 505, + 155 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 144, + 505, + 155 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. (2007); Lopes et al. (2012); Achiam & Sastry (2017) instead use a measurement of how much", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 506, + 168 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 506, + 168 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the prediction model improves upon seeing a new datapoint. However these approaches tend to be", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 166, + 327, + 177 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 166, + 327, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "computationally expensive and hence difficult to scale.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 5.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 131, + 506, + 177 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 504, + 204 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 505, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 505, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "RND obviates factors 2 and 3 since the target network can be chosen to be deterministic and inside", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 193, + 272, + 205 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 193, + 272, + 205 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the model-class of the predictor network.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 8.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 182, + 505, + 205 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 219, + 337, + 230 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 219, + 338, + 231 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 219, + 338, + 231 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.2.2 RELATION TO UNCERTAINTY QUANTIFICATION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 238, + 505, + 284 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 238, + 505, + 251 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 238, + 505, + 251 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section we highlight a link between the RND prediction error and an uncertainty quantification", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 250, + 506, + 263 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 250, + 506, + 263 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method introduced by Osband et al. (2018). Namely, consider a regression problem with data", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 261, + 505, + 274 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 261, + 157, + 274 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 261, + 219, + 273 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "D = \\{ x _ { i } , y _ { i } \\} _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 261, + 442, + 274 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". In the Bayesian setting we would consider a prior", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 443, + 261, + 466, + 273 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "p ( \\theta ^ { * } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 466, + 261, + 505, + 274 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "over the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 272, + 456, + 285 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 272, + 208, + 285 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameters of a mapping", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 208, + 273, + 222, + 284 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "f _ { \\theta ^ { \\ast } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 272, + 456, + 285 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and calculate the posterior after updating on the evidence.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 12.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 238, + 506, + 285 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 289, + 504, + 311 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 288, + 505, + 302 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 288, + 122, + 302 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 122, + 290, + 132, + 299 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "\\mathcal { F }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 288, + 265, + 302 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be the distribution over functions", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 265, + 289, + 323, + 301 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "g _ { \\theta } = f _ { \\theta } + f _ { \\theta ^ { \\ast } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 324, + 288, + 353, + 302 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 354, + 289, + 365, + 299 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\theta ^ { * }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 365, + 288, + 423, + 302 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is drawn from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 423, + 289, + 447, + 301 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "p ( \\theta ^ { * } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 447, + 288, + 464, + 302 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 465, + 290, + 471, + 299 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "\\theta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 471, + 288, + 505, + 302 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is given", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 300, + 286, + 313 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 300, + 286, + 313 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by minimizing the expected prediction error", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 15.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 288, + 505, + 313 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 186, + 317, + 424, + 338 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 317, + 424, + 338 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 317, + 424, + 338 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\theta = \\underset { \\theta } { \\arg \\operatorname* { m i n } } \\mathbb { E } _ { ( \\boldsymbol { x } _ { i } , \\boldsymbol { y } _ { i } ) \\sim D } \\| f _ { \\theta } ( \\boldsymbol { x } _ { i } ) + f _ { \\theta ^ { * } } ( \\boldsymbol { x } _ { i } ) - \\boldsymbol { y } _ { i } \\| ^ { 2 } + \\mathcal { R } ( \\theta ) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "40e1e4406954898d308ac611b74ea3beb5d882a734223f1766538c2807c2be5a.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 17, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 317, + 424, + 338 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 17 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 346, + 505, + 402 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 506, + 360 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 134, + 360 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 134, + 347, + 156, + 359 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "{ \\mathcal { R } } ( \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 346, + 506, + 360 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is a regularization term coming from the prior (see Lemma 3, Osband et al. (2018)).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 506, + 371 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 289, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Osband et al. (2018) argue that the ensemble", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 289, + 358, + 299, + 368 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\mathcal { F }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 357, + 506, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is an approximation of the posterior. In the case of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 370, + 505, + 381 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 370, + 505, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Bayesian linear regression this statement can be made precise. However even in the case where the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 505, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 505, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "functions are not linear, (Osband et al., 2018) experimentally validate that the same procedure can be", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 390, + 329, + 405 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 390, + 329, + 405 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used as a part of a heuristic for quantifying uncertainty.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 20, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 346, + 506, + 405 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 407, + 505, + 507 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 505, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 289, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "If we specialize the regression targets", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 289, + 410, + 299, + 419 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "y _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 406, + 505, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to be zero, then the optimization problem", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 417, + 506, + 432 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 418, + 272, + 432 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\arg \\operatorname* { m i n } _ { \\theta } \\dot { \\mathbb { E } } _ { ( x _ { i } , y _ { i } ) \\sim D } \\big \\| f _ { \\theta } ( x _ { i } ) + f _ { \\theta ^ { * } } ( x _ { i } ) \\big \\| ^ { \\overline { { 2 } } } } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 273, + 417, + 506, + 432 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is equivalent to distilling a randomly drawn function from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 429, + 505, + 441 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 429, + 505, + 441 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the prior. (Here we omit the regularization term from the objective and assume that the prior is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 440, + 505, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 440, + 505, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "symmetric around the origin in the parameter space). Seen from this perspective, each coordinate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 506, + 465 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 506, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the output of the predictor and target networks would correspond to a member of an ensemble", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 462, + 504, + 474 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 462, + 504, + 474 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(with parameter sharing amongst the ensemble), and the MSE would be an estimate of the predictive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 474, + 505, + 486 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 474, + 505, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "variance of the ensemble (assuming the ensemble is unbiased). In other words the distillation error", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 484, + 506, + 497 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 484, + 506, + 497 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "could be seen as a quantification of uncertainty in predicting the constant zero function. We believe", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 496, + 477, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 496, + 477, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that a similar mechanism might underlie the performance of RND and (Osband et al., 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 27, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 406, + 506, + 507 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 523, + 342, + 534 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 523, + 343, + 535 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 523, + 343, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.3 COMBINING INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC RETURNS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 544, + 505, + 610 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 544, + 505, + 557 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 544, + 505, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In preliminary experiments that used only intrinsic rewards, treating the problem as non-episodic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 505, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 505, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "resulted in better exploration. In that setting the return is not truncated at “game over”. We argue that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 567, + 505, + 578 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 567, + 505, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "this is a natural way to do exploration in simulated environments, since the agent’s intrinsic return", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 577, + 505, + 589 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 577, + 505, + 589 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "should be related to all the novel states that it could find in the future, regardless of whether they all", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 506, + 601 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 506, + 601 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "occur in one episode or are spread over several. It is also argued in (Burda et al., 2018) that using", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 599, + 405, + 612 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 599, + 405, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "episodic intrinsic rewards can leak information about the task to the agent.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 35.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 544, + 506, + 612 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 615, + 505, + 693 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 505, + 630 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 505, + 630 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We also argue that this is closer to how humans explore games. For example let’s say Alice is playing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 505, + 640 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 505, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a videogame and is attempting a tricky maneuver to reach a suspected secret room. Because the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 505, + 650 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 505, + 650 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "maneuver is tricky the chance of a game over is high, but the payoff to Alice’s curiosity will be high", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 649, + 505, + 662 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 649, + 505, + 662 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "if she succeeds. If Alice is modelled as an episodic reinforcement learning agent, then her future", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 506, + 673 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 506, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "return will be exactly zero if she gets a game over, which might make her overly risk averse. 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This may be especially", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 381, + 505, + 395 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 381, + 505, + 395 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "important for exploration bonuses since the extrinsic reward function is stationary whereas the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 392, + 277, + 406 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 392, + 277, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "intrinsic reward function is non-stationary.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 423, + 200, + 435 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 421, + 202, + 437 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 421, + 202, + 437 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 EXPERIMENTS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 446, + 505, + 567 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 446, + 505, + 459 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 446, + 505, + 459 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We begin with an intrinsic reward only experiment on Montezuma’s Revenge in Section 3.1 to isolate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 456, + 505, + 471 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 456, + 505, + 471 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the inductive bias of the RND bonus, follow by extensive ablations of RND on Montezuma’s Revenge", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 480 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 480 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Sections 3.2-3.5 to understand the factors that contribute to RND’s performance, and conclude with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 479, + 506, + 491 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 479, + 506, + 491 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a comparison to baseline methods on 6 hard exploration Atari games in Section 3.6. For details of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 490, + 505, + 503 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 490, + 505, + 503 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "hyperparameters and architectures we refer the reader to Appendices A.3 and A.4. Most experiments", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 501, + 506, + 514 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 501, + 506, + 514 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are run for 30K rollouts of length 128 per environment with 128 parallel environments, for a total of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 512, + 506, + 525 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 512, + 506, + 525 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1.97 billion frames of experience. Each curve is an average over a number of random seeds detailed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 523, + 506, + 536 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 523, + 506, + 536 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the caption, and the shaded region is a standard error. Both the mean and the standard error curves", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 534, + 506, + 548 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 534, + 330, + 548 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "were smoothed by averaging over a sliding window of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 331, + 534, + 353, + 545 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "1 . 3 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 353, + 534, + 506, + 548 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the datapoints to make the figures", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 545, + 506, + 558 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 545, + 506, + 558 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "more legible. We use the PPO (Schulman et al., 2017) as our policy optimization algorithm for all", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 557, + 160, + 570 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 557, + 160, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "experiments.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 578, + 217, + 589 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 578, + 219, + 591 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 578, + 219, + 591 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.1 PURE EXPLORATION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 594, + 505, + 638 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 505, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 505, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section we explore the performance of RND in the absence of any extrinsic reward. In Section", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 505, + 617 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 505, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.3 we argued that exploration with RND might be more natural in the non-episodic setting. 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This may be especially", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 381, + 505, + 395 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 381, + 505, + 395 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "important for exploration bonuses since the extrinsic reward function is stationary whereas the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 392, + 277, + 406 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 392, + 277, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "intrinsic reward function is non-stationary.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 36, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 349, + 505, + 406 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 423, + 200, + 435 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 421, + 202, + 437 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 421, + 202, + 437 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 EXPERIMENTS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 446, + 505, + 567 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 446, + 505, + 459 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 446, + 505, + 459 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We begin with an intrinsic reward only experiment on Montezuma’s Revenge in Section 3.1 to isolate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 456, + 505, + 471 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 456, + 505, + 471 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the inductive bias of the RND bonus, follow by extensive ablations of RND on Montezuma’s Revenge", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 480 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 480 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Sections 3.2-3.5 to understand the factors that contribute to RND’s performance, and conclude with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 479, + 506, + 491 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 479, + 506, + 491 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a comparison to baseline methods on 6 hard exploration Atari games in Section 3.6. For details of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 490, + 505, + 503 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 490, + 505, + 503 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "hyperparameters and architectures we refer the reader to Appendices A.3 and A.4. Most experiments", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 501, + 506, + 514 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 501, + 506, + 514 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are run for 30K rollouts of length 128 per environment with 128 parallel environments, for a total of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 512, + 506, + 525 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 512, + 506, + 525 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1.97 billion frames of experience. Each curve is an average over a number of random seeds detailed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 523, + 506, + 536 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 523, + 506, + 536 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the caption, and the shaded region is a standard error. 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In Section", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 505, + 617 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 505, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.3 we argued that exploration with RND might be more natural in the non-episodic setting. By", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 504, + 629 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 504, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "comparing the performance of the pure exploration agent in episodic and non-episodic settings we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 54 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 406, + 640 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 406, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can see if this observation translates to improved exploration performance.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 55 + } + ], + "index": 53.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 594, + 505, + 640 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 644, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 643, + 505, + 657 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 643, + 505, + 657 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We report two measures of exploration performance in Figure 3: mean episodic return, and the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 56 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "number of rooms the agent finds over the training run. Since the pure exploration agent is not aware", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 57 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the extrinsic rewards or number of rooms, it is not directly optimizing for any of these measures.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 58 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "However obtaining some rewards in Montezuma’s Revenge (like getting the key to open a door)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 59 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is required for accessing more interesting states in new rooms, and hence we observe the extrinsic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 60 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reward increasing over time up to some point. The best return is achieved when the agent interacts", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 61 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with some of the objects, but the agent has no incentive to keep doing the same once such interactions", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 62 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 340, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 340, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "become repetitive, hence returns are not consistently high.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 63 + } + ], + "index": 59.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 643, + 506, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 109, + 79, + 301, + 177 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 109, + 79, + 301, + 177 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 79, + 301, + 177 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 79, + 301, + 177 + ], + "score": 0.964, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "61dca6b8e999dafc337c517cda622a65af1525f686c5306be4eb4745bb0869d6.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 3.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 79, + 301, + 91.25 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 91.25, + 301, + 103.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 103.5, + 301, + 115.75 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 115.75, + 301, + 128.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 128.0, + 301, + 140.25 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 140.25, + 301, + 152.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 152.5, + 301, + 164.75 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 164.75, + 301, + 177.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 7 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 109, + 181, + 302, + 247 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 181, + 303, + 193 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 181, + 303, + 193 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 4: Performance of different discount fac-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 193, + 302, + 203 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 193, + 302, + 203 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tors for intrinsic and extrinsic reward streams. A", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 203, + 302, + 214 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 203, + 302, + 214 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "higher discount factor for the extrinsic rewards", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 214, + 303, + 225 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 214, + 303, + 225 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "leads to better performance, while for intrinsic re-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 224, + 302, + 238 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 224, + 302, + 238 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "wards it hurts exploration. 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The runs have processed 0.5,2,4,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 308, + 224, + 503, + 237 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 308, + 224, + 503, + 237 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and 16B frames. Curves are an average over 10", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 309, + 236, + 369, + 248 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 309, + 236, + 369, + 248 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "random seeds.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + } + ], + "index": 24.5 + } + ], + "index": 21.0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 260, + 505, + 304 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 259, + 507, + 273 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 259, + 507, + 273 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We clearly see in Figure 3 that on both measures of exploration the non-episodic agent performs best,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 271, + 506, + 284 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 271, + 418, + 284 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "consistent with the discussion in Section 2.3. The non-episodic setting with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 419, + 272, + 467, + 283 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9 9", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 468, + 271, + 506, + 284 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "explores", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 282, + 506, + 295 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 282, + 176, + 295 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "more rooms than", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 176, + 282, + 218, + 294 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 282, + 506, + 295 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", with one of the runs exploring 21 rooms. The best return achieved by 4", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 293, + 251, + 306 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 293, + 251, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "out 5 runs of this setting was 6,700.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 29.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 320, + 354, + 330 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 318, + 356, + 331 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 318, + 356, + 331 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.2 COMBINING EPISODIC AND NON-EPISODIC RETURNS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 339, + 505, + 428 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 340, + 505, + 352 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 340, + 505, + 352 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In Section 3.1 we saw that the non-episodic setting resulted in more exploration than the episodic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 505, + 363 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 505, + 363 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "setting when exploring without any extrinsic rewards. Next we consider whether this holds in the case", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 362, + 505, + 374 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 362, + 505, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where we combine intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. As discussed in Section 2.3 in order to combine", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 373, + 505, + 385 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 373, + 505, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "episodic and non-episodic reward streams we require two value heads. This also raises the question", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 505, + 396 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 505, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of whether it is better to have two value heads even when both reward streams are episodic. In Figure", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 395, + 505, + 407 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 395, + 505, + 407 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6 we compare episodic intrinsic rewards to non-episodic intrinsic rewards combined with episodic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 505, + 418 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 505, + 418 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "extrinsic rewards, and additionally two value heads versus one for the episodic case. The discount", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 417, + 222, + 429 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 417, + 150, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "factors are", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 151, + 417, + 218, + 428 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\gamma _ { I } = \\gamma _ { E } = 0 . 9 9", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 417, + 222, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 36.5 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 500, + 549 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 500, + 549 + ], + "group_id": 2, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 500, + 549 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 500, + 549 + ], + "score": 0.97, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "1b42b8a064a47299032e8d06a851ea87b6cd52c1786f9b487a675ffb9a70b67a.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 42, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 500, + 475.6666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 475.6666666666667, + 500, + 512.3333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 512.3333333333334, + 500, + 549.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 43 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 553, + 506, + 619 + ], + "group_id": 2, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 505, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 505, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 6: Different ways of combining intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Combining non-episodic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 505, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 505, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "stream of intrinsic rewards with the episodic stream of extrinsic rewards outperforms combining", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 575, + 506, + 588 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 575, + 506, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "episodic versions of both steams in terms of number of explored rooms, but performs similarly in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 506, + 598 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 506, + 598 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "terms of mean return. Single value estimate of the combined stream of episodic returns performs a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 596, + 506, + 611 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 596, + 506, + 611 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "little better than the dual value estimate. The differences are more pronounced with RNN policies.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 607, + 503, + 621 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 607, + 503, + 621 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "CNN runs are more stable than the RNN counterparts. 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The runs have processed 0.5,2,4,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 308, + 224, + 503, + 237 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 308, + 224, + 503, + 237 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and 16B frames. 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The non-episodic setting with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 419, + 272, + 467, + 283 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9 9", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 468, + 271, + 506, + 284 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "explores", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 282, + 506, + 295 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 282, + 176, + 295 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "more rooms than", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 176, + 282, + 218, + 294 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 282, + 506, + 295 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", with one of the runs exploring 21 rooms. The best return achieved by 4", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 293, + 251, + 306 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 293, + 251, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "out 5 runs of this setting was 6,700.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 29.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 259, + 507, + 306 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 320, + 354, + 330 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 318, + 356, + 331 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 318, + 356, + 331 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.2 COMBINING EPISODIC AND NON-EPISODIC RETURNS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 339, + 505, + 428 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 340, + 505, + 352 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 340, + 505, + 352 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In Section 3.1 we saw that the non-episodic setting resulted in more exploration than the episodic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 505, + 363 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 505, + 363 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "setting when exploring without any extrinsic rewards. 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In Figure", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 395, + 505, + 407 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 395, + 505, + 407 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6 we compare episodic intrinsic rewards to non-episodic intrinsic rewards combined with episodic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 505, + 418 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 505, + 418 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "extrinsic rewards, and additionally two value heads versus one for the episodic case. 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Curves are an average over 5 random seeds.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + } + ], + "index": 46.5 + } + ], + "index": 44.25 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 633, + 505, + 688 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 646 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 646 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In Figure 6 we see that using a non-episodic intrinsic reward stream increases the number of rooms", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 644, + 504, + 656 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 644, + 504, + 656 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "explored for both CNN and RNN policies, consistent with the experiments in Section 3.1, but that the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 507, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 507, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "difference is less dramatic, likely because the extrinsic reward is able to preserve useful behaviors.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 506, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 506, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We also see that the difference is less pronounced for the CNN experiments, and that the RNN results", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 678, + 300, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 678, + 300, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tend to be less stable and perform worse overall.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 54 + } + ], + "index": 52, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 633, + 507, + 689 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 694, + 505, + 738 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 694, + 505, + 706 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 694, + 505, + 706 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Contrary to our expectations (Section 2.3) using two value heads did not show any benefit over a single", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 55 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 705, + 506, + 718 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 705, + 506, + 718 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "head in the episodic setting. Nevertheless having two value heads is necessary for combining reward", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 56 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 716, + 505, + 729 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 716, + 505, + 729 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "streams with different characteristics (for example having different discount factors or combining", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 57 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 727, + 491, + 739 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 727, + 491, + 739 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "episodic rewards with non-episodic reward), and so all further experiments use two value heads.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 58 + } + ], + "index": 56.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 694, + 506, + 739 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 83, + 218, + 93 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 220, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 220, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.3 DISCOUNT FACTORS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 95, + 505, + 150 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 95, + 505, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 95, + 505, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Previous experiments (Salimans & Chen, 2018; Pohlen et al., 2018; Garmulewicz et al., 2018)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 506, + 119 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 506, + 119 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "solving Montezuma’s Revenge using expert demonstrations used a high discount factor to achieve", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 116, + 505, + 129 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 116, + 505, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the best performance, enabling the agent to anticipate rewards far into the future. We compare the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 506, + 141 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 258, + 141 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance of the RND agent with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 258, + 127, + 339, + 140 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "{ \\gamma _ { E } \\in \\{ 0 . 9 9 , 0 . 9 9 9 \\} }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 340, + 127, + 358, + 141 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 359, + 128, + 402, + 139 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 127, + 506, + 141 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We also investigate the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 138, + 374, + 151 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 138, + 185, + 151 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "effect of increasing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 140, + 196, + 150 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\gamma _ { I }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 197, + 138, + 374, + 151 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to 0.999. The results are shown in Figure 4.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 155, + 505, + 233 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 155, + 506, + 168 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 155, + 239, + 168 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In Figure 4 we see that increasing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 239, + 158, + 253, + 167 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\gamma _ { E }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 253, + 155, + 343, + 168 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to 0.999 while holding", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 157, + 355, + 167 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\gamma _ { I }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 356, + 155, + 506, + 168 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "at 0.99 greatly improves performance.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 506, + 179 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 240, + 179 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This setting had a mean return of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 167, + 266, + 177 + ], + "score": 0.28, + "content": "1 1 . 5 \\mathrm { K }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 266, + 165, + 506, + 179 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "at the end of training, setting a new state of the art. We also", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 177, + 506, + 190 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 177, + 211, + 190 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "see that further increasing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 211, + 179, + 222, + 189 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\gamma _ { I }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 177, + 506, + 190 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to 0.999 hurts performance. This is at odds with the results in Figure 3", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 506, + 202 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 176, + 202 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where increasing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 177, + 190, + 188, + 200 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\gamma _ { I }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 188, + 187, + 506, + 202 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "did not significantly impact performance. We note that the effect of increasing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 199, + 506, + 212 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 201, + 119, + 211 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\gamma _ { E }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 199, + 506, + 212 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is hard to disentangle from the effective increase in the weight of the extrinsic reward in the return.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 210, + 506, + 223 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 210, + 506, + 223 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To address this ambiguity we would need to run an extensive hyperparameter sweep of the weights of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 220, + 263, + 235 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 220, + 245, + 235 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "intrinsic and extrinsic rewards and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 246, + 223, + 259, + 233 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\gamma _ { E }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 220, + 263, + 235 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 238, + 191, + 249 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 237, + 192, + 250 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 237, + 192, + 250 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.4 RECURRENCE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 259, + 505, + 358 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 506, + 272 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 506, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Montezuma’s Revenge is a partially observable environment even though large parts of the game state", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 269, + 507, + 284 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 269, + 507, + 284 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be inferred from the screen. For example the number of keys the agent has appears on the screen,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 281, + 506, + 294 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 281, + 506, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "but not where they come from, how many keys have been used in the past, or what doors have been", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 292, + 506, + 305 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 292, + 506, + 305 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "opened. To deal with this partial observability, an agent should maintain a state summarizing the past,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 302, + 505, + 316 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 302, + 505, + 316 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for example the state of a recurrent policy. Hence it would be natural to hope for better performance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 314, + 505, + 327 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 314, + 505, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from agents with recurrent policies. Contrary to expectations in Figure 6 recurrent policies performed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 324, + 506, + 339 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 324, + 506, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "worse than non-recurrent counterparts. We provide an additional experiment confirming this finding", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 335, + 505, + 349 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 335, + 505, + 349 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the Appendix (fig. 8). However this finding did not hold true for other games as shown in Section", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 125, + 360 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 125, + 360 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.6.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 372, + 254, + 383 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 372, + 255, + 385 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 372, + 255, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.5 SCALING UP RNN TRAINING", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 393, + 503, + 416 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 392, + 505, + 405 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 392, + 505, + 405 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section we report experiments showing the effect of increased scale on RNN training. The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 404, + 380, + 417 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 404, + 264, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "intrinsic rewards are non-episodic with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 264, + 405, + 306, + 416 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 306, + 404, + 326, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 327, + 405, + 376, + 416 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\gamma _ { E } = 0 . 9 9 9", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 376, + 404, + 380, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 24.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 421, + 505, + 498 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 421, + 505, + 434 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 421, + 505, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To hold the rate at which the intrinsic reward decreases over time constant across experiments with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 432, + 505, + 445 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 432, + 505, + 445 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "different numbers of parallel environments, we downsample the batch size when training the predictor", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 442, + 505, + 457 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 442, + 505, + 457 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to match the batch size with 32 parallel environments (for full details see Appendix A.4). Larger", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 454, + 505, + 467 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 454, + 505, + 467 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "numbers of environments results in larger batch sizes per update for training the policy, whereas", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 465, + 504, + 478 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 465, + 504, + 478 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the predictor network batch size remains constant. Since the intrinsic reward disappears over time", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 475, + 505, + 489 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 475, + 505, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "it is important for the policy to learn to find and exploit these transitory rewards, since they act as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 262, + 499 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 262, + 499 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "stepping-stones to nearby novel states.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 504, + 505, + 537 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 503, + 505, + 516 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 503, + 505, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 5 shows that agents trained with larger batches of experience collected from more parallel", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 515, + 505, + 527 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 515, + 505, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environments obtain higher mean returns after similar numbers of updates. They also achieve better", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 525, + 182, + 539 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 525, + 182, + 539 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "final performance.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 542, + 505, + 597 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 543, + 505, + 555 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 543, + 505, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We allowed the experiment with 32 parallel environments to run for more time, eventually reaching a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 554, + 505, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 554, + 505, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "mean return of 7,570 after processing 1.6 billion frames over 1.6 million parameter updates. One of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 565, + 505, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 565, + 505, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "these runs visited all 24 rooms, and passed the first level once, achieving a best return of 17,500. The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 575, + 505, + 588 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 575, + 505, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "experiment with 1024 parallel environments had mean return of 10,070 at the end of training, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 285, + 599 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 285, + 599 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "yielded one run with mean return of 14,415.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 604, + 253, + 614 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 603, + 254, + 616 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 603, + 254, + 616 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.6 COMPARISON TO BASELINES", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 616, + 504, + 682 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 628 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section we compare RND to two baselines: PPO without an exploration bonus and an", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 625, + 506, + 640 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 625, + 506, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "alternative exploration bonus based on forward dynamics error. We evaluate RND’s performance on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 639, + 505, + 650 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 639, + 505, + 650 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "six hard exploration Atari games: Gravitar, Montezuma’s Revenge, Pitfall!, Private Eye, Solaris, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 506, + 661 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 506, + 661 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Venture. We first compare to the performance of a baseline PPO implementation without intrinsic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 506, + 673 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 350, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reward. For RND the intrinsic rewards are non-episodic with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 350, + 660, + 392, + 672 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 393, + 660, + 420, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", while", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 421, + 660, + 470, + 672 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\gamma _ { E } = 0 . 9 9 9", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 470, + 660, + 506, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for both", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 671, + 309, + 683 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 671, + 309, + 683 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PPO and RND. The results are shown in Figure 7.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "index": 44.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 687, + 504, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In Gravitar we see that RND does not consistently exceed the performance of PPO. However both", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 699, + 506, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 699, + 506, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "exceed average human performance with an RNN policy, as well as the previous state of the art. On", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 710, + 506, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 710, + 506, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Montezuma’s Revenge and Venture RND significantly outperforms PPO, and exceeds state of the art", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 506, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 506, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance and average human performance. On Pitfall! both algorithms fail to find any positive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + } + ], + "index": 49.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 6, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 308, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 308, + 759 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 750, + 309, + 762 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 750, + 309, + 762 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "7", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 83, + 218, + 93 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 220, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 220, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.3 DISCOUNT FACTORS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 95, + 505, + 150 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 95, + 505, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 95, + 505, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Previous experiments (Salimans & Chen, 2018; Pohlen et al., 2018; Garmulewicz et al., 2018)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 506, + 119 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 506, + 119 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "solving Montezuma’s Revenge using expert demonstrations used a high discount factor to achieve", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 116, + 505, + 129 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 116, + 505, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the best performance, enabling the agent to anticipate rewards far into the future. We compare the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 506, + 141 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 258, + 141 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance of the RND agent with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 258, + 127, + 339, + 140 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "{ \\gamma _ { E } \\in \\{ 0 . 9 9 , 0 . 9 9 9 \\} }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 340, + 127, + 358, + 141 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 359, + 128, + 402, + 139 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 127, + 506, + 141 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We also investigate the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 138, + 374, + 151 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 138, + 185, + 151 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "effect of increasing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 140, + 196, + 150 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\gamma _ { I }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 197, + 138, + 374, + 151 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to 0.999. The results are shown in Figure 4.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 3, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 95, + 506, + 151 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 155, + 505, + 233 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 155, + 506, + 168 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 155, + 239, + 168 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In Figure 4 we see that increasing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 239, + 158, + 253, + 167 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\gamma _ { E }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 253, + 155, + 343, + 168 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to 0.999 while holding", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 157, + 355, + 167 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\gamma _ { I }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 356, + 155, + 506, + 168 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "at 0.99 greatly improves performance.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 506, + 179 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 240, + 179 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This setting had a mean return of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 167, + 266, + 177 + ], + "score": 0.28, + "content": "1 1 . 5 \\mathrm { K }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 266, + 165, + 506, + 179 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "at the end of training, setting a new state of the art. We also", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 177, + 506, + 190 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 177, + 211, + 190 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "see that further increasing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 211, + 179, + 222, + 189 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\gamma _ { I }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 177, + 506, + 190 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to 0.999 hurts performance. This is at odds with the results in Figure 3", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 506, + 202 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 176, + 202 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where increasing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 177, + 190, + 188, + 200 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\gamma _ { I }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 188, + 187, + 506, + 202 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "did not significantly impact performance. We note that the effect of increasing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 199, + 506, + 212 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 201, + 119, + 211 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\gamma _ { E }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 199, + 506, + 212 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is hard to disentangle from the effective increase in the weight of the extrinsic reward in the return.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 210, + 506, + 223 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 210, + 506, + 223 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To address this ambiguity we would need to run an extensive hyperparameter sweep of the weights of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 220, + 263, + 235 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 220, + 245, + 235 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "intrinsic and extrinsic rewards and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 246, + 223, + 259, + 233 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\gamma _ { E }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 220, + 263, + 235 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 9, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 155, + 506, + 235 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 238, + 191, + 249 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 237, + 192, + 250 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 237, + 192, + 250 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.4 RECURRENCE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 259, + 505, + 358 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 506, + 272 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 506, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Montezuma’s Revenge is a partially observable environment even though large parts of the game state", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 269, + 507, + 284 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 269, + 507, + 284 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be inferred from the screen. For example the number of keys the agent has appears on the screen,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 281, + 506, + 294 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 281, + 506, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "but not where they come from, how many keys have been used in the past, or what doors have been", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 292, + 506, + 305 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 292, + 506, + 305 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "opened. To deal with this partial observability, an agent should maintain a state summarizing the past,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 302, + 505, + 316 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 302, + 505, + 316 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for example the state of a recurrent policy. Hence it would be natural to hope for better performance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 314, + 505, + 327 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 314, + 505, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from agents with recurrent policies. Contrary to expectations in Figure 6 recurrent policies performed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 324, + 506, + 339 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 324, + 506, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "worse than non-recurrent counterparts. We provide an additional experiment confirming this finding", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 335, + 505, + 349 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 335, + 505, + 349 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the Appendix (fig. 8). However this finding did not hold true for other games as shown in Section", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 125, + 360 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 125, + 360 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.6.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 18, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 258, + 507, + 360 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 372, + 254, + 383 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 372, + 255, + 385 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 372, + 255, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.5 SCALING UP RNN TRAINING", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 393, + 503, + 416 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 392, + 505, + 405 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 392, + 505, + 405 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section we report experiments showing the effect of increased scale on RNN training. The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 404, + 380, + 417 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 404, + 264, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "intrinsic rewards are non-episodic with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 264, + 405, + 306, + 416 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 306, + 404, + 326, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 327, + 405, + 376, + 416 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\gamma _ { E } = 0 . 9 9 9", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 376, + 404, + 380, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 24.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 392, + 505, + 417 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 421, + 505, + 498 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 421, + 505, + 434 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 421, + 505, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To hold the rate at which the intrinsic reward decreases over time constant across experiments with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 432, + 505, + 445 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 432, + 505, + 445 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "different numbers of parallel environments, we downsample the batch size when training the predictor", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 442, + 505, + 457 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 442, + 505, + 457 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to match the batch size with 32 parallel environments (for full details see Appendix A.4). Larger", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 454, + 505, + 467 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 454, + 505, + 467 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "numbers of environments results in larger batch sizes per update for training the policy, whereas", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 465, + 504, + 478 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 465, + 504, + 478 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the predictor network batch size remains constant. Since the intrinsic reward disappears over time", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 475, + 505, + 489 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 475, + 505, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "it is important for the policy to learn to find and exploit these transitory rewards, since they act as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 262, + 499 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 262, + 499 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "stepping-stones to nearby novel states.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 29, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 421, + 505, + 499 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 504, + 505, + 537 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 503, + 505, + 516 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 503, + 505, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 5 shows that agents trained with larger batches of experience collected from more parallel", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 515, + 505, + 527 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 515, + 505, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environments obtain higher mean returns after similar numbers of updates. They also achieve better", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 525, + 182, + 539 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 525, + 182, + 539 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "final performance.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 34, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 503, + 505, + 539 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 542, + 505, + 597 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 543, + 505, + 555 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 543, + 505, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We allowed the experiment with 32 parallel environments to run for more time, eventually reaching a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 554, + 505, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 554, + 505, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "mean return of 7,570 after processing 1.6 billion frames over 1.6 million parameter updates. One of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 565, + 505, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 565, + 505, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "these runs visited all 24 rooms, and passed the first level once, achieving a best return of 17,500. The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 575, + 505, + 588 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 575, + 505, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "experiment with 1024 parallel environments had mean return of 10,070 at the end of training, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 285, + 599 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 285, + 599 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "yielded one run with mean return of 14,415.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 38, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 543, + 505, + 599 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 604, + 253, + 614 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 603, + 254, + 616 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 603, + 254, + 616 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.6 COMPARISON TO BASELINES", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 616, + 504, + 682 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 628 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section we compare RND to two baselines: PPO without an exploration bonus and an", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 625, + 506, + 640 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 625, + 506, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "alternative exploration bonus based on forward dynamics error. We evaluate RND’s performance on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 639, + 505, + 650 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 639, + 505, + 650 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "six hard exploration Atari games: Gravitar, Montezuma’s Revenge, Pitfall!, Private Eye, Solaris, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 506, + 661 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 506, + 661 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Venture. We first compare to the performance of a baseline PPO implementation without intrinsic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 506, + 673 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 350, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reward. For RND the intrinsic rewards are non-episodic with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 350, + 660, + 392, + 672 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\gamma _ { I } = 0 . 9 9", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 393, + 660, + 420, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", while", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 421, + 660, + 470, + 672 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\gamma _ { E } = 0 . 9 9 9", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 470, + 660, + 506, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for both", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 671, + 309, + 683 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 671, + 309, + 683 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PPO and RND. The results are shown in Figure 7.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "index": 44.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 683 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 687, + 504, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In Gravitar we see that RND does not consistently exceed the performance of PPO. However both", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 699, + 506, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 699, + 506, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "exceed average human performance with an RNN policy, as well as the previous state of the art. On", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 710, + 506, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 710, + 506, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Montezuma’s Revenge and Venture RND significantly outperforms PPO, and exceeds state of the art", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 506, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 506, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance and average human performance. On Pitfall! both algorithms fail to find any positive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 348, + 505, + 361 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 348, + 505, + 361 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "rewards. This is a typical result for this game, as the extrinsic positive reward is very sparse. On", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 359, + 505, + 371 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 359, + 505, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Private Eye RND’s performance exceeds that of PPO. 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This is a manifestation of the ‘noisy TV’ problem, or", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 601, + 506, + 614 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 601, + 506, + 614 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "aleatoric uncertainty discussed in Section 2.2.1. Similar behavior emerges in PrivateEye and Pitfall!.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 612, + 500, + 625 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 612, + 500, + 625 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Table 5 in Appendix A.6 contains further details on the final mean performance of each algorithm.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 643, + 345, + 654 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 643, + 346, + 656 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 643, + 346, + 656 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.7 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS: DANCING WITH SKULLS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 660, + 505, + 738 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 661, + 505, + 673 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 661, + 505, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "By observing the RND agent (goo.gl/DGPC8E), we notice that frequently once it obtains all the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 672, + 505, + 685 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 672, + 505, + 685 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "extrinsic rewards that it knows how to obtain reliably (as judged by the extrinsic value function), the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 684, + 506, + 696 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 684, + 506, + 696 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent settles into a pattern of behavior where it keeps interacting with potentially dangerous objects.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 694, + 506, + 707 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 694, + 506, + 707 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For instance in Montezuma’s Revenge the agent jumps back and forth over a moving skull, moves in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 705, + 505, + 718 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 705, + 505, + 718 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "between laser gates, and gets on and off disappearing bridges. 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Our expectation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 497, + 505, + 509 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 497, + 505, + 509 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "was that these methods should be fairly similar except where the dynamics-based agent is able to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 508, + 376, + 520 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 508, + 376, + 520 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "exploit non-determinism in the environment to get intrinsic reward.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 16.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 388, + 507, + 520 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 524, + 505, + 623 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 525, + 505, + 537 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 525, + 505, + 537 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 7 shows that dynamics-based exploration performs significantly worse than RND with the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 536, + 505, + 548 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 536, + 505, + 548 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "same CNN policy on Montezuma’s Revenge, PrivateEye, and Solaris, and performs similarly on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 546, + 506, + 559 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 546, + 506, + 559 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Venture, Pitfall, and Gravitar. By analyzing agent’s behavior at convergence we notice that in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 556, + 505, + 570 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 556, + 505, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Montezuma’s Revenge the agent oscillates between two rooms. This leads to an irreducibly high", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 569, + 505, + 581 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 569, + 505, + 581 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prediction error, as the non-determinism of sticky actions makes it impossible to know whether, once", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 579, + 505, + 593 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 579, + 505, + 593 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the agent is close to crossing a room boundary, making one extra step will result in it staying in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 590, + 506, + 604 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 590, + 506, + 604 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the same room, or crossing to the next one. This is a manifestation of the ‘noisy TV’ problem, or", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 601, + 506, + 614 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 601, + 506, + 614 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "aleatoric uncertainty discussed in Section 2.2.1. Similar behavior emerges in PrivateEye and Pitfall!.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 612, + 500, + 625 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 612, + 500, + 625 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Table 5 in Appendix A.6 contains further details on the final mean performance of each algorithm.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 27, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 525, + 506, + 625 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 643, + 345, + 654 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 643, + 346, + 656 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 643, + 346, + 656 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.7 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS: DANCING WITH SKULLS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 660, + 505, + 738 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 661, + 505, + 673 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 661, + 505, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "By observing the RND agent (goo.gl/DGPC8E), we notice that frequently once it obtains all the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 672, + 505, + 685 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 672, + 505, + 685 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "extrinsic rewards that it knows how to obtain reliably (as judged by the extrinsic value function), the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 684, + 506, + 696 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 684, + 506, + 696 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent settles into a pattern of behavior where it keeps interacting with potentially dangerous objects.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 694, + 506, + 707 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 694, + 506, + 707 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For instance in Montezuma’s Revenge the agent jumps back and forth over a moving skull, moves in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 705, + 505, + 718 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 705, + 505, + 718 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "between laser gates, and gets on and off disappearing bridges. We also observe similar behavior in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 716, + 506, + 730 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 716, + 506, + 730 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Pitfall!. It might be related to the very fact that such dangerous states are difficult to achieve, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 727, + 427, + 740 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 727, + 427, + 740 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "hence are rarely represented in agent’s past experience compared to safer states.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 36, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 661, + 506, + 740 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 81, + 211, + 93 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 80, + 213, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 80, + 213, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4 RELATED WORK", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 103, + 505, + 147 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 102, + 505, + 116 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 102, + 505, + 116 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Exploration. Count-based exploration bonuses are a natural and effective way to do exploration", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 506, + 126 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 506, + 126 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Strehl & Littman, 2008) and a lot of work has studied how to tractably generalize count bonuses to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 125, + 506, + 137 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 125, + 506, + 137 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "large state spaces (Bellemare et al., 2016; Fu et al., 2017; Ostrovski et al., 2018; Tang et al., 2017;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 136, + 266, + 148 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 136, + 266, + 148 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Machado et al., 2018; Fox et al., 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 2.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 153, + 505, + 219 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 152, + 506, + 165 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 152, + 506, + 165 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Another class of exploration methods rely on errors in predicting dynamics (Schmidhuber, 1991b;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 163, + 505, + 176 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 163, + 505, + 176 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Stadie et al., 2015; Achiam & Sastry, 2017; Pathak et al., 2017; Burda et al., 2018). As discussed in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 174, + 505, + 187 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 174, + 505, + 187 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Section 2.2, these methods are subject to the ‘noisy TV’ problem in stochastic or partially-observable", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 185, + 506, + 198 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 185, + 506, + 198 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environments. This has motivated work on exploration via quantification of uncertainty (Still &", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 196, + 506, + 209 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 196, + 506, + 209 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Precup, 2012; Houthooft et al., 2016) or prediction improvement measures (Schmidhuber, 1991a;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 207, + 371, + 219 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 207, + 371, + 219 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Oudeyer et al., 2007; Lopes et al., 2012; Achiam & Sastry, 2017).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 7.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 224, + 505, + 268 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 223, + 506, + 238 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 223, + 506, + 238 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Other methods of exploration include adversarial self-play (Sukhbaatar et al., 2018), maximizing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 236, + 506, + 247 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 236, + 506, + 247 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "empowerment (Gregor et al., 2017), parameter noise (Plappert et al., 2017; Fortunato et al., 2017),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 246, + 506, + 259 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 246, + 506, + 259 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "identifying diverse policies (Eysenbach et al., 2018; Achiam et al., 2018), and using ensembles of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 257, + 356, + 270 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 257, + 356, + 270 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "value functions (Osband et al., 2018; 2016; Chen et al., 2017).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 12.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 274, + 505, + 351 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 275, + 505, + 287 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 275, + 505, + 287 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Montezuma’s Revenge. Early neural-network based reinforcement learning algorithms that were", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 285, + 505, + 298 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 285, + 505, + 298 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "successful on a significant portion of Atari games (Mnih et al., 2015; 2016; Hessel et al., 2017) failed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 297, + 505, + 309 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 297, + 505, + 309 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to make meaningful progress on Montezuma’s Revenge, not finding a way out of the first room", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 307, + 505, + 320 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 307, + 505, + 320 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reliably. This is not necessarily a failure of exploration, as even a random agent finds the key in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 317, + 506, + 331 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 317, + 506, + 331 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "first room once every few hundred thousand steps, and escapes the first room every few million steps.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 328, + 505, + 342 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 328, + 505, + 342 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Indeed, a mean return of about 2,500 can be reliably achieved without special exploration methods", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 340, + 345, + 352 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 340, + 345, + 352 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Horgan et al., 2018; Espeholt et al., 2018; Oh et al., 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 357, + 505, + 401 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 506, + 369 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 506, + 369 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Combining DQN with a pseudo-count exploration bonus Bellemare et al. (2016) set a new state of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 368, + 506, + 380 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 368, + 506, + 380 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the art performance, exploring 15 rooms and getting best return of 6,600. Since then a number of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 507, + 391 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 507, + 391 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "other works have achieved similar performance (O’Donoghue et al., 2017; Ostrovski et al., 2018;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 390, + 367, + 403 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 390, + 367, + 403 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Machado et al., 2018; Osband et al., 2018), without exceeding it.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 23.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 407, + 505, + 440 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 406, + 505, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 406, + 505, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Special access to the underlying RAM state can also be used to improve exploration by using it to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 417, + 506, + 430 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 417, + 506, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "hand-craft exploration bonuses (Kulkarni et al., 2016; Tang et al., 2017; Stanton & Clune, 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 428, + 507, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 428, + 507, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Even with such access previous work achieves performance inferior to average human performance.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 445, + 505, + 522 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 446, + 506, + 458 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 446, + 506, + 458 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Expert demonstrations can be used effectively to simplify the exploration problem in Montezuma’s", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 457, + 506, + 469 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 457, + 506, + 469 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Revenge, and a number of works (Salimans & Chen, 2018; Pohlen et al., 2018; Aytar et al., 2018;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 480 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 480 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Garmulewicz et al., 2018) have achieved performance comparable to or better than that of human", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 479, + 505, + 491 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 479, + 505, + 491 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "experts. Learning from expert demonstrations benefits from the game’s determinism. The suggested", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 489, + 506, + 502 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 489, + 506, + 502 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training method (Machado et al., 2017) to prevent an agent from simply memorizing the correct", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 501, + 505, + 513 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 501, + 505, + 513 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sequence of actions is to use sticky actions (i.e. randomly repeating previous action) has not been", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 472, + 524 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 472, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used in these works. In this work we use sticky actions and thus don’t rely on determinism.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 528, + 505, + 583 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 528, + 505, + 540 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 528, + 505, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Random features. Features of randomly initialized neural networks have been extensively studied", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 506, + 551 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 506, + 551 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the context of supervised learning (Rahimi & Recht, 2008; Saxe et al., 2011; Jarrett et al., 2009;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 550, + 506, + 562 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 550, + 506, + 562 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Yang et al., 2015). More recently they have been used in the context of exploration (Osband et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 560, + 506, + 574 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 560, + 506, + 574 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2018; Burda et al., 2018). The work Osband et al. (2018) provides motivation for random network", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 572, + 263, + 584 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 572, + 263, + 584 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "distillation as discussed in Section 2.2.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 589, + 505, + 655 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 588, + 506, + 601 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 588, + 506, + 601 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Vectorized value functions. Pong et al. (2018) find that a vectorized value function (with coordinates", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 600, + 506, + 612 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 600, + 506, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "corresponding to additive factors of the reward) improves their method. Bellemare et al. (2017)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 611, + 506, + 623 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 611, + 506, + 623 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parametrize the value as a linear combination of value heads that estimate probabilities of discretized", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 621, + 506, + 636 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 621, + 506, + 636 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "returns. However the Bellman backup equation used there is not itself vectorized. More broadly,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 632, + 506, + 646 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 632, + 506, + 646 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the issue of how to approach optimizing multiple objectives is an important topic in reinforcement", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 246, + 656 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 246, + 656 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning, see (Roijers et al., 2013).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + } + ], + "index": 43.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 666, + 190, + 678 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 665, + 192, + 681 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 665, + 192, + 681 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5 DISCUSSION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 687, + 504, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This paper introduced an exploration method based on random network distillation and experimentally", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "showed that the method is capable of performing directed exploration on several Atari games with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 506, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 506, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "very sparse rewards. These experiments suggest that progress on hard exploration games is possible", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 506, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 506, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with relatively simple generic methods, especially when applied at scale. They also suggest that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + } + ], + "index": 49.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 8, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 308, + 759 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 762 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 762 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "9", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 308, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 81, + 211, + 93 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 80, + 213, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 80, + 213, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4 RELATED WORK", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 103, + 505, + 147 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 102, + 505, + 116 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 102, + 505, + 116 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Exploration. Count-based exploration bonuses are a natural and effective way to do exploration", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 506, + 126 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 506, + 126 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Strehl & Littman, 2008) and a lot of work has studied how to tractably generalize count bonuses to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 125, + 506, + 137 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 125, + 506, + 137 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "large state spaces (Bellemare et al., 2016; Fu et al., 2017; Ostrovski et al., 2018; Tang et al., 2017;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 136, + 266, + 148 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 136, + 266, + 148 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Machado et al., 2018; Fox et al., 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 2.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 102, + 506, + 148 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 153, + 505, + 219 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 152, + 506, + 165 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 152, + 506, + 165 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Another class of exploration methods rely on errors in predicting dynamics (Schmidhuber, 1991b;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 163, + 505, + 176 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 163, + 505, + 176 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Stadie et al., 2015; Achiam & Sastry, 2017; Pathak et al., 2017; Burda et al., 2018). As discussed in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 174, + 505, + 187 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 174, + 505, + 187 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Section 2.2, these methods are subject to the ‘noisy TV’ problem in stochastic or partially-observable", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 185, + 506, + 198 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 185, + 506, + 198 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environments. This has motivated work on exploration via quantification of uncertainty (Still &", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 196, + 506, + 209 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 196, + 506, + 209 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Precup, 2012; Houthooft et al., 2016) or prediction improvement measures (Schmidhuber, 1991a;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 207, + 371, + 219 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 207, + 371, + 219 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Oudeyer et al., 2007; Lopes et al., 2012; Achiam & Sastry, 2017).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 7.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 152, + 506, + 219 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 224, + 505, + 268 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 223, + 506, + 238 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 223, + 506, + 238 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Other methods of exploration include adversarial self-play (Sukhbaatar et al., 2018), maximizing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 236, + 506, + 247 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 236, + 506, + 247 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "empowerment (Gregor et al., 2017), parameter noise (Plappert et al., 2017; Fortunato et al., 2017),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 246, + 506, + 259 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 246, + 506, + 259 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "identifying diverse policies (Eysenbach et al., 2018; Achiam et al., 2018), and using ensembles of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 257, + 356, + 270 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 257, + 356, + 270 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "value functions (Osband et al., 2018; 2016; Chen et al., 2017).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 12.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 223, + 506, + 270 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 274, + 505, + 351 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 275, + 505, + 287 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 275, + 505, + 287 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Montezuma’s Revenge. Early neural-network based reinforcement learning algorithms that were", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 285, + 505, + 298 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 285, + 505, + 298 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "successful on a significant portion of Atari games (Mnih et al., 2015; 2016; Hessel et al., 2017) failed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 297, + 505, + 309 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 297, + 505, + 309 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to make meaningful progress on Montezuma’s Revenge, not finding a way out of the first room", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 307, + 505, + 320 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 307, + 505, + 320 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reliably. This is not necessarily a failure of exploration, as even a random agent finds the key in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 317, + 506, + 331 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 317, + 506, + 331 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "first room once every few hundred thousand steps, and escapes the first room every few million steps.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 328, + 505, + 342 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 328, + 505, + 342 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Indeed, a mean return of about 2,500 can be reliably achieved without special exploration methods", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 340, + 345, + 352 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 340, + 345, + 352 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Horgan et al., 2018; Espeholt et al., 2018; Oh et al., 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 18, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 275, + 506, + 352 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 357, + 505, + 401 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 506, + 369 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 506, + 369 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Combining DQN with a pseudo-count exploration bonus Bellemare et al. (2016) set a new state of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 368, + 506, + 380 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 368, + 506, + 380 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the art performance, exploring 15 rooms and getting best return of 6,600. Since then a number of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 507, + 391 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 507, + 391 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "other works have achieved similar performance (O’Donoghue et al., 2017; Ostrovski et al., 2018;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 390, + 367, + 403 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 390, + 367, + 403 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Machado et al., 2018; Osband et al., 2018), without exceeding it.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 23.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 357, + 507, + 403 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 407, + 505, + 440 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 406, + 505, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 406, + 505, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Special access to the underlying RAM state can also be used to improve exploration by using it to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 417, + 506, + 430 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 417, + 506, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "hand-craft exploration bonuses (Kulkarni et al., 2016; Tang et al., 2017; Stanton & Clune, 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 428, + 507, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 428, + 507, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Even with such access previous work achieves performance inferior to average human performance.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 27, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 406, + 507, + 442 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 445, + 505, + 522 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 446, + 506, + 458 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 446, + 506, + 458 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Expert demonstrations can be used effectively to simplify the exploration problem in Montezuma’s", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 457, + 506, + 469 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 457, + 506, + 469 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Revenge, and a number of works (Salimans & Chen, 2018; Pohlen et al., 2018; Aytar et al., 2018;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 480 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 480 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Garmulewicz et al., 2018) have achieved performance comparable to or better than that of human", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 479, + 505, + 491 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 479, + 505, + 491 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "experts. Learning from expert demonstrations benefits from the game’s determinism. The suggested", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 489, + 506, + 502 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 489, + 506, + 502 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training method (Machado et al., 2017) to prevent an agent from simply memorizing the correct", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 501, + 505, + 513 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 501, + 505, + 513 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sequence of actions is to use sticky actions (i.e. randomly repeating previous action) has not been", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 472, + 524 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 472, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used in these works. In this work we use sticky actions and thus don’t rely on determinism.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 32, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 446, + 506, + 524 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 528, + 505, + 583 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 528, + 505, + 540 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 528, + 505, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Random features. Features of randomly initialized neural networks have been extensively studied", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 506, + 551 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 506, + 551 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the context of supervised learning (Rahimi & Recht, 2008; Saxe et al., 2011; Jarrett et al., 2009;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 550, + 506, + 562 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 550, + 506, + 562 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Yang et al., 2015). More recently they have been used in the context of exploration (Osband et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 560, + 506, + 574 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 560, + 506, + 574 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2018; Burda et al., 2018). The work Osband et al. (2018) provides motivation for random network", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 572, + 263, + 584 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 572, + 263, + 584 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "distillation as discussed in Section 2.2.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 38, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 528, + 506, + 584 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 589, + 505, + 655 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 588, + 506, + 601 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 588, + 506, + 601 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Vectorized value functions. Pong et al. (2018) find that a vectorized value function (with coordinates", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 600, + 506, + 612 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 600, + 506, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "corresponding to additive factors of the reward) improves their method. Bellemare et al. (2017)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 611, + 506, + 623 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 611, + 506, + 623 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parametrize the value as a linear combination of value heads that estimate probabilities of discretized", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 621, + 506, + 636 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 621, + 506, + 636 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "returns. However the Bellman backup equation used there is not itself vectorized. More broadly,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 632, + 506, + 646 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 632, + 506, + 646 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the issue of how to approach optimizing multiple objectives is an important topic in reinforcement", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 246, + 656 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 246, + 656 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning, see (Roijers et al., 2013).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + } + ], + "index": 43.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 588, + 506, + 656 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 666, + 190, + 678 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 665, + 192, + 681 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 665, + 192, + 681 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5 DISCUSSION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 687, + 504, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This paper introduced an exploration method based on random network distillation and experimentally", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "showed that the method is capable of performing directed exploration on several Atari games with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 506, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 506, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "very sparse rewards. These experiments suggest that progress on hard exploration games is possible", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 506, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 506, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with relatively simple generic methods, especially when applied at scale. They also suggest that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 505, + 94 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 505, + 94 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods that are able to treat the stream of intrinsic rewards separately from the stream of extrinsic", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 453, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 453, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "rewards (for instance by having separate value heads) can benefit from such flexibility.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 1 + } + ], + "index": 49.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 688, + 506, + 734 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 503, + 105 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 505, + 94 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 505, + 94 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods that are able to treat the stream of intrinsic rewards separately from the stream of extrinsic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 453, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 453, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "rewards (for instance by having separate value heads) can benefit from such flexibility.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + } + ], + "index": 0.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 110, + 505, + 154 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 110, + 505, + 122 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 110, + 505, + 122 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We find that the RND exploration bonus is sufficient to deal with local exploration, i.e. exploring the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 122, + 506, + 133 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 122, + 506, + 133 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "consequences of short-term decisions, like whether to interact with a particular object, or avoid it.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 506, + 145 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 506, + 145 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "However global exploration that involves coordinated decisions over long time horizons is beyond", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 144, + 206, + 154 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 144, + 206, + 154 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the reach of our method.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 3.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 160, + 505, + 215 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 160, + 505, + 172 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 160, + 505, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To solve the first level of Montezuma’s Revenge, the agent must enter a room locked behind two", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 170, + 505, + 184 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 170, + 505, + 184 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "doors. There are four keys and six doors spread throughout the level. Any of the four keys can open", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 183, + 505, + 195 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 183, + 505, + 195 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "any of the six doors, but are consumed in the process. To open the final two doors the agent must", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 506, + 206 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 506, + 206 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "therefore forego opening two of the doors that are easier to find and that would immediately reward it", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 204, + 180, + 217 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 204, + 180, + 217 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for opening them.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 221, + 504, + 255 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 220, + 506, + 234 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 220, + 506, + 234 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To incentivize this behavior the agent should receive enough intrinsic reward for saving the keys to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 231, + 505, + 244 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 231, + 505, + 244 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "balance the loss of extrinsic reward from using them early on. 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Neural architecture search with reinforcement learning. arXiv preprint", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 323, + 219, + 334 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 323, + 219, + 334 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "arXiv:1611.01578, 2016.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 15.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 309, + 506, + 334 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 358, + 182, + 370 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 356, + 185, + 373 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 356, + 185, + 373 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A APPENDIX", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 383, + 316, + 394 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 383, + 317, + 396 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 383, + 317, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.1 ADDITIONAL METHODOLOGICAL DETAILS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + } + ], + "index": 18, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 383, + 317, + 396 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 404, + 341, + 415 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 403, + 342, + 417 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 403, + 342, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.1.1 REWARD AND OBSERVATION NORMALIZATION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 424, + 505, + 479 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 424, + 505, + 437 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 424, + 505, + 437 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "One issue with using prediction error as an exploration bonus is that the scale of the reward can", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 435, + 505, + 448 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 435, + 505, + 448 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "vary greatly between different environments and at different points in time, making it difficult to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 446, + 505, + 458 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 446, + 505, + 458 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "choose hyperparameters that work in all settings. In order to keep the rewards on a consistent scale", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 457, + 506, + 470 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 457, + 506, + 470 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we normalized the intrinsic reward by dividing it by a running estimate of the standard deviations of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 468, + 189, + 481 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 468, + 189, + 481 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the intrinsic returns.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 22, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 424, + 506, + 481 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 485, + 505, + 595 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 485, + 505, + 497 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 485, + 505, + 497 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Observation normalization is often important in deep learning but it is crucial when using a random", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 496, + 506, + 508 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 496, + 506, + 508 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "neural network as a target, since the parameters are frozen and hence cannot adjust to the scale of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 505, + 520 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 505, + 520 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "different datasets. Lack of normalization can result in the variance of the embedding being extremely", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 519, + 505, + 530 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 519, + 505, + 530 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "low and carrying little information about the inputs. To address this issue we use an observation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 529, + 505, + 541 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 529, + 505, + 541 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "normalization scheme often used in continuous control problems whereby we whiten each dimension", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 540, + 505, + 553 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 540, + 505, + 553 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by subtracting the running mean and then dividing by the running standard deviation. We then clip", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 550, + 505, + 564 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 550, + 505, + 564 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the normalized observations to be between -5 and 5. We initialize the normalization parameters by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 562, + 506, + 575 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 562, + 506, + 575 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "stepping a random agent in the environment for a small number of steps before beginning optimization.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 571, + 506, + 587 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 571, + 506, + 587 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We use the same observation normalization for both predictor and target networks but not the policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 585, + 144, + 595 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 585, + 144, + 595 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "network.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 29.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 485, + 506, + 595 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 609, + 322, + 620 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 608, + 323, + 622 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 608, + 323, + 622 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.1.2 REINFORCEMENT LEARNING ALGORITHM", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 629, + 505, + 673 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 629, + 505, + 642 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 629, + 505, + 642 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "An exploration bonus can be used with any RL algorithm by modifying the rewards used to train the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 640, + 505, + 652 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 640, + 153, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "model (i.e.,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 640, + 203, + 651 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\boldsymbol { r } _ { t } = \\boldsymbol { i } _ { t } + \\boldsymbol { e } _ { t } ,", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 204, + 640, + 505, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "). We combine our proposed exploration bonus with a baseline reinforcement", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 651, + 506, + 664 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 651, + 506, + 664 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning algorithm PPO (Schulman et al., 2017). PPO is a policy gradient method that we have found", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 662, + 452, + 675 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 662, + 452, + 675 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to require little tuning for good performance. For algorithmic details see Algorithm 1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 37.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 629, + 506, + 675 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 688, + 221, + 699 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 223, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 223, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.2 RND PSEUDO-CODE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 709, + 504, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Algorithm 1 gives an overall picture of the RND method. Exact details of the method can be found in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 321, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 321, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the code accompanying this paper (goo.gl/DGPC8E).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + } + ], + "index": 41.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 236, + 93 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 237, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 237, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Algorithm 1 RND pseudo-code", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 110, + 93, + 501, + 443 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 110, + 93, + 501, + 443 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 93, + 501, + 443 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 93, + 501, + 443 + ], + "score": 0.383, + "html": "
N ←number of rollouts Nopt ← number of optimization steps
K←length of rollout
M ← number of initial steps for initializing observation normalization t=0
Sample state So ~ po(so) for m = 1 to M do
sample at ~ Uniform(at)
sample St+1 ~ p(St+1lst, at)
Update observation normalization parameters using St+1
t+=1
end for
fori=1 to N do
for j = 1 to K do
sample at ~ π(at|St)
sample St+1,et ~p(St+1,et|St, at)
calculate intrinsic reward it = |lf(St+1) - f(St+1)ll²
add St, St+1,at, et,it to optimization batch Bi
Update running estimate of reward standard deviation using it
t+=1
end for
Normalize the intrinsic rewards contained in Bi
Calculate returns R1,i and advantages A1,i for intrinsic reward
Calculate returns RE,i and advantages AE,i for extrinsic reward
Calculate combined advantages Ai = A1,i + AE,i
Update observation normalization parameters using Bi
for j = 1 to Nopt do
optimize 0π wrt PPO loss on batch Bi,Ri,Ai using Adam
optimize 0f wrt distillation loss on Bi using Adam
end for
end for
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HyperparameterValue
Grey-scaling Observation downsamplingTrue (84,84)
Extrinsic reward clipping[-1,1]
Intrinsic reward clippingFalse
Max frames per episode18K
Terminal on loss of lifeFalse
Max and skip frames4
Random starts Sticky action probabilityFalse 0.25
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N ←number of rollouts Nopt ← number of optimization steps
K←length of rollout
M ← number of initial steps for initializing observation normalization t=0
Sample state So ~ po(so) for m = 1 to M do
sample at ~ Uniform(at)
sample St+1 ~ p(St+1lst, at)
Update observation normalization parameters using St+1
t+=1
end for
fori=1 to N do
for j = 1 to K do
sample at ~ π(at|St)
sample St+1,et ~p(St+1,et|St, at)
calculate intrinsic reward it = |lf(St+1) - f(St+1)ll²
add St, St+1,at, et,it to optimization batch Bi
Update running estimate of reward standard deviation using it
t+=1
end for
Normalize the intrinsic rewards contained in Bi
Calculate returns R1,i and advantages A1,i for intrinsic reward
Calculate returns RE,i and advantages AE,i for extrinsic reward
Calculate combined advantages Ai = A1,i + AE,i
Update observation normalization parameters using Bi
for j = 1 to Nopt do
optimize 0π wrt PPO loss on batch Bi,Ri,Ai using Adam
optimize 0f wrt distillation loss on Bi using Adam
end for
end for
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HyperparameterValue
Grey-scaling Observation downsamplingTrue (84,84)
Extrinsic reward clipping[-1,1]
Intrinsic reward clippingFalse
Max frames per episode18K
Terminal on loss of lifeFalse
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Number of minibatches4
Number of optimization epochs4
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GravitarMontezuma's RevengePitfall!PrivateEyeSolarisVenture
RND RNN3,9068,152-38,6663,2821,859
PPO RNN3,4262,49701053,3870
RND CNN2,21711,347-210,1171,0501,878
DYN CNN2,654400-1315151,807
PPO CNN2,3701,79701001,4950
SOTA2,20913,700²015,806212,38011,8133
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HyperparameterValue
Grey-scaling Observation downsamplingTrue (84,84)
Extrinsic reward clipping[-1,1]
Intrinsic reward clippingFalse
Max frames per episode18K
Terminal on loss of lifeFalse
Max and skip frames4
Random starts Sticky action probabilityFalse 0.25
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N ←number of rollouts Nopt ← number of optimization steps
K←length of rollout
M ← number of initial steps for initializing observation normalization t=0
Sample state So ~ po(so) for m = 1 to M do
sample at ~ Uniform(at)
sample St+1 ~ p(St+1lst, at)
Update observation normalization parameters using St+1
t+=1
end for
fori=1 to N do
for j = 1 to K do
sample at ~ π(at|St)
sample St+1,et ~p(St+1,et|St, at)
calculate intrinsic reward it = |lf(St+1) - f(St+1)ll²
add St, St+1,at, et,it to optimization batch Bi
Update running estimate of reward standard deviation using it
t+=1
end for
Normalize the intrinsic rewards contained in Bi
Calculate returns R1,i and advantages A1,i for intrinsic reward
Calculate returns RE,i and advantages AE,i for extrinsic reward
Calculate combined advantages Ai = A1,i + AE,i
Update observation normalization parameters using Bi
for j = 1 to Nopt do
optimize 0π wrt PPO loss on batch Bi,Ri,Ai using Adam
optimize 0f wrt distillation loss on Bi using Adam
end for
end for
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HyperparameterValue
Rollout length128
Total number of rollouts per environment30K
Number of minibatches4
Number of optimization epochs4
Coefficient of extrinsic reward2
Coefficient of intrinsic reward1
Number of parallel environments128
Learning rate0.0001
Optimization algorithmAdam (Kingma& Ba (2015))
入(Schulman et al., 2017)0.95
Entropy coefficient0.001
Proportion of experience used for training predictor0.25
YE0.999
Y10.99
Clip range[0.9,1.1]
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HyperparameterValue
Framesstacked Observation normalization1 x →CLIP((x- μ)/σ,[-5,5])
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HyperparameterValue
Framesstacked Observation4
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GravitarMontezuma's RevengePitfall!PrivateEyeSolarisVenture
RND RNN3,9068,152-38,6663,2821,859
PPO RNN3,4262,49701053,3870
RND CNN2,21711,347-210,1171,0501,878
DYN CNN2,654400-1315151,807
PPO CNN2,3701,79701001,4950
SOTA2,20913,700²015,806212,38011,8133
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sha256:366508822d40f2adc870efc85395454a687954219a449c5552d648d307b3bb98 +size 22863 diff --git a/parse/train/J4gRj6d5Qm/J4gRj6d5Qm.md b/parse/train/J4gRj6d5Qm/J4gRj6d5Qm.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..8625b93842360bafb45f0ba23e4970c167775d42 --- /dev/null +++ b/parse/train/J4gRj6d5Qm/J4gRj6d5Qm.md @@ -0,0 +1,231 @@ +# Autoformer: Decomposition Transformers with Auto-Correlation for Long-Term Series Forecasting + +Haixu Wu, Jiehui Xu, Jianmin Wang, Mingsheng Long $( \boxtimes )$ School of Software, BNRist, Tsinghua University, China {whx20,xjh20}@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn, {jimwang,mingsheng}@tsinghua.edu.cn + +# Abstract + +Extending the forecasting time is a critical demand for real applications, such as extreme weather early warning and long-term energy consumption planning. This paper studies the long-term forecasting problem of time series. Prior Transformerbased models adopt various self-attention mechanisms to discover the long-range dependencies. However, intricate temporal patterns of the long-term future prohibit the model from finding reliable dependencies. Also, Transformers have to adopt the sparse versions of point-wise self-attentions for long series efficiency, resulting in the information utilization bottleneck. Going beyond Transformers, we design Autoformer as a novel decomposition architecture with an Auto-Correlation mechanism. We break with the pre-processing convention of series decomposition and renovate it as a basic inner block of deep models. This design empowers Autoformer with progressive decomposition capacities for complex time series. Further, inspired by the stochastic process theory, we design the Auto-Correlation mechanism based on the series periodicity, which conducts the dependencies discovery and representation aggregation at the sub-series level. Auto-Correlation outperforms self-attention in both efficiency and accuracy. In long-term forecasting, Autoformer yields stateof-the-art accuracy, with a $38 \%$ relative improvement on six benchmarks, covering five practical applications: energy, traffic, economics, weather and disease. Code is available at this repository: https://github.com/thuml/Autoformer. + +# 1 Introduction + +Time series forecasting has been widely used in energy consumption, traffic and economics planning, weather and disease propagation forecasting. In these real-world applications, one pressing demand is to extend the forecast time into the far future, which is quite meaningful for the long-term planning and early warning. Thus, in this paper, we study the long-term forecasting problem of time series, characterizing itself by the large length of predicted time series. Recent deep forecasting models [41, 17, 20, 28, 23, 29, 19, 35] have achieved great progress, especially the Transformer-based models. Benefiting from the self-attention mechanism, Transformers obtain great advantage in modeling long-term dependencies for sequential data, which enables more powerful big models [7, 11]. + +However, the forecasting task is extremely challenging under the long-term setting. First, it is unreliable to discover the temporal dependencies directly from the long-term time series because the dependencies can be obscured by entangled temporal patterns. Second, canonical Transformers with self-attention mechanisms are computationally prohibitive for long-term forecasting because of the quadratic complexity of sequence length. Previous Transformer-based forecasting models [41, 17, 20] mainly focus on improving self-attention to a sparse version. While performance is significantly improved, these models still utilize the point-wise representation aggregation. Thus, in the process of efficiency improvement, they will sacrifice the information utilization because of the sparse point-wise connections, resulting in a bottleneck for long-term forecasting of time series. + +To reason about the intricate temporal patterns, we try to take the idea of decomposition, which is a standard method in time series analysis [1, 27]. It can be used to process the complex time series and extract more predictable components. However, under the forecasting context, it can only be used as the pre-processing of past series because the future is unknown [15]. This common usage limits the capabilities of decomposition and overlooks the potential future interactions among decomposed components. Thus, we attempt to go beyond pre-processing usage of decomposition and propose a generic architecture to empower the deep forecasting models with immanent capacity of progressive decomposition. Further, decomposition can ravel out the entangled temporal patterns and highlight the inherent properties of time series [15]. Benefiting from this, we try to take advantage of the series periodicity to renovate the point-wise connection in self-attention. We observe that the sub-series at the same phase position among periods often present similar temporal processes. Thus, we try to construct a series-level connection based on the process similarity derived by series periodicity. + +Based on the above motivations, we propose an original Autoformer in place of the Transformers for long-term time series forecasting. Autoformer still follows residual and encoder-decoder structure but renovates Transformer into a decomposition forecasting architecture. By embedding our proposed decomposition blocks as the inner operators, Autoformer can progressively separate the long-term trend information from predicted hidden variables. This design allows our model to alternately decompose and refine the intermediate results during the forecasting procedure. Inspired by the stochastic process theory [8, 24], Autoformer introduces an Auto-Correlation mechanism in place of self-attention, which discovers the sub-series similarity based on the series periodicity and aggregates similar sub-series from underlying periods. This series-wise mechanism achieves $\mathcal { O } ( L \log L )$ complexity for length- $L$ series and breaks the information utilization bottleneck by expanding the point-wise representation aggregation to sub-series level. Autoformer achieves the state-of-the-art accuracy on six benchmarks. The contributions are summarized as follows: + +• To tackle the intricate temporal patterns of the long-term future, we present Autoformer as a decomposition architecture and design the inner decomposition block to empower the deep forecasting model with immanent progressive decomposition capacity. • We propose an Auto-Correlation mechanism with dependencies discovery and information aggregation at the series level. Our mechanism is beyond previous self-attention family and can simultaneously benefit the computation efficiency and information utilization. • Autoformer achieves a $38 \%$ relative improvement under the long-term setting on six benchmarks, covering five real-world applications: energy, traffic, economics, weather and disease. + +# 2 Related Work + +# 2.1 Models for Time Series Forecasting + +Due to the immense importance of time series forecasting, various models have been well developed. Many time series forecasting methods start from the classic tools [32, 9]. ARIMA [6, 5] tackles the forecasting problem by transforming the non-stationary process to stationary through differencing. The filtering method is also introduced for series forecasting [18, 10]. Besides, recurrent neural networks (RNNs) models are used to model the temporal dependencies for time series [36, 26, 40, 22]. DeepAR [28] combines autoregressive methods and RNNs to model the probabilistic distribution of future series. LSTNet [19] introduces convolutional neural networks (CNNs) with recurrent-skip connections to capture the short-term and long-term temporal patterns. Attention-based RNNs [39, 30, 31] introduce the temporal attention to explore the long-range dependencies for prediction. Also, many works based on temporal convolution networks (TCN) [34, 4, 3, 29] attempt to model the temporal causality with the causal convolution. These deep forecasting models mainly focus on the temporal relation modeling by recurrent connections, temporal attention or causal convolution. + +Recently, Transformers [35, 38] based on the self-attention mechanism shows great power in sequential data, such as natural language processing [11, 7], audio processing [14] and even computer vision [12, 21]. However, applying self-attention to long-term time series forecasting is computationally prohibitive because of the quadratic complexity of sequence length $L$ in both memory and time. LogTrans [20] introduces the local convolution to Transformer and proposes the LogSparse attention to select time steps following the exponentially increasing intervals, which reduces the complexity to $\mathcal { O } ( L ( \log L ) ^ { 2 } )$ . Reformer [17] presents the local-sensitive hashing (LSH) attention and reduces the complexity to $\mathcal { O } ( L \log L )$ . Informer [41] extends Transformer with KL-divergence based ProbSparse attention and also achieves $\mathcal { O } ( L \log L )$ complexity. Note that these methods are based on the vanilla Transformer and try to improve the self-attention mechanism to a sparse version, which still follows the point-wise dependency and aggregation. In this paper, our proposed Auto-Correlation mechanism is based on the inherent periodicity of time series and can provide series-wise connections. + +# 2.2 Decomposition of Time Series + +As a standard method in time series analysis, time series decomposition [1, 27] deconstructs a time series into several components, each representing one of the underlying categories of patterns that are more predictable. It is primarily useful for exploring historical changes over time. For the forecasting tasks, decomposition is always used as the pre-processing of historical series before predicting future series [15, 2], such as Prophet [33] with trend-seasonality decomposition and N-BEATS [23] with basis expansion and DeepGLO [29] with matrix decomposition. However, such pre-processing is limited by the plain decomposition effect of historical series and overlooks the hierarchical interaction between the underlying patterns of series in the long-term future. This paper takes the decomposition idea from a new progressive dimension. Our Autoformer harnesses the decomposition as an inner block of deep models, which can progressively decompose the hidden series throughout the whole forecasting process, including both the past series and the predicted intermediate results. + +# 3 Autoformer + +The time series forecasting problem is to predict the most probable length- $O$ series in the future given the past length- ${ \mathbf { \nabla } } \cdot { I }$ series, denoting as input-I-predict- $O$ . The long-term forecasting setting is to predict the long-term future, i.e. larger $O$ . As aforementioned, we have highlighted the difficulties of long-term series forecasting: handling intricate temporal patterns and breaking the bottleneck of computation efficiency and information utilization. To tackle these two challenges, we introduce the decomposition as a builtin block to the deep forecasting model and propose Autoformer as a decomposition architecture. Besides, we design the Auto-Correlation mechanism to discover the period-based dependencies and aggregate similar sub-series from underlying periods. + +# 3.1 Decomposition Architecture + +We renovate Transformer [35] to a deep decomposition architecture (Figure 1), including the inner series decomposition block, Auto-Correlation mechanism, and corresponding Encoder and Decoder. + +Series decomposition block To learn with the complex temporal patterns in long-term forecasting context, we take the idea of decomposition [1, 27], which can separate the series into trend-cyclical and seasonal parts. These two parts reflect the long-term progression and the seasonality of the series respectively. However, directly decomposing is unrealizable for future series because the future is just unknown. To tackle this dilemma, we present a series decomposition block as an inner operation of Autoformer (Figure 1), which can extract the long-term stationary trend from predicted intermediate hidden variables progressively. Concretely, we adapt the moving average to smooth out periodic fluctuations and highlight the long-term trends. For length- $L$ input series $\breve { \mathcal { X } } \in \mathbb { R } ^ { L \times d }$ , the process is: + +$$ +\begin{array} { r l } & { \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { t } } = \mathrm { A v g P o o l } ( \mathrm { P a d d i n g } ( \mathcal { X } ) ) } \\ & { \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { s } } = \mathcal { X } - \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { t } } , } \end{array} +$$ + +where $\boldsymbol { \mathcal { X } } _ { \mathrm { s } } , \boldsymbol { \mathcal { X } } _ { \mathrm { t } } \in \mathbb { R } ^ { L \times d }$ denote the seasonal and the extracted trend-cyclical part respectively. We adopt the $\operatorname { A v g P o o l } ( \cdot )$ for moving average with the padding operation to keep the series length unchanged. We use $\mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { s } } , \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { t } } = \mathrm { S e r i e s D e c o m p } ( \mathcal { X } )$ to summarize above equations, which is a model inner block. + +Model inputs The inputs of encoder part are the past $I$ time steps $\mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { e n } } \in \mathbb { R } ^ { I \times d }$ . As a decomposition architecture (Figure 1), the input of Autoformer decoder contains both the seasonal part $\chi _ { \mathrm { d e s } } \in$ $\mathbb { R } ^ { ( \frac { I } { 2 } + O ) \times d }$ and trend-cyclical part $\chi _ { \mathrm { d e t } } \in \mathbb { R } ^ { ( \frac { I } { 2 } + O ) \times d }$ to be refined. Each initialization consists of two parts: the component decomposed from the latter half of encoder’s input $\mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { e n } }$ with length $\frac { I } { 2 }$ to provide recent information, placeholders with length $O$ filled by scalars. It’s formulized as follows: + +$$ +\begin{array} { r l } & { \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { e n s } } , \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { e n t } } = \mathrm { S e r i e s D e c o m p } ( \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { e n } \frac { I } { 2 } : I } ) } \\ & { \qquad \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { d e s } } = \mathrm { C o n c a t } ( \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { e n s } } , \mathcal { X } _ { 0 } ) } \\ & { \qquad \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { d e t } } = \mathrm { C o n c a t } ( \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { e n t } } , \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { M e a n } } ) , } \end{array} +$$ + +![](images/1ebb1575216e8696f19f85fe903bb441210d41e8973469f64d31b9ac1d64fa43.jpg) +Figure 1: Autoformer architecture. The encoder eliminates the long-term trend-cyclical part by series decomposition blocks (blue blocks) and focuses on seasonal patterns modeling. The decoder accumulates the trend part extracted from hidden variables progressively. The past seasonal information from encoder is utilized by the encoder-decoder Auto-Correlation (center green block in decoder). + +where $\chi _ { \mathrm { e n s } } , \chi _ { \mathrm { e n t } } \in \mathbb { R } ^ { \frac { I } { 2 } \times d }$ denote the seasonal and trend-cyclical parts of $\mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { e n } }$ respectively, and $\mathcal { X } _ { 0 } , \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { M e a n } } \in \mathbb { R } ^ { O \times d }$ denote the placeholders filled with zero and the mean of $\mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { e n } }$ respectively. + +Encoder As shown in Figure 1, the encoder focuses on the seasonal part modeling. The output of the encoder contains the past seasonal information and will be used as the cross information to help the decoder refine prediction results. Suppose we have $N$ encoder layers. The overall equations for $l$ -th encoder layer are summarized as $\mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { e n } } ^ { \hat { l } ^ { \mathrm { ~ \tiny ~ \cdot ~ } } } = \mathrm { E n c o d e r } ( \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { e n } } ^ { l - 1 } )$ . Details are shown as follows: + +$$ +\begin{array} { r l } & { S _ { \mathrm { e n } } ^ { l , 1 } , \ l _ { - } = \mathrm { S e r i e s D e c o m p } \Big ( \mathrm { A u t o - C o r r e l a t i o n } ( \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { e n } } ^ { l - 1 } ) + \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { e n } } ^ { l - 1 } \Big ) } \\ & { S _ { \mathrm { e n } } ^ { l , 2 } , \ l _ { - } = \mathrm { S e r i e s D e c o m p } \Big ( \mathrm { F e e d F o r w a r d } ( S _ { \mathrm { e n } } ^ { l , 1 } ) + S _ { \mathrm { e n } } ^ { l , 1 } \Big ) , } \end{array} +$$ + +where $\underline { { { \bf \Pi } } } ^ { 6 6 } \underline { { { \bf \Pi } } } ^ { 5 9 }$ is the eliminated trend part. $\mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { e n } } ^ { l } = S _ { \mathrm { e n } } ^ { l , 2 } , l \in \{ 1 , \cdots , N \}$ denotes the output of $l$ -th encoder layer and $\mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { e n } } ^ { 0 }$ is the embedded $\mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { e n } }$ . $S _ { \mathrm { e n } } ^ { l , i }$ , $i \in \{ 1 , 2 \}$ represents the seasonal component after the -th series decomposition block in the $l$ -th layer respectively. We will give detailed description of Auto-Correlation $( \cdot )$ in the next section, which can seamlessly replace the self-attention. + +Decoder The decoder contains two parts: the accumulation structure for trend-cyclical components and the stacked Auto-Correlation mechanism for seasonal components (Figure 1). Each decoder layer contains the inner Auto-Correlation and encoder-decoder Auto-Correlation, which can refine the prediction and utilize the past seasonal information respectively. Note that the model extracts the potential trend from the intermediate hidden variables during the decoder, allowing Autoformer to progressively refine the trend prediction and eliminate interference information for period-based dependencies discovery in Auto-Correlation. Suppose there are $M$ decoder layers. With the latent variable $\chi _ { \mathrm { e n } } ^ { N }$ from the encoder, the equations of $l$ -th decoder layer can be summarized as $\mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l } =$ $\mathrm { D e c o d e r } ( \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l - 1 } , \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { e n } } ^ { N } )$ . The decoder can be formalized as follows: + +$$ +\begin{array} { r l } & { S _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l , 1 } , \mathcal { T } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l , 1 } = \mathrm { S e r i e s D e c o m p } \left( \mathrm { A u t o - C o r r e l a t i o n } ( \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l - 1 } ) + \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l - 1 } \right) } \\ & { S _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l , 2 } , \mathcal { T } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l , 2 } = \mathrm { S e r i e s D e c o m p } \left( \mathrm { A u t o - C o r r e l a t i o n } ( S _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l , 1 } , \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { e n } } ^ { N } ) + S _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l , 1 } \right) } \\ & { S _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l , 3 } , \mathcal { T } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l , 3 } = \mathrm { S e r i e s D e c o m p } \left( \mathrm { F e e d F o r w a r d } ( S _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l , 2 } ) + S _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l , 2 } \right) } \\ & { \qquad \mathcal { T } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l } = \mathcal { T } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l - 1 } + \mathcal { W } _ { l , 1 } \ast \mathcal { T } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l , 1 } + \mathcal { W } _ { l , 2 } \ast \mathcal { T } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l , 2 } + \mathcal { W } _ { l , 3 } \ast \mathcal { T } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l , 3 } , } \end{array} +$$ + +where $\mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l } = { S } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l , 3 } , l \in \{ 1 , \cdots , M \}$ denotes the output of $l$ -th decoder layer. $\mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { 0 }$ is embedded from $\mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { d e s } }$ de de for deep transform and $\mathcal { T } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { 0 } = \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { d e t } }$ is for accumulatio . $S _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l , i } , T _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l , i } , i \in \{ 1 , 2 , 3 \}$ represent the $i$ $l$ -th layer respectively. $\mathcal { W } _ { l , i } , i \in \{ 1 , 2 , 3 \}$ represents the projector for the $i$ -th extracted trend $\mathcal { T } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { l , i }$ . + +![](images/611e264868072bea6977edb6f802f5f63a12c602deabbfe382df58f997963cca.jpg) +Figure 2: Auto-Correlation (left) and Time Delay Aggregation (right). We utilize the Fast Fourier Transform to calculate the autocorrelation $\mathcal { R } ( \tau )$ , which reflects the time-delay similarities. Then the similar sub-processes are rolled to the same index based on selected delay $\tau$ and aggregated by $\mathcal { R } ( \tau )$ . + +The final prediction is the sum of the two refined decomposed components, as $\mathcal { W } _ { S } \ast \mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { M } + \mathcal { T } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { M }$ where is to project the deep transformed seasonal component to the target dimension. + +# 3.2 Auto-Correlation Mechanism + +As shown in Figure 2, we propose the Auto-Correlation mechanism with series-wise connections to expand the information utilization. Auto-Correlation discovers the period-based dependencies by calculating the series autocorrelation and aggregates similar sub-series by time delay aggregation. + +Period-based dependencies It is observed that the same phase position among periods naturally provides similar sub-processes. Inspired by the stochastic process theory [8, 24], for a real discretetime process $\{ \mathcal { X } _ { t } \}$ , we can obtain the autocorrelation $\mathcal { R } _ { \mathcal { X } \mathcal { X } } ( \tau )$ by the following equations: + +$$ +\mathcal { R } _ { \mathcal { X } \mathcal { X } } ( \tau ) = \operatorname* { l i m } _ { L \infty } \frac { 1 } { L } \sum _ { t = 1 } ^ { L } \mathcal { X } _ { t } \mathcal { X } _ { t - \tau } . +$$ + +$\mathcal { R } _ { \mathcal { X } \mathcal { X } } ( \tau )$ reflects the time-delay similarity between $\{ \mathcal { X } _ { t } \}$ and its $\tau$ lag series $\{ \mathcal { X } _ { t - \tau } \}$ . As shown in Figure 2, we use the autocorrelation $\mathcal { R } ( \tau )$ as the unnormalized confidence of estimated period length $\tau$ . Then, we choose the most possible $k$ period lengths $\tau _ { 1 } , \cdots , \tau _ { k }$ . The period-based dependencies are derived by the above estimated periods and can be weighted by the corresponding autocorrelation. + +1Time delay aggregation The period-based dependencies connect the sub-series among estimated 1periods. Thus, we present the time delay aggregation block (Figure 2), which can roll the series based on selected time delay $\tau _ { 1 } , \cdots , \tau _ { k }$ . This operation can align similar sub-series that are at the same phase position of estimated periods, which is different from the point-wise dot-product aggregation in self-attention family. Finally, we aggregate the sub-series by softmax normalized confidences. + +For the single head situation and time series $\mathcal { X }$ with length- $L$ , after the projector, we get query $\mathcal { Q }$ , key $\kappa$ and value $\nu$ . Thus, it can replace self-attention seamlessly. The Auto-Correlation mechanism is: + +$$ +\begin{array} { r l } & { \qquad \tau _ { 1 } , \cdots , \tau _ { k } = \underset { \tau \in \{ 1 , \cdots , L \} } { \mathrm { a r g } \mathrm { T o p k } } ( \mathcal { R } _ { \mathcal { Q } , \mathcal { K } } ( \tau ) ) } \\ & { \qquad \widehat { \mathcal { R } } _ { \mathcal { Q } , \mathcal { K } } ( \tau _ { 1 } ) , \cdots , \widehat { \mathcal { R } } _ { \mathcal { Q } , \mathcal { K } } ( \tau _ { k } ) = \mathrm { S o f t M a x } ( \mathcal { R } _ { \mathcal { Q } , \mathcal { K } } ( \tau _ { 1 } ) , \cdots , \mathcal { R } _ { \mathcal { Q } , \mathcal { K } } ( \tau _ { k } ) ) } \\ & { \mathrm { A u t o - C o r r e l a t i o n } ( \mathcal { Q } , \mathcal { K } , \mathcal { V } ) = \underset { i = 1 } { \overset { k } { \sum } } \mathrm { R o l l } ( \mathcal { V } , \tau _ { i } ) \widehat { \mathcal { R } } _ { \mathcal { Q } , \mathcal { K } } ( \tau _ { i } ) , } \end{array} +$$ + +where ar $\boldsymbol { \mathrm { \xi ^ { 2 } } } \mathrm { T o p k } ( \cdot )$ is to get the arguments of the Topk autocorrelations and let $k = \lfloor c \times \log L \rfloor$ , $c$ is a hyper-parameter. $\mathcal { R } _ { \mathcal { Q } , \kappa }$ is autocorrelation between series $\mathcal { Q }$ and $\kappa$ . $\mathrm { R o l l } ( \mathcal { X } , \tau )$ represents the operation to $\mathcal { X }$ with time delay $\tau$ , during which elements that are shifted beyond the first position are re-introduced at the last position. For the encoder-decoder Auto-Correlation (Figure 1), $\kappa , \nu$ are from the encoder $\chi _ { \mathrm { e n } } ^ { N }$ and will be resized to length- $O$ , $\mathcal { Q }$ is from the previous block of the decoder. + +![](images/b3a1dd188e9913684d89e9998ab12a2c0b4d1275bd0f7f003ea51f10541c2ec2.jpg) +Figure 3: Auto-Correlation vs. self-attention family. Full Attention [35] (a) adapts the fully connection among all time points. Sparse Attention [17, 41] (b) selects points based on the proposed similarity metrics. LogSparse Attention [20] (c) chooses points following the exponentially increasing intervals. Auto-Correlation (d) focuses on the connections of sub-series among underlying periods. + +For the multi-head version used in Autoformer, with hidden variables of $d _ { \mathrm { m o d e l } }$ channels, $h$ heads, the query, key and value for $i$ -th head are $\mathcal { Q } _ { i } , \mathcal { K } _ { i } , \mathcal { V } _ { i } \in \mathbb { R } ^ { L \times \frac { d _ { \mathrm { m o d e l } } } { h } }$ , $i \in \{ 1 , \cdots , h \}$ . The process is: + +$$ +\begin{array} { r l } & { \mathrm { M u l t i H e a d } ( \mathcal { Q } , K , \mathcal { V } ) = \mathcal { W } _ { \mathrm { o u t p u t } } * \mathrm { C o n c a t } ( \mathrm { h e a d } _ { 1 } , \cdot \cdot \cdot , \mathrm { h e a d } _ { h } ) } \\ & { \quad \quad \quad \mathrm { w h e r e ~ h e a d } _ { i } = \mathrm { A u t o - C o r r e l a t i o n } ( \mathcal { Q } _ { i } , K _ { i } , \mathcal { V } _ { i } ) . } \end{array} +$$ + +Efficient computation For period-based dependencies, these dependencies point to sub-processes at the same phase position of underlying periods and are inherently sparse. Here, we select the most possible delays to avoid picking the opposite phases. Because we aggregate ${ \mathcal { O } } ( \log L )$ series whose length is $L$ , the complexity of Equations 6 and 7 is $\mathcal { O } ( L \log L )$ . For the autocorrelation computation (Equation 5), given time series $\{ \mathcal { X } _ { t } \}$ , $\mathcal { R } _ { \mathcal { X } \mathcal { X } } ( \tau )$ can be calculated by Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT) based on the Wiener–Khinchin theorem [37]: + +$$ +\begin{array} { r l } & { \displaystyle \mathcal { S } _ { \mathcal { X } \mathcal { X } } ( f ) = \mathcal { F } \left( \mathcal { X } _ { t } \right) \mathcal { F } ^ { * } \left( \mathcal { X } _ { t } \right) = \int _ { - \infty } ^ { \infty } \mathcal { X } _ { t } e ^ { - i 2 \pi t f } \mathrm { d } t \overline { { \int _ { - \infty } ^ { \infty } \mathcal { X } _ { t } e ^ { - i 2 \pi t f } \mathrm { d } t } } } \\ & { \displaystyle \mathcal { R } _ { \mathcal { X } \mathcal { X } } ( \tau ) = \mathcal { F } ^ { - 1 } \left( S _ { \mathcal { X } \mathcal { X } } ( f ) \right) = \int _ { - \infty } ^ { \infty } S _ { \mathcal { X } \mathcal { X } } ( f ) e ^ { i 2 \pi f \tau } \mathrm { d } f , } \end{array} +$$ + +where $\tau \in \{ 1 , \cdots , L \}$ , $\mathcal { F }$ denotes the FFT and ${ \mathcal { F } } ^ { - 1 }$ is its inverse. $^ *$ denotes the conjugate operation and $\mathcal { S } _ { \mathcal { X X } } ( f )$ is in the frequency domain. Note that the series autocorrelation of all lags in $\{ 1 , \cdots , L \}$ can be calculated at once by FFT. Thus, Auto-Correlation achieves the $\mathcal { O } ( L \log L )$ complexity. + +Auto-Correlation vs. self-attention family Different from the point-wise self-attention family, Auto-Correlation presents the series-wise connections (Figure 3). Concretely, for the temporal dependencies, we find the dependencies among sub-series based on the periodicity. In contrast, the self-attention family only calculates the relation between scattered points. Though some selfattentions [20, 41] consider the local information, they only utilize this to help point-wise dependencies discovery. For the information aggregation, we adopt the time delay block to aggregate the similar sub-series from underlying periods. In contrast, self-attentions aggregate the selected points by dot-product. Benefiting from the inherent sparsity and sub-series-level representation aggregation, Auto-Correlation can simultaneously benefit the computation efficiency and information utilization. + +# 4 Experiments + +We extensively evaluate the proposed Autoformer on six real-world benchmarks, covering five mainstream time series forecasting applications: energy, traffic, economics, weather and disease. + +Datasets Here is a description of the six experiment datasets: (1) ETT [41] dataset contains the data collected from electricity transformers, including load and oil temperature that are recorded every + +Table 1: Multivariate results with different prediction lengths $O \in \{ 9 6 , 1 9 2 , 3 3 6 , 7 2 0 \}$ . We set the input length $I$ as 36 for ILI and 96 for the others. A lower MSE or MAE indicates a better prediction. + +
Models AutoformerInformer[41]LogTrans[20]Reformer[17]LSTNet[19]LSTM[13]TCN[3]
MetricMSEMAEMSEMAEMSEMAEMSEMAEMSE MAEMSE MAEMSEMAE
T96 192 3360.255 0.281 0.3390.339 0.3400.365 0.5330.453 0.5630.768 0.9890.642 0.7570.6580.6193.142 3.1541.365 1.3692.041 2.2491.073 1.1123.041 3.0721.330 1.339
1.078 0.827 1.549
720 960.422 0.2010.372 0.4191.363 3.3790.887 1.3883.0481.3340.872 1.3282.6310.972 1.2423.160 3.1711.369 1.368 2.7202.5681.238 1.2873.105 3.1351.348 1.354
erneera192 3360.2220.317 0.3340.274 0.2960.368 0.3860.258 0.2660.357 0.3680.312 0.3480.402 0.4330.680 0.645 0.7250.6760.375 0.4420.437 0.4730.985 0.9960.813 0.821
7200.231 0.2540.338 0.3610.300 0.3730.394 0.4390.280 0.2830.380 0.3760.350 0.3400.433 0.4200.828 0.9570.727 0.8110.439 0.9800.473 0.8141.000 1.4380.824 0.784
uepeg96 1920.1970.3230.8470.7520.9680.8121.0650.8291.5511.058 1.4531.049 3.0041.432
3360.300 0.5090.369 0.5241.2040.8951.0400.8511.1880.9061.4771.0281.8461.1793.0481.444
7201.4470.9411.672 2.4781.036 1.3101.659 1.9411.081 1.1271.357 1.5100.976 1.0161.507 2.2851.031 1.2432.136 2.9841.2313.1131.459
960.6130.3880.7190.3910.6840.3840.7320.4231.4273.1501.458
[Tjeee1920.6160.3820.6960.3790.6850.3900.7330.4201.107 1.1570.685 0.7060.843 0.8470.453 0.4531.438 1.4630.784 0.794
336 7200.6220.3370.7770.4200.7330.4080.7420.4201.2160.7300.8530.4551.4790.799
0.6600.4080.8640.4720.7170.3960.7550.4231.4810.8051.5000.8051.4990.804
waaeee960.2660.3360.3000.3840.4580.4900.6890.5960.5940.5870.3690.4060.6150.589
192 3360.3070.3670.5980.5440.6580.5890.7520.6380.5600.5650.4160.4350.6290.600
7200.3590.3950.5780.5230.7970.6520.6390.5960.5970.5870.4550.4540.6390.608
0.4190.4281.0590.7410.8690.6751.1300.7920.6180.5990.5350.5200.6390.610
243.4835.764
361.2871.6774.4801.4444.4001.3826.0261.7705.9141.7346.6241.830
483.1031.1484.7551.4674.7991.4674.7831.4485.3401.6686.6311.8456.8581.879
2.6691.0854.7631.4694.8001.4684.8321.4656.0801.7876.7361.8576.968
601.1255.2641.5645.2781.5604.8821.4835.5481.720 6.8701.8797.1271.892 1.918
2.770
+ +\* ETT means the ETTm2. See supplementary materials for the full benchmark of ETTh1, ETTh2, ETTm1. + +15 minutes between July 2016 and July 2018. (2) Electricity1 dataset contains the hourly electricity consumption of 321 customers from 2012 to 2014. (3) Exchange [19] records the daily exchange rates of eight different countries ranging from 1990 to 2016. (4) Traffic2 is a collection of hourly data from California Department of Transportation, which describes the road occupancy rates measured by different sensors on San Francisco Bay area freeways. (5) Weather3 is recorded every 10 minutes for 2020 whole year, which contains 21 meteorological indicators, such as air temperature, humidity, etc. (6) $I L I ^ { 4 }$ includes the weekly recorded influenza-like illness (ILI) patients data from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention of the United States between 2002 and 2021, which describes the ratio of patients seen with ILI and the total number of the patients. We follow standard protocol and split all datasets into training, validation and test set in chronological order by the ratio of 6:2:2 for the ETT dataset and 7:1:2 for the other datasets. + +Implementation details Our method is trained with L2 loss, using the ADAM [16] optimizer with an initial learning rate of $1 0 ^ { - 4 }$ . Batch size is set to 32. The training process is early stopped within 10 epochs. All experiments are repeated three times, implemented in PyTorch [25] and conducted on a single NVIDIA TITAN RTX 24GB GPUs. The hyper-parameter $c$ of Auto-Correlation is in the range of 1 to 3 to trade off performance and efficiency. See supplementary materials for standard deviations and sensitivity analysis. Autoformer contains 2 encoder layers and 1 decoder layer. + +Baselines We include 10 baseline methods. For the multivariate setting, we select three latest stateof-the-art transformer-based models: Informer [41], Reformer [17], LogTrans [20], two RNN-based models: LSTNet [19], LSTM [13] and CNN-based TCN [3] as baselines. For the univariate setting, we include more competitive baselines: N-BEATS[23], DeepAR [28], Prophet [33] and ARMIA [1]. + +Table 2: Univariate results with different prediction lengths $O \in \{ 9 6 , 1 9 2 , 3 3 6 , 7 2 0 \}$ on typical datasets. We set the input length $I$ as 96. A lower MSE or MAE indicates a better prediction. + +
Models Autoformer N-BEATS[23] Informer[41] LogTrans[20] Reformer[17] DeepAR[28] Prophet[33] ARIMA[1]
Metric1MSE MAE MSEMAEMSE MAEMSEMAEMSEMAEMSE MAEMSE MAE MSE MAE
960.065 0.1890.0820.2190.088 0.2250.0820.2170.1310.2880.0990.2370.287 0.456 0.211 0.362
1920.118 0.256 0.1200.2680.132 0.2830.1330.2840.1860.3540.1540.3100.312 0.483 0.261 0.406
3360.1540.305 0.2260.3700.1800.336 0.2010.3610.2200.3810.2770.4280.331 0.474 0.317 0.448
7200.182 0.335 0.1880.338 0.3000.435 0.2680.4070.2670.4300.332 0.468 0.5340.593 0.366 0.487
aepeg960.241 0.387 0.1560.2990.591(0.615 0.2790.4411.3270.9440.417 0.515 0.828 0.762 0.112 0.245
1920.273 0.403 0.6690.6651.1830.912 1.9501.0481.2580.9240.813 0.735 0.909 0.974 0.304 0.404
3360.508 0.539 0.6110.6051.367 0.984 2.4381.2622.1791.2961.331 0.962 1.304 0.988 0.736 0.598
7200.991 0.768 1.1110.8601.8721.072 2.0101.2471.2800.9531.894 1.181 3.238 1.566 1.871 0.935
+ +# 4.1 Main Results + +To compare performances under different future horizons, we fix the input length and evaluate models with a wide range of prediction lengths: 96, 192, 336, 720. This setting precisely meets the definition of long-term forecasting. Here are results on both the multivariate and univariate settings. + +Multivariate results As for the multivariate setting, Autoformer achieves the consistent state-ofthe-art performance in all benchmarks and all prediction length settings (Table 1). Especially, under the input-96-predict-336 setting, compared to previous state-of-the-art results, Autoformer gives $74 \%$ $1 . 3 3 4 { } 0 . 3 3 9 _ { . }$ ) MSE reduction in ETT, $18 \%$ $0 . 2 8 0 { } 0 . 2 3 1$ ) in Electricity, $61 \%$ ( $1 . 3 5 7 { } 0 . 5 0 9 \rangle$ in Exchange, $15 \%$ $( 0 . 7 3 3 { } 0 . 6 2 2 )$ in Traffic and $21 \%$ $( 0 . 4 5 5 { } 0 . 3 5 9 )$ ) in Weather. For the input36-predict-60 setting of ILI, Autoformer makes $43 \%$ $4 . 8 8 2 { } 2 . 7 7 0$ ) MSE reduction. Overall, Autoformer yields a $38 \%$ averaged MSE reduction among above settings. Note that Autoformer still provides remarkable improvements in the Exchange dataset that is without obvious periodicity. See supplementary materials for detailed showcases. Besides, we can also find that the performance of Autoformer changes quite steadily as the prediction length $O$ increases. It means that Autoformer retains better long-term robustness, which is meaningful for real-world practical applications, such as weather early warning and long-term energy consumption planning. + +Univariate results We list the univariate results of two typical datasets in Table 2. Under the comparison with extensive baselines, our Autoformer still achieves state-of-the-art performance for the long-term forecasting tasks. In particular, for the input-96-predict-336 setting, our model achieves $14 \%$ $0 . 1 8 0 { } 0 . 1 4 5$ MSE reduction on the ETT dataset with obvious periodicity. For the Exchange dataset without obvious periodicity, Autoformer surpasses other baselines by $17 \%$ $( 0 . 6 1 1 { } 0 . 5 0 8 )$ and shows greater long-term forecasting capacity. Also, we find that ARIMA [1] performs best in the input-96-predict-96 setting of the Exchange dataset but fails in the long-term setting. This situation of ARIMA can be benefited from its inherent capacity for non-stationary economic data but is limited by the intricate temporal patterns of real-world series. + +# 4.2 Ablation studies + +Table 3: Ablation of decomposition in multivariate ETT with MSE metric. Ours adopts our progressive architecture into other models. Sep employs two models to forecast pre-decomposed seasonal and trend-cyclical components separately. Promotion is the MSE reduction compared to Origin. + +
Input-96Transformer[35]Informer[41]LogTrans[17]Reformer[20]Promotion
Predict-O| OriginSepOursOriginSepOursOriginSepOursOrigin SepOursSepOurs
960.6040.3110.2040.3650.4900.3540.7680.8620.2310.6580.4450.2180.0690.347
1921.060 0.760(0.2660.5330.6580.4320.9890.5330.3781.0780.510 0.3360.300 0.562
3361.4130.6650.3751.3631.4690.4811.3340.7620.3621.5491.0280.3660.4341.019
7202.6723.2000.5373.3792.7660.8223.0482.6010.5392.6312.8450.5020.079 2.332
+ +Decomposition architecture With our proposed progressive decomposition architecture, other models can gain consistent promotion, especially as the prediction length $O$ increases (Table 3). This verifies that our method can generalize to other models and release the capacity of other dependencies learning mechanisms, alleviate the distraction caused by intricate patterns. Besides, our architecture outperforms the pre-processing, although the latter employs a bigger model and more parameters. Especially, pre-decomposing may even bring negative effect because it neglects the interaction of components during long-term future, such as Transformer [35] predict-720, Informer [41] predict-336. + +Auto-Correlation vs. self-attention family As shown in Table 4, our proposed Auto-Correlation achieves the best performance under various input- ${ \mathbf { \nabla } } J$ -predict- $O$ settings, which verifies the effectiveness of series-wise connections comparing to point-wise self-attentions (Figure 3). Furthermore, we can also observe that Auto-Correlation is memory efficiency from the last column of Table 4, which can be used in long sequence forecasting, such as input-336-predict-1440. + +Table 4: Comparison of Auto-Correlation and self-attention in the multivariate ETT. We replace the Auto-Correlation in Autoformer with different self-attentions. The “-” indicates the out-of-memory. + +
Input Length I Prediction Length O96192336
336720144033672014403367201440
Auto- CorrelationMSE MAE0.339 0.3720.422 0.4190.555 0.4960.355 0.3920.429 0.4300.503 0.4840.361 0.4060.425 0.4400.574 0.534
Full Attention[35]MSE MAE0.375 0.4250.537 0.5020.667 0.5890.450 0.4700.554 0.533- -0.501 0.4850.647 0.4911 =
LogSparse Attention[20]MSE MAE0.362 0.4130.539 0.5220.582 0.5290.420 0.4500.552 0.5130.958 0.7360.474 0.4740.601 0.524- =
LSH Attention[17]MSE MAE0.366 0.4040.502 0.4750.663 0.5670.407 0.4210.636 0.5711.069 0.7560.442 0.4760.615 0.5321 -
ProbSparse Attention[41]MSE MAE0.481 0.4720.822 0.5590.715 0.5860.404 0.4251.148 0.6540.732 0.6020.417 0.4340.631 0.5281.133 0.691
+ +# 4.3 Model Analysis + +Time series decomposition As shown in Figure 4, without our series decomposition block, the forecasting model cannot capture the increasing trend and peaks of the seasonal part. By adding the series decomposition blocks, Autoformer can aggregate and refine the trend-cyclical part from series progressively. This design also facilitates the learning of the seasonal part, especially the peaks and troughs. This verifies the necessity of our proposed progressive decomposition architecture. + +![](images/226af42008cf294d2ad17509100d9847b1a2e1adc1ae3b98a6fc44cc7d5195f9.jpg) +Figure 4: Visualization of learned seasonal gradually add the decomposition blocks in $\mathcal { X } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { M }$ and trend-cyclical der from left to rig $\mathcal { T } _ { \mathrm { d e } } ^ { M }$ of the last decoder layer. Wehis case is from ETT dataset under input-96-predict-720 setting. For clearness, we add the linear growth to raw data additionally. + +Dependencies learning The marked time delay sizes in Figure 5(a) indicate the most likely periods. Our learned periodicity can guide the model to aggregate the sub-series from the same or neighbor phase of periods by $\mathrm { R o l l } ( \mathcal { X } , \tau _ { i } )$ , $i \in \{ 1 , \cdots , 6 \}$ . For the last time step (declining stage), AutoCorrelation fully utilizes all similar sub-series without omissions or errors compared to self-attentions. This verifies that Autoformer can discover the relevant information more sufficiently and precisely. + +Complex seasonality modeling As shown in Figure 6, the lags that Autoformer learns from deep representations can indicate the real seasonality of raw series. For example, the learned lags of the daily recorded Exchange dataset present the monthly, quarterly and yearly periods (Figure 6 (b)). For the hourly recorded Traffic dataset (Figure 6 (c)), the learned lags show the intervals as 24-hours and 168-hours, which match the daily and weekly periods of real-world scenarios. These results show that Autoformer can capture the complex seasonalities of real-world series from deep representations and further provide a human-interpretable prediction. + +![](images/1f8ff11071d73f33cde0d525eb867796c34772cd0e34d9f2c2266d99a710dd8f.jpg) +Figure 5: Visualization of learned dependencies. For clearness, we select the top-6 time delay sizes $\tau _ { 1 } , \cdots , \tau _ { 6 }$ of Auto-Correlation and mark them in raw series (red lines). For self-attentions, top-6 similar points with respect to the last time step (red stars) are also marked by orange points. + +![](images/487dd7c7362dd1bad3b32de704db93d0e84eac245cf0c6717299a42cde5d4a6b.jpg) +Figure 6: Statistics of learned lags. For each time series in the test set, we count the top 10 lags learned by decoder for the input-96-predict-336 task. Figure (a)-(d) are the density histograms. + +Efficiency analysis We compare the running memory and time among Auto-Correlation-based and self-attention-based models (Figure 7) during the training phase. The proposed Autoformer shows $\mathcal { O } ( L \log L )$ complexity in both memory and time and achieves better long-term sequences efficiency. + +![](images/9945f941aa3e41c082433f9479d4023d07440ec79228f1bcc87357764c332377.jpg) +Figure 7: Efficiency Analysis. For memory, we replace Auto-Correlation with self-attention family in Autoformer and record the memory with input 96. For running time, we run the Auto-Correlation or self-attentions $1 0 ^ { 3 }$ times to get the execution time per step. The output length increases exponentially. + +# 5 Conclusions + +This paper studies the long-term forecasting problem of time series, which is a pressing demand for real-world applications. However, the intricate temporal patterns prevent the model from learning reliable dependencies. We propose the Autoformer as a decomposition architecture by embedding the series decomposition block as an inner operator, which can progressively aggregate the longterm trend part from intermediate prediction. Besides, we design an efficient Auto-Correlation mechanism to conduct dependencies discovery and information aggregation at the series level, which contrasts clearly from the previous self-attention family. Autoformer can naturally achieve $\mathcal { O } ( L \log L )$ complexity and yield consistent state-of-the-art performance in extensive real-world datasets. + +# Acknowledgments and Disclosure of Funding + +This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grants 62022050 and 62021002, Beijing Nova Program under Grant Z201100006820041, China’s Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, the MOE Innovation Plan and the BNRist Innovation Fund. + +# References + +[1] O. Anderson and M. Kendall. Time-series. 2nd edn. J. R. Stat. Soc. (Series D), 1976. [2] Reza Asadi and Amelia C Regan. A spatio-temporal decomposition based deep neural network for time series forecasting. Appl. Soft Comput., 2020. [3] Shaojie Bai, J Zico Kolter, and Vladlen Koltun. An empirical evaluation of generic convolutional and recurrent networks for sequence modeling. arXiv preprint arXiv:1803.01271, 2018. [4] Anastasia Borovykh, Sander Bohte, and Cornelis W Oosterlee. 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Thus, in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 690, + 506, + 704 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 690, + 506, + 704 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the process of efficiency improvement, they will sacrifice the information utilization because of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 701, + 491, + 715 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 701, + 491, + 715 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sparse point-wise connections, resulting in a bottleneck for long-term forecasting of time series.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "page_idx": 0, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 731, + 384, + 741 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 730, + 386, + 743 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 730, + 386, + 743 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "35th Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS 2021).", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 116, + 97, + 496, + 137 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 129, + 97, + 481, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 129, + 97, + 481, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Autoformer: Decomposition Transformers with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 115, + 497, + 140 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 115, + 497, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Auto-Correlation for Long-Term Series Forecasting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + } + ], + "index": 0.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 117, + 178, + 493, + 213 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 177, + 178, + 431, + 192 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 177, + 178, + 416, + 192 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Haixu Wu, Jiehui Xu, Jianmin Wang, Mingsheng Long", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 416, + 180, + 431, + 190 + ], + "score": 0.28, + "content": "( \\boxtimes )", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 190, + 420, + 203 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 190, + 420, + 203 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "School of Software, BNRist, Tsinghua University, China", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 200, + 494, + 215 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 200, + 494, + 215 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "{whx20,xjh20}@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn, {jimwang,mingsheng}@tsinghua.edu.cn", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 3, + "bbox_fs": [ + 116, + 178, + 494, + 215 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 283, + 240, + 328, + 254 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 281, + 240, + 330, + 255 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 281, + 240, + 330, + 255 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Abstract", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 142, + 266, + 469, + 475 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 266, + 469, + 280 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 266, + 469, + 280 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Extending the forecasting time is a critical demand for real applications, such as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 277, + 470, + 291 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 277, + 470, + 291 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "extreme weather early warning and long-term energy consumption planning. This", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 289, + 470, + 301 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 289, + 470, + 301 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "paper studies the long-term forecasting problem of time series. Prior Transformer-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 299, + 469, + 312 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 299, + 469, + 312 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "based models adopt various self-attention mechanisms to discover the long-range", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 310, + 470, + 323 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 310, + 470, + 323 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dependencies. However, intricate temporal patterns of the long-term future prohibit", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 322, + 469, + 334 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 322, + 469, + 334 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the model from finding reliable dependencies. Also, Transformers have to adopt the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 332, + 470, + 345 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 332, + 470, + 345 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sparse versions of point-wise self-attentions for long series efficiency, resulting in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 344, + 470, + 356 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 344, + 470, + 356 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the information utilization bottleneck. Going beyond Transformers, we design Auto-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 354, + 470, + 366 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 354, + 470, + 366 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "former as a novel decomposition architecture with an Auto-Correlation mechanism.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 364, + 469, + 378 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 364, + 469, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We break with the pre-processing convention of series decomposition and renovate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 376, + 469, + 389 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 376, + 469, + 389 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "it as a basic inner block of deep models. This design empowers Autoformer with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 387, + 470, + 400 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 387, + 470, + 400 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "progressive decomposition capacities for complex time series. Further, inspired by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 398, + 469, + 410 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 398, + 469, + 410 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the stochastic process theory, we design the Auto-Correlation mechanism based on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 408, + 470, + 421 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 408, + 470, + 421 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the series periodicity, which conducts the dependencies discovery and representa-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 420, + 469, + 432 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 420, + 469, + 432 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tion aggregation at the sub-series level. Auto-Correlation outperforms self-attention", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 431, + 470, + 443 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 431, + 470, + 443 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in both efficiency and accuracy. In long-term forecasting, Autoformer yields state-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 441, + 469, + 454 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 441, + 247, + 454 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of-the-art accuracy, with a", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 248, + 441, + 267, + 452 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "38 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 267, + 441, + 469, + 454 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "relative improvement on six benchmarks, covering", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 452, + 469, + 465 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 452, + 469, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "five practical applications: energy, traffic, economics, weather and disease. Code is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 464, + 441, + 475 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 464, + 441, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "available at this repository: https://github.com/thuml/Autoformer.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 15, + "bbox_fs": [ + 141, + 266, + 470, + 475 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 496, + 190, + 510 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 192, + 512 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 192, + 512 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1 Introduction", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 521, + 505, + 609 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 520, + 506, + 536 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 520, + 506, + 536 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Time series forecasting has been widely used in energy consumption, traffic and economics planning,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 532, + 506, + 546 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 532, + 506, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "weather and disease propagation forecasting. In these real-world applications, one pressing demand", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 543, + 505, + 556 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 543, + 505, + 556 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is to extend the forecast time into the far future, which is quite meaningful for the long-term planning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 506, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 506, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and early warning. Thus, in this paper, we study the long-term forecasting problem of time series,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 566, + 505, + 578 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 566, + 505, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "characterizing itself by the large length of predicted time series. Recent deep forecasting models", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 575, + 507, + 590 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 575, + 507, + 590 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[41, 17, 20, 28, 23, 29, 19, 35] have achieved great progress, especially the Transformer-based models.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 586, + 505, + 600 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 586, + 505, + 600 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Benefiting from the self-attention mechanism, Transformers obtain great advantage in modeling", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 599, + 481, + 610 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 599, + 481, + 610 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "long-term dependencies for sequential data, which enables more powerful big models [7, 11].", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 29.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 520, + 507, + 610 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 614, + 505, + 713 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 615, + 505, + 626 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 615, + 505, + 626 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "However, the forecasting task is extremely challenging under the long-term setting. First, it is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 625, + 505, + 638 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 625, + 505, + 638 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "unreliable to discover the temporal dependencies directly from the long-term time series because", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 637, + 505, + 648 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 637, + 505, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the dependencies can be obscured by entangled temporal patterns. Second, canonical Transformers", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 646, + 505, + 660 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 646, + 505, + 660 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with self-attention mechanisms are computationally prohibitive for long-term forecasting because", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 657, + 505, + 671 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 657, + 505, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the quadratic complexity of sequence length. Previous Transformer-based forecasting models", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 668, + 505, + 682 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 668, + 505, + 682 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[41, 17, 20] mainly focus on improving self-attention to a sparse version. While performance is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 679, + 505, + 693 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 679, + 505, + 693 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "significantly improved, these models still utilize the point-wise representation aggregation. Thus, in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 690, + 506, + 704 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 690, + 506, + 704 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the process of efficiency improvement, they will sacrifice the information utilization because of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 701, + 491, + 715 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 701, + 491, + 715 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sparse point-wise connections, resulting in a bottleneck for long-term forecasting of time series.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + } + ], + "index": 38, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 715 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 73, + 505, + 204 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 72, + 506, + 86 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 72, + 506, + 86 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To reason about the intricate temporal patterns, we try to take the idea of decomposition, which is a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 84, + 506, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 84, + 506, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "standard method in time series analysis [1, 27]. It can be used to process the complex time series and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 95, + 505, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 95, + 505, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "extract more predictable components. However, under the forecasting context, it can only be used", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 106, + 505, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 106, + 505, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as the pre-processing of past series because the future is unknown [15]. This common usage limits", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 117, + 505, + 129 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 117, + 505, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the capabilities of decomposition and overlooks the potential future interactions among decomposed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 128, + 506, + 140 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 128, + 506, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "components. Thus, we attempt to go beyond pre-processing usage of decomposition and propose a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 138, + 506, + 151 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 138, + 506, + 151 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "generic architecture to empower the deep forecasting models with immanent capacity of progressive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 506, + 162 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 506, + 162 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "decomposition. Further, decomposition can ravel out the entangled temporal patterns and highlight", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 506, + 173 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 506, + 173 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the inherent properties of time series [15]. Benefiting from this, we try to take advantage of the series", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 506, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 506, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "periodicity to renovate the point-wise connection in self-attention. We observe that the sub-series at", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 506, + 195 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 506, + 195 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the same phase position among periods often present similar temporal processes. Thus, we try to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 489, + 206 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 489, + 206 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "construct a series-level connection based on the process similarity derived by series periodicity.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 5.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 209, + 505, + 340 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 209, + 506, + 222 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 209, + 506, + 222 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Based on the above motivations, we propose an original Autoformer in place of the Transformers for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 220, + 506, + 232 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 220, + 506, + 232 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "long-term time series forecasting. Autoformer still follows residual and encoder-decoder structure but", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 231, + 506, + 244 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 231, + 506, + 244 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "renovates Transformer into a decomposition forecasting architecture. By embedding our proposed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 505, + 254 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 505, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "decomposition blocks as the inner operators, Autoformer can progressively separate the long-term", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 252, + 505, + 265 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 252, + 505, + 265 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trend information from predicted hidden variables. This design allows our model to alternately", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 264, + 505, + 276 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 264, + 505, + 276 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "decompose and refine the intermediate results during the forecasting procedure. Inspired by the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 275, + 505, + 287 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 275, + 505, + 287 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "stochastic process theory [8, 24], Autoformer introduces an Auto-Correlation mechanism in place", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 285, + 506, + 298 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 285, + 506, + 298 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of self-attention, which discovers the sub-series similarity based on the series periodicity and aggre-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 296, + 505, + 309 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 296, + 458, + 309 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "gates similar sub-series from underlying periods. This series-wise mechanism achieves", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 459, + 296, + 505, + 308 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { O } ( L \\log L )", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 307, + 505, + 320 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 307, + 198, + 320 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "complexity for length-", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 308, + 206, + 317 + ], + "score": 0.73, + "content": "L", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 307, + 505, + 320 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "series and breaks the information utilization bottleneck by expanding the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 319, + 506, + 330 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 319, + 506, + 330 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "point-wise representation aggregation to sub-series level. Autoformer achieves the state-of-the-art", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 410, + 341 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 410, + 341 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "accuracy on six benchmarks. The contributions are summarized as follows:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 17.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 133, + 349, + 505, + 445 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 348, + 506, + 362 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 348, + 506, + 362 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "• To tackle the intricate temporal patterns of the long-term future, we present Autoformer as a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 359, + 506, + 374 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 359, + 506, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "decomposition architecture and design the inner decomposition block to empower the deep", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 371, + 426, + 384 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 371, + 426, + 384 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "forecasting model with immanent progressive decomposition capacity.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 386, + 505, + 398 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 386, + 505, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "• We propose an Auto-Correlation mechanism with dependencies discovery and information", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 397, + 506, + 409 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 397, + 506, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "aggregation at the series level. Our mechanism is beyond previous self-attention family and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 408, + 470, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 408, + 470, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can simultaneously benefit the computation efficiency and information utilization.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 422, + 506, + 435 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 423, + 234, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "• Autoformer achieves a", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 422, + 254, + 433 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "38 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 423, + 506, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "relative improvement under the long-term setting on six bench-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 433, + 507, + 446 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 433, + 507, + 446 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "marks, covering five real-world applications: energy, traffic, economics, weather and disease.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 27.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 458, + 198, + 471 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 457, + 199, + 473 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 457, + 199, + 473 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 Related Work", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 478, + 281, + 490 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 475, + 282, + 492 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 475, + 282, + 492 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.1 Models for Time Series Forecasting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 498, + 506, + 629 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 498, + 506, + 510 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 498, + 506, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Due to the immense importance of time series forecasting, various models have been well developed.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 509, + 505, + 521 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 509, + 505, + 521 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Many time series forecasting methods start from the classic tools [32, 9]. ARIMA [6, 5] tackles the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 506, + 534 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 506, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "forecasting problem by transforming the non-stationary process to stationary through differencing.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 531, + 506, + 543 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 531, + 506, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The filtering method is also introduced for series forecasting [18, 10]. Besides, recurrent neural", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 542, + 506, + 554 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 542, + 506, + 554 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "networks (RNNs) models are used to model the temporal dependencies for time series [36, 26, 40, 22].", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 506, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 506, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "DeepAR [28] combines autoregressive methods and RNNs to model the probabilistic distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 505, + 576 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 505, + 576 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of future series. LSTNet [19] introduces convolutional neural networks (CNNs) with recurrent-skip", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 506, + 586 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 506, + 586 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "connections to capture the short-term and long-term temporal patterns. Attention-based RNNs", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 506, + 597 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 506, + 597 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[39, 30, 31] introduce the temporal attention to explore the long-range dependencies for prediction.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 595, + 506, + 609 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 595, + 506, + 609 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Also, many works based on temporal convolution networks (TCN) [34, 4, 3, 29] attempt to model the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 607, + 505, + 619 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 607, + 505, + 619 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "temporal causality with the causal convolution. These deep forecasting models mainly focus on the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 618, + 487, + 631 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 618, + 487, + 631 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "temporal relation modeling by recurrent connections, temporal attention or causal convolution.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + } + ], + "index": 39.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 634, + 505, + 722 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 647 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 647 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Recently, Transformers [35, 38] based on the self-attention mechanism shows great power in sequen-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 645, + 506, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 645, + 506, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tial data, such as natural language processing [11, 7], audio processing [14] and even computer vision", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 657, + 505, + 669 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 657, + 505, + 669 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[12, 21]. However, applying self-attention to long-term time series forecasting is computationally", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 667, + 506, + 680 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 667, + 387, + 680 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prohibitive because of the quadratic complexity of sequence length", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 387, + 668, + 395, + 677 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "L", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 395, + 667, + 506, + 680 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in both memory and time.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 678, + 505, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 678, + 505, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "LogTrans [20] introduces the local convolution to Transformer and proposes the LogSparse attention", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 687, + 506, + 702 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 687, + 506, + 702 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to select time steps following the exponentially increasing intervals, which reduces the complexity to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 699, + 506, + 713 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 699, + 163, + 712 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { O } ( L ( \\log L ) ^ { 2 } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 164, + 699, + 506, + 713 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Reformer [17] presents the local-sensitive hashing (LSH) attention and reduces the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 711, + 505, + 724 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 711, + 163, + 724 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "complexity to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 163, + 711, + 209, + 723 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { O } ( L \\log L )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 210, + 711, + 505, + 724 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Informer [41] extends Transformer with KL-divergence based ProbSparse", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + } + ], + "index": 49.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 1, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 741, + 309, + 750 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 740, + 310, + 753 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 740, + 310, + 753 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 73, + 505, + 204 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 72, + 506, + 86 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 72, + 506, + 86 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To reason about the intricate temporal patterns, we try to take the idea of decomposition, which is a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 84, + 506, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 84, + 506, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "standard method in time series analysis [1, 27]. It can be used to process the complex time series and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 95, + 505, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 95, + 505, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "extract more predictable components. However, under the forecasting context, it can only be used", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 106, + 505, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 106, + 505, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as the pre-processing of past series because the future is unknown [15]. This common usage limits", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 117, + 505, + 129 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 117, + 505, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the capabilities of decomposition and overlooks the potential future interactions among decomposed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 128, + 506, + 140 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 128, + 506, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "components. Thus, we attempt to go beyond pre-processing usage of decomposition and propose a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 138, + 506, + 151 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 138, + 506, + 151 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "generic architecture to empower the deep forecasting models with immanent capacity of progressive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 506, + 162 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 506, + 162 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "decomposition. Further, decomposition can ravel out the entangled temporal patterns and highlight", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 506, + 173 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 506, + 173 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the inherent properties of time series [15]. Benefiting from this, we try to take advantage of the series", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 506, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 506, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "periodicity to renovate the point-wise connection in self-attention. We observe that the sub-series at", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 506, + 195 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 506, + 195 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the same phase position among periods often present similar temporal processes. Thus, we try to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 489, + 206 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 489, + 206 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "construct a series-level connection based on the process similarity derived by series periodicity.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 5.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 72, + 506, + 206 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 209, + 505, + 340 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 209, + 506, + 222 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 209, + 506, + 222 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Based on the above motivations, we propose an original Autoformer in place of the Transformers for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 220, + 506, + 232 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 220, + 506, + 232 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "long-term time series forecasting. Autoformer still follows residual and encoder-decoder structure but", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 231, + 506, + 244 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 231, + 506, + 244 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "renovates Transformer into a decomposition forecasting architecture. By embedding our proposed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 505, + 254 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 505, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "decomposition blocks as the inner operators, Autoformer can progressively separate the long-term", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 252, + 505, + 265 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 252, + 505, + 265 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trend information from predicted hidden variables. This design allows our model to alternately", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 264, + 505, + 276 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 264, + 505, + 276 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "decompose and refine the intermediate results during the forecasting procedure. Inspired by the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 275, + 505, + 287 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 275, + 505, + 287 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "stochastic process theory [8, 24], Autoformer introduces an Auto-Correlation mechanism in place", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 285, + 506, + 298 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 285, + 506, + 298 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of self-attention, which discovers the sub-series similarity based on the series periodicity and aggre-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 296, + 505, + 309 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 296, + 458, + 309 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "gates similar sub-series from underlying periods. This series-wise mechanism achieves", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 459, + 296, + 505, + 308 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { O } ( L \\log L )", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 307, + 505, + 320 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 307, + 198, + 320 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "complexity for length-", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 308, + 206, + 317 + ], + "score": 0.73, + "content": "L", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 307, + 505, + 320 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "series and breaks the information utilization bottleneck by expanding the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 319, + 506, + 330 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 319, + 506, + 330 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "point-wise representation aggregation to sub-series level. Autoformer achieves the state-of-the-art", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 410, + 341 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 410, + 341 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "accuracy on six benchmarks. The contributions are summarized as follows:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 17.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 209, + 506, + 341 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 133, + 349, + 505, + 445 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 348, + 506, + 362 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 348, + 506, + 362 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "• To tackle the intricate temporal patterns of the long-term future, we present Autoformer as a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 359, + 506, + 374 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 359, + 506, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "decomposition architecture and design the inner decomposition block to empower the deep", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 371, + 426, + 384 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 371, + 426, + 384 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "forecasting model with immanent progressive decomposition capacity.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 386, + 505, + 398 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 386, + 505, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "• We propose an Auto-Correlation mechanism with dependencies discovery and information", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 397, + 506, + 409 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 397, + 506, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "aggregation at the series level. Our mechanism is beyond previous self-attention family and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 408, + 470, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 408, + 470, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can simultaneously benefit the computation efficiency and information utilization.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 422, + 506, + 435 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 423, + 234, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "• Autoformer achieves a", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 422, + 254, + 433 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "38 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 423, + 506, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "relative improvement under the long-term setting on six bench-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 433, + 507, + 446 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 433, + 507, + 446 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "marks, covering five real-world applications: energy, traffic, economics, weather and disease.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 27.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 133, + 348, + 507, + 446 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 458, + 198, + 471 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 457, + 199, + 473 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 457, + 199, + 473 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 Related Work", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 478, + 281, + 490 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 475, + 282, + 492 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 475, + 282, + 492 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.1 Models for Time Series Forecasting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 498, + 506, + 629 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 498, + 506, + 510 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 498, + 506, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Due to the immense importance of time series forecasting, various models have been well developed.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 509, + 505, + 521 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 509, + 505, + 521 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Many time series forecasting methods start from the classic tools [32, 9]. ARIMA [6, 5] tackles the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 506, + 534 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 506, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "forecasting problem by transforming the non-stationary process to stationary through differencing.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 531, + 506, + 543 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 531, + 506, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The filtering method is also introduced for series forecasting [18, 10]. Besides, recurrent neural", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 542, + 506, + 554 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 542, + 506, + 554 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "networks (RNNs) models are used to model the temporal dependencies for time series [36, 26, 40, 22].", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 506, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 506, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "DeepAR [28] combines autoregressive methods and RNNs to model the probabilistic distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 505, + 576 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 505, + 576 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of future series. LSTNet [19] introduces convolutional neural networks (CNNs) with recurrent-skip", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 506, + 586 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 506, + 586 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "connections to capture the short-term and long-term temporal patterns. Attention-based RNNs", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 506, + 597 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 506, + 597 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[39, 30, 31] introduce the temporal attention to explore the long-range dependencies for prediction.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 595, + 506, + 609 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 595, + 506, + 609 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Also, many works based on temporal convolution networks (TCN) [34, 4, 3, 29] attempt to model the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 607, + 505, + 619 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 607, + 505, + 619 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "temporal causality with the causal convolution. These deep forecasting models mainly focus on the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 618, + 487, + 631 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 618, + 487, + 631 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "temporal relation modeling by recurrent connections, temporal attention or causal convolution.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + } + ], + "index": 39.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 498, + 506, + 631 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 634, + 505, + 722 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 647 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 647 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Recently, Transformers [35, 38] based on the self-attention mechanism shows great power in sequen-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 645, + 506, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 645, + 506, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tial data, such as natural language processing [11, 7], audio processing [14] and even computer vision", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 657, + 505, + 669 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 657, + 505, + 669 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[12, 21]. 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Reformer [17] presents the local-sensitive hashing (LSH) attention and reduces the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 711, + 505, + 724 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 711, + 163, + 724 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "complexity to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 163, + 711, + 209, + 723 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { O } ( L \\log L )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 210, + 711, + 505, + 724 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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Note that these methods are based on the vanilla", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 505, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 505, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Transformer and try to improve the self-attention mechanism to a sparse version, which still follows", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 95, + 506, + 108 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 95, + 506, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the point-wise dependency and aggregation. 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Note that these methods are based on the vanilla", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 505, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 505, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Transformer and try to improve the self-attention mechanism to a sparse version, which still follows", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 95, + 506, + 108 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 95, + 506, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the point-wise dependency and aggregation. In this paper, our proposed Auto-Correlation mechanism", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 106, + 470, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 106, + 470, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is based on the inherent periodicity of time series and can provide series-wise connections.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + } + ], + "index": 1.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 129, + 256, + 141 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 128, + 258, + 142 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 128, + 258, + 142 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.2 Decomposition of Time Series", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 149, + 505, + 270 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 150, + 504, + 162 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 150, + 504, + 162 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "As a standard method in time series analysis, time series decomposition [1, 27] deconstructs a time", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 161, + 505, + 173 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 161, + 505, + 173 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "series into several components, each representing one of the underlying categories of patterns that are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 505, + 185 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 505, + 185 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "more predictable. It is primarily useful for exploring historical changes over time. For the forecasting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 506, + 196 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 506, + 196 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tasks, decomposition is always used as the pre-processing of historical series before predicting future", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 505, + 206 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 505, + 206 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "series [15, 2], such as Prophet [33] with trend-seasonality decomposition and N-BEATS [23] with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 204, + 506, + 217 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 204, + 506, + 217 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "basis expansion and DeepGLO [29] with matrix decomposition. However, such pre-processing is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 216, + 505, + 227 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 216, + 505, + 227 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "limited by the plain decomposition effect of historical series and overlooks the hierarchical interaction", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 226, + 505, + 239 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 226, + 505, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "between the underlying patterns of series in the long-term future. This paper takes the decomposition", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 235, + 506, + 250 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 235, + 506, + 250 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "idea from a new progressive dimension. Our Autoformer harnesses the decomposition as an inner", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 247, + 506, + 261 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 247, + 506, + 261 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "block of deep models, which can progressively decompose the hidden series throughout the whole", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 259, + 461, + 271 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 259, + 461, + 271 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "forecasting process, including both the past series and the predicted intermediate results.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 284, + 186, + 298 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 282, + 188, + 301 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 282, + 188, + 301 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 Autoformer", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 308, + 505, + 397 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 309, + 505, + 321 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 309, + 415, + 321 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The time series forecasting problem is to predict the most probable length-", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 415, + 309, + 424, + 319 + ], + "score": 0.67, + "content": "O", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 424, + 309, + 505, + 321 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "series in the future", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 320, + 506, + 333 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 320, + 191, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "given the past length-", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 321, + 198, + 330 + ], + "score": 0.58, + "content": "{ \\mathbf { \\nabla } } \\cdot { I }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 199, + 320, + 338, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "series, denoting as input-I-predict-", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 338, + 321, + 346, + 330 + ], + "score": 0.47, + "content": "O", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 320, + 506, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The long-term forecasting setting is to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 331, + 505, + 343 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 331, + 264, + 343 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predict the long-term future, i.e. larger", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 265, + 331, + 274, + 341 + ], + "score": 0.64, + "content": "O", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 274, + 331, + 505, + 343 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". As aforementioned, we have highlighted the difficulties", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 506, + 353 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 506, + 353 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of long-term series forecasting: handling intricate temporal patterns and breaking the bottleneck of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 353, + 505, + 365 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 353, + 505, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "computation efficiency and information utilization. To tackle these two challenges, we introduce", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 506, + 377 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 506, + 377 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the decomposition as a builtin block to the deep forecasting model and propose Autoformer as a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 375, + 505, + 387 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 375, + 505, + 387 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "decomposition architecture. Besides, we design the Auto-Correlation mechanism to discover the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 449, + 398 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 449, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "period-based dependencies and aggregate similar sub-series from underlying periods.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 20.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 409, + 250, + 421 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 408, + 252, + 423 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 408, + 252, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.1 Decomposition Architecture", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 429, + 505, + 452 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 429, + 505, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 429, + 505, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We renovate Transformer [35] to a deep decomposition architecture (Figure 1), including the inner", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 441, + 506, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 441, + 506, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "series decomposition block, Auto-Correlation mechanism, and corresponding Encoder and Decoder.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + } + ], + "index": 26.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 457, + 505, + 546 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 457, + 505, + 471 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 457, + 505, + 471 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Series decomposition block To learn with the complex temporal patterns in long-term forecasting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 505, + 481 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 505, + 481 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "context, we take the idea of decomposition [1, 27], which can separate the series into trend-cyclical", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 480, + 505, + 492 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 480, + 505, + 492 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and seasonal parts. These two parts reflect the long-term progression and the seasonality of the series", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 491, + 506, + 503 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 491, + 506, + 503 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "respectively. However, directly decomposing is unrealizable for future series because the future is just", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 506, + 514 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 506, + 514 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "unknown. To tackle this dilemma, we present a series decomposition block as an inner operation of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 513, + 505, + 524 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 513, + 505, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Autoformer (Figure 1), which can extract the long-term stationary trend from predicted intermediate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 523, + 505, + 537 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 523, + 505, + 537 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "hidden variables progressively. Concretely, we adapt the moving average to smooth out periodic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 532, + 504, + 548 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 532, + 338, + 548 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fluctuations and highlight the long-term trends. For length-", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 338, + 535, + 346, + 544 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "L", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 346, + 532, + 394, + 548 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "input series", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 395, + 533, + 440, + 545 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\breve { \\mathcal { X } } \\in \\mathbb { R } ^ { L \\times d }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 440, + 532, + 504, + 548 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the process is:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 31.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 243, + 548, + 367, + 577 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 548, + 367, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 548, + 367, + 577 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r l } & { \\mathcal { X } _ { \\mathrm { t } } = \\mathrm { A v g P o o l } ( \\mathrm { P a d d i n g } ( \\mathcal { X } ) ) } \\\\ & { \\mathcal { X } _ { \\mathrm { s } } = \\mathcal { X } - \\mathcal { X } _ { \\mathrm { t } } , } \\end{array}", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "282df0854e95928f14b62ed4e853f369b7025077bb7d2e1cc6605fe5b7efcf53.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 36.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 548, + 367, + 562.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 562.5, + 367, + 577.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 37 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 580, + 505, + 614 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 577, + 506, + 594 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 577, + 132, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 579, + 195, + 592 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\boldsymbol { \\mathcal { X } } _ { \\mathrm { s } } , \\boldsymbol { \\mathcal { X } } _ { \\mathrm { t } } \\in \\mathbb { R } ^ { L \\times d }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 195, + 577, + 506, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote the seasonal and the extracted trend-cyclical part respectively. We adopt", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 591, + 506, + 605 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 591, + 121, + 605 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 122, + 592, + 170, + 603 + ], + "score": 0.62, + "content": "\\operatorname { A v g P o o l } ( \\cdot )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 170, + 591, + 506, + 605 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for moving average with the padding operation to keep the series length unchanged.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 602, + 502, + 615 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 602, + 137, + 615 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We use", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 137, + 603, + 254, + 614 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\mathcal { X } _ { \\mathrm { s } } , \\mathcal { X } _ { \\mathrm { t } } = \\mathrm { S e r i e s D e c o m p } ( \\mathcal { X } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 602, + 502, + 615 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to summarize above equations, which is a model inner block.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 621, + 505, + 678 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 618, + 506, + 635 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 618, + 322, + 635 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Model inputs The inputs of encoder part are the past", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 322, + 622, + 329, + 631 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "I", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 329, + 618, + 370, + 635 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "time steps", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 620, + 421, + 632 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\mathcal { X } _ { \\mathrm { e n } } \\in \\mathbb { R } ^ { I \\times d }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 422, + 618, + 506, + 635 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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It is primarily useful for exploring historical changes over time. For the forecasting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 506, + 196 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 506, + 196 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tasks, decomposition is always used as the pre-processing of historical series before predicting future", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 505, + 206 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 505, + 206 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "series [15, 2], such as Prophet [33] with trend-seasonality decomposition and N-BEATS [23] with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 204, + 506, + 217 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 204, + 506, + 217 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "basis expansion and DeepGLO [29] with matrix decomposition. However, such pre-processing is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 216, + 505, + 227 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 216, + 505, + 227 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "limited by the plain decomposition effect of historical series and overlooks the hierarchical interaction", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 226, + 505, + 239 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 226, + 505, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "between the underlying patterns of series in the long-term future. This paper takes the decomposition", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 235, + 506, + 250 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 235, + 506, + 250 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "idea from a new progressive dimension. Our Autoformer harnesses the decomposition as an inner", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 247, + 506, + 261 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 247, + 506, + 261 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "block of deep models, which can progressively decompose the hidden series throughout the whole", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 259, + 461, + 271 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 259, + 461, + 271 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "forecasting process, including both the past series and the predicted intermediate results.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 10, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 150, + 506, + 271 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 284, + 186, + 298 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 282, + 188, + 301 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 282, + 188, + 301 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 Autoformer", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 308, + 505, + 397 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 309, + 505, + 321 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 309, + 415, + 321 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The time series forecasting problem is to predict the most probable length-", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 415, + 309, + 424, + 319 + ], + "score": 0.67, + "content": "O", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 424, + 309, + 505, + 321 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "series in the future", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 320, + 506, + 333 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 320, + 191, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "given the past length-", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 321, + 198, + 330 + ], + "score": 0.58, + "content": "{ \\mathbf { \\nabla } } \\cdot { I }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 199, + 320, + 338, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "series, denoting as input-I-predict-", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 338, + 321, + 346, + 330 + ], + "score": 0.47, + "content": "O", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 320, + 506, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The long-term forecasting setting is to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 331, + 505, + 343 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 331, + 264, + 343 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predict the long-term future, i.e. larger", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 265, + 331, + 274, + 341 + ], + "score": 0.64, + "content": "O", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 274, + 331, + 505, + 343 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". As aforementioned, we have highlighted the difficulties", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 506, + 353 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 506, + 353 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of long-term series forecasting: handling intricate temporal patterns and breaking the bottleneck of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 353, + 505, + 365 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 353, + 505, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "computation efficiency and information utilization. To tackle these two challenges, we introduce", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 506, + 377 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 506, + 377 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the decomposition as a builtin block to the deep forecasting model and propose Autoformer as a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 375, + 505, + 387 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 375, + 505, + 387 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "decomposition architecture. Besides, we design the Auto-Correlation mechanism to discover the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 449, + 398 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 449, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "period-based dependencies and aggregate similar sub-series from underlying periods.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 20.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 309, + 506, + 398 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 409, + 250, + 421 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 408, + 252, + 423 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 408, + 252, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.1 Decomposition Architecture", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 429, + 505, + 452 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 429, + 505, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 429, + 505, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We renovate Transformer [35] to a deep decomposition architecture (Figure 1), including the inner", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 441, + 506, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 441, + 506, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "series decomposition block, Auto-Correlation mechanism, and corresponding Encoder and Decoder.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + } + ], + "index": 26.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 429, + 506, + 453 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 457, + 505, + 546 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 457, + 505, + 471 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 457, + 505, + 471 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Series decomposition block To learn with the complex temporal patterns in long-term forecasting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 505, + 481 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 505, + 481 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "context, we take the idea of decomposition [1, 27], which can separate the series into trend-cyclical", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 480, + 505, + 492 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 480, + 505, + 492 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and seasonal parts. These two parts reflect the long-term progression and the seasonality of the series", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 491, + 506, + 503 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 491, + 506, + 503 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "respectively. However, directly decomposing is unrealizable for future series because the future is just", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 506, + 514 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 506, + 514 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "unknown. 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The encoder eliminates the long-term trend-cyclical part by series", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 247, + 507, + 260 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 247, + 507, + 260 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "decomposition blocks (blue blocks) and focuses on seasonal patterns modeling. The decoder accu-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 259, + 505, + 271 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 259, + 505, + 271 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "mulates the trend part extracted from hidden variables progressively. 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Then the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 243, + 506, + 257 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 243, + 398, + 257 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "similar sub-processes are rolled to the same index based on selected delay", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 398, + 245, + 405, + 253 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "\\tau", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 406, + 243, + 480, + 257 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and aggregated by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 480, + 243, + 502, + 255 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { R } ( \\tau )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 503, + 243, + 506, + 257 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 2.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 269, + 505, + 294 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 102, + 262, + 502, + 290 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 102, + 262, + 429, + 290 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The final prediction is the sum of the two refined decomposed components, as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 429, + 268, + 502, + 282 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { W } _ { S } \\ast \\mathcal { X } _ { \\mathrm { d e } } ^ { M } + \\mathcal { T } _ { \\mathrm { d e } } ^ { M }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 277, + 488, + 298 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 277, + 133, + 298 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 150, + 277, + 370, + 298 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is to project the deep transformed seasonal component", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 389, + 277, + 488, + 298 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to the target dimension.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 6.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 302, + 256, + 313 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 301, + 257, + 314 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 301, + 257, + 314 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.2 Auto-Correlation Mechanism", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 317, + 506, + 351 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 316, + 506, + 330 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 316, + 506, + 330 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "As shown in Figure 2, we propose the Auto-Correlation mechanism with series-wise connections to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 327, + 505, + 341 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 327, + 505, + 341 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "expand the information utilization. Auto-Correlation discovers the period-based dependencies by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 338, + 498, + 352 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 338, + 498, + 352 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "calculating the series autocorrelation and aggregates similar sub-series by time delay aggregation.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 362, + 505, + 397 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 361, + 505, + 375 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 361, + 505, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Period-based dependencies It is observed that the same phase position among periods naturally", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 373, + 507, + 387 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 373, + 507, + 387 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "provides similar sub-processes. 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Note that the series autocorrelation of all lags in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 457, + 495, + 504, + 507 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\{ 1 , \\cdots , L \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 504, + 487, + 519 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 504, + 389, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be calculated at once by FFT. Thus, Auto-Correlation achieves the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 390, + 506, + 436, + 517 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\mathcal { O } ( L \\log L )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 437, + 504, + 487, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "complexity.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 22, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 482, + 504, + 519 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 527, + 506, + 627 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 527, + 506, + 541 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 527, + 506, + 541 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Auto-Correlation vs. self-attention family Different from the point-wise self-attention family,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 539, + 506, + 552 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 539, + 506, + 552 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Auto-Correlation presents the series-wise connections (Figure 3). Concretely, for the temporal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 550, + 506, + 563 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 550, + 506, + 563 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dependencies, we find the dependencies among sub-series based on the periodicity. In contrast,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 561, + 507, + 574 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 561, + 507, + 574 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the self-attention family only calculates the relation between scattered points. 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In contrast, self-attentions aggregate the selected points", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 604, + 505, + 618 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 604, + 505, + 618 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by dot-product. Benefiting from the inherent sparsity and sub-series-level representation aggregation,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 629 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Auto-Correlation can simultaneously benefit the computation efficiency and information utilization.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 28, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 527, + 507, + 629 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 641, + 191, + 655 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 640, + 193, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 640, + 193, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4 Experiments", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 504, + 689 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 505, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 505, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We extensively evaluate the proposed Autoformer on six real-world benchmarks, covering five", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 678, + 494, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 678, + 494, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "mainstream time series forecasting applications: energy, traffic, economics, weather and disease.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 34.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 666, + 505, + 689 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 699, + 503, + 722 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Datasets Here is a description of the six experiment datasets: (1) ETT [41] dataset contains the data", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 504, + 724 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 504, + 724 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "collected from electricity transformers, including load and oil temperature that are recorded every", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "index": 36.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 724 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 100, + 505, + 401 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 70, + 504, + 93 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 69, + 505, + 83 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 69, + 356, + 83 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Table 1: Multivariate results with different prediction lengths", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 357, + 70, + 456, + 82 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "O \\in \\{ 9 6 , 1 9 2 , 3 3 6 , 7 2 0 \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 456, + 69, + 505, + 83 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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Models AutoformerInformer[41]LogTrans[20]Reformer[17]LSTNet[19]LSTM[13]TCN[3]
MetricMSEMAEMSEMAEMSEMAEMSEMAEMSE MAEMSE MAEMSEMAE
T96 192 3360.255 0.281 0.3390.339 0.3400.365 0.5330.453 0.5630.768 0.9890.642 0.7570.6580.6193.142 3.1541.365 1.3692.041 2.2491.073 1.1123.041 3.0721.330 1.339
1.078 0.827 1.549
720 960.422 0.2010.372 0.4191.363 3.3790.887 1.3883.0481.3340.872 1.3282.6310.972 1.2423.160 3.1711.369 1.368 2.7202.5681.238 1.2873.105 3.1351.348 1.354
erneera192 3360.2220.317 0.3340.274 0.2960.368 0.3860.258 0.2660.357 0.3680.312 0.3480.402 0.4330.680 0.645 0.7250.6760.375 0.4420.437 0.4730.985 0.9960.813 0.821
7200.231 0.2540.338 0.3610.300 0.3730.394 0.4390.280 0.2830.380 0.3760.350 0.3400.433 0.4200.828 0.9570.727 0.8110.439 0.9800.473 0.8141.000 1.4380.824 0.784
uepeg96 1920.1970.3230.8470.7520.9680.8121.0650.8291.5511.058 1.4531.049 3.0041.432
3360.300 0.5090.369 0.5241.2040.8951.0400.8511.1880.9061.4771.0281.8461.1793.0481.444
7201.4470.9411.672 2.4781.036 1.3101.659 1.9411.081 1.1271.357 1.5100.976 1.0161.507 2.2851.031 1.2432.136 2.9841.2313.1131.459
960.6130.3880.7190.3910.6840.3840.7320.4231.4273.1501.458
[Tjeee1920.6160.3820.6960.3790.6850.3900.7330.4201.107 1.1570.685 0.7060.843 0.8470.453 0.4531.438 1.4630.784 0.794
336 7200.6220.3370.7770.4200.7330.4080.7420.4201.2160.7300.8530.4551.4790.799
0.6600.4080.8640.4720.7170.3960.7550.4231.4810.8051.5000.8051.4990.804
waaeee960.2660.3360.3000.3840.4580.4900.6890.5960.5940.5870.3690.4060.6150.589
192 3360.3070.3670.5980.5440.6580.5890.7520.6380.5600.5650.4160.4350.6290.600
7200.3590.3950.5780.5230.7970.6520.6390.5960.5970.5870.4550.4540.6390.608
0.4190.4281.0590.7410.8690.6751.1300.7920.6180.5990.5350.5200.6390.610
243.4835.764
361.2871.6774.4801.4444.4001.3826.0261.7705.9141.7346.6241.830
483.1031.1484.7551.4674.7991.4674.7831.4485.3401.6686.6311.8456.8581.879
2.6691.0854.7631.4694.8001.4684.8321.4656.0801.7876.7361.8576.968
601.1255.2641.5645.2781.5604.8821.4835.5481.720 6.8701.8797.1271.892 1.918
2.770
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See supplementary materials for the full benchmark of ETTh1, ETTh2, ETTm1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 421, + 505, + 542 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 421, + 506, + 435 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 421, + 506, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "15 minutes between July 2016 and July 2018. (2) Electricity1 dataset contains the hourly electricity", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 432, + 506, + 447 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 432, + 506, + 447 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "consumption of 321 customers from 2012 to 2014. (3) Exchange [19] records the daily exchange", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 444, + 505, + 456 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 444, + 505, + 456 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "rates of eight different countries ranging from 1990 to 2016. (4) Traffic2 is a collection of hourly data", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 454, + 506, + 467 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 454, + 506, + 467 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from California Department of Transportation, which describes the road occupancy rates measured", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 465, + 506, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 465, + 506, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by different sensors on San Francisco Bay area freeways. (5) Weather3 is recorded every 10 minutes", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 476, + 506, + 489 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 476, + 506, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for 2020 whole year, which contains 21 meteorological indicators, such as air temperature, humidity,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 487, + 506, + 500 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 487, + 137, + 500 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "etc. (6)", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 137, + 487, + 156, + 498 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "I L I ^ { 4 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 487, + 506, + 500 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "includes the weekly recorded influenza-like illness (ILI) patients data from Centers for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 498, + 505, + 510 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 498, + 505, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Disease Control and Prevention of the United States between 2002 and 2021, which describes the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 509, + 505, + 521 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 509, + 505, + 521 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ratio of patients seen with ILI and the total number of the patients. 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Models AutoformerInformer[41]LogTrans[20]Reformer[17]LSTNet[19]LSTM[13]TCN[3]
MetricMSEMAEMSEMAEMSEMAEMSEMAEMSE MAEMSE MAEMSEMAE
T96 192 3360.255 0.281 0.3390.339 0.3400.365 0.5330.453 0.5630.768 0.9890.642 0.7570.6580.6193.142 3.1541.365 1.3692.041 2.2491.073 1.1123.041 3.0721.330 1.339
1.078 0.827 1.549
720 960.422 0.2010.372 0.4191.363 3.3790.887 1.3883.0481.3340.872 1.3282.6310.972 1.2423.160 3.1711.369 1.368 2.7202.5681.238 1.2873.105 3.1351.348 1.354
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7200.231 0.2540.338 0.3610.300 0.3730.394 0.4390.280 0.2830.380 0.3760.350 0.3400.433 0.4200.828 0.9570.727 0.8110.439 0.9800.473 0.8141.000 1.4380.824 0.784
uepeg96 1920.1970.3230.8470.7520.9680.8121.0650.8291.5511.058 1.4531.049 3.0041.432
3360.300 0.5090.369 0.5241.2040.8951.0400.8511.1880.9061.4771.0281.8461.1793.0481.444
7201.4470.9411.672 2.4781.036 1.3101.659 1.9411.081 1.1271.357 1.5100.976 1.0161.507 2.2851.031 1.2432.136 2.9841.2313.1131.459
960.6130.3880.7190.3910.6840.3840.7320.4231.4273.1501.458
[Tjeee1920.6160.3820.6960.3790.6850.3900.7330.4201.107 1.1570.685 0.7060.843 0.8470.453 0.4531.438 1.4630.784 0.794
336 7200.6220.3370.7770.4200.7330.4080.7420.4201.2160.7300.8530.4551.4790.799
0.6600.4080.8640.4720.7170.3960.7550.4231.4810.8051.5000.8051.4990.804
waaeee960.2660.3360.3000.3840.4580.4900.6890.5960.5940.5870.3690.4060.6150.589
192 3360.3070.3670.5980.5440.6580.5890.7520.6380.5600.5650.4160.4350.6290.600
7200.3590.3950.5780.5230.7970.6520.6390.5960.5970.5870.4550.4540.6390.608
0.4190.4281.0590.7410.8690.6751.1300.7920.6180.5990.5350.5200.6390.610
243.4835.764
361.2871.6774.4801.4444.4001.3826.0261.7705.9141.7346.6241.830
483.1031.1484.7551.4674.7991.4674.7831.4485.3401.6686.6311.8456.8581.879
2.6691.0854.7631.4694.8001.4684.8321.4656.0801.7876.7361.8576.968
601.1255.2641.5645.2781.5604.8821.4835.5481.720 6.8701.8797.1271.892 1.918
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Models Autoformer N-BEATS[23] Informer[41] LogTrans[20] Reformer[17] DeepAR[28] Prophet[33] ARIMA[1]
Metric1MSE MAE MSEMAEMSE MAEMSEMAEMSEMAEMSE MAEMSE MAE MSE MAE
960.065 0.1890.0820.2190.088 0.2250.0820.2170.1310.2880.0990.2370.287 0.456 0.211 0.362
1920.118 0.256 0.1200.2680.132 0.2830.1330.2840.1860.3540.1540.3100.312 0.483 0.261 0.406
3360.1540.305 0.2260.3700.1800.336 0.2010.3610.2200.3810.2770.4280.331 0.474 0.317 0.448
7200.182 0.335 0.1880.338 0.3000.435 0.2680.4070.2670.4300.332 0.468 0.5340.593 0.366 0.487
aepeg960.241 0.387 0.1560.2990.591(0.615 0.2790.4411.3270.9440.417 0.515 0.828 0.762 0.112 0.245
1920.273 0.403 0.6690.6651.1830.912 1.9501.0481.2580.9240.813 0.735 0.909 0.974 0.304 0.404
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Input-96Transformer[35]Informer[41]LogTrans[17]Reformer[20]Promotion
Predict-O| OriginSepOursOriginSepOursOriginSepOursOrigin SepOursSepOurs
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3361.4130.6650.3751.3631.4690.4811.3340.7620.3621.5491.0280.3660.4341.019
7202.6723.2000.5373.3792.7660.8223.0482.6010.5392.6312.8450.5020.079 2.332
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Models Autoformer N-BEATS[23] Informer[41] LogTrans[20] Reformer[17] DeepAR[28] Prophet[33] ARIMA[1]
Metric1MSE MAE MSEMAEMSE MAEMSEMAEMSEMAEMSE MAEMSE MAE MSE MAE
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3360.1540.305 0.2260.3700.1800.336 0.2010.3610.2200.3810.2770.4280.331 0.474 0.317 0.448
7200.182 0.335 0.1880.338 0.3000.435 0.2680.4070.2670.4300.332 0.468 0.5340.593 0.366 0.487
aepeg960.241 0.387 0.1560.2990.591(0.615 0.2790.4411.3270.9440.417 0.515 0.828 0.762 0.112 0.245
1920.273 0.403 0.6690.6651.1830.912 1.9501.0481.2580.9240.813 0.735 0.909 0.974 0.304 0.404
3360.508 0.539 0.6110.6051.367 0.984 2.4381.2622.1791.2961.331 0.962 1.304 0.988 0.736 0.598
7200.991 0.768 1.1110.8601.8721.072 2.0101.2471.2800.9531.894 1.181 3.238 1.566 1.871 0.935
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For the input-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 506, + 364 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 308, + 364 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "36-predict-60 setting of ILI, Autoformer makes", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 309, + 352, + 330, + 363 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "43 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 335, + 353, + 393, + 363 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "4 . 8 8 2 { } 2 . 7 7 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 393, + 352, + 506, + 364 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") MSE reduction. 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See", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 385, + 506, + 397 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 385, + 506, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "supplementary materials for detailed showcases. Besides, we can also find that the performance of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 397, + 506, + 409 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 397, + 346, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Autoformer changes quite steadily as the prediction length", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 397, + 356, + 407 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "O", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 356, + 397, + 506, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "increases. It means that Autoformer", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 505, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 505, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "retains better long-term robustness, which is meaningful for real-world practical applications, such", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 419, + 391, + 433 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 419, + 391, + 433 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as weather early warning and long-term energy consumption planning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 14.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 297, + 506, + 433 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 437, + 505, + 536 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 437, + 505, + 449 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 437, + 505, + 449 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Univariate results We list the univariate results of two typical datasets in Table 2. Under the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 448, + 506, + 460 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 448, + 506, + 460 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "comparison with extensive baselines, our Autoformer still achieves state-of-the-art performance for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 459, + 505, + 471 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 459, + 505, + 471 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the long-term forecasting tasks. 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This situation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 512, + 506, + 526 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 512, + 506, + 526 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of ARIMA can be benefited from its inherent capacity for non-stationary economic data but is limited", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 524, + 323, + 537 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 524, + 323, + 537 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by the intricate temporal patterns of real-world series.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 25, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 437, + 506, + 537 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 549, + 200, + 560 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 547, + 201, + 562 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 547, + 201, + 562 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4.2 Ablation studies", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 611, + 505, + 688 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 572, + 506, + 606 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 570, + 507, + 586 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 570, + 507, + 586 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Table 3: Ablation of decomposition in multivariate ETT with MSE metric. 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Furthermore, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 506, + 184 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 506, + 184 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can also observe that Auto-Correlation is memory efficiency from the last column of Table 4, which", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 403, + 195 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 403, + 195 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be used in long sequence forecasting, such as input-336-predict-1440.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 230, + 505, + 388 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 201, + 504, + 225 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 202, + 505, + 213 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 202, + 505, + 213 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Table 4: Comparison of Auto-Correlation and self-attention in the multivariate ETT. 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Input Length I Prediction Length O96192336
336720144033672014403367201440
Auto- CorrelationMSE MAE0.339 0.3720.422 0.4190.555 0.4960.355 0.3920.429 0.4300.503 0.4840.361 0.4060.425 0.4400.574 0.534
Full Attention[35]MSE MAE0.375 0.4250.537 0.5020.667 0.5890.450 0.4700.554 0.533- -0.501 0.4850.647 0.4911 =
LogSparse Attention[20]MSE MAE0.362 0.4130.539 0.5220.582 0.5290.420 0.4500.552 0.5130.958 0.7360.474 0.4740.601 0.524- =
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The output length increases exponentially.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 21.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 609, + 188, + 623 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 607, + 190, + 626 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 607, + 190, + 626 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5 Conclusions", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 634, + 506, + 722 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 647 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 647 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This paper studies the long-term forecasting problem of time series, which is a pressing demand for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 645, + 506, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 645, + 506, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "real-world applications. 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Autoformer can naturally achieve", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 459, + 700, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\mathcal { O } ( L \\log L )", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 711, + 480, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 711, + 480, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "complexity and yield consistent state-of-the-art performance in extensive real-world datasets.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 29.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 633, + 507, + 722 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 70, + 339, + 85 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 69, + 341, + 88 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 69, + 341, + 88 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Acknowledgments and Disclosure of Funding", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 95, + 506, + 129 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 96, + 505, + 108 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 96, + 505, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grants 62022050", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 506, + 120 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 506, + 120 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and 62021002, Beijing Nova Program under Grant Z201100006820041, China’s Ministry of Industry", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 118, + 464, + 130 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 118, + 464, + 130 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and Information Technology, the MOE Innovation Plan and the BNRist Innovation Fund.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 143, + 164, + 156 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 142, + 165, + 158 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 142, + 165, + 158 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "References", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 155, + 507, + 722 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 162, + 434, + 172 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 162, + 434, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[1] O. 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Models AutoformerInformer[41]LogTrans[20]Reformer[17]LSTNet[19]LSTM[13]TCN[3]
MetricMSEMAEMSEMAEMSEMAEMSEMAEMSE MAEMSE MAEMSEMAE
T96 192 3360.255 0.281 0.3390.339 0.3400.365 0.5330.453 0.5630.768 0.9890.642 0.7570.6580.6193.142 3.1541.365 1.3692.041 2.2491.073 1.1123.041 3.0721.330 1.339
1.078 0.827 1.549
720 960.422 0.2010.372 0.4191.363 3.3790.887 1.3883.0481.3340.872 1.3282.6310.972 1.2423.160 3.1711.369 1.368 2.7202.5681.238 1.2873.105 3.1351.348 1.354
erneera192 3360.2220.317 0.3340.274 0.2960.368 0.3860.258 0.2660.357 0.3680.312 0.3480.402 0.4330.680 0.645 0.7250.6760.375 0.4420.437 0.4730.985 0.9960.813 0.821
7200.231 0.2540.338 0.3610.300 0.3730.394 0.4390.280 0.2830.380 0.3760.350 0.3400.433 0.4200.828 0.9570.727 0.8110.439 0.9800.473 0.8141.000 1.4380.824 0.784
uepeg96 1920.1970.3230.8470.7520.9680.8121.0650.8291.5511.058 1.4531.049 3.0041.432
3360.300 0.5090.369 0.5241.2040.8951.0400.8511.1880.9061.4771.0281.8461.1793.0481.444
7201.4470.9411.672 2.4781.036 1.3101.659 1.9411.081 1.1271.357 1.5100.976 1.0161.507 2.2851.031 1.2432.136 2.9841.2313.1131.459
960.6130.3880.7190.3910.6840.3840.7320.4231.4273.1501.458
[Tjeee1920.6160.3820.6960.3790.6850.3900.7330.4201.107 1.1570.685 0.7060.843 0.8470.453 0.4531.438 1.4630.784 0.794
336 7200.6220.3370.7770.4200.7330.4080.7420.4201.2160.7300.8530.4551.4790.799
0.6600.4080.8640.4720.7170.3960.7550.4231.4810.8051.5000.8051.4990.804
waaeee960.2660.3360.3000.3840.4580.4900.6890.5960.5940.5870.3690.4060.6150.589
192 3360.3070.3670.5980.5440.6580.5890.7520.6380.5600.5650.4160.4350.6290.600
7200.3590.3950.5780.5230.7970.6520.6390.5960.5970.5870.4550.4540.6390.608
0.4190.4281.0590.7410.8690.6751.1300.7920.6180.5990.5350.5200.6390.610
243.4835.764
361.2871.6774.4801.4444.4001.3826.0261.7705.9141.7346.6241.830
483.1031.1484.7551.4674.7991.4674.7831.4485.3401.6686.6311.8456.8581.879
2.6691.0854.7631.4694.8001.4684.8321.4656.0801.7876.7361.8576.968
601.1255.2641.5645.2781.5604.8821.4835.5481.720 6.8701.8797.1271.892 1.918
2.770
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Models Autoformer N-BEATS[23] Informer[41] LogTrans[20] Reformer[17] DeepAR[28] Prophet[33] ARIMA[1]
Metric1MSE MAE MSEMAEMSE MAEMSEMAEMSEMAEMSE MAEMSE MAE MSE MAE
960.065 0.1890.0820.2190.088 0.2250.0820.2170.1310.2880.0990.2370.287 0.456 0.211 0.362
1920.118 0.256 0.1200.2680.132 0.2830.1330.2840.1860.3540.1540.3100.312 0.483 0.261 0.406
3360.1540.305 0.2260.3700.1800.336 0.2010.3610.2200.3810.2770.4280.331 0.474 0.317 0.448
7200.182 0.335 0.1880.338 0.3000.435 0.2680.4070.2670.4300.332 0.468 0.5340.593 0.366 0.487
aepeg960.241 0.387 0.1560.2990.591(0.615 0.2790.4411.3270.9440.417 0.515 0.828 0.762 0.112 0.245
1920.273 0.403 0.6690.6651.1830.912 1.9501.0481.2580.9240.813 0.735 0.909 0.974 0.304 0.404
3360.508 0.539 0.6110.6051.367 0.984 2.4381.2622.1791.2961.331 0.962 1.304 0.988 0.736 0.598
7200.991 0.768 1.1110.8601.8721.072 2.0101.2471.2800.9531.894 1.181 3.238 1.566 1.871 0.935
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Input-96Transformer[35]Informer[41]LogTrans[17]Reformer[20]Promotion
Predict-O| OriginSepOursOriginSepOursOriginSepOursOrigin SepOursSepOurs
960.6040.3110.2040.3650.4900.3540.7680.8620.2310.6580.4450.2180.0690.347
1921.060 0.760(0.2660.5330.6580.4320.9890.5330.3781.0780.510 0.3360.300 0.562
3361.4130.6650.3751.3631.4690.4811.3340.7620.3621.5491.0280.3660.4341.019
7202.6723.2000.5373.3792.7660.8223.0482.6010.5392.6312.8450.5020.079 2.332
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sha256:b0671ac14fa02d981c9c215475623205af7758d6a4f5cfc5797c9382a94f7236 +size 7879 diff --git a/parse/train/OJiM1R3jAtZ/OJiM1R3jAtZ.md b/parse/train/OJiM1R3jAtZ/OJiM1R3jAtZ.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..17383aa7b7413bba815ed6fdf046876ef1da9a2f --- /dev/null +++ b/parse/train/OJiM1R3jAtZ/OJiM1R3jAtZ.md @@ -0,0 +1,450 @@ +# AWAC: ACCELERATING ONLINE REINFORCEMENTLEARNING WITH OFFLINE DATASETS + +Anonymous authors Paper under double-blind review + +# ABSTRACT + +Reinforcement learning provides an appealing formalism for learning control policies from experience. However, the classic active formulation of reinforcement learning necessitates a lengthy active exploration process for each behavior, making it difficult to apply in real-world settings. If we can instead allow reinforcement learning to effectively use previously collected data to aid the online learning process, where the data could be expert demonstrations or more generally any prior experience, we could make reinforcement learning a substantially more practical tool. While a number of recent methods have sought to learn offline from previously collected data, it remains exceptionally difficult to train a policy with offline data and improve it further with online reinforcement learning. In this paper we systematically analyze why this problem is so challenging, and propose an algorithm that combines sample-efficient dynamic programming with maximum likelihood policy updates, providing a simple and effective framework that is able to leverage large amounts of offline data and then quickly perform online fine-tuning of reinforcement learning policies. We show that our method enables rapid learning of skills with a combination of prior demonstration data and online experience across a suite of difficult dexterous manipulation and benchmark tasks. + +# 1 INTRODUCTION + +Learning models that generalize effectively to complex open-world settings, from image recognition (Krizhevsky et al., 2012) to natural language processing (Devlin et al., 2019), relies on large, high-capacity models and large, diverse, and representative datasets. Leveraging this recipe for reinforcement learning (RL) has the potential to yield real-world generalization for control applications such as robotics. However, while deep RL algorithms enable the use of large models, the use of large datasets for real-world RL has proven challenging. Most RL algorithms collect new data online every time a new policy is learned, which limits the size and diversity of the datasets for RL. In the same way that powerful models in computer vision and NLP are often pre-trained on large, general-purpose datasets and then fine-tuned on task-specific data, RL policies that generalize effectively to open-world settings will need to be able to incorporate large amounts of prior data effectively into the learning process, while still collecting additional data online for the task at hand. + +For data-driven reinforcement learning, offline datasets consist of trajectories of states, actions and associated rewards. This data can potentially come from demonstrations for the desired task (Schaal, 1997; Atkeson & Schaal, 1997), suboptimal policies (Gao et al., 2018), demonstrations for related tasks (Zhou et al., 2019), or even just random exploration in the environment. Depending on the quality of the data that is provided, useful knowledge can be extracted about the dynamics of the world, about the task being solved, or both. Effective data-driven methods for deep reinforcement learning should be able to use this data to pre-train offline while improving with online fine-tuning. + +Since this prior data can come from a variety of sources, we would like to design an algorithm that does not utilize different types of data in any privileged way. For example, prior methods that incorporate demonstrations into RL directly aim to mimic these demonstrations (Nair et al., 2018), which is desirable when the demonstrations are known to be optimal, but imposes strict requirements on the type of offline data, and can cause undesirable bias when the prior data is not optimal. While prior methods for fully offline RL provide a mechanism for utilizing offline data (Fujimoto et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2019), as we will show in our experiments, such methods generally are not effective for fine-tuning with online data as they are often too conservative. In effect, prior methods require us to choose: Do we assume prior data is optimal or not? Do we use only offline data, or only online data? To make it feasible to learn policies for open-world settings, we need algorithms that learn successfully in any of these cases. + +In this work, we study how to build RL algorithms that are effective for pre-training from offpolicy datasets, but also well suited to continuous improvement with online data collection. We systematically analyze the challenges with using standard off-policy RL algorithms (Haarnoja et al., 2018; Kumar et al., 2019; Abdolmaleki et al., 2018) for this problem, and introduce a simple actor critic algorithm that elegantly bridges data-driven pre-training from offline data and improvement with online data collection. Our method, which uses dynamic programming to train a critic but a supervised learning style update to train a constrained actor, combines the best of supervised learning and actor-critic algorithms. Dynamic programming can leverage off-policy data and enable sample-efficient learning. The simple supervised actor update implicitly enforces a constraint that mitigates the effects of distribution shift when learning from offline data (Fujimoto et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2019), while avoiding overly conservative updates. + +We evaluate our algorithm on a wide variety of robotic control and benchmark tasks across three simulated domains: dexterous manipulation, tabletop manipulation, and MuJoCo control tasks. Our algorithm, Advantage Weighted Actor Critic (AWAC), is able to quickly learn successful policies on difficult tasks with high action dimension and binary sparse rewards, significantly better than prior methods for off-policy and offline reinforcement learning. Moreover, AWAC can utilize different types of prior data without any algorithmic changes: demonstrations, suboptimal data, or random exploration data. The contribution of this work is not just another RL algorithm, but a systematic study of what makes offline pre-training with online fine-tuning unique compared to the standard RL paradigm, which then directly motivates a simple algorithm, AWAC, to address these challenges. + +# 2 PRELIMINARIES + +We consider the standard reinforcement learning notation, with states s, actions a, policy $\pi ( \mathbf { a } | \mathbf { s } )$ , rewards $r ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } )$ , and dynamics $p ( \mathbf { s } ^ { \prime } | \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } )$ . The discounted return is defined as $\begin{array} { r } { R _ { t } = \sum _ { i = t } ^ { T } \gamma ^ { i } r ( \mathbf { s } _ { i } , \mathbf { a } _ { i } ) } \end{array}$ , for a discount factor $\gamma$ and horizon $T$ which may be infinite. The objective of an $\mathrm { R L }$ agent is to maximize the expected discounted return $J ( \pi ) { \stackrel { } { = } } \mathrm { { \mathbb E } } _ { p _ { \pi } ( \tau ) } [ R _ { 0 } ]$ under the distribution induced by the policy. The optimal policy can be learned directly by policy gradient, estimating $\nabla J ( \pi )$ (Williams, 1992), but this is often ineffective due to high variance of the estimator. Many algorithms attempt to reduce this variance by making use of the value function $V ^ { \pi } ( \mathbf { s } ) = \mathbb { E } _ { p _ { \pi } ( \tau ) } [ R _ { t } ] \mathbf { s }$ , action-value function $Q ^ { \pi } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) = \mathbb { E } _ { p _ { \pi } ( \tau ) } [ R _ { t } | \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ]$ , or advantage $A ^ { \pi } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) = Q ^ { \pi } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) - V ^ { \pi } ( \mathbf { s } )$ . The action-value function for a policy can be written recursively via the Bellman equation: + +$$ +\begin{array} { r } { Q ^ { \pi } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) = r ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) + \gamma \mathbb { E } _ { p ( \mathbf { s } ^ { \prime } \mid \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) } [ V ^ { \pi } ( \mathbf { s } ^ { \prime } ) ] = r ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) + \gamma \mathbb { E } _ { p ( \mathbf { s } ^ { \prime } \mid \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) } [ \mathbb { E } _ { \pi ( \mathbf { a } ^ { \prime } \mid \mathbf { s } ^ { \prime } ) } [ Q ^ { \pi } ( \mathbf { s } ^ { \prime } , \mathbf { a } ^ { \prime } ) ] ] . } \end{array} +$$ + +Instead of estimating policy gradients directly, actor-critic algorithms maximize returns by alternating between two phases (Konda $\&$ Tsitsiklis, 2000): policy evaluation and policy improvement. During the policy evaluation phase, the critic $Q ^ { \pi } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } )$ is estimated for the current policy $\pi$ . This can be accomplished by repeatedly applying the Bellman operator $\boldsymbol { B }$ , corresponding to the right-hand side of Equation 1, as defined below: + +$$ +\begin{array} { r } { B ^ { \pi } Q ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) = r ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) + \gamma \mathbb { E } _ { p ( \mathbf { s } ^ { \prime } \mid \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) } [ \mathbb { E } _ { \pi ( \mathbf { a } ^ { \prime } \mid \mathbf { s } ^ { \prime } ) } [ Q ^ { \pi } ( \mathbf { s } ^ { \prime } , \mathbf { a } ^ { \prime } ) ] ] . } \end{array} +$$ + +By iterating according to $Q ^ { k + 1 } = B ^ { \pi } Q ^ { k }$ , $Q ^ { k }$ converges to $Q ^ { \pi }$ (Sutton & Barto, 1998). With function approximation, we cannot apply the Bellman operator exactly, and instead minimize the Bellman error with respect to Q-function parameters $\phi _ { k }$ : + +$$ +\phi _ { k } = \arg \operatorname* { m i n } _ { \phi } \mathbb { E } _ { \mathcal { D } } [ ( Q _ { \phi } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) - y ) ^ { 2 } ] , y = r ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) + \gamma \mathbb { E } _ { \mathbf { s } ^ { \prime } , \mathbf { a } ^ { \prime } } [ Q _ { \phi _ { k - 1 } } ( \mathbf { s } ^ { \prime } , \mathbf { a } ^ { \prime } ) ] . +$$ + +During policy improvement, the actor $\pi$ is typically updated based on the current estimate of $Q ^ { \pi }$ . A commonly used technique (Lillicrap et al., 2016; Fujimoto et al., 2018; Haarnoja et al., 2018) is to update the actor $\pi _ { \boldsymbol { \theta } _ { k } } ( \mathbf { a } | \mathbf { s } )$ via likelihood ratio or pathwise derivatives to optimize the following objective, such that the expected value of the Q-function $Q ^ { \pi }$ is maximized: + +$$ +\theta _ { k } = \underset { \theta } { \arg \operatorname* { m a x } } \mathbb { E } _ { \mathbf { s } \sim \mathcal { D } } [ \mathbb { E } _ { \pi _ { \theta } ( \mathbf { a } | \mathbf { s } ) } [ Q _ { \phi _ { k } } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) ] ] +$$ + +Actor-critic algorithms are widely used in deep RL (Mnih et al., 2016; Lillicrap et al., 2016; Haarnoja et al., 2018; Fujimoto et al., 2018). With a Q-function estimator, they can in principle utilize off-policy data when used with a replay buffer for storing prior transition tuples, which we will denote $\beta$ , to sample previous transitions, although we show that this by itself is insufficient for our problem setting. + +![](images/bbef2df79cb430c48f9e041b069bca905014e51b8392f3e3f8ee5d4025aa8770.jpg) +Figure 1: We study learning policies by offline learning on a prior dataset $\mathcal { D }$ and then fine-tuning with online interaction. The prior data could be obtained via prior runs of RL, expert demonstrations, or any other source of transitions. Our method, advantage weighted actor critic (AWAC) is able to learn effectively from offline data and fine-tune in order to reach expert-level performance after collecting a limited amount of interaction data. Videos and data are available at sites.google.com/view/awac-anonymous + +# 3 CHALLENGES IN OFFLINE RL WITH ONLINE FINE-TUNING + +In this section, we study the unique challenges that exist when pre-training using offline data, followed by fine-tuning with online data collection. We first describe the problem, and then analyze what makes this problem difficult for prior methods. + +Problem definition. A static dataset of transitions, $\mathcal { D } = \{ ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } , \mathbf { s } ^ { \prime } , r ) _ { j } \}$ , is provided to the algorithm at the beginning of training. This dataset can be sampled from an arbitrary policy or mixture of policies, and may even be collected by a human expert. This definition is general and encompasses many scenarios, such as learning from demonstrations, random data, prior RL experiments, or even from multi-task data. Given the dataset $\mathcal { D }$ , our goal is to leverage $\mathcal { D }$ for pre-training and use some online interaction to learn the optimal policy $\pi ^ { * } ( \mathbf { a } | \mathbf { s } )$ , with as few interactions with the environment as possible (depicted in Fig 1). This setting is representative of many real-world RL settings, where prior data is available and the aim is to learn new skills efficiently. We first study existing algorithms empirically in this setting on the HalfCheetah-v2 Gym environment1. The prior dataset consists of 15 demonstrations from an expert policy and 100 suboptimal trajectories sampled from a behavioral clone of these demonstrations. All methods for the remainder of this paper incorporate the prior dataset, unless explicitly labeled “scratch”. + +3.1) Data Efficiency. One of the simplest ways to utilize prior data such as demonstrations for RL is to pre-train a policy with imitation learning, and fine-tune with on-policy RL (Gupta et al., 2019; Rajeswaran et al., 2018). This approach has two drawbacks: (1) prior data may not be optimal; (2) on-policy fine-tuning is data inefficient as it does not reuse the prior data in the RL stage. In our setting, data efficiency is vital. To this end, we require algorithms that are able to reuse arbitrary offpolicy data during online RL for data-efficient fine-tuning. We find that algorithms that use on-policy fine-tuning (Rajeswaran et al., 2018; Gupta et al., 2019), or Monte-Carlo return estimation (Peters & Schaal, 2007; Wang et al., 2018; Peng et al., 2019) are generally much less efficient than off-policy actor-critic algorithms, which iterate between improving $\pi$ and estimating $Q ^ { \pi }$ via Bellman backups. This can be seen from the results in Figure 2 plot 1, where on-policy methods like DAPG (Rajeswaran et al., 2018) and Monte-Carlo return methods like AWR (Peng et al., 2019) and MARWIL (Wang et al., 2018) are an order of magnitude slower than off-policy actor-critic methods. Actor-critic methods, shown in Figure 2 plot 2, can in principle use off-policy data. However, as we will discuss next, naïvely applying these algorithms to our problem suffers from a different set of challenges. + +3.2) Bootstrap Error in Offline Learning with Actor-Critic Methods. When standard off-policy actor-critic methods are applied to this problem setting, they perform poorly, as shown in the second plot in Figure 2: despite having a prior dataset in the replay buffer, these algorithms do not benefit significantly from offline training. We evaluate soft actor critic (Haarnoja et al., 2018), a state-of-theart actor-critic algorithm for continuous control. Note that “SAC-scratch,” which does not receive the prior data, performs similarly to “SACfD-prior,” which does have access to the prior data, indicating that the off-policy RL algorithm is not actually able to make use of the off-policy data for pre-training. Moreover, even if the SAC is policy is pre-trained by behavior cloning, labeled “SACfD-pretrain”, we still observe an initial decrease in performance, and performance similar to learning from scratch. + +This challenge can be attributed to off-policy bootstrapping error accumulation, as observed in several prior works (Sutton & Barto, 1998; Kumar et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020; Levine et al., 2020; + +![](images/0f629f76d75942812dc48411f75d99a122f416749807b9f4b0e77175161a8bdc.jpg) +Figure 2: Analysis of prior methods on HalfCheetah-v2 using offline RL with online fine-tuning. (1) On-policy methods (DAPG, AWR, MARWIL) learn relatively slowly, even with access to prior data. We present our method, AWAC, as an example of how off-policy RL methods can learn much faster. (2) Variants of soft actorcritic (SAC) with offline training (performed before timestep 0) and fine-tuning. We see a “dip” in the initial performance, even if the policy is pretrained with behavioral cloning. (3) Offline RL method BEAR (Kumar et al., 2019) on offline training and fine-tuning, including a “loose” variant of BEAR with a weakened constraint. Standard offline RL methods fine-tune slowly, while the “loose” BEAR variant experiences a similar dip as SAC. (4) We show that the fit of the behavior models $\hat { \pi } _ { \beta }$ used by these offline methods degrades as new data is added to the buffer during fine-tuning, potentially explaining their poor fine-tuning performance. + +Fujimoto et al., 2019). In actor-critic algorithms, the target value $Q ( \mathbf { s } ^ { \prime } , \mathbf { a } ^ { \prime } )$ , with $\mathbf { a } ^ { \prime } \sim \pi$ , is used to update $Q ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } )$ . When $\mathbf { a } ^ { \prime }$ is outside of the data distribution, $Q ( \mathbf { s } ^ { \prime } , \mathbf { \bar { a } } ^ { \prime } )$ will be inaccurate, leading to accumulation of error on static datasets. + +Offline RL algorithms (Fujimoto et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020) propose to address this issue by explicitly adding constraints on the policy improvement update (Equation 4) to avoid bootstrapping on out-of-distribution actions, leading to a policy update of this form: + +$$ +\arg \operatorname* { m a x } _ { \boldsymbol { \theta } } \mathbb { E } _ { \mathbf { s } \sim \mathcal { D } } [ \mathbb { E } _ { \pi _ { \boldsymbol { \theta } } ( \mathbf { a } | \mathbf { s } ) } [ Q _ { \boldsymbol { \phi } _ { k } } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) ] ] \mathrm { ~ s . t . ~ } D ( \pi _ { \boldsymbol { \theta } } , \pi _ { \boldsymbol { \beta } } ) \leq \epsilon . +$$ + +Here, $\pi _ { \theta }$ is the actor being updated, and $\pi _ { \beta } ( a | s )$ represents the (potentially unknown) distribution from which all of the data seen so far (both offline data and online data) was generated. In the case of a replay buffer, $\pi _ { \beta }$ corresponds to a mixture distribution over all past policies. Typically, $\pi _ { \beta }$ is not known, especially for offline data, and must be estimated from the data itself. Many offline RL algorithms (Kumar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Siegel et al., 2020) explicitly fit a parametric model to samples for the distribution $\pi _ { \beta }$ via maximum likelihood estimation, where samples from $\pi _ { \beta }$ are obtained simply by sampling uniformly from the data seen thus far: $\hat { \pi } _ { \beta } =$ $\begin{array} { r } { \operatorname* { m a x } _ { \hat { \pi } _ { \beta } } \ { \mathbb E } _ { { \mathbf s } , { \mathbf a } \sim \pi _ { \beta } } \big [ \log \hat { \pi } _ { \beta } ( { \mathbf a } | { \mathbf s } ) \big ] } \end{array}$ . After estimating $\hat { \pi } _ { \beta }$ , prior methods implement the constraint given in Equation 5 in various ways, including penalties on the policy update (Kumar et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020) or architecture choices for sampling actions for policy training (Fujimoto et al., 2019; Siegel et al., 2020). As we will see next, the requirement for accurate estimation of $\hat { \pi } _ { \beta }$ makes these methods difficult to use with online fine-tuning. + +3.3) Excessively Conservative Online Learning. While offline RL algorithms with constraints (Kumar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020) perform well offline, they struggle to improve with fine-tuning, as shown in the third plot in Figure 2. We see that the purely offline RL performance (at $^ { 6 6 } 0 \mathrm { K } ^ { 5 }$ in Fig. 2) is much better than the standard off-policy methods shown in Section 3.2. However, with additional iterations of online fine-tuning, the performance increases very slowly (as seen from the slope of the BEAR curve in Fig 2). What causes this phenomenon? + +This can be attributed to challenges in fitting an accurate behavior model as data is collected online during fine-tuning. In the offline setting, behavior models must only be trained once via maximum likelihood, but in the online setting, the behavior model must be updated online to track incoming data. Training density models online (in the “streaming” setting) is a challenging research problem (Ramapuram et al., 2017), made more difficult by a potentially complex multi-modal behavior distribution induced by the mixture of online and offline data. To understand this, we plot the log likelihood of learned behavior models on the dataset during online and offline training for the HalfCheetah task. As we can see in the plot, the accuracy of the behavior models $( \log \pi _ { \beta }$ on the y-axis) reduces during online fine-tuning, indicating that it is not fitting the new data well during online training. When the behavior models are inaccurate or unable to model new data well, constrained optimization becomes too conservative, resulting in limited improvement with fine-tuning. This analysis suggests that, in order to address our problem setting, we require an off-policy RL algorithm that constrains the policy to prevent offline instability and error accumulation, but not so conservatively that it prevents online fine-tuning due to imperfect behavior modeling. Our proposed algorithm, which we discuss in the next section, accomplishes this by employing an implicit constraint, which does not require any explicit modeling of the behavior policy. + +# 4 ADVANTAGE WEIGHTED ACTOR CRITIC: A SIMPLE ALGORITHM FORFINE-TUNING FROM OFFLINE DATASETS + +In this section, we will describe the advantage weighted actor-critic (AWAC) algorithm, which trains an off-policy critic and an actor with an implicit policy constraint. We will show AWAC mitigates the challenges outlined in Section 3. AWAC follows the design for actor-critic algorithms as described in Section 2, with a policy evaluation step to learn $Q ^ { \pi }$ and a policy improvement step to update $\pi$ . AWAC uses off-policy temporal-difference learning to estimate $Q ^ { \pi }$ in the policy evaluation step, and a policy improvement update that is able to obtain the benefits of offline RL algorithms at training from prior datasets, while avoiding the overly conservative behavior described in Section 3.3. We describe the policy improvement step in AWAC below, and then summarize the entire algorithm. + +Policy improvement for AWAC proceeds by learning a policy that maximizes the value of the critic learned in the policy evaluation step via TD bootstrapping. If done naively, this can lead to the issues described in Section 3.3, but we can avoid the challenges of bootstrap error accumulation by restricting the policy distribution to stay close to the data observed thus far during the actor update, while maximizing the value of the critic. At iteration $k$ , AWAC therefore optimizes the policy to maximize the estimated Q-function $Q ^ { \pi _ { k } } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } )$ at every state, while constraining it to stay close to the actions observed in the data, similar to prior offline RL methods, though this constraint will be enforced differently. Note from the definition of the advantage in Section 2 that optimizing $Q ^ { \pi _ { k } } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } )$ is equivalent to optimizing $A ^ { \pi _ { k } } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } )$ . We can therefore write this optimization as: + +$$ +\pi _ { k + 1 } = \underset { \pi \in \Pi } { \mathrm { a r g } \mathrm { m a x } } ~ \mathbb { E } _ { \mathbf { a } \sim \pi ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) } [ A ^ { \pi _ { k } } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) ] \mathrm { ~ s . t . ~ } D _ { \mathrm { K L } } ( \pi ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) | | \pi _ { \beta } ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) ) \leq \epsilon . +$$ + +As we saw in Section 3.2, enforcing the constraint by incorporating an explicit learned behavior model (Kumar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020; Siegel et al., 2020) leads to poor fine-tuning performance. Instead, we enforce the constraint implicitly, without learning a behavior model. We first derive the solution to the constrained optimization in Equation 6 to obtain a nonparametric closed form for the actor. This solution is then projected onto the parametric policy class without any explicit behavior model. The analytic solution to Equation 6 can be obtained by enforcing the KKT conditions (Peters & Schaal, 2007; Peters et al., 2010; Peng et al., 2019). The Lagrangian is: + +$$ +\begin{array} { r } { \mathcal { L } ( \pi , \lambda ) = \mathbb { E } _ { \mathbf { a } \sim \pi ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) } [ A ^ { \pi _ { k } } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) ] + \lambda ( \epsilon - D _ { \mathrm { K L } } ( \pi ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) | | \pi _ { \beta } ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) ) ) , } \end{array} +$$ + +and the closed form solution to this problem is $\begin{array} { r } { \pi ^ { * } ( { \bf a } | { \bf s } ) \propto \pi _ { \beta } ( { \bf a } | { \bf s } ) \exp \left( \frac { 1 } { \lambda } A ^ { \pi _ { k } } ( { \bf s } , { \bf a } ) \right) } \end{array}$ . When using function approximators, such as deep neural networks as we do, we need to project the non-parametric solution into our policy space. For a policy $\pi _ { \theta }$ with parameters $\theta$ , this can be done by minimizing the KL divergence of $\pi _ { \theta }$ from the optimal non-parametric solution $\pi ^ { * }$ under the data distribution $\rho _ { \pi _ { \beta } } ( \mathbf { s } )$ : + +$$ +\underset { \theta } { \arg \operatorname* { m i n } } \ \underset { \rho _ { \pi _ { \beta } } ( \mathbf { s } ) } { \mathbb { E } } \big [ D _ { \mathrm { K L } } \big ( \pi ^ { * } ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) | | \pi _ { \theta } ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) \big ) \big ] = \underset { \theta } { \arg \operatorname* { m i n } } \ \underset { \rho _ { \pi _ { \beta } } ( \mathbf { s } ) } { \mathbb { E } } \bigg [ \underset { \pi ^ { * } ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) } { \mathbb { E } } \big [ - \log \pi _ { \theta } ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) \big ] \bigg ] +$$ + +Note that the parametric policy could be projected with either direction of KL divergence. Choosing the reverse $\mathrm { K L }$ results in explicit penalty methods (Wu et al., 2020) that rely on evaluating the density of a learned behavior model. Instead, by using forward KL, we can compute the policy update by sampling directly from $\beta$ : + +$$ +\theta _ { k + 1 } = \arg \operatorname* { m a x } _ { \theta } \underset { \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } \sim \boldsymbol { \beta } } { \mathbb { E } } \left[ \log \pi _ { \theta } ( \mathbf { a } | \mathbf { s } ) \exp \left( \frac { 1 } { \lambda } A ^ { \pi _ { k } } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) \right) \right] . +$$ + +This actor update amounts to weighted maximum likelihood (i.e., supervised learning), where the targets are obtained by re-weighting the state-action pairs observed in the current dataset by the predicted advantages from the learned critic, without explicitly learning any parametric behavior model, simply sampling $( s , a )$ from the replay buffer $\beta$ . See Appendix A.2 for a more detailed derivation and Appendix A.3 for specific implementation details. + +Avoiding explicit behavior modeling. Note that the update in Equation 9 completely avoids any modeling of the previously observed data $\beta$ with a parametric model. By avoiding any explicit learning of the behavior model AWAC is far less conservative than methods which fit a model $\hat { \pi } _ { \beta }$ explicitly, and better incorporates new data during online fine-tuning, as seen from our results in Section 6. This derivation is related to AWR (Peng et al., 2019), with the main difference that AWAC uses an off-policy Q-function $Q ^ { \pi }$ to estimate the advantage, which greatly improves efficiency and even final performance (see results in Section 6.1). The update also resembles ABM-MPO, but ABM-MPO does require modeling the behavior policy which, as discussed in Section 3.3, can lead to poor fine-tuning. In Section 6.1, AWAC outperforms ABM-MPO on a range of challenging tasks. + +Policy evaluation. During policy evaluation, we estimate the action-value $Q ^ { \pi } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } )$ for the current policy $\pi$ , as described in Section 2. We utilize a temporal difference learning scheme for policy evaluation (Haarnoja et al., 2018; Fujimoto et al., 2018), minimizing the Bellman error as described in Equation 2. This enables us to learn very efficiently from off-policy data. This is particularly important in our problem setting to effectively use the offline dataset, and allows us to significantly outperform alternatives using Monte-Carlo evaluation or $\mathrm { T D } ( \lambda )$ to estimate returns (Peng et al., 2019). + +Algorithm summary. The full AWAC algorithm for offline RL with online fine-tuning is summarized in Algorithm 1. In a practical implementation, we can parameterize the actor and the critic by neural networks and perform SGD updates from Eqn. 9 and Eqn. 3. Specific details are provided in Appendix A.3. AWAC ensures data efficiency with off-policy critic estimation via bootstrapping, and avoids offline bootstrap error with a constrained actor update. By avoiding explicit modeling of the behavior policy, AWAC avoids overly conservative updates. + +# Algorithm 1 Advantage Weighted AC + +1: Dataset $\overline { { \mathcal { D } = \{ ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } , \mathbf { s } ^ { \prime } , r ) _ { j } \} } }$ +2: Initialize buffer $\beta = D$ +3: Initialize $\pi _ { \theta }$ , $Q _ { \phi }$ +4: for iteration $i = 1 , 2 , \dots \mathbf { d o }$ +5: Sample batch $( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } , \mathbf { s } ^ { \prime } , r ) \sim \beta$ +6: Update $\phi$ according to Eqn. 3 +7: Update $\theta$ according to Eqn. 9 +8: if $i >$ num_offline_steps then +9: $\begin{array} { l } { \tau _ { 1 } , . . . , \tau _ { K } \sim p _ { \pi _ { \theta } } ( \tau ) } \\ { \beta \beta \cup \{ \tau _ { 1 } , . . . , \tau _ { K } \} } \end{array}$ +10: +11: end if +12: end for + +While AWAC is certainly quite related to several prior works, we note that there are key differences that make it particularly amenable to the problem setting we are considering - offline RL with online fine-tuning, that none of the other methods are really able to tackle. As we show in our experimental analysis with direct comparisons to prior work, every one of the design decisions being made in this work are important for algorithm performance. As compared to AWR (Peng et al., 2019), AWAC uses TD bootstrapping for significantly more efficient and even asymptotically better performance. As compared to offline RL techniques like ABM (Siegel et al., 2020), MPO (Abdolmaleki et al., 2018), BEAR (Kumar et al., 2019) or BCQ (Fujimoto et al., 2019) this work is able to avoid the need for any behavior modeling, thereby enabling the online fine-tuning part of the problem much better. As shown in Fig 3, when these seemingly ablations are made to AWAC, the algorithm performs significantly worse. + +# 5 RELATED WORK + +Off-policy RL algorithms are designed to reuse off-policy data during training, and have been studied extensively (Konda & Tsitsiklis, 2000; Degris et al., 2012; Mnih et al., 2016; Haarnoja et al., 2018; Fujimoto et al., 2018; Bhatnagar et al., 2009; Peters & Schaal, 2008a; Zhang et al., 2019; Wawrzynski, 2009; Balduzzi & Ghifary, 2015). While standard off-policy methods are able to benefit from including data seen during a training run, as we show in Section 3.2 they struggle when training from previously collected offline data from other policies, due to error accumulation with distribution shift (Fujimoto et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2019). Offline RL methods aim to address this issue, often by constraining the actor updates to avoid excessive deviation from the data distribution (Lange et al., 2012; Thomas & Brunskill, 2016; Hallak et al., 2015; 2016; Hallak & Mannor, 2017; Agarwal et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Fakoor et al., 2019; Nachum et al., 2019; Siegel et al., 2020; Levine et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020). One class of these methods utilize importance sampling (Thomas & Brunskill, 2016; Zhang et al., 2020; Nachum et al., 2019; Degris et al., 2012; Jiang & Li, 2016; Hallak & Mannor, 2017). Another class of methods perform offline reinforcement learning via dynamic programming, with an explicit constraint to prevent deviation from the data distribution (Lange et al., 2012; Kumar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020; Jaques et al., 2019). While these algorithms perform well in the purely offline settings, we show in Section 3.3 that such methods tend to be overly conservative, and therefore may not learn efficiently when fine-tuning with online data collection. In contrast, our algorithm AWAC is comparable to these algorithms for offline pre-training, but learns much more efficiently during subsequent fine-tuning. + +![](images/dc95e9ee3e9e8f7a7a8fc57f523828dde009fc7403afddda26bacd248160c39d.jpg) +Figure 3: Comparative evaluation on the dexterous manipulation tasks. These tasks are difficult due to their high action dimensionality and reward sparsity. We see that AWAC is able to learn these tasks with little online data collection required (100K samples $\approx 1 6$ minutes of equivalent real-world interaction time). Meanwhile, most prior methods are not able to solve the harder two tasks: door opening and object relocation. + +Prior work has also considered the special case of learning from demonstration data. One class of algorithms initializes the policy via behavioral cloning from demonstrations, and then fine-tunes with reinforcement learning (Peters & Schaal, 2008b; Ijspeert et al., 2002; Theodorou et al., 2010; Kim et al., 2013; Rajeswaran et al., 2018; Gupta et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2019). Most such methods use on-policy fine-tuning, which is less sample-efficient than off-policy methods that perform value function estimation. Other prior works have incorporated demonstration data into the replay buffer using off-policy RL methods (Vecerík et al., 2017; Nair et al., 2017). We show in Section 3.2 that ˇ these strategies can result in a large dip in performance during online fine-tuning, due to the inability to pre-train an effective value function from offline data. In contrast, our work shows that using supervised learning style policy updates can allow for better bootstrapping from demonstrations as compared to Vecerík et al. (2017) and Nair et al. (2017). ˇ + +Our method builds on algorithms that implement a maximum likelihood objective for the actor, based on an expectation-maximization formulation of RL (Peters & Schaal, 2007; Neumann & Peters, 2008; Theodorou et al., 2010; Peters et al., 2010; Peng et al., 2019; Abdolmaleki et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018). Most closely related to our method in this respect are the algorithms proposed by Peng et al. (2019) (AWR) and Siegel et al. (2020) (ABM). Unlike AWR, which estimates the value function of the behavior policy, $V ^ { \pi _ { \beta } }$ via Monte-Carlo estimation or $\mathrm { T D } - \lambda$ , our algorithm estimates the Q-function of the current policy $Q ^ { \pi }$ via bootstrapping, enabling much more efficient learning, as shown in our experiments. Unlike ABM, our method does not require learning a separate function approximator to model the behavior policy $\pi _ { \beta }$ , and instead directly samples the dataset. As we discussed in Section 3.3, modeling $\pi _ { \beta }$ can be a major challenge for online fine-tuning. While these distinctions may seem somewhat subtle, they are important and we show in our experiments that they result in a large difference in algorithm performance. Finally, our work goes beyond the analysis in prior work, by studying the issues associated with pre-training and fine-tuning in Section 3. Concurrently to our work, Wang et al. (2020) proposed critic regularized regression for offline RL, which uses off-policy Q-learning and an equivalent policy update. In contrast to this concurrent work, we specifically study the offline pretraining online fine-tuning problem, analyze why other methods are ineffective in this setting, and show that our approach achieves substantially better results. + +# 6 EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION + +In our experiments, we first compare our method against prior methods in the offline training and fine-tuning setting. We show that we can learn difficult, high-dimensional, sparse reward dexterous manipulation problems from human demonstrations and off-policy data. We then evaluate our method with suboptimal prior data generated by a random controller. Finally, we study why prior methods struggle in this setting by analyzing their performance on benchmark MuJoCo tasks, and conduct further experiments to understand where the difficulty lies (also shown in Section 3). + +6.1) Comparative Evaluation Learning From Prior Data. We aim to study tasks representative of the difficulties of real-world robot learning, where offline learning and online fine-tuning are most relevant. We begin our analysis with a set of challenging sparse reward dexterous manipulation tasks proposed by Rajeswaran et al. (2018). These tasks involve complex manipulation skills using a 28-DoF five-fingered hand in the MuJoCo simulator (Todorov et al., 2012) shown in Figure 3: in-hand rotation of a pen, opening a door by unlatching the handle, and picking up a sphere and relocating it to a target location. These environments exhibit many challenges: high dimensional action spaces, complex manipulation physics with many intermittent contacts, and randomized hand and object positions. The reward functions in these environments are binary 0-1 rewards for task completion. 2 Rajeswaran et al. (2018) provide 25 human demonstrations for each task, which are not fully optimal but do solve the task. Since this dataset is small, we generated another 500 trajectories of interaction data by constructing a behavioral cloned policy, and then sampling from this policy. + +First, we compare our method on these dexterous manipulation tasks against prior methods for off-policy learning, offline learning, and bootstrapping from demonstrations. Specific implementation details are discussed in Appendix A.5. The results are shown in Fig. 3. Our method is able to leverage the prior data to quickly attain good performance, and the efficient off-policy actor-critic component of our approach fine-tunes much more quickly than demonstration augmented policy gradient (DAPG), the method proposed by Rajeswaran et al. (2018). For example, our method solves the pen task in 120K timesteps, the equivalent of just 20 minutes of online interaction. While the baseline comparisons and ablations are able to make some amount of progress on the pen task, alternative off-policy RL and offline RL algorithms are largely unable to solve the door and relocate task in the time-frame considered. We find that the design decisions to use off-policy critic estimation allow AWAC to significantly outperform AWR (Peng et al., 2019) while the implicit behavior modeling allows AWAC to significantly outperform ABM (Siegel et al., 2020), although ABM does make some progress. Rajeswaran et al. (2018) show that DAPG can solve variants of these tasks with more well-shaped rewards, but still requires considerably more samples. + +Additionally, we evaluated all methods on the Gym MuJoCo locomotion benchmarks, similarly providing demonstrations as offline data. Due to space constraints, the results plots for these experiments are included in Appendix A.1. These tasks are substantially easier than the sparse reward manipulation tasks described above, and a number of prior methods also perform well. However, our method matches or exceeds the best prior method in all cases, whereas no other single prior method attains good performance on all of the tasks. + +6.2) Fine-Tuning from Random Policy Data. An advantage of using off-policy RL for reinforcement learning is that we can also incorporate suboptimal data, rather than demonstrations. In this experiment, we evaluate on a simulated tabletop pushing environment with a Sawyer robot pictured in Fig 3 and described further in Appendix A.4. To study the potential to learn from suboptimal data, we use an off-policy dataset of 500 trajectories generated by a random process. The task is to push an object to a target location in a $4 0 \mathrm { c m } \mathrm { x } 2 0 \mathrm { c m }$ goal space. The results are shown in Figure 4. We see that while many methods begin at the same initial performance, AWAC learns the fastest online and is actually able to make use of the offline dataset effectively. + +![](images/70ff058010690ec5be42b2370a086753b4d7af63ce0b7933026e108dd920cb26.jpg) +Figure 4: Comparison of fine-tuning from an initial dataset of suboptimal data on a Sawyer robot pushing task. + +# 7 DISCUSSION AND FUTURE WORK + +We have discussed in detail the challenges existing RL methods face when fine-tuning from prior datasets, and proposed an algorithm, AWAC, that is effective in this setting. The key insight in AWAC is that enforcing a policy update constraint implicitly on actor-critic methods results in a stable learning algorithm amenable for off-policy learning. With an informative action-value estimate, the policy is weighted towards high-advantage actions in the data, resulting in policy improvement without conservative updates. 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Simple Statistical Gradient-Following Algorithms for Connectionist Reinforcement Learning. Machine Learning, pp. 229–256, 1992. + +Yifan Wu, George Tucker, and Ofir Nachum. Behavior Regularized Offline Reinforcement Learning. 2020. + +Ruiyi Zhang, Bo Dai, Lihong Li, and Dale Schuurmans. GenDICE: Generalized Offline Estimation of Stationary Values. In International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR), 2020. + +Shangtong Zhang, Wendelin Boehmer, and Shimon Whiteson. Generalized off-policy actor-critic. In H. Wallach, H. Larochelle, A. Beygelzimer, F. dÁlché-Buc, E. Fox, and R. Garnett (eds.), Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 32, pp. 2001–2011. Curran Associates, Inc., 2019. + +Allan Zhou, Eric Jang, Daniel Kappler, Alexander Herzog, Mohi Khansari, Paul Wohlhart, Yunfei Bai, Mrinal Kalakrishnan, Sergey Levine, and Chelsea Finn. Watch, try, learn: Meta-learning from demonstrations and reward. CoRR, abs/1906.03352, 2019. + +Henry Zhu, Abhishek Gupta, Aravind Rajeswaran, Sergey Levine, and Vikash Kumar. Dexterous Manipulation with Deep Reinforcement Learning: Efficient, General, and Low-Cost. In Proceedings - IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, volume 2019-May, pp. 3651–3657. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., 2019. + +# A APPENDIX + +# A.1 GYM BENCHMARK RESULTS FROM PRIOR DATA + +In this section, we provide a comparative evaluation on MuJoCo benchmark tasks for analysis. These tasks are simpler, with dense rewards and relatively lower action and observation dimensionality. Thus, many prior methods can make good progress on these tasks. These experiments allow us to understand more precisely which design decisions are crucial. For each task, we collect 15 demonstration trajectories using a pre-trained expert on each task, and 100 trajectories of off-policy data by rolling out a behavioral cloned policy trained on the demonstrations. The same data is made available to all methods. The results are presented in Figure 5. AWAC is consistently the best or on par with the best-performing method. No other single method consistently attains the best results – on HalfCheetah, $\mathrm { S A C } + \mathrm { B C }$ and BRAC are competitive, while on Ant-v2 ABM is competitive with AWAC. We summarize the results according to the challenges in Section 3. + +Data efficiency. The three methods that do not estimate $Q ^ { \pi }$ are DAPG (Abdolmaleki et al., 2018), AWR (Peng et al., 2019), and MARWIL (Wang et al., 2018). Across all three tasks, we see that these methods are somewhat worse offline than the best performing offline methods, and exhibit steady but very slow improvement during fine-tuning. In robotics, data efficiency is vital, so these algorithms are not good candidates for practical real-world applications. + +Bootstrap error in offline learning. For SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018), across all three tasks, we see that the offline performance at epoch 0 is generally poor. Due to the data in the replay buffer, SAC with prior data does learn faster than from scratch, but AWAC is faster to solve the tasks in general. SAC with additional data in the replay buffer is similar to the approach proposed by Vecerík et al. ˇ (2017). $\mathrm { S A C + B C }$ reproduces Nair et al. (2018) but uses SAC instead of DDPG (Lillicrap et al., 2016) as the underlying RL algorithm. We find that these algorithms exhibit a characteristic dip at the start of learning. Although this dip is only present in the early part of the learning curve, a poor initial policy and lack of steady policy improvement can be a safety concern and a significant hindrance in real-world applications. Moreover, recall that in the more difficult dextrous manipulation tasks, these algorithms do not show any significant learning. + +Conservative online learning. Finally, we consider conservative offline algorithms: ABM (Siegel et al., 2020), BEAR (Kumar et al., 2019), and BRAC (Wu et al., 2020). We found that BRAC performs similarly to SAC for working hyperparameters. BEAR trains well offline – on Ant and Walker2d, BEAR significantly outperforms prior methods before online experience. However, online improvement is slow for BEAR and the final performance across all three tasks is much lower than AWAC. The closest in performance to our method is ABM, which is comparable on Ant-v2, but much slower on other domains. + +![](images/b64d8819c2ba2be4df471bcc86f7d5af460f8cac223ff698dda2c5e907357ea4.jpg) +Figure 5: Comparison of our method and prior methods on standard MuJoCo benchmark tasks. These tasks are much easier than the dexterous manipulation tasks, and allow us to better inspect the performance of methods in the setting of offline pretraining followed by online fine-tuning. $\mathrm { S A C + B C }$ and BRAC perform on par with our method on the HalfCheetah task, and ABM performs on par with our method on the Ant task, while our method outperforms all others on the Walker2D task. Our method matches or exceeds the best prior method in all cases, whereas no other single prior method attains good performance on all of the tasks. + +# A.2 ALGORITHM DERIVATION DETAILS + +The full optimization problem we solve, given the previous off-policy advantage estimate $A ^ { \pi _ { k } }$ and buffer distribution $\pi _ { \beta }$ , is given below: + +$$ +\begin{array} { r l } & { \pi _ { k + 1 } = \underset { \pi \in \Pi } { \arg \operatorname* { m a x } } \mathbb { E } _ { \mathbf { a } \sim \pi ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) } [ A ^ { \pi _ { k } } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) ] } \\ & { \qquad \mathrm { s . t . } D _ { \mathrm { K L } } ( \pi ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) | | \pi _ { \beta } ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) ) \leq \epsilon } \\ & { \qquad \displaystyle \int _ { \mathbf { a } } \pi ( \mathbf { a } | \mathbf { s } ) d \mathbf { a } = 1 . } \end{array} +$$ + +Our derivation follows Peters et al. (2010) and Peng et al. (2019). The analytic solution for the constrained optimization problem above can be obtained by enforcing the KKT conditions. The Lagrangian is: + +$$ +\mathcal { L } ( \pi , \lambda , \alpha ) = \mathbb { E } _ { \mathbf { a } \sim \pi ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) } [ A ^ { \pi _ { k } } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) ] + \lambda ( \epsilon - D _ { \mathrm { K L } } ( \pi ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) | | \pi _ { \beta } ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) ) ) + \alpha ( 1 - \int _ { \mathbf { a } } \pi ( \mathbf { a } | \mathbf { s } ) d \mathbf { a } ) . +$$ + +Differentiating with respect to $\pi$ gives: + +$$ +\frac { \partial \mathcal { L } } { \partial \pi } = A ^ { \pi _ { k } } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) - \lambda \log \pi _ { \beta } ( \mathbf { a } | \mathbf { s } ) + \lambda \log \pi ( \mathbf { a } | \mathbf { s } ) + \lambda - \alpha . +$$ + +Setting $\textstyle { \frac { \partial { \mathcal { L } } } { \partial \pi } }$ to zero and solving for $\pi$ gives the closed form solution to this problem: + +$$ +\pi ^ { * } ( { \bf a } | { \bf s } ) = \frac { 1 } { Z ( { \bf s } ) } \pi _ { \beta } ( { \bf a } | { \bf s } ) \exp \left( \frac { 1 } { \lambda } A ^ { \pi _ { k } } ( { \bf s } , { \bf a } ) \right) , +$$ + +Next, we project the solution into the space of parametric policies. For a policy $\pi _ { \theta }$ with parameters $\theta$ , this can be done by minimizing the KL divergence of $\pi _ { \theta }$ from the optimal non-parametric solution $\pi ^ { * }$ under the data distribution $\bar { \rho } _ { \pi _ { \beta } } ( \mathbf { s } )$ : + +$$ +\underset { \theta } { \arg \operatorname* { m i n } } \ \underset { \rho _ { \pi _ { \beta } } ( \mathbf { s } ) } { \mathbb { E } } \big [ D _ { \mathrm { K L } } \big ( \pi ^ { * } ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) | | \pi _ { \theta } ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) \big ) \big ] = \underset { \theta } { \arg \operatorname* { m i n } } \ \underset { \rho _ { \pi _ { \beta } } ( \mathbf { s } ) } { \mathbb { E } } \bigg [ \underset { \pi ^ { * } ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) } { \mathbb { E } } \big [ - \log \pi _ { \theta } ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) \big ] \bigg ] +$$ + +Note that in the projection step, the parametric policy could be projected with either direction of KL divergence. However, choosing the reverse KL direction has a key advantage: it allows us to optimize $\theta$ as a maximum likelihood problem with an expectation over data $s , a \sim \beta$ , rather than sampling actions from the policy that may be out of distribution for the $\mathrm { Q }$ function. In our experiments we show that this decision is vital for stable off-policy learning. + +Furthermore, assume discrete policies with a minimum probably density of $\pi _ { \theta } \geq \alpha _ { \theta }$ . Then the upper bound: + +$$ +\begin{array} { r l } { D _ { \mathrm { K L } } ( \pi ^ { * } | | \pi _ { \theta } ) \leq } & { \displaystyle \frac { 2 } { \alpha _ { \theta } } D _ { \mathrm { T V } } ( \pi ^ { * } , \pi _ { \theta } ) ^ { 2 } } \\ & { \leq \displaystyle \frac { 1 } { \alpha _ { \theta } } D _ { \mathrm { K L } } ( \pi _ { \theta } | | \pi ^ { * } ) } \end{array} +$$ + +holds by the Pinsker’s inequality, where $D _ { \mathrm { T V } }$ denotes the total variation distance between distributions. Thus minimizing the reverse $\mathrm { K L }$ also bounds the forward KL. Note that we can control the minimum $\alpha$ if desired by applying Laplace smoothing to the policy. + +# A.3 IMPLEMENTATION DETAILS + +We implement the algorithm building on top of twin soft actor-critic (Haarnoja et al., 2018), which incorporates the twin Q-function architecture from twin delayed deep deterministic policy gradient (TD3) from Fujimoto et al. (2018). All off-policy algorithm comparisons (SAC, BRAC, MPO, ABM, BEAR) are implemented from the same skeleton. The base hyperparameters are given in Table 2. The policy update is replaced with: + +$$ +\theta _ { k + 1 } = \underset { \theta } { \arg \operatorname* { m a x } } \quad \underset { \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } \sim \beta } { \mathbb { E } } \left[ \log \pi _ { \theta } ( \mathbf { a } | \mathbf { s } ) \frac { 1 } { Z ( \mathbf { s } ) } \exp \left( \frac { 1 } { \lambda } A ^ { \pi _ { k } } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) \right) \right] . +$$ + +Similar to advantage weight regression (Peng et al., 2019) and other prior work (Neumann & Peters, 2008; Wang et al., 2018; Siegel et al., 2020), we disregard the per-state normalizing constant $\begin{array} { r } { Z ( \mathbf { \check { s } } ) = \int _ { \mathbf { a } } \pi _ { \boldsymbol \theta } ( \mathbf { a } | \mathbf { \check { s } } ) \exp \left( \frac { 1 } { \lambda } \check { A } ^ { \pi _ { k } } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) \right) d \mathbf { a } = \mathbb { E } _ { \mathbf { a } \sim \pi _ { \boldsymbol \theta } ( \cdot | \mathbf { s } ) } [ \check { A } ^ { \pi _ { k } } ( \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { a } ) ] } \end{array}$ We did experiment with estimating this expectation per batch element with $K = 1 0$ samples, but found that this generally made performance worse, perhaps because errors in the estimation of $Z ( \mathbf { s } )$ caused more harm than the benefit the method derived from estimating this value. We report success rate results for variants of our method with and without $Z ( \mathbf { s } )$ estimation in Table 1. + +While prior work (Neumann & Peters, 2008; Wang et al., 2018; Peng et al., 2019) has generally ignored the omission of $Z ( \mathbf { s } )$ without any specific justification, it is possible to bound this value both above and below using the Cauchy-Schwarz and reverse CauchySchwarz (Polya-Szego) inequalities, as follows. Let $f ( \mathbf { a } ) = \pi ( \mathbf { a } | \mathbf { \dot { s } } )$ and $g ( \mathbf { a } ) = \dot { \exp ( A ( \bar { s } , \mathbf { a } ) / \lambda ) }$ . Note $f ( \mathbf { a } ) > 0$ for stochastic policies + +
EnvUse Z(s)Omit Z(s)
pen84%98%
door0%95%
relocate0%54%
+ +Table 1: Success rates after online fine-tuning (after 800K steps for pen, door and 4M steps for relocate) using AWAC with and without $Z ( \mathbf { s } )$ weight. These results show that although we can estimate $Z ( \mathbf { s } )$ , weighting by $Z ( \mathbf { s } )$ actually results in worse performance. + +and $g ( \mathbf { a } ) > 0$ . By Cauchy-Schwarz, $\begin{array} { r } { Z ( s ) = \int _ { \mathbf { a } } f ( \mathbf { a } ) g ( \mathbf { a } ) d \mathbf { a } \leq \sqrt { \int _ { \mathbf { a } } f ( \mathbf { a } ) ^ { 2 } d \mathbf { a } \int _ { \mathbf { a } } g ( \mathbf { a } ) ^ { 2 } d \mathbf { a } } = C _ { 1 } } \end{array}$ . To apply Polya-Szego, let $m _ { f }$ and $m _ { g }$ be the minimum of $f$ and $g$ respectively and $M _ { f } , M _ { g }$ be the maximum. Then $\begin{array} { r } { Z ( \mathbf { s } ) \ge 2 ( \sqrt { \frac { M _ { f } M _ { g } } { m _ { f } m _ { g } } + \frac { m _ { f } m _ { g } } { M _ { f } M _ { g } } } ) ^ { - 1 } C _ { 1 } = C _ { 2 } } \end{array}$ mf mgM M )−1C1 = C2. We therefore have C1 ≤ Z(s) ≤ C2, though the bounds are generally not tight. + +A further, more intuitive argument for why omitting $Z ( \mathbf { s } )$ may be harmless in practice comes from observing that this normalizing factor only affects the relative weight of different states in the training objective, not different actions. The state distribution in $\beta$ already differs from the distribution over states that will be visited by $\pi _ { \theta }$ , and therefore preserving this state distribution is likely to be of limited utility to downstream policy performance. Indeed, we would expect that sufficiently expressive policies would be less affected by small to moderate variability in the state weights. On the other hand, inaccurate estimates of $Z ( \mathbf { s } )$ may throw off the training objective by increasing variance, similar to the effect of degenerate importance weights. + +The Lagrange multiplier $\lambda$ is treated as a hyperparameter in our method. In this work we use $\lambda = 0 . 3$ for the manipulation environments and $\lambda = 1 . 0$ for the MuJoCo benchmark environments. One could adaptively learn $\lambda$ with a dual gradient descent procedure, but this would require access to $\pi _ { \beta }$ . + +As rewards for the dextrous manipulation environments are non-positive, we clamp the Q value for these experiments to be at most zero. We find this stabilizes training slightly. + +# A.4 ENVIRONMENT-SPECIFIC DETAILS + +We evaluate our method on three domains: dexterous manipulation environments, Sawyer manipulation environments, and MuJoCo benchmark environments. In the following sections we describe specific details. + +# A.4.1 DEXTEROUS MANIPULATION ENVIRONMENTS + +These environments are modified from those proposed by Rajeswaran et al. (2018). + +pen-binary-v0. The task is to spin a pen into a given orientation. The action dimension is 24 and the observation dimension is 45. Let the position and orientation of the pen be denoted by $x _ { p }$ and $x _ { o }$ respectively, and the desired position and orientation be denoted by $d _ { p }$ and $d _ { o }$ respectively. The reward function is $r = \mathbb { 1 } _ { | \underline { { x } } _ { p } - d _ { p } | \leq 0 . 0 7 5 } \mathbb { 1 } _ { | \underline { { x } } _ { o } \cdot d _ { o } | \leq 0 . 9 5 } - 1$ . In Rajeswaran et al. (2018), the episode was terminated when the pen fell out of the hand; we did not include this early termination condition. + +door-binary-v0. The task is to open a door, which requires first twisting a latch. The action dimension is 28 and the observation dimension is 39. Let $d$ denote the angle of the door. The reward function is $r = 1 _ { d > 1 . 4 } - 1$ . + +Table 2: Hyper-parameters used for RL experiments. + +
Hyper-parameterValue
Training Batches Per Timestep1
Exploration NoiseNone (stochastic policy)
RL Batch Size1024
Discount Factor0.99
Reward Scaling1
Replay Buffer Size1000000
Number of pretraining steps25000
Policy Hidden Sizes[256,256,256, 256]
Policy Hidden ActivationReLU
Policy Weight Decay10-4
Policy Learning Rate3 ×10-4
Q Hidden Sizes[256, 256,256, 256]
Q Hidden ActivationReLU
Q Weight Decay0
Q Learning Rate3 ×10-4
Target Network T5×10-3
+ +relocate-binary-v0. The task is to relocate an object to a goal location. The action dimension is 30 and the observation dimension is 39. Let $x _ { p }$ denote the object position and $d _ { p }$ denote the desired position. The reward is $r = \mathbb { 1 } _ { | x _ { p } - d _ { p } | \leq 0 . 1 } - 1$ . + +# A.4.2 SAWYER MANIPULATION ENVIRONMENT + +SawyerPush- $\mathbf { \nabla } \cdot \mathbf { v 0 }$ . This environment is included in the Multiworld library. The task is to push a puck to a goal position in a $4 0 \mathrm { c m } \mathrm { x } 2 0 \mathrm { c m }$ , and the reward function is the negative distance between the puck and goal position. When using this environment, we use hindsight experience replay for goal-conditioned reinforcement learning. The random dataset for prior data was collected by rolling out an Ornstein-Uhlenbeck process with $\theta = 0 . 1 5$ and $\sigma = 0 . 3$ . + +# A.4.3 OFF-POLICY DATA PERFORMANCE + +The performances of the expert data, behavior cloning (BC) on the expert data (1), and BC on the combined expert $+ \mathrm { B C }$ data (2) are included in Table 3. For Gym benchmarks we report average return, and expert data is collected by a trained SAC policy. For dextrous manipulation tasks we report the success rate, and the expert data consists of human demonstrations provided by Rajeswaran et al. (2018). + +# A.5 BASELINE IMPLEMENTATION DETAILS + +We used public implementations of prior methods (DAPG, AWR) when available. We implemented the remaining algorithms in our framework, which also allows us to understand the effects of changing individual components of the method. + +Table 3: Performance of the off-policy data for each environment. BC (1) indicates BC on the expert data, while BC (2) indicates BC on the combined expert $+ \mathrm { B C }$ data used as off-policy data for pretraining. + +
EnvExpertBC (1)BC (2)
cheetah996225074524
walkerantpen506220401701
52076871704
10.730.76
door10.100.00
relocate10.020.01
+ +In the section, we describe the implementation details. The full overview of algorithms is given in Figure 6. + +
NameQPolicy Objective元?Constraint
SACQDKL(πellQ)NoNone
SAC + BCQMixedNoNone
BCQDKL(πellQ)YesSupport (e)
BEARDKL(πellQ)YesSupport (MMD)
AWRDKL(QIπθ)NoImplicit
MPODKL(Qlπθ)Yes*Prior
ABM-MPODKL(Q|Iπ)YesLearned Prior
DAPGJ(πe)NoNone
BRACQDKL(πellQ)YesExplicit KL penalty
AWAC (Ours)QDKL(Q|Iπe)NoImplicit
+ +Behavior Cloning (BC). This method learns a policy with supervised learning on demonstration data. + +Soft Actor Critic (SAC). Using the soft actor critic algorithm from (Haarnoja et al., 2018), we follow the exact same procedure as our method in order to incorporate prior data, initializing the policy with behavior cloning on demonstrations and adding all prior data to the replay buffer. + +Behavior Regularized Actor Critic (BRAC). We implement BRAC as described in (Wu et al., 2020) by adding policy regularization $\log ( \pi _ { \beta } ( a | s ) )$ where $\pi _ { \beta }$ is a behavior policy trained with supervised learning on the replay buffer. We add all prior data to the replay buffer before online training. + +Advantage Weighted Regression (AWR). Using the advantage weighted regression algorithm from (Peng et al., 2019), we add all prior data to the replay buffer before online training. We use the implementation provided by Peng et al. (2019), with the key difference from our method being that AWR uses $\mathrm { T D } ( \lambda )$ on the replay buffer for policy evaluation. + +Monotonic Advantage Re-Weighted Imitation Learning (MARWIL). Monotonic advantage reweighted imitation learning was proposed by Wang et al. (2018) for offline imitation learning. MARWIL was not demonstrated in online RL settings, but we evaluate it for offline pretraining followed by online fine-tuning as we do other offline algorithms. Although derived differently, MARWIL and AWR are similar algorithms and only differ in value estimation: MARWIL uses the on-policy single-path advantage estimate $A ( s , a ) \stackrel { . } { = } Q ^ { \pi _ { \beta } } ( s , a ) - V ^ { \pi _ { \beta } } ( s )$ instead of $\mathrm { T D } ( \lambda )$ as in AWR. Thus, we implement MARWIL by modifying the implementation of AWR. + +Maximum a Posteriori Policy Optimization (MPO). We evaluate the MPO algorithm presented by Abdolmaleki et al. (2018). Due to a public implementation being unavailable, we modify our algorithm to be as close to MPO as possible. In particular, we change the policy update in Advantage Weighted Actor Critic to be: + +$$ +\theta _ { i } \longleftarrow \underset { \theta _ { i } } { \longleftarrow } \operatorname { a r g m a x } \mathbb { E } _ { s \sim \mathcal { D } , a \sim \pi ( a \mid s ) } \left[ \log \pi _ { \theta _ { i } } ( a \mid s ) \exp ( \frac { 1 } { \beta } Q ^ { \pi _ { \beta } } ( s , a ) ) \right] . +$$ + +Note that in MPO, actions for the update are sampled from the policy and the Q-function is used instead of advantage for weights. We failed to see offline or online improvement with this implementation in most environments, so we omit this comparison in favor of ABM. + +Advantage-Weighted Behavior Model (ABM). We evaluate ABM, the method developed in Siegel et al. (2020). As with MPO, we modify our method to implement ABM, as there is no public + +implementation of the method. ABM first trains an advantage model $\pi _ { \theta _ { \mathrm { a b m } } } ( a | s )$ + +$$ +\theta _ { \mathrm { a b m } } = \underset { \theta _ { i } } { \operatorname { a r g m a x } } \mathbb { E } _ { \tau \sim \mathcal { D } } \left[ \sum _ { t = 1 } ^ { | \tau | } \log \pi _ { \theta _ { \mathrm { a b m } } } ( a _ { t } | s _ { t } ) f ( R ( \tau _ { t : N } ) - \hat { V } ( s ) ) \right] . +$$ + +where $f$ is an increasing non-negative function, chosen to be $f = 1 _ { + }$ . In place of an advantage computed by empirical returns $R ( \tau _ { t : N } ) - \hat { V } ( s )$ we use the advantage estimate computed per transition by the $Q$ value $Q ( s , a ) - V ( s )$ . This is favorable for running ABM online, as computing $R \big ( \tau _ { t : N } \big ) \ : - \ :$ $\hat { V } ( s )$ is similar to AWR, which shows slow online improvement. We then use the policy update: + +$$ +\theta _ { i } \longleftarrow \underset { \theta _ { i } } { \longleftarrow } \underset { \theta _ { i } } { \arg \operatorname* { m a x } } ~ \mathbb { E } _ { s \sim \mathcal { D } , a \sim \pi _ { \mathrm { a i m } } ( a | s ) } \left[ \log \pi _ { \theta _ { i } } ( a | s ) \exp \left( \frac { 1 } { \lambda } ( Q ^ { \pi _ { i } } ( s , a ) - V ^ { \pi _ { i } } ( s ) ) \right) \right] . +$$ + +Additionally, for this method, actions for the update are sampled from a behavior policy trained to match the replay buffer and the value function is computed as $V ^ { \pi } ( s ) = Q ^ { \pi } ( s , a )$ s.t. $a \sim \pi$ . + +Demonstration Augmented Policy Gradient (DAPG). We directly utilize the code provided in (Rajeswaran et al., 2018) to compare against our method. Since DAPG is an on-policy method, we only provide the demonstration data to the DAPG code to bootstrap the initial policy from. + +Bootstrapping Error Accumulation Reduction (BEAR). We utilize the implementation of BEAR provided in rlkit. We provide the demonstration and off-policy data to the method together. Since the original method only involved training offline, we modify the algorithm to include an online training phase. In general we found that the MMD constraint in the method was too conservative. As a result, in order to obtain the results displayed in our paper, we swept the MMD threshold value and chose the one with the best final performance after offline training with offline fine-tuning. + +# A.6 EXTRA BASELINE COMPARISONS (CQL, ALGAEDICE) + +In this section, we add comparisons to constrained Q-learning (CQL) (Kumar et al., 2020) and AlgaeDICE (Nachum et al., 2019). For CQL, we use the authors’ implementation, modified for additionally online-finetuning instead of only offline training. For AlgaeDICE, we use the publicly available implementation, modified to load prior data and perform 25K pretraining steps before online RL. The results are presented in Figure 7. + +![](images/c34118c8a741c3f0837829f3def19ff7e534b76ba15b2244eb2cb29f49f0a6aa.jpg) +Figure 7: Comparison of our method (AWAC) with CQL and AlgaeDICE. CQL and AWAC perform similarly offline, but CQL does not improve when fine-tuning online. AlgaeDICE does not perform well for offline pretraining. + +# A.7 ONLINE FINE-TUNING FROM D4RL + +In this experiment, we evaluate the performance of varied data quality (random, medium, mediumexpert, and expert) datasets included in D4RL (Fu et al., 2020), a dataset intended for offline RL. The results are obtained by first by training offline and then fine-tuning online on each setting for 500,000 additional steps. The performance of BEAR (Kumar et al., 2019) is attached as reference. We attempted to fine-tune BEAR online using the same protocol as AWAC but the performance did not improve and often decreased; thus we report the offline performance. All performances are scaled to 0 to 100, where 0 is the average returns of a random policy and 100 is the average returns of an expert policy (obtained by training online with SAC), as is standard for D4RL. + +The results are presented in Figure 8. First, we observe that AWAC (offline) is competitive with BEAR, a commonly used offline RL algorithm. Then, AWAC is able to make progress in solving the tasks with online fine-tuning, even when initialized from random data or “medium” quality data, as shown by the performance of AWAC (online). In almost all settings, AWAC (online) is the best performing or tied with BEAR. In four of the six lower quality (random or medium) data settings, AWAC (online) is significantly better than BEAR; it is reasonable that AWAC excels in the lower-quality data regime because there is more room for online improvement, while both offline RL methods often start at high performance when initialized from higher-quality data. + +
AWACAWACBEAR
HalfCheetah(offline)(online)25.5
Hopperrandom2.252.9
medium37.441.138.6
medium-expert36.841.051.7
expert random78.5 9.6105.6108.2 9.5
medium72.062.8 91.047.6
medium-expert80.94.0
Walker2Dexpert85.2111.9110.3
random5.1111.8 11.76.7
medium30.179.133.2
medium-expert42.778.310.8
expert57.0103.0106.1
+ +Figure 8: Comparison of our method (AWAC) fine-tuning on varying data quality datasets in D4RL (Fu et al., 2020). AWAC is able to improve its offline performance by further fine-tuning online. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/parse/train/OJiM1R3jAtZ/OJiM1R3jAtZ_content_list.json b/parse/train/OJiM1R3jAtZ/OJiM1R3jAtZ_content_list.json new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..3c986f39a680478a2de1a6954243233f0f1ea929 --- /dev/null +++ b/parse/train/OJiM1R3jAtZ/OJiM1R3jAtZ_content_list.json @@ -0,0 +1,2316 @@ +[ + { + "type": "text", + "text": "AWAC: ACCELERATING ONLINE REINFORCEMENTLEARNING WITH OFFLINE DATASETS", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 98, + 823, + 146 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Anonymous authors Paper under double-blind review ", + "bbox": [ + 183, + 170, + 398, + 196 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "ABSTRACT ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 454, + 233, + 544, + 250 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Reinforcement learning provides an appealing formalism for learning control policies from experience. However, the classic active formulation of reinforcement learning necessitates a lengthy active exploration process for each behavior, making it difficult to apply in real-world settings. If we can instead allow reinforcement learning to effectively use previously collected data to aid the online learning process, where the data could be expert demonstrations or more generally any prior experience, we could make reinforcement learning a substantially more practical tool. While a number of recent methods have sought to learn offline from previously collected data, it remains exceptionally difficult to train a policy with offline data and improve it further with online reinforcement learning. In this paper we systematically analyze why this problem is so challenging, and propose an algorithm that combines sample-efficient dynamic programming with maximum likelihood policy updates, providing a simple and effective framework that is able to leverage large amounts of offline data and then quickly perform online fine-tuning of reinforcement learning policies. We show that our method enables rapid learning of skills with a combination of prior demonstration data and online experience across a suite of difficult dexterous manipulation and benchmark tasks. ", + "bbox": [ + 233, + 265, + 764, + 497 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "1 INTRODUCTION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 522, + 334, + 539 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Learning models that generalize effectively to complex open-world settings, from image recognition (Krizhevsky et al., 2012) to natural language processing (Devlin et al., 2019), relies on large, high-capacity models and large, diverse, and representative datasets. Leveraging this recipe for reinforcement learning (RL) has the potential to yield real-world generalization for control applications such as robotics. However, while deep RL algorithms enable the use of large models, the use of large datasets for real-world RL has proven challenging. Most RL algorithms collect new data online every time a new policy is learned, which limits the size and diversity of the datasets for RL. In the same way that powerful models in computer vision and NLP are often pre-trained on large, general-purpose datasets and then fine-tuned on task-specific data, RL policies that generalize effectively to open-world settings will need to be able to incorporate large amounts of prior data effectively into the learning process, while still collecting additional data online for the task at hand. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 555, + 825, + 705 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "For data-driven reinforcement learning, offline datasets consist of trajectories of states, actions and associated rewards. This data can potentially come from demonstrations for the desired task (Schaal, 1997; Atkeson & Schaal, 1997), suboptimal policies (Gao et al., 2018), demonstrations for related tasks (Zhou et al., 2019), or even just random exploration in the environment. Depending on the quality of the data that is provided, useful knowledge can be extracted about the dynamics of the world, about the task being solved, or both. Effective data-driven methods for deep reinforcement learning should be able to use this data to pre-train offline while improving with online fine-tuning. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 712, + 825, + 808 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Since this prior data can come from a variety of sources, we would like to design an algorithm that does not utilize different types of data in any privileged way. For example, prior methods that incorporate demonstrations into RL directly aim to mimic these demonstrations (Nair et al., 2018), which is desirable when the demonstrations are known to be optimal, but imposes strict requirements on the type of offline data, and can cause undesirable bias when the prior data is not optimal. While prior methods for fully offline RL provide a mechanism for utilizing offline data (Fujimoto et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2019), as we will show in our experiments, such methods generally are not effective for fine-tuning with online data as they are often too conservative. In effect, prior methods require us to choose: Do we assume prior data is optimal or not? Do we use only offline data, or only online data? To make it feasible to learn policies for open-world settings, we need algorithms that learn successfully in any of these cases. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 814, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 103, + 823, + 145 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this work, we study how to build RL algorithms that are effective for pre-training from offpolicy datasets, but also well suited to continuous improvement with online data collection. We systematically analyze the challenges with using standard off-policy RL algorithms (Haarnoja et al., 2018; Kumar et al., 2019; Abdolmaleki et al., 2018) for this problem, and introduce a simple actor critic algorithm that elegantly bridges data-driven pre-training from offline data and improvement with online data collection. Our method, which uses dynamic programming to train a critic but a supervised learning style update to train a constrained actor, combines the best of supervised learning and actor-critic algorithms. Dynamic programming can leverage off-policy data and enable sample-efficient learning. The simple supervised actor update implicitly enforces a constraint that mitigates the effects of distribution shift when learning from offline data (Fujimoto et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2019), while avoiding overly conservative updates. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 151, + 825, + 301 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We evaluate our algorithm on a wide variety of robotic control and benchmark tasks across three simulated domains: dexterous manipulation, tabletop manipulation, and MuJoCo control tasks. Our algorithm, Advantage Weighted Actor Critic (AWAC), is able to quickly learn successful policies on difficult tasks with high action dimension and binary sparse rewards, significantly better than prior methods for off-policy and offline reinforcement learning. Moreover, AWAC can utilize different types of prior data without any algorithmic changes: demonstrations, suboptimal data, or random exploration data. The contribution of this work is not just another RL algorithm, but a systematic study of what makes offline pre-training with online fine-tuning unique compared to the standard RL paradigm, which then directly motivates a simple algorithm, AWAC, to address these challenges. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 308, + 825, + 433 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2 PRELIMINARIES ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 450, + 338, + 465 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We consider the standard reinforcement learning notation, with states s, actions a, policy $\\pi ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } )$ , rewards $r ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } )$ , and dynamics $p ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } | \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } )$ . The discounted return is defined as $\\begin{array} { r } { R _ { t } = \\sum _ { i = t } ^ { T } \\gamma ^ { i } r ( \\mathbf { s } _ { i } , \\mathbf { a } _ { i } ) } \\end{array}$ , for a discount factor $\\gamma$ and horizon $T$ which may be infinite. The objective of an $\\mathrm { R L }$ agent is to maximize the expected discounted return $J ( \\pi ) { \\stackrel { } { = } } \\mathrm { { \\mathbb E } } _ { p _ { \\pi } ( \\tau ) } [ R _ { 0 } ]$ under the distribution induced by the policy. The optimal policy can be learned directly by policy gradient, estimating $\\nabla J ( \\pi )$ (Williams, 1992), but this is often ineffective due to high variance of the estimator. Many algorithms attempt to reduce this variance by making use of the value function $V ^ { \\pi } ( \\mathbf { s } ) = \\mathbb { E } _ { p _ { \\pi } ( \\tau ) } [ R _ { t } ] \\mathbf { s }$ , action-value function $Q ^ { \\pi } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) = \\mathbb { E } _ { p _ { \\pi } ( \\tau ) } [ R _ { t } | \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ]$ , or advantage $A ^ { \\pi } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) = Q ^ { \\pi } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) - V ^ { \\pi } ( \\mathbf { s } )$ . The action-value function for a policy can be written recursively via the Bellman equation: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 481, + 826, + 611 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/52bf23d9860b844ca299c17ae3549e3a6e84659defb72c49ea7b4003b731ffde.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\begin{array} { r } { Q ^ { \\pi } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) = r ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) + \\gamma \\mathbb { E } _ { p ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } \\mid \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) } [ V ^ { \\pi } ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } ) ] = r ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) + \\gamma \\mathbb { E } _ { p ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } \\mid \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) } [ \\mathbb { E } _ { \\pi ( \\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } \\mid \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } ) } [ Q ^ { \\pi } ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , \\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } ) ] ] . } \\end{array}\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 214, + 612, + 784, + 630 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Instead of estimating policy gradients directly, actor-critic algorithms maximize returns by alternating between two phases (Konda $\\&$ Tsitsiklis, 2000): policy evaluation and policy improvement. During the policy evaluation phase, the critic $Q ^ { \\pi } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } )$ is estimated for the current policy $\\pi$ . This can be accomplished by repeatedly applying the Bellman operator $\\boldsymbol { B }$ , corresponding to the right-hand side of Equation 1, as defined below: ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 631, + 825, + 696 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/62ebbc3fd6a61aa4c8892c6a0ae8f987f406432dc33a03220ff5d48293c4a505.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\begin{array} { r } { B ^ { \\pi } Q ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) = r ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) + \\gamma \\mathbb { E } _ { p ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } \\mid \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) } [ \\mathbb { E } _ { \\pi ( \\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } \\mid \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } ) } [ Q ^ { \\pi } ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , \\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } ) ] ] . } \\end{array}\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 312, + 698, + 686, + 717 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "By iterating according to $Q ^ { k + 1 } = B ^ { \\pi } Q ^ { k }$ , $Q ^ { k }$ converges to $Q ^ { \\pi }$ (Sutton & Barto, 1998). With function approximation, we cannot apply the Bellman operator exactly, and instead minimize the Bellman error with respect to Q-function parameters $\\phi _ { k }$ : ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 718, + 826, + 761 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/6b9dbf9b737dc5729d8073d85b61ccc1bec51559f751682880a7c05913fe5cfd.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\phi _ { k } = \\arg \\operatorname* { m i n } _ { \\phi } \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathcal { D } } [ ( Q _ { \\phi } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) - y ) ^ { 2 } ] , y = r ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) + \\gamma \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , \\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } } [ Q _ { \\phi _ { k - 1 } } ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , \\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } ) ] .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 253, + 762, + 745, + 786 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "During policy improvement, the actor $\\pi$ is typically updated based on the current estimate of $Q ^ { \\pi }$ . A commonly used technique (Lillicrap et al., 2016; Fujimoto et al., 2018; Haarnoja et al., 2018) is to update the actor $\\pi _ { \\boldsymbol { \\theta } _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } )$ via likelihood ratio or pathwise derivatives to optimize the following objective, such that the expected value of the Q-function $Q ^ { \\pi }$ is maximized: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 787, + 825, + 842 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/9f6dbe412ff39863c0528bbe024672cf472cef6931521ac11510669ced8cfd9e.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\theta _ { k } = \\underset { \\theta } { \\arg \\operatorname* { m a x } } \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { s } \\sim \\mathcal { D } } [ \\mathbb { E } _ { \\pi _ { \\theta } ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } ) } [ Q _ { \\phi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) ] ]\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 362, + 843, + 635, + 867 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Actor-critic algorithms are widely used in deep RL (Mnih et al., 2016; Lillicrap et al., 2016; Haarnoja et al., 2018; Fujimoto et al., 2018). With a Q-function estimator, they can in principle utilize off-policy data when used with a replay buffer for storing prior transition tuples, which we will denote $\\beta$ , to sample previous transitions, although we show that this by itself is insufficient for our problem setting. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 868, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/bbef2df79cb430c48f9e041b069bca905014e51b8392f3e3f8ee5d4025aa8770.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 1: We study learning policies by offline learning on a prior dataset $\\mathcal { D }$ and then fine-tuning with online interaction. The prior data could be obtained via prior runs of RL, expert demonstrations, or any other source of transitions. Our method, advantage weighted actor critic (AWAC) is able to learn effectively from offline data and fine-tune in order to reach expert-level performance after collecting a limited amount of interaction data. Videos and data are available at sites.google.com/view/awac-anonymous " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 269, + 99, + 730, + 184 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3 CHALLENGES IN OFFLINE RL WITH ONLINE FINE-TUNING", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 268, + 692, + 285 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section, we study the unique challenges that exist when pre-training using offline data, followed by fine-tuning with online data collection. We first describe the problem, and then analyze what makes this problem difficult for prior methods. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 301, + 826, + 342 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Problem definition. A static dataset of transitions, $\\mathcal { D } = \\{ ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } , \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , r ) _ { j } \\}$ , is provided to the algorithm at the beginning of training. This dataset can be sampled from an arbitrary policy or mixture of policies, and may even be collected by a human expert. This definition is general and encompasses many scenarios, such as learning from demonstrations, random data, prior RL experiments, or even from multi-task data. Given the dataset $\\mathcal { D }$ , our goal is to leverage $\\mathcal { D }$ for pre-training and use some online interaction to learn the optimal policy $\\pi ^ { * } ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } )$ , with as few interactions with the environment as possible (depicted in Fig 1). This setting is representative of many real-world RL settings, where prior data is available and the aim is to learn new skills efficiently. We first study existing algorithms empirically in this setting on the HalfCheetah-v2 Gym environment1. The prior dataset consists of 15 demonstrations from an expert policy and 100 suboptimal trajectories sampled from a behavioral clone of these demonstrations. All methods for the remainder of this paper incorporate the prior dataset, unless explicitly labeled “scratch”. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 349, + 825, + 512 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.1) Data Efficiency. One of the simplest ways to utilize prior data such as demonstrations for RL is to pre-train a policy with imitation learning, and fine-tune with on-policy RL (Gupta et al., 2019; Rajeswaran et al., 2018). This approach has two drawbacks: (1) prior data may not be optimal; (2) on-policy fine-tuning is data inefficient as it does not reuse the prior data in the RL stage. In our setting, data efficiency is vital. To this end, we require algorithms that are able to reuse arbitrary offpolicy data during online RL for data-efficient fine-tuning. We find that algorithms that use on-policy fine-tuning (Rajeswaran et al., 2018; Gupta et al., 2019), or Monte-Carlo return estimation (Peters & Schaal, 2007; Wang et al., 2018; Peng et al., 2019) are generally much less efficient than off-policy actor-critic algorithms, which iterate between improving $\\pi$ and estimating $Q ^ { \\pi }$ via Bellman backups. This can be seen from the results in Figure 2 plot 1, where on-policy methods like DAPG (Rajeswaran et al., 2018) and Monte-Carlo return methods like AWR (Peng et al., 2019) and MARWIL (Wang et al., 2018) are an order of magnitude slower than off-policy actor-critic methods. Actor-critic methods, shown in Figure 2 plot 2, can in principle use off-policy data. However, as we will discuss next, naïvely applying these algorithms to our problem suffers from a different set of challenges. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 520, + 826, + 710 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.2) Bootstrap Error in Offline Learning with Actor-Critic Methods. When standard off-policy actor-critic methods are applied to this problem setting, they perform poorly, as shown in the second plot in Figure 2: despite having a prior dataset in the replay buffer, these algorithms do not benefit significantly from offline training. We evaluate soft actor critic (Haarnoja et al., 2018), a state-of-theart actor-critic algorithm for continuous control. Note that “SAC-scratch,” which does not receive the prior data, performs similarly to “SACfD-prior,” which does have access to the prior data, indicating that the off-policy RL algorithm is not actually able to make use of the off-policy data for pre-training. Moreover, even if the SAC is policy is pre-trained by behavior cloning, labeled “SACfD-pretrain”, we still observe an initial decrease in performance, and performance similar to learning from scratch. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 717, + 825, + 840 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "This challenge can be attributed to off-policy bootstrapping error accumulation, as observed in several prior works (Sutton & Barto, 1998; Kumar et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020; Levine et al., 2020; ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 847, + 823, + 875 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/0f629f76d75942812dc48411f75d99a122f416749807b9f4b0e77175161a8bdc.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 2: Analysis of prior methods on HalfCheetah-v2 using offline RL with online fine-tuning. (1) On-policy methods (DAPG, AWR, MARWIL) learn relatively slowly, even with access to prior data. We present our method, AWAC, as an example of how off-policy RL methods can learn much faster. (2) Variants of soft actorcritic (SAC) with offline training (performed before timestep 0) and fine-tuning. We see a “dip” in the initial performance, even if the policy is pretrained with behavioral cloning. (3) Offline RL method BEAR (Kumar et al., 2019) on offline training and fine-tuning, including a “loose” variant of BEAR with a weakened constraint. Standard offline RL methods fine-tune slowly, while the “loose” BEAR variant experiences a similar dip as SAC. (4) We show that the fit of the behavior models $\\hat { \\pi } _ { \\beta }$ used by these offline methods degrades as new data is added to the buffer during fine-tuning, potentially explaining their poor fine-tuning performance. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 179, + 98, + 826, + 204 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Fujimoto et al., 2019). In actor-critic algorithms, the target value $Q ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , \\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } )$ , with $\\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } \\sim \\pi$ , is used to update $Q ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } )$ . When $\\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime }$ is outside of the data distribution, $Q ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , \\mathbf { \\bar { a } } ^ { \\prime } )$ will be inaccurate, leading to accumulation of error on static datasets. ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 340, + 821, + 382 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Offline RL algorithms (Fujimoto et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020) propose to address this issue by explicitly adding constraints on the policy improvement update (Equation 4) to avoid bootstrapping on out-of-distribution actions, leading to a policy update of this form: ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 388, + 825, + 430 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/93cb971dcda1267f55744d9474e2f3bfc321ec9427bb49a59b83c369847872fa.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\arg \\operatorname* { m a x } _ { \\boldsymbol { \\theta } } \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { s } \\sim \\mathcal { D } } [ \\mathbb { E } _ { \\pi _ { \\boldsymbol { \\theta } } ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } ) } [ Q _ { \\boldsymbol { \\phi } _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) ] ] \\mathrm { ~ s . t . ~ } D ( \\pi _ { \\boldsymbol { \\theta } } , \\pi _ { \\boldsymbol { \\beta } } ) \\leq \\epsilon .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 313, + 439, + 681, + 464 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Here, $\\pi _ { \\theta }$ is the actor being updated, and $\\pi _ { \\beta } ( a | s )$ represents the (potentially unknown) distribution from which all of the data seen so far (both offline data and online data) was generated. In the case of a replay buffer, $\\pi _ { \\beta }$ corresponds to a mixture distribution over all past policies. Typically, $\\pi _ { \\beta }$ is not known, especially for offline data, and must be estimated from the data itself. Many offline RL algorithms (Kumar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Siegel et al., 2020) explicitly fit a parametric model to samples for the distribution $\\pi _ { \\beta }$ via maximum likelihood estimation, where samples from $\\pi _ { \\beta }$ are obtained simply by sampling uniformly from the data seen thus far: $\\hat { \\pi } _ { \\beta } =$ $\\begin{array} { r } { \\operatorname* { m a x } _ { \\hat { \\pi } _ { \\beta } } \\ { \\mathbb E } _ { { \\mathbf s } , { \\mathbf a } \\sim \\pi _ { \\beta } } \\big [ \\log \\hat { \\pi } _ { \\beta } ( { \\mathbf a } | { \\mathbf s } ) \\big ] } \\end{array}$ . After estimating $\\hat { \\pi } _ { \\beta }$ , prior methods implement the constraint given in Equation 5 in various ways, including penalties on the policy update (Kumar et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020) or architecture choices for sampling actions for policy training (Fujimoto et al., 2019; Siegel et al., 2020). As we will see next, the requirement for accurate estimation of $\\hat { \\pi } _ { \\beta }$ makes these methods difficult to use with online fine-tuning. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 473, + 825, + 637 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.3) Excessively Conservative Online Learning. While offline RL algorithms with constraints (Kumar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020) perform well offline, they struggle to improve with fine-tuning, as shown in the third plot in Figure 2. We see that the purely offline RL performance (at $^ { 6 6 } 0 \\mathrm { K } ^ { 5 }$ in Fig. 2) is much better than the standard off-policy methods shown in Section 3.2. However, with additional iterations of online fine-tuning, the performance increases very slowly (as seen from the slope of the BEAR curve in Fig 2). What causes this phenomenon? ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 643, + 825, + 727 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "This can be attributed to challenges in fitting an accurate behavior model as data is collected online during fine-tuning. In the offline setting, behavior models must only be trained once via maximum likelihood, but in the online setting, the behavior model must be updated online to track incoming data. Training density models online (in the “streaming” setting) is a challenging research problem (Ramapuram et al., 2017), made more difficult by a potentially complex multi-modal behavior distribution induced by the mixture of online and offline data. To understand this, we plot the log likelihood of learned behavior models on the dataset during online and offline training for the HalfCheetah task. As we can see in the plot, the accuracy of the behavior models $( \\log \\pi _ { \\beta }$ on the y-axis) reduces during online fine-tuning, indicating that it is not fitting the new data well during online training. When the behavior models are inaccurate or unable to model new data well, constrained optimization becomes too conservative, resulting in limited improvement with fine-tuning. This analysis suggests that, in order to address our problem setting, we require an off-policy RL algorithm that constrains the policy to prevent offline instability and error accumulation, but not so conservatively that it prevents online fine-tuning due to imperfect behavior modeling. Our proposed algorithm, which we discuss in the next section, accomplishes this by employing an implicit constraint, which does not require any explicit modeling of the behavior policy. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 733, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 169, + 103, + 825, + 132 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "4 ADVANTAGE WEIGHTED ACTOR CRITIC: A SIMPLE ALGORITHM FORFINE-TUNING FROM OFFLINE DATASETS", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 151, + 784, + 185 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section, we will describe the advantage weighted actor-critic (AWAC) algorithm, which trains an off-policy critic and an actor with an implicit policy constraint. We will show AWAC mitigates the challenges outlined in Section 3. AWAC follows the design for actor-critic algorithms as described in Section 2, with a policy evaluation step to learn $Q ^ { \\pi }$ and a policy improvement step to update $\\pi$ . AWAC uses off-policy temporal-difference learning to estimate $Q ^ { \\pi }$ in the policy evaluation step, and a policy improvement update that is able to obtain the benefits of offline RL algorithms at training from prior datasets, while avoiding the overly conservative behavior described in Section 3.3. We describe the policy improvement step in AWAC below, and then summarize the entire algorithm. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 200, + 826, + 311 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Policy improvement for AWAC proceeds by learning a policy that maximizes the value of the critic learned in the policy evaluation step via TD bootstrapping. If done naively, this can lead to the issues described in Section 3.3, but we can avoid the challenges of bootstrap error accumulation by restricting the policy distribution to stay close to the data observed thus far during the actor update, while maximizing the value of the critic. At iteration $k$ , AWAC therefore optimizes the policy to maximize the estimated Q-function $Q ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } )$ at every state, while constraining it to stay close to the actions observed in the data, similar to prior offline RL methods, though this constraint will be enforced differently. Note from the definition of the advantage in Section 2 that optimizing $Q ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } )$ is equivalent to optimizing $A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } )$ . We can therefore write this optimization as: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 316, + 826, + 440 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/f29a35c01828ca7e42e7a8be37d4f76ec232317aa2ed5970c21a98b9e50b4072.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\pi _ { k + 1 } = \\underset { \\pi \\in \\Pi } { \\mathrm { a r g } \\mathrm { m a x } } ~ \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { a } \\sim \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) } [ A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) ] \\mathrm { ~ s . t . ~ } D _ { \\mathrm { K L } } ( \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) | | \\pi _ { \\beta } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) ) \\leq \\epsilon .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 266, + 446, + 730, + 473 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "As we saw in Section 3.2, enforcing the constraint by incorporating an explicit learned behavior model (Kumar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020; Siegel et al., 2020) leads to poor fine-tuning performance. Instead, we enforce the constraint implicitly, without learning a behavior model. We first derive the solution to the constrained optimization in Equation 6 to obtain a nonparametric closed form for the actor. This solution is then projected onto the parametric policy class without any explicit behavior model. The analytic solution to Equation 6 can be obtained by enforcing the KKT conditions (Peters & Schaal, 2007; Peters et al., 2010; Peng et al., 2019). The Lagrangian is: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 479, + 825, + 577 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/d178825f82af809923c82b9da38091cb018c057af61ffc1b24657cce82e38e32.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\begin{array} { r } { \\mathcal { L } ( \\pi , \\lambda ) = \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { a } \\sim \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) } [ A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) ] + \\lambda ( \\epsilon - D _ { \\mathrm { K L } } ( \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) | | \\pi _ { \\beta } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) ) ) , } \\end{array}\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 285, + 583, + 709, + 602 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "and the closed form solution to this problem is $\\begin{array} { r } { \\pi ^ { * } ( { \\bf a } | { \\bf s } ) \\propto \\pi _ { \\beta } ( { \\bf a } | { \\bf s } ) \\exp \\left( \\frac { 1 } { \\lambda } A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( { \\bf s } , { \\bf a } ) \\right) } \\end{array}$ . When using function approximators, such as deep neural networks as we do, we need to project the non-parametric solution into our policy space. For a policy $\\pi _ { \\theta }$ with parameters $\\theta$ , this can be done by minimizing the KL divergence of $\\pi _ { \\theta }$ from the optimal non-parametric solution $\\pi ^ { * }$ under the data distribution $\\rho _ { \\pi _ { \\beta } } ( \\mathbf { s } )$ : ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 609, + 825, + 665 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/35e6f7d363bca54741d85f36aab7198636ab6a1c7ca6f47cd9f4e153522cdde8.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\underset { \\theta } { \\arg \\operatorname* { m i n } } \\ \\underset { \\rho _ { \\pi _ { \\beta } } ( \\mathbf { s } ) } { \\mathbb { E } } \\big [ D _ { \\mathrm { K L } } \\big ( \\pi ^ { * } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) | | \\pi _ { \\theta } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) \\big ) \\big ] = \\underset { \\theta } { \\arg \\operatorname* { m i n } } \\ \\underset { \\rho _ { \\pi _ { \\beta } } ( \\mathbf { s } ) } { \\mathbb { E } } \\bigg [ \\underset { \\pi ^ { * } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) } { \\mathbb { E } } \\big [ - \\log \\pi _ { \\theta } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) \\big ] \\bigg ]\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 230, + 672, + 764, + 710 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Note that the parametric policy could be projected with either direction of KL divergence. Choosing the reverse $\\mathrm { K L }$ results in explicit penalty methods (Wu et al., 2020) that rely on evaluating the density of a learned behavior model. Instead, by using forward KL, we can compute the policy update by sampling directly from $\\beta$ : ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 717, + 825, + 773 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/5d81fbaf68c8e144e3e5bc3ffe9d0eba60b96eaf2fcfee6ebd7803dd54703fd1.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\theta _ { k + 1 } = \\arg \\operatorname* { m a x } _ { \\theta } \\underset { \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } \\sim \\boldsymbol { \\beta } } { \\mathbb { E } } \\left[ \\log \\pi _ { \\theta } ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } ) \\exp \\left( \\frac { 1 } { \\lambda } A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) \\right) \\right] .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 780, + 696, + 814 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "This actor update amounts to weighted maximum likelihood (i.e., supervised learning), where the targets are obtained by re-weighting the state-action pairs observed in the current dataset by the predicted advantages from the learned critic, without explicitly learning any parametric behavior model, simply sampling $( s , a )$ from the replay buffer $\\beta$ . See Appendix A.2 for a more detailed derivation and Appendix A.3 for specific implementation details. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 820, + 825, + 890 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Avoiding explicit behavior modeling. Note that the update in Equation 9 completely avoids any modeling of the previously observed data $\\beta$ with a parametric model. By avoiding any explicit learning of the behavior model AWAC is far less conservative than methods which fit a model $\\hat { \\pi } _ { \\beta }$ explicitly, and better incorporates new data during online fine-tuning, as seen from our results in Section 6. This derivation is related to AWR (Peng et al., 2019), with the main difference that AWAC uses an off-policy Q-function $Q ^ { \\pi }$ to estimate the advantage, which greatly improves efficiency and even final performance (see results in Section 6.1). The update also resembles ABM-MPO, but ABM-MPO does require modeling the behavior policy which, as discussed in Section 3.3, can lead to poor fine-tuning. In Section 6.1, AWAC outperforms ABM-MPO on a range of challenging tasks. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 895, + 823, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 825, + 199 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Policy evaluation. During policy evaluation, we estimate the action-value $Q ^ { \\pi } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } )$ for the current policy $\\pi$ , as described in Section 2. We utilize a temporal difference learning scheme for policy evaluation (Haarnoja et al., 2018; Fujimoto et al., 2018), minimizing the Bellman error as described in Equation 2. This enables us to learn very efficiently from off-policy data. This is particularly important in our problem setting to effectively use the offline dataset, and allows us to significantly outperform alternatives using Monte-Carlo evaluation or $\\mathrm { T D } ( \\lambda )$ to estimate returns (Peng et al., 2019). ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 207, + 823, + 289 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Algorithm summary. The full AWAC algorithm for offline RL with online fine-tuning is summarized in Algorithm 1. In a practical implementation, we can parameterize the actor and the critic by neural networks and perform SGD updates from Eqn. 9 and Eqn. 3. Specific details are provided in Appendix A.3. AWAC ensures data efficiency with off-policy critic estimation via bootstrapping, and avoids offline bootstrap error with a constrained actor update. By avoiding explicit modeling of the behavior policy, AWAC avoids overly conservative updates. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 295, + 562, + 431 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Algorithm 1 Advantage Weighted AC ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 578, + 296, + 813, + 310 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "1: Dataset $\\overline { { \\mathcal { D } = \\{ ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } , \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , r ) _ { j } \\} } }$ \n2: Initialize buffer $\\beta = D$ \n3: Initialize $\\pi _ { \\theta }$ , $Q _ { \\phi }$ \n4: for iteration $i = 1 , 2 , \\dots \\mathbf { d o }$ \n5: Sample batch $( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } , \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , r ) \\sim \\beta$ \n6: Update $\\phi$ according to Eqn. 3 \n7: Update $\\theta$ according to Eqn. 9 \n8: if $i >$ num_offline_steps then \n9: $\\begin{array} { l } { \\tau _ { 1 } , . . . , \\tau _ { K } \\sim p _ { \\pi _ { \\theta } } ( \\tau ) } \\\\ { \\beta \\beta \\cup \\{ \\tau _ { 1 } , . . . , \\tau _ { K } \\} } \\end{array}$ \n10: \n11: end if \n12: end for ", + "bbox": [ + 580, + 313, + 820, + 478 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "While AWAC is certainly quite related to several prior works, we note that there are key differences that make it particularly amenable to the problem setting we are considering - offline RL with online fine-tuning, that none of the other methods are really able to tackle. As we show in our experimental analysis with direct comparisons to prior work, every one of the design decisions being made in this work are important for algorithm performance. As compared to AWR (Peng et al., 2019), AWAC uses TD bootstrapping for significantly more efficient and even asymptotically better performance. As compared to offline RL techniques like ABM (Siegel et al., 2020), MPO (Abdolmaleki et al., 2018), BEAR (Kumar et al., 2019) or BCQ (Fujimoto et al., 2019) this work is able to avoid the need for any behavior modeling, thereby enabling the online fine-tuning part of the problem much better. As shown in Fig 3, when these seemingly ablations are made to AWAC, the algorithm performs significantly worse. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 439, + 563, + 493 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 493, + 825, + 602 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5 RELATED WORK ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 627, + 343, + 643 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Off-policy RL algorithms are designed to reuse off-policy data during training, and have been studied extensively (Konda & Tsitsiklis, 2000; Degris et al., 2012; Mnih et al., 2016; Haarnoja et al., 2018; Fujimoto et al., 2018; Bhatnagar et al., 2009; Peters & Schaal, 2008a; Zhang et al., 2019; Wawrzynski, 2009; Balduzzi & Ghifary, 2015). While standard off-policy methods are able to benefit from including data seen during a training run, as we show in Section 3.2 they struggle when training from previously collected offline data from other policies, due to error accumulation with distribution shift (Fujimoto et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2019). Offline RL methods aim to address this issue, often by constraining the actor updates to avoid excessive deviation from the data distribution (Lange et al., 2012; Thomas & Brunskill, 2016; Hallak et al., 2015; 2016; Hallak & Mannor, 2017; Agarwal et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Fakoor et al., 2019; Nachum et al., 2019; Siegel et al., 2020; Levine et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020). One class of these methods utilize importance sampling (Thomas & Brunskill, 2016; Zhang et al., 2020; Nachum et al., 2019; Degris et al., 2012; Jiang & Li, 2016; Hallak & Mannor, 2017). Another class of methods perform offline reinforcement learning via dynamic programming, with an explicit constraint to prevent deviation from the data distribution (Lange et al., 2012; Kumar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020; Jaques et al., 2019). While these algorithms perform well in the purely offline settings, we show in Section 3.3 that such methods tend to be overly conservative, and therefore may not learn efficiently when fine-tuning with online data collection. In contrast, our algorithm AWAC is comparable to these algorithms for offline pre-training, but learns much more efficiently during subsequent fine-tuning. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 664, + 826, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/dc95e9ee3e9e8f7a7a8fc57f523828dde009fc7403afddda26bacd248160c39d.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 3: Comparative evaluation on the dexterous manipulation tasks. These tasks are difficult due to their high action dimensionality and reward sparsity. We see that AWAC is able to learn these tasks with little online data collection required (100K samples $\\approx 1 6$ minutes of equivalent real-world interaction time). Meanwhile, most prior methods are not able to solve the harder two tasks: door opening and object relocation. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 183, + 99, + 815, + 281 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Prior work has also considered the special case of learning from demonstration data. One class of algorithms initializes the policy via behavioral cloning from demonstrations, and then fine-tunes with reinforcement learning (Peters & Schaal, 2008b; Ijspeert et al., 2002; Theodorou et al., 2010; Kim et al., 2013; Rajeswaran et al., 2018; Gupta et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2019). Most such methods use on-policy fine-tuning, which is less sample-efficient than off-policy methods that perform value function estimation. Other prior works have incorporated demonstration data into the replay buffer using off-policy RL methods (Vecerík et al., 2017; Nair et al., 2017). We show in Section 3.2 that ˇ these strategies can result in a large dip in performance during online fine-tuning, due to the inability to pre-train an effective value function from offline data. In contrast, our work shows that using supervised learning style policy updates can allow for better bootstrapping from demonstrations as compared to Vecerík et al. (2017) and Nair et al. (2017). ˇ ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 358, + 825, + 507 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Our method builds on algorithms that implement a maximum likelihood objective for the actor, based on an expectation-maximization formulation of RL (Peters & Schaal, 2007; Neumann & Peters, 2008; Theodorou et al., 2010; Peters et al., 2010; Peng et al., 2019; Abdolmaleki et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018). Most closely related to our method in this respect are the algorithms proposed by Peng et al. (2019) (AWR) and Siegel et al. (2020) (ABM). Unlike AWR, which estimates the value function of the behavior policy, $V ^ { \\pi _ { \\beta } }$ via Monte-Carlo estimation or $\\mathrm { T D } - \\lambda$ , our algorithm estimates the Q-function of the current policy $Q ^ { \\pi }$ via bootstrapping, enabling much more efficient learning, as shown in our experiments. Unlike ABM, our method does not require learning a separate function approximator to model the behavior policy $\\pi _ { \\beta }$ , and instead directly samples the dataset. As we discussed in Section 3.3, modeling $\\pi _ { \\beta }$ can be a major challenge for online fine-tuning. While these distinctions may seem somewhat subtle, they are important and we show in our experiments that they result in a large difference in algorithm performance. Finally, our work goes beyond the analysis in prior work, by studying the issues associated with pre-training and fine-tuning in Section 3. Concurrently to our work, Wang et al. (2020) proposed critic regularized regression for offline RL, which uses off-policy Q-learning and an equivalent policy update. In contrast to this concurrent work, we specifically study the offline pretraining online fine-tuning problem, analyze why other methods are ineffective in this setting, and show that our approach achieves substantially better results. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 515, + 825, + 747 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "6 EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 771, + 450, + 786 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In our experiments, we first compare our method against prior methods in the offline training and fine-tuning setting. We show that we can learn difficult, high-dimensional, sparse reward dexterous manipulation problems from human demonstrations and off-policy data. We then evaluate our method with suboptimal prior data generated by a random controller. Finally, we study why prior methods struggle in this setting by analyzing their performance on benchmark MuJoCo tasks, and conduct further experiments to understand where the difficulty lies (also shown in Section 3). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 806, + 823, + 888 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "6.1) Comparative Evaluation Learning From Prior Data. We aim to study tasks representative of the difficulties of real-world robot learning, where offline learning and online fine-tuning are most relevant. We begin our analysis with a set of challenging sparse reward dexterous manipulation tasks proposed by Rajeswaran et al. (2018). These tasks involve complex manipulation skills using a 28-DoF five-fingered hand in the MuJoCo simulator (Todorov et al., 2012) shown in Figure 3: in-hand rotation of a pen, opening a door by unlatching the handle, and picking up a sphere and relocating it to a target location. These environments exhibit many challenges: high dimensional action spaces, complex manipulation physics with many intermittent contacts, and randomized hand and object positions. The reward functions in these environments are binary 0-1 rewards for task completion. 2 Rajeswaran et al. (2018) provide 25 human demonstrations for each task, which are not fully optimal but do solve the task. Since this dataset is small, we generated another 500 trajectories of interaction data by constructing a behavioral cloned policy, and then sampling from this policy. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 896, + 823, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 825, + 241 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "First, we compare our method on these dexterous manipulation tasks against prior methods for off-policy learning, offline learning, and bootstrapping from demonstrations. Specific implementation details are discussed in Appendix A.5. The results are shown in Fig. 3. Our method is able to leverage the prior data to quickly attain good performance, and the efficient off-policy actor-critic component of our approach fine-tunes much more quickly than demonstration augmented policy gradient (DAPG), the method proposed by Rajeswaran et al. (2018). For example, our method solves the pen task in 120K timesteps, the equivalent of just 20 minutes of online interaction. While the baseline comparisons and ablations are able to make some amount of progress on the pen task, alternative off-policy RL and offline RL algorithms are largely unable to solve the door and relocate task in the time-frame considered. We find that the design decisions to use off-policy critic estimation allow AWAC to significantly outperform AWR (Peng et al., 2019) while the implicit behavior modeling allows AWAC to significantly outperform ABM (Siegel et al., 2020), although ABM does make some progress. Rajeswaran et al. (2018) show that DAPG can solve variants of these tasks with more well-shaped rewards, but still requires considerably more samples. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 247, + 825, + 438 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Additionally, we evaluated all methods on the Gym MuJoCo locomotion benchmarks, similarly providing demonstrations as offline data. Due to space constraints, the results plots for these experiments are included in Appendix A.1. These tasks are substantially easier than the sparse reward manipulation tasks described above, and a number of prior methods also perform well. However, our method matches or exceeds the best prior method in all cases, whereas no other single prior method attains good performance on all of the tasks. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 444, + 825, + 526 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "6.2) Fine-Tuning from Random Policy Data. An advantage of using off-policy RL for reinforcement learning is that we can also incorporate suboptimal data, rather than demonstrations. In this experiment, we evaluate on a simulated tabletop pushing environment with a Sawyer robot pictured in Fig 3 and described further in Appendix A.4. To study the potential to learn from suboptimal data, we use an off-policy dataset of 500 trajectories generated by a random process. The task is to push an object to a target location in a $4 0 \\mathrm { c m } \\mathrm { x } 2 0 \\mathrm { c m }$ goal space. The results are shown in Figure 4. We see that while many methods begin at the same initial performance, AWAC learns the fastest online and is actually able to make use of the offline dataset effectively. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 534, + 638, + 683 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/70ff058010690ec5be42b2370a086753b4d7af63ce0b7933026e108dd920cb26.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 4: Comparison of fine-tuning from an initial dataset of suboptimal data on a Sawyer robot pushing task. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 651, + 534, + 823, + 660 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "7 DISCUSSION AND FUTURE WORK ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 703, + 485, + 718 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We have discussed in detail the challenges existing RL methods face when fine-tuning from prior datasets, and proposed an algorithm, AWAC, that is effective in this setting. The key insight in AWAC is that enforcing a policy update constraint implicitly on actor-critic methods results in a stable learning algorithm amenable for off-policy learning. With an informative action-value estimate, the policy is weighted towards high-advantage actions in the data, resulting in policy improvement without conservative updates. A direction of future work we plan to pursue is applying AWAC to solve difficult robotic tasks in the real world. More than just speeding up individual runs, incorporating prior data into the learning process enables continuously accumulating data by saving environment interactions of the robot - for instance, runs of RL with varying hyperparameters. We hope that this enables a wider array of robotic applications than previously possible. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 734, + 825, + 871 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "REFERENCES ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 102, + 285, + 118 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Abbas Abdolmaleki, Jost Tobias Springenberg, Yuval Tassa, Remi Munos, Nicolas Heess, and Martin Riedmiller. Maximum a Posteriori Policy Optimisation. 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", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 866, + 826, + 921 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A APPENDIX ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 102, + 297, + 117 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.1 GYM BENCHMARK RESULTS FROM PRIOR DATA ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 135, + 553, + 150 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section, we provide a comparative evaluation on MuJoCo benchmark tasks for analysis. These tasks are simpler, with dense rewards and relatively lower action and observation dimensionality. Thus, many prior methods can make good progress on these tasks. These experiments allow us to understand more precisely which design decisions are crucial. For each task, we collect 15 demonstration trajectories using a pre-trained expert on each task, and 100 trajectories of off-policy data by rolling out a behavioral cloned policy trained on the demonstrations. The same data is made available to all methods. The results are presented in Figure 5. AWAC is consistently the best or on par with the best-performing method. No other single method consistently attains the best results – on HalfCheetah, $\\mathrm { S A C } + \\mathrm { B C }$ and BRAC are competitive, while on Ant-v2 ABM is competitive with AWAC. We summarize the results according to the challenges in Section 3. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 160, + 825, + 297 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Data efficiency. The three methods that do not estimate $Q ^ { \\pi }$ are DAPG (Abdolmaleki et al., 2018), AWR (Peng et al., 2019), and MARWIL (Wang et al., 2018). Across all three tasks, we see that these methods are somewhat worse offline than the best performing offline methods, and exhibit steady but very slow improvement during fine-tuning. In robotics, data efficiency is vital, so these algorithms are not good candidates for practical real-world applications. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 304, + 825, + 372 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Bootstrap error in offline learning. For SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018), across all three tasks, we see that the offline performance at epoch 0 is generally poor. Due to the data in the replay buffer, SAC with prior data does learn faster than from scratch, but AWAC is faster to solve the tasks in general. SAC with additional data in the replay buffer is similar to the approach proposed by Vecerík et al. ˇ (2017). $\\mathrm { S A C + B C }$ reproduces Nair et al. (2018) but uses SAC instead of DDPG (Lillicrap et al., 2016) as the underlying RL algorithm. We find that these algorithms exhibit a characteristic dip at the start of learning. Although this dip is only present in the early part of the learning curve, a poor initial policy and lack of steady policy improvement can be a safety concern and a significant hindrance in real-world applications. Moreover, recall that in the more difficult dextrous manipulation tasks, these algorithms do not show any significant learning. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 378, + 825, + 516 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Conservative online learning. Finally, we consider conservative offline algorithms: ABM (Siegel et al., 2020), BEAR (Kumar et al., 2019), and BRAC (Wu et al., 2020). We found that BRAC performs similarly to SAC for working hyperparameters. BEAR trains well offline – on Ant and Walker2d, BEAR significantly outperforms prior methods before online experience. However, online improvement is slow for BEAR and the final performance across all three tasks is much lower than AWAC. The closest in performance to our method is ABM, which is comparable on Ant-v2, but much slower on other domains. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 522, + 825, + 617 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/b64d8819c2ba2be4df471bcc86f7d5af460f8cac223ff698dda2c5e907357ea4.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 5: Comparison of our method and prior methods on standard MuJoCo benchmark tasks. These tasks are much easier than the dexterous manipulation tasks, and allow us to better inspect the performance of methods in the setting of offline pretraining followed by online fine-tuning. $\\mathrm { S A C + B C }$ and BRAC perform on par with our method on the HalfCheetah task, and ABM performs on par with our method on the Ant task, while our method outperforms all others on the Walker2D task. Our method matches or exceeds the best prior method in all cases, whereas no other single prior method attains good performance on all of the tasks. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 173, + 625, + 825, + 772 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.2 ALGORITHM DERIVATION DETAILS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 103, + 464, + 118 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The full optimization problem we solve, given the previous off-policy advantage estimate $A ^ { \\pi _ { k } }$ and buffer distribution $\\pi _ { \\beta }$ , is given below: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 128, + 823, + 157 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/5e4ce16a39e074f3e79d1c7a64e2266a7f97b45b3c1e8b585f8c3d2e7430f94a.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\begin{array} { r l } & { \\pi _ { k + 1 } = \\underset { \\pi \\in \\Pi } { \\arg \\operatorname* { m a x } } \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { a } \\sim \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) } [ A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) ] } \\\\ & { \\qquad \\mathrm { s . t . } D _ { \\mathrm { K L } } ( \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) | | \\pi _ { \\beta } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) ) \\leq \\epsilon } \\\\ & { \\qquad \\displaystyle \\int _ { \\mathbf { a } } \\pi ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } ) d \\mathbf { a } = 1 . } \\end{array}\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 351, + 161, + 647, + 243 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Our derivation follows Peters et al. (2010) and Peng et al. (2019). The analytic solution for the constrained optimization problem above can be obtained by enforcing the KKT conditions. The Lagrangian is: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 247, + 825, + 289 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/57ec103853c729f04a9c63db29983882090e005f081fe9eec07a8a4fdb1dcd57.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\mathcal { L } ( \\pi , \\lambda , \\alpha ) = \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { a } \\sim \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) } [ A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) ] + \\lambda ( \\epsilon - D _ { \\mathrm { K L } } ( \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) | | \\pi _ { \\beta } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) ) ) + \\alpha ( 1 - \\int _ { \\mathbf { a } } \\pi ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } ) d \\mathbf { a } ) .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 187, + 295, + 781, + 328 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Differentiating with respect to $\\pi$ gives: ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 333, + 429, + 348 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/3b787e89511f787f3bd2d0536e2dc771ea700098909aaf30519850b81a06c7dd.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\frac { \\partial \\mathcal { L } } { \\partial \\pi } = A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) - \\lambda \\log \\pi _ { \\beta } ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } ) + \\lambda \\log \\pi ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } ) + \\lambda - \\alpha .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 305, + 353, + 692, + 385 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Setting $\\textstyle { \\frac { \\partial { \\mathcal { L } } } { \\partial \\pi } }$ to zero and solving for $\\pi$ gives the closed form solution to this problem: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 391, + 718, + 406 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/0633f183098864402ac7622526e4081563f0c20e31edc9a70f698b0119de6a5f.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\pi ^ { * } ( { \\bf a } | { \\bf s } ) = \\frac { 1 } { Z ( { \\bf s } ) } \\pi _ { \\beta } ( { \\bf a } | { \\bf s } ) \\exp \\left( \\frac { 1 } { \\lambda } A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( { \\bf s } , { \\bf a } ) \\right) ,\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 346, + 414, + 650, + 449 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Next, we project the solution into the space of parametric policies. For a policy $\\pi _ { \\theta }$ with parameters $\\theta$ , this can be done by minimizing the KL divergence of $\\pi _ { \\theta }$ from the optimal non-parametric solution $\\pi ^ { * }$ under the data distribution $\\bar { \\rho } _ { \\pi _ { \\beta } } ( \\mathbf { s } )$ : ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 453, + 828, + 496 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/75b1bdab77a9497b2bea329a188b5eb7e4c28bd8d5dc59d91eca43ae992d8392.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\underset { \\theta } { \\arg \\operatorname* { m i n } } \\ \\underset { \\rho _ { \\pi _ { \\beta } } ( \\mathbf { s } ) } { \\mathbb { E } } \\big [ D _ { \\mathrm { K L } } \\big ( \\pi ^ { * } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) | | \\pi _ { \\theta } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) \\big ) \\big ] = \\underset { \\theta } { \\arg \\operatorname* { m i n } } \\ \\underset { \\rho _ { \\pi _ { \\beta } } ( \\mathbf { s } ) } { \\mathbb { E } } \\bigg [ \\underset { \\pi ^ { * } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) } { \\mathbb { E } } \\big [ - \\log \\pi _ { \\theta } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) \\big ] \\bigg ]\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 230, + 502, + 764, + 539 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Note that in the projection step, the parametric policy could be projected with either direction of KL divergence. However, choosing the reverse KL direction has a key advantage: it allows us to optimize $\\theta$ as a maximum likelihood problem with an expectation over data $s , a \\sim \\beta$ , rather than sampling actions from the policy that may be out of distribution for the $\\mathrm { Q }$ function. In our experiments we show that this decision is vital for stable off-policy learning. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 545, + 825, + 614 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Furthermore, assume discrete policies with a minimum probably density of $\\pi _ { \\theta } \\geq \\alpha _ { \\theta }$ . Then the upper bound: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 621, + 823, + 648 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/2812b56496922bf90296199aec4eaefb4b6e73cbd9497ed4b9f6b1b8bb29eeb4.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\begin{array} { r l } { D _ { \\mathrm { K L } } ( \\pi ^ { * } | | \\pi _ { \\theta } ) \\leq } & { \\displaystyle \\frac { 2 } { \\alpha _ { \\theta } } D _ { \\mathrm { T V } } ( \\pi ^ { * } , \\pi _ { \\theta } ) ^ { 2 } } \\\\ & { \\leq \\displaystyle \\frac { 1 } { \\alpha _ { \\theta } } D _ { \\mathrm { K L } } ( \\pi _ { \\theta } | | \\pi ^ { * } ) } \\end{array}\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 385, + 652, + 611, + 718 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "holds by the Pinsker’s inequality, where $D _ { \\mathrm { T V } }$ denotes the total variation distance between distributions. Thus minimizing the reverse $\\mathrm { K L }$ also bounds the forward KL. Note that we can control the minimum $\\alpha$ if desired by applying Laplace smoothing to the policy. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 722, + 826, + 763 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.3 IMPLEMENTATION DETAILS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 779, + 410, + 794 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We implement the algorithm building on top of twin soft actor-critic (Haarnoja et al., 2018), which incorporates the twin Q-function architecture from twin delayed deep deterministic policy gradient (TD3) from Fujimoto et al. (2018). All off-policy algorithm comparisons (SAC, BRAC, MPO, ABM, BEAR) are implemented from the same skeleton. The base hyperparameters are given in Table 2. The policy update is replaced with: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 804, + 826, + 873 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/2e29d022e10712e37143fbeb82bb85ee0f8990377a9293df50204cf5f56207fa.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\theta _ { k + 1 } = \\underset { \\theta } { \\arg \\operatorname* { m a x } } \\quad \\underset { \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } \\sim \\beta } { \\mathbb { E } } \\left[ \\log \\pi _ { \\theta } ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } ) \\frac { 1 } { Z ( \\mathbf { s } ) } \\exp \\left( \\frac { 1 } { \\lambda } A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) \\right) \\right] .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 282, + 878, + 714, + 914 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Similar to advantage weight regression (Peng et al., 2019) and other prior work (Neumann & Peters, 2008; Wang et al., 2018; Siegel et al., 2020), we disregard the per-state normalizing constant $\\begin{array} { r } { Z ( \\mathbf { \\check { s } } ) = \\int _ { \\mathbf { a } } \\pi _ { \\boldsymbol \\theta } ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { \\check { s } } ) \\exp \\left( \\frac { 1 } { \\lambda } \\check { A } ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) \\right) d \\mathbf { a } = \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { a } \\sim \\pi _ { \\boldsymbol \\theta } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) } [ \\check { A } ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) ] } \\end{array}$ We did experiment with estimating this expectation per batch element with $K = 1 0$ samples, but found that this generally made performance worse, perhaps because errors in the estimation of $Z ( \\mathbf { s } )$ caused more harm than the benefit the method derived from estimating this value. We report success rate results for variants of our method with and without $Z ( \\mathbf { s } )$ estimation in Table 1. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 609, + 241 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "While prior work (Neumann & Peters, 2008; Wang et al., 2018; Peng et al., 2019) has generally ignored the omission of $Z ( \\mathbf { s } )$ without any specific justification, it is possible to bound this value both above and below using the Cauchy-Schwarz and reverse CauchySchwarz (Polya-Szego) inequalities, as follows. Let $f ( \\mathbf { a } ) = \\pi ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { \\dot { s } } )$ and $g ( \\mathbf { a } ) = \\dot { \\exp ( A ( \\bar { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) / \\lambda ) }$ . Note $f ( \\mathbf { a } ) > 0$ for stochastic policies ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 247, + 609, + 329 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/b0128b1b4de79fad079c65386f185aab82ab86c6f7cc96c2e1cd5e3e839f93ef.jpg", + "table_caption": [], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
EnvUse Z(s)Omit Z(s)
pen84%98%
door0%95%
relocate0%54%
", + "bbox": [ + 637, + 104, + 805, + 189 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Table 1: Success rates after online fine-tuning (after 800K steps for pen, door and 4M steps for relocate) using AWAC with and without $Z ( \\mathbf { s } )$ weight. These results show that although we can estimate $Z ( \\mathbf { s } )$ , weighting by $Z ( \\mathbf { s } )$ actually results in worse performance. ", + "bbox": [ + 620, + 193, + 825, + 304 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "and $g ( \\mathbf { a } ) > 0$ . By Cauchy-Schwarz, $\\begin{array} { r } { Z ( s ) = \\int _ { \\mathbf { a } } f ( \\mathbf { a } ) g ( \\mathbf { a } ) d \\mathbf { a } \\leq \\sqrt { \\int _ { \\mathbf { a } } f ( \\mathbf { a } ) ^ { 2 } d \\mathbf { a } \\int _ { \\mathbf { a } } g ( \\mathbf { a } ) ^ { 2 } d \\mathbf { a } } = C _ { 1 } } \\end{array}$ . To apply Polya-Szego, let $m _ { f }$ and $m _ { g }$ be the minimum of $f$ and $g$ respectively and $M _ { f } , M _ { g }$ be the maximum. Then $\\begin{array} { r } { Z ( \\mathbf { s } ) \\ge 2 ( \\sqrt { \\frac { M _ { f } M _ { g } } { m _ { f } m _ { g } } + \\frac { m _ { f } m _ { g } } { M _ { f } M _ { g } } } ) ^ { - 1 } C _ { 1 } = C _ { 2 } } \\end{array}$ mf mgM M )−1C1 = C2. We therefore have C1 ≤ Z(s) ≤ C2, though the bounds are generally not tight. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 332, + 826, + 405 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A further, more intuitive argument for why omitting $Z ( \\mathbf { s } )$ may be harmless in practice comes from observing that this normalizing factor only affects the relative weight of different states in the training objective, not different actions. The state distribution in $\\beta$ already differs from the distribution over states that will be visited by $\\pi _ { \\theta }$ , and therefore preserving this state distribution is likely to be of limited utility to downstream policy performance. Indeed, we would expect that sufficiently expressive policies would be less affected by small to moderate variability in the state weights. On the other hand, inaccurate estimates of $Z ( \\mathbf { s } )$ may throw off the training objective by increasing variance, similar to the effect of degenerate importance weights. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 410, + 825, + 521 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The Lagrange multiplier $\\lambda$ is treated as a hyperparameter in our method. In this work we use $\\lambda = 0 . 3$ for the manipulation environments and $\\lambda = 1 . 0$ for the MuJoCo benchmark environments. One could adaptively learn $\\lambda$ with a dual gradient descent procedure, but this would require access to $\\pi _ { \\beta }$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 527, + 823, + 569 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "As rewards for the dextrous manipulation environments are non-positive, we clamp the Q value for these experiments to be at most zero. We find this stabilizes training slightly. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 575, + 823, + 603 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.4 ENVIRONMENT-SPECIFIC DETAILS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 619, + 457, + 633 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We evaluate our method on three domains: dexterous manipulation environments, Sawyer manipulation environments, and MuJoCo benchmark environments. In the following sections we describe specific details. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 645, + 825, + 686 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.4.1 DEXTEROUS MANIPULATION ENVIRONMENTS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 700, + 552, + 715 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "These environments are modified from those proposed by Rajeswaran et al. (2018). ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 724, + 717, + 739 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "pen-binary-v0. The task is to spin a pen into a given orientation. The action dimension is 24 and the observation dimension is 45. Let the position and orientation of the pen be denoted by $x _ { p }$ and $x _ { o }$ respectively, and the desired position and orientation be denoted by $d _ { p }$ and $d _ { o }$ respectively. The reward function is $r = \\mathbb { 1 } _ { | \\underline { { x } } _ { p } - d _ { p } | \\leq 0 . 0 7 5 } \\mathbb { 1 } _ { | \\underline { { x } } _ { o } \\cdot d _ { o } | \\leq 0 . 9 5 } - 1$ . In Rajeswaran et al. (2018), the episode was terminated when the pen fell out of the hand; we did not include this early termination condition. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 753, + 825, + 823 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "door-binary-v0. The task is to open a door, which requires first twisting a latch. The action dimension is 28 and the observation dimension is 39. Let $d$ denote the angle of the door. The reward function is $r = 1 _ { d > 1 . 4 } - 1$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 838, + 823, + 880 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/a042462d390258e56f2fc26741e44b7aac17c1054e6b1cc5c9252f38d0b09672.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 2: Hyper-parameters used for RL experiments. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
Hyper-parameterValue
Training Batches Per Timestep1
Exploration NoiseNone (stochastic policy)
RL Batch Size1024
Discount Factor0.99
Reward Scaling1
Replay Buffer Size1000000
Number of pretraining steps25000
Policy Hidden Sizes[256,256,256, 256]
Policy Hidden ActivationReLU
Policy Weight Decay10-4
Policy Learning Rate3 ×10-4
Q Hidden Sizes[256, 256,256, 256]
Q Hidden ActivationReLU
Q Weight Decay0
Q Learning Rate3 ×10-4
Target Network T5×10-3
", + "bbox": [ + 297, + 101, + 700, + 452 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "relocate-binary-v0. The task is to relocate an object to a goal location. The action dimension is 30 and the observation dimension is 39. Let $x _ { p }$ denote the object position and $d _ { p }$ denote the desired position. The reward is $r = \\mathbb { 1 } _ { | x _ { p } - d _ { p } | \\leq 0 . 1 } - 1$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 488, + 825, + 532 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.4.2 SAWYER MANIPULATION ENVIRONMENT ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 546, + 517, + 561 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "SawyerPush- $\\mathbf { \\nabla } \\cdot \\mathbf { v 0 }$ . This environment is included in the Multiworld library. The task is to push a puck to a goal position in a $4 0 \\mathrm { c m } \\mathrm { x } 2 0 \\mathrm { c m }$ , and the reward function is the negative distance between the puck and goal position. When using this environment, we use hindsight experience replay for goal-conditioned reinforcement learning. The random dataset for prior data was collected by rolling out an Ornstein-Uhlenbeck process with $\\theta = 0 . 1 5$ and $\\sigma = 0 . 3$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 570, + 825, + 640 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.4.3 OFF-POLICY DATA PERFORMANCE ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 654, + 473, + 667 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The performances of the expert data, behavior cloning (BC) on the expert data (1), and BC on the combined expert $+ \\mathrm { B C }$ data (2) are included in Table 3. For Gym benchmarks we report average return, and expert data is collected by a trained SAC policy. For dextrous manipulation tasks we report the success rate, and the expert data consists of human demonstrations provided by Rajeswaran et al. (2018). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 678, + 560, + 773 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.5 BASELINE IMPLEMENTATION DETAILS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 790, + 485, + 804 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We used public implementations of prior methods (DAPG, AWR) when available. We implemented the remaining algorithms in our framework, which also allows us to understand the effects of changing individual components of the method. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 815, + 562, + 871 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/a54c594eee70f7e65e78bbe1af9bbe131a213fd1ba8176b556e2f4316bcd5cd9.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 3: Performance of the off-policy data for each environment. BC (1) indicates BC on the expert data, while BC (2) indicates BC on the combined expert $+ \\mathrm { B C }$ data used as off-policy data for pretraining. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
EnvExpertBC (1)BC (2)
cheetah996225074524
walkerantpen506220401701
52076871704
10.730.76
door10.100.00
relocate10.020.01
", + "bbox": [ + 575, + 659, + 820, + 791 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In the section, we describe the implementation details. The full overview of algorithms is given in Figure 6. ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 871, + 821, + 897 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/38b2ee9d17adf943c0cdc2ac3368a0ab30c28490b2b1405faf0ab0997dc7fcee.jpg", + "table_caption": [], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
NameQPolicy Objective元?Constraint
SACQDKL(πellQ)NoNone
SAC + BCQMixedNoNone
BCQDKL(πellQ)YesSupport (e)
BEARDKL(πellQ)YesSupport (MMD)
AWRDKL(QIπθ)NoImplicit
MPODKL(Qlπθ)Yes*Prior
ABM-MPODKL(Q|Iπ)YesLearned Prior
DAPGJ(πe)NoNone
BRACQDKL(πellQ)YesExplicit KL penalty
AWAC (Ours)QDKL(Q|Iπe)NoImplicit
", + "bbox": [ + 271, + 99, + 720, + 309 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Behavior Cloning (BC). This method learns a policy with supervised learning on demonstration data. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 402, + 823, + 431 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Soft Actor Critic (SAC). Using the soft actor critic algorithm from (Haarnoja et al., 2018), we follow the exact same procedure as our method in order to incorporate prior data, initializing the policy with behavior cloning on demonstrations and adding all prior data to the replay buffer. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 436, + 825, + 479 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Behavior Regularized Actor Critic (BRAC). We implement BRAC as described in (Wu et al., 2020) by adding policy regularization $\\log ( \\pi _ { \\beta } ( a | s ) )$ where $\\pi _ { \\beta }$ is a behavior policy trained with supervised learning on the replay buffer. We add all prior data to the replay buffer before online training. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 484, + 825, + 527 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Advantage Weighted Regression (AWR). Using the advantage weighted regression algorithm from (Peng et al., 2019), we add all prior data to the replay buffer before online training. We use the implementation provided by Peng et al. (2019), with the key difference from our method being that AWR uses $\\mathrm { T D } ( \\lambda )$ on the replay buffer for policy evaluation. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 534, + 825, + 589 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Monotonic Advantage Re-Weighted Imitation Learning (MARWIL). Monotonic advantage reweighted imitation learning was proposed by Wang et al. (2018) for offline imitation learning. MARWIL was not demonstrated in online RL settings, but we evaluate it for offline pretraining followed by online fine-tuning as we do other offline algorithms. Although derived differently, MARWIL and AWR are similar algorithms and only differ in value estimation: MARWIL uses the on-policy single-path advantage estimate $A ( s , a ) \\stackrel { . } { = } Q ^ { \\pi _ { \\beta } } ( s , a ) - V ^ { \\pi _ { \\beta } } ( s )$ instead of $\\mathrm { T D } ( \\lambda )$ as in AWR. Thus, we implement MARWIL by modifying the implementation of AWR. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 594, + 825, + 693 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Maximum a Posteriori Policy Optimization (MPO). We evaluate the MPO algorithm presented by Abdolmaleki et al. (2018). Due to a public implementation being unavailable, we modify our algorithm to be as close to MPO as possible. In particular, we change the policy update in Advantage Weighted Actor Critic to be: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 696, + 825, + 753 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/c653c80f1a2b6ff69e0c94d5ed1f8eaf7d41198a16d208e4c6c06fd3131037c7.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\theta _ { i } \\longleftarrow \\underset { \\theta _ { i } } { \\longleftarrow } \\operatorname { a r g m a x } \\mathbb { E } _ { s \\sim \\mathcal { D } , a \\sim \\pi ( a \\mid s ) } \\left[ \\log \\pi _ { \\theta _ { i } } ( a \\mid s ) \\exp ( \\frac { 1 } { \\beta } Q ^ { \\pi _ { \\beta } } ( s , a ) ) \\right] .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 276, + 760, + 722, + 795 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Note that in MPO, actions for the update are sampled from the policy and the Q-function is used instead of advantage for weights. We failed to see offline or online improvement with this implementation in most environments, so we omit this comparison in favor of ABM. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 801, + 823, + 843 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Advantage-Weighted Behavior Model (ABM). We evaluate ABM, the method developed in Siegel et al. (2020). As with MPO, we modify our method to implement ABM, as there is no public ", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 849, + 825, + 878 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "implementation of the method. ABM first trains an advantage model $\\pi _ { \\theta _ { \\mathrm { a b m } } } ( a | s )$ ", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 102, + 696, + 119 + ], + "page_idx": 16 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/8bb5e9a53fcdd47b2ed2d3b85970736ad07a0b3025b092ff5ca5838f012f9ea5.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\theta _ { \\mathrm { a b m } } = \\underset { \\theta _ { i } } { \\operatorname { a r g m a x } } \\mathbb { E } _ { \\tau \\sim \\mathcal { D } } \\left[ \\sum _ { t = 1 } ^ { | \\tau | } \\log \\pi _ { \\theta _ { \\mathrm { a b m } } } ( a _ { t } | s _ { t } ) f ( R ( \\tau _ { t : N } ) - \\hat { V } ( s ) ) \\right] .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 274, + 125, + 722, + 175 + ], + "page_idx": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where $f$ is an increasing non-negative function, chosen to be $f = 1 _ { + }$ . In place of an advantage computed by empirical returns $R ( \\tau _ { t : N } ) - \\hat { V } ( s )$ we use the advantage estimate computed per transition by the $Q$ value $Q ( s , a ) - V ( s )$ . This is favorable for running ABM online, as computing $R \\big ( \\tau _ { t : N } \\big ) \\ : - \\ :$ $\\hat { V } ( s )$ is similar to AWR, which shows slow online improvement. We then use the policy update: ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 180, + 825, + 242 + ], + "page_idx": 16 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/afb8a3cc0c638bd3723712d94a9218e100bffbd8eab466272c576d3b325c4605.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\theta _ { i } \\longleftarrow \\underset { \\theta _ { i } } { \\longleftarrow } \\underset { \\theta _ { i } } { \\arg \\operatorname* { m a x } } ~ \\mathbb { E } _ { s \\sim \\mathcal { D } , a \\sim \\pi _ { \\mathrm { a i m } } ( a | s ) } \\left[ \\log \\pi _ { \\theta _ { i } } ( a | s ) \\exp \\left( \\frac { 1 } { \\lambda } ( Q ^ { \\pi _ { i } } ( s , a ) - V ^ { \\pi _ { i } } ( s ) ) \\right) \\right] .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 212, + 248, + 758, + 284 + ], + "page_idx": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Additionally, for this method, actions for the update are sampled from a behavior policy trained to match the replay buffer and the value function is computed as $V ^ { \\pi } ( s ) = Q ^ { \\pi } ( s , a )$ s.t. $a \\sim \\pi$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 290, + 823, + 319 + ], + "page_idx": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Demonstration Augmented Policy Gradient (DAPG). We directly utilize the code provided in (Rajeswaran et al., 2018) to compare against our method. Since DAPG is an on-policy method, we only provide the demonstration data to the DAPG code to bootstrap the initial policy from. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 324, + 825, + 367 + ], + "page_idx": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Bootstrapping Error Accumulation Reduction (BEAR). We utilize the implementation of BEAR provided in rlkit. We provide the demonstration and off-policy data to the method together. Since the original method only involved training offline, we modify the algorithm to include an online training phase. In general we found that the MMD constraint in the method was too conservative. As a result, in order to obtain the results displayed in our paper, we swept the MMD threshold value and chose the one with the best final performance after offline training with offline fine-tuning. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 372, + 825, + 455 + ], + "page_idx": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.6 EXTRA BASELINE COMPARISONS (CQL, ALGAEDICE) ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 602, + 118 + ], + "page_idx": 17 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section, we add comparisons to constrained Q-learning (CQL) (Kumar et al., 2020) and AlgaeDICE (Nachum et al., 2019). For CQL, we use the authors’ implementation, modified for additionally online-finetuning instead of only offline training. For AlgaeDICE, we use the publicly available implementation, modified to load prior data and perform 25K pretraining steps before online RL. The results are presented in Figure 7. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 128, + 825, + 198 + ], + "page_idx": 17 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/c34118c8a741c3f0837829f3def19ff7e534b76ba15b2244eb2cb29f49f0a6aa.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 7: Comparison of our method (AWAC) with CQL and AlgaeDICE. CQL and AWAC perform similarly offline, but CQL does not improve when fine-tuning online. AlgaeDICE does not perform well for offline pretraining. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 178, + 212, + 792, + 588 + ], + "page_idx": 17 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.7 ONLINE FINE-TUNING FROM D4RL ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 103, + 467, + 117 + ], + "page_idx": 18 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this experiment, we evaluate the performance of varied data quality (random, medium, mediumexpert, and expert) datasets included in D4RL (Fu et al., 2020), a dataset intended for offline RL. The results are obtained by first by training offline and then fine-tuning online on each setting for 500,000 additional steps. The performance of BEAR (Kumar et al., 2019) is attached as reference. We attempted to fine-tune BEAR online using the same protocol as AWAC but the performance did not improve and often decreased; thus we report the offline performance. All performances are scaled to 0 to 100, where 0 is the average returns of a random policy and 100 is the average returns of an expert policy (obtained by training online with SAC), as is standard for D4RL. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 128, + 825, + 238 + ], + "page_idx": 18 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The results are presented in Figure 8. First, we observe that AWAC (offline) is competitive with BEAR, a commonly used offline RL algorithm. Then, AWAC is able to make progress in solving the tasks with online fine-tuning, even when initialized from random data or “medium” quality data, as shown by the performance of AWAC (online). In almost all settings, AWAC (online) is the best performing or tied with BEAR. In four of the six lower quality (random or medium) data settings, AWAC (online) is significantly better than BEAR; it is reasonable that AWAC excels in the lower-quality data regime because there is more room for online improvement, while both offline RL methods often start at high performance when initialized from higher-quality data. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 244, + 825, + 354 + ], + "page_idx": 18 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/81f5250361afc41a6c27da30210a94f977b371d87f0cda0963ff5361aa6efbdd.jpg", + "table_caption": [], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
AWACAWACBEAR
HalfCheetah(offline)(online)25.5
Hopperrandom2.252.9
medium37.441.138.6
medium-expert36.841.051.7
expert random78.5 9.6105.6108.2 9.5
medium72.062.8 91.047.6
medium-expert80.94.0
Walker2Dexpert85.2111.9110.3
random5.1111.8 11.76.7
medium30.179.133.2
medium-expert42.778.310.8
expert57.0103.0106.1
", + "bbox": [ + 290, + 371, + 705, + 652 + ], + "page_idx": 18 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Figure 8: Comparison of our method (AWAC) fine-tuning on varying data quality datasets in D4RL (Fu et al., 2020). AWAC is able to improve its offline performance by further fine-tuning online. ", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 664, + 825, + 691 + ], + "page_idx": 18 + } +] \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/parse/train/OJiM1R3jAtZ/OJiM1R3jAtZ_middle.json b/parse/train/OJiM1R3jAtZ/OJiM1R3jAtZ_middle.json new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..954eb128a990d18fc0073920a0fd79800fef5c1c --- /dev/null +++ b/parse/train/OJiM1R3jAtZ/OJiM1R3jAtZ_middle.json @@ -0,0 +1,52150 @@ +{ + "pdf_info": [ + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 78, + 504, + 116 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 77, + 506, + 98 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 77, + 506, + 98 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "AWAC: ACCELERATING ONLINE REINFORCEMENT", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 98, + 380, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 98, + 380, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "LEARNING WITH OFFLINE DATASETS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + } + ], + "index": 0.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 112, + 135, + 244, + 156 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 113, + 135, + 201, + 147 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 113, + 135, + 201, + 147 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Anonymous authors", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 112, + 145, + 245, + 158 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 112, + 145, + 245, + 158 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Paper under double-blind review", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + } + ], + "index": 2.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 278, + 185, + 333, + 198 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 276, + 185, + 335, + 199 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 276, + 185, + 335, + 199 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ABSTRACT", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 143, + 210, + 468, + 394 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 211, + 469, + 223 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 211, + 469, + 223 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Reinforcement learning provides an appealing formalism for learning control", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 221, + 470, + 234 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 221, + 470, + 234 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policies from experience. 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Leveraging this recipe for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 472, + 506, + 485 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 472, + 506, + 485 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reinforcement learning (RL) has the potential to yield real-world generalization for control appli-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 483, + 505, + 496 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 483, + 505, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "cations such as robotics. However, while deep RL algorithms enable the use of large models, the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 495, + 506, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 495, + 506, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "use of large datasets for real-world RL has proven challenging. 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Effective data-driven methods for deep reinforcement", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 504, + 642 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 504, + 642 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning should be able to use this data to pre-train offline while improving with online fine-tuning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 645, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 646, + 505, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 646, + 505, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Since this prior data can come from a variety of sources, we would like to design an algorithm", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 669 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 669 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that does not utilize different types of data in any privileged way. For example, prior methods that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 667, + 506, + 679 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 667, + 506, + 679 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "incorporate demonstrations into RL directly aim to mimic these demonstrations (Nair et al., 2018),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 505, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 505, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which is desirable when the demonstrations are known to be optimal, but imposes strict requirements", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 702 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 702 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the type of offline data, and can cause undesirable bias when the prior data is not optimal. While", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 700, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 700, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prior methods for fully offline RL provide a mechanism for utilizing offline data (Fujimoto et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2019; Kumar et al., 2019), as we will show in our experiments, such methods generally are not", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "effective for fine-tuning with online data as they are often too conservative. 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However, the classic active formulation of reinforcement", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 232, + 469, + 244 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 232, + 469, + 244 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning necessitates a lengthy active exploration process for each behavior, making", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 243, + 470, + 255 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 243, + 470, + 255 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "it difficult to apply in real-world settings. If we can instead allow reinforcement", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 253, + 469, + 266 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 253, + 469, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning to effectively use previously collected data to aid the online learning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 264, + 469, + 277 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 264, + 469, + 277 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "process, where the data could be expert demonstrations or more generally any", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 275, + 469, + 287 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 275, + 469, + 287 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prior experience, we could make reinforcement learning a substantially more", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 286, + 470, + 298 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 286, + 470, + 298 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "practical tool. While a number of recent methods have sought to learn offline from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 296, + 469, + 309 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 296, + 469, + 309 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "previously collected data, it remains exceptionally difficult to train a policy with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 306, + 470, + 321 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 306, + 470, + 321 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "offline data and improve it further with online reinforcement learning. In this paper", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 318, + 469, + 331 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 318, + 469, + 331 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we systematically analyze why this problem is so challenging, and propose an", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 329, + 470, + 342 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 329, + 470, + 342 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithm that combines sample-efficient dynamic programming with maximum", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 339, + 470, + 352 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 339, + 470, + 352 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "likelihood policy updates, providing a simple and effective framework that is able to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 349, + 470, + 363 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 349, + 470, + 363 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "leverage large amounts of offline data and then quickly perform online fine-tuning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 360, + 470, + 374 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 360, + 470, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of reinforcement learning policies. We show that our method enables rapid learning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 371, + 469, + 384 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 371, + 469, + 384 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of skills with a combination of prior demonstration data and online experience", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 383, + 427, + 394 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 383, + 427, + 394 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "across a suite of difficult dexterous manipulation and benchmark tasks.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 13, + "bbox_fs": [ + 140, + 211, + 470, + 394 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 414, + 205, + 427 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 413, + 208, + 430 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 413, + 208, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1 INTRODUCTION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 440, + 505, + 559 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 440, + 506, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 440, + 506, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Learning models that generalize effectively to complex open-world settings, from image recogni-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 507, + 465 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 507, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tion (Krizhevsky et al., 2012) to natural language processing (Devlin et al., 2019), relies on large,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 462, + 505, + 474 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 462, + 505, + 474 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "high-capacity models and large, diverse, and representative datasets. Leveraging this recipe for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 472, + 506, + 485 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 472, + 506, + 485 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reinforcement learning (RL) has the potential to yield real-world generalization for control appli-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 483, + 505, + 496 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 483, + 505, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "cations such as robotics. However, while deep RL algorithms enable the use of large models, the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 495, + 506, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 495, + 506, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "use of large datasets for real-world RL has proven challenging. Most RL algorithms collect new", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 503, + 506, + 518 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 503, + 506, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "data online every time a new policy is learned, which limits the size and diversity of the datasets", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 515, + 505, + 528 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 515, + 505, + 528 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for RL. In the same way that powerful models in computer vision and NLP are often pre-trained on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 526, + 505, + 538 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 526, + 505, + 538 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "large, general-purpose datasets and then fine-tuned on task-specific data, RL policies that generalize", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 536, + 506, + 551 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 536, + 506, + 551 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "effectively to open-world settings will need to be able to incorporate large amounts of prior data", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 547, + 506, + 560 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 547, + 506, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "effectively into the learning process, while still collecting additional data online for the task at hand.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 28, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 440, + 507, + 560 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 564, + 505, + 640 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 505, + 576 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 505, + 576 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For data-driven reinforcement learning, offline datasets consist of trajectories of states, actions and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 575, + 506, + 587 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 575, + 506, + 587 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "associated rewards. This data can potentially come from demonstrations for the desired task (Schaal,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 505, + 599 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 505, + 599 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1997; Atkeson & Schaal, 1997), suboptimal policies (Gao et al., 2018), demonstrations for related", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 597, + 505, + 609 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 597, + 505, + 609 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tasks (Zhou et al., 2019), or even just random exploration in the environment. Depending on the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 607, + 506, + 619 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 607, + 506, + 619 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "quality of the data that is provided, useful knowledge can be extracted about the dynamics of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 618, + 505, + 629 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 618, + 505, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "world, about the task being solved, or both. Effective data-driven methods for deep reinforcement", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 504, + 642 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 504, + 642 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning should be able to use this data to pre-train offline while improving with online fine-tuning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 37, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 564, + 506, + 642 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 645, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 646, + 505, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 646, + 505, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Since this prior data can come from a variety of sources, we would like to design an algorithm", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 669 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 669 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that does not utilize different types of data in any privileged way. For example, prior methods that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 667, + 506, + 679 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 667, + 506, + 679 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "incorporate demonstrations into RL directly aim to mimic these demonstrations (Nair et al., 2018),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 505, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 505, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which is desirable when the demonstrations are known to be optimal, but imposes strict requirements", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 702 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 702 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the type of offline data, and can cause undesirable bias when the prior data is not optimal. While", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 700, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 700, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prior methods for fully offline RL provide a mechanism for utilizing offline data (Fujimoto et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2019; Kumar et al., 2019), as we will show in our experiments, such methods generally are not", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "effective for fine-tuning with online data as they are often too conservative. 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Do we use only offline data, or only", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 93, + 505, + 105 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 93, + 505, + 105 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "online data? To make it feasible to learn policies for open-world settings, we need algorithms that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 104, + 267, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 104, + 267, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learn successfully in any of these cases.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 120, + 505, + 239 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 120, + 506, + 133 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 120, + 506, + 133 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this work, we study how to build RL algorithms that are effective for pre-training from off-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 131, + 506, + 144 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 131, + 506, + 144 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policy datasets, but also well suited to continuous improvement with online data collection. We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 143, + 506, + 155 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 143, + 506, + 155 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "systematically analyze the challenges with using standard off-policy RL algorithms (Haarnoja et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 153, + 506, + 165 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 153, + 506, + 165 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2018; Kumar et al., 2019; Abdolmaleki et al., 2018) for this problem, and introduce a simple actor", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 163, + 506, + 177 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 163, + 506, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "critic algorithm that elegantly bridges data-driven pre-training from offline data and improvement", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 174, + 506, + 187 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 174, + 506, + 187 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with online data collection. Our method, which uses dynamic programming to train a critic but", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 185, + 505, + 197 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 185, + 505, + 197 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a supervised learning style update to train a constrained actor, combines the best of supervised", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 196, + 505, + 208 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 196, + 505, + 208 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning and actor-critic algorithms. Dynamic programming can leverage off-policy data and enable", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 207, + 506, + 219 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 207, + 506, + 219 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sample-efficient learning. The simple supervised actor update implicitly enforces a constraint that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 217, + 506, + 230 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 217, + 506, + 230 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "mitigates the effects of distribution shift when learning from offline data (Fujimoto et al., 2019;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 228, + 366, + 240 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 228, + 366, + 240 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Kumar et al., 2019), while avoiding overly conservative updates.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 244, + 505, + 343 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 245, + 506, + 258 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 245, + 506, + 258 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We evaluate our algorithm on a wide variety of robotic control and benchmark tasks across three", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 256, + 505, + 268 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 256, + 505, + 268 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "simulated domains: dexterous manipulation, tabletop manipulation, and MuJoCo control tasks. 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The contribution of this work is not just another RL algorithm, but a systematic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 319, + 506, + 333 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 319, + 506, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "study of what makes offline pre-training with online fine-tuning unique compared to the standard RL", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 495, + 344 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 495, + 344 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "paradigm, which then directly motivates a simple algorithm, AWAC, to address these challenges.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 357, + 207, + 369 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 356, + 209, + 371 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 356, + 209, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 PRELIMINARIES", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 381, + 506, + 484 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 381, + 507, + 396 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 381, + 474, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We consider the standard reinforcement learning notation, with states s, actions a, policy", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 475, + 382, + 502, + 394 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\pi ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 502, + 381, + 507, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 394, + 507, + 410 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 394, + 139, + 410 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "rewards", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 395, + 167, + 408 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "r ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 394, + 227, + 410 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and dynamics", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 228, + 395, + 266, + 407 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "p ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } | \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 267, + 394, + 410, + 410 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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This can be", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 530, + 506, + 545 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 530, + 345, + 545 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "accomplished by repeatedly applying the Bellman operator", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 345, + 532, + 353, + 541 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "\\boldsymbol { B }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 354, + 530, + 506, + 545 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", corresponding to the right-hand side", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 541, + 238, + 555 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 541, + 238, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of Equation 1, as defined below:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 191, + 553, + 420, + 568 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 553, + 420, + 568 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 553, + 420, + 568 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { B ^ { \\pi } Q ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) = r ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) + \\gamma \\mathbb { E } _ { p ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } \\mid \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) } [ \\mathbb { E } _ { \\pi ( \\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } \\mid \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } ) } [ Q ^ { \\pi } ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , \\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } ) ] ] . } \\end{array}", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "62ebbc3fd6a61aa4c8892c6a0ae8f987f406432dc33a03220ff5d48293c4a505.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 39, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 553, + 420, + 568 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 39 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 569, + 506, + 603 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 568, + 506, + 583 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 568, + 205, + 583 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "By iterating according to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 569, + 267, + 581 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "Q ^ { k + 1 } = B ^ { \\pi } Q ^ { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 568, + 271, + 583 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 569, + 285, + 581 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "Q ^ { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 568, + 337, + 583 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converges to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 338, + 570, + 352, + 581 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "Q ^ { \\pi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 352, + 568, + 506, + 583 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Sutton & Barto, 1998). 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With a Q-function estimator, they can in principle utilize off-policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 483, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "data when used with a replay buffer for storing prior transition tuples, which we will denote", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 483, + 711, + 491, + 721 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "\\beta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 491, + 709, + 506, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 506, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 506, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sample previous transitions, although we show that this by itself is insufficient for our problem setting.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + } + ], + "index": 50.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 1, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 27, + 306, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2021", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 763 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 763 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 82, + 504, + 115 + ], + "lines": [], + "index": 1, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 117 + ], + "lines_deleted": true + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 120, + 505, + 239 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 120, + 506, + 133 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 120, + 506, + 133 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this work, we study how to build RL algorithms that are effective for pre-training from off-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 131, + 506, + 144 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 131, + 506, + 144 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policy datasets, but also well suited to continuous improvement with online data collection. 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The action-value", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 473, + 401, + 485 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 473, + 401, + 485 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "function for a policy can be written recursively via the Bellman equation:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 28, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 381, + 507, + 485 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 131, + 485, + 480, + 499 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 485, + 480, + 499 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 485, + 480, + 499 + ], + "score": 0.72, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { Q ^ { \\pi } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) = r ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) + \\gamma \\mathbb { E } _ { p ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } \\mid \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) } [ V ^ { \\pi } ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } ) ] = r ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) + \\gamma \\mathbb { E } _ { p ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } \\mid \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) } [ \\mathbb { E } _ { \\pi ( \\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } \\mid \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } ) } [ Q ^ { \\pi } ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , \\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } ) ] ] . } \\end{array}", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "52bf23d9860b844ca299c17ae3549e3a6e84659defb72c49ea7b4003b731ffde.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 33, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 485, + 480, + 499 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 33 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 500, + 505, + 552 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 505, + 512 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 505, + 512 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Instead of estimating policy gradients directly, actor-critic algorithms maximize returns by alternating", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 507, + 505, + 524 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 507, + 220, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "between two phases (Konda", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 221, + 510, + 230, + 520 + ], + "score": 0.44, + "content": "\\&", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 507, + 505, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Tsitsiklis, 2000): policy evaluation and policy improvement. During", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 506, + 534 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 262, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the policy evaluation phase, the critic", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 521, + 299, + 532 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "Q ^ { \\pi } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 519, + 442, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is estimated for the current policy", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 442, + 523, + 449, + 530 + ], + "score": 0.72, + "content": "\\pi", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 450, + 519, + 506, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". This can be", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 530, + 506, + 545 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 530, + 345, + 545 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "accomplished by repeatedly applying the Bellman operator", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 345, + 532, + 353, + 541 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "\\boldsymbol { B }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 354, + 530, + 506, + 545 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", corresponding to the right-hand side", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 541, + 238, + 555 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 541, + 238, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of Equation 1, as defined below:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 36, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 498, + 506, + 555 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 191, + 553, + 420, + 568 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 553, + 420, + 568 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 553, + 420, + 568 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { B ^ { \\pi } Q ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) = r ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) + \\gamma \\mathbb { E } _ { p ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } \\mid \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) } [ \\mathbb { E } _ { \\pi ( \\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } \\mid \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } ) } [ Q ^ { \\pi } ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , \\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } ) ] ] . } \\end{array}", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "62ebbc3fd6a61aa4c8892c6a0ae8f987f406432dc33a03220ff5d48293c4a505.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 39, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 553, + 420, + 568 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 39 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 569, + 506, + 603 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 568, + 506, + 583 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 568, + 205, + 583 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "By iterating according to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 569, + 267, + 581 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "Q ^ { k + 1 } = B ^ { \\pi } Q ^ { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 568, + 271, + 583 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 569, + 285, + 581 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "Q ^ { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 568, + 337, + 583 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converges to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 338, + 570, + 352, + 581 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "Q ^ { \\pi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 352, + 568, + 506, + 583 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Sutton & Barto, 1998). With function", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 581, + 505, + 593 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 581, + 505, + 593 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "approximation, we cannot apply the Bellman operator exactly, and instead minimize the Bellman", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 591, + 299, + 605 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 591, + 282, + 605 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "error with respect to Q-function parameters", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 282, + 592, + 294, + 603 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\phi _ { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 294, + 591, + 299, + 605 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ":", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + } + ], + "index": 41, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 568, + 506, + 605 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 155, + 604, + 456, + 623 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 155, + 604, + 456, + 623 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 155, + 604, + 456, + 623 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\phi _ { k } = \\arg \\operatorname* { m i n } _ { \\phi } \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathcal { D } } [ ( Q _ { \\phi } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) - y ) ^ { 2 } ] , y = r ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) + \\gamma \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , \\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } } [ Q _ { \\phi _ { k - 1 } } ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , \\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } ) ] .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "6b9dbf9b737dc5729d8073d85b61ccc1bec51559f751682880a7c05913fe5cfd.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 43, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 155, + 604, + 456, + 623 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 43 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 624, + 505, + 667 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 623, + 506, + 638 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 623, + 263, + 638 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "During policy improvement, the actor", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 264, + 626, + 271, + 634 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "\\pi", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 271, + 623, + 488, + 638 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is typically updated based on the current estimate of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 489, + 624, + 502, + 635 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "Q ^ { \\pi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 503, + 623, + 506, + 638 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 635, + 505, + 647 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 635, + 505, + 647 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A commonly used technique (Lillicrap et al., 2016; Fujimoto et al., 2018; Haarnoja et al., 2018) is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 644, + 506, + 660 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 644, + 185, + 660 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to update the actor", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 185, + 646, + 221, + 658 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\boldsymbol { \\theta } _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 221, + 644, + 506, + 660 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "via likelihood ratio or pathwise derivatives to optimize the following", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 657, + 408, + 669 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 657, + 334, + 669 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "objective, such that the expected value of the Q-function", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 334, + 657, + 348, + 668 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "Q ^ { \\pi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 657, + 408, + 669 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is maximized:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "index": 45.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 623, + 506, + 669 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 222, + 668, + 389, + 687 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 668, + 389, + 687 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 668, + 389, + 687 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\theta _ { k } = \\underset { \\theta } { \\arg \\operatorname* { m a x } } \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { s } \\sim \\mathcal { D } } [ \\mathbb { E } _ { \\pi _ { \\theta } ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } ) } [ Q _ { \\phi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) ] ]", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "9f6dbe412ff39863c0528bbe024672cf472cef6931521ac11510669ced8cfd9e.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 48, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 668, + 389, + 687 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 48 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 688, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Actor-critic algorithms are widely used in deep RL (Mnih et al., 2016; Lillicrap et al., 2016; Haarnoja", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2018; Fujimoto et al., 2018). With a Q-function estimator, they can in principle utilize off-policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 483, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "data when used with a replay buffer for storing prior transition tuples, which we will denote", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 483, + 711, + 491, + 721 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "\\beta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 491, + 709, + 506, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 506, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 506, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sample previous transitions, although we show that this by itself is insufficient for our problem setting.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + } + ], + "index": 50.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 688, + 506, + 734 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 165, + 79, + 447, + 146 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 165, + 79, + 447, + 146 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 79, + 447, + 146 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 79, + 447, + 146 + ], + "score": 0.965, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "bbef2df79cb430c48f9e041b069bca905014e51b8392f3e3f8ee5d4025aa8770.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 79, + 447, + 101.33333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 101.33333333333333, + 447, + 123.66666666666666 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 123.66666666666666, + 447, + 146.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 153, + 506, + 203 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 154, + 505, + 164 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 154, + 376, + 164 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 1: We study learning policies by offline learning on a prior dataset", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 376, + 154, + 385, + 163 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "\\mathcal { D }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 385, + 154, + 505, + 164 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and then fine-tuning with online", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 163, + 505, + 174 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 163, + 505, + 174 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "interaction. The prior data could be obtained via prior runs of RL, expert demonstrations, or any other source of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 173, + 505, + 184 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 173, + 505, + 184 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "transitions. Our method, advantage weighted actor critic (AWAC) is able to learn effectively from offline data", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 183, + 507, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 183, + 507, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and fine-tune in order to reach expert-level performance after collecting a limited amount of interaction data.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 368, + 204 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 368, + 204 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Videos and data are available at sites.google.com/view/awac-anonymous", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 3.0 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 213, + 424, + 226 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 212, + 425, + 228 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 212, + 425, + 228 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 CHALLENGES IN OFFLINE RL WITH ONLINE FINE-TUNING", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 239, + 506, + 271 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 239, + 505, + 251 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 239, + 505, + 251 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we study the unique challenges that exist when pre-training using offline data, followed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 250, + 505, + 261 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 250, + 505, + 261 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by fine-tuning with online data collection. We first describe the problem, and then analyze what", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 261, + 295, + 272 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 261, + 295, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "makes this problem difficult for prior methods.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 277, + 505, + 406 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 276, + 505, + 290 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 276, + 310, + 290 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Problem definition. A static dataset of transitions,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 310, + 277, + 390, + 289 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { D } = \\{ ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } , \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , r ) _ { j } \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 390, + 276, + 505, + 290 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", is provided to the algorithm", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 288, + 505, + 300 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 288, + 505, + 300 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "at the beginning of training. This dataset can be sampled from an arbitrary policy or mixture of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 299, + 505, + 312 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 299, + 505, + 312 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policies, and may even be collected by a human expert. This definition is general and encompasses", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 309, + 505, + 322 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 309, + 505, + 322 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "many scenarios, such as learning from demonstrations, random data, prior RL experiments, or even", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 320, + 506, + 333 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 320, + 267, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from multi-task data. Given the dataset", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 321, + 277, + 330 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "\\mathcal { D }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 277, + 320, + 372, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", our goal is to leverage", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 373, + 321, + 382, + 330 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\mathcal { D }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 382, + 320, + 506, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for pre-training and use some", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 331, + 506, + 344 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 331, + 285, + 344 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "online interaction to learn the optimal policy", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 331, + 317, + 343 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\pi ^ { * } ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 318, + 331, + 506, + 344 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", with as few interactions with the environment", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 505, + 355 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 505, + 355 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as possible (depicted in Fig 1). This setting is representative of many real-world RL settings, where", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 505, + 365 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 505, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prior data is available and the aim is to learn new skills efficiently. We first study existing algorithms", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 363, + 505, + 375 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 363, + 505, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "empirically in this setting on the HalfCheetah-v2 Gym environment1. The prior dataset consists of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 374, + 505, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 374, + 505, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "15 demonstrations from an expert policy and 100 suboptimal trajectories sampled from a behavioral", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 506, + 398 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 506, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "clone of these demonstrations. All methods for the remainder of this paper incorporate the prior", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 278, + 407 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 278, + 407 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dataset, unless explicitly labeled “scratch”.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 17.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 412, + 506, + 563 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 506, + 424 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 506, + 424 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.1) Data Efficiency. One of the simplest ways to utilize prior data such as demonstrations for RL", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 423, + 506, + 435 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 423, + 506, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is to pre-train a policy with imitation learning, and fine-tune with on-policy RL (Gupta et al., 2019;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 434, + 506, + 446 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 434, + 506, + 446 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Rajeswaran et al., 2018). This approach has two drawbacks: (1) prior data may not be optimal; (2)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 444, + 506, + 457 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 444, + 506, + 457 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on-policy fine-tuning is data inefficient as it does not reuse the prior data in the RL stage. In our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 506, + 467 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 506, + 467 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "setting, data efficiency is vital. To this end, we require algorithms that are able to reuse arbitrary off-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 506, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 506, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policy data during online RL for data-efficient fine-tuning. We find that algorithms that use on-policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 506, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 506, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fine-tuning (Rajeswaran et al., 2018; Gupta et al., 2019), or Monte-Carlo return estimation (Peters &", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 506, + 501 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 506, + 501 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Schaal, 2007; Wang et al., 2018; Peng et al., 2019) are generally much less efficient than off-policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 506, + 511 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 333, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "actor-critic algorithms, which iterate between improving", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 333, + 500, + 341, + 508 + ], + "score": 0.71, + "content": "\\pi", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 498, + 402, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and estimating", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 498, + 417, + 509 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "Q ^ { \\pi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 417, + 498, + 506, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "via Bellman backups.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 508, + 506, + 522 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 508, + 506, + 522 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This can be seen from the results in Figure 2 plot 1, where on-policy methods like DAPG (Rajeswaran", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 518, + 506, + 533 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 518, + 506, + 533 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2018) and Monte-Carlo return methods like AWR (Peng et al., 2019) and MARWIL (Wang", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 531, + 505, + 542 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 531, + 505, + 542 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2018) are an order of magnitude slower than off-policy actor-critic methods. Actor-critic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 541, + 506, + 554 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 541, + 506, + 554 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods, shown in Figure 2 plot 2, can in principle use off-policy data. However, as we will discuss", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 551, + 492, + 564 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 551, + 492, + 564 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "next, naïvely applying these algorithms to our problem suffers from a different set of challenges.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "index": 30.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 568, + 505, + 666 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 568, + 505, + 581 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 568, + 505, + 581 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.2) Bootstrap Error in Offline Learning with Actor-Critic Methods. When standard off-policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 579, + 505, + 591 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 579, + 505, + 591 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "actor-critic methods are applied to this problem setting, they perform poorly, as shown in the second", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 590, + 506, + 603 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 590, + 506, + 603 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "plot in Figure 2: despite having a prior dataset in the replay buffer, these algorithms do not benefit", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 600, + 506, + 613 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 600, + 506, + 613 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "significantly from offline training. We evaluate soft actor critic (Haarnoja et al., 2018), a state-of-the-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 611, + 506, + 624 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 611, + 506, + 624 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "art actor-critic algorithm for continuous control. Note that “SAC-scratch,” which does not receive the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 621, + 506, + 636 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 621, + 506, + 636 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prior data, performs similarly to “SACfD-prior,” which does have access to the prior data, indicating", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 632, + 507, + 647 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 632, + 507, + 647 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that the off-policy RL algorithm is not actually able to make use of the off-policy data for pre-training.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 640, + 508, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 640, + 508, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Moreover, even if the SAC is policy is pre-trained by behavior cloning, labeled “SACfD-pretrain”,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 653, + 506, + 667 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 653, + 506, + 667 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we still observe an initial decrease in performance, and performance similar to learning from scratch.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 671, + 504, + 693 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 670, + 506, + 684 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 670, + 506, + 684 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This challenge can be attributed to off-policy bootstrapping error accumulation, as observed in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 682, + 506, + 694 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 682, + 506, + 694 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "several prior works (Sutton & Barto, 1998; Kumar et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020; Levine et al., 2020;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + } + ], + "index": 47.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 2, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 702, + 505, + 731 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 699, + 506, + 715 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 699, + 506, + 715 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1We use this environment for analysis because it helps understand and accentuate the differences between", + "type": "text" + } + ] + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 505, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 505, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "different algorithms. More challenging environments like the ones shown in Fig 3 are too hard to solve to", + "type": "text" + } + ] + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 722, + 243, + 732 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 722, + 243, + 732 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "analyze variants of different methods.", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 27, + 307, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2021", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 762 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 762 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 165, + 79, + 447, + 146 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 165, + 79, + 447, + 146 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 79, + 447, + 146 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 79, + 447, + 146 + ], + "score": 0.965, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "bbef2df79cb430c48f9e041b069bca905014e51b8392f3e3f8ee5d4025aa8770.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 79, + 447, + 101.33333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 101.33333333333333, + 447, + 123.66666666666666 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 123.66666666666666, + 447, + 146.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 153, + 506, + 203 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 154, + 505, + 164 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 154, + 376, + 164 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 1: We study learning policies by offline learning on a prior dataset", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 376, + 154, + 385, + 163 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "\\mathcal { D }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 385, + 154, + 505, + 164 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and then fine-tuning with online", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 163, + 505, + 174 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 163, + 505, + 174 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "interaction. The prior data could be obtained via prior runs of RL, expert demonstrations, or any other source of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 173, + 505, + 184 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 173, + 505, + 184 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "transitions. Our method, advantage weighted actor critic (AWAC) is able to learn effectively from offline data", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 183, + 507, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 183, + 507, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and fine-tune in order to reach expert-level performance after collecting a limited amount of interaction data.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 368, + 204 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 368, + 204 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Videos and data are available at sites.google.com/view/awac-anonymous", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 3.0 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 213, + 424, + 226 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 212, + 425, + 228 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 212, + 425, + 228 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 CHALLENGES IN OFFLINE RL WITH ONLINE FINE-TUNING", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 239, + 506, + 271 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 239, + 505, + 251 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 239, + 505, + 251 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we study the unique challenges that exist when pre-training using offline data, followed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 250, + 505, + 261 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 250, + 505, + 261 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by fine-tuning with online data collection. We first describe the problem, and then analyze what", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 261, + 295, + 272 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 261, + 295, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "makes this problem difficult for prior methods.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 10, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 239, + 505, + 272 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 277, + 505, + 406 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 276, + 505, + 290 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 276, + 310, + 290 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Problem definition. A static dataset of transitions,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 310, + 277, + 390, + 289 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { D } = \\{ ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } , \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , r ) _ { j } \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 390, + 276, + 505, + 290 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", is provided to the algorithm", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 288, + 505, + 300 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 288, + 505, + 300 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "at the beginning of training. This dataset can be sampled from an arbitrary policy or mixture of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 299, + 505, + 312 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 299, + 505, + 312 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policies, and may even be collected by a human expert. This definition is general and encompasses", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 309, + 505, + 322 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 309, + 505, + 322 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "many scenarios, such as learning from demonstrations, random data, prior RL experiments, or even", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 320, + 506, + 333 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 320, + 267, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from multi-task data. Given the dataset", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 321, + 277, + 330 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "\\mathcal { D }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 277, + 320, + 372, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", our goal is to leverage", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 373, + 321, + 382, + 330 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\mathcal { D }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 382, + 320, + 506, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for pre-training and use some", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 331, + 506, + 344 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 331, + 285, + 344 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "online interaction to learn the optimal policy", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 331, + 317, + 343 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\pi ^ { * } ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 318, + 331, + 506, + 344 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", with as few interactions with the environment", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 505, + 355 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 505, + 355 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as possible (depicted in Fig 1). This setting is representative of many real-world RL settings, where", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 505, + 365 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 505, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prior data is available and the aim is to learn new skills efficiently. We first study existing algorithms", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 363, + 505, + 375 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 363, + 505, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "empirically in this setting on the HalfCheetah-v2 Gym environment1. The prior dataset consists of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 374, + 505, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 374, + 505, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "15 demonstrations from an expert policy and 100 suboptimal trajectories sampled from a behavioral", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 506, + 398 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 506, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "clone of these demonstrations. All methods for the remainder of this paper incorporate the prior", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 278, + 407 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 278, + 407 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dataset, unless explicitly labeled “scratch”.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 17.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 276, + 506, + 407 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 412, + 506, + 563 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 506, + 424 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 506, + 424 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.1) Data Efficiency. One of the simplest ways to utilize prior data such as demonstrations for RL", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 423, + 506, + 435 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 423, + 506, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is to pre-train a policy with imitation learning, and fine-tune with on-policy RL (Gupta et al., 2019;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 434, + 506, + 446 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 434, + 506, + 446 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Rajeswaran et al., 2018). This approach has two drawbacks: (1) prior data may not be optimal; (2)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 444, + 506, + 457 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 444, + 506, + 457 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on-policy fine-tuning is data inefficient as it does not reuse the prior data in the RL stage. In our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 506, + 467 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 506, + 467 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "setting, data efficiency is vital. To this end, we require algorithms that are able to reuse arbitrary off-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 506, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 506, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policy data during online RL for data-efficient fine-tuning. We find that algorithms that use on-policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 506, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 506, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fine-tuning (Rajeswaran et al., 2018; Gupta et al., 2019), or Monte-Carlo return estimation (Peters &", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 506, + 501 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 506, + 501 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Schaal, 2007; Wang et al., 2018; Peng et al., 2019) are generally much less efficient than off-policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 506, + 511 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 333, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "actor-critic algorithms, which iterate between improving", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 333, + 500, + 341, + 508 + ], + "score": 0.71, + "content": "\\pi", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 498, + 402, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and estimating", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 498, + 417, + 509 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "Q ^ { \\pi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 417, + 498, + 506, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "via Bellman backups.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 508, + 506, + 522 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 508, + 506, + 522 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This can be seen from the results in Figure 2 plot 1, where on-policy methods like DAPG (Rajeswaran", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 518, + 506, + 533 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 518, + 506, + 533 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2018) and Monte-Carlo return methods like AWR (Peng et al., 2019) and MARWIL (Wang", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 531, + 505, + 542 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 531, + 505, + 542 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2018) are an order of magnitude slower than off-policy actor-critic methods. Actor-critic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 541, + 506, + 554 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 541, + 506, + 554 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods, shown in Figure 2 plot 2, can in principle use off-policy data. However, as we will discuss", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 551, + 492, + 564 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 551, + 492, + 564 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "next, naïvely applying these algorithms to our problem suffers from a different set of challenges.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "index": 30.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 412, + 506, + 564 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 568, + 505, + 666 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 568, + 505, + 581 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 568, + 505, + 581 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.2) Bootstrap Error in Offline Learning with Actor-Critic Methods. When standard off-policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 579, + 505, + 591 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 579, + 505, + 591 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "actor-critic methods are applied to this problem setting, they perform poorly, as shown in the second", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 590, + 506, + 603 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 590, + 506, + 603 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "plot in Figure 2: despite having a prior dataset in the replay buffer, these algorithms do not benefit", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 600, + 506, + 613 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 600, + 506, + 613 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "significantly from offline training. We evaluate soft actor critic (Haarnoja et al., 2018), a state-of-the-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 611, + 506, + 624 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 611, + 506, + 624 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "art actor-critic algorithm for continuous control. Note that “SAC-scratch,” which does not receive the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 621, + 506, + 636 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 621, + 506, + 636 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prior data, performs similarly to “SACfD-prior,” which does have access to the prior data, indicating", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 632, + 507, + 647 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 632, + 507, + 647 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that the off-policy RL algorithm is not actually able to make use of the off-policy data for pre-training.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 640, + 508, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 640, + 508, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Moreover, even if the SAC is policy is pre-trained by behavior cloning, labeled “SACfD-pretrain”,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 653, + 506, + 667 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 653, + 506, + 667 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we still observe an initial decrease in performance, and performance similar to learning from scratch.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + } + ], + "index": 42, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 568, + 508, + 667 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 671, + 504, + 693 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 670, + 506, + 684 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 670, + 506, + 684 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This challenge can be attributed to off-policy bootstrapping error accumulation, as observed in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 682, + 506, + 694 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 682, + 506, + 694 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "several prior works (Sutton & Barto, 1998; Kumar et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020; Levine et al., 2020;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + } + ], + "index": 47.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 670, + 506, + 694 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 110, + 78, + 506, + 162 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 110, + 78, + 506, + 162 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 78, + 506, + 162 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 78, + 506, + 162 + ], + "score": 0.942, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "0f629f76d75942812dc48411f75d99a122f416749807b9f4b0e77175161a8bdc.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 78, + 506, + 106.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 106.0, + 506, + 134.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 134.0, + 506, + 162.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 169, + 505, + 259 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 168, + 505, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 168, + 505, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 2: Analysis of prior methods on HalfCheetah-v2 using offline RL with online fine-tuning. (1) On-policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 179, + 506, + 192 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 179, + 506, + 192 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods (DAPG, AWR, MARWIL) learn relatively slowly, even with access to prior data. We present our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 190, + 506, + 201 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 190, + 506, + 201 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method, AWAC, as an example of how off-policy RL methods can learn much faster. (2) Variants of soft actor-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 199, + 505, + 210 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 199, + 505, + 210 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "critic (SAC) with offline training (performed before timestep 0) and fine-tuning. We see a “dip” in the initial", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 209, + 506, + 221 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 209, + 506, + 221 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance, even if the policy is pretrained with behavioral cloning. (3) Offline RL method BEAR (Kumar", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 219, + 506, + 231 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 219, + 506, + 231 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2019) on offline training and fine-tuning, including a “loose” variant of BEAR with a weakened constraint.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 228, + 506, + 240 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 228, + 506, + 240 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Standard offline RL methods fine-tune slowly, while the “loose” BEAR variant experiences a similar dip as SAC.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 239, + 506, + 250 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 239, + 275, + 250 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(4) We show that the fit of the behavior models", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 276, + 239, + 287, + 249 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\hat { \\pi } _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 287, + 239, + 506, + 250 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used by these offline methods degrades as new data is added", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 249, + 432, + 260 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 249, + 432, + 260 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to the buffer during fine-tuning, potentially explaining their poor fine-tuning performance.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 4.0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 270, + 503, + 303 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 505, + 283 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 370, + 283 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Fujimoto et al., 2019). In actor-critic algorithms, the target value", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 270, + 407, + 282 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "Q ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , \\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 407, + 270, + 431, + 283 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 432, + 271, + 460, + 281 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } \\sim \\pi", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 461, + 270, + 505, + 283 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", is used to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 280, + 505, + 294 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 280, + 136, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "update", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 136, + 281, + 167, + 293 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "Q ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 280, + 198, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". When", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 281, + 208, + 291 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "\\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 208, + 280, + 347, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is outside of the data distribution,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 281, + 384, + 293 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "Q ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , \\mathbf { \\bar { a } } ^ { \\prime } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 384, + 280, + 505, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "will be inaccurate, leading to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 291, + 268, + 303 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 291, + 268, + 303 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "accumulation of error on static datasets.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 308, + 505, + 341 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 307, + 505, + 321 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 307, + 505, + 321 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Offline RL algorithms (Fujimoto et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020) propose to address", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 319, + 505, + 333 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 319, + 505, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "this issue by explicitly adding constraints on the policy improvement update (Equation 4) to avoid", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 443, + 342 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 443, + 342 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "bootstrapping on out-of-distribution actions, leading to a policy update of this form:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 192, + 348, + 417, + 368 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 348, + 417, + 368 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 348, + 417, + 368 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\arg \\operatorname* { m a x } _ { \\boldsymbol { \\theta } } \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { s } \\sim \\mathcal { D } } [ \\mathbb { E } _ { \\pi _ { \\boldsymbol { \\theta } } ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } ) } [ Q _ { \\boldsymbol { \\phi } _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) ] ] \\mathrm { ~ s . t . ~ } D ( \\pi _ { \\boldsymbol { \\theta } } , \\pi _ { \\boldsymbol { \\beta } } ) \\leq \\epsilon .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "93cb971dcda1267f55744d9474e2f3bfc321ec9427bb49a59b83c369847872fa.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 18, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 348, + 417, + 368 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 18 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 375, + 505, + 505 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 375, + 506, + 388 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 375, + 131, + 388 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Here,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 377, + 142, + 387 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\theta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 143, + 375, + 270, + 388 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the actor being updated, and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 271, + 375, + 303, + 388 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\beta } ( a | s )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 303, + 375, + 506, + 388 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "represents the (potentially unknown) distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 387, + 506, + 398 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 387, + 506, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from which all of the data seen so far (both offline data and online data) was generated. In the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 506, + 411 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 203, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "case of a replay buffer,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 204, + 399, + 216, + 409 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 396, + 506, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "corresponds to a mixture distribution over all past policies. Typically,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 406, + 506, + 423 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 410, + 119, + 420 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 406, + 506, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is not known, especially for offline data, and must be estimated from the data itself. Many", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 419, + 506, + 432 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 419, + 506, + 432 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "offline RL algorithms (Kumar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Siegel et al., 2020) explicitly fit", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 430, + 505, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 430, + 313, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a parametric model to samples for the distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 313, + 431, + 325, + 442 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 326, + 430, + 505, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "via maximum likelihood estimation, where", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 441, + 505, + 452 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 441, + 165, + 452 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "samples from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 442, + 178, + 452 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 441, + 479, + 452 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are obtained simply by sampling uniformly from the data seen thus far:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 480, + 441, + 505, + 452 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\hat { \\pi } _ { \\beta } =", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 450, + 506, + 466 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 451, + 225, + 464 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\operatorname* { m a x } _ { \\hat { \\pi } _ { \\beta } } \\ { \\mathbb E } _ { { \\mathbf s } , { \\mathbf a } \\sim \\pi _ { \\beta } } \\big [ \\log \\hat { \\pi } _ { \\beta } ( { \\mathbf a } | { \\mathbf s } ) \\big ] } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 225, + 450, + 296, + 466 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". After estimating", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 297, + 451, + 309, + 463 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\hat { \\pi } _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 309, + 450, + 506, + 466 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", prior methods implement the constraint given in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 461, + 506, + 475 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 461, + 506, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Equation 5 in various ways, including penalties on the policy update (Kumar et al., 2019; Wu et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 471, + 506, + 486 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 471, + 506, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2020) or architecture choices for sampling actions for policy training (Fujimoto et al., 2019; Siegel", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 484, + 505, + 495 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 484, + 406, + 495 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2020). As we will see next, the requirement for accurate estimation of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 406, + 484, + 418, + 495 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\hat { \\pi } _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 419, + 484, + 505, + 495 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "makes these methods", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 263, + 508 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 263, + 508 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "difficult to use with online fine-tuning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + } + ], + "index": 24.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 510, + 505, + 576 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 506, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 506, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.3) Excessively Conservative Online Learning. While offline RL algorithms with constraints (Ku-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 520, + 506, + 535 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 520, + 506, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "mar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020) perform well offline, they struggle to improve", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 532, + 505, + 545 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 532, + 505, + 545 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with fine-tuning, as shown in the third plot in Figure 2. We see that the purely offline RL performance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 542, + 506, + 555 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 542, + 118, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(at", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 543, + 141, + 553 + ], + "score": 0.39, + "content": "^ { 6 6 } 0 \\mathrm { K } ^ { 5 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 542, + 506, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Fig. 2) is much better than the standard off-policy methods shown in Section 3.2. However,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 505, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 505, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with additional iterations of online fine-tuning, the performance increases very slowly (as seen from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 564, + 392, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 564, + 392, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the slope of the BEAR curve in Fig 2). What causes this phenomenon?", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 33.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 581, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 581, + 506, + 594 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 581, + 506, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This can be attributed to challenges in fitting an accurate behavior model as data is collected", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 591, + 506, + 604 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 591, + 506, + 604 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "online during fine-tuning. In the offline setting, behavior models must only be trained once via", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 602, + 506, + 614 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 602, + 506, + 614 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "maximum likelihood, but in the online setting, the behavior model must be updated online to track", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 613, + 505, + 626 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 613, + 505, + 626 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "incoming data. Training density models online (in the “streaming” setting) is a challenging research", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 623, + 505, + 636 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 623, + 505, + 636 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "problem (Ramapuram et al., 2017), made more difficult by a potentially complex multi-modal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 634, + 505, + 648 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 634, + 505, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "behavior distribution induced by the mixture of online and offline data. To understand this, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 506, + 659 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 506, + 659 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "plot the log likelihood of learned behavior models on the dataset during online and offline training", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 504, + 670 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 474, + 670 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for the HalfCheetah task. As we can see in the plot, the accuracy of the behavior models", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 474, + 657, + 504, + 668 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "( \\log \\pi _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 667, + 506, + 679 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 667, + 506, + 679 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the y-axis) reduces during online fine-tuning, indicating that it is not fitting the new data well", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 678, + 506, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 678, + 506, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "during online training. When the behavior models are inaccurate or unable to model new data well,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 507, + 703 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 507, + 703 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "constrained optimization becomes too conservative, resulting in limited improvement with fine-tuning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This analysis suggests that, in order to address our problem setting, we require an off-policy RL", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 710, + 505, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 710, + 505, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithm that constrains the policy to prevent offline instability and error accumulation, but not so", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "conservatively that it prevents online fine-tuning due to imperfect behavior modeling. Our proposed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + } + ], + "index": 43.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 3, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 27, + 306, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2021", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 752, + 308, + 759 + ], + "lines": [] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 110, + 78, + 506, + 162 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 110, + 78, + 506, + 162 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 78, + 506, + 162 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 78, + 506, + 162 + ], + "score": 0.942, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "0f629f76d75942812dc48411f75d99a122f416749807b9f4b0e77175161a8bdc.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 78, + 506, + 106.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 106.0, + 506, + 134.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 134.0, + 506, + 162.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 169, + 505, + 259 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 168, + 505, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 168, + 505, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 2: Analysis of prior methods on HalfCheetah-v2 using offline RL with online fine-tuning. (1) On-policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 179, + 506, + 192 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 179, + 506, + 192 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods (DAPG, AWR, MARWIL) learn relatively slowly, even with access to prior data. We present our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 190, + 506, + 201 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 190, + 506, + 201 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method, AWAC, as an example of how off-policy RL methods can learn much faster. (2) Variants of soft actor-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 199, + 505, + 210 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 199, + 505, + 210 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "critic (SAC) with offline training (performed before timestep 0) and fine-tuning. We see a “dip” in the initial", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 209, + 506, + 221 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 209, + 506, + 221 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance, even if the policy is pretrained with behavioral cloning. (3) Offline RL method BEAR (Kumar", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 219, + 506, + 231 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 219, + 506, + 231 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2019) on offline training and fine-tuning, including a “loose” variant of BEAR with a weakened constraint.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 228, + 506, + 240 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 228, + 506, + 240 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Standard offline RL methods fine-tune slowly, while the “loose” BEAR variant experiences a similar dip as SAC.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 239, + 506, + 250 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 239, + 275, + 250 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(4) We show that the fit of the behavior models", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 276, + 239, + 287, + 249 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\hat { \\pi } _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 287, + 239, + 506, + 250 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used by these offline methods degrades as new data is added", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 249, + 432, + 260 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 249, + 432, + 260 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to the buffer during fine-tuning, potentially explaining their poor fine-tuning performance.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 4.0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 270, + 503, + 303 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 505, + 283 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 370, + 283 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Fujimoto et al., 2019). In actor-critic algorithms, the target value", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 270, + 407, + 282 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "Q ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , \\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 407, + 270, + 431, + 283 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 432, + 271, + 460, + 281 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime } \\sim \\pi", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 461, + 270, + 505, + 283 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", is used to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 280, + 505, + 294 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 280, + 136, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "update", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 136, + 281, + 167, + 293 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "Q ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 280, + 198, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". When", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 281, + 208, + 291 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "\\mathbf { a } ^ { \\prime }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 208, + 280, + 347, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is outside of the data distribution,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 281, + 384, + 293 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "Q ( \\mathbf { s } ^ { \\prime } , \\mathbf { \\bar { a } } ^ { \\prime } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 384, + 280, + 505, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "will be inaccurate, leading to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 291, + 268, + 303 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 291, + 268, + 303 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "accumulation of error on static datasets.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 13, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 270, + 505, + 303 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 308, + 505, + 341 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 307, + 505, + 321 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 307, + 505, + 321 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Offline RL algorithms (Fujimoto et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020) propose to address", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 319, + 505, + 333 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 319, + 505, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "this issue by explicitly adding constraints on the policy improvement update (Equation 4) to avoid", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 443, + 342 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 443, + 342 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "bootstrapping on out-of-distribution actions, leading to a policy update of this form:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 16, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 307, + 505, + 342 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 192, + 348, + 417, + 368 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 348, + 417, + 368 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 348, + 417, + 368 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\arg \\operatorname* { m a x } _ { \\boldsymbol { \\theta } } \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { s } \\sim \\mathcal { D } } [ \\mathbb { E } _ { \\pi _ { \\boldsymbol { \\theta } } ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } ) } [ Q _ { \\boldsymbol { \\phi } _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) ] ] \\mathrm { ~ s . t . ~ } D ( \\pi _ { \\boldsymbol { \\theta } } , \\pi _ { \\boldsymbol { \\beta } } ) \\leq \\epsilon .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "93cb971dcda1267f55744d9474e2f3bfc321ec9427bb49a59b83c369847872fa.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 18, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 348, + 417, + 368 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 18 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 375, + 505, + 505 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 375, + 506, + 388 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 375, + 131, + 388 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Here,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 377, + 142, + 387 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\theta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 143, + 375, + 270, + 388 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the actor being updated, and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 271, + 375, + 303, + 388 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\beta } ( a | s )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 303, + 375, + 506, + 388 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "represents the (potentially unknown) distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 387, + 506, + 398 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 387, + 506, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from which all of the data seen so far (both offline data and online data) was generated. In the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 506, + 411 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 203, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "case of a replay buffer,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 204, + 399, + 216, + 409 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 396, + 506, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "corresponds to a mixture distribution over all past policies. Typically,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 406, + 506, + 423 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 410, + 119, + 420 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 406, + 506, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is not known, especially for offline data, and must be estimated from the data itself. Many", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 419, + 506, + 432 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 419, + 506, + 432 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "offline RL algorithms (Kumar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Siegel et al., 2020) explicitly fit", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 430, + 505, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 430, + 313, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a parametric model to samples for the distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 313, + 431, + 325, + 442 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 326, + 430, + 505, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "via maximum likelihood estimation, where", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 441, + 505, + 452 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 441, + 165, + 452 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "samples from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 442, + 178, + 452 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 441, + 479, + 452 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are obtained simply by sampling uniformly from the data seen thus far:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 480, + 441, + 505, + 452 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\hat { \\pi } _ { \\beta } =", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 450, + 506, + 466 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 451, + 225, + 464 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\operatorname* { m a x } _ { \\hat { \\pi } _ { \\beta } } \\ { \\mathbb E } _ { { \\mathbf s } , { \\mathbf a } \\sim \\pi _ { \\beta } } \\big [ \\log \\hat { \\pi } _ { \\beta } ( { \\mathbf a } | { \\mathbf s } ) \\big ] } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 225, + 450, + 296, + 466 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". After estimating", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 297, + 451, + 309, + 463 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\hat { \\pi } _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 309, + 450, + 506, + 466 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", prior methods implement the constraint given in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 461, + 506, + 475 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 461, + 506, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Equation 5 in various ways, including penalties on the policy update (Kumar et al., 2019; Wu et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 471, + 506, + 486 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 471, + 506, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2020) or architecture choices for sampling actions for policy training (Fujimoto et al., 2019; Siegel", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 484, + 505, + 495 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 484, + 406, + 495 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2020). As we will see next, the requirement for accurate estimation of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 406, + 484, + 418, + 495 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\hat { \\pi } _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 419, + 484, + 505, + 495 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "makes these methods", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 263, + 508 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 263, + 508 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "difficult to use with online fine-tuning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + } + ], + "index": 24.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 375, + 506, + 508 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 510, + 505, + 576 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 506, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 506, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.3) Excessively Conservative Online Learning. While offline RL algorithms with constraints (Ku-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 520, + 506, + 535 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 520, + 506, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "mar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020) perform well offline, they struggle to improve", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 532, + 505, + 545 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 532, + 505, + 545 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with fine-tuning, as shown in the third plot in Figure 2. We see that the purely offline RL performance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 542, + 506, + 555 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 542, + 118, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(at", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 543, + 141, + 553 + ], + "score": 0.39, + "content": "^ { 6 6 } 0 \\mathrm { K } ^ { 5 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 542, + 506, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Fig. 2) is much better than the standard off-policy methods shown in Section 3.2. However,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 505, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 505, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with additional iterations of online fine-tuning, the performance increases very slowly (as seen from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 564, + 392, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 564, + 392, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the slope of the BEAR curve in Fig 2). What causes this phenomenon?", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 33.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 510, + 506, + 577 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 581, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 581, + 506, + 594 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 581, + 506, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This can be attributed to challenges in fitting an accurate behavior model as data is collected", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 591, + 506, + 604 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 591, + 506, + 604 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "online during fine-tuning. In the offline setting, behavior models must only be trained once via", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 602, + 506, + 614 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 602, + 506, + 614 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "maximum likelihood, but in the online setting, the behavior model must be updated online to track", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 613, + 505, + 626 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 613, + 505, + 626 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "incoming data. Training density models online (in the “streaming” setting) is a challenging research", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 623, + 505, + 636 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 623, + 505, + 636 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "problem (Ramapuram et al., 2017), made more difficult by a potentially complex multi-modal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 634, + 505, + 648 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 634, + 505, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "behavior distribution induced by the mixture of online and offline data. To understand this, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 506, + 659 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 506, + 659 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "plot the log likelihood of learned behavior models on the dataset during online and offline training", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 504, + 670 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 474, + 670 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for the HalfCheetah task. As we can see in the plot, the accuracy of the behavior models", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 474, + 657, + 504, + 668 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "( \\log \\pi _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 667, + 506, + 679 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 667, + 506, + 679 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the y-axis) reduces during online fine-tuning, indicating that it is not fitting the new data well", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 678, + 506, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 678, + 506, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "during online training. When the behavior models are inaccurate or unable to model new data well,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 507, + 703 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 507, + 703 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "constrained optimization becomes too conservative, resulting in limited improvement with fine-tuning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This analysis suggests that, in order to address our problem setting, we require an off-policy RL", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 710, + 505, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 710, + 505, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithm that constrains the policy to prevent offline instability and error accumulation, but not so", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "conservatively that it prevents online fine-tuning due to imperfect behavior modeling. Our proposed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 506, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 506, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithm, which we discuss in the next section, accomplishes this by employing an implicit constraint,", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 92, + 380, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 92, + 380, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which does not require any explicit modeling of the behavior policy.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 1 + } + ], + "index": 43.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 581, + 507, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 104, + 82, + 505, + 105 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 506, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 506, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithm, which we discuss in the next section, accomplishes this by employing an implicit constraint,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 92, + 380, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 92, + 380, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which does not require any explicit modeling of the behavior policy.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + } + ], + "index": 0.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 120, + 480, + 147 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 119, + 481, + 134 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 119, + 481, + 134 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4 ADVANTAGE WEIGHTED ACTOR CRITIC: A SIMPLE ALGORITHM FOR", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 134, + 333, + 147 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 134, + 333, + 147 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "FINE-TUNING FROM OFFLINE DATASETS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + } + ], + "index": 2.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 159, + 506, + 247 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 506, + 173 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 506, + 173 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we will describe the advantage weighted actor-critic (AWAC) algorithm, which trains", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 170, + 506, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 170, + 506, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "an off-policy critic and an actor with an implicit policy constraint. We will show AWAC mitigates the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 506, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 506, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "challenges outlined in Section 3. AWAC follows the design for actor-critic algorithms as described", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 506, + 204 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 312, + 204 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Section 2, with a policy evaluation step to learn", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 312, + 192, + 327, + 204 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "Q ^ { \\pi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 327, + 192, + 495, + 204 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and a policy improvement step to update", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 496, + 194, + 503, + 202 + ], + "score": 0.73, + "content": "\\pi", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 503, + 192, + 506, + 204 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 506, + 215 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 357, + 215 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "AWAC uses off-policy temporal-difference learning to estimate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 357, + 203, + 372, + 214 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "Q ^ { \\pi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 372, + 203, + 506, + 215 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the policy evaluation step, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 212, + 506, + 227 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 212, + 506, + 227 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a policy improvement update that is able to obtain the benefits of offline RL algorithms at training", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 225, + 506, + 236 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 225, + 506, + 236 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from prior datasets, while avoiding the overly conservative behavior described in Section 3.3. We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 236, + 493, + 248 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 236, + 493, + 248 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "describe the policy improvement step in AWAC below, and then summarize the entire algorithm.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 7.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 251, + 506, + 349 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 252, + 506, + 264 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 252, + 506, + 264 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Policy improvement for AWAC proceeds by learning a policy that maximizes the value of the critic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 262, + 506, + 275 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 262, + 506, + 275 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learned in the policy evaluation step via TD bootstrapping. If done naively, this can lead to the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 272, + 506, + 286 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 272, + 506, + 286 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "issues described in Section 3.3, but we can avoid the challenges of bootstrap error accumulation by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 284, + 506, + 297 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 284, + 506, + 297 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "restricting the policy distribution to stay close to the data observed thus far during the actor update,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 294, + 506, + 308 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 294, + 327, + 308 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "while maximizing the value of the critic. At iteration", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 327, + 295, + 334, + 305 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "k", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 334, + 294, + 506, + 308 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", AWAC therefore optimizes the policy to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 305, + 506, + 318 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 305, + 253, + 318 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "maximize the estimated Q-function", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 306, + 294, + 317 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "Q ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 294, + 305, + 506, + 318 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "at every state, while constraining it to stay close to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 316, + 505, + 328 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 316, + 505, + 328 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the actions observed in the data, similar to prior offline RL methods, though this constraint will be", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 326, + 505, + 340 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 326, + 464, + 340 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "enforced differently. Note from the definition of the advantage in Section 2 that optimizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 464, + 327, + 505, + 339 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "Q ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 337, + 437, + 351 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 337, + 215, + 351 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is equivalent to optimizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 215, + 338, + 255, + 350 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 255, + 337, + 437, + 351 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We can therefore write this optimization as:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 163, + 354, + 447, + 375 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 163, + 354, + 447, + 375 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 163, + 354, + 447, + 375 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\pi _ { k + 1 } = \\underset { \\pi \\in \\Pi } { \\mathrm { a r g } \\mathrm { m a x } } ~ \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { a } \\sim \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) } [ A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) ] \\mathrm { ~ s . t . ~ } D _ { \\mathrm { K L } } ( \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) | | \\pi _ { \\beta } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) ) \\leq \\epsilon .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "f29a35c01828ca7e42e7a8be37d4f76ec232317aa2ed5970c21a98b9e50b4072.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 21, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 163, + 354, + 447, + 375 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 21 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 380, + 505, + 457 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 381, + 506, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 381, + 506, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "As we saw in Section 3.2, enforcing the constraint by incorporating an explicit learned behavior", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 391, + 506, + 404 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 391, + 506, + 404 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "model (Kumar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020; Siegel et al., 2020) leads to poor", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 402, + 506, + 415 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 402, + 506, + 415 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fine-tuning performance. Instead, we enforce the constraint implicitly, without learning a behavior", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 506, + 425 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 506, + 425 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "model. We first derive the solution to the constrained optimization in Equation 6 to obtain a non-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 424, + 505, + 436 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 424, + 505, + 436 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parametric closed form for the actor. This solution is then projected onto the parametric policy class", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 433, + 506, + 448 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 433, + 506, + 448 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "without any explicit behavior model. The analytic solution to Equation 6 can be obtained by enforcing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 445, + 506, + 457 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 445, + 506, + 457 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the KKT conditions (Peters & Schaal, 2007; Peters et al., 2010; Peng et al., 2019). The Lagrangian is:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 175, + 462, + 434, + 477 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 462, + 434, + 477 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 462, + 434, + 477 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\mathcal { L } ( \\pi , \\lambda ) = \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { a } \\sim \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) } [ A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) ] + \\lambda ( \\epsilon - D _ { \\mathrm { K L } } ( \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) | | \\pi _ { \\beta } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) ) ) , } \\end{array}", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "d178825f82af809923c82b9da38091cb018c057af61ffc1b24657cce82e38e32.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 29, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 462, + 434, + 477 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 29 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 483, + 505, + 527 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 482, + 505, + 497 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 482, + 298, + 497 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the closed form solution to this problem is", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 298, + 482, + 449, + 496 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\pi ^ { * } ( { \\bf a } | { \\bf s } ) \\propto \\pi _ { \\beta } ( { \\bf a } | { \\bf s } ) \\exp \\left( \\frac { 1 } { \\lambda } A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( { \\bf s } , { \\bf a } ) \\right) } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 449, + 482, + 505, + 497 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". When using", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 494, + 505, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 494, + 505, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "function approximators, such as deep neural networks as we do, we need to project the non-parametric", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 505, + 505, + 517 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 505, + 277, + 517 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "solution into our policy space. 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Choosing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 578, + 505, + 592 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 578, + 151, + 592 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the reverse", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 151, + 580, + 165, + 590 + ], + "score": 0.25, + "content": "\\mathrm { K L }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 166, + 578, + 505, + 592 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "results in explicit penalty methods (Wu et al., 2020) that rely on evaluating the density", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 590, + 505, + 604 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 590, + 505, + 604 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of a learned behavior model. 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AWAC follows the design for actor-critic algorithms as described", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 506, + 204 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 312, + 204 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Section 2, with a policy evaluation step to learn", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 312, + 192, + 327, + 204 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "Q ^ { \\pi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 327, + 192, + 495, + 204 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and a policy improvement step to update", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 496, + 194, + 503, + 202 + ], + "score": 0.73, + "content": "\\pi", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 503, + 192, + 506, + 204 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 506, + 215 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 357, + 215 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "AWAC uses off-policy temporal-difference learning to estimate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 357, + 203, + 372, + 214 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "Q ^ { \\pi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 372, + 203, + 506, + 215 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the policy evaluation step, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 212, + 506, + 227 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 212, + 506, + 227 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a policy improvement update that is able to obtain the benefits of offline RL algorithms at training", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 225, + 506, + 236 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 225, + 506, + 236 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from prior datasets, while avoiding the overly conservative behavior described in Section 3.3. We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 236, + 493, + 248 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 236, + 493, + 248 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "describe the policy improvement step in AWAC below, and then summarize the entire algorithm.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 7.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 159, + 506, + 248 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 251, + 506, + 349 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 252, + 506, + 264 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 252, + 506, + 264 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Policy improvement for AWAC proceeds by learning a policy that maximizes the value of the critic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 262, + 506, + 275 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 262, + 506, + 275 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learned in the policy evaluation step via TD bootstrapping. If done naively, this can lead to the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 272, + 506, + 286 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 272, + 506, + 286 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "issues described in Section 3.3, but we can avoid the challenges of bootstrap error accumulation by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 284, + 506, + 297 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 284, + 506, + 297 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "restricting the policy distribution to stay close to the data observed thus far during the actor update,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 294, + 506, + 308 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 294, + 327, + 308 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "while maximizing the value of the critic. At iteration", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 327, + 295, + 334, + 305 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "k", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 334, + 294, + 506, + 308 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", AWAC therefore optimizes the policy to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 305, + 506, + 318 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 305, + 253, + 318 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "maximize the estimated Q-function", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 306, + 294, + 317 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "Q ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 294, + 305, + 506, + 318 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "at every state, while constraining it to stay close to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 316, + 505, + 328 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 316, + 505, + 328 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the actions observed in the data, similar to prior offline RL methods, though this constraint will be", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 326, + 505, + 340 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 326, + 464, + 340 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "enforced differently. Note from the definition of the advantage in Section 2 that optimizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 464, + 327, + 505, + 339 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "Q ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 337, + 437, + 351 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 337, + 215, + 351 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is equivalent to optimizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 215, + 338, + 255, + 350 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 255, + 337, + 437, + 351 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We can therefore write this optimization as:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 16, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 252, + 506, + 351 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 163, + 354, + 447, + 375 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 163, + 354, + 447, + 375 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 163, + 354, + 447, + 375 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\pi _ { k + 1 } = \\underset { \\pi \\in \\Pi } { \\mathrm { a r g } \\mathrm { m a x } } ~ \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { a } \\sim \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) } [ A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) ] \\mathrm { ~ s . t . ~ } D _ { \\mathrm { K L } } ( \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) | | \\pi _ { \\beta } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) ) \\leq \\epsilon .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "f29a35c01828ca7e42e7a8be37d4f76ec232317aa2ed5970c21a98b9e50b4072.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 21, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 163, + 354, + 447, + 375 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 21 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 380, + 505, + 457 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 381, + 506, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 381, + 506, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "As we saw in Section 3.2, enforcing the constraint by incorporating an explicit learned behavior", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 391, + 506, + 404 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 391, + 506, + 404 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "model (Kumar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2020; Siegel et al., 2020) leads to poor", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 402, + 506, + 415 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 402, + 506, + 415 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fine-tuning performance. 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The analytic solution to Equation 6 can be obtained by enforcing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 445, + 506, + 457 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 445, + 506, + 457 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the KKT conditions (Peters & Schaal, 2007; Peters et al., 2010; Peng et al., 2019). The Lagrangian is:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 25, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 381, + 506, + 457 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 175, + 462, + 434, + 477 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 462, + 434, + 477 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 462, + 434, + 477 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\mathcal { L } ( \\pi , \\lambda ) = \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { a } \\sim \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) } [ A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) ] + \\lambda ( \\epsilon - D _ { \\mathrm { K L } } ( \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) | | \\pi _ { \\beta } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) ) ) , } \\end{array}", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "d178825f82af809923c82b9da38091cb018c057af61ffc1b24657cce82e38e32.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 29, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 462, + 434, + 477 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 29 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 483, + 505, + 527 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 482, + 505, + 497 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 482, + 298, + 497 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the closed form solution to this problem is", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 298, + 482, + 449, + 496 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\pi ^ { * } ( { \\bf a } | { \\bf s } ) \\propto \\pi _ { \\beta } ( { \\bf a } | { \\bf s } ) \\exp \\left( \\frac { 1 } { \\lambda } A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( { \\bf s } , { \\bf a } ) \\right) } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 449, + 482, + 505, + 497 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". When using", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 494, + 505, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 494, + 505, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "function approximators, such as deep neural networks as we do, we need to project the non-parametric", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 505, + 505, + 517 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 505, + 277, + 517 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "solution into our policy space. 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Choosing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 578, + 505, + 592 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 578, + 151, + 592 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the reverse", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 151, + 580, + 165, + 590 + ], + "score": 0.25, + "content": "\\mathrm { K L }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 166, + 578, + 505, + 592 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "results in explicit penalty methods (Wu et al., 2020) that rely on evaluating the density", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 590, + 505, + 604 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 590, + 505, + 604 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of a learned behavior model. 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See Appendix A.2 for a more detailed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 693, + 367, + 705 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 693, + 367, + 705 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "derivation and Appendix A.3 for specific implementation details.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "index": 45, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 650, + 506, + 705 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 504, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 708, + 505, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 708, + 505, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Avoiding explicit behavior modeling. 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As we show in our experimental analysis with direct comparisons", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 506, + 415 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 506, + 415 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to prior work, every one of the design decisions being made in this work are important for algo-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 506, + 425 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 506, + 425 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "rithm performance. As compared to AWR (Peng et al., 2019), AWAC uses TD bootstrapping for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 423, + 506, + 435 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 423, + 506, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "significantly more efficient and even asymptotically better performance. As compared to offline RL", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 434, + 506, + 446 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 434, + 506, + 446 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "techniques like ABM (Siegel et al., 2020), MPO (Abdolmaleki et al., 2018), BEAR (Kumar et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 442, + 507, + 459 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 442, + 507, + 459 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2019) or BCQ (Fujimoto et al., 2019) this work is able to avoid the need for any behavior modeling,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 454, + 506, + 469 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 454, + 506, + 469 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "thereby enabling the online fine-tuning part of the problem much better. As shown in Fig 3, when", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 465, + 468, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 465, + 468, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "these seemingly ablations are made to AWAC, the algorithm performs significantly worse.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "index": 43.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 497, + 210, + 510 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 497, + 213, + 512 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 497, + 213, + 512 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5 RELATED WORK", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 526, + 506, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 526, + 506, + 540 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 526, + 506, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Off-policy RL algorithms are designed to reuse off-policy data during training, and have been studied", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 538, + 506, + 550 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 538, + 506, + 550 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "extensively (Konda & Tsitsiklis, 2000; Degris et al., 2012; Mnih et al., 2016; Haarnoja et al., 2018;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 549, + 506, + 561 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 549, + 506, + 561 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Fujimoto et al., 2018; Bhatnagar et al., 2009; Peters & Schaal, 2008a; Zhang et al., 2019; Wawrzynski,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 558, + 506, + 572 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 558, + 506, + 572 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2009; Balduzzi & Ghifary, 2015). While standard off-policy methods are able to benefit from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 570, + 506, + 583 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 570, + 506, + 583 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "including data seen during a training run, as we show in Section 3.2 they struggle when training", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 581, + 505, + 594 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 581, + 505, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from previously collected offline data from other policies, due to error accumulation with distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 54 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 591, + 505, + 604 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 591, + 505, + 604 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "shift (Fujimoto et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2019). Offline RL methods aim to address this issue, often", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 55 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 602, + 506, + 615 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 602, + 506, + 615 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by constraining the actor updates to avoid excessive deviation from the data distribution (Lange", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 56 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 613, + 506, + 626 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 613, + 506, + 626 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2012; Thomas & Brunskill, 2016; Hallak et al., 2015; 2016; Hallak & Mannor, 2017; Agarwal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 57 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 624, + 506, + 636 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 624, + 506, + 636 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Fakoor et al., 2019; Nachum et al., 2019;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 58 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 648 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Siegel et al., 2020; Levine et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020). One class of these methods utilize", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 59 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 645, + 505, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 645, + 505, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "importance sampling (Thomas & Brunskill, 2016; Zhang et al., 2020; Nachum et al., 2019; Degris", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 60 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 656, + 506, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 656, + 506, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2012; Jiang & Li, 2016; Hallak & Mannor, 2017). Another class of methods perform offline", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 61 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 666, + 506, + 680 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 666, + 506, + 680 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reinforcement learning via dynamic programming, with an explicit constraint to prevent deviation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 62 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from the data distribution (Lange et al., 2012; Kumar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Wu et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 63 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 506, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 506, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2020; Jaques et al., 2019). While these algorithms perform well in the purely offline settings, we show", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 64 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Section 3.3 that such methods tend to be overly conservative, and therefore may not learn efficiently", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 65 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "when fine-tuning with online data collection. 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This is particularly", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 207, + 506, + 219 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 207, + 506, + 219 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "important in our problem setting to effectively use the offline dataset, and allows us to significantly", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 217, + 506, + 230 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 217, + 328, + 230 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "outperform alternatives using Monte-Carlo evaluation or", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 329, + 218, + 355, + 229 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "\\mathrm { T D } ( \\lambda )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 356, + 217, + 506, + 230 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to estimate returns (Peng et al., 2019).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 9.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 163, + 506, + 230 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 234, + 344, + 342 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 233, + 346, + 246 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 233, + 346, + 246 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Algorithm summary. The full AWAC algorithm for of-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 245, + 345, + 257 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 245, + 345, + 257 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fline RL with online fine-tuning is summarized in Algorithm", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 256, + 344, + 268 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 256, + 344, + 268 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1. In a practical implementation, we can parameterize the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 267, + 345, + 278 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 267, + 345, + 278 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "actor and the critic by neural networks and perform SGD", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 277, + 346, + 289 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 277, + 346, + 289 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "updates from Eqn. 9 and Eqn. 3. Specific details are pro-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 288, + 345, + 300 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 288, + 345, + 300 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "vided in Appendix A.3. AWAC ensures data efficiency with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 298, + 345, + 311 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 298, + 345, + 311 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "off-policy critic estimation via bootstrapping, and avoids", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 309, + 345, + 322 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 309, + 345, + 322 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "offline bootstrap error with a constrained actor update. 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As we show in our experimental analysis with direct comparisons", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 506, + 415 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 506, + 415 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to prior work, every one of the design decisions being made in this work are important for algo-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 506, + 425 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 506, + 425 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "rithm performance. As compared to AWR (Peng et al., 2019), AWAC uses TD bootstrapping for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 423, + 506, + 435 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 423, + 506, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "significantly more efficient and even asymptotically better performance. As compared to offline RL", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 434, + 506, + 446 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 434, + 506, + 446 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "techniques like ABM (Siegel et al., 2020), MPO (Abdolmaleki et al., 2018), BEAR (Kumar et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 442, + 507, + 459 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 442, + 507, + 459 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2019) or BCQ (Fujimoto et al., 2019) this work is able to avoid the need for any behavior modeling,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 454, + 506, + 469 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 454, + 506, + 469 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "thereby enabling the online fine-tuning part of the problem much better. As shown in Fig 3, when", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 465, + 468, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 465, + 468, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "these seemingly ablations are made to AWAC, the algorithm performs significantly worse.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "index": 34.0, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 346, + 345, + 391 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 391, + 505, + 477 + ], + "lines": [], + "index": 43.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 390, + 507, + 479 + ], + "lines_deleted": true + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 497, + 210, + 510 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 497, + 213, + 512 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 497, + 213, + 512 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5 RELATED WORK", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 526, + 506, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 526, + 506, + 540 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 526, + 506, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Off-policy RL algorithms are designed to reuse off-policy data during training, and have been studied", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 538, + 506, + 550 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 538, + 506, + 550 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "extensively (Konda & Tsitsiklis, 2000; Degris et al., 2012; Mnih et al., 2016; Haarnoja et al., 2018;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 549, + 506, + 561 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 549, + 506, + 561 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Fujimoto et al., 2018; Bhatnagar et al., 2009; Peters & Schaal, 2008a; Zhang et al., 2019; Wawrzynski,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 558, + 506, + 572 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 558, + 506, + 572 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2009; Balduzzi & Ghifary, 2015). While standard off-policy methods are able to benefit from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 570, + 506, + 583 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 570, + 506, + 583 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "including data seen during a training run, as we show in Section 3.2 they struggle when training", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 581, + 505, + 594 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 581, + 505, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from previously collected offline data from other policies, due to error accumulation with distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 54 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 591, + 505, + 604 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 591, + 505, + 604 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "shift (Fujimoto et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2019). Offline RL methods aim to address this issue, often", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 55 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 602, + 506, + 615 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 602, + 506, + 615 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by constraining the actor updates to avoid excessive deviation from the data distribution (Lange", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 56 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 613, + 506, + 626 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 613, + 506, + 626 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2012; Thomas & Brunskill, 2016; Hallak et al., 2015; 2016; Hallak & Mannor, 2017; Agarwal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 57 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 624, + 506, + 636 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 624, + 506, + 636 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Fakoor et al., 2019; Nachum et al., 2019;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 58 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 648 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Siegel et al., 2020; Levine et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020). One class of these methods utilize", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 59 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 645, + 505, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 645, + 505, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "importance sampling (Thomas & Brunskill, 2016; Zhang et al., 2020; Nachum et al., 2019; Degris", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 60 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 656, + 506, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 656, + 506, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2012; Jiang & Li, 2016; Hallak & Mannor, 2017). Another class of methods perform offline", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 61 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 666, + 506, + 680 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 666, + 506, + 680 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reinforcement learning via dynamic programming, with an explicit constraint to prevent deviation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 62 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from the data distribution (Lange et al., 2012; Kumar et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2019; Wu et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 63 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 506, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 506, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2020; Jaques et al., 2019). While these algorithms perform well in the purely offline settings, we show", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 64 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Section 3.3 that such methods tend to be overly conservative, and therefore may not learn efficiently", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 65 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "when fine-tuning with online data collection. In contrast, our algorithm AWAC is comparable to these", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 66 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 501, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 501, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithms for offline pre-training, but learns much more efficiently during subsequent fine-tuning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 67 + } + ], + "index": 58, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 526, + 506, + 734 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 112, + 79, + 499, + 223 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 112, + 79, + 499, + 223 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 112, + 79, + 499, + 223 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 112, + 79, + 499, + 223 + ], + "score": 0.975, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "dc95e9ee3e9e8f7a7a8fc57f523828dde009fc7403afddda26bacd248160c39d.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 112, + 79, + 499, + 127.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 112, + 127.0, + 499, + 175.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 112, + 175.0, + 499, + 223.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 232, + 505, + 273 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 232, + 505, + 245 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 232, + 505, + 245 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 3: Comparative evaluation on the dexterous manipulation tasks. These tasks are difficult due to their high", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 242, + 506, + 254 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 242, + 506, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "action dimensionality and reward sparsity. We see that AWAC is able to learn these tasks with little online data", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 252, + 506, + 264 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 252, + 233, + 264 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "collection required (100K samples", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 233, + 253, + 254, + 262 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "\\approx 1 6", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 252, + 506, + 264 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "minutes of equivalent real-world interaction time). Meanwhile, most", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 262, + 439, + 273 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 262, + 439, + 273 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prior methods are not able to solve the harder two tasks: door opening and object relocation.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 4.5 + } + ], + "index": 2.75 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 284, + 505, + 402 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 284, + 506, + 297 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 284, + 506, + 297 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Prior work has also considered the special case of learning from demonstration data. One class of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 296, + 506, + 307 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 296, + 506, + 307 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithms initializes the policy via behavioral cloning from demonstrations, and then fine-tunes", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 306, + 506, + 318 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 306, + 506, + 318 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with reinforcement learning (Peters & Schaal, 2008b; Ijspeert et al., 2002; Theodorou et al., 2010;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 316, + 506, + 328 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 316, + 506, + 328 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Kim et al., 2013; Rajeswaran et al., 2018; Gupta et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2019). Most such methods", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 327, + 505, + 339 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 327, + 505, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "use on-policy fine-tuning, which is less sample-efficient than off-policy methods that perform value", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 338, + 505, + 350 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 338, + 505, + 350 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "function estimation. Other prior works have incorporated demonstration data into the replay buffer", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 348, + 506, + 361 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 348, + 506, + 361 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using off-policy RL methods (Vecerík et al., 2017; Nair et al., 2017). We show in Section 3.2 that ˇ", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 505, + 372 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 505, + 372 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "these strategies can result in a large dip in performance during online fine-tuning, due to the inability", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 369, + 505, + 384 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 369, + 505, + 384 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to pre-train an effective value function from offline data. In contrast, our work shows that using", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 381, + 506, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 381, + 506, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "supervised learning style policy updates can allow for better bootstrapping from demonstrations as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 392, + 333, + 403 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 392, + 333, + 403 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "compared to Vecerík et al. (2017) and Nair et al. (2017). ˇ", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 408, + 505, + 592 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 507, + 421 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 507, + 421 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our method builds on algorithms that implement a maximum likelihood objective for the actor,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 419, + 506, + 432 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 419, + 506, + 432 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "based on an expectation-maximization formulation of RL (Peters & Schaal, 2007; Neumann &", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 430, + 506, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 430, + 506, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Peters, 2008; Theodorou et al., 2010; Peters et al., 2010; Peng et al., 2019; Abdolmaleki et al., 2018;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 440, + 506, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 440, + 506, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Wang et al., 2018). Most closely related to our method in this respect are the algorithms proposed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 505, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 505, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by Peng et al. (2019) (AWR) and Siegel et al. (2020) (ABM). Unlike AWR, which estimates the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 462, + 505, + 475 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 462, + 264, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "value function of the behavior policy,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 265, + 462, + 283, + 472 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "V ^ { \\pi _ { \\beta } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 284, + 462, + 413, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "via Monte-Carlo estimation or", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 413, + 462, + 442, + 473 + ], + "score": 0.71, + "content": "\\mathrm { T D } - \\lambda", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 442, + 462, + 505, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", our algorithm", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 473, + 506, + 486 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 473, + 293, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "estimates the Q-function of the current policy", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 293, + 473, + 308, + 484 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "Q ^ { \\pi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 308, + 473, + 506, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "via bootstrapping, enabling much more efficient", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 483, + 506, + 497 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 483, + 506, + 497 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning, as shown in our experiments. Unlike ABM, our method does not require learning a separate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 506, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 313, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "function approximator to model the behavior policy", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 313, + 496, + 326, + 506 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 326, + 495, + 506, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and instead directly samples the dataset. As", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 504, + 506, + 518 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 504, + 265, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we discussed in Section 3.3, modeling", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 266, + 506, + 278, + 517 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 278, + 504, + 506, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be a major challenge for online fine-tuning. While", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 515, + 505, + 529 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 515, + 505, + 529 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "these distinctions may seem somewhat subtle, they are important and we show in our experiments", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 527, + 506, + 539 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 527, + 506, + 539 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that they result in a large difference in algorithm performance. Finally, our work goes beyond the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 537, + 507, + 550 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 537, + 507, + 550 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "analysis in prior work, by studying the issues associated with pre-training and fine-tuning in Section 3.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 547, + 506, + 560 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 547, + 506, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Concurrently to our work, Wang et al. (2020) proposed critic regularized regression for offline RL,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 558, + 507, + 572 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 558, + 507, + 572 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which uses off-policy Q-learning and an equivalent policy update. In contrast to this concurrent work,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 569, + 506, + 582 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 569, + 506, + 582 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we specifically study the offline pretraining online fine-tuning problem, analyze why other methods", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 580, + 482, + 593 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 580, + 482, + 593 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are ineffective in this setting, and show that our approach achieves substantially better results.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 611, + 276, + 623 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 610, + 278, + 625 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 610, + 278, + 625 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6 EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 639, + 504, + 704 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 639, + 506, + 652 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 639, + 506, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In our experiments, we first compare our method against prior methods in the offline training and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 650, + 506, + 662 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 650, + 506, + 662 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fine-tuning setting. We show that we can learn difficult, high-dimensional, sparse reward dexterous", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 506, + 673 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 506, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "manipulation problems from human demonstrations and off-policy data. We then evaluate our method", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 671, + 506, + 684 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 671, + 506, + 684 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with suboptimal prior data generated by a random controller. Finally, we study why prior methods", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 682, + 506, + 694 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 682, + 506, + 694 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "struggle in this setting by analyzing their performance on benchmark MuJoCo tasks, and conduct", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 694, + 446, + 705 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 694, + 446, + 705 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "further experiments to understand where the difficulty lies (also shown in Section 3).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + } + ], + "index": 38.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 710, + 504, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6.1) Comparative Evaluation Learning From Prior Data. We aim to study tasks representative", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 506, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 506, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the difficulties of real-world robot learning, where offline learning and online fine-tuning are most", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + } + ], + "index": 42.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 6, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 27, + 306, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2021", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 303, + 751, + 308, + 759 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 750, + 309, + 763 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 750, + 309, + 763 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "", + "type": "text", + "height": 13, + "width": 7 + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 112, + 79, + 499, + 223 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 112, + 79, + 499, + 223 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 112, + 79, + 499, + 223 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 112, + 79, + 499, + 223 + ], + "score": 0.975, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "dc95e9ee3e9e8f7a7a8fc57f523828dde009fc7403afddda26bacd248160c39d.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 112, + 79, + 499, + 127.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 112, + 127.0, + 499, + 175.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 112, + 175.0, + 499, + 223.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 232, + 505, + 273 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 232, + 505, + 245 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 232, + 505, + 245 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 3: Comparative evaluation on the dexterous manipulation tasks. These tasks are difficult due to their high", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 242, + 506, + 254 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 242, + 506, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "action dimensionality and reward sparsity. We see that AWAC is able to learn these tasks with little online data", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 252, + 506, + 264 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 252, + 233, + 264 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "collection required (100K samples", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 233, + 253, + 254, + 262 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "\\approx 1 6", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 252, + 506, + 264 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "minutes of equivalent real-world interaction time). Meanwhile, most", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 262, + 439, + 273 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 262, + 439, + 273 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prior methods are not able to solve the harder two tasks: door opening and object relocation.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 4.5 + } + ], + "index": 2.75 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 284, + 505, + 402 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 284, + 506, + 297 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 284, + 506, + 297 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Prior work has also considered the special case of learning from demonstration data. One class of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 296, + 506, + 307 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 296, + 506, + 307 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithms initializes the policy via behavioral cloning from demonstrations, and then fine-tunes", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 306, + 506, + 318 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 306, + 506, + 318 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with reinforcement learning (Peters & Schaal, 2008b; Ijspeert et al., 2002; Theodorou et al., 2010;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 316, + 506, + 328 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 316, + 506, + 328 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Kim et al., 2013; Rajeswaran et al., 2018; Gupta et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2019). Most such methods", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 327, + 505, + 339 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 327, + 505, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "use on-policy fine-tuning, which is less sample-efficient than off-policy methods that perform value", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 338, + 505, + 350 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 338, + 505, + 350 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "function estimation. Other prior works have incorporated demonstration data into the replay buffer", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 348, + 506, + 361 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 348, + 506, + 361 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using off-policy RL methods (Vecerík et al., 2017; Nair et al., 2017). We show in Section 3.2 that ˇ", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 505, + 372 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 505, + 372 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "these strategies can result in a large dip in performance during online fine-tuning, due to the inability", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 369, + 505, + 384 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 369, + 505, + 384 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to pre-train an effective value function from offline data. In contrast, our work shows that using", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 381, + 506, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 381, + 506, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "supervised learning style policy updates can allow for better bootstrapping from demonstrations as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 392, + 333, + 403 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 392, + 333, + 403 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "compared to Vecerík et al. (2017) and Nair et al. (2017). ˇ", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 12, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 284, + 506, + 403 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 408, + 505, + 592 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 507, + 421 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 507, + 421 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our method builds on algorithms that implement a maximum likelihood objective for the actor,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 419, + 506, + 432 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 419, + 506, + 432 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "based on an expectation-maximization formulation of RL (Peters & Schaal, 2007; Neumann &", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 430, + 506, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 430, + 506, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Peters, 2008; Theodorou et al., 2010; Peters et al., 2010; Peng et al., 2019; Abdolmaleki et al., 2018;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 440, + 506, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 440, + 506, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Wang et al., 2018). Most closely related to our method in this respect are the algorithms proposed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 505, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 505, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by Peng et al. (2019) (AWR) and Siegel et al. (2020) (ABM). Unlike AWR, which estimates the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 462, + 505, + 475 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 462, + 264, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "value function of the behavior policy,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 265, + 462, + 283, + 472 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "V ^ { \\pi _ { \\beta } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 284, + 462, + 413, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "via Monte-Carlo estimation or", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 413, + 462, + 442, + 473 + ], + "score": 0.71, + "content": "\\mathrm { T D } - \\lambda", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 442, + 462, + 505, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", our algorithm", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 473, + 506, + 486 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 473, + 293, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "estimates the Q-function of the current policy", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 293, + 473, + 308, + 484 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "Q ^ { \\pi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 308, + 473, + 506, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "via bootstrapping, enabling much more efficient", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 483, + 506, + 497 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 483, + 506, + 497 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning, as shown in our experiments. Unlike ABM, our method does not require learning a separate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 506, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 313, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "function approximator to model the behavior policy", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 313, + 496, + 326, + 506 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 326, + 495, + 506, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and instead directly samples the dataset. As", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 504, + 506, + 518 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 504, + 265, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we discussed in Section 3.3, modeling", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 266, + 506, + 278, + 517 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 278, + 504, + 506, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be a major challenge for online fine-tuning. While", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 515, + 505, + 529 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 515, + 505, + 529 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "these distinctions may seem somewhat subtle, they are important and we show in our experiments", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 527, + 506, + 539 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 527, + 506, + 539 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that they result in a large difference in algorithm performance. Finally, our work goes beyond the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 537, + 507, + 550 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 537, + 507, + 550 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "analysis in prior work, by studying the issues associated with pre-training and fine-tuning in Section 3.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 547, + 506, + 560 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 547, + 506, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Concurrently to our work, Wang et al. (2020) proposed critic regularized regression for offline RL,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 558, + 507, + 572 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 558, + 507, + 572 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which uses off-policy Q-learning and an equivalent policy update. In contrast to this concurrent work,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 569, + 506, + 582 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 569, + 506, + 582 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we specifically study the offline pretraining online fine-tuning problem, analyze why other methods", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 580, + 482, + 593 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 580, + 482, + 593 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are ineffective in this setting, and show that our approach achieves substantially better results.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 26, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 407, + 507, + 593 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 611, + 276, + 623 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 610, + 278, + 625 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 610, + 278, + 625 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6 EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 639, + 504, + 704 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 639, + 506, + 652 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 639, + 506, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In our experiments, we first compare our method against prior methods in the offline training and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 650, + 506, + 662 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 650, + 506, + 662 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fine-tuning setting. We show that we can learn difficult, high-dimensional, sparse reward dexterous", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 506, + 673 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 506, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "manipulation problems from human demonstrations and off-policy data. We then evaluate our method", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 671, + 506, + 684 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 671, + 506, + 684 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with suboptimal prior data generated by a random controller. Finally, we study why prior methods", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 682, + 506, + 694 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 682, + 506, + 694 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "struggle in this setting by analyzing their performance on benchmark MuJoCo tasks, and conduct", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 694, + 446, + 705 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 694, + 446, + 705 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "further experiments to understand where the difficulty lies (also shown in Section 3).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + } + ], + "index": 38.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 639, + 506, + 705 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 710, + 504, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6.1) Comparative Evaluation Learning From Prior Data. We aim to study tasks representative", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 506, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 506, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the difficulties of real-world robot learning, where offline learning and online fine-tuning are most", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "relevant. We begin our analysis with a set of challenging sparse reward dexterous manipulation", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 92, + 506, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 92, + 506, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tasks proposed by Rajeswaran et al. (2018). These tasks involve complex manipulation skills using", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 103, + 506, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 103, + 506, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a 28-DoF five-fingered hand in the MuJoCo simulator (Todorov et al., 2012) shown in Figure 3:", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 506, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 506, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in-hand rotation of a pen, opening a door by unlatching the handle, and picking up a sphere and", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 125, + 506, + 137 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 125, + 506, + 137 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "relocating it to a target location. These environments exhibit many challenges: high dimensional", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 136, + 506, + 148 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 136, + 506, + 148 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "action spaces, complex manipulation physics with many intermittent contacts, and randomized hand", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 147, + 506, + 159 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 147, + 506, + 159 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and object positions. The reward functions in these environments are binary 0-1 rewards for task", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 158, + 506, + 170 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 158, + 506, + 170 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "completion. 2 Rajeswaran et al. (2018) provide 25 human demonstrations for each task, which are not", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 168, + 505, + 181 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 168, + 505, + 181 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fully optimal but do solve the task. Since this dataset is small, we generated another 500 trajectories", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 179, + 499, + 192 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 179, + 499, + 192 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of interaction data by constructing a behavioral cloned policy, and then sampling from this policy.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 42.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 505, + 191 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "relevant. We begin our analysis with a set of challenging sparse reward dexterous manipulation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 92, + 506, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 92, + 506, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tasks proposed by Rajeswaran et al. (2018). These tasks involve complex manipulation skills using", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 103, + 506, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 103, + 506, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a 28-DoF five-fingered hand in the MuJoCo simulator (Todorov et al., 2012) shown in Figure 3:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 506, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 506, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in-hand rotation of a pen, opening a door by unlatching the handle, and picking up a sphere and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 125, + 506, + 137 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 125, + 506, + 137 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "relocating it to a target location. These environments exhibit many challenges: high dimensional", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 136, + 506, + 148 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 136, + 506, + 148 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "action spaces, complex manipulation physics with many intermittent contacts, and randomized hand", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 147, + 506, + 159 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 147, + 506, + 159 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and object positions. The reward functions in these environments are binary 0-1 rewards for task", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 158, + 506, + 170 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 158, + 506, + 170 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "completion. 2 Rajeswaran et al. (2018) provide 25 human demonstrations for each task, which are not", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 168, + 505, + 181 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 168, + 505, + 181 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fully optimal but do solve the task. Since this dataset is small, we generated another 500 trajectories", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 179, + 499, + 192 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 179, + 499, + 192 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of interaction data by constructing a behavioral cloned policy, and then sampling from this policy.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 4.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 196, + 505, + 347 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 195, + 506, + 208 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 195, + 506, + 208 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "First, we compare our method on these dexterous manipulation tasks against prior methods for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 207, + 506, + 219 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 207, + 506, + 219 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "off-policy learning, offline learning, and bootstrapping from demonstrations. Specific implementation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 216, + 506, + 231 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 216, + 506, + 231 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "details are discussed in Appendix A.5. The results are shown in Fig. 3. Our method is able to leverage", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 228, + 506, + 241 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 228, + 506, + 241 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the prior data to quickly attain good performance, and the efficient off-policy actor-critic component of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 239, + 506, + 252 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 239, + 506, + 252 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "our approach fine-tunes much more quickly than demonstration augmented policy gradient (DAPG),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 250, + 505, + 261 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 250, + 505, + 261 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the method proposed by Rajeswaran et al. (2018). For example, our method solves the pen task", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 260, + 505, + 273 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 260, + 505, + 273 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in 120K timesteps, the equivalent of just 20 minutes of online interaction. While the baseline", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 271, + 505, + 284 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 271, + 505, + 284 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "comparisons and ablations are able to make some amount of progress on the pen task, alternative", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 281, + 505, + 295 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 281, + 505, + 295 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "off-policy RL and offline RL algorithms are largely unable to solve the door and relocate task in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 293, + 505, + 305 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 293, + 505, + 305 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "time-frame considered. We find that the design decisions to use off-policy critic estimation allow", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 302, + 506, + 317 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 302, + 506, + 317 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "AWAC to significantly outperform AWR (Peng et al., 2019) while the implicit behavior modeling", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 314, + 505, + 326 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 314, + 505, + 326 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "allows AWAC to significantly outperform ABM (Siegel et al., 2020), although ABM does make some", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 506, + 338 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 506, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "progress. Rajeswaran et al. (2018) show that DAPG can solve variants of these tasks with more", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 336, + 373, + 348 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 336, + 373, + 348 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "well-shaped rewards, but still requires considerably more samples.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 16.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 352, + 505, + 417 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 505, + 365 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 505, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Additionally, we evaluated all methods on the Gym MuJoCo locomotion benchmarks, similarly", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 505, + 375 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 505, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "providing demonstrations as offline data. Due to space constraints, the results plots for these", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 506, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 506, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "experiments are included in Appendix A.1. These tasks are substantially easier than the sparse reward", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 506, + 397 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 506, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "manipulation tasks described above, and a number of prior methods also perform well. However, our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 505, + 407 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 505, + 407 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method matches or exceeds the best prior method in all cases, whereas no other single prior method", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 285, + 417 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 285, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "attains good performance on all of the tasks.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 26.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 423, + 391, + 541 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 421, + 393, + 437 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 421, + 393, + 437 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6.2) Fine-Tuning from Random Policy Data. An advantage of using", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 433, + 392, + 447 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 433, + 392, + 447 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "off-policy RL for reinforcement learning is that we can also incorporate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 444, + 392, + 457 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 444, + 392, + 457 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "suboptimal data, rather than demonstrations. In this experiment, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 455, + 392, + 467 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 455, + 392, + 467 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "evaluate on a simulated tabletop pushing environment with a Sawyer", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 465, + 392, + 478 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 465, + 392, + 478 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "robot pictured in Fig 3 and described further in Appendix A.4. To study", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 392, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 392, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the potential to learn from suboptimal data, we use an off-policy dataset", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 487, + 393, + 500 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 487, + 393, + 500 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of 500 trajectories generated by a random process. The task is to push", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 392, + 511 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 239, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "an object to a target location in a", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 498, + 297, + 509 + ], + "score": 0.62, + "content": "4 0 \\mathrm { c m } \\mathrm { x } 2 0 \\mathrm { c m }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 297, + 498, + 392, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goal space. The results", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 509, + 392, + 521 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 509, + 392, + 521 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are shown in Figure 4. We see that while many methods begin at the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 519, + 392, + 532 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 519, + 392, + 532 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "same initial performance, AWAC learns the fastest online and is actually", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 529, + 306, + 543 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 529, + 306, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "able to make use of the offline dataset effectively.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 399, + 423, + 504, + 523 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 399, + 423, + 504, + 523 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 423, + 504, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 423, + 504, + 523 + ], + "score": 0.959, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "70ff058010690ec5be42b2370a086753b4d7af63ce0b7933026e108dd920cb26.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 41.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 423, + 504, + 473.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 473.0, + 504, + 523.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 42 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 399, + 526, + 504, + 565 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 526, + 505, + 537 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 526, + 505, + 537 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 4: Comparison of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 536, + 505, + 547 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 536, + 505, + 547 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fine-tuning from an initial", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 545, + 505, + 556 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 545, + 505, + 556 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dataset of suboptimal data on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 555, + 505, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 555, + 505, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a Sawyer robot pushing task.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + } + ], + "index": 44.5 + } + ], + "index": 43.0 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 557, + 297, + 569 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 299, + 572 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 299, + 572 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "7 DISCUSSION AND FUTURE WORK", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 582, + 505, + 690 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 582, + 505, + 595 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 582, + 505, + 595 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We have discussed in detail the challenges existing RL methods face when fine-tuning from prior", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 593, + 505, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 593, + 505, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "datasets, and proposed an algorithm, AWAC, that is effective in this setting. The key insight in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 603, + 506, + 617 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 603, + 506, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "AWAC is that enforcing a policy update constraint implicitly on actor-critic methods results in a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 614, + 506, + 627 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 614, + 506, + 627 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "stable learning algorithm amenable for off-policy learning. With an informative action-value estimate,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 625, + 506, + 638 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 625, + 506, + 638 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the policy is weighted towards high-advantage actions in the data, resulting in policy improvement", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 636, + 505, + 649 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 636, + 505, + 649 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "without conservative updates. A direction of future work we plan to pursue is applying AWAC to solve", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 646, + 505, + 660 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 646, + 505, + 660 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "difficult robotic tasks in the real world. More than just speeding up individual runs, incorporating", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 54 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 658, + 506, + 671 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 658, + 506, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prior data into the learning process enables continuously accumulating data by saving environment", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 55 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 669, + 505, + 681 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 669, + 505, + 681 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "interactions of the robot - for instance, runs of RL with varying hyperparameters. We hope that this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 56 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 679, + 388, + 692 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 679, + 388, + 692 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "enables a wider array of robotic applications than previously possible.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 57 + } + ], + "index": 52.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 7, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 699, + 504, + 729 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 697, + 506, + 710 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 697, + 506, + 710 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2Rajeswaran et al. (2018) use a combination of task completion factors as the sparse reward. For instance, in", + "type": "text" + } + ] + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 707, + 505, + 721 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 707, + 336, + 721 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the door task, the sparse reward as a function of the door position", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 336, + 709, + 343, + 718 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "d", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 707, + 359, + 721 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "was", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 360, + 709, + 505, + 719 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "r = 1 0 \\mathbb { 1 } _ { d > 1 . 3 5 } + 8 \\mathbb { 1 } _ { d > 1 . 0 } + 2 \\mathbb { 1 } _ { d > 1 . 2 } -", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ] + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 718, + 471, + 730 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 718, + 166, + 729 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "0 . 1 | | d - 1 . 5 7 | | _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 166, + 718, + 291, + 730 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We only use the success measure", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 291, + 719, + 334, + 729 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "r = \\mathbb { 1 } _ { d > 1 . 4 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 334, + 718, + 471, + 730 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", which is substantially more difficult.", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 27, + 306, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2021", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 752, + 308, + 759 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 750, + 309, + 761 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 750, + 309, + 761 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "8", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 505, + 191 + ], + "lines": [], + "index": 4.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 192 + ], + "lines_deleted": true + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 196, + 505, + 347 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 195, + 506, + 208 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 195, + 506, + 208 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "First, we compare our method on these dexterous manipulation tasks against prior methods for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 207, + 506, + 219 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 207, + 506, + 219 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "off-policy learning, offline learning, and bootstrapping from demonstrations. Specific implementation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 216, + 506, + 231 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 216, + 506, + 231 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "details are discussed in Appendix A.5. The results are shown in Fig. 3. Our method is able to leverage", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 228, + 506, + 241 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 228, + 506, + 241 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the prior data to quickly attain good performance, and the efficient off-policy actor-critic component of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 239, + 506, + 252 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 239, + 506, + 252 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "our approach fine-tunes much more quickly than demonstration augmented policy gradient (DAPG),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 250, + 505, + 261 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 250, + 505, + 261 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the method proposed by Rajeswaran et al. (2018). For example, our method solves the pen task", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 260, + 505, + 273 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 260, + 505, + 273 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in 120K timesteps, the equivalent of just 20 minutes of online interaction. While the baseline", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 271, + 505, + 284 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 271, + 505, + 284 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "comparisons and ablations are able to make some amount of progress on the pen task, alternative", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 281, + 505, + 295 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 281, + 505, + 295 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "off-policy RL and offline RL algorithms are largely unable to solve the door and relocate task in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 293, + 505, + 305 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 293, + 505, + 305 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "time-frame considered. We find that the design decisions to use off-policy critic estimation allow", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 302, + 506, + 317 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 302, + 506, + 317 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "AWAC to significantly outperform AWR (Peng et al., 2019) while the implicit behavior modeling", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 314, + 505, + 326 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 314, + 505, + 326 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "allows AWAC to significantly outperform ABM (Siegel et al., 2020), although ABM does make some", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 506, + 338 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 506, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "progress. Rajeswaran et al. (2018) show that DAPG can solve variants of these tasks with more", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 336, + 373, + 348 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 336, + 373, + 348 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "well-shaped rewards, but still requires considerably more samples.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 16.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 195, + 506, + 348 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 352, + 505, + 417 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 505, + 365 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 505, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Additionally, we evaluated all methods on the Gym MuJoCo locomotion benchmarks, similarly", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 505, + 375 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 505, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "providing demonstrations as offline data. Due to space constraints, the results plots for these", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 506, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 506, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "experiments are included in Appendix A.1. These tasks are substantially easier than the sparse reward", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 506, + 397 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 506, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "manipulation tasks described above, and a number of prior methods also perform well. However, our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 505, + 407 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 505, + 407 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method matches or exceeds the best prior method in all cases, whereas no other single prior method", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 285, + 417 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 285, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "attains good performance on all of the tasks.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 26.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 351, + 506, + 417 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 423, + 391, + 541 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 421, + 393, + 437 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 421, + 393, + 437 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6.2) Fine-Tuning from Random Policy Data. An advantage of using", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 433, + 392, + 447 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 433, + 392, + 447 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "off-policy RL for reinforcement learning is that we can also incorporate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 444, + 392, + 457 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 444, + 392, + 457 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "suboptimal data, rather than demonstrations. In this experiment, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 455, + 392, + 467 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 455, + 392, + 467 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "evaluate on a simulated tabletop pushing environment with a Sawyer", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 465, + 392, + 478 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 465, + 392, + 478 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "robot pictured in Fig 3 and described further in Appendix A.4. To study", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 392, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 392, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the potential to learn from suboptimal data, we use an off-policy dataset", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 487, + 393, + 500 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 487, + 393, + 500 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of 500 trajectories generated by a random process. The task is to push", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 392, + 511 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 239, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "an object to a target location in a", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 498, + 297, + 509 + ], + "score": 0.62, + "content": "4 0 \\mathrm { c m } \\mathrm { x } 2 0 \\mathrm { c m }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 297, + 498, + 392, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goal space. The results", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 509, + 392, + 521 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 509, + 392, + 521 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are shown in Figure 4. We see that while many methods begin at the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 519, + 392, + 532 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 519, + 392, + 532 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "same initial performance, AWAC learns the fastest online and is actually", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 529, + 306, + 543 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 529, + 306, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "able to make use of the offline dataset effectively.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 35, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 421, + 393, + 543 + ] + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 399, + 423, + 504, + 523 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 399, + 423, + 504, + 523 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 423, + 504, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 423, + 504, + 523 + ], + "score": 0.959, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "70ff058010690ec5be42b2370a086753b4d7af63ce0b7933026e108dd920cb26.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 41.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 423, + 504, + 473.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 473.0, + 504, + 523.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 42 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 399, + 526, + 504, + 565 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 526, + 505, + 537 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 526, + 505, + 537 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 4: Comparison of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 536, + 505, + 547 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 536, + 505, + 547 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fine-tuning from an initial", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 545, + 505, + 556 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 545, + 505, + 556 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dataset of suboptimal data on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 555, + 505, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 555, + 505, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a Sawyer robot pushing task.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + } + ], + "index": 44.5 + } + ], + "index": 43.0 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 557, + 297, + 569 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 299, + 572 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 299, + 572 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "7 DISCUSSION AND FUTURE WORK", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 582, + 505, + 690 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 582, + 505, + 595 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 582, + 505, + 595 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We have discussed in detail the challenges existing RL methods face when fine-tuning from prior", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 593, + 505, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 593, + 505, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "datasets, and proposed an algorithm, AWAC, that is effective in this setting. The key insight in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 603, + 506, + 617 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 603, + 506, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "AWAC is that enforcing a policy update constraint implicitly on actor-critic methods results in a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 614, + 506, + 627 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 614, + 506, + 627 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "stable learning algorithm amenable for off-policy learning. With an informative action-value estimate,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 625, + 506, + 638 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 625, + 506, + 638 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the policy is weighted towards high-advantage actions in the data, resulting in policy improvement", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 636, + 505, + 649 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 636, + 505, + 649 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "without conservative updates. A direction of future work we plan to pursue is applying AWAC to solve", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 646, + 505, + 660 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 646, + 505, + 660 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "difficult robotic tasks in the real world. More than just speeding up individual runs, incorporating", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 54 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 658, + 506, + 671 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 658, + 506, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prior data into the learning process enables continuously accumulating data by saving environment", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 55 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 669, + 505, + 681 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 669, + 505, + 681 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "interactions of the robot - for instance, runs of RL with varying hyperparameters. 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These", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 138, + 506, + 151 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 138, + 506, + 151 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tasks are simpler, with dense rewards and relatively lower action and observation dimensionality.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 506, + 162 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 506, + 162 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Thus, many prior methods can make good progress on these tasks. These experiments allow us", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 505, + 172 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 505, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to understand more precisely which design decisions are crucial. For each task, we collect 15", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 170, + 506, + 184 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 170, + 506, + 184 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "demonstration trajectories using a pre-trained expert on each task, and 100 trajectories of off-policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 505, + 193 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 505, + 193 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "data by rolling out a behavioral cloned policy trained on the demonstrations. The same data is made", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 191, + 506, + 205 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 191, + 506, + 205 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "available to all methods. The results are presented in Figure 5. AWAC is consistently the best or on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 202, + 506, + 215 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 202, + 506, + 215 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "par with the best-performing method. No other single method consistently attains the best results –", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 214, + 504, + 225 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 214, + 174, + 225 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on HalfCheetah,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 174, + 214, + 219, + 224 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "\\mathrm { S A C } + \\mathrm { B C }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 214, + 504, + 225 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and BRAC are competitive, while on Ant-v2 ABM is competitive with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 225, + 408, + 236 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 225, + 408, + 236 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "AWAC. We summarize the results according to the challenges in Section 3.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 6.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 241, + 505, + 295 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 240, + 507, + 253 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 240, + 334, + 253 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Data efficiency. The three methods that do not estimate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 334, + 241, + 348, + 252 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "Q ^ { \\pi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 349, + 240, + 507, + 253 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are DAPG (Abdolmaleki et al., 2018),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 252, + 505, + 263 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 252, + 505, + 263 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "AWR (Peng et al., 2019), and MARWIL (Wang et al., 2018). Across all three tasks, we see that these", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 262, + 506, + 275 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 262, + 506, + 275 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods are somewhat worse offline than the best performing offline methods, and exhibit steady but", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 273, + 505, + 286 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 273, + 505, + 286 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "very slow improvement during fine-tuning. In robotics, data efficiency is vital, so these algorithms", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 285, + 351, + 297 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 285, + 351, + 297 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are not good candidates for practical real-world applications.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 300, + 505, + 409 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 300, + 506, + 313 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 300, + 506, + 313 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Bootstrap error in offline learning. For SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018), across all three tasks, we see", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 311, + 506, + 324 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 311, + 506, + 324 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that the offline performance at epoch 0 is generally poor. Due to the data in the replay buffer, SAC", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 322, + 506, + 335 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 322, + 506, + 335 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with prior data does learn faster than from scratch, but AWAC is faster to solve the tasks in general.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 332, + 506, + 346 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 332, + 506, + 346 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "SAC with additional data in the replay buffer is similar to the approach proposed by Vecerík et al. ˇ", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 506, + 356 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 137, + 356 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(2017).", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 138, + 344, + 177, + 354 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\mathrm { S A C + B C }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 177, + 344, + 506, + 356 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reproduces Nair et al. (2018) but uses SAC instead of DDPG (Lillicrap et al., 2016)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 354, + 506, + 367 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 354, + 506, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as the underlying RL algorithm. We find that these algorithms exhibit a characteristic dip at the start", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 365, + 505, + 378 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 365, + 505, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of learning. Although this dip is only present in the early part of the learning curve, a poor initial", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 376, + 505, + 389 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 376, + 505, + 389 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policy and lack of steady policy improvement can be a safety concern and a significant hindrance in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 387, + 506, + 399 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 387, + 506, + 399 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "real-world applications. Moreover, recall that in the more difficult dextrous manipulation tasks, these", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 397, + 300, + 411 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 397, + 300, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithms do not show any significant learning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 21.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 414, + 505, + 489 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 414, + 505, + 426 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 414, + 505, + 426 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Conservative online learning. Finally, we consider conservative offline algorithms: ABM (Siegel", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 424, + 505, + 437 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 424, + 505, + 437 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2020), BEAR (Kumar et al., 2019), and BRAC (Wu et al., 2020). We found that BRAC", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 435, + 506, + 448 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 435, + 506, + 448 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performs similarly to SAC for working hyperparameters. BEAR trains well offline – on Ant and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 446, + 505, + 459 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 446, + 505, + 459 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Walker2d, BEAR significantly outperforms prior methods before online experience. However, online", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 457, + 504, + 469 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 457, + 504, + 469 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "improvement is slow for BEAR and the final performance across all three tasks is much lower than", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 480 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 480 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "AWAC. 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These tasks are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 630, + 506, + 641 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 630, + 506, + 641 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "much easier than the dexterous manipulation tasks, and allow us to better inspect the performance of methods in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 640, + 506, + 651 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 640, + 338, + 651 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the setting of offline pretraining followed by online fine-tuning.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 338, + 640, + 374, + 650 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "\\mathrm { S A C + B C }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 374, + 640, + 506, + 651 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and BRAC perform on par with our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 650, + 505, + 660 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 650, + 505, + 660 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method on the HalfCheetah task, and ABM performs on par with our method on the Ant task, while our method", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 659, + 506, + 671 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 659, + 506, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "outperforms all others on the Walker2D task. Our method matches or exceeds the best prior method in all cases,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 670, + 403, + 680 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 670, + 403, + 680 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "whereas no other single prior method attains good performance on all of the tasks.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + } + ], + "index": 39.5 + } + ], + "index": 37.25 + } + ], + "page_idx": 11, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 307, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 25, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 25, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2021", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 300, + 751, + 310, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 312, + 764 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 312, + 764 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "", + "type": "text", + "height": 14, + "width": 13 + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 81, + 182, + 93 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 79, + 184, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 79, + 184, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A APPENDIX", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 107, + 339, + 119 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 107, + 341, + 120 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 107, + 341, + 120 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.1 GYM BENCHMARK RESULTS FROM PRIOR DATA", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 127, + 505, + 236 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 505, + 140 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 505, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we provide a comparative evaluation on MuJoCo benchmark tasks for analysis. These", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 138, + 506, + 151 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 138, + 506, + 151 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tasks are simpler, with dense rewards and relatively lower action and observation dimensionality.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 506, + 162 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 506, + 162 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Thus, many prior methods can make good progress on these tasks. These experiments allow us", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 505, + 172 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 505, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to understand more precisely which design decisions are crucial. For each task, we collect 15", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 170, + 506, + 184 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 170, + 506, + 184 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "demonstration trajectories using a pre-trained expert on each task, and 100 trajectories of off-policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 505, + 193 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 505, + 193 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "data by rolling out a behavioral cloned policy trained on the demonstrations. The same data is made", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 191, + 506, + 205 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 191, + 506, + 205 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "available to all methods. The results are presented in Figure 5. AWAC is consistently the best or on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 202, + 506, + 215 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 202, + 506, + 215 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "par with the best-performing method. No other single method consistently attains the best results –", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 214, + 504, + 225 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 214, + 174, + 225 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on HalfCheetah,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 174, + 214, + 219, + 224 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "\\mathrm { S A C } + \\mathrm { B C }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 214, + 504, + 225 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and BRAC are competitive, while on Ant-v2 ABM is competitive with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 225, + 408, + 236 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 225, + 408, + 236 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "AWAC. We summarize the results according to the challenges in Section 3.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 6.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 127, + 506, + 236 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 241, + 505, + 295 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 240, + 507, + 253 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 240, + 334, + 253 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Data efficiency. The three methods that do not estimate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 334, + 241, + 348, + 252 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "Q ^ { \\pi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 349, + 240, + 507, + 253 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are DAPG (Abdolmaleki et al., 2018),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 252, + 505, + 263 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 252, + 505, + 263 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "AWR (Peng et al., 2019), and MARWIL (Wang et al., 2018). Across all three tasks, we see that these", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 262, + 506, + 275 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 262, + 506, + 275 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods are somewhat worse offline than the best performing offline methods, and exhibit steady but", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 273, + 505, + 286 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 273, + 505, + 286 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "very slow improvement during fine-tuning. In robotics, data efficiency is vital, so these algorithms", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 285, + 351, + 297 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 285, + 351, + 297 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are not good candidates for practical real-world applications.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 14, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 240, + 507, + 297 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 300, + 505, + 409 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 300, + 506, + 313 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 300, + 506, + 313 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Bootstrap error in offline learning. For SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018), across all three tasks, we see", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 311, + 506, + 324 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 311, + 506, + 324 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that the offline performance at epoch 0 is generally poor. Due to the data in the replay buffer, SAC", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 322, + 506, + 335 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 322, + 506, + 335 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with prior data does learn faster than from scratch, but AWAC is faster to solve the tasks in general.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 332, + 506, + 346 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 332, + 506, + 346 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "SAC with additional data in the replay buffer is similar to the approach proposed by Vecerík et al. ˇ", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 506, + 356 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 137, + 356 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(2017).", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 138, + 344, + 177, + 354 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\mathrm { S A C + B C }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 177, + 344, + 506, + 356 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reproduces Nair et al. (2018) but uses SAC instead of DDPG (Lillicrap et al., 2016)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 354, + 506, + 367 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 354, + 506, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as the underlying RL algorithm. We find that these algorithms exhibit a characteristic dip at the start", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 365, + 505, + 378 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 365, + 505, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of learning. Although this dip is only present in the early part of the learning curve, a poor initial", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 376, + 505, + 389 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 376, + 505, + 389 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policy and lack of steady policy improvement can be a safety concern and a significant hindrance in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 387, + 506, + 399 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 387, + 506, + 399 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "real-world applications. Moreover, recall that in the more difficult dextrous manipulation tasks, these", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 397, + 300, + 411 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 397, + 300, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithms do not show any significant learning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 21.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 300, + 506, + 411 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 414, + 505, + 489 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 414, + 505, + 426 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 414, + 505, + 426 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Conservative online learning. Finally, we consider conservative offline algorithms: ABM (Siegel", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 424, + 505, + 437 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 424, + 505, + 437 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2020), BEAR (Kumar et al., 2019), and BRAC (Wu et al., 2020). We found that BRAC", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 435, + 506, + 448 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 435, + 506, + 448 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performs similarly to SAC for working hyperparameters. BEAR trains well offline – on Ant and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 446, + 505, + 459 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 446, + 505, + 459 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Walker2d, BEAR significantly outperforms prior methods before online experience. However, online", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 457, + 504, + 469 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 457, + 504, + 469 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "improvement is slow for BEAR and the final performance across all three tasks is much lower than", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 480 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 480 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "AWAC. The closest in performance to our method is ABM, which is comparable on Ant-v2, but much", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 479, + 209, + 490 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 479, + 209, + 490 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "slower on other domains.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 30, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 414, + 506, + 490 + ] + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 495, + 505, + 612 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 495, + 505, + 612 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 495, + 505, + 612 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 495, + 505, + 612 + ], + "score": 0.965, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "b64d8819c2ba2be4df471bcc86f7d5af460f8cac223ff698dda2c5e907357ea4.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 35, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 495, + 505, + 534.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 534.0, + 505, + 573.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 573.0, + 505, + 612.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 36 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 620, + 505, + 680 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 620, + 506, + 632 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 620, + 506, + 632 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 5: Comparison of our method and prior methods on standard MuJoCo benchmark tasks. These tasks are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 630, + 506, + 641 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 630, + 506, + 641 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "much easier than the dexterous manipulation tasks, and allow us to better inspect the performance of methods in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 640, + 506, + 651 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 640, + 338, + 651 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the setting of offline pretraining followed by online fine-tuning.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 338, + 640, + 374, + 650 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "\\mathrm { S A C + B C }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 374, + 640, + 506, + 651 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and BRAC perform on par with our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 650, + 505, + 660 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 650, + 505, + 660 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method on the HalfCheetah task, and ABM performs on par with our method on the Ant task, while our method", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 659, + 506, + 671 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 659, + 506, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "outperforms all others on the Walker2D task. Our method matches or exceeds the best prior method in all cases,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 670, + 403, + 680 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 670, + 403, + 680 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "whereas no other single prior method attains good performance on all of the tasks.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + } + ], + "index": 39.5 + } + ], + "index": 37.25 + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 82, + 284, + 94 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 285, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 285, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.2 ALGORITHM DERIVATION DETAILS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 102, + 504, + 125 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 102, + 505, + 115 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 102, + 469, + 115 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The full optimization problem we solve, given the previous off-policy advantage estimate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 469, + 103, + 486, + 113 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "A ^ { \\pi _ { k } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 486, + 102, + 505, + 115 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 113, + 260, + 126 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 113, + 181, + 126 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "buffer distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 181, + 115, + 193, + 126 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 193, + 113, + 260, + 126 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", is given below:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + } + ], + "index": 1.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 215, + 128, + 396, + 193 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 215, + 128, + 396, + 193 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 215, + 128, + 396, + 193 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r l } & { \\pi _ { k + 1 } = \\underset { \\pi \\in \\Pi } { \\arg \\operatorname* { m a x } } \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { a } \\sim \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) } [ A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) ] } \\\\ & { \\qquad \\mathrm { s . t . } D _ { \\mathrm { K L } } ( \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) | | \\pi _ { \\beta } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) ) \\leq \\epsilon } \\\\ & { \\qquad \\displaystyle \\int _ { \\mathbf { a } } \\pi ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } ) d \\mathbf { a } = 1 . } \\end{array}", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "5e4ce16a39e074f3e79d1c7a64e2266a7f97b45b3c1e8b585f8c3d2e7430f94a.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 4.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 215, + 128, + 396, + 144.25 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 215, + 144.25, + 396, + 160.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 215, + 160.5, + 396, + 176.75 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 215, + 176.75, + 396, + 193.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 6 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 196, + 505, + 229 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 196, + 505, + 208 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 196, + 505, + 208 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our derivation follows Peters et al. (2010) and Peng et al. (2019). The analytic solution for the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 207, + 505, + 219 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 207, + 505, + 219 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "constrained optimization problem above can be obtained by enforcing the KKT conditions. The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 218, + 166, + 230 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 218, + 166, + 230 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Lagrangian is:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 115, + 234, + 478, + 260 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 234, + 478, + 260 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 234, + 478, + 260 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\mathcal { L } ( \\pi , \\lambda , \\alpha ) = \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { a } \\sim \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) } [ A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) ] + \\lambda ( \\epsilon - D _ { \\mathrm { K L } } ( \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) | | \\pi _ { \\beta } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) ) ) + \\alpha ( 1 - \\int _ { \\mathbf { a } } \\pi ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } ) d \\mathbf { a } ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "57ec103853c729f04a9c63db29983882090e005f081fe9eec07a8a4fdb1dcd57.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 10, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 234, + 478, + 260 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 10 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 264, + 263, + 276 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 262, + 263, + 277 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 262, + 229, + 277 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Differentiating with respect to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 229, + 267, + 236, + 274 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\pi", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 237, + 262, + 263, + 277 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "gives:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 187, + 280, + 424, + 305 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 280, + 424, + 305 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 280, + 424, + 305 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\frac { \\partial \\mathcal { L } } { \\partial \\pi } = A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) - \\lambda \\log \\pi _ { \\beta } ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } ) + \\lambda \\log \\pi ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } ) + \\lambda - \\alpha .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "3b787e89511f787f3bd2d0536e2dc771ea700098909aaf30519850b81a06c7dd.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 12, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 280, + 424, + 305 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 12 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 310, + 440, + 322 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 305, + 443, + 327 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 305, + 138, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Setting", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 138, + 309, + 151, + 324 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\textstyle { \\frac { \\partial { \\mathcal { L } } } { \\partial \\pi } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 151, + 305, + 245, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to zero and solving for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 245, + 313, + 252, + 320 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "\\pi", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 253, + 305, + 443, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "gives the closed form solution to this problem:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 212, + 328, + 398, + 356 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 212, + 328, + 398, + 356 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 212, + 328, + 398, + 356 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "\\pi ^ { * } ( { \\bf a } | { \\bf s } ) = \\frac { 1 } { Z ( { \\bf s } ) } \\pi _ { \\beta } ( { \\bf a } | { \\bf s } ) \\exp \\left( \\frac { 1 } { \\lambda } A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( { \\bf s } , { \\bf a } ) \\right) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "0633f183098864402ac7622526e4081563f0c20e31edc9a70f698b0119de6a5f.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 14, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 212, + 328, + 398, + 356 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 14 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 359, + 507, + 393 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 359, + 506, + 372 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 359, + 418, + 372 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Next, we project the solution into the space of parametric policies. 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In our experiments we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 474, + 348, + 489 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 474, + 348, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "show that this decision is vital for stable off-policy learning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 492, + 504, + 514 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 491, + 505, + 506 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 491, + 403, + 506 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Furthermore, assume discrete policies with a minimum probably density of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 493, + 439, + 504 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\theta } \\geq \\alpha _ { \\theta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 439, + 491, + 505, + 506 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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Note that we can control the minimum", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 592, + 337, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 596, + 114, + 603 + ], + "score": 0.72, + "content": "\\alpha", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 592, + 337, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "if desired by applying Laplace smoothing to the policy.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 617, + 251, + 629 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 616, + 252, + 630 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 616, + 252, + 630 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.3 IMPLEMENTATION DETAILS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 637, + 506, + 692 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 637, + 505, + 650 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 637, + 505, + 650 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We implement the algorithm building on top of twin soft actor-critic (Haarnoja et al., 2018), which", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 505, + 662 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 505, + 662 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "incorporates the twin Q-function architecture from twin delayed deep deterministic policy gradient", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 659, + 506, + 671 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 659, + 506, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(TD3) from Fujimoto et al. (2018). All off-policy algorithm comparisons (SAC, BRAC, MPO, ABM,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 668, + 507, + 683 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 668, + 507, + 683 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "BEAR) are implemented from the same skeleton. 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(2010) and Peng et al. (2019). The analytic solution for the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 207, + 505, + 219 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 207, + 505, + 219 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "constrained optimization problem above can be obtained by enforcing the KKT conditions. The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 218, + 166, + 230 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 218, + 166, + 230 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Lagrangian is:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 8, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 196, + 505, + 230 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 115, + 234, + 478, + 260 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 234, + 478, + 260 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 234, + 478, + 260 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\mathcal { L } ( \\pi , \\lambda , \\alpha ) = \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { a } \\sim \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) } [ A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) ] + \\lambda ( \\epsilon - D _ { \\mathrm { K L } } ( \\pi ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) | | \\pi _ { \\beta } ( \\cdot | \\mathbf { s } ) ) ) + \\alpha ( 1 - \\int _ { \\mathbf { a } } \\pi ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } ) d \\mathbf { a } ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "57ec103853c729f04a9c63db29983882090e005f081fe9eec07a8a4fdb1dcd57.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 10, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 234, + 478, + 260 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 10 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 264, + 263, + 276 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 262, + 263, + 277 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 262, + 229, + 277 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Differentiating with respect to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 229, + 267, + 236, + 274 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\pi", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 237, + 262, + 263, + 277 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "gives:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 11, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 262, + 263, + 277 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 187, + 280, + 424, + 305 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 280, + 424, + 305 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 280, + 424, + 305 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\frac { \\partial \\mathcal { L } } { \\partial \\pi } = A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { a } ) - \\lambda \\log \\pi _ { \\beta } ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } ) + \\lambda \\log \\pi ( \\mathbf { a } | \\mathbf { s } ) + \\lambda - \\alpha .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "3b787e89511f787f3bd2d0536e2dc771ea700098909aaf30519850b81a06c7dd.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 12, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 280, + 424, + 305 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 12 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 310, + 440, + 322 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 305, + 443, + 327 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 305, + 138, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Setting", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 138, + 309, + 151, + 324 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\textstyle { \\frac { \\partial { \\mathcal { L } } } { \\partial \\pi } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 151, + 305, + 245, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to zero and solving for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 245, + 313, + 252, + 320 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "\\pi", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 253, + 305, + 443, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "gives the closed form solution to this problem:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 13, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 305, + 443, + 327 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 212, + 328, + 398, + 356 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 212, + 328, + 398, + 356 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 212, + 328, + 398, + 356 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "\\pi ^ { * } ( { \\bf a } | { \\bf s } ) = \\frac { 1 } { Z ( { \\bf s } ) } \\pi _ { \\beta } ( { \\bf a } | { \\bf s } ) \\exp \\left( \\frac { 1 } { \\lambda } A ^ { \\pi _ { k } } ( { \\bf s } , { \\bf a } ) \\right) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "0633f183098864402ac7622526e4081563f0c20e31edc9a70f698b0119de6a5f.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 14, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 212, + 328, + 398, + 356 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 14 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 359, + 507, + 393 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 359, + 506, + 372 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 359, + 418, + 372 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Next, we project the solution into the space of parametric policies. 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In our experiments we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 474, + 348, + 489 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 474, + 348, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "show that this decision is vital for stable off-policy learning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 23, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 432, + 506, + 489 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 492, + 504, + 514 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 491, + 505, + 506 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 491, + 403, + 506 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Furthermore, assume discrete policies with a minimum probably density of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 493, + 439, + 504 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\theta } \\geq \\alpha _ { \\theta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 439, + 491, + 505, + 506 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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Note that we can control the minimum", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 592, + 337, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 596, + 114, + 603 + ], + "score": 0.72, + "content": "\\alpha", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 592, + 337, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "if desired by applying Laplace smoothing to the policy.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 31, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 571, + 507, + 606 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 617, + 251, + 629 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 616, + 252, + 630 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 616, + 252, + 630 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.3 IMPLEMENTATION DETAILS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 637, + 506, + 692 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 637, + 505, + 650 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 637, + 505, + 650 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We implement the algorithm building on top of twin soft actor-critic (Haarnoja et al., 2018), which", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 505, + 662 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 505, + 662 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "incorporates the twin Q-function architecture from twin delayed deep deterministic policy gradient", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 659, + 506, + 671 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 659, + 506, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(TD3) from Fujimoto et al. (2018). All off-policy algorithm comparisons (SAC, BRAC, MPO, ABM,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 668, + 507, + 683 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 668, + 507, + 683 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "BEAR) are implemented from the same skeleton. 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Then", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 291, + 348, + 311 + ], + "score": 0.95, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { Z ( \\mathbf { s } ) \\ge 2 ( \\sqrt { \\frac { M _ { f } M _ { g } } { m _ { f } m _ { g } } + \\frac { m _ { f } m _ { g } } { M _ { f } M _ { g } } } ) ^ { - 1 } C _ { 1 } = C _ { 2 } } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 266, + 290, + 507, + 311 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "mf mgM M )−1C1 = C2. 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Then", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 291, + 348, + 311 + ], + "score": 0.95, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { Z ( \\mathbf { s } ) \\ge 2 ( \\sqrt { \\frac { M _ { f } M _ { g } } { m _ { f } m _ { g } } + \\frac { m _ { f } m _ { g } } { M _ { f } M _ { g } } } ) ^ { - 1 } C _ { 1 } = C _ { 2 } } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 266, + 290, + 507, + 311 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "mf mgM M )−1C1 = C2. 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(2018), the episode was", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 640, + 495, + 653 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 640, + 495, + 653 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "terminated when the pen fell out of the hand; we did not include this early termination condition.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 54 + } + ], + "index": 52, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 597, + 506, + 653 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 664, + 504, + 697 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 663, + 505, + 676 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 663, + 505, + 676 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "door-binary-v0. The task is to open a door, which requires first twisting a latch. The action", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 55 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 675, + 505, + 687 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 675, + 334, + 687 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dimension is 28 and the observation dimension is 39. Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 335, + 676, + 341, + 685 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "d", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 675, + 505, + 687 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote the angle of the door. 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Hyper-parameterValue
Training Batches Per Timestep1
Exploration NoiseNone (stochastic policy)
RL Batch Size1024
Discount Factor0.99
Reward Scaling1
Replay Buffer Size1000000
Number of pretraining steps25000
Policy Hidden Sizes[256,256,256, 256]
Policy Hidden ActivationReLU
Policy Weight Decay10-4
Policy Learning Rate3 ×10-4
Q Hidden Sizes[256, 256,256, 256]
Q Hidden ActivationReLU
Q Weight Decay0
Q Learning Rate3 ×10-4
Target Network T5×10-3
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Hyper-parameterValue
Training Batches Per Timestep1
Exploration NoiseNone (stochastic policy)
RL Batch Size1024
Discount Factor0.99
Reward Scaling1
Replay Buffer Size1000000
Number of pretraining steps25000
Policy Hidden Sizes[256,256,256, 256]
Policy Hidden ActivationReLU
Policy Weight Decay10-4
Policy Learning Rate3 ×10-4
Q Hidden Sizes[256, 256,256, 256]
Q Hidden ActivationReLU
Q Weight Decay0
Q Learning Rate3 ×10-4
Target Network T5×10-3
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The reward is", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 409, + 285, + 422 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "r = \\mathbb { 1 } _ { | x _ { p } - d _ { p } | \\leq 0 . 1 } - 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 285, + 408, + 289, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 23, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 387, + 505, + 423 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 433, + 317, + 445 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 433, + 318, + 446 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 433, + 318, + 446 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.4.2 SAWYER MANIPULATION ENVIRONMENT", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 452, + 505, + 507 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 451, + 505, + 465 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 451, + 162, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "SawyerPush-", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 163, + 452, + 173, + 462 + ], + "score": 0.27, + "content": "\\mathbf { \\nabla } \\cdot \\mathbf { v 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 174, + 451, + 505, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". This environment is included in the Multiworld library. The task is to push a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 462, + 505, + 476 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 462, + 217, + 476 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "puck to a goal position in a", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 217, + 463, + 273, + 474 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "4 0 \\mathrm { c m } \\mathrm { x } 2 0 \\mathrm { c m }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 273, + 462, + 505, + 476 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and the reward function is the negative distance between", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 474, + 506, + 487 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 474, + 506, + 487 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the puck and goal position. 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For Gym benchmarks", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 569, + 344, + 582 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 569, + 344, + 582 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we report average return, and expert data is collected by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 580, + 344, + 592 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 580, + 344, + 592 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a trained SAC policy. For dextrous manipulation tasks we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 591, + 344, + 603 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 591, + 344, + 603 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "report the success rate, and the expert data consists of human", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 601, + 322, + 614 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 601, + 322, + 614 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "demonstrations provided by Rajeswaran et al. 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NameQPolicy Objective元?Constraint
SACQDKL(πellQ)NoNone
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ABM-MPODKL(Q|Iπ)YesLearned Prior
DAPGJ(πe)NoNone
BRACQDKL(πellQ)YesExplicit KL penalty
AWAC (Ours)QDKL(Q|Iπe)NoImplicit
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This method learns a policy with supervised learning on demonstration", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 328, + 130, + 343 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 328, + 130, + 343 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "data.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 3.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 346, + 505, + 380 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 347, + 505, + 358 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 347, + 505, + 358 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Soft Actor Critic (SAC). Using the soft actor critic algorithm from (Haarnoja et al., 2018), we follow", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 358, + 505, + 370 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 358, + 505, + 370 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the exact same procedure as our method in order to incorporate prior data, initializing the policy with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 369, + 432, + 381 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 369, + 432, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "behavior cloning on demonstrations and adding all prior data to the replay buffer.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 384, + 505, + 418 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 385, + 505, + 397 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 385, + 505, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Behavior Regularized Actor Critic (BRAC). We implement BRAC as described in (Wu et al., 2020)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 506, + 409 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 234, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by adding policy regularization", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 396, + 286, + 408 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\log ( \\pi _ { \\beta } ( a | s ) )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 287, + 396, + 315, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 315, + 397, + 327, + 408 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 328, + 396, + 506, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is a behavior policy trained with supervised", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 481, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 481, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning on the replay buffer. We add all prior data to the replay buffer before online training.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 423, + 505, + 467 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 423, + 505, + 435 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 423, + 505, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Advantage Weighted Regression (AWR). Using the advantage weighted regression algorithm from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 434, + 505, + 446 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 434, + 505, + 446 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Peng et al., 2019), we add all prior data to the replay buffer before online training. We use the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 445, + 506, + 458 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 445, + 506, + 458 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "implementation provided by Peng et al. (2019), with the key difference from our method being that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 347, + 468 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 150, + 468 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "AWR uses", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 150, + 456, + 178, + 467 + ], + "score": 0.68, + "content": "\\mathrm { T D } ( \\lambda )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 455, + 347, + 468 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the replay buffer for policy evaluation.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 12.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 471, + 505, + 549 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 472, + 506, + 484 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 472, + 506, + 484 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Monotonic Advantage Re-Weighted Imitation Learning (MARWIL). Monotonic advantage re-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 482, + 507, + 496 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 482, + 507, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "weighted imitation learning was proposed by Wang et al. (2018) for offline imitation learning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 491, + 506, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 491, + 506, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MARWIL was not demonstrated in online RL settings, but we evaluate it for offline pretraining", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 503, + 506, + 518 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 503, + 506, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "followed by online fine-tuning as we do other offline algorithms. Although derived differently,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 515, + 505, + 527 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 515, + 505, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MARWIL and AWR are similar algorithms and only differ in value estimation: MARWIL uses the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 525, + 506, + 539 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 525, + 278, + 539 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on-policy single-path advantage estimate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 279, + 525, + 408, + 538 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "A ( s , a ) \\stackrel { . } { = } Q ^ { \\pi _ { \\beta } } ( s , a ) - V ^ { \\pi _ { \\beta } } ( s )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 408, + 525, + 453, + 539 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "instead of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 453, + 526, + 481, + 537 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "\\mathrm { T D } ( \\lambda )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 482, + 525, + 506, + 539 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 537, + 436, + 549 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 537, + 436, + 549 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "AWR. Thus, we implement MARWIL by modifying the implementation of AWR.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 552, + 505, + 597 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 506, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 506, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Maximum a Posteriori Policy Optimization (MPO). We evaluate the MPO algorithm presented", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 564, + 505, + 576 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 564, + 505, + 576 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by Abdolmaleki et al. (2018). Due to a public implementation being unavailable, we modify our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 505, + 588 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 505, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithm to be as close to MPO as possible. In particular, we change the policy update in Advantage", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 222, + 597 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 222, + 597 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Weighted Actor Critic to be:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 23.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 169, + 602, + 442, + 630 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 602, + 442, + 630 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 602, + 442, + 630 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\theta _ { i } \\longleftarrow \\underset { \\theta _ { i } } { \\longleftarrow } \\operatorname { a r g m a x } \\mathbb { E } _ { s \\sim \\mathcal { D } , a \\sim \\pi ( a \\mid s ) } \\left[ \\log \\pi _ { \\theta _ { i } } ( a \\mid s ) \\exp ( \\frac { 1 } { \\beta } Q ^ { \\pi _ { \\beta } } ( s , a ) ) \\right] .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "c653c80f1a2b6ff69e0c94d5ed1f8eaf7d41198a16d208e4c6c06fd3131037c7.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 27, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 602, + 442, + 611.3333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 611.3333333333334, + 442, + 620.6666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 620.6666666666667, + 442, + 630.0000000000001 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 28 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 635, + 504, + 668 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 635, + 506, + 647 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 635, + 506, + 647 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Note that in MPO, actions for the update are sampled from the policy and the Q-function is used", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 646, + 506, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 646, + 506, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "instead of advantage for weights. We failed to see offline or online improvement with this implemen-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 657, + 406, + 669 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 657, + 406, + 669 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tation in most environments, so we omit this comparison in favor of ABM.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 673, + 505, + 696 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 673, + 505, + 686 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 673, + 505, + 686 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Advantage-Weighted Behavior Model (ABM). We evaluate ABM, the method developed in Siegel", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 684, + 505, + 697 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 684, + 505, + 697 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. (2020). 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NameQPolicy Objective元?Constraint
SACQDKL(πellQ)NoNone
SAC + BCQMixedNoNone
BCQDKL(πellQ)YesSupport (e)
BEARDKL(πellQ)YesSupport (MMD)
AWRDKL(QIπθ)NoImplicit
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DAPGJ(πe)NoNone
BRACQDKL(πellQ)YesExplicit KL penalty
AWAC (Ours)QDKL(Q|Iπe)NoImplicit
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This method learns a policy with supervised learning on demonstration", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 328, + 130, + 343 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 328, + 130, + 343 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "data.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 3.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 317, + 506, + 343 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 346, + 505, + 380 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 347, + 505, + 358 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 347, + 505, + 358 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Soft Actor Critic (SAC). Using the soft actor critic algorithm from (Haarnoja et al., 2018), we follow", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 358, + 505, + 370 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 358, + 505, + 370 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the exact same procedure as our method in order to incorporate prior data, initializing the policy with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 369, + 432, + 381 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 369, + 432, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "behavior cloning on demonstrations and adding all prior data to the replay buffer.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 6, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 347, + 505, + 381 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 384, + 505, + 418 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 385, + 505, + 397 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 385, + 505, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Behavior Regularized Actor Critic (BRAC). We implement BRAC as described in (Wu et al., 2020)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 506, + 409 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 234, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by adding policy regularization", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 396, + 286, + 408 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\log ( \\pi _ { \\beta } ( a | s ) )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 287, + 396, + 315, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 315, + 397, + 327, + 408 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\pi _ { \\beta }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 328, + 396, + 506, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is a behavior policy trained with supervised", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 481, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 481, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning on the replay buffer. We add all prior data to the replay buffer before online training.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 9, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 385, + 506, + 420 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 423, + 505, + 467 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 423, + 505, + 435 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 423, + 505, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Advantage Weighted Regression (AWR). Using the advantage weighted regression algorithm from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 434, + 505, + 446 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 434, + 505, + 446 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Peng et al., 2019), we add all prior data to the replay buffer before online training. We use the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 445, + 506, + 458 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 445, + 506, + 458 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "implementation provided by Peng et al. (2019), with the key difference from our method being that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 347, + 468 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 150, + 468 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "AWR uses", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 150, + 456, + 178, + 467 + ], + "score": 0.68, + "content": "\\mathrm { T D } ( \\lambda )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 455, + 347, + 468 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the replay buffer for policy evaluation.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 12.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 423, + 506, + 468 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 471, + 505, + 549 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 472, + 506, + 484 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 472, + 506, + 484 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Monotonic Advantage Re-Weighted Imitation Learning (MARWIL). Monotonic advantage re-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 482, + 507, + 496 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 482, + 507, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "weighted imitation learning was proposed by Wang et al. (2018) for offline imitation learning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 491, + 506, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 491, + 506, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MARWIL was not demonstrated in online RL settings, but we evaluate it for offline pretraining", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 503, + 506, + 518 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 503, + 506, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "followed by online fine-tuning as we do other offline algorithms. Although derived differently,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 515, + 505, + 527 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 515, + 505, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MARWIL and AWR are similar algorithms and only differ in value estimation: MARWIL uses the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 525, + 506, + 539 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 525, + 278, + 539 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on-policy single-path advantage estimate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 279, + 525, + 408, + 538 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "A ( s , a ) \\stackrel { . } { = } Q ^ { \\pi _ { \\beta } } ( s , a ) - V ^ { \\pi _ { \\beta } } ( s )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 408, + 525, + 453, + 539 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "instead of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 453, + 526, + 481, + 537 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "\\mathrm { T D } ( \\lambda )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 482, + 525, + 506, + 539 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 537, + 436, + 549 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 537, + 436, + 549 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "AWR. Thus, we implement MARWIL by modifying the implementation of AWR.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 18, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 472, + 507, + 549 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 552, + 505, + 597 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 506, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 506, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Maximum a Posteriori Policy Optimization (MPO). We evaluate the MPO algorithm presented", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 564, + 505, + 576 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 564, + 505, + 576 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by Abdolmaleki et al. (2018). Due to a public implementation being unavailable, we modify our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 505, + 588 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 505, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithm to be as close to MPO as possible. In particular, we change the policy update in Advantage", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 222, + 597 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 222, + 597 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Weighted Actor Critic to be:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 23.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 553, + 506, + 597 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 169, + 602, + 442, + 630 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 602, + 442, + 630 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 602, + 442, + 630 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\theta _ { i } \\longleftarrow \\underset { \\theta _ { i } } { \\longleftarrow } \\operatorname { a r g m a x } \\mathbb { E } _ { s \\sim \\mathcal { D } , a \\sim \\pi ( a \\mid s ) } \\left[ \\log \\pi _ { \\theta _ { i } } ( a \\mid s ) \\exp ( \\frac { 1 } { \\beta } Q ^ { \\pi _ { \\beta } } ( s , a ) ) \\right] .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "c653c80f1a2b6ff69e0c94d5ed1f8eaf7d41198a16d208e4c6c06fd3131037c7.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 27, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 602, + 442, + 611.3333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 611.3333333333334, + 442, + 620.6666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 620.6666666666667, + 442, + 630.0000000000001 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 28 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 635, + 504, + 668 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 635, + 506, + 647 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 635, + 506, + 647 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Note that in MPO, actions for the update are sampled from the policy and the Q-function is used", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 646, + 506, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 646, + 506, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "instead of advantage for weights. We failed to see offline or online improvement with this implemen-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 657, + 406, + 669 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 657, + 406, + 669 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tation in most environments, so we omit this comparison in favor of ABM.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 30, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 635, + 506, + 669 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 673, + 505, + 696 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 673, + 505, + 686 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 673, + 505, + 686 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Advantage-Weighted Behavior Model (ABM). We evaluate ABM, the method developed in Siegel", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 684, + 505, + 697 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 684, + 505, + 697 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. (2020). 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The performance of BEAR (Kumar et al., 2019) is attached as reference.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 146, + 505, + 158 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 146, + 505, + 158 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We attempted to fine-tune BEAR online using the same protocol as AWAC but the performance did", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 157, + 505, + 169 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 157, + 505, + 169 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "not improve and often decreased; thus we report the offline performance. All performances are scaled", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 167, + 506, + 180 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 167, + 506, + 180 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to 0 to 100, where 0 is the average returns of a random policy and 100 is the average returns of an", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 177, + 423, + 191 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 177, + 423, + 191 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "expert policy (obtained by training online with SAC), as is standard for D4RL.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 4.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 103, + 506, + 191 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 194, + 505, + 281 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 195, + 505, + 207 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 195, + 505, + 207 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The results are presented in Figure 8. First, we observe that AWAC (offline) is competitive with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 505, + 219 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 505, + 219 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "BEAR, a commonly used offline RL algorithm. Then, AWAC is able to make progress in solving", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 215, + 505, + 230 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 215, + 505, + 230 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the tasks with online fine-tuning, even when initialized from random data or “medium” quality", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 227, + 505, + 239 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 227, + 505, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "data, as shown by the performance of AWAC (online). In almost all settings, AWAC (online) is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 237, + 505, + 250 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 237, + 505, + 250 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the best performing or tied with BEAR. In four of the six lower quality (random or medium) data", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 248, + 506, + 261 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 248, + 506, + 261 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "settings, AWAC (online) is significantly better than BEAR; it is reasonable that AWAC excels in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 258, + 506, + 272 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 258, + 506, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "lower-quality data regime because there is more room for online improvement, while both offline RL", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 269, + 437, + 283 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 269, + 437, + 283 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods often start at high performance when initialized from higher-quality data.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 12.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 195, + 506, + 283 + ] + }, + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 178, + 294, + 432, + 517 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 178, + 294, + 432, + 517 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 294, + 432, + 517 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 294, + 432, + 517 + ], + "score": 0.872, + "html": "
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Hyper-parameterValue
Training Batches Per Timestep1
Exploration NoiseNone (stochastic policy)
RL Batch Size1024
Discount Factor0.99
Reward Scaling1
Replay Buffer Size1000000
Number of pretraining steps25000
Policy Hidden Sizes[256,256,256, 256]
Policy Hidden ActivationReLU
Policy Weight Decay10-4
Policy Learning Rate3 ×10-4
Q Hidden Sizes[256, 256,256, 256]
Q Hidden ActivationReLU
Q Weight Decay0
Q Learning Rate3 ×10-4
Target Network T5×10-3
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NameQPolicy Objective元?Constraint
SACQDKL(πellQ)NoNone
SAC + BCQMixedNoNone
BCQDKL(πellQ)YesSupport (e)
BEARDKL(πellQ)YesSupport (MMD)
AWRDKL(QIπθ)NoImplicit
MPODKL(Qlπθ)Yes*Prior
ABM-MPODKL(Q|Iπ)YesLearned Prior
DAPGJ(πe)NoNone
BRACQDKL(πellQ)YesExplicit KL penalty
AWAC (Ours)QDKL(Q|Iπe)NoImplicit
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REINFORCEMENT LEARNING + +Anonymous authors Paper under double-blind review + +# ABSTRACT + +Autonomous agents that must exhibit flexible and broad capabilities will need to be equipped with large repertoires of skills. Defining each skill with a manuallydesigned reward function limits this repertoire and imposes a manual engineering burden. Self-supervised agents that set their own goals can automate this process, but designing appropriate goal setting objectives can be difficult, and often involves heuristic design decisions. In this paper, we propose a formal exploration objective for goal-reaching policies that maximizes state coverage. We show that this objective is equivalent to maximizing the entropy of the goal distribution together with goal reaching performance, where goals correspond to full state observations. To instantiate this principle, we present an algorithm called Skew-Fit for learning a maximum-entropy goal distributions. Skew-Fit enables self-supervised agents to autonomously choose and practice reaching diverse goals. We show that, under certain regularity conditions, our method converges to a uniform distribution over the set of valid states, even when we do not know this set beforehand. Our experiments show that it can learn a variety of manipulation tasks from images, including opening a door with a real robot, entirely from scratch and without any manually-designed reward function. + +# 1 INTRODUCTION + +Reinforcement learning (RL) provides an appealing formalism for automated learning of behavioral skills, but separately learning every potentially useful skill becomes prohibitively time consuming, both in terms of the experience required for the agent and the effort required for the user to design reward functions for each behavior. What if we could instead design an unsupervised RL algorithm that automatically explores the environment and iteratively distills this experience into general-purpose policies that can accomplish new user-specified tasks at test time? + +![](images/e63694dfee063113410dee749ee6eadb4238e7f49cedfcc7d0705d23188a8a5b.jpg) +Figure 1: Left: Robot learning to open a door with Skew-Fit, without any task reward. Right: Samples from a goal distribution when using (a) Skew-Fit and (b) unweighted (ie. uniform) sampling. When used as goals, the diverse samples from Skew-Fit encourage the robot to practice opening the door more frequently. + +For an agent to learn autonomously, it needs an exploration objective. In the absence of any prior knowledge about which states are more useful, an effective exploration scheme is one that visits as many states as possible, allowing a policy to autonomously prepare for user-specified task that it might see at test time. This objective has been formalized as maximizing the entropy of the learned policy’s visited state distribution 1 $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { S } )$ (Hazan et al., 2018a), since a policy that maximizes this objective should approach a uniform distribution over valid states. Unfortunately, directly optimizing $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { S } )$ requires an accurate model of the policy and environment (Hazan et al., 2018a). Moreover, even if this optimization were tractable, another short-coming of this objective is that the resulting policy cannot be used to solve new tasks: it only knows how to maximize state entropy. In other words, to develop principled unsupervised RL algorithms that result in useful policies, maximizing $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { S } )$ is not enough. We need a mechanism that allows us to control the resulting policy to achieve new tasks at test-time. + +We argue that this can be accomplished by performing goal-directed exploration. In addition to maximizing the state entropy, we should be able to control where the policy goes by giving it a goal $\mathbf { G }$ that corresponds to a state that it must reach. Mathematically, a goal-conditioned policy should minimize the conditional entropy over the states given a goal, $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { S } \mid \mathbf { G } )$ . This objective provides us with a principled way for training a policy to explore all states, by maximizing $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { S } )$ , such that the state that is reached can be controlled by commanding goals, which means minimizing $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { S } \mid \mathbf { G } )$ . + +Directly using this objective is often intractable, since it requires optimizing the entropy of the marginal state distribution of the policy, $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { S } )$ . However, we can sidestep this issue by noting that the objective is the mutual information between the state and the goal, $I ( \mathbf { S } ; \mathbf { G } )$ , which can be written as: + +$$ +\begin{array} { r } { \mathbf { \mathcal { H } } ( \mathbf { S } ) - \mathbf { \mathcal { H } } ( \mathbf { S } | \mathbf { G } ) = I ( \mathbf { S } ; \mathbf { G } ) = \mathbf { \mathcal { H } } ( \mathbf { G } ) - \mathbf { \mathcal { H } } ( \mathbf { G } | \mathbf { S } ) . } \end{array} +$$ + +Equation 1 thus gives an equivalent objective for an unsupervised RL algorithm: the agent should set diverse goals, maximizing $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } )$ , and learn how to reach them, minimizing $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } )$ . + +While the second term is the typical objective studied in goal-conditioned RL (Kaelbling, 1993; Andrychowicz et al., 2017), maximizing the diversity of goals is crucial for effectively learning to reach all possible states. In a new environment, acquiring such a maximum-entropy goal distribution is challenging: how can an agent set diverse goals when it does not even know what states exist? + +In this paper, we address this question via a new algorithm, Skew-Fit, which learns to model the uniform distribution over states, given only access to data collected by an autonomous goalconditioned policy. Our paper makes the following contributions. First, we propose a principled objective for unsupervised RL, based on Equation 1. While a number of prior works ignore the $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } )$ term, we argue that jointly optimizing the entire quantity is needed to develop effective and useful exploration. Second, we propose a method called Skew-Fit and prove that, under some regularity conditions, it learns a generative model that converges to a uniform distribution over the goal space, even when the set of valid states is unknown (e.g., as in the case of images). Third, we empirically demonstrate that, when combined with goal-conditioned RL, Skew-Fit allows us to autonomously train goal-conditioned policies that reach diverse states. We test this method on a variety of simulated vision-based robot tasks without any task-specific reward function. In these experiments, Skew-Fit reaches substantially better final performance than prior methods, and learns much more quickly. We also demonstrate that our approach solves a real-world manipulation task, which requires a robot to learn to open a door from scratch in about five hours, directly from images, and without any manually-designed reward function. + +# 2 PROBLEM FORMULATION + +To ensure that an unsupervised reinforcement learning agent learns to reach all possible states in a controllable way, we maximize the mutual information between the state S and the goal $\mathbf { G }$ , $I ( \mathbf { S } ; \mathbf { G } )$ , as stated in Equation 1. This section discusses how to optimize Equation 1 by splitting the optimization into two parts: minimizing $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } )$ and maximizing $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } )$ . + +# 2.1 MINIMIZING $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } )$ : GOAL-CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT LEARNING + +Standard RL considers a Markov decision process (MDP), which has a state space $s$ , action space $\mathcal { A }$ , and unknown dynamics $\rho ( \mathbf { s } _ { t + 1 } \mid \mathbf { s } _ { t } , \mathbf { a } _ { t } ) : \mathcal { S } \times \mathcal { S } \times \mathcal { A } \mapsto [ 0 , + \infty )$ . Goal-conditioned RL also includes a goal space $\mathcal { G }$ . For simplicity, we will assume in our derivation that the goal space matches the state space, such that $\mathcal { G } = \mathcal { S }$ , though the approach extends trivially to the case where $\mathcal { G }$ is a hand-specified subset of $s$ , such as the global x-y position of a robot. A goal-conditioned policy $\pi ( \mathbf { a } \mid \mathbf { s } , \mathbf { g } )$ maps a state $\mathbf { s } \in { \mathcal { S } }$ and goal $\mathbf { g } \in { \mathcal { S } }$ to a distribution over actions $\mathbf { a } \in { \mathcal { A } }$ , and its objective is to reach the goal, i.e., to make the current state equal to the goal. + +Goal-reaching can be formulated as minimizing $\mathcal { H } ( \textbf { G } | \textbf { S } )$ , and many practical goal-reaching algorithms (Kaelbling, 1993; Lillicrap et al., 2016; Schaul et al., 2015; Andrychowicz et al., 2017; Nair et al., 2018; Pong et al., 2018; Florensa et al., 2018a) can be viewed as approximations to this objective by observing that the optimal goal-conditioned policy will deterministically reach the goal, resulting in a conditional entropy of zero: $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } ) = 0$ . See Appendix E for more details. Our method may thus be used in conjunction with any of these prior goal-conditioned RL methods in order to jointly minimize $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } )$ and maximize $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } )$ . + +# 2.2 MAXIMIZING $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } )$ : SETTING DIVERSE GOALS + +We now turn to the problem of setting diverse goals or, mathematically, maximizing the entropy of the goal distribution $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } )$ . Let $U _ { S }$ be the uniform distribution over $s$ , where we assume $s$ has finite volume so that the uniform distribution is well-defined. Let $p _ { \phi }$ be the goal distribution from which goals $\mathbf { G }$ are sampled. Our goal is to maximize the entropy of $p _ { \phi }$ , which we write as $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } )$ . Since the maximum entropy distribution over $s$ is the uniform distribution $U _ { S }$ , maximizing $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } )$ may seem as simple as choosing the uniform distribution to be our goal distribution: $p _ { \phi } = U _ { S }$ . However, this requires knowing the uniform distribution over valid states, which may be difficult to obtain when $s$ is a subset of $\mathbb { R } ^ { n }$ , for some $n$ . For example, if the states correspond to images viewed through a robot’s camera, $s$ corresponds to the (unknown) set of valid images of the robot’s environment, while $\mathbb { R } ^ { n }$ corresponds to all possible arrays of pixel values of a particular size. In such environments, sampling from the uniform distribution $\mathbb { R } ^ { n }$ is unlikely to correspond to a valid image of the real world. Sampling uniformly from $s$ would require knowing the set of all possible valid images, which we assume the agent does not know when starting to explore the environment. + +While we cannot sample arbitrary states from $s$ , we can sample states by performing goal-directed exploration. To derive and analyze our method, we introduce a simple model of this process: a goal ${ \bf G } \sim p _ { \phi }$ is sampled from the goal distribution $p _ { \phi }$ , and then the agent attempts to achieve this goal, which results in a distribution of states $\mathbf { S } \in S$ seen along the trajectory. We abstract this entire process by writing the resulting marginal distribution over $\mathbf { S }$ as $p ( \mathbf { S } \mid p _ { \phi } )$ . We assume that $p ( \mathbf { S } \mid p _ { \phi } )$ has full support, which can be accomplished with an epsilon-greedy goal reaching policy in a communicating MDP. We also assume that the entropy of the resulting state distribution $\mathcal { H } ( p ( \mathbf { S } \mid p _ { \phi } ) )$ is no less than the entropy of the goal distribution $\mathcal { H } ( p _ { \phi } ( \mathbf { S } ) )$ . Without this assumption, a policy could ignore the goal and stay in a single state, no matter how diverse and realistic the goals are. Note that this assumption does not require that the entropy of $p ( \mathbf { S } \mid p _ { \phi } )$ is strictly larger than the entropy of the goal distribution, $p _ { \phi }$ . This simplified model allows us to analyze the behavior of our goal-setting scheme separately from any specific goal-reaching algorithm. We will however show in Section 6 that we can instantiate this approach into a practical algorithm that jointly learns the goal-reaching policy. In summary, our goal is to acquire a maximum-entropy goal distribution $p _ { \phi }$ over valid states $s$ , while only having access to state samples from $p ( \mathbf { S } \mid p _ { \phi } )$ . + +# 3 SKEW-FIT: LEARNING A MAXIMUM ENTROPY GOAL DISTRIBUTION + +Our method, Skew-Fit, learns a maximum entropy goal distribution $p _ { \phi }$ using samples collected from a goal-conditioned policy. We analyze the algorithm and show that Skew-Fit maximizes the entropy of the goal distribution, and present a practical instantiation for unsupervised deep RL. + +# 3.1 SKEW-FIT ALGORITHM + +To learn a uniform distribution over valid goal states, we present a method that iteratively increases the entropy of a generative model $p _ { \phi }$ . In particular, given a generative model $p _ { \phi _ { t } }$ at iteration $t$ , we would like to train a new generative model $p _ { \phi _ { t + 1 } }$ such that $p _ { \phi _ { t + 1 } }$ has higher entropy than $p _ { \phi _ { t } }$ over the set of valid states. While we do not know the set of valid states $s$ , we can sample states from $p ( \mathbf { S } \mid p _ { \phi _ { t } } )$ , resulting in an empirical distribution $p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }$ over the states + +$$ +p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \mathbf { s } ) \triangleq \frac { 1 } { N } \sum _ { n = 1 } ^ { N } \mathbf { 1 } \{ \mathbf { s } = \mathbf { S } _ { n } \} , \quad \mathbf { S } _ { n } \sim p ( \mathbf { S } \mid p _ { \phi _ { t } } ) , +$$ + +and use this empirical distribution to train the next generative model $p _ { \phi _ { t + 1 } }$ . However, if we simply train $p _ { \phi _ { t + 1 } }$ to model this empirical distribution, it may not necessarily have higher entropy than $p _ { \phi _ { t } }$ + +The intuition behind our method is quite simple: rather than fitting a generative model to our empirical distribution, we skew the empirical distribution so that rarely visited states are given more weight. See Figure 2 for a visualization of this process. How should we skew the empirical distribution if we want to maximize the entropy of $p _ { \phi _ { t + 1 } }$ ? If we had access to the density of each state, $p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \mathbf { S } )$ , then we could simply weight each state by $1 / p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \mathbf { S } )$ . We could then perform maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) for the uniform distribution by using the following loss to train $\phi _ { t + 1 }$ + +![](images/894da00b480142f481d085047763b172e7496ac38d3b0d0c99e57bba975f2991.jpg) +Figure 2: Our method, Skew-Fit, samples goals for goal-conditioned RL in order to induce a uniform state visitation distribution. We start by sampling from our replay buffer, and weighting the states such that rare states are given more weight. We then train a generative model $p _ { \phi _ { t + 1 } }$ with the weighted samples. By sampling new states with goals proposed from this new generative model, we obtain a higher entropy distribution of states in our replay buffer at the next iteration. + +$$ +\mathcal { L } ( \phi ) = \mathbb { E } _ { \mathbf { S } \sim U _ { S } } \left[ \log p _ { \phi } ( \mathbf { S } ) \right] = \mathbb { E } _ { \mathbf { S } \sim p _ { \mathrm { r o u p } _ { t } } } \left[ \frac { U _ { S } ( \mathbf { S } ) } { p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \mathbf { S } ) } \log p _ { \phi } ( \mathbf { S } ) \right] \propto \mathbb { E } _ { \mathbf { S } \sim p _ { \mathrm { r o u p } _ { t } } } \left[ \frac { 1 } { p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \mathbf { S } ) } \log p _ { \phi } ( \mathbf { S } ) \right] +$$ + +where we use the fact that the uniform distribution $U _ { S } ( \mathbf { S } )$ has constant density for all states in $s$ . However, computing this density $p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \mathbf { S } )$ requires marginalizing out the MDP dynamics, which requires an accurate model of both the dynamics and the goal-conditioned policy. + +We avoid needing to model the entire MDP process by approximating $p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \mathbf { S } )$ with our previous learned generative model: $p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \mathbf { S } ) \approx p ( \mathbf { S } \mid p _ { \phi _ { t } } ) \approx p _ { \phi _ { t } } ( \mathbf { S } )$ . We therefore weight each state by the following weight function + +$$ +\begin{array} { r } { w _ { t , \alpha } ( \mathbf { S } ) \triangleq p _ { \phi _ { t } } ( \mathbf { S } ) ^ { \alpha } , \quad \alpha < 0 . } \end{array} +$$ + +where $\alpha$ is a hyperparameter that controls how heavily we weight each state. If our approximation $p _ { \phi _ { t } }$ was exact, we could choose $\alpha = - 1$ and recover the exact importance sampling procedure described above. If $\alpha = 0$ , then this skew step has no effect. By choosing intermediate values of $\alpha$ , we can trade off the reliability of our estimate $p _ { \phi _ { t } } ( \mathbf { S } )$ with the speed at which we want to increase the entropy of the goal distribution. + +Variance Reduction As described, this procedure relies on importance sampling (IS), which can have high variance, particularly if $p _ { \phi _ { t } } ( \mathbf { S } ) \approx 0$ . We therefore choose a class of generative models where the probabilities are prevented from collapsing to zero, as we will describe in Section 4. To further reduce the variance, we train $p _ { \phi _ { t + 1 } }$ with sampling importance resampling (SIR) (Rubin, 1988). Rather than sampling from $p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }$ and weighting the update from each sample by $w _ { t , \alpha }$ , SIR explicitly defines a skewed distribution as + +$$ +p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } } ( \mathbf { s } ) \triangleq \frac { 1 } { Z _ { \alpha } } p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \mathbf { s } ) w _ { t , \alpha } ( \mathbf { s } ) , \quad Z _ { \alpha } = \sum _ { n = 1 } ^ { N } p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \mathbf { S } _ { n } ) w _ { t , \alpha } ( \mathbf { S } _ { n } ) , +$$ + +where $Z _ { \alpha }$ is the normalizing coefficient and $p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }$ is given by Equation 2. We note that computing $Z _ { \alpha }$ adds little computational overhead, since all of the weights already need to be computed. We then fit the generative model at the next iteration $p _ { \phi _ { t + 1 } }$ to $p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ using standard MLE. We found that using SIR resulted in significantly lower variance than IS. See Appendix B.3 for this comparision. + +Goal Sampling Alternative Because $p _ { \phi _ { t + 1 } } \approx p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ , at iteration $t + 1$ , one can sample goals from either $p _ { \phi _ { t + 1 } }$ or $p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ . Sampling goals from $p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ may be preferred if sampling from the learned generative model $p _ { \phi _ { t + 1 } }$ is computationally or otherwise challenging. In either case, one still needs to train the generative model $p _ { \phi _ { t } }$ to create $p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ . In our experiments, we found that both methods perform well. + +Summary Overall, Skew-Fit samples data from the environment and weights different samples by their density under the generative model $p _ { \phi _ { t } }$ . We prove in the next section conditions under which this weighting makes the generative model at the next iteration $p _ { \phi _ { t + 1 } }$ have higher entropy. With higher entropy, the $p _ { \phi _ { t + 1 } }$ is more likely to generate goals at the frontier of unseen states, which results in more uniform state coverage. Skew-Fit is shown in Figure 2 and summarized in Algorithm 1. + +# Algorithm 1 Skew-Fit + +1: for Iteration $t = 1 , 2 , \dots \mathbf { d o }$ +2: Collect $N$ states $\{ \mathbf { S } _ { i } \} _ { i = 1 } ^ { N }$ by sampling goals from $p _ { \phi _ { t } }$ (or $p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } } )$ ) and running goal +conditioned policy. +3: Construct skewed distribution $p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ (Equation 3 and Equation 4). +4: Fit $p _ { \phi _ { t + 1 } }$ to skewed distribution $p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ using MLE. +5: end for + +# 3.2 SKEW-FIT ANALYSIS + +In this section, we provide conditions under which $p _ { \phi _ { t } }$ converges in distribution to the uniform distribution over the state space $s$ . To make this analysis possible, we consider the case where $N \infty$ , which allows us to study the limit behavior of the goal distribution $p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ . Our most general result is stated as follows: + +Lemma 3.1. Let $s$ be a compact set. Define the set of distributions $\mathcal { Q } = \{ p : s u p p o r t o f p i s \mathcal { S } \}$ . Let $\mathcal { F } : \mathcal { Q } \mapsto \mathcal { Q }$ be a continuous function and such that $\mathcal { H } ( \mathcal { F } ( p ) ) \geq \mathcal { H } ( p )$ with equality if and only if $p$ is the uniform probability distribution on $s$ , $U _ { S }$ . Define the sequence of distributions $P = ( p _ { 1 } , p _ { 2 } , . . . )$ by starting with any $p _ { 1 } \in \mathcal { Q }$ and recursively defining $p _ { t + 1 } = \mathcal { F } ( p _ { t } )$ . + +The sequence $P$ converges to $U _ { S }$ + +Proof. See Appendix Section E. + +We will apply Lemma 3.1 to be the map from $p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ to $p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t + 1 } }$ to show that $p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ converges to $U _ { S }$ . If we assume that the goal-conditioned policy and generative model learning procedure are well behaved ( i.e., the maps from $p _ { \phi _ { t } } ( \mathbf { S } )$ to $p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }$ and from $p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ to $p _ { \phi _ { t + 1 } }$ are continuous ), then to apply Lemma 3.1, we only need to show that $\mathcal { H } ( p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } } ) \geq \mathcal { H } ( p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } )$ with equality if and only if $p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } = U _ { S }$ . For the simple case when $p _ { \phi _ { t } } = p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }$ identically at each iteration, we prove the convergence of Skew-Fit true for any value of $\alpha \in [ - 1 , 0 )$ in Appendix A.3. However, in practice, $p _ { \phi _ { t } }$ only approximates $p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }$ . To address this more realistic situation, we prove the following result: + +Lemma 3.2. Given two distribution $p _ { e m p _ { t } }$ and $p _ { \phi _ { t } }$ where $p _ { e m p _ { t } } \ll { p _ { \phi _ { t } } } ^ { 2 }$ and + +$$ +\mathrm { C o v } _ { \mathbf { S } \sim p _ { e m p _ { t } } } \left[ \log p _ { e m p _ { t } } ( \mathbf { S } ) , \log p _ { \phi _ { t } } ( \mathbf { S } ) \right] > 0 , +$$ + +define the distribution $p _ { s k e w e d _ { t } }$ as in Equation $^ { 4 . }$ . Let ${ \mathcal { H } } _ { \alpha } ( \alpha )$ be the entropy of $p _ { s k e w e d _ { t } }$ for a fixed $\alpha$ . Then there exists a constant $a < 0$ such that for all $\alpha \in [ a , 0 )$ , + +$$ +\mathcal { H } ( p _ { s k e w e d _ { t } } ) = \mathcal { H } _ { \alpha } ( \alpha ) > \mathcal { H } ( p _ { e m p _ { t } } ) . +$$ + +Proof. See Appendix Section E. + +Thus, our generative model $p _ { \phi _ { t } }$ does not need to exactly fit the empirical distribution. We merely need for the log densities of $p _ { \phi _ { t } }$ and $p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }$ to be correlated, which we expect to happen frequently with an accurate goal-conditioned policy, since $p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }$ is the set of states seen when trying to reach goals from $p _ { \phi _ { t } }$ . In this case, if we choose negative values of $\alpha$ that are small enough, then the entropy of $p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ will be higher than that of $p _ { \mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }$ . Empirically, we found that $\alpha$ values as low as $\alpha = - 1$ performed well. + +In summary, we see that under certain assumptions, $p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ converges to $U _ { S }$ . Since we train each generative model $p _ { \phi _ { t + 1 } }$ by fitting it to $p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ , we expect $p _ { \phi _ { t } }$ to also converge to $U _ { S }$ . + +# 4 TRAINING GOAL-CONDITIONED POLICIES WITH SKEW-FIT + +Thus far, we have presented and derived Skew-Fit assuming that we have access to a goal-reaching policy, allowing us to separately analyze how we can maximize $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } )$ . However, in practice we do not have access to such a policy, and in this section we discuss how we concurrently train a goal-reaching policy. + +Maximizing $I ( \mathbf { S } ; \mathbf { G } )$ can be done by simultaneously performing Skew-Fit and training a goal conditioned policy to minimize $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } )$ , or, equivalently, maximize $- \mathcal { H } ( \textbf G | \textbf { S } )$ . Maximizing $- \mathcal { H } ( \textbf { G } | \textbf { S } )$ requires computing the density $\log p ( \textbf { G } | \textbf { S } )$ , which may be difficult to compute without strong modeling assumptions. However, for any distribution $q$ , the following lower bound for $- \mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } )$ holds: + +$$ +\begin{array} { r } { - \mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } ) = \mathbb { E } _ { ( \mathbf { G } , \mathbf { S } ) \sim p _ { \phi _ { t } } , \pi } \left[ \log q ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } ) \right] + D _ { \mathrm { K L } } ( p \mid q ) \ge \mathbb { E } _ { ( \mathbf { G } , \mathbf { S } ) \sim p _ { \phi _ { t } } , \pi } \left[ \log q ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } ) \right] , } \end{array} +$$ + +where $D _ { \mathrm { K L } }$ denotes Kullback–Leibler divergence as discussed by Barber & Agakov (2004). Thus, to minimize $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } )$ , we train a policy to maximize the following reward: + +$$ +r ( \mathbf { S } , \mathbf { G } ) = \log q ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } ) . +$$ + +For the RL algorithm, we use reinforcement learning with imagined goals (RIG) (Nair et al., 2018), though in principle any goal-conditioned method could be used. RIG is an efficient off-policy goalconditioned method that solves the vision-based RL problem in a learned latent space. In particular, RIG fits a $\beta$ -VAE and uses it to encode all observations and goals into a latent space, which it uses as the state representation. RIG also uses the $\beta$ -VAE to compute rewards, $\log q ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } )$ . Unlike RIG, we use the goal distribution from Skew-Fit to sample goals, both for exploration and for relabeling goals during training (Andrychowicz et al., 2017). Since RIG already trains a generative model over states, we reuse this $\beta$ -VAE for the generative model $p _ { \phi }$ of Skew-Fit. To make the most use of the data, $p _ { \phi }$ is trained on all visited state rather than only the terminal states, which we found to work well in practice. In other words, our method uses the likelihood estimates from the $\beta$ -VAE to choose the probability of sampling each state in Equation 3. To prevent these probabilities from collapsing to zero, we model the posterior of the $\beta$ -VAE as a multivariate Gaussian distribution with a fixed variance and only learn the mean. We include a detailed summary of RIG and description our how we combine Skew-Fit and RIG in Appendix C.1. + +# 5 RELATED WORK + +Many prior methods for training goal-conditioned policies assume that a goal distribution is available to sample from during exploration (Kaelbling, 1993; Schaul et al., 2015; Andrychowicz et al., 2017; Pong et al., 2018). Other methods use data collected from a randomly initialized policy or heuristics based on data collected online to design a non-parametric (Colas et al., 2018b; Warde-Farley et al., 2018; Florensa et al., 2018a; Zhao & Tresp, 2019) or parametric (Péré et al., 2018; Nair et al., 2018) goal distribution. We remark that Warde-Farley et al. (2018) also motivate their work in terms of minimizing a lower bound for $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } )$ . Our work is complementary to these goal-reaching methods: rather than focusing on how to train goal-reaching policies, we propose a principled method for maximizing the entropy of a goal sampling distribution, $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } )$ . + +Our method learns without any task rewards, directly acquiring a policy that can be reused to reach user-specified goals. This stands in contrast to exploration methods that give bonus rewards based on state visitation frequency (Bellemare et al., 2016; Ostrovski et al., 2017; Tang et al., 2017; Savinov et al., 2018; Chentanez et al., 2005; Lopes et al., 2012; Stadie et al., 2016; Pathak et al., 2017; Burda et al., 2018; 2019; Mohamed & Rezende, 2015; Tang et al., 2017; Fu et al., 2017). While these methods can also be used without a task reward, they provide no mechanism for distilling the knowledge gained from visiting diverse states into flexible policies that can be applied to accomplish new goals at test-time: their policies visit novel states, and they quickly forget about them as other states become more novel. + +Other prior methods extract reusable skills in the form of latent-variable-conditioned policies, where latent variables can be interpreted as options (Sutton et al., 1999) or abstract skills (Hausman et al., 2018; Gupta et al., 2018b; Eysenbach et al., 2019; Gupta et al., 2018a; Florensa et al., 2017). The resulting skills may be diverse, but they have no grounded interpretation, while our method can be used immediately after unsupervised training to reach diverse user-specified goals. + +Some prior methods propose to choose goals based on heuristics such as learning progress (Baranes & Oudeyer, 2012; Veeriah et al., 2018; Colas et al., 2018a), how off-policy the goal is (Nachum et al., 2018), level of difficulty (Florensa et al., 2018b) or likelihood ranking (Zhao & Tresp, 2019). In contrast, our approach provides a principled framework for optimizing a concrete and well-motivated exploration objective, and can be shown to maximize this objective under regularity assumptions. The work of Hazan et al. (2018b) also provably optimizes a well-motivated exploration objective, but is limited to tabular MDPs, while Skew-Fit is able to handle high dimensional settings such as vision-based continuous control. + +# 6 EXPERIMENTS + +Our experiments study the following questions: (1) Does Skew-Fit empirically result in a goal distribution with increasing entropy? (2) In image-based domains, how does Skew-Fit compare to prior work on choosing goals for goal-conditioned RL? (3) Can Skew-Fit be applied to a real-world, vision-based robot task? + +Does Skew-Fit Maximize Entropy? To see the effects of Skew-Fit on goal distribution entropy in isolation of learning a goal-reaching policy, we begin by studying an idealized example where the policy is a near-perfect goal-reaching policy. The MDP is defined on a 2-by-2 unit square-shaped corridor (see Figure 3). At the beginning of an episode, the agent begins in the bottom-left corner and samples a goal from the goal distribution $p _ { \phi _ { t } }$ . To simulate the stochasticity of the policy and environment, we add a Gaussian noise with standard deviation of 0.05 to this goal. The policy reaches the state that is closest to this noisy goal and inside the corridor, giving us a state S to add to our empirical distribution. We compare Skew-Fit to sampling uniformly from the replay buffer (labeled MLE). The $\beta$ -VAE hyperparameters used to train $p _ { \phi _ { t } }$ are given in Appendix C.5. As seen in Figure 3, naively using previous experience to set goals results in a policy that primarily sets goal near the initial state distribution and only relies on the stochasticity of the policy and environment to explore. In contrast, Skew-Fit results in quickly learning a high entropy, near-uniform distribution over the state space. + +![](images/a7efccfb2d480e2ee3ded9740d1ac703f88743c90286a6da7fb0d3f4d67fc854.jpg) +Figure 3: (Left) The set of final states visited by our agent and MLE over the course of training. In contrast to MLE, our method quickly approaches a uniform distribution over the set of valid states. (Right) The entropy of the sample data distribution, which quickly reaches its maximum for Skew-Fit. The entropy was calculated via discretization onto a 60 by 60 grid. + +Vision-Based Continuous Control Tasks We now evaluate Skew-Fit on a variety of continuous control tasks, where the policy must control a robot arm using only image observations, without access to any ground truth reward signal. We test our method on three different simulated continuous control tasks released by the authors of RIG (Nair et al., 2018): Visual Door, Visual Pusher, and Visual Pickup. To our knowledge, these are the only goal-conditioned, vision-based continuous control environments that are publicly available and used in experimental evaluations in prior work, making them a good point of comparison. See Figure 4 for visuals and Appendix C for details of these environments. The policies are trained in a completely unsupervised manner, without access to any prior information about the state-space or any pre-defined goal-sampling distribution. To evaluate their performance, we sample goal images from a uniform distribution over valid states and report the agent’s final distance to the corresponding simulator states (e.g., distance of the object to the target object location), but the agent never has access to this true uniform distribution nor the ground-truth state information during training. While this evaluation method and metric is only practical in simulation, it provides us with a quantitative measure of a policy’s ability to reach a broad coverage of goals in a vision-based setting. + +![](images/609f4b69c4699ff46c91c0eb13f2ac3b037b7837df7dc55eb94e4d73fcd0a057.jpg) +Figure 4: We evaluate on these continuous control environments. From left to right: Visual Pusher, a simulated pushing task; Visual Door, a door opening task; Visual Pickup, a picking task; and Real World Visual Door, a real world door opening task. All tasks are solved from images and without any task-specific reward. See Appendix D for details. + +![](images/6804bd20ac047d2e426986cc88b5535a2a71d82eb57336a96817a814247fae7d.jpg) +Figure 5: (Left) Learning curves for simulated continuous control experiments. Lower is better. For each environment and method, we show the mean and standard deviation of 6 seeds and smooth temporally across 25 epochs within each seed. Skew-Fit consistently outperforms RIG and various baselines. See the text for description of each method. (Right) The first column displays example test goal images for each environment. In the next two columns, we display final images reached by Skew-Fit and RIG respectively. Under each image is the final distance in state space to provide a notion of the behavior of each method in the plots. + +We use these domains to compare Skew-Fit to a number of existing methods on goal-sampling. We compare to Warde-Farley et al. (2018), a vision-based method which uses a non-parametric approach based on clustering to sample goals and an image discriminator to compute rewards. We denote this method as DISCERN. The other methods that we compare to were developed in non-vision, statebased environments. To ensure a fair comparison across methods, we combine these prior methods with a policy trained using RIG. First, we compare to RIG without Skew-Fit. We also compared to RIG using the relabeling scheme described in the hindsight experience replay (labeled HER). We compare to curiosity-driven prioritization (Ranked-Based Priority) (Zhao & Tresp, 2019), a variant of HER that samples goals for relabeling based on their ranked likelihoods. Florensa et al. (2018b) samples goals from a GAN based on the difficulty of reaching the goal. We compare against this method by replacing $p _ { \phi }$ with the GAN and label it AutoGoal GAN. We also separately compare to the goal proposal mechanism proposed by Warde-Farley et al. (2018) and otherwise train the policy with RIG, which we label DISCERN- $\mathbf { g }$ . Lastly, to demonstrate the difficulty of the exploration challenge in these domains, we compare to # Exploration (Tang et al., 2017), an exploration method that assigns bonus rewards based on the novelty of new states. Implementation details of the prior methods is given in Appendix C.3. + +We see in Figure 5 that Skew-Fit significantly outperforms prior methods both in terms of task performance and sample complexity. The most common failure mode for prior methods is that the goal distributions collapse, resulting in the agent learning to reach only a fraction of the state space, as shown in Figure 1. For comparison, additional samples of $p _ { \phi }$ when trained with and without Skew-Fit are shown in Appendix B.4. Those images show that without $S k e w - F i t$ , $p _ { \phi }$ produces a small, non-diverse distribution for each environment: the object is in the same place for pickup, the puck is often in the starting position for pushing, and the door is always closed. In contrast, Skew-Fit proposes goals where the object is in the air and on the ground, where the puck positions are varied, and the door angle changes. + +The direct effect of these goal choices can be seen by visualizing more example rollouts for RIG and Skew-Fit. Due to space constraints, these visuals are in Figure 16 in Appendix B.4. The figure shows that standard RIG only learns to reach states close to the initial position, while Skew-Fit learns to reach the entire state space. A quantitative comparison of the various methods on the pickup task can be seen in Figure 6, which gives the cumulative total exploration pickups for each method. From the graph, we can see that only Skew-Fit learns to pay attention to the object and therefore consistently increases the rate at which the policy picks up the object during exploration. In contrast, the other methods have near constant slopes past $4 0 \mathrm { k }$ steps, meaning that they do not continue to learning, and many methods have a near-constant rate of object lifts throughout all of training. + +![](images/c9e4d5facae1d025fe7c393bd49a4852d6c62eac706c06b099385758e883dd58.jpg) +Figure 6: Cumulative total pickups during exploration for each method. The prior methods fail to pay attention to the object and only pick it up at the same rate as the initial policy. In contrast, after seeing the object picked up a few times, Skew-Fit practices picking up the object more often by sampling the appriopriate exploration goals. + +Real-World Vision-Based Robotic Manipulation We also demonstrate that Skew-Fit scales well to the real world with a door opening task, Real World Visual Door. See Figure 4 for a picture of this environment. While a number of prior works have studied RL-based learning of door opening Kalakrishnan et al. (2011); Chebotar et al. (2017), we demonstrate the first method for autonomous learning of door opening without a user-provided, task-specific reward function. As in simulation, we do not provide any goals to the agent and simply let it interact with the door to solve the door opening task from scratch, without any human guidance or reward signal. We train two agents using Skew-Fit with RIG and RIG alone. Unlike in simulation, we cannot measure the difference between the policy’s achieved and desired door angle since we do not have access to the true state of the world. Instead, we simply visually denote a binary success/failure for each goal based on whether the last state in the trajectory achieves the target angle. Every seven and a half minutes of interaction time we evaluate on 5 goals and plot the cumulative successes for each method. As Figure 7 shows, standard RIG only starts to open the door after five hours of training. In contrast, Skew-Fit learns to occasionally open the door after three hours of training and achieves a near-perfect success rate after five and a half hours of interaction time, demonstrating that Skew-Fit is a promising technique for solving real world tasks without any human-provided reward function. Videos of Skew-Fit solving this task and the simulated tasks can be viewed on our website.3 + +![](images/e2c4e8720ca6f6aceb3fbf839042dce61934c8cccc44d522be0ff43c1d0eb560.jpg) +Figure 7: Learning curve for Real World Visual Door environment. We visually label a success if the policy opens the door to the target angle by the last state of the trajectory. Skew-Fit results in considerable sample efficiency gains over prior work on this realworld task. + +Additional Experiments To study the sensitivity of our method to the hyperparameter $\alpha$ , we sweep $\alpha$ across the values $[ - 1 , - 0 . 7 5 , - 0 . 5 , - 0 . 2 5 , 0 ]$ on the simulated image-based tasks. Due to space constraints, the sensitivity analysis over the hyperparameter $\alpha$ is in Appendix B, and the results demonstrate that Skew-Fit works across a large range of values for $\alpha$ , and $\alpha = - 1$ consistently outperform $\alpha = 0$ , where the empirical distribution is not skewed. Additionally, Appendix C provides a complete description our method hyper-parameters, including network architecture and RL algorithm hyperparameters. + +# 7 CONCLUSION + +We presented a formal objective for self-supervised goal-directed exploration, allowing researchers to quantify progress and compare progress when designing algorithms that enable agents to autonomously learn. We also presented Skew-Fit, an algorithm for training a generative model to approximate a uniform distribution over valid states, using data obtained via goal-conditioned reinforcement learning, and our theoretical analysis gives conditions under which Skew-Fit converges to the uniform distribution. When such a model is used to choose goals for exploration and to relabeling goals for training, the resulting method results in much better coverage of the state space, enabling our method to explore effectively. Our experiments show that when we concurrently train a goal-reaching policy using self-generated goals, Skew-Fit produces quantifiable improvements on simulated robotic manipulation tasks, and can be used to learn a door opening skill to reach a $9 5 \%$ success rate directly on a real-world robot, without any human-provided reward supervision. + +# REFERENCES + +Andrychowicz, M., Wolski, F., Ray, A., Schneider, J., Fong, R., Welinder, P., Mcgrew, B., Tobin, J., Abbeel, P., and Zaremba, W. Hindsight Experience Replay. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS), 2017. +Baranes, A. and Oudeyer, P.-Y. Active Learning of Inverse Models with Intrinsically Motivated Goal Exploration in Robots. 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CoRR, abs/1902.08039, 2019. + +# A PROOFS + +A.1 PROOF OF LEMMA 3.1 + +Lemma A.1. Let $s$ be a compact set. Define the set of distributions $\mathcal { Q } = \{ p : s u p p o r t o f p i s \ : S \}$ . Let $\mathcal { F } : \mathcal { Q } \mapsto \mathcal { Q }$ be a continuous function and such that $\mathcal { H } ( \mathcal { F } ( p ) ) \geq \mathcal { H } ( { \bar { p } } )$ with equality if and only if $p$ is the uniform probability distribution on $s$ , $U _ { S }$ . Define the sequence of distributions $P = ( p _ { 1 } , p _ { 2 } , . . . )$ by starting with any $p _ { 1 } \in \mathcal { Q }$ and recursively defining $p _ { t + 1 } = \mathcal { F } ( p _ { t } )$ . + +The sequence $P$ converges to $U _ { S }$ + +Proof. The uniform distribution $U _ { S }$ is well defined since $s$ is compact. Because $s$ is a compact set, by Prokhorov’s Theorem Billingsley (2013), the set $\mathcal { Q }$ is sequentially compact. Thus, $P$ has a convergent subsequence $P ^ { \prime } = ( p _ { k _ { 1 } } , p _ { k _ { 2 } } , \dots ) \subset P$ for $k _ { 1 } < k _ { 2 } < . . .$ that converges to a distribution $p ^ { * } \in \mathcal { Q }$ . Because $\mathcal { F }$ is continuous, $p ^ { * }$ must be a fixed point of $\mathcal { F }$ since by the convergence mapping theorem, we have that + +$$ +\operatorname* { l i m } _ { i \to \infty } p _ { k _ { i } } = p ^ { * } \implies \operatorname* { l i m } _ { i \to \infty } \mathcal { F } ( p _ { k _ { i } } ) = \mathcal { H } ( p ^ { * } ) +$$ + +and so + +$$ +\begin{array} { r c l } { p ^ { * } = \displaystyle \operatorname* { l i m } _ { i \to \infty } p _ { k _ { i } } } \\ { = \displaystyle \operatorname* { l i m } _ { i \to \infty } \mathcal { F } ( p _ { k _ { i - 1 } } ) } \\ { = \mathcal { H } ( p ^ { * } ) . } \end{array} +$$ + +The only fixed point of $\mathcal { F }$ is $U _ { S }$ since for any distribution $p$ that is not the uniform distribution, $U _ { S }$ , we have that $\mathcal { H } ( \mathcal { F } ( p ) ) > \mathcal { H } ( p )$ which implies that $\mathcal { F } ( p ) \neq p$ . Thus, $P ^ { \prime }$ converges to the only fixed point, $U _ { S }$ . Since the entropy cannot decrease, then entropy of the distributions in $P$ must also converge to the entropy of $U _ { S }$ . Lastly, since entropy is a continuous function of distribution, $P$ must converge to $U _ { S }$ . □ + +# A.2 PROOF OF LEMMA 3.2 + +Lemma A.2. Given two distribution $p ( x )$ and $q ( x )$ where $p \ll q$ and + +$$ +0 < \operatorname { C o v } _ { p } [ \log p ( X ) , \log q ( X ) ] +$$ + +define the distribution $p _ { \alpha }$ as + +$$ +p _ { \alpha } ( x ) = \frac { 1 } { Z _ { \alpha } } p ( x ) q ( x ) ^ { \alpha } +$$ + +where $\alpha \in \mathbb { R }$ and $Z _ { \alpha }$ is the normalizing factor. Let ${ \mathcal { H } } _ { \alpha } ( \alpha )$ be the entropy of $p _ { \alpha }$ . Then there exists $a$ constant $a > 0$ such that for all $\alpha \in [ - a , 0 )$ , + +$$ +\begin{array} { r } { \mathcal { H } _ { \alpha } ( \alpha ) > \mathcal { H } _ { \alpha } ( 0 ) = \mathcal { H } ( p ) . } \end{array} +$$ + +Proof. Observe that $\{ p _ { \alpha } : \alpha \in [ - 1 , 0 ] \}$ is a one-dimensional exponential family + +$$ +p _ { \alpha } ( x ) = e ^ { \alpha T ( x ) - A ( \alpha ) + k ( x ) } +$$ + +with log carrier density $k ( x ) = \log p ( x )$ , natural parameter $\alpha$ , sufficient statistic $T ( x ) = \log q ( x )$ , and log-normalizer $\begin{array} { r } { A ( \alpha ) = \int _ { \mathcal { X } } e ^ { \alpha T ( x ) + k ( x ) } d x } \end{array}$ . As shown in Nielsen & Nock (2010), the entropy of a distribution from a one-dimensional exponential family with parameter $\alpha$ is given by: + +$$ +\begin{array} { r } { \mathcal { H } _ { \alpha } ( \alpha ) \triangleq \mathcal { H } ( p _ { \alpha } ) = A ( \alpha ) - \alpha A ^ { \prime } ( \alpha ) - \mathbb { E } _ { p _ { \alpha } } [ k ( X ) ] } \end{array} +$$ + +The derivative with respect to $\alpha$ is then + +$$ +\begin{array} { c l } { \displaystyle \frac { d } { d \alpha } \mathcal { H } _ { \alpha } ( \alpha ) = - \alpha A ^ { \prime \prime } ( \alpha ) - \frac { d } { d \alpha } \mathbb { E } _ { p _ { \alpha } } [ k ( x ) ] } \\ { = - \alpha A ^ { \prime \prime } ( \alpha ) - \mathbb { E } _ { \alpha } [ k ( x ) ( T ( x ) - A ^ { \prime } ( \alpha ) ] } \\ { = - \alpha \mathrm { V a r } _ { p _ { \alpha } } [ T ( x ) ] - \mathrm { C o v } _ { p _ { \alpha } } [ k ( x ) , T ( x ) ] } \end{array} +$$ + +where we use the fact that the $n$ th derivative of $A ( \alpha )$ give the $n$ central moment, i.e. $A ^ { \prime } ( \alpha ) =$ $\mathbb { E } _ { p _ { \alpha } } [ T ( x ) ]$ and $A ^ { \prime \prime } ( \alpha ) = \mathrm { V a r } _ { p _ { \alpha } } [ T ( x ) ]$ . The derivative of $\alpha = 0$ is + +$$ +\begin{array} { c } { { { \displaystyle \frac { d } { d \alpha } } { \mathcal { H } } _ { \alpha } ( 0 ) = - \mathrm { C o v } _ { p _ { 0 } } [ k ( x ) , T ( x ) ] \ } } \\ { { = - \mathrm { C o v } _ { p } [ \log p ( x ) , \log q ( x ) ] } } \end{array} +$$ + +which is negative by assumption. Because the derivative at $\alpha = 0$ is negative, then there exists a constant $a > 0$ such that for all $\alpha \in [ - a , 0 ]$ , $\mathcal { H } _ { \alpha } ( \alpha ) > \mathcal { H } _ { \alpha } ( 0 ) = \mathcal { H } ( p )$ . □ + +# A.3 SIMPLE CASE PROOF + +We prove the convergence directly for the (even more) simplified case when $p _ { \theta } = p ( \mathbf { S } \mid p _ { \phi _ { t } } )$ using a similar technique: + +Lemma A.3. Assume the set $s$ has finite volume so that its uniform distribution $U _ { S }$ is well defined and has finite entropy. Given any distribution $p ( \mathbf { s } )$ whose support is $s$ , recursively define $p _ { t }$ with $p _ { 1 } = p$ and + +$$ +p _ { t + 1 } ( \mathbf { s } ) = \frac { 1 } { Z _ { \alpha } ^ { t } } p _ { t } ( \mathbf { s } ) ^ { \alpha } , \quad \forall \mathbf { s } \in \mathcal { S } +$$ + +where $Z _ { \alpha } ^ { t }$ is the normalizing constant and $\alpha \in [ 0 , 1 )$ . + +The sequence $( p _ { 1 } , p _ { 2 } , \dots )$ converges to $U _ { S }$ , the uniform distribution $s$ . + +Proof. If $\alpha = 0$ , then $p _ { 2 }$ (and all subsequent distributions) will clearly be the uniform distribution. +We now study the case where $\alpha \in ( 0 , 1 )$ . + +At each iteration $t$ , define the one-dimensional exponential family $\{ p _ { \theta } ^ { t } : \theta \in [ 0 , 1 ] \}$ where $p _ { \theta } ^ { t }$ is + +$$ +p _ { \theta } ^ { t } ( \mathbf { s } ) = e ^ { \theta T ( \mathbf { s } ) - A ( \theta ) + k ( \mathbf { s } ) } +$$ + +with log carrier density $k ( \mathbf { s } ) = 0$ , natural parameter $\theta$ , sufficient statistic $T ( \mathbf { s } ) = \log p _ { t } ( \mathbf { s } )$ , and lognormalizer $\begin{array} { r } { A ( \theta ) = \int _ { \mathcal { S } } e ^ { \theta T ( \mathbf { s } ) } d \mathbf { s } } \end{array}$ . As shown in Nielsen & Nock (2010), the entropy of a distribution from a one-dimensional exponential family with parameter $\theta$ is given by: + +$$ +\mathcal { H } _ { \theta } ^ { t } ( \theta ) \triangleq \mathcal { H } ( p _ { \theta } ^ { t } ) = A ( \theta ) - \theta A ^ { \prime } ( \theta ) +$$ + +The derivative with respect to $\theta$ is then + +$$ +\begin{array} { r l } & { \frac { d } { d \theta } d \mathcal { H } _ { \theta } ^ { t } ( \theta ) = - \theta A ^ { \prime \prime } ( \theta ) } \\ & { \quad \quad \quad = - \theta \mathrm { V a r } _ { \mathbf { s } \sim p _ { \theta } ^ { t } } [ T ( \mathbf { s } ) ] } \\ & { \quad \quad \quad = - \theta \mathrm { V a r } _ { \mathbf { s } \sim p _ { \theta } ^ { t } } [ \log p _ { t } ( \mathbf { s } ) ] } \\ & { \quad \quad \quad \quad \leq 0 } \end{array} +$$ + +where we use the fact that the $n$ th derivative of $A ( \theta )$ is the $n$ central moment, i.e. $A ^ { \prime \prime } ( \theta ) =$ $\operatorname { V a r } _ { \mathbf { s } \sim p _ { \theta } ^ { t } } [ T ( \mathbf { s } ) ]$ . Since variance is always non-negative, this means the entropy is monotonically decreasing with $\theta$ . Note that $p _ { t + 1 }$ is a member of this exponential family, with parameter $\theta = \alpha \in$ $( 0 , 1 )$ . So + +$$ +\mathcal { H } ( p _ { t + 1 } ) = \mathcal { H } _ { \boldsymbol { \theta } } ^ { t } ( \alpha ) \geq \mathcal { H } _ { \boldsymbol { \theta } } ^ { t } ( 1 ) = \mathcal { H } ( p _ { t } ) +$$ + +which implies + +$$ +{ \mathcal { H } } ( p _ { 1 } ) \leq { \mathcal { H } } ( p _ { 2 } ) \leq \dots . +$$ + +This monotonically increasing sequence is upper bounded by the entropy of the uniform distribution, and so this sequence must converge. + +The sequence can only converge if $\begin{array} { r } { \frac { d } { d \theta } \mathcal { H } _ { \theta } ^ { t } ( \theta ) } \end{array}$ converges to zero. However, because $\alpha$ is bounded away from 0, Equation 8 states that this can only happen if + +$$ +\begin{array} { r } { \mathrm { V a r } _ { { \bf s } \sim p _ { \theta } ^ { t } } [ \log p _ { t } ( { \bf s } ) ] 0 . } \end{array} +$$ + +Because $p _ { t }$ has full support, then so does $p _ { \theta } ^ { t }$ . Thus, Equation 9 is only true if $\log p _ { t } ( \mathbf { s } )$ converges to a constant, i.e. $p _ { t }$ converges to the uniform distribution. □ + +![](images/7157a6d5e573ea20ef91644a3e31387f89e670199a503eefb1e228a7b14f477c.jpg) +Figure 8: (Top) Coverage over time on the classic 4-room domain, shown on the right. (Bottom) Coverage over time on a more challenging maze domain, shown on the right. In both cases, we see that not using Skew-Fit $\alpha = 0$ ) results in significantly slower learning that primarily stays near the start (yellow star). + +B ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS + +# B.1 SKEW-FIT FOR EXPLORING LOW-DIMENSIONAL SPACES + +Skew-Fit is a general method that enables exploration when it is infeasible to sample goal states uniformly across the entire state space. While the experiments in Section 6 focused on image-based state spaces, there exists many low-dimensional domains in which we know that the goal space is a subset of $\mathbb { R } ^ { d }$ for some $d < n$ , but the exact goal space is still unknown. This scenario is quite common in domains such as robotics: we know that we want an agent to move the position of its center of mass (CoM), but we do not know the set of valid CoM positions, as this requires knowing the geometry of all potential obstacles a priori. We conduct a series of experiments that study whether Skew-Fit enable effectively exploration in these state spaces containing unknown obstacles. + +2D Maze Navigation with Oracle Policy To study the impact of Skew-Fit on exploration in isolation of learning a goal-reaching policy, our first set of experiments use a near-perfect policy that reaches the goal state and then takes a step in a random direction (while taking wall-collisions into account). The random step size is Gaussian with a standard deviation of 0.1 units, and the size of each square shown in Figure 8 is 1.8 units. Due to the relatively small step size, the agent cannot rely on random actions to explore the environment and must instead learn to set goals that are progressively farther and farther from the initial state. The first environment is the Four Rooms environment (Sutton et al., 1999), shown in Figure 8 (top). This environment requires a policy to explore four different rooms, each of which requires passing through a narrow doorway. The maze environment (Figure 8, bottom) presents a more challenging exploration problem and consists of various long corridors that require setting goals progressively deeper into the maze. In both domains, setting goals near the state state (represented by the yellow star) and taking small actions will result in minimal exploration. To measure exploration, we discretize the space into squares (see Figure 8 for square sizes) and measure what fraction of the squares the agent has ever visited during exploration. We see in Figure 8 that using Skew-Fit significantly improves exploration, whereas training $p _ { \phi }$ on samples drawn uniformly from the replay buffer ( $\alpha = 0$ ) results in little exploration. + +2D Navigation with Learned Policy Next, we reproduce the 2D navigation environment experiment from Section 6, and replace the oracle goal-reacher with a goal-reaching policy that is simultaneously trained with the goal setter. The policy outputs velocities with maximum speed of one. Evaluation goals are chosen uniformly over the valid states. The hyperparameters for this experiment are given in Table 2. In Figure 9a, we can see that a policy trained with a goal distribution trained by Skew-Fit consistently learns to reach all goals, whereas a goal distribution trained with uniform sampling, labeled MLE, results in a policy that fails to reach states far from the starting position (the bottom left corner). + +![](images/2aba6465194be867e1f3ff649ce48cd9610ef27d1f243e647d0c627b34946876.jpg) +Figure 9: (a) Comparison of Skew-Fit vs MLE goal sampling on final distance to goal on RL version of the pointmass environment. Skew-Fit consistently learns to solve the task, while MLE often fails. (b) Heatmaps of final distance to each possible goal location for Skew-Fit and MLE. Skew-Fit learns a good policy over the entire state space, but MLE performs poorly for states far away from the starting position (the bottom left corner). + +![](images/78d05fe11fa53cd4baf34907979561a1486a9c0a9d0f3e27fb7641f15a6cfb4d.jpg) +Figure 10: (Left) Ant navigation environment. (Right) Evaluation on reaching joint and XY position. Policies are trained from state. Reward is L2-norm between the current and target joint angle and XY position concatenated together. We use Skew-Fit to sample goals for relabeling and exploration, and compare to other goal sampling methods. See main paper for description of baselines. + +Quadruped “Ant” Locomotion with Learned Policy Lastly, we test Skew-Fit in an exploration task that requires training a simulated quadruped “ant” robot to navigate to random XY positions in a plane, as shown in Figure 10. The input to the policy is the joint and velocity of each angle and the reward is the distance to the goal XY-position. While the goal space is known to reside in the XY-plane, the agent does not know about the location of the center obstacle, and so it must still learn about the set of valid goals by controlling its 8 joint actuators. More details of the environment are in Appendix D. We see in Figure 10 that Skew-Fit outperforms prior methods both in terms of learning speed and final performance, demonstrating that Skew-Fit accelerates exploration in non-vision domains that contains unknown goal spaces. + +# B.2 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS + +Sensitivity to RL Algorithm In our experiments, we combined Skew-Fit with soft actor critic (SAC) (Haarnoja et al., 2018). We conduct a set of experiments to test whether Skew-Fit may be used with other RL algorithms for training the goal-conditioned policy. To that end, we replaced SAC with twin delayed deep deterministic policy gradient (TD3) (Fujimoto et al., 2018) and ran the same Skew-Fit experiments on Visual Door, Visual Pusher, and Visual Pickup. In Figure 11, we see that Skew-Fit performs consistently well with both SAC and TD3, demonstrating that Skew-Fit is beneficial across multiple RL algorithms. + +Sensitivity to $\alpha$ Hyperparameter We study the sensitivity of the $\alpha$ hyperparameter by testing values of $\alpha \in [ - 1 , - 0 . 7 5 , - 0 . 5 , - 0 . 2 5 , 0 ]$ on the Visual Door and Visual Pusher task. The results are included in Figure 12 and shows that our method is robust to different parameters of $\alpha$ , particularly for the more challenging Visual Pusher task. Also, the method consistently outperform $\alpha = 0$ , which is equivalent to sampling uniformly from the replay buffer. + +![](images/ec6c2ddb13f510e3e12d6cee49a539f01fac4d0f7cae3d20f726c29bcd9c7786.jpg) +Figure 11: We compare using SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018) and TD3 (Fujimoto et al., 2018) as the underlying RL algorithm on Visual Door, Visual Pusher and Visual Pickup. We see that Skew-Fit works consistently well with both SAC and TD3, demonstrating that Skew-Fit may be used with various RL algorithms. + +![](images/d52b0fd2c45f7e80b2ef123b8a56fece84a8eff300427780018461fbb380cc11.jpg) +Figure 12: We sweep different values of $\alpha$ on Visual Door, Visual Pusher and Visual Pickup. Skew-Fit helps the final performance on the Visual Door task, and outperforms No Skew-Fit (alpha ${ = } 0$ ) as seen in the zoomed in version of the plot. In the more challenging Visual Pusher task, we see that Skew-Fit consistently helps and halves the final distance. Similarly, in we observe that Skew-Fit consistently outperforms No Skew-fit on Visual Pickup. Note that alpha $= - 1$ is not always the optimal setting for each environment, but performs strongly in each case in terms of final performance. + +
MethodNLL
MLE on uniform (oracle)20175.4
Skew-Fit onunbalanced20175.9
MLEon unbalanced20178.03
+ +Table 1: Despite training on a unbalanced Visual Door dataset (see Figure 7 of paper), the negative log-likelihood (NLL) of Skew-Fit evaluated on a uniform dataset matches that of a VAE trained on a uniform dataset. + +# B.3 VARIANCE ABLATION + +![](images/e7fa99743716fc7f318350d1987c686e5d4cecc44c03f194f71473ca29ac5d3f.jpg) +Figure 13: Gradient variance averaged across parameters in last epoch of training VAEs. Values of $\alpha$ less than $^ { - 1 }$ are numerically unstable for importance sampling (IS), but not for Skew-Fit. + +We measure the gradient variance of training a VAE on an unbalanced Visual Door image dataset with Skew-Fit vs Skew-Fit with importance sampling (IS) vs no Skew-Fit (labeled MLE). We construct the imbalanced dataset by rolling out a random policy in the environment and collecting the visual observations. Most of the images contained the door in a closed position; in a few, the door was opened. In Figure 13, we see that the gradient variance for Skew-Fit with IS is catastrophically large for large values of $\alpha$ . In contrast, for Skew-Fit with SIR, which is what we use in practice, the variance is relatively similar to that of MLE. Additionally we trained three VAE’s, one with MLE on a uniform dataset of valid door opening images, one with Skew-Fit on the unbalanced dataset from above, and one with MLE on the same unbalanced dataset. As expected, the VAE that has access to the uniform dataset gets the lowest negative log likelihood score. This is the oracle method, since in practice we would only have access to imbalanced data. As shown in Table 1, Skew-Fit considerably outperforms MLE, getting a much closer to oracle log likelihood score. + +# B.4 GOAL AND PERFORMANCE VISUALIZATION + +We visualize the goals sampled from Skew-Fit as well as those sampled when using the prior method, RIG (Nair et al., 2018). As shown in Figure 14 and Figure 15, the generative model $p _ { \phi }$ results in much more diverse samples when trained with Skew-Fit. We we see in Figure 16, this results in a policy that more consistently reaches the goal image. + +# C IMPLEMENTATION DETAILS + +# C.1 RIG WITH SKEW-FIT SUMMARY + +Algorithm 2 provides detailed pseudo-code for how we combined our method with RIG. Steps that were removed from the base RIG algorithm are highlighted in blue and steps that were added are highlighted in red. The main differences between the two are (1) sampling exploration goals from the buffer using $p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } }$ instead of the VAE prior, (2) relabeling with replay buffer goals sampled using $p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } }$ instead of from the VAE prior, and (3) training the VAE on replay buffer data data sampled using $p _ { \mathrm { s k e w e d } }$ instead of uniformly. + +![](images/eee40151bd44d1d02e1708cee24b74b73b609448fb16acd199fd73e40a79f99d.jpg) +Figure 14: Proposed goals from the VAE for RIG and with Skew-Fit on the Visual Pickup, Visual Pusher, and Visual Door environments. Standard RIG produces goals where the door is closed and the object and puck is in the same position, while ${ \mathrm { R I G } } +$ Skew-Fit proposes goals with varied puck positions, occasional object goals in the air, and both open and closed door angles. + +![](images/ad0be2668649871d7c884809f45bd4f227c67c6e587e848bc7ebd605a9918cca.jpg) +Figure 15: Proposed goals from the VAE for RIG (left) and with RIG $^ +$ Skew-Fit (right) on the Real World Visual Door environment. Standard RIG produces goals where the door is closed while RIG $^ +$ Skew-Fit proposes goals with both open and closed door angles. + +![](images/011af52d760f48a1c08a253a58d51a40f944f066da3bbe985e23d2cdac20ba29.jpg) +Figure 16: Example reached goals by Skew-Fit and RIG. The first column of each environment section specifies the target goal while the second and third columns show reached goals by Skew-Fit and RIG. Both methods learn how to reach goals close to the initial position, but only Skew-Fit learns to reach the more difficult goals. + +# C.2 LIKELIHOOD ESTIMATION USING $\beta$ -VAE + +We estimate the density under the VAE by using a sample-wise approximation to the marginal over $x$ estimated using importance sampling: + +$$ +\begin{array} { l } { { \displaystyle p _ { \phi _ { t } } ( x ) = \mathbb { E } _ { z \sim q _ { \theta _ { t } } ( z \mid x ) } \left[ \frac { p ( z ) } { q _ { \theta _ { t } } ( z \mid x ) } p _ { \psi _ { t } } ( x \mid z ) \right] } } \\ { { \displaystyle ~ \approx \frac { 1 } { N } \sum _ { i = 1 } ^ { N } \left[ \frac { p ( z ) } { q _ { \theta _ { t } } ( z \mid x ) } p _ { \psi _ { t } } ( x \mid z ) \right] . } } \end{array} +$$ + +where $q _ { \theta }$ is the encoder, $p _ { \psi }$ is the decoder, and $p ( z )$ is the prior, which in this case is unit Gaussian. +We found that sampling $N = 1 0$ latents for estimating the density worked well in practice. + +# C.3 IMPLEMENTATION OF PRIOR WORK + +We replaced TD3 (Fujimoto et al., 2018) with soft actor critic (SAC) from Haarnoja et al. (2018) for all the methods that use RIG, including Skew-Fit.. This is in contrast to the original RIG Nair et al. (2018) paper which used TD3 Fujimoto et al. (2018). We found that maximum entropy policies in general improved the performance of RIG, and that we did not need to add noise on top of the stochastic policy’s noise. For our RL network architectures and training scheme, we use fully connected networks for the policy, Q-function and value networks with two hidden layers of size 400 and 300 each. We also delay training any of these networks for 10000 time steps in order to collect sufficient data for the replay buffer as well as to ensure the latent space of the VAE is relatively stable (since we train the VAE online in this setting). As in RIG, we train a goal-conditioned value functions Schaul et al. (2015) using hindsight experience replay Andrychowicz et al. (2017), relabelling $5 0 \%$ of exploration goals as goals sampled from the VAE prior $\mathcal { N } ( 0 , 1 )$ and $3 0 \%$ from future goals in the trajectory. In the prior RIG method, the VAE was pre-trained on a uniform sampling of images from the state space of each environment. In order to ensure a fair comparison to Skew-Fit, we forego pre-training and instead train the VAE alongside RL, using the variant described in the RIG paper. + +# C.4 VISION-BASED CONTINUOUS CONTROL EXPERIMENTS + +In our experiments, we use an image size of $4 8 \mathbf { x } 4 8$ . For our VAE architecture, we use a modified version of the architecture used in the original RIG paper Nair et al. (2018). Our VAE has three convolutional layers with kernel sizes: 5x5, 3x3, and 3x3, number of output filters: 16, 32, and 64 and strides: 3, 2, and 2. We then have a fully connected layer with the latent dimension number of units, and then reverse the architecture with de-convolution layers. We vary the latent dimension of the VAE, the $\beta$ term of the VAE and the $\alpha$ term for Skew-Fit based on the environment. Additionally, we vary the training schedule of the VAE based on the environment. See the table at the end of the appendix for more details. Our VAE has a Gaussian decoder with identity variance, meaning that we train the decoder with a mean-squared error loss. + +When training the VAE alongside RL, we found the following two schedules to be effective for different environments: + +1. For first $5 K$ steps: Train VAE using standard MLE training every 500 time steps for 1000 batches. After that, train VAE using Skew-Fit every 500 time steps for 200 batches. 2. For first $5 K$ steps: Train VAE using standard MLE training every 500 time steps for 1000 batches. For the next $4 5 K$ steps, train VAE using Skew-Fit every 500 steps for 200 batches. After that, train VAE using Skew-Fit every 1000 time steps for 200 batches. + +We found that initially training the VAE without Skew-Fit improved the stability of the algorithm. This is due to the fact that density estimates under the VAE are constantly changing and inaccurate during the early phases of training. Therefore, it made little sense to use those estimates to prioritize goals early on in training. Instead, we simply train using MLE training for the first $5 K$ timesteps, and after that we perform Skew-Fit according to the VAE schedules above. Table 3 lists the hyperparameters that were shared across the continuous control experiments. Table 4 lists hyper-parameters specific to each environment. Additionally, Appendix C.1 shows the combined RIG $^ +$ Skew-Fit algorithm. + +Table 2: Hyper-parameters used for 2D RL experiment (Figure 9a). + +
Hyper-parameterValue
AlgorithmTD3 Fujimoto et al. (2018)a
# training batches per time step1
Q network hidden sizes400,300
Policy network hidden sizes400,300
Q network and policy activationReLU
Exploration NoiseNone
RL Batch Size1024
Discount Factor0.99
Path length25
Reward Scaling100
Number of steps per epoch5000
+ +Table 3: General hyper-parameters used for all continuous control experiments. + +
Hyper-parameterValueComments
# training batches per time step2Marginal improvementsafter2
Exploration NoiseNone (SAC policy is stochastic)Did not tune
RL Batch Size1024smaller batch sizes work as well
VAE Batch Size64Did not tune
Discount Factor0.99Did not tune
Reward Scaling1Did not tune
Path length100Did not tune
Replay Buffer Size100000Did not tune
Number of Latents for Estimating Density(N)10Marginal improvements beyond 10
+ +Table 4: Environment specific hyper-parameters + +
Hyper-parameterVisualPusherVisual DoorVisual PickupReal World Visual Door
Path Length5010050100
β for β-VAE20203060
Latent Dimension Size4161616
α for Skew-Fit-1-1/2-1-1/2
VAE Training Schedule2121
Sample Goals FromPPskewedPskewedPskewed
+ +Algorithm 2 RIG and RIG $^ +$ Skew-Fit. Blue text denotes RIG specific steps and red text denotes $\mathrm { R I G } +$ Skew-Fit specific steps + +Require: VAE encoder $q _ { \phi }$ , VAE decoder $p _ { \psi }$ , policy $\pi _ { \theta }$ , goal-conditioned value function $Q _ { w }$ , $\alpha$ , VAE Training Schedule. +1: Collect $\mathcal { D } = \{ s ^ { ( i ) } \}$ using exploration policy. +2: Train $\beta$ -VAE on data uniformly sampled from $\mathcal { D }$ . +3: Fit prior $p ( z )$ to latent encodings $\{ \hat { \mu _ { \phi } } ( s ^ { ( i ) } ) \}$ . +4: for $n = 0 , . . . , N - 1$ episodes do +5: Sample latent goal from prior $z _ { g } \sim p ( z )$ . +6: Sample latent goal $e ( s ^ { \prime } )$ from $( s , a , s ^ { \prime } , z _ { g } ) \sim$ $\mathcal { R }$ using $\cdot$ if $\cdot$ not empty. Otherwise, use $\cdot$ . +7: Sample initial state $s _ { 0 } \sim E$ . +8: for $t = 0 , . . . , H - 1$ steps do +9: Get action $a _ { t } \sim \pi _ { \theta } ( e ( s _ { t } ) , z _ { g } )$ . +10: Get next state $s _ { t + 1 } \sim p ( \cdot \mid s _ { t } , a _ { t } )$ . +11: Store $( s _ { t } , a _ { t } , s _ { t + 1 } , z _ { g } )$ into replay buffer $\mathcal { R }$ . +12: Sample transition $( s , a , s ^ { \prime } , z _ { g } ) \sim \mathcal { R }$ . +13: Encode $z = e ( s ) , z ^ { \prime } = e ( s ^ { \prime } )$ . +14: (Probability 0.5) replace $z _ { g }$ with $z _ { g } ^ { \prime } \sim p ( z )$ . +15: (Probability 0.5) replace $\cdot$ with $\cdot$ where $\cdot$ using $p _ { \phi }$ +16: Compute new reward $r = - | | \boldsymbol { z } ^ { \prime } - \boldsymbol { z } _ { g } | |$ . +17: Minimize Bellman Error using $( z , a , z ^ { \prime } , z _ { g } , r )$ . +18: end for +19: for $t = 0 , . . . , H - 1$ steps do +20: for $i = 0 , . . . , k - 1$ steps do +21: Sample future state $s _ { h _ { i } }$ , $t < h _ { i } \leq H - 1$ . +22: Store $\left( s _ { t } , a _ { t } , s _ { t + 1 } , e \left( s _ { h _ { i } } \right) \right)$ into $\mathcal { R }$ . +23: end for +24: end for +25: Construct skewed replay buffer distribution $\cdot$ using data from $\mathcal { R }$ with Equation 4 +26: if total_steps $< 5 0 0 0$ then +27: Fine-tune $\beta$ -VAE on data uniformly sampled from $\mathcal { R }$ according to VAE Training Schedule. +28: else +29: Fine-tune $\beta$ -VAE on data uniformly sampled from $\mathcal { R }$ according to VAE Training Schedule. +30: Fine-tune $\beta$ -VAE on data sampled from $\mathcal { R }$ using $p _ { \phi }$ according to VAE Training Schedule. +31: end if +32: end for + +# C.5 ORACLE 2D NAVIGATION EXPERIMENTS + +We initialize the VAE to the middle of the environment for Maze, and the bottom left corner of the environment for Four Rooms. Both the encoder and decoder have 2 hidden layers with [400, 300] units, ReLU hidden activations, and no output activations. The VAE has a latent dimension of 8 and a Gaussian decoder trained with mean-squared error loss, batch size of 256, and 1000 batches at each iteration. The VAE is trained on the exploration data buffer every 1000 rollouts. + +# D ENVIRONMENT DETAILS + +Point-Mass: In this environment, an agent must learn to navigate a square-shaped corridor (see Figure 3). The observation is the 2D position, and the agent must specify a velocity as the 2D action. The reward at each time step is the negative distance between the achieved position and desired position. + +Maze: A $2 0 \times 2 0 \ : 2 \mathrm { D }$ pointmass environment in the shape of a maze. The observation is the 2D position of the agent, and the agent must specify a target 2D position as the action. The dynamics of the environment are the following: first, the agent is teleported to the target position, specified by the action. Then a gaussian change in position with mean 0 and standard deviation 0.1 is then applied. If the action would result in the agent moving through or into a wall, then the agent will be stopped at the wall instead. + +Four Rooms: A $2 0 \mathrm { ~ x ~ } 2 0 \ 2 \mathrm { D }$ pointmass environment in the shape of four rooms (Sutton et al., 1999). The observation space, actions space, and environment dynamics are the same as the Maze environment above. + +Ant: A MuJoCo ant environment with the same corridor as the Point-Mass environment. The observation is a 2D position, orientation, joint angles, and velocity of the joint angles of the ant. The observation space is 29 dimensions. The agent controls the ant through the joints, which is 8 dimensions. The goal is a target 2D position, and the reward is the negative Euclidean distance between the achieved 2D position and target 2D position. + +Visual Pusher: A MuJoCo environment with a 7-DoF Sawyer arm and a small puck on a table that the arm must push to a target position. The agent controls the arm by commanding $x , y$ position for the end effector (EE). The underlying state is the EE position, $e$ and puck position $p$ . The evaluation metric is the distance between the goal and final puck positions. The hand goal/state space is a $1 0 \mathrm { x } 1 0$ $\mathrm { c m ^ { 2 } }$ box and the puck goal/state space is a $3 0 { \mathrm { x } } 2 0 ~ \mathrm { c m } ^ { 2 }$ box. Both the hand and puck spaces are centered around the origin. The action space ranges in the interval $[ - 1 , 1 ]$ in the $\mathbf { X }$ and y dimensions. + +Visual Door: A MuJoCo environment with a 7-DoF Sawyer arm and a door on a table that the arm must pull open to a target angle. Control is the same as in Visual Pusher. The evaluation metric is the distance between the goal and final door angle, measured in radians. In this environment, we do not reset the position of the hand or door at the end of each trajectory. The state/goal space is a $5 \mathrm { x } 2 0 \mathrm { x } 1 5$ $\mathrm { c m ^ { 3 } }$ box in the $x , y , z$ dimension respectively for the arm and an angle between [0, .83] radians. The action space ranges in the interval $[ - 1 , 1 ]$ in the $\mathbf { X }$ , y and z dimensions. + +Visual Pickup: A MuJoCo environment with the same robot as Visual Pusher, but now with a different object. The object is cube-shaped, but a larger intangible sphere is overlaid on top so that it is easier for the agent to see. Moreover, the robot is constrained to move in 2 dimension: it only controls the $y , z$ arm positions. The $x$ position of both the arm and the object is fixed. The evaluation metric is the distance between the goal and final object position. For the purpose of evaluation, $7 5 \%$ of the goals have the object in the air and $2 5 \%$ have the object on the ground. The state/goal space for both the object and the arm is $1 0 \mathrm { c m }$ in the $y$ dimension and $1 3 \mathrm { c m }$ in the $z$ dimension. The action space ranges in the interval $[ - 1 , 1 ]$ in the $y$ and $z$ dimensions. + +Real World Visual Door: A Rethink Sawyer Robot with a door on a table. The arm must pull the door open to a target angle. The agent controls the arm by commanding the $x , y , z$ velocity of the EE. Our controller commands actions at a rate of up to $1 0 \mathrm { H z }$ with the scale of actions ranging up to 1cm in magnitude. The underlying state and goal is the same as in Visual Door. Again we do not reset the position of the hand or door at the end of each trajectory. We obtain images using a Kinect Sensor. The state/goal space for the environment is a $1 0 \mathrm { { \dot { x } } 1 0 \mathrm { { x } 1 \mathrm { { \dot { 0 } } \mathrm { { c m } ^ { 3 } } } } }$ box. The action space ranges in the interval $[ - 1 , 1 ]$ (in cm) in the $\mathbf { X }$ , y and $\mathbf { Z }$ dimensions. The door angle lies in the range $[ 0 , 4 5 ]$ degrees. + +# E GOAL-CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT LEARNING MINIMIZES $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } )$ + +Some goal-conditioned RL methods such as Warde-Farley et al. (2018); Nair et al. (2018) present methods for minimizing a lower bound for $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } )$ , by approximating $\log p ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } )$ and using it as the reward. Other goal-conditioned RL methods (Kaelbling, 1993; Lillicrap et al., 2016; Schaul et al., 2015; Andrychowicz et al., 2017; Pong et al., 2018; Florensa et al., 2018a) are not developed with the intention of minimizing the conditional entropy $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } )$ . Nevertheless, one can see that goal-conditioned RL generally minimizes $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } )$ by noting that the optimal goal-conditioned policy will deterministically reach the goal. The corresponding conditional entropy of the goal given the state, $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } )$ , would be zero, since given the current state, there would be no uncertainty over the goal (the goal must have been the current state since the policy is optimal). So, the objective of goal-conditioned RL can be interpreted as finding a policy such that $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } ) = 0$ . Since zero is the minimum value of $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } )$ , then goal-conditioned RL can be interpreted as minimizing $\mathcal { H } ( \mathbf { G } \mid \mathbf { S } )$ . \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/parse/train/r1gIdySFPH/r1gIdySFPH_content_list.json b/parse/train/r1gIdySFPH/r1gIdySFPH_content_list.json new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..996c03b5c1c3ce1fe123a3dae71287b836da208c --- /dev/null +++ b/parse/train/r1gIdySFPH/r1gIdySFPH_content_list.json @@ -0,0 +1,2333 @@ +[ + { + "type": "text", + "text": "SKEW-FIT: STATE-COVERING SELF-SUPERVISED REINFORCEMENT LEARNING ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 98, + 763, + 146 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Anonymous authors Paper under double-blind review ", + "bbox": [ + 183, + 170, + 398, + 198 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "ABSTRACT ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 454, + 234, + 544, + 251 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Autonomous agents that must exhibit flexible and broad capabilities will need to be equipped with large repertoires of skills. Defining each skill with a manuallydesigned reward function limits this repertoire and imposes a manual engineering burden. Self-supervised agents that set their own goals can automate this process, but designing appropriate goal setting objectives can be difficult, and often involves heuristic design decisions. In this paper, we propose a formal exploration objective for goal-reaching policies that maximizes state coverage. We show that this objective is equivalent to maximizing the entropy of the goal distribution together with goal reaching performance, where goals correspond to full state observations. To instantiate this principle, we present an algorithm called Skew-Fit for learning a maximum-entropy goal distributions. Skew-Fit enables self-supervised agents to autonomously choose and practice reaching diverse goals. We show that, under certain regularity conditions, our method converges to a uniform distribution over the set of valid states, even when we do not know this set beforehand. Our experiments show that it can learn a variety of manipulation tasks from images, including opening a door with a real robot, entirely from scratch and without any manually-designed reward function. ", + "bbox": [ + 232, + 265, + 766, + 501 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "1 INTRODUCTION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 529, + 334, + 545 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Reinforcement learning (RL) provides an appealing formalism for automated learning of behavioral skills, but separately learning every potentially useful skill becomes prohibitively time consuming, both in terms of the experience required for the agent and the effort required for the user to design reward functions for each behavior. What if we could instead design an unsupervised RL algorithm that automatically explores the environment and iteratively distills this experience into general-purpose policies that can accomplish new user-specified tasks at test time? ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 560, + 529, + 713 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/e63694dfee063113410dee749ee6eadb4238e7f49cedfcc7d0705d23188a8a5b.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 1: Left: Robot learning to open a door with Skew-Fit, without any task reward. Right: Samples from a goal distribution when using (a) Skew-Fit and (b) unweighted (ie. uniform) sampling. When used as goals, the diverse samples from Skew-Fit encourage the robot to practice opening the door more frequently. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 544, + 561, + 821, + 619 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "For an agent to learn autonomously, it needs an exploration objective. In the absence of any prior knowledge about which states are more useful, an effective exploration scheme is one that visits as many states as possible, allowing a policy to autonomously prepare for user-specified task that it might see at test time. This objective has been formalized as maximizing the entropy of the learned policy’s visited state distribution 1 $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { S } )$ (Hazan et al., 2018a), since a policy that maximizes this objective should approach a uniform distribution over valid states. Unfortunately, directly optimizing $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { S } )$ requires an accurate model of the policy and environment (Hazan et al., 2018a). Moreover, even if this optimization were tractable, another short-coming of this objective is that the resulting policy cannot be used to solve new tasks: it only knows how to maximize state entropy. In other words, to develop principled unsupervised RL algorithms that result in useful policies, maximizing $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { S } )$ is not enough. We need a mechanism that allows us to control the resulting policy to achieve new tasks at test-time. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 722, + 531, + 734 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 728, + 825, + 887 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We argue that this can be accomplished by performing goal-directed exploration. In addition to maximizing the state entropy, we should be able to control where the policy goes by giving it a goal $\\mathbf { G }$ that corresponds to a state that it must reach. Mathematically, a goal-conditioned policy should minimize the conditional entropy over the states given a goal, $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid \\mathbf { G } )$ . This objective provides us with a principled way for training a policy to explore all states, by maximizing $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { S } )$ , such that the state that is reached can be controlled by commanding goals, which means minimizing $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid \\mathbf { G } )$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 825, + 188 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Directly using this objective is often intractable, since it requires optimizing the entropy of the marginal state distribution of the policy, $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { S } )$ . However, we can sidestep this issue by noting that the objective is the mutual information between the state and the goal, $I ( \\mathbf { S } ; \\mathbf { G } )$ , which can be written as: ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 194, + 825, + 236 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/2247761e59a561f14a24053f54c654bd8ceddb062c03d8d181169fbf7b0cef47.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\begin{array} { r } { \\mathbf { \\mathcal { H } } ( \\mathbf { S } ) - \\mathbf { \\mathcal { H } } ( \\mathbf { S } | \\mathbf { G } ) = I ( \\mathbf { S } ; \\mathbf { G } ) = \\mathbf { \\mathcal { H } } ( \\mathbf { G } ) - \\mathbf { \\mathcal { H } } ( \\mathbf { G } | \\mathbf { S } ) . } \\end{array}\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 330, + 242, + 668, + 260 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Equation 1 thus gives an equivalent objective for an unsupervised RL algorithm: the agent should set diverse goals, maximizing $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )$ , and learn how to reach them, minimizing $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 265, + 821, + 294 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "While the second term is the typical objective studied in goal-conditioned RL (Kaelbling, 1993; Andrychowicz et al., 2017), maximizing the diversity of goals is crucial for effectively learning to reach all possible states. In a new environment, acquiring such a maximum-entropy goal distribution is challenging: how can an agent set diverse goals when it does not even know what states exist? ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 300, + 825, + 356 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this paper, we address this question via a new algorithm, Skew-Fit, which learns to model the uniform distribution over states, given only access to data collected by an autonomous goalconditioned policy. Our paper makes the following contributions. First, we propose a principled objective for unsupervised RL, based on Equation 1. While a number of prior works ignore the $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )$ term, we argue that jointly optimizing the entire quantity is needed to develop effective and useful exploration. Second, we propose a method called Skew-Fit and prove that, under some regularity conditions, it learns a generative model that converges to a uniform distribution over the goal space, even when the set of valid states is unknown (e.g., as in the case of images). Third, we empirically demonstrate that, when combined with goal-conditioned RL, Skew-Fit allows us to autonomously train goal-conditioned policies that reach diverse states. We test this method on a variety of simulated vision-based robot tasks without any task-specific reward function. In these experiments, Skew-Fit reaches substantially better final performance than prior methods, and learns much more quickly. We also demonstrate that our approach solves a real-world manipulation task, which requires a robot to learn to open a door from scratch in about five hours, directly from images, and without any manually-designed reward function. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 363, + 825, + 570 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2 PROBLEM FORMULATION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 592, + 416, + 607 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "To ensure that an unsupervised reinforcement learning agent learns to reach all possible states in a controllable way, we maximize the mutual information between the state S and the goal $\\mathbf { G }$ , $I ( \\mathbf { S } ; \\mathbf { G } )$ , as stated in Equation 1. This section discusses how to optimize Equation 1 by splitting the optimization into two parts: minimizing $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )$ and maximizing $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 623, + 825, + 679 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2.1 MINIMIZING $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )$ : GOAL-CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT LEARNING", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 695, + 735, + 710 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Standard RL considers a Markov decision process (MDP), which has a state space $s$ , action space $\\mathcal { A }$ , and unknown dynamics $\\rho ( \\mathbf { s } _ { t + 1 } \\mid \\mathbf { s } _ { t } , \\mathbf { a } _ { t } ) : \\mathcal { S } \\times \\mathcal { S } \\times \\mathcal { A } \\mapsto [ 0 , + \\infty )$ . Goal-conditioned RL also includes a goal space $\\mathcal { G }$ . For simplicity, we will assume in our derivation that the goal space matches the state space, such that $\\mathcal { G } = \\mathcal { S }$ , though the approach extends trivially to the case where $\\mathcal { G }$ is a hand-specified subset of $s$ , such as the global x-y position of a robot. A goal-conditioned policy $\\pi ( \\mathbf { a } \\mid \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { g } )$ maps a state $\\mathbf { s } \\in { \\mathcal { S } }$ and goal $\\mathbf { g } \\in { \\mathcal { S } }$ to a distribution over actions $\\mathbf { a } \\in { \\mathcal { A } }$ , and its objective is to reach the goal, i.e., to make the current state equal to the goal. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 720, + 825, + 820 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Goal-reaching can be formulated as minimizing $\\mathcal { H } ( \\textbf { G } | \\textbf { S } )$ , and many practical goal-reaching algorithms (Kaelbling, 1993; Lillicrap et al., 2016; Schaul et al., 2015; Andrychowicz et al., 2017; Nair et al., 2018; Pong et al., 2018; Florensa et al., 2018a) can be viewed as approximations to this objective by observing that the optimal goal-conditioned policy will deterministically reach the goal, resulting in a conditional entropy of zero: $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } ) = 0$ . See Appendix E for more details. Our method may thus be used in conjunction with any of these prior goal-conditioned RL methods in order to jointly minimize $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )$ and maximize $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 825, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2.2 MAXIMIZING $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )$ : SETTING DIVERSE GOALS", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 545, + 118 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We now turn to the problem of setting diverse goals or, mathematically, maximizing the entropy of the goal distribution $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )$ . Let $U _ { S }$ be the uniform distribution over $s$ , where we assume $s$ has finite volume so that the uniform distribution is well-defined. Let $p _ { \\phi }$ be the goal distribution from which goals $\\mathbf { G }$ are sampled. Our goal is to maximize the entropy of $p _ { \\phi }$ , which we write as $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )$ . Since the maximum entropy distribution over $s$ is the uniform distribution $U _ { S }$ , maximizing $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )$ may seem as simple as choosing the uniform distribution to be our goal distribution: $p _ { \\phi } = U _ { S }$ . However, this requires knowing the uniform distribution over valid states, which may be difficult to obtain when $s$ is a subset of $\\mathbb { R } ^ { n }$ , for some $n$ . For example, if the states correspond to images viewed through a robot’s camera, $s$ corresponds to the (unknown) set of valid images of the robot’s environment, while $\\mathbb { R } ^ { n }$ corresponds to all possible arrays of pixel values of a particular size. In such environments, sampling from the uniform distribution $\\mathbb { R } ^ { n }$ is unlikely to correspond to a valid image of the real world. Sampling uniformly from $s$ would require knowing the set of all possible valid images, which we assume the agent does not know when starting to explore the environment. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 132, + 825, + 313 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "While we cannot sample arbitrary states from $s$ , we can sample states by performing goal-directed exploration. To derive and analyze our method, we introduce a simple model of this process: a goal ${ \\bf G } \\sim p _ { \\phi }$ is sampled from the goal distribution $p _ { \\phi }$ , and then the agent attempts to achieve this goal, which results in a distribution of states $\\mathbf { S } \\in S$ seen along the trajectory. We abstract this entire process by writing the resulting marginal distribution over $\\mathbf { S }$ as $p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi } )$ . We assume that $p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi } )$ has full support, which can be accomplished with an epsilon-greedy goal reaching policy in a communicating MDP. We also assume that the entropy of the resulting state distribution $\\mathcal { H } ( p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi } ) )$ is no less than the entropy of the goal distribution $\\mathcal { H } ( p _ { \\phi } ( \\mathbf { S } ) )$ . Without this assumption, a policy could ignore the goal and stay in a single state, no matter how diverse and realistic the goals are. Note that this assumption does not require that the entropy of $p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi } )$ is strictly larger than the entropy of the goal distribution, $p _ { \\phi }$ . This simplified model allows us to analyze the behavior of our goal-setting scheme separately from any specific goal-reaching algorithm. We will however show in Section 6 that we can instantiate this approach into a practical algorithm that jointly learns the goal-reaching policy. In summary, our goal is to acquire a maximum-entropy goal distribution $p _ { \\phi }$ over valid states $s$ , while only having access to state samples from $p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi } )$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 319, + 825, + 527 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3 SKEW-FIT: LEARNING A MAXIMUM ENTROPY GOAL DISTRIBUTION", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 173, + 554, + 774, + 570 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Our method, Skew-Fit, learns a maximum entropy goal distribution $p _ { \\phi }$ using samples collected from a goal-conditioned policy. We analyze the algorithm and show that Skew-Fit maximizes the entropy of the goal distribution, and present a practical instantiation for unsupervised deep RL. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 589, + 823, + 632 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.1 SKEW-FIT ALGORITHM ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 655, + 379, + 669 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "To learn a uniform distribution over valid goal states, we present a method that iteratively increases the entropy of a generative model $p _ { \\phi }$ . In particular, given a generative model $p _ { \\phi _ { t } }$ at iteration $t$ , we would like to train a new generative model $p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }$ such that $p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }$ has higher entropy than $p _ { \\phi _ { t } }$ over the set of valid states. While we do not know the set of valid states $s$ , we can sample states from $p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi _ { t } } )$ , resulting in an empirical distribution $p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }$ over the states ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 683, + 825, + 755 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/d535d8723e3250175d1398fe29aea149e386ec1dc8da62b2b1df347e797a35b3.jpg", + "text": "$$\np _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { s } ) \\triangleq \\frac { 1 } { N } \\sum _ { n = 1 } ^ { N } \\mathbf { 1 } \\{ \\mathbf { s } = \\mathbf { S } _ { n } \\} , \\quad \\mathbf { S } _ { n } \\sim p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi _ { t } } ) ,\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 328, + 762, + 668, + 806 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "and use this empirical distribution to train the next generative model $p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }$ . However, if we simply train $p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }$ to model this empirical distribution, it may not necessarily have higher entropy than $p _ { \\phi _ { t } }$ ", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 816, + 825, + 847 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The intuition behind our method is quite simple: rather than fitting a generative model to our empirical distribution, we skew the empirical distribution so that rarely visited states are given more weight. See Figure 2 for a visualization of this process. How should we skew the empirical distribution if we want to maximize the entropy of $p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }$ ? If we had access to the density of each state, $p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } )$ , then we could simply weight each state by $1 / p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } )$ . We could then perform maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) for the uniform distribution by using the following loss to train $\\phi _ { t + 1 }$ ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 852, + 825, + 925 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/894da00b480142f481d085047763b172e7496ac38d3b0d0c99e57bba975f2991.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 2: Our method, Skew-Fit, samples goals for goal-conditioned RL in order to induce a uniform state visitation distribution. We start by sampling from our replay buffer, and weighting the states such that rare states are given more weight. We then train a generative model $p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }$ with the weighted samples. By sampling new states with goals proposed from this new generative model, we obtain a higher entropy distribution of states in our replay buffer at the next iteration. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 178, + 102, + 820, + 280 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 366, + 748, + 382 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/d94403eabec6c7b9cbfeaff2c48f4267a5fdd7f89b22a06d1ffb6351d739288b.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\mathcal { L } ( \\phi ) = \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { S } \\sim U _ { S } } \\left[ \\log p _ { \\phi } ( \\mathbf { S } ) \\right] = \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { S } \\sim p _ { \\mathrm { r o u p } _ { t } } } \\left[ \\frac { U _ { S } ( \\mathbf { S } ) } { p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } ) } \\log p _ { \\phi } ( \\mathbf { S } ) \\right] \\propto \\mathbb { E } _ { \\mathbf { S } \\sim p _ { \\mathrm { r o u p } _ { t } } } \\left[ \\frac { 1 } { p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } ) } \\log p _ { \\phi } ( \\mathbf { S } ) \\right]\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 181, + 387, + 816, + 424 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where we use the fact that the uniform distribution $U _ { S } ( \\mathbf { S } )$ has constant density for all states in $s$ . However, computing this density $p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } )$ requires marginalizing out the MDP dynamics, which requires an accurate model of both the dynamics and the goal-conditioned policy. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 431, + 825, + 474 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We avoid needing to model the entire MDP process by approximating $p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } )$ with our previous learned generative model: $p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } ) \\approx p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi _ { t } } ) \\approx p _ { \\phi _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } )$ . We therefore weight each state by the following weight function ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 479, + 825, + 525 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/495b21f905d442cc06ee4723afc2d7902fbe403b8af1b4990e9e345dd9f6d7fe.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\begin{array} { r } { w _ { t , \\alpha } ( \\mathbf { S } ) \\triangleq p _ { \\phi _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } ) ^ { \\alpha } , \\quad \\alpha < 0 . } \\end{array}\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 398, + 531, + 599, + 551 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where $\\alpha$ is a hyperparameter that controls how heavily we weight each state. If our approximation $p _ { \\phi _ { t } }$ was exact, we could choose $\\alpha = - 1$ and recover the exact importance sampling procedure described above. If $\\alpha = 0$ , then this skew step has no effect. By choosing intermediate values of $\\alpha$ , we can trade off the reliability of our estimate $p _ { \\phi _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } )$ with the speed at which we want to increase the entropy of the goal distribution. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 556, + 825, + 628 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Variance Reduction As described, this procedure relies on importance sampling (IS), which can have high variance, particularly if $p _ { \\phi _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } ) \\approx 0$ . We therefore choose a class of generative models where the probabilities are prevented from collapsing to zero, as we will describe in Section 4. To further reduce the variance, we train $p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }$ with sampling importance resampling (SIR) (Rubin, 1988). Rather than sampling from $p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }$ and weighting the update from each sample by $w _ { t , \\alpha }$ , SIR explicitly defines a skewed distribution as ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 642, + 826, + 728 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/3082e6f76888592269c49511b78c251cdefd3ed61fd2f5188e3d6baa4d72eb03.jpg", + "text": "$$\np _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { s } ) \\triangleq \\frac { 1 } { Z _ { \\alpha } } p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { s } ) w _ { t , \\alpha } ( \\mathbf { s } ) , \\quad Z _ { \\alpha } = \\sum _ { n = 1 } ^ { N } p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } _ { n } ) w _ { t , \\alpha } ( \\mathbf { S } _ { n } ) ,\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 274, + 732, + 722, + 775 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where $Z _ { \\alpha }$ is the normalizing coefficient and $p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }$ is given by Equation 2. We note that computing $Z _ { \\alpha }$ adds little computational overhead, since all of the weights already need to be computed. We then fit the generative model at the next iteration $p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }$ to $p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ using standard MLE. We found that using SIR resulted in significantly lower variance than IS. See Appendix B.3 for this comparision. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 781, + 825, + 838 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Goal Sampling Alternative Because $p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } } \\approx p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ , at iteration $t + 1$ , one can sample goals from either $p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }$ or $p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ . Sampling goals from $p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ may be preferred if sampling from the learned generative model $p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }$ is computationally or otherwise challenging. In either case, one still needs to train the generative model $p _ { \\phi _ { t } }$ to create $p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ . In our experiments, we found that both methods perform well. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 853, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Summary Overall, Skew-Fit samples data from the environment and weights different samples by their density under the generative model $p _ { \\phi _ { t } }$ . We prove in the next section conditions under which this weighting makes the generative model at the next iteration $p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }$ have higher entropy. With higher entropy, the $p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }$ is more likely to generate goals at the frontier of unseen states, which results in more uniform state coverage. Skew-Fit is shown in Figure 2 and summarized in Algorithm 1. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 103, + 825, + 174 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Algorithm 1 Skew-Fit ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 185, + 318, + 199 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "1: for Iteration $t = 1 , 2 , \\dots \\mathbf { d o }$ \n2: Collect $N$ states $\\{ \\mathbf { S } _ { i } \\} _ { i = 1 } ^ { N }$ by sampling goals from $p _ { \\phi _ { t } }$ (or $p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } } )$ ) and running goal \nconditioned policy. \n3: Construct skewed distribution $p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ (Equation 3 and Equation 4). \n4: Fit $p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }$ to skewed distribution $p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ using MLE. \n5: end for ", + "bbox": [ + 179, + 202, + 825, + 286 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.2 SKEW-FIT ANALYSIS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 301, + 361, + 315 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section, we provide conditions under which $p _ { \\phi _ { t } }$ converges in distribution to the uniform distribution over the state space $s$ . To make this analysis possible, we consider the case where $N \\infty$ , which allows us to study the limit behavior of the goal distribution $p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ . Our most general result is stated as follows: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 328, + 825, + 383 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Lemma 3.1. Let $s$ be a compact set. Define the set of distributions $\\mathcal { Q } = \\{ p : s u p p o r t o f p i s \\mathcal { S } \\}$ . Let $\\mathcal { F } : \\mathcal { Q } \\mapsto \\mathcal { Q }$ be a continuous function and such that $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathcal { F } ( p ) ) \\geq \\mathcal { H } ( p )$ with equality if and only if $p$ is the uniform probability distribution on $s$ , $U _ { S }$ . Define the sequence of distributions $P = ( p _ { 1 } , p _ { 2 } , . . . )$ by starting with any $p _ { 1 } \\in \\mathcal { Q }$ and recursively defining $p _ { t + 1 } = \\mathcal { F } ( p _ { t } )$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 390, + 825, + 446 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The sequence $P$ converges to $U _ { S }$ ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 452, + 393, + 467 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Proof. See Appendix Section E. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 482, + 387, + 497 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We will apply Lemma 3.1 to be the map from $p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ to $p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t + 1 } }$ to show that $p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ converges to $U _ { S }$ . If we assume that the goal-conditioned policy and generative model learning procedure are well behaved ( i.e., the maps from $p _ { \\phi _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } )$ to $p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }$ and from $p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ to $p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }$ are continuous ), then to apply Lemma 3.1, we only need to show that $\\mathcal { H } ( p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } } ) \\geq \\mathcal { H } ( p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } )$ with equality if and only if $p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } = U _ { S }$ . For the simple case when $p _ { \\phi _ { t } } = p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }$ identically at each iteration, we prove the convergence of Skew-Fit true for any value of $\\alpha \\in [ - 1 , 0 )$ in Appendix A.3. However, in practice, $p _ { \\phi _ { t } }$ only approximates $p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }$ . To address this more realistic situation, we prove the following result: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 511, + 825, + 612 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Lemma 3.2. Given two distribution $p _ { e m p _ { t } }$ and $p _ { \\phi _ { t } }$ where $p _ { e m p _ { t } } \\ll { p _ { \\phi _ { t } } } ^ { 2 }$ and ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 618, + 674, + 636 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/71903885246e0c1780b8e55d627bf0332a1309eaa15d5db113df5b31434bdeed.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\mathrm { C o v } _ { \\mathbf { S } \\sim p _ { e m p _ { t } } } \\left[ \\log p _ { e m p _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } ) , \\log p _ { \\phi _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } ) \\right] > 0 ,\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 356, + 645, + 640, + 665 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "define the distribution $p _ { s k e w e d _ { t } }$ as in Equation $^ { 4 . }$ . Let ${ \\mathcal { H } } _ { \\alpha } ( \\alpha )$ be the entropy of $p _ { s k e w e d _ { t } }$ for a fixed $\\alpha$ . Then there exists a constant $a < 0$ such that for all $\\alpha \\in [ a , 0 )$ , ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 674, + 826, + 704 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/7ab99df7c7689bd491a8ea21b309bacd3f171fb6d9d9153dfe3b73eb39e5e9d2.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\mathcal { H } ( p _ { s k e w e d _ { t } } ) = \\mathcal { H } _ { \\alpha } ( \\alpha ) > \\mathcal { H } ( p _ { e m p _ { t } } ) .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 382, + 713, + 614, + 732 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Proof. See Appendix Section E. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 743, + 387, + 758 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Thus, our generative model $p _ { \\phi _ { t } }$ does not need to exactly fit the empirical distribution. We merely need for the log densities of $p _ { \\phi _ { t } }$ and $p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }$ to be correlated, which we expect to happen frequently with an accurate goal-conditioned policy, since $p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }$ is the set of states seen when trying to reach goals from $p _ { \\phi _ { t } }$ . In this case, if we choose negative values of $\\alpha$ that are small enough, then the entropy of $p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ will be higher than that of $p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }$ . Empirically, we found that $\\alpha$ values as low as $\\alpha = - 1$ performed well. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 772, + 825, + 857 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In summary, we see that under certain assumptions, $p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ converges to $U _ { S }$ . Since we train each generative model $p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }$ by fitting it to $p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }$ , we expect $p _ { \\phi _ { t } }$ to also converge to $U _ { S }$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 864, + 825, + 893 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "4 TRAINING GOAL-CONDITIONED POLICIES WITH SKEW-FIT", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 173, + 102, + 697, + 118 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Thus far, we have presented and derived Skew-Fit assuming that we have access to a goal-reaching policy, allowing us to separately analyze how we can maximize $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )$ . However, in practice we do not have access to such a policy, and in this section we discuss how we concurrently train a goal-reaching policy. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 133, + 823, + 190 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Maximizing $I ( \\mathbf { S } ; \\mathbf { G } )$ can be done by simultaneously performing Skew-Fit and training a goal conditioned policy to minimize $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )$ , or, equivalently, maximize $- \\mathcal { H } ( \\textbf G | \\textbf { S } )$ . Maximizing $- \\mathcal { H } ( \\textbf { G } | \\textbf { S } )$ requires computing the density $\\log p ( \\textbf { G } | \\textbf { S } )$ , which may be difficult to compute without strong modeling assumptions. However, for any distribution $q$ , the following lower bound for $- \\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )$ holds: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 196, + 825, + 267 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/21e0bcf16998fc3bd6bbbf06bc88010a1dc8381899d1046a216b7ec2b8638999.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\begin{array} { r } { - \\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } ) = \\mathbb { E } _ { ( \\mathbf { G } , \\mathbf { S } ) \\sim p _ { \\phi _ { t } } , \\pi } \\left[ \\log q ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } ) \\right] + D _ { \\mathrm { K L } } ( p \\mid q ) \\ge \\mathbb { E } _ { ( \\mathbf { G } , \\mathbf { S } ) \\sim p _ { \\phi _ { t } } , \\pi } \\left[ \\log q ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } ) \\right] , } \\end{array}\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 200, + 273, + 792, + 294 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where $D _ { \\mathrm { K L } }$ denotes Kullback–Leibler divergence as discussed by Barber & Agakov (2004). Thus, to minimize $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )$ , we train a policy to maximize the following reward: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 301, + 825, + 329 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/45bef4d1dc9d0e2de3016584949ffbd1533f1cfafa73dbc5e2095f942635db7d.jpg", + "text": "$$\nr ( \\mathbf { S } , \\mathbf { G } ) = \\log q ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } ) .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 415, + 337, + 581, + 354 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "For the RL algorithm, we use reinforcement learning with imagined goals (RIG) (Nair et al., 2018), though in principle any goal-conditioned method could be used. RIG is an efficient off-policy goalconditioned method that solves the vision-based RL problem in a learned latent space. In particular, RIG fits a $\\beta$ -VAE and uses it to encode all observations and goals into a latent space, which it uses as the state representation. RIG also uses the $\\beta$ -VAE to compute rewards, $\\log q ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )$ . Unlike RIG, we use the goal distribution from Skew-Fit to sample goals, both for exploration and for relabeling goals during training (Andrychowicz et al., 2017). Since RIG already trains a generative model over states, we reuse this $\\beta$ -VAE for the generative model $p _ { \\phi }$ of Skew-Fit. To make the most use of the data, $p _ { \\phi }$ is trained on all visited state rather than only the terminal states, which we found to work well in practice. In other words, our method uses the likelihood estimates from the $\\beta$ -VAE to choose the probability of sampling each state in Equation 3. To prevent these probabilities from collapsing to zero, we model the posterior of the $\\beta$ -VAE as a multivariate Gaussian distribution with a fixed variance and only learn the mean. We include a detailed summary of RIG and description our how we combine Skew-Fit and RIG in Appendix C.1. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 369, + 826, + 564 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5 RELATED WORK ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 584, + 344, + 601 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Many prior methods for training goal-conditioned policies assume that a goal distribution is available to sample from during exploration (Kaelbling, 1993; Schaul et al., 2015; Andrychowicz et al., 2017; Pong et al., 2018). Other methods use data collected from a randomly initialized policy or heuristics based on data collected online to design a non-parametric (Colas et al., 2018b; Warde-Farley et al., 2018; Florensa et al., 2018a; Zhao & Tresp, 2019) or parametric (Péré et al., 2018; Nair et al., 2018) goal distribution. We remark that Warde-Farley et al. (2018) also motivate their work in terms of minimizing a lower bound for $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )$ . Our work is complementary to these goal-reaching methods: rather than focusing on how to train goal-reaching policies, we propose a principled method for maximizing the entropy of a goal sampling distribution, $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 617, + 826, + 743 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Our method learns without any task rewards, directly acquiring a policy that can be reused to reach user-specified goals. This stands in contrast to exploration methods that give bonus rewards based on state visitation frequency (Bellemare et al., 2016; Ostrovski et al., 2017; Tang et al., 2017; Savinov et al., 2018; Chentanez et al., 2005; Lopes et al., 2012; Stadie et al., 2016; Pathak et al., 2017; Burda et al., 2018; 2019; Mohamed & Rezende, 2015; Tang et al., 2017; Fu et al., 2017). While these methods can also be used without a task reward, they provide no mechanism for distilling the knowledge gained from visiting diverse states into flexible policies that can be applied to accomplish new goals at test-time: their policies visit novel states, and they quickly forget about them as other states become more novel. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 750, + 825, + 875 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Other prior methods extract reusable skills in the form of latent-variable-conditioned policies, where latent variables can be interpreted as options (Sutton et al., 1999) or abstract skills (Hausman et al., 2018; Gupta et al., 2018b; Eysenbach et al., 2019; Gupta et al., 2018a; Florensa et al., 2017). The resulting skills may be diverse, but they have no grounded interpretation, while our method can be used immediately after unsupervised training to reach diverse user-specified goals. ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 882, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 103, + 823, + 132 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Some prior methods propose to choose goals based on heuristics such as learning progress (Baranes & Oudeyer, 2012; Veeriah et al., 2018; Colas et al., 2018a), how off-policy the goal is (Nachum et al., 2018), level of difficulty (Florensa et al., 2018b) or likelihood ranking (Zhao & Tresp, 2019). In contrast, our approach provides a principled framework for optimizing a concrete and well-motivated exploration objective, and can be shown to maximize this objective under regularity assumptions. The work of Hazan et al. (2018b) also provably optimizes a well-motivated exploration objective, but is limited to tabular MDPs, while Skew-Fit is able to handle high dimensional settings such as vision-based continuous control. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 138, + 825, + 251 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "6 EXPERIMENTS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 271, + 326, + 287 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Our experiments study the following questions: (1) Does Skew-Fit empirically result in a goal distribution with increasing entropy? (2) In image-based domains, how does Skew-Fit compare to prior work on choosing goals for goal-conditioned RL? (3) Can Skew-Fit be applied to a real-world, vision-based robot task? ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 304, + 825, + 359 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Does Skew-Fit Maximize Entropy? To see the effects of Skew-Fit on goal distribution entropy in isolation of learning a goal-reaching policy, we begin by studying an idealized example where the policy is a near-perfect goal-reaching policy. The MDP is defined on a 2-by-2 unit square-shaped corridor (see Figure 3). At the beginning of an episode, the agent begins in the bottom-left corner and samples a goal from the goal distribution $p _ { \\phi _ { t } }$ . To simulate the stochasticity of the policy and environment, we add a Gaussian noise with standard deviation of 0.05 to this goal. The policy reaches the state that is closest to this noisy goal and inside the corridor, giving us a state S to add to our empirical distribution. We compare Skew-Fit to sampling uniformly from the replay buffer (labeled MLE). The $\\beta$ -VAE hyperparameters used to train $p _ { \\phi _ { t } }$ are given in Appendix C.5. As seen in Figure 3, naively using previous experience to set goals results in a policy that primarily sets goal near the initial state distribution and only relies on the stochasticity of the policy and environment to explore. In contrast, Skew-Fit results in quickly learning a high entropy, near-uniform distribution over the state space. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 376, + 825, + 502 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/a7efccfb2d480e2ee3ded9740d1ac703f88743c90286a6da7fb0d3f4d67fc854.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 3: (Left) The set of final states visited by our agent and MLE over the course of training. In contrast to MLE, our method quickly approaches a uniform distribution over the set of valid states. (Right) The entropy of the sample data distribution, which quickly reaches its maximum for Skew-Fit. The entropy was calculated via discretization onto a 60 by 60 grid. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 263, + 510, + 738, + 623 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 698, + 825, + 755 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Vision-Based Continuous Control Tasks We now evaluate Skew-Fit on a variety of continuous control tasks, where the policy must control a robot arm using only image observations, without access to any ground truth reward signal. We test our method on three different simulated continuous control tasks released by the authors of RIG (Nair et al., 2018): Visual Door, Visual Pusher, and Visual Pickup. To our knowledge, these are the only goal-conditioned, vision-based continuous control environments that are publicly available and used in experimental evaluations in prior work, making them a good point of comparison. See Figure 4 for visuals and Appendix C for details of these environments. The policies are trained in a completely unsupervised manner, without access to any prior information about the state-space or any pre-defined goal-sampling distribution. To evaluate their performance, we sample goal images from a uniform distribution over valid states and report the agent’s final distance to the corresponding simulator states (e.g., distance of the object to the target object location), but the agent never has access to this true uniform distribution nor the ground-truth state information during training. While this evaluation method and metric is only practical in simulation, it provides us with a quantitative measure of a policy’s ability to reach a broad coverage of goals in a vision-based setting. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 770, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/609f4b69c4699ff46c91c0eb13f2ac3b037b7837df7dc55eb94e4d73fcd0a057.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 4: We evaluate on these continuous control environments. From left to right: Visual Pusher, a simulated pushing task; Visual Door, a door opening task; Visual Pickup, a picking task; and Real World Visual Door, a real world door opening task. All tasks are solved from images and without any task-specific reward. See Appendix D for details. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 176, + 102, + 823, + 191 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/6804bd20ac047d2e426986cc88b5535a2a71d82eb57336a96817a814247fae7d.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 5: (Left) Learning curves for simulated continuous control experiments. Lower is better. For each environment and method, we show the mean and standard deviation of 6 seeds and smooth temporally across 25 epochs within each seed. Skew-Fit consistently outperforms RIG and various baselines. See the text for description of each method. (Right) The first column displays example test goal images for each environment. In the next two columns, we display final images reached by Skew-Fit and RIG respectively. Under each image is the final distance in state space to provide a notion of the behavior of each method in the plots. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 174, + 279, + 821, + 544 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 638, + 825, + 695 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We use these domains to compare Skew-Fit to a number of existing methods on goal-sampling. We compare to Warde-Farley et al. (2018), a vision-based method which uses a non-parametric approach based on clustering to sample goals and an image discriminator to compute rewards. We denote this method as DISCERN. The other methods that we compare to were developed in non-vision, statebased environments. To ensure a fair comparison across methods, we combine these prior methods with a policy trained using RIG. First, we compare to RIG without Skew-Fit. We also compared to RIG using the relabeling scheme described in the hindsight experience replay (labeled HER). We compare to curiosity-driven prioritization (Ranked-Based Priority) (Zhao & Tresp, 2019), a variant of HER that samples goals for relabeling based on their ranked likelihoods. Florensa et al. (2018b) samples goals from a GAN based on the difficulty of reaching the goal. We compare against this method by replacing $p _ { \\phi }$ with the GAN and label it AutoGoal GAN. We also separately compare to the goal proposal mechanism proposed by Warde-Farley et al. (2018) and otherwise train the policy with RIG, which we label DISCERN- $\\mathbf { g }$ . Lastly, to demonstrate the difficulty of the exploration challenge in these domains, we compare to # Exploration (Tang et al., 2017), an exploration method that assigns bonus rewards based on the novelty of new states. Implementation details of the prior methods is given in Appendix C.3. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 702, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We see in Figure 5 that Skew-Fit significantly outperforms prior methods both in terms of task performance and sample complexity. The most common failure mode for prior methods is that the goal distributions collapse, resulting in the agent learning to reach only a fraction of the state space, as shown in Figure 1. For comparison, additional samples of $p _ { \\phi }$ when trained with and without Skew-Fit are shown in Appendix B.4. Those images show that without $S k e w - F i t$ , $p _ { \\phi }$ produces a small, non-diverse distribution for each environment: the object is in the same place for pickup, the puck is often in the starting position for pushing, and the door is always closed. In contrast, Skew-Fit proposes goals where the object is in the air and on the ground, where the puck positions are varied, and the door angle changes. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 103, + 825, + 229 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The direct effect of these goal choices can be seen by visualizing more example rollouts for RIG and Skew-Fit. Due to space constraints, these visuals are in Figure 16 in Appendix B.4. The figure shows that standard RIG only learns to reach states close to the initial position, while Skew-Fit learns to reach the entire state space. A quantitative comparison of the various methods on the pickup task can be seen in Figure 6, which gives the cumulative total exploration pickups for each method. From the graph, we can see that only Skew-Fit learns to pay attention to the object and therefore consistently increases the rate at which the policy picks up the object during exploration. In contrast, the other methods have near constant slopes past $4 0 \\mathrm { k }$ steps, meaning that they do not continue to learning, and many methods have a near-constant rate of object lifts throughout all of training. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 236, + 825, + 361 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/c9e4d5facae1d025fe7c393bd49a4852d6c62eac706c06b099385758e883dd58.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 6: Cumulative total pickups during exploration for each method. The prior methods fail to pay attention to the object and only pick it up at the same rate as the initial policy. In contrast, after seeing the object picked up a few times, Skew-Fit practices picking up the object more often by sampling the appriopriate exploration goals. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 202, + 363, + 785, + 496 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Real-World Vision-Based Robotic Manipulation We also demonstrate that Skew-Fit scales well to the real world with a door opening task, Real World Visual Door. See Figure 4 for a picture of this environment. While a number of prior works have studied RL-based learning of door opening Kalakrishnan et al. (2011); Chebotar et al. (2017), we demonstrate the first method for autonomous learning of door opening without a user-provided, task-specific reward function. As in simulation, we do not provide any goals to the agent and simply let it interact with the door to solve the door opening task from scratch, without any human guidance or reward signal. We train two agents using Skew-Fit with RIG and RIG alone. Unlike in simulation, we cannot measure the difference between the policy’s achieved and desired door angle since we do not have access to the true state of the world. Instead, we simply visually denote a binary success/failure for each goal based on whether the last state in the trajectory achieves the target angle. Every seven and a half minutes of interaction time we evaluate on 5 goals and plot the cumulative successes for each method. As Figure 7 shows, standard RIG only starts to open the door after five hours of training. In contrast, Skew-Fit learns to occasionally open the door after three hours of training and achieves a near-perfect success rate after five and a half hours of interaction time, demonstrating that Skew-Fit is a promising technique for solving real world tasks without any human-provided reward function. Videos of Skew-Fit solving this task and the simulated tasks can be viewed on our website.3 ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 554, + 549, + 789 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/e2c4e8720ca6f6aceb3fbf839042dce61934c8cccc44d522be0ff43c1d0eb560.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 7: Learning curve for Real World Visual Door environment. We visually label a success if the policy opens the door to the target angle by the last state of the trajectory. Skew-Fit results in considerable sample efficiency gains over prior work on this realworld task. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 562, + 553, + 823, + 669 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 789, + 826, + 886 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Additional Experiments To study the sensitivity of our method to the hyperparameter $\\alpha$ , we sweep $\\alpha$ across the values $[ - 1 , - 0 . 7 5 , - 0 . 5 , - 0 . 2 5 , 0 ]$ on the simulated image-based tasks. Due to space constraints, the sensitivity analysis over the hyperparameter $\\alpha$ is in Appendix B, and the results demonstrate that Skew-Fit works across a large range of values for $\\alpha$ , and $\\alpha = - 1$ consistently outperform $\\alpha = 0$ , where the empirical distribution is not skewed. Additionally, Appendix C provides a complete description our method hyper-parameters, including network architecture and RL algorithm hyperparameters. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 825, + 202 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "7 CONCLUSION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 222, + 318, + 238 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We presented a formal objective for self-supervised goal-directed exploration, allowing researchers to quantify progress and compare progress when designing algorithms that enable agents to autonomously learn. We also presented Skew-Fit, an algorithm for training a generative model to approximate a uniform distribution over valid states, using data obtained via goal-conditioned reinforcement learning, and our theoretical analysis gives conditions under which Skew-Fit converges to the uniform distribution. When such a model is used to choose goals for exploration and to relabeling goals for training, the resulting method results in much better coverage of the state space, enabling our method to explore effectively. Our experiments show that when we concurrently train a goal-reaching policy using self-generated goals, Skew-Fit produces quantifiable improvements on simulated robotic manipulation tasks, and can be used to learn a door opening skill to reach a $9 5 \\%$ success rate directly on a real-world robot, without any human-provided reward supervision. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 253, + 825, + 406 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "REFERENCES ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 428, + 285, + 443 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Andrychowicz, M., Wolski, F., Ray, A., Schneider, J., Fong, R., Welinder, P., Mcgrew, B., Tobin, J., Abbeel, P., and Zaremba, W. Hindsight Experience Replay. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems (NIPS), 2017. \nBaranes, A. and Oudeyer, P.-Y. Active Learning of Inverse Models with Intrinsically Motivated Goal Exploration in Robots. 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CoRR, abs/1902.08039, 2019. ", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 445, + 828, + 928 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 73, + 828, + 925 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 102, + 828, + 378 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A PROOFS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 102, + 277, + 118 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.1 PROOF OF LEMMA 3.1 ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 132, + 372, + 147 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Lemma A.1. Let $s$ be a compact set. Define the set of distributions $\\mathcal { Q } = \\{ p : s u p p o r t o f p i s \\ : S \\}$ . Let $\\mathcal { F } : \\mathcal { Q } \\mapsto \\mathcal { Q }$ be a continuous function and such that $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathcal { F } ( p ) ) \\geq \\mathcal { H } ( { \\bar { p } } )$ with equality if and only if $p$ is the uniform probability distribution on $s$ , $U _ { S }$ . Define the sequence of distributions $P = ( p _ { 1 } , p _ { 2 } , . . . )$ by starting with any $p _ { 1 } \\in \\mathcal { Q }$ and recursively defining $p _ { t + 1 } = \\mathcal { F } ( p _ { t } )$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 159, + 826, + 215 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The sequence $P$ converges to $U _ { S }$ ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 222, + 393, + 237 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Proof. The uniform distribution $U _ { S }$ is well defined since $s$ is compact. Because $s$ is a compact set, by Prokhorov’s Theorem Billingsley (2013), the set $\\mathcal { Q }$ is sequentially compact. Thus, $P$ has a convergent subsequence $P ^ { \\prime } = ( p _ { k _ { 1 } } , p _ { k _ { 2 } } , \\dots ) \\subset P$ for $k _ { 1 } < k _ { 2 } < . . .$ that converges to a distribution $p ^ { * } \\in \\mathcal { Q }$ . Because $\\mathcal { F }$ is continuous, $p ^ { * }$ must be a fixed point of $\\mathcal { F }$ since by the convergence mapping theorem, we have that ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 251, + 826, + 321 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/f6b3589568cc6760ddb7678a122e5a7cde688083df98c26a80ca328fcf4e3f63.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\operatorname* { l i m } _ { i \\to \\infty } p _ { k _ { i } } = p ^ { * } \\implies \\operatorname* { l i m } _ { i \\to \\infty } \\mathcal { F } ( p _ { k _ { i } } ) = \\mathcal { H } ( p ^ { * } )\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 354, + 327, + 642, + 351 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "and so ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 354, + 218, + 368 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/547b87ff9535247346362f99a18df4ea74a445e8b78b8c8c0bc592eda64c79a3.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\begin{array} { r c l } { p ^ { * } = \\displaystyle \\operatorname* { l i m } _ { i \\to \\infty } p _ { k _ { i } } } \\\\ { = \\displaystyle \\operatorname* { l i m } _ { i \\to \\infty } \\mathcal { F } ( p _ { k _ { i - 1 } } ) } \\\\ { = \\mathcal { H } ( p ^ { * } ) . } \\end{array}\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 429, + 373, + 566, + 440 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The only fixed point of $\\mathcal { F }$ is $U _ { S }$ since for any distribution $p$ that is not the uniform distribution, $U _ { S }$ , we have that $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathcal { F } ( p ) ) > \\mathcal { H } ( p )$ which implies that $\\mathcal { F } ( p ) \\neq p$ . Thus, $P ^ { \\prime }$ converges to the only fixed point, $U _ { S }$ . Since the entropy cannot decrease, then entropy of the distributions in $P$ must also converge to the entropy of $U _ { S }$ . Lastly, since entropy is a continuous function of distribution, $P$ must converge to $U _ { S }$ . □ ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 443, + 826, + 513 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.2 PROOF OF LEMMA 3.2 ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 530, + 374, + 545 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Lemma A.2. Given two distribution $p ( x )$ and $q ( x )$ where $p \\ll q$ and ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 556, + 632, + 571 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/365f4849aa31216f686db7b0e2300ffba30620457ce2ca6626e51fb6c4eb10dc.jpg", + "text": "$$\n0 < \\operatorname { C o v } _ { p } [ \\log p ( X ) , \\log q ( X ) ]\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 397, + 575, + 601, + 593 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "define the distribution $p _ { \\alpha }$ as ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 598, + 359, + 613 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/e8aadbb7e161d5b89cb55a8a885e503d148015760364a2b2886ede3db983471c.jpg", + "text": "$$\np _ { \\alpha } ( x ) = \\frac { 1 } { Z _ { \\alpha } } p ( x ) q ( x ) ^ { \\alpha }\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 419, + 617, + 578, + 648 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where $\\alpha \\in \\mathbb { R }$ and $Z _ { \\alpha }$ is the normalizing factor. Let ${ \\mathcal { H } } _ { \\alpha } ( \\alpha )$ be the entropy of $p _ { \\alpha }$ . Then there exists $a$ constant $a > 0$ such that for all $\\alpha \\in [ - a , 0 )$ , ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 654, + 825, + 683 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/104fccdfe3e91d9bbf1ce12f42ad7b6ba504129c2883ec8d11e927aa84034586.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\begin{array} { r } { \\mathcal { H } _ { \\alpha } ( \\alpha ) > \\mathcal { H } _ { \\alpha } ( 0 ) = \\mathcal { H } ( p ) . } \\end{array}\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 410, + 688, + 588, + 705 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Proof. Observe that $\\{ p _ { \\alpha } : \\alpha \\in [ - 1 , 0 ] \\}$ is a one-dimensional exponential family ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 717, + 700, + 734 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/8f3cd2ff19107eeefb0e020f047ac65fa10120d0a04623bad62686819bfff3fa.jpg", + "text": "$$\np _ { \\alpha } ( x ) = e ^ { \\alpha T ( x ) - A ( \\alpha ) + k ( x ) }\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 406, + 738, + 589, + 757 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "with log carrier density $k ( x ) = \\log p ( x )$ , natural parameter $\\alpha$ , sufficient statistic $T ( x ) = \\log q ( x )$ , and log-normalizer $\\begin{array} { r } { A ( \\alpha ) = \\int _ { \\mathcal { X } } e ^ { \\alpha T ( x ) + k ( x ) } d x } \\end{array}$ . As shown in Nielsen & Nock (2010), the entropy of a distribution from a one-dimensional exponential family with parameter $\\alpha$ is given by: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 762, + 825, + 808 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/70b45ae45d98567fe5bc4a50502ecc270a83140db038448cac3cdd30df8c23fa.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\begin{array} { r } { \\mathcal { H } _ { \\alpha } ( \\alpha ) \\triangleq \\mathcal { H } ( p _ { \\alpha } ) = A ( \\alpha ) - \\alpha A ^ { \\prime } ( \\alpha ) - \\mathbb { E } _ { p _ { \\alpha } } [ k ( X ) ] } \\end{array}\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 331, + 813, + 666, + 830 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The derivative with respect to $\\alpha$ is then ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 835, + 431, + 849 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/bc3d9bc940e9c23c83095713afc69ce8dae842451161d1fa0e9bea7bd2cf239c.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\begin{array} { c l } { \\displaystyle \\frac { d } { d \\alpha } \\mathcal { H } _ { \\alpha } ( \\alpha ) = - \\alpha A ^ { \\prime \\prime } ( \\alpha ) - \\frac { d } { d \\alpha } \\mathbb { E } _ { p _ { \\alpha } } [ k ( x ) ] } \\\\ { = - \\alpha A ^ { \\prime \\prime } ( \\alpha ) - \\mathbb { E } _ { \\alpha } [ k ( x ) ( T ( x ) - A ^ { \\prime } ( \\alpha ) ] } \\\\ { = - \\alpha \\mathrm { V a r } _ { p _ { \\alpha } } [ T ( x ) ] - \\mathrm { C o v } _ { p _ { \\alpha } } [ k ( x ) , T ( x ) ] } \\end{array}\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 325, + 854, + 673, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where we use the fact that the $n$ th derivative of $A ( \\alpha )$ give the $n$ central moment, i.e. $A ^ { \\prime } ( \\alpha ) =$ $\\mathbb { E } _ { p _ { \\alpha } } [ T ( x ) ]$ and $A ^ { \\prime \\prime } ( \\alpha ) = \\mathrm { V a r } _ { p _ { \\alpha } } [ T ( x ) ]$ . The derivative of $\\alpha = 0$ is ", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 103, + 823, + 133 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/885c761fcb33555afee49e4b4ee30bfd9088c5bf1a0aa403d781865b000e0ec9.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\begin{array} { c } { { { \\displaystyle \\frac { d } { d \\alpha } } { \\mathcal { H } } _ { \\alpha } ( 0 ) = - \\mathrm { C o v } _ { p _ { 0 } } [ k ( x ) , T ( x ) ] \\ } } \\\\ { { = - \\mathrm { C o v } _ { p } [ \\log p ( x ) , \\log q ( x ) ] } } \\end{array}\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 366, + 136, + 632, + 185 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "which is negative by assumption. Because the derivative at $\\alpha = 0$ is negative, then there exists a constant $a > 0$ such that for all $\\alpha \\in [ - a , 0 ]$ , $\\mathcal { H } _ { \\alpha } ( \\alpha ) > \\mathcal { H } _ { \\alpha } ( 0 ) = \\mathcal { H } ( p )$ . □ ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 188, + 823, + 218 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.3 SIMPLE CASE PROOF ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 233, + 367, + 247 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We prove the convergence directly for the (even more) simplified case when $p _ { \\theta } = p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi _ { t } } )$ using a similar technique: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 258, + 823, + 287 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Lemma A.3. Assume the set $s$ has finite volume so that its uniform distribution $U _ { S }$ is well defined and has finite entropy. Given any distribution $p ( \\mathbf { s } )$ whose support is $s$ , recursively define $p _ { t }$ with $p _ { 1 } = p$ and ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 290, + 823, + 333 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/a4fc7d689257d388ca0210db9e6476370403c984d08335a353e53290ebd933fd.jpg", + "text": "$$\np _ { t + 1 } ( \\mathbf { s } ) = \\frac { 1 } { Z _ { \\alpha } ^ { t } } p _ { t } ( \\mathbf { s } ) ^ { \\alpha } , \\quad \\forall \\mathbf { s } \\in \\mathcal { S }\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 392, + 337, + 606, + 368 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where $Z _ { \\alpha } ^ { t }$ is the normalizing constant and $\\alpha \\in [ 0 , 1 )$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 372, + 522, + 388 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The sequence $( p _ { 1 } , p _ { 2 } , \\dots )$ converges to $U _ { S }$ , the uniform distribution $s$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 393, + 640, + 410 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Proof. If $\\alpha = 0$ , then $p _ { 2 }$ (and all subsequent distributions) will clearly be the uniform distribution. \nWe now study the case where $\\alpha \\in ( 0 , 1 )$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 424, + 823, + 454 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "At each iteration $t$ , define the one-dimensional exponential family $\\{ p _ { \\theta } ^ { t } : \\theta \\in [ 0 , 1 ] \\}$ where $p _ { \\theta } ^ { t }$ is ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 458, + 794, + 474 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/df50496a54c2b76f6bf142f94f87914d968208c20cd1d9a258e4679f1f65739e.jpg", + "text": "$$\np _ { \\theta } ^ { t } ( \\mathbf { s } ) = e ^ { \\theta T ( \\mathbf { s } ) - A ( \\theta ) + k ( \\mathbf { s } ) }\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 413, + 478, + 584, + 498 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "with log carrier density $k ( \\mathbf { s } ) = 0$ , natural parameter $\\theta$ , sufficient statistic $T ( \\mathbf { s } ) = \\log p _ { t } ( \\mathbf { s } )$ , and lognormalizer $\\begin{array} { r } { A ( \\theta ) = \\int _ { \\mathcal { S } } e ^ { \\theta T ( \\mathbf { s } ) } d \\mathbf { s } } \\end{array}$ . As shown in Nielsen & Nock (2010), the entropy of a distribution from a one-dimensional exponential family with parameter $\\theta$ is given by: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 501, + 826, + 546 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/0f6b369e4477166eaff8cdfcd2ec8b1fc131c22235db246a6d7e4166eebdc584.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\mathcal { H } _ { \\theta } ^ { t } ( \\theta ) \\triangleq \\mathcal { H } ( p _ { \\theta } ^ { t } ) = A ( \\theta ) - \\theta A ^ { \\prime } ( \\theta )\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 383, + 549, + 614, + 569 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The derivative with respect to $\\theta$ is then ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 571, + 429, + 587 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/df3c37a01b10a55ebafc9f318f856091bfb110119862ab28dca4998a02e215ba.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\begin{array} { r l } & { \\frac { d } { d \\theta } d \\mathcal { H } _ { \\theta } ^ { t } ( \\theta ) = - \\theta A ^ { \\prime \\prime } ( \\theta ) } \\\\ & { \\quad \\quad \\quad = - \\theta \\mathrm { V a r } _ { \\mathbf { s } \\sim p _ { \\theta } ^ { t } } [ T ( \\mathbf { s } ) ] } \\\\ & { \\quad \\quad \\quad = - \\theta \\mathrm { V a r } _ { \\mathbf { s } \\sim p _ { \\theta } ^ { t } } [ \\log p _ { t } ( \\mathbf { s } ) ] } \\\\ & { \\quad \\quad \\quad \\quad \\leq 0 } \\end{array}\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 379, + 589, + 620, + 679 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where we use the fact that the $n$ th derivative of $A ( \\theta )$ is the $n$ central moment, i.e. $A ^ { \\prime \\prime } ( \\theta ) =$ $\\operatorname { V a r } _ { \\mathbf { s } \\sim p _ { \\theta } ^ { t } } [ T ( \\mathbf { s } ) ]$ . Since variance is always non-negative, this means the entropy is monotonically decreasing with $\\theta$ . Note that $p _ { t + 1 }$ is a member of this exponential family, with parameter $\\theta = \\alpha \\in$ $( 0 , 1 )$ . So ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 681, + 825, + 741 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/0db50bc9032efb2e167cebd8614cd5f1d762935058ae12dcd8e0b22617e9c4ba.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\mathcal { H } ( p _ { t + 1 } ) = \\mathcal { H } _ { \\boldsymbol { \\theta } } ^ { t } ( \\alpha ) \\geq \\mathcal { H } _ { \\boldsymbol { \\theta } } ^ { t } ( 1 ) = \\mathcal { H } ( p _ { t } )\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 370, + 742, + 625, + 762 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "which implies ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 765, + 267, + 780 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/c30dade5559e5043bd3816e3960f476270028607fd19a4285c668fff87c0d04b.jpg", + "text": "$$\n{ \\mathcal { H } } ( p _ { 1 } ) \\leq { \\mathcal { H } } ( p _ { 2 } ) \\leq \\dots .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 419, + 784, + 578, + 801 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "This monotonically increasing sequence is upper bounded by the entropy of the uniform distribution, and so this sequence must converge. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 804, + 825, + 833 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The sequence can only converge if $\\begin{array} { r } { \\frac { d } { d \\theta } \\mathcal { H } _ { \\theta } ^ { t } ( \\theta ) } \\end{array}$ converges to zero. However, because $\\alpha$ is bounded away from 0, Equation 8 states that this can only happen if ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 838, + 825, + 868 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/759409c5733a3046ea5ef54600f59a67c53980aec9fcb61facd862dc3b20308d.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\begin{array} { r } { \\mathrm { V a r } _ { { \\bf s } \\sim p _ { \\theta } ^ { t } } [ \\log p _ { t } ( { \\bf s } ) ] 0 . } \\end{array}\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 416, + 871, + 581, + 891 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Because $p _ { t }$ has full support, then so does $p _ { \\theta } ^ { t }$ . Thus, Equation 9 is only true if $\\log p _ { t } ( \\mathbf { s } )$ converges to a constant, i.e. $p _ { t }$ converges to the uniform distribution. □ ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 895, + 828, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/7157a6d5e573ea20ef91644a3e31387f89e670199a503eefb1e228a7b14f477c.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 8: (Top) Coverage over time on the classic 4-room domain, shown on the right. (Bottom) Coverage over time on a more challenging maze domain, shown on the right. In both cases, we see that not using Skew-Fit $\\alpha = 0$ ) results in significantly slower learning that primarily stays near the start (yellow star). " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 284, + 101, + 714, + 297 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "B ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 376, + 442, + 392 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "B.1 SKEW-FIT FOR EXPLORING LOW-DIMENSIONAL SPACES ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 410, + 607, + 425 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Skew-Fit is a general method that enables exploration when it is infeasible to sample goal states uniformly across the entire state space. While the experiments in Section 6 focused on image-based state spaces, there exists many low-dimensional domains in which we know that the goal space is a subset of $\\mathbb { R } ^ { d }$ for some $d < n$ , but the exact goal space is still unknown. This scenario is quite common in domains such as robotics: we know that we want an agent to move the position of its center of mass (CoM), but we do not know the set of valid CoM positions, as this requires knowing the geometry of all potential obstacles a priori. We conduct a series of experiments that study whether Skew-Fit enable effectively exploration in these state spaces containing unknown obstacles. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 438, + 825, + 550 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2D Maze Navigation with Oracle Policy To study the impact of Skew-Fit on exploration in isolation of learning a goal-reaching policy, our first set of experiments use a near-perfect policy that reaches the goal state and then takes a step in a random direction (while taking wall-collisions into account). The random step size is Gaussian with a standard deviation of 0.1 units, and the size of each square shown in Figure 8 is 1.8 units. Due to the relatively small step size, the agent cannot rely on random actions to explore the environment and must instead learn to set goals that are progressively farther and farther from the initial state. The first environment is the Four Rooms environment (Sutton et al., 1999), shown in Figure 8 (top). This environment requires a policy to explore four different rooms, each of which requires passing through a narrow doorway. The maze environment (Figure 8, bottom) presents a more challenging exploration problem and consists of various long corridors that require setting goals progressively deeper into the maze. In both domains, setting goals near the state state (represented by the yellow star) and taking small actions will result in minimal exploration. To measure exploration, we discretize the space into squares (see Figure 8 for square sizes) and measure what fraction of the squares the agent has ever visited during exploration. We see in Figure 8 that using Skew-Fit significantly improves exploration, whereas training $p _ { \\phi }$ on samples drawn uniformly from the replay buffer ( $\\alpha = 0$ ) results in little exploration. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 569, + 825, + 792 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2D Navigation with Learned Policy Next, we reproduce the 2D navigation environment experiment from Section 6, and replace the oracle goal-reacher with a goal-reaching policy that is simultaneously trained with the goal setter. The policy outputs velocities with maximum speed of one. Evaluation goals are chosen uniformly over the valid states. The hyperparameters for this experiment are given in Table 2. In Figure 9a, we can see that a policy trained with a goal distribution trained by Skew-Fit consistently learns to reach all goals, whereas a goal distribution trained with uniform sampling, labeled MLE, results in a policy that fails to reach states far from the starting position (the bottom left corner). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 811, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/2aba6465194be867e1f3ff649ce48cd9610ef27d1f243e647d0c627b34946876.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 9: (a) Comparison of Skew-Fit vs MLE goal sampling on final distance to goal on RL version of the pointmass environment. Skew-Fit consistently learns to solve the task, while MLE often fails. (b) Heatmaps of final distance to each possible goal location for Skew-Fit and MLE. Skew-Fit learns a good policy over the entire state space, but MLE performs poorly for states far away from the starting position (the bottom left corner). " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 238, + 102, + 761, + 253 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/78d05fe11fa53cd4baf34907979561a1486a9c0a9d0f3e27fb7641f15a6cfb4d.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 10: (Left) Ant navigation environment. (Right) Evaluation on reaching joint and XY position. Policies are trained from state. Reward is L2-norm between the current and target joint angle and XY position concatenated together. We use Skew-Fit to sample goals for relabeling and exploration, and compare to other goal sampling methods. See main paper for description of baselines. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 186, + 334, + 808, + 474 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Quadruped “Ant” Locomotion with Learned Policy Lastly, we test Skew-Fit in an exploration task that requires training a simulated quadruped “ant” robot to navigate to random XY positions in a plane, as shown in Figure 10. The input to the policy is the joint and velocity of each angle and the reward is the distance to the goal XY-position. While the goal space is known to reside in the XY-plane, the agent does not know about the location of the center obstacle, and so it must still learn about the set of valid goals by controlling its 8 joint actuators. More details of the environment are in Appendix D. We see in Figure 10 that Skew-Fit outperforms prior methods both in terms of learning speed and final performance, demonstrating that Skew-Fit accelerates exploration in non-vision domains that contains unknown goal spaces. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 556, + 825, + 683 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "B.2 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 705, + 383, + 719 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Sensitivity to RL Algorithm In our experiments, we combined Skew-Fit with soft actor critic (SAC) (Haarnoja et al., 2018). We conduct a set of experiments to test whether Skew-Fit may be used with other RL algorithms for training the goal-conditioned policy. To that end, we replaced SAC with twin delayed deep deterministic policy gradient (TD3) (Fujimoto et al., 2018) and ran the same Skew-Fit experiments on Visual Door, Visual Pusher, and Visual Pickup. In Figure 11, we see that Skew-Fit performs consistently well with both SAC and TD3, demonstrating that Skew-Fit is beneficial across multiple RL algorithms. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 734, + 825, + 832 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Sensitivity to $\\alpha$ Hyperparameter We study the sensitivity of the $\\alpha$ hyperparameter by testing values of $\\alpha \\in [ - 1 , - 0 . 7 5 , - 0 . 5 , - 0 . 2 5 , 0 ]$ on the Visual Door and Visual Pusher task. The results are included in Figure 12 and shows that our method is robust to different parameters of $\\alpha$ , particularly for the more challenging Visual Pusher task. Also, the method consistently outperform $\\alpha = 0$ , which is equivalent to sampling uniformly from the replay buffer. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 854, + 823, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/ec6c2ddb13f510e3e12d6cee49a539f01fac4d0f7cae3d20f726c29bcd9c7786.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 11: We compare using SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018) and TD3 (Fujimoto et al., 2018) as the underlying RL algorithm on Visual Door, Visual Pusher and Visual Pickup. We see that Skew-Fit works consistently well with both SAC and TD3, demonstrating that Skew-Fit may be used with various RL algorithms. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 199, + 99, + 790, + 327 + ], + "page_idx": 16 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/d52b0fd2c45f7e80b2ef123b8a56fece84a8eff300427780018461fbb380cc11.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 12: We sweep different values of $\\alpha$ on Visual Door, Visual Pusher and Visual Pickup. Skew-Fit helps the final performance on the Visual Door task, and outperforms No Skew-Fit (alpha ${ = } 0$ ) as seen in the zoomed in version of the plot. In the more challenging Visual Pusher task, we see that Skew-Fit consistently helps and halves the final distance. Similarly, in we observe that Skew-Fit consistently outperforms No Skew-fit on Visual Pickup. Note that alpha $= - 1$ is not always the optimal setting for each environment, but performs strongly in each case in terms of final performance. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 171, + 487, + 818, + 718 + ], + "page_idx": 16 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/d810c8534b9b1051cdbfd39ffe80ff6bec382ebb13eaf01114f26deec0bf884b.jpg", + "table_caption": [], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
MethodNLL
MLE on uniform (oracle)20175.4
Skew-Fit onunbalanced20175.9
MLEon unbalanced20178.03
", + "bbox": [ + 375, + 102, + 620, + 161 + ], + "page_idx": 17 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Table 1: Despite training on a unbalanced Visual Door dataset (see Figure 7 of paper), the negative log-likelihood (NLL) of Skew-Fit evaluated on a uniform dataset matches that of a VAE trained on a uniform dataset. ", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 172, + 826, + 199 + ], + "page_idx": 17 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "B.3 VARIANCE ABLATION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 222, + 370, + 236 + ], + "page_idx": 17 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/e7fa99743716fc7f318350d1987c686e5d4cecc44c03f194f71473ca29ac5d3f.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 13: Gradient variance averaged across parameters in last epoch of training VAEs. Values of $\\alpha$ less than $^ { - 1 }$ are numerically unstable for importance sampling (IS), but not for Skew-Fit. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 308, + 241, + 686, + 400 + ], + "page_idx": 17 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We measure the gradient variance of training a VAE on an unbalanced Visual Door image dataset with Skew-Fit vs Skew-Fit with importance sampling (IS) vs no Skew-Fit (labeled MLE). We construct the imbalanced dataset by rolling out a random policy in the environment and collecting the visual observations. Most of the images contained the door in a closed position; in a few, the door was opened. In Figure 13, we see that the gradient variance for Skew-Fit with IS is catastrophically large for large values of $\\alpha$ . In contrast, for Skew-Fit with SIR, which is what we use in practice, the variance is relatively similar to that of MLE. Additionally we trained three VAE’s, one with MLE on a uniform dataset of valid door opening images, one with Skew-Fit on the unbalanced dataset from above, and one with MLE on the same unbalanced dataset. As expected, the VAE that has access to the uniform dataset gets the lowest negative log likelihood score. This is the oracle method, since in practice we would only have access to imbalanced data. As shown in Table 1, Skew-Fit considerably outperforms MLE, getting a much closer to oracle log likelihood score. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 449, + 825, + 616 + ], + "page_idx": 17 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "B.4 GOAL AND PERFORMANCE VISUALIZATION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 646, + 519, + 661 + ], + "page_idx": 17 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We visualize the goals sampled from Skew-Fit as well as those sampled when using the prior method, RIG (Nair et al., 2018). As shown in Figure 14 and Figure 15, the generative model $p _ { \\phi }$ results in much more diverse samples when trained with Skew-Fit. We we see in Figure 16, this results in a policy that more consistently reaches the goal image. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 679, + 825, + 734 + ], + "page_idx": 17 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "C IMPLEMENTATION DETAILS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 768, + 437, + 785 + ], + "page_idx": 17 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "C.1 RIG WITH SKEW-FIT SUMMARY ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 808, + 441, + 823 + ], + "page_idx": 17 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Algorithm 2 provides detailed pseudo-code for how we combined our method with RIG. Steps that were removed from the base RIG algorithm are highlighted in blue and steps that were added are highlighted in red. The main differences between the two are (1) sampling exploration goals from the buffer using $p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } }$ instead of the VAE prior, (2) relabeling with replay buffer goals sampled using $p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } }$ instead of from the VAE prior, and (3) training the VAE on replay buffer data data sampled using $p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } }$ instead of uniformly. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 840, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 17 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/eee40151bd44d1d02e1708cee24b74b73b609448fb16acd199fd73e40a79f99d.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 14: Proposed goals from the VAE for RIG and with Skew-Fit on the Visual Pickup, Visual Pusher, and Visual Door environments. Standard RIG produces goals where the door is closed and the object and puck is in the same position, while ${ \\mathrm { R I G } } +$ Skew-Fit proposes goals with varied puck positions, occasional object goals in the air, and both open and closed door angles. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 210, + 176, + 790, + 786 + ], + "page_idx": 18 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/ad0be2668649871d7c884809f45bd4f227c67c6e587e848bc7ebd605a9918cca.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 15: Proposed goals from the VAE for RIG (left) and with RIG $^ +$ Skew-Fit (right) on the Real World Visual Door environment. Standard RIG produces goals where the door is closed while RIG $^ +$ Skew-Fit proposes goals with both open and closed door angles. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 210, + 126, + 787, + 333 + ], + "page_idx": 19 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/011af52d760f48a1c08a253a58d51a40f944f066da3bbe985e23d2cdac20ba29.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 16: Example reached goals by Skew-Fit and RIG. The first column of each environment section specifies the target goal while the second and third columns show reached goals by Skew-Fit and RIG. Both methods learn how to reach goals close to the initial position, but only Skew-Fit learns to reach the more difficult goals. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 204, + 435, + 794, + 842 + ], + "page_idx": 19 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "C.2 LIKELIHOOD ESTIMATION USING $\\beta$ -VAE ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 103, + 501, + 118 + ], + "page_idx": 20 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We estimate the density under the VAE by using a sample-wise approximation to the marginal over $x$ estimated using importance sampling: ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 128, + 823, + 159 + ], + "page_idx": 20 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/a9546a2bf6367784ad9628661f8e4667bff970f0b17ad51af19681e2546b6a68.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\begin{array} { l } { { \\displaystyle p _ { \\phi _ { t } } ( x ) = \\mathbb { E } _ { z \\sim q _ { \\theta _ { t } } ( z \\mid x ) } \\left[ \\frac { p ( z ) } { q _ { \\theta _ { t } } ( z \\mid x ) } p _ { \\psi _ { t } } ( x \\mid z ) \\right] } } \\\\ { { \\displaystyle ~ \\approx \\frac { 1 } { N } \\sum _ { i = 1 } ^ { N } \\left[ \\frac { p ( z ) } { q _ { \\theta _ { t } } ( z \\mid x ) } p _ { \\psi _ { t } } ( x \\mid z ) \\right] . } } \\end{array}\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 354, + 159, + 643, + 237 + ], + "page_idx": 20 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where $q _ { \\theta }$ is the encoder, $p _ { \\psi }$ is the decoder, and $p ( z )$ is the prior, which in this case is unit Gaussian. \nWe found that sampling $N = 1 0$ latents for estimating the density worked well in practice. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 238, + 826, + 266 + ], + "page_idx": 20 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "C.3 IMPLEMENTATION OF PRIOR WORK ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 178, + 281, + 464, + 296 + ], + "page_idx": 20 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We replaced TD3 (Fujimoto et al., 2018) with soft actor critic (SAC) from Haarnoja et al. (2018) for all the methods that use RIG, including Skew-Fit.. This is in contrast to the original RIG Nair et al. (2018) paper which used TD3 Fujimoto et al. (2018). We found that maximum entropy policies in general improved the performance of RIG, and that we did not need to add noise on top of the stochastic policy’s noise. For our RL network architectures and training scheme, we use fully connected networks for the policy, Q-function and value networks with two hidden layers of size 400 and 300 each. We also delay training any of these networks for 10000 time steps in order to collect sufficient data for the replay buffer as well as to ensure the latent space of the VAE is relatively stable (since we train the VAE online in this setting). As in RIG, we train a goal-conditioned value functions Schaul et al. (2015) using hindsight experience replay Andrychowicz et al. (2017), relabelling $5 0 \\%$ of exploration goals as goals sampled from the VAE prior $\\mathcal { N } ( 0 , 1 )$ and $3 0 \\%$ from future goals in the trajectory. In the prior RIG method, the VAE was pre-trained on a uniform sampling of images from the state space of each environment. In order to ensure a fair comparison to Skew-Fit, we forego pre-training and instead train the VAE alongside RL, using the variant described in the RIG paper. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 308, + 825, + 516 + ], + "page_idx": 20 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "C.4 VISION-BASED CONTINUOUS CONTROL EXPERIMENTS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 532, + 599, + 546 + ], + "page_idx": 20 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In our experiments, we use an image size of $4 8 \\mathbf { x } 4 8$ . For our VAE architecture, we use a modified version of the architecture used in the original RIG paper Nair et al. (2018). Our VAE has three convolutional layers with kernel sizes: 5x5, 3x3, and 3x3, number of output filters: 16, 32, and 64 and strides: 3, 2, and 2. We then have a fully connected layer with the latent dimension number of units, and then reverse the architecture with de-convolution layers. We vary the latent dimension of the VAE, the $\\beta$ term of the VAE and the $\\alpha$ term for Skew-Fit based on the environment. Additionally, we vary the training schedule of the VAE based on the environment. See the table at the end of the appendix for more details. Our VAE has a Gaussian decoder with identity variance, meaning that we train the decoder with a mean-squared error loss. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 558, + 825, + 683 + ], + "page_idx": 20 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "When training the VAE alongside RL, we found the following two schedules to be effective for different environments: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 689, + 823, + 718 + ], + "page_idx": 20 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "1. For first $5 K$ steps: Train VAE using standard MLE training every 500 time steps for 1000 batches. After that, train VAE using Skew-Fit every 500 time steps for 200 batches. 2. For first $5 K$ steps: Train VAE using standard MLE training every 500 time steps for 1000 batches. For the next $4 5 K$ steps, train VAE using Skew-Fit every 500 steps for 200 batches. After that, train VAE using Skew-Fit every 1000 time steps for 200 batches. ", + "bbox": [ + 212, + 728, + 825, + 803 + ], + "page_idx": 20 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We found that initially training the VAE without Skew-Fit improved the stability of the algorithm. This is due to the fact that density estimates under the VAE are constantly changing and inaccurate during the early phases of training. Therefore, it made little sense to use those estimates to prioritize goals early on in training. Instead, we simply train using MLE training for the first $5 K$ timesteps, and after that we perform Skew-Fit according to the VAE schedules above. Table 3 lists the hyperparameters that were shared across the continuous control experiments. Table 4 lists hyper-parameters specific to each environment. Additionally, Appendix C.1 shows the combined RIG $^ +$ Skew-Fit algorithm. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 811, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 20 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/f81d7c7796ef6c3ed2bf757df422e76d82f194b0ebb021466f6fb4d0bbbc89e6.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 2: Hyper-parameters used for 2D RL experiment (Figure 9a). " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
Hyper-parameterValue
AlgorithmTD3 Fujimoto et al. (2018)a
# training batches per time step1
Q network hidden sizes400,300
Policy network hidden sizes400,300
Q network and policy activationReLU
Exploration NoiseNone
RL Batch Size1024
Discount Factor0.99
Path length25
Reward Scaling100
Number of steps per epoch5000
", + "bbox": [ + 281, + 155, + 715, + 324 + ], + "page_idx": 21 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/381e5799b7ab155a9a6a078c96d2783ff239f0b1ea6bd287cdc63697ff558593.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 3: General hyper-parameters used for all continuous control experiments. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
Hyper-parameterValueComments
# training batches per time step2Marginal improvementsafter2
Exploration NoiseNone (SAC policy is stochastic)Did not tune
RL Batch Size1024smaller batch sizes work as well
VAE Batch Size64Did not tune
Discount Factor0.99Did not tune
Reward Scaling1Did not tune
Path length100Did not tune
Replay Buffer Size100000Did not tune
Number of Latents for Estimating Density(N)10Marginal improvements beyond 10
", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 489, + 823, + 606 + ], + "page_idx": 21 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/2d5f361a8a9141afb89387a6d04e0f7bceddc71ca321bbfbb2a78897bcf79283.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 4: Environment specific hyper-parameters " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
Hyper-parameterVisualPusherVisual DoorVisual PickupReal World Visual Door
Path Length5010050100
β for β-VAE20203060
Latent Dimension Size4161616
α for Skew-Fit-1-1/2-1-1/2
VAE Training Schedule2121
Sample Goals FromPPskewedPskewedPskewed
", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 747, + 825, + 842 + ], + "page_idx": 21 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Algorithm 2 RIG and RIG $^ +$ Skew-Fit. Blue text denotes RIG specific steps and red text denotes $\\mathrm { R I G } +$ Skew-Fit specific steps ", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 104, + 823, + 132 + ], + "page_idx": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Require: VAE encoder $q _ { \\phi }$ , VAE decoder $p _ { \\psi }$ , policy $\\pi _ { \\theta }$ , goal-conditioned value function $Q _ { w }$ , $\\alpha$ , VAE Training Schedule. \n1: Collect $\\mathcal { D } = \\{ s ^ { ( i ) } \\}$ using exploration policy. \n2: Train $\\beta$ -VAE on data uniformly sampled from $\\mathcal { D }$ . \n3: Fit prior $p ( z )$ to latent encodings $\\{ \\hat { \\mu _ { \\phi } } ( s ^ { ( i ) } ) \\}$ . \n4: for $n = 0 , . . . , N - 1$ episodes do \n5: Sample latent goal from prior $z _ { g } \\sim p ( z )$ . \n6: Sample latent goal $e ( s ^ { \\prime } )$ from $( s , a , s ^ { \\prime } , z _ { g } ) \\sim$ $\\mathcal { R }$ using $\\cdot$ if $\\cdot$ not empty. Otherwise, use $\\cdot$ . \n7: Sample initial state $s _ { 0 } \\sim E$ . \n8: for $t = 0 , . . . , H - 1$ steps do \n9: Get action $a _ { t } \\sim \\pi _ { \\theta } ( e ( s _ { t } ) , z _ { g } )$ . \n10: Get next state $s _ { t + 1 } \\sim p ( \\cdot \\mid s _ { t } , a _ { t } )$ . \n11: Store $( s _ { t } , a _ { t } , s _ { t + 1 } , z _ { g } )$ into replay buffer $\\mathcal { R }$ . \n12: Sample transition $( s , a , s ^ { \\prime } , z _ { g } ) \\sim \\mathcal { R }$ . \n13: Encode $z = e ( s ) , z ^ { \\prime } = e ( s ^ { \\prime } )$ . \n14: (Probability 0.5) replace $z _ { g }$ with $z _ { g } ^ { \\prime } \\sim p ( z )$ . \n15: (Probability 0.5) replace $\\cdot$ with $\\cdot$ where $\\cdot$ using $p _ { \\phi }$ \n16: Compute new reward $r = - | | \\boldsymbol { z } ^ { \\prime } - \\boldsymbol { z } _ { g } | |$ . \n17: Minimize Bellman Error using $( z , a , z ^ { \\prime } , z _ { g } , r )$ . \n18: end for \n19: for $t = 0 , . . . , H - 1$ steps do \n20: for $i = 0 , . . . , k - 1$ steps do \n21: Sample future state $s _ { h _ { i } }$ , $t < h _ { i } \\leq H - 1$ . \n22: Store $\\left( s _ { t } , a _ { t } , s _ { t + 1 } , e \\left( s _ { h _ { i } } \\right) \\right)$ into $\\mathcal { R }$ . \n23: end for \n24: end for \n25: Construct skewed replay buffer distribution $\\cdot$ using data from $\\mathcal { R }$ with Equation 4 \n26: if total_steps $< 5 0 0 0$ then \n27: Fine-tune $\\beta$ -VAE on data uniformly sampled from $\\mathcal { R }$ according to VAE Training Schedule. \n28: else \n29: Fine-tune $\\beta$ -VAE on data uniformly sampled from $\\mathcal { R }$ according to VAE Training Schedule. \n30: Fine-tune $\\beta$ -VAE on data sampled from $\\mathcal { R }$ using $p _ { \\phi }$ according to VAE Training Schedule. \n31: end if \n32: end for ", + "bbox": [ + 178, + 140, + 491, + 410 + ], + "page_idx": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 504, + 137, + 825, + 417 + ], + "page_idx": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "C.5 ORACLE 2D NAVIGATION EXPERIMENTS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 441, + 500, + 455 + ], + "page_idx": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We initialize the VAE to the middle of the environment for Maze, and the bottom left corner of the environment for Four Rooms. Both the encoder and decoder have 2 hidden layers with [400, 300] units, ReLU hidden activations, and no output activations. The VAE has a latent dimension of 8 and a Gaussian decoder trained with mean-squared error loss, batch size of 256, and 1000 batches at each iteration. The VAE is trained on the exploration data buffer every 1000 rollouts. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 468, + 825, + 537 + ], + "page_idx": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "D ENVIRONMENT DETAILS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 558, + 415, + 573 + ], + "page_idx": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Point-Mass: In this environment, an agent must learn to navigate a square-shaped corridor (see Figure 3). The observation is the 2D position, and the agent must specify a velocity as the 2D action. The reward at each time step is the negative distance between the achieved position and desired position. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 588, + 825, + 643 + ], + "page_idx": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Maze: A $2 0 \\times 2 0 \\ : 2 \\mathrm { D }$ pointmass environment in the shape of a maze. The observation is the 2D position of the agent, and the agent must specify a target 2D position as the action. The dynamics of the environment are the following: first, the agent is teleported to the target position, specified by the action. Then a gaussian change in position with mean 0 and standard deviation 0.1 is then applied. If the action would result in the agent moving through or into a wall, then the agent will be stopped at the wall instead. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 651, + 825, + 734 + ], + "page_idx": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Four Rooms: A $2 0 \\mathrm { ~ x ~ } 2 0 \\ 2 \\mathrm { D }$ pointmass environment in the shape of four rooms (Sutton et al., 1999). The observation space, actions space, and environment dynamics are the same as the Maze environment above. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 741, + 823, + 784 + ], + "page_idx": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Ant: A MuJoCo ant environment with the same corridor as the Point-Mass environment. The observation is a 2D position, orientation, joint angles, and velocity of the joint angles of the ant. The observation space is 29 dimensions. The agent controls the ant through the joints, which is 8 dimensions. The goal is a target 2D position, and the reward is the negative Euclidean distance between the achieved 2D position and target 2D position. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 791, + 825, + 861 + ], + "page_idx": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Visual Pusher: A MuJoCo environment with a 7-DoF Sawyer arm and a small puck on a table that the arm must push to a target position. The agent controls the arm by commanding $x , y$ position for the end effector (EE). The underlying state is the EE position, $e$ and puck position $p$ . The evaluation metric is the distance between the goal and final puck positions. The hand goal/state space is a $1 0 \\mathrm { x } 1 0$ $\\mathrm { c m ^ { 2 } }$ box and the puck goal/state space is a $3 0 { \\mathrm { x } } 2 0 ~ \\mathrm { c m } ^ { 2 }$ box. Both the hand and puck spaces are centered around the origin. The action space ranges in the interval $[ - 1 , 1 ]$ in the $\\mathbf { X }$ and y dimensions. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 867, + 823, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 823, + 132 + ], + "page_idx": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Visual Door: A MuJoCo environment with a 7-DoF Sawyer arm and a door on a table that the arm must pull open to a target angle. Control is the same as in Visual Pusher. The evaluation metric is the distance between the goal and final door angle, measured in radians. In this environment, we do not reset the position of the hand or door at the end of each trajectory. The state/goal space is a $5 \\mathrm { x } 2 0 \\mathrm { x } 1 5$ $\\mathrm { c m ^ { 3 } }$ box in the $x , y , z$ dimension respectively for the arm and an angle between [0, .83] radians. The action space ranges in the interval $[ - 1 , 1 ]$ in the $\\mathbf { X }$ , y and z dimensions. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 138, + 825, + 223 + ], + "page_idx": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Visual Pickup: A MuJoCo environment with the same robot as Visual Pusher, but now with a different object. The object is cube-shaped, but a larger intangible sphere is overlaid on top so that it is easier for the agent to see. Moreover, the robot is constrained to move in 2 dimension: it only controls the $y , z$ arm positions. The $x$ position of both the arm and the object is fixed. The evaluation metric is the distance between the goal and final object position. For the purpose of evaluation, $7 5 \\%$ of the goals have the object in the air and $2 5 \\%$ have the object on the ground. The state/goal space for both the object and the arm is $1 0 \\mathrm { c m }$ in the $y$ dimension and $1 3 \\mathrm { c m }$ in the $z$ dimension. The action space ranges in the interval $[ - 1 , 1 ]$ in the $y$ and $z$ dimensions. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 229, + 825, + 342 + ], + "page_idx": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Real World Visual Door: A Rethink Sawyer Robot with a door on a table. The arm must pull the door open to a target angle. The agent controls the arm by commanding the $x , y , z$ velocity of the EE. Our controller commands actions at a rate of up to $1 0 \\mathrm { H z }$ with the scale of actions ranging up to 1cm in magnitude. The underlying state and goal is the same as in Visual Door. Again we do not reset the position of the hand or door at the end of each trajectory. We obtain images using a Kinect Sensor. The state/goal space for the environment is a $1 0 \\mathrm { { \\dot { x } } 1 0 \\mathrm { { x } 1 \\mathrm { { \\dot { 0 } } \\mathrm { { c m } ^ { 3 } } } } }$ box. The action space ranges in the interval $[ - 1 , 1 ]$ (in cm) in the $\\mathbf { X }$ , y and $\\mathbf { Z }$ dimensions. The door angle lies in the range $[ 0 , 4 5 ]$ degrees. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 347, + 825, + 445 + ], + "page_idx": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "E GOAL-CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT LEARNING MINIMIZES $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )$ ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 465, + 813, + 482 + ], + "page_idx": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Some goal-conditioned RL methods such as Warde-Farley et al. (2018); Nair et al. (2018) present methods for minimizing a lower bound for $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )$ , by approximating $\\log p ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )$ and using it as the reward. Other goal-conditioned RL methods (Kaelbling, 1993; Lillicrap et al., 2016; Schaul et al., 2015; Andrychowicz et al., 2017; Pong et al., 2018; Florensa et al., 2018a) are not developed with the intention of minimizing the conditional entropy $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )$ . Nevertheless, one can see that goal-conditioned RL generally minimizes $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )$ by noting that the optimal goal-conditioned policy will deterministically reach the goal. The corresponding conditional entropy of the goal given the state, $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )$ , would be zero, since given the current state, there would be no uncertainty over the goal (the goal must have been the current state since the policy is optimal). So, the objective of goal-conditioned RL can be interpreted as finding a policy such that $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } ) = 0$ . Since zero is the minimum value of $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )$ , then goal-conditioned RL can be interpreted as minimizing $\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )$ . 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Defining each skill with a manually-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 233, + 469, + 246 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 233, + 469, + 246 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "designed reward function limits this repertoire and imposes a manual engineering", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 244, + 471, + 257 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 244, + 471, + 257 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "burden. Self-supervised agents that set their own goals can automate this process,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 255, + 470, + 268 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 255, + 470, + 268 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "but designing appropriate goal setting objectives can be difficult, and often involves", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 266, + 471, + 280 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 266, + 471, + 280 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "heuristic design decisions. In this paper, we propose a formal exploration objec-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 277, + 470, + 290 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 277, + 470, + 290 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tive for goal-reaching policies that maximizes state coverage. We show that this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 289, + 470, + 301 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 289, + 470, + 301 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "objective is equivalent to maximizing the entropy of the goal distribution together", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 300, + 471, + 312 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 300, + 471, + 312 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with goal reaching performance, where goals correspond to full state observations.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 310, + 470, + 323 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 310, + 470, + 323 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To instantiate this principle, we present an algorithm called Skew-Fit for learning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 321, + 470, + 334 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 321, + 470, + 334 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a maximum-entropy goal distributions. Skew-Fit enables self-supervised agents", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 332, + 470, + 345 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 332, + 470, + 345 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to autonomously choose and practice reaching diverse goals. We show that, un-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 343, + 469, + 355 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 343, + 469, + 355 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "der certain regularity conditions, our method converges to a uniform distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 354, + 470, + 366 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 354, + 470, + 366 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "over the set of valid states, even when we do not know this set beforehand. Our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 365, + 471, + 378 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 365, + 471, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "experiments show that it can learn a variety of manipulation tasks from images,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 376, + 469, + 389 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 376, + 469, + 389 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "including opening a door with a real robot, entirely from scratch and without any", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 388, + 289, + 399 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 388, + 289, + 399 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "manually-designed reward function.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 13, + "bbox_fs": [ + 140, + 212, + 471, + 399 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 419, + 205, + 432 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 418, + 208, + 435 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 418, + 208, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1 INTRODUCTION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 444, + 324, + 565 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 443, + 325, + 457 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 443, + 325, + 457 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Reinforcement learning (RL) provides an appealing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 455, + 326, + 468 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 455, + 326, + 468 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "formalism for automated learning of behavioral skills,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 466, + 325, + 478 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 466, + 325, + 478 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "but separately learning every potentially useful skill", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 478, + 325, + 489 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 478, + 325, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "becomes prohibitively time consuming, both in terms", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 488, + 325, + 500 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 488, + 325, + 500 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the experience required for the agent and the effort", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 500, + 325, + 511 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 500, + 325, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "required for the user to design reward functions for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 325, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 325, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "each behavior. What if we could instead design an", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 521, + 325, + 533 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 521, + 325, + 533 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "unsupervised RL algorithm that automatically explores", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 531, + 325, + 544 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 531, + 325, + 544 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the environment and iteratively distills this experience", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 543, + 325, + 555 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 543, + 325, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "into general-purpose policies that can accomplish new", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 554, + 237, + 565 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 554, + 237, + 565 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "user-specified tasks at test time?", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 28, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 443, + 326, + 565 + ] + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 333, + 445, + 503, + 491 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 333, + 445, + 503, + 491 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 333, + 445, + 503, + 491 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 333, + 445, + 503, + 491 + ], + "score": 0.956, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "e63694dfee063113410dee749ee6eadb4238e7f49cedfcc7d0705d23188a8a5b.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 35, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 333, + 445, + 503, + 460.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 333, + 460.3333333333333, + 503, + 475.66666666666663 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 333, + 475.66666666666663, + 503, + 490.99999999999994 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 36 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 333, + 497, + 505, + 573 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 332, + 497, + 505, + 508 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 332, + 497, + 505, + 508 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 1: Left: Robot learning to open a door", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 332, + 508, + 506, + 519 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 332, + 508, + 506, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with Skew-Fit, without any task reward. Right:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 331, + 517, + 506, + 530 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 331, + 517, + 506, + 530 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Samples from a goal distribution when using (a)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 331, + 529, + 506, + 541 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 331, + 529, + 506, + 541 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Skew-Fit and (b) unweighted (ie. uniform) sam-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 331, + 541, + 505, + 551 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 331, + 541, + 505, + 551 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "pling. When used as goals, the diverse samples", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 331, + 551, + 505, + 563 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 331, + 551, + 505, + 563 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from Skew-Fit encourage the robot to practice", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 332, + 562, + 457, + 574 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 332, + 562, + 457, + 574 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "opening the door more frequently.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 37.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 572, + 325, + 582 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 570, + 325, + 584 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 570, + 325, + 584 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For an agent to learn autonomously, it needs an explo-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 582, + 505, + 594 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 582, + 505, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ration objective. In the absence of any prior knowledge about which states are more useful, an", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 593, + 506, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 593, + 506, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "effective exploration scheme is one that visits as many states as possible, allowing a policy to au-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 604, + 505, + 617 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 604, + 505, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tonomously prepare for user-specified task that it might see at test time. This objective has been", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 614, + 505, + 628 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 614, + 449, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "formalized as maximizing the entropy of the learned policy’s visited state distribution 1", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 449, + 614, + 473, + 627 + ], + "score": 0.66, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 473, + 614, + 505, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Hazan", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 627, + 504, + 638 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 627, + 504, + 638 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2018a), since a policy that maximizes this objective should approach a uniform distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 637, + 504, + 649 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 637, + 316, + 649 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "over valid states. Unfortunately, directly optimizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 317, + 637, + 340, + 649 + ], + "score": 0.64, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 341, + 637, + 504, + 649 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "requires an accurate model of the policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 506, + 660 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 506, + 660 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and environment (Hazan et al., 2018a). Moreover, even if this optimization were tractable, another", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 659, + 506, + 672 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 659, + 506, + 672 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "short-coming of this objective is that the resulting policy cannot be used to solve new tasks: it", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 669, + 506, + 682 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 669, + 506, + 682 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "only knows how to maximize state entropy. In other words, to develop principled unsupervised RL", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 680, + 506, + 694 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 680, + 314, + 694 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithms that result in useful policies, maximizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 315, + 682, + 338, + 693 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 338, + 680, + 506, + 694 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is not enough. We need a mechanism that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 54 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 691, + 399, + 704 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 691, + 399, + 704 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "allows us to control the resulting policy to achieve new tasks at test-time.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 55 + } + ], + "index": 44, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 570, + 325, + 584 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 577, + 505, + 703 + ], + "lines": [], + "index": 50, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 582, + 506, + 704 + ], + "lines_deleted": true + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 505, + 149 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We argue that this can be accomplished by performing goal-directed exploration. In addition to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "maximizing the state entropy, we should be able to control where the policy goes by giving it a goal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 104, + 505, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 117, + 115 + ], + "score": 0.3, + "content": "\\mathbf { G }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 117, + 104, + 505, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that corresponds to a state that it must reach. 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This objective provides us", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 505, + 139 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 424, + 139 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a principled way for training a policy to explore all states, by maximizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 424, + 127, + 448, + 138 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 448, + 126, + 505, + 139 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", such that the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 136, + 500, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 136, + 455, + 149 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state that is reached can be controlled by commanding goals, which means minimizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 455, + 137, + 496, + 150 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 496, + 136, + 500, + 149 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 2.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 154, + 505, + 187 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 153, + 505, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 153, + 505, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Directly using this objective is often intractable, since it requires optimizing the entropy of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 505, + 177 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 264, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "marginal state distribution of the policy,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 264, + 165, + 288, + 177 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 288, + 165, + 505, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". However, we can sidestep this issue by noting that the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 176, + 506, + 189 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 176, + 370, + 189 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "objective is the mutual information between the state and the goal,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 176, + 404, + 188 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "I ( \\mathbf { S } ; \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 404, + 176, + 506, + 189 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", which can be written as:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 202, + 192, + 409, + 206 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 202, + 192, + 409, + 206 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 202, + 192, + 409, + 206 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\mathbf { \\mathcal { H } } ( \\mathbf { S } ) - \\mathbf { \\mathcal { H } } ( \\mathbf { S } | \\mathbf { G } ) = I ( \\mathbf { S } ; \\mathbf { G } ) = \\mathbf { \\mathcal { H } } ( \\mathbf { G } ) - \\mathbf { \\mathcal { H } } ( \\mathbf { G } | \\mathbf { S } ) . } \\end{array}", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "2247761e59a561f14a24053f54c654bd8ceddb062c03d8d181169fbf7b0cef47.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 9, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 202, + 192, + 409, + 206 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 9 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 210, + 503, + 233 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 210, + 505, + 223 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 210, + 505, + 223 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Equation 1 thus gives an equivalent objective for an unsupervised RL algorithm: the agent should set", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 221, + 456, + 234 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 221, + 213, + 234 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "diverse goals, maximizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 214, + 221, + 240, + 234 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 221, + 410, + 234 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and learn how to reach them, minimizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 410, + 221, + 451, + 234 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 451, + 221, + 456, + 234 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 10.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 238, + 505, + 282 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 238, + 506, + 251 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 238, + 506, + 251 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "While the second term is the typical objective studied in goal-conditioned RL (Kaelbling, 1993;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 248, + 505, + 262 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 248, + 505, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Andrychowicz et al., 2017), maximizing the diversity of goals is crucial for effectively learning to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 261, + 506, + 273 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 261, + 506, + 273 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reach all possible states. In a new environment, acquiring such a maximum-entropy goal distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 272, + 493, + 283 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 272, + 493, + 283 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is challenging: how can an agent set diverse goals when it does not even know what states exist?", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 13.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 288, + 505, + 452 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 288, + 505, + 300 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 288, + 505, + 300 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this paper, we address this question via a new algorithm, Skew-Fit, which learns to model", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 299, + 506, + 312 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 299, + 506, + 312 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the uniform distribution over states, given only access to data collected by an autonomous goal-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 309, + 506, + 323 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 309, + 506, + 323 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "conditioned policy. Our paper makes the following contributions. First, we propose a principled", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 321, + 505, + 334 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 321, + 478, + 334 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "objective for unsupervised RL, based on Equation 1. While a number of prior works ignore the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 479, + 321, + 505, + 333 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 332, + 505, + 344 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 332, + 505, + 344 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "term, we argue that jointly optimizing the entire quantity is needed to develop effective and useful", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 343, + 505, + 356 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 343, + 505, + 356 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "exploration. Second, we propose a method called Skew-Fit and prove that, under some regularity", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 507, + 368 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 507, + 368 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "conditions, it learns a generative model that converges to a uniform distribution over the goal space,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 365, + 505, + 378 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 365, + 505, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "even when the set of valid states is unknown (e.g., as in the case of images). Third, we empirically", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 375, + 505, + 388 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 375, + 505, + 388 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "demonstrate that, when combined with goal-conditioned RL, Skew-Fit allows us to autonomously", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 387, + 506, + 399 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 387, + 506, + 399 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "train goal-conditioned policies that reach diverse states. We test this method on a variety of simulated", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 398, + 506, + 411 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 398, + 506, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "vision-based robot tasks without any task-specific reward function. In these experiments, Skew-Fit", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 409, + 505, + 421 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 409, + 505, + 421 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches substantially better final performance than prior methods, and learns much more quickly. We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 419, + 505, + 432 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 419, + 505, + 432 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "also demonstrate that our approach solves a real-world manipulation task, which requires a robot", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 430, + 506, + 444 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 430, + 506, + 444 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to learn to open a door from scratch in about five hours, directly from images, and without any", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 442, + 253, + 454 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 442, + 253, + 454 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "manually-designed reward function.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 469, + 255, + 481 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 467, + 257, + 484 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 467, + 257, + 484 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 PROBLEM FORMULATION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 494, + 505, + 538 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 494, + 505, + 506 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 494, + 505, + 506 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To ensure that an unsupervised reinforcement learning agent learns to reach all possible states", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 505, + 506, + 516 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 505, + 492, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in a controllable way, we maximize the mutual information between the state S and the goal", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 492, + 505, + 502, + 515 + ], + "score": 0.73, + "content": "\\mathbf { G }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 502, + 505, + 506, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 515, + 505, + 529 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 516, + 140, + 528 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "I ( \\mathbf { S } ; \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 515, + 505, + 529 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", as stated in Equation 1. This section discusses how to optimize Equation 1 by splitting the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 527, + 409, + 540 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 527, + 268, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "optimization into two parts: minimizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 527, + 309, + 539 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 309, + 527, + 378, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and maximizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 378, + 527, + 404, + 539 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 404, + 527, + 409, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 33.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 551, + 450, + 563 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 550, + 452, + 564 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 550, + 186, + 564 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.1 MINIMIZING", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 551, + 228, + 564 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 228, + 550, + 452, + 564 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ": GOAL-CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT LEARNING", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 571, + 505, + 650 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 572, + 506, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 572, + 431, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Standard RL considers a Markov decision process (MDP), which has a state space", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 431, + 573, + 439, + 582 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 439, + 572, + 493, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", action space", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 493, + 573, + 502, + 582 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "\\mathcal { A }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 503, + 572, + 506, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 506, + 596 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 201, + 596 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and unknown dynamics", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 583, + 362, + 595 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\rho ( \\mathbf { s } _ { t + 1 } \\mid \\mathbf { s } _ { t } , \\mathbf { a } _ { t } ) : \\mathcal { S } \\times \\mathcal { S } \\times \\mathcal { A } \\mapsto [ 0 , + \\infty )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 363, + 583, + 506, + 596 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Goal-conditioned RL also includes", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 505, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 157, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a goal space", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 595, + 165, + 605 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "\\mathcal { G }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 594, + 505, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". For simplicity, we will assume in our derivation that the goal space matches the state", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 506, + 618 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 171, + 618 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "space, such that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 171, + 605, + 199, + 615 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\mathcal { G } = \\mathcal { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 199, + 605, + 420, + 618 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", though the approach extends trivially to the case where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 421, + 605, + 428, + 615 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\mathcal { G }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 429, + 605, + 506, + 618 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is a hand-specified", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 616, + 506, + 628 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 616, + 144, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "subset of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 617, + 152, + 626 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 616, + 430, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", such as the global x-y position of a robot. A goal-conditioned policy", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 430, + 616, + 473, + 628 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\pi ( \\mathbf { a } \\mid \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { g } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 474, + 616, + 506, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "maps a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 506, + 640 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 126, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 127, + 627, + 152, + 637 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\mathbf { s } \\in { \\mathcal { S } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 152, + 627, + 189, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and goal", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 189, + 627, + 215, + 638 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\mathbf { g } \\in { \\mathcal { S } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 215, + 627, + 330, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to a distribution over actions", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 330, + 627, + 357, + 637 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\mathbf { a } \\in { \\mathcal { A } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 358, + 627, + 506, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and its objective is to reach the goal,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 638, + 295, + 651 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 638, + 295, + 651 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "i.e., to make the current state equal to the goal.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 654, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 505, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 311, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Goal-reaching can be formulated as minimizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 311, + 655, + 357, + 667 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\textbf { G } | \\textbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 357, + 654, + 505, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and many practical goal-reaching", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithms (Kaelbling, 1993; Lillicrap et al., 2016; Schaul et al., 2015; Andrychowicz et al., 2017;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Nair et al., 2018; Pong et al., 2018; Florensa et al., 2018a) can be viewed as approximations to this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 507, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 507, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "objective by observing that the optimal goal-conditioned policy will deterministically reach the goal,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 280, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "resulting in a conditional entropy of zero:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 699, + 341, + 711 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } ) = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". See Appendix E for more details. Our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method may thus be used in conjunction with any of these prior goal-conditioned RL methods in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 340, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 209, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "order to jointly minimize", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 209, + 721, + 250, + 732 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 250, + 720, + 310, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and maximize", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 310, + 721, + 336, + 732 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 336, + 720, + 340, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "page_idx": 1, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 308, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2020", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 763 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 763 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 505, + 149 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We argue that this can be accomplished by performing goal-directed exploration. In addition to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "maximizing the state entropy, we should be able to control where the policy goes by giving it a goal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 104, + 505, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 117, + 115 + ], + "score": 0.3, + "content": "\\mathbf { G }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 117, + 104, + 505, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that corresponds to a state that it must reach. 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This objective provides us", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 505, + 139 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 424, + 139 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a principled way for training a policy to explore all states, by maximizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 424, + 127, + 448, + 138 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 448, + 126, + 505, + 139 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", such that the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 136, + 500, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 136, + 455, + 149 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state that is reached can be controlled by commanding goals, which means minimizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 455, + 137, + 496, + 150 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 496, + 136, + 500, + 149 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 2.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 150 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 154, + 505, + 187 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 153, + 505, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 153, + 505, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Directly using this objective is often intractable, since it requires optimizing the entropy of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 505, + 177 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 264, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "marginal state distribution of the policy,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 264, + 165, + 288, + 177 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 288, + 165, + 505, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". However, we can sidestep this issue by noting that the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 176, + 506, + 189 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 176, + 370, + 189 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "objective is the mutual information between the state and the goal,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 176, + 404, + 188 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "I ( \\mathbf { S } ; \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 404, + 176, + 506, + 189 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", which can be written as:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 7, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 153, + 506, + 189 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 202, + 192, + 409, + 206 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 202, + 192, + 409, + 206 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 202, + 192, + 409, + 206 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\mathbf { \\mathcal { H } } ( \\mathbf { S } ) - \\mathbf { \\mathcal { H } } ( \\mathbf { S } | \\mathbf { G } ) = I ( \\mathbf { S } ; \\mathbf { G } ) = \\mathbf { \\mathcal { H } } ( \\mathbf { G } ) - \\mathbf { \\mathcal { H } } ( \\mathbf { G } | \\mathbf { S } ) . } \\end{array}", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "2247761e59a561f14a24053f54c654bd8ceddb062c03d8d181169fbf7b0cef47.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 9, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 202, + 192, + 409, + 206 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 9 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 210, + 503, + 233 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 210, + 505, + 223 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 210, + 505, + 223 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Equation 1 thus gives an equivalent objective for an unsupervised RL algorithm: the agent should set", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 221, + 456, + 234 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 221, + 213, + 234 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "diverse goals, maximizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 214, + 221, + 240, + 234 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 221, + 410, + 234 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and learn how to reach them, minimizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 410, + 221, + 451, + 234 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 451, + 221, + 456, + 234 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 10.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 210, + 505, + 234 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 238, + 505, + 282 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 238, + 506, + 251 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 238, + 506, + 251 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "While the second term is the typical objective studied in goal-conditioned RL (Kaelbling, 1993;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 248, + 505, + 262 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 248, + 505, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Andrychowicz et al., 2017), maximizing the diversity of goals is crucial for effectively learning to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 261, + 506, + 273 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 261, + 506, + 273 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reach all possible states. In a new environment, acquiring such a maximum-entropy goal distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 272, + 493, + 283 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 272, + 493, + 283 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is challenging: how can an agent set diverse goals when it does not even know what states exist?", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 13.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 238, + 506, + 283 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 288, + 505, + 452 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 288, + 505, + 300 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 288, + 505, + 300 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this paper, we address this question via a new algorithm, Skew-Fit, which learns to model", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 299, + 506, + 312 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 299, + 506, + 312 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the uniform distribution over states, given only access to data collected by an autonomous goal-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 309, + 506, + 323 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 309, + 506, + 323 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "conditioned policy. Our paper makes the following contributions. First, we propose a principled", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 321, + 505, + 334 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 321, + 478, + 334 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "objective for unsupervised RL, based on Equation 1. While a number of prior works ignore the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 479, + 321, + 505, + 333 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 332, + 505, + 344 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 332, + 505, + 344 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "term, we argue that jointly optimizing the entire quantity is needed to develop effective and useful", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 343, + 505, + 356 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 343, + 505, + 356 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "exploration. Second, we propose a method called Skew-Fit and prove that, under some regularity", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 507, + 368 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 507, + 368 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "conditions, it learns a generative model that converges to a uniform distribution over the goal space,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 365, + 505, + 378 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 365, + 505, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "even when the set of valid states is unknown (e.g., as in the case of images). Third, we empirically", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 375, + 505, + 388 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 375, + 505, + 388 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "demonstrate that, when combined with goal-conditioned RL, Skew-Fit allows us to autonomously", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 387, + 506, + 399 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 387, + 506, + 399 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "train goal-conditioned policies that reach diverse states. We test this method on a variety of simulated", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 398, + 506, + 411 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 398, + 506, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "vision-based robot tasks without any task-specific reward function. In these experiments, Skew-Fit", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 409, + 505, + 421 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 409, + 505, + 421 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches substantially better final performance than prior methods, and learns much more quickly. We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 419, + 505, + 432 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 419, + 505, + 432 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "also demonstrate that our approach solves a real-world manipulation task, which requires a robot", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 430, + 506, + 444 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 430, + 506, + 444 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to learn to open a door from scratch in about five hours, directly from images, and without any", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 442, + 253, + 454 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 442, + 253, + 454 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "manually-designed reward function.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + } + ], + "index": 23, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 288, + 507, + 454 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 469, + 255, + 481 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 467, + 257, + 484 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 467, + 257, + 484 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 PROBLEM FORMULATION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 494, + 505, + 538 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 494, + 505, + 506 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 494, + 505, + 506 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To ensure that an unsupervised reinforcement learning agent learns to reach all possible states", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 505, + 506, + 516 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 505, + 492, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in a controllable way, we maximize the mutual information between the state S and the goal", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 492, + 505, + 502, + 515 + ], + "score": 0.73, + "content": "\\mathbf { G }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 502, + 505, + 506, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 515, + 505, + 529 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 516, + 140, + 528 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "I ( \\mathbf { S } ; \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 515, + 505, + 529 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", as stated in Equation 1. 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Goal-conditioned RL also includes", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 505, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 157, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a goal space", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 595, + 165, + 605 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "\\mathcal { G }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 594, + 505, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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A goal-conditioned policy", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 430, + 616, + 473, + 628 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\pi ( \\mathbf { a } \\mid \\mathbf { s } , \\mathbf { g } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 474, + 616, + 506, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "maps a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 506, + 640 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 126, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 127, + 627, + 152, + 637 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\mathbf { s } \\in { \\mathcal { S } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 152, + 627, + 189, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and goal", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 189, + 627, + 215, + 638 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\mathbf { g } \\in { \\mathcal { S } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 215, + 627, + 330, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to a distribution over actions", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 330, + 627, + 357, + 637 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\mathbf { a } \\in { \\mathcal { A } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 358, + 627, + 506, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and its objective is to reach the goal,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 638, + 295, + 651 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 638, + 295, + 651 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "i.e., to make the current state equal to the goal.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + } + ], + "index": 40, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 572, + 506, + 651 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 654, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 505, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 311, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Goal-reaching can be formulated as minimizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 311, + 655, + 357, + 667 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\textbf { G } | \\textbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 357, + 654, + 505, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and many practical goal-reaching", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithms (Kaelbling, 1993; Lillicrap et al., 2016; Schaul et al., 2015; Andrychowicz et al., 2017;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Nair et al., 2018; Pong et al., 2018; Florensa et al., 2018a) can be viewed as approximations to this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 507, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 507, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "objective by observing that the optimal goal-conditioned policy will deterministically reach the goal,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 280, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "resulting in a conditional entropy of zero:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 699, + 341, + 711 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } ) = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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For example, if the states correspond to images viewed through", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 506, + 206 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 179, + 206 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a robot’s camera,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 179, + 193, + 187, + 203 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 188, + 192, + 506, + 206 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "corresponds to the (unknown) set of valid images of the robot’s environment,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 506, + 217 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 130, + 217 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "while", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 204, + 144, + 214 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\mathbb { R } ^ { n }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 203, + 506, + 217 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "corresponds to all possible arrays of pixel values of a particular size. In such environments,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 214, + 506, + 228 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 214, + 270, + 228 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sampling from the uniform distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 271, + 215, + 284, + 225 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\mathbb { R } ^ { n }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 285, + 214, + 506, + 228 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is unlikely to correspond to a valid image of the real", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 225, + 506, + 238 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 225, + 237, + 238 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "world. Sampling uniformly from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 237, + 226, + 245, + 236 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 246, + 225, + 506, + 238 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "would require knowing the set of all possible valid images, which", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 237, + 419, + 249 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 237, + 419, + 249 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we assume the agent does not know when starting to explore the environment.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 253, + 505, + 418 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 253, + 506, + 266 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 253, + 291, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "While we cannot sample arbitrary states from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 291, + 254, + 299, + 264 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 300, + 253, + 506, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we can sample states by performing goal-directed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 264, + 505, + 277 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 264, + 505, + 277 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "exploration. To derive and analyze our method, we introduce a simple model of this process: a goal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 276, + 506, + 288 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 276, + 140, + 288 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "{ \\bf G } \\sim p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 276, + 293, + 288 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is sampled from the goal distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 294, + 277, + 305, + 288 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 306, + 276, + 506, + 288 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and then the agent attempts to achieve this goal,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 286, + 505, + 299 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 286, + 257, + 299 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which results in a distribution of states", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 258, + 286, + 284, + 297 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\mathbf { S } \\in S", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 285, + 286, + 505, + 299 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "seen along the trajectory. We abstract this entire process", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 297, + 506, + 311 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 297, + 306, + 311 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by writing the resulting marginal distribution over", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 306, + 298, + 314, + 308 + ], + "score": 0.47, + "content": "\\mathbf { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 315, + 297, + 325, + 311 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 326, + 297, + 364, + 309 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 365, + 297, + 433, + 311 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We assume that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 433, + 297, + 471, + 309 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 472, + 297, + 506, + 311 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "has full", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 308, + 506, + 322 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 308, + 506, + 322 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "support, which can be accomplished with an epsilon-greedy goal reaching policy in a communicating", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 319, + 506, + 333 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 319, + 407, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MDP. We also assume that the entropy of the resulting state distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 407, + 319, + 462, + 332 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi } ) )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 462, + 319, + 506, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is no less", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 505, + 343 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 268, + 343 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "than the entropy of the goal distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 330, + 309, + 342 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( p _ { \\phi } ( \\mathbf { S } ) )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 310, + 330, + 505, + 343 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Without this assumption, a policy could ignore", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 340, + 506, + 354 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 340, + 506, + 354 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the goal and stay in a single state, no matter how diverse and realistic the goals are. Note that this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 506, + 365 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 302, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "assumption does not require that the entropy of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 303, + 352, + 342, + 365 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 352, + 506, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is strictly larger than the entropy of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 363, + 506, + 376 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 363, + 178, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goal distribution,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 179, + 365, + 190, + 375 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 190, + 363, + 506, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". This simplified model allows us to analyze the behavior of our goal-setting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 374, + 505, + 387 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 374, + 505, + 387 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "scheme separately from any specific goal-reaching algorithm. We will however show in Section 6", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 505, + 398 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 505, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that we can instantiate this approach into a practical algorithm that jointly learns the goal-reaching", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 505, + 409 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 425, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policy. In summary, our goal is to acquire a maximum-entropy goal distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 426, + 398, + 437, + 408 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 438, + 396, + 505, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "over valid states", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 407, + 352, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 407, + 114, + 417 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 407, + 308, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", while only having access to state samples from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 308, + 407, + 347, + 419 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 407, + 352, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 439, + 474, + 452 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 438, + 476, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 438, + 476, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 SKEW-FIT: LEARNING A MAXIMUM ENTROPY GOAL DISTRIBUTION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 467, + 504, + 501 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 466, + 506, + 480 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 466, + 374, + 480 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our method, Skew-Fit, learns a maximum entropy goal distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 374, + 469, + 386, + 479 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 386, + 466, + 506, + 480 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using samples collected from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 477, + 506, + 493 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 477, + 506, + 493 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a goal-conditioned policy. We analyze the algorithm and show that Skew-Fit maximizes the entropy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 454, + 503 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 454, + 503 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the goal distribution, and present a practical instantiation for unsupervised deep RL.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 519, + 232, + 530 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 519, + 232, + 532 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 519, + 232, + 532 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.1 SKEW-FIT ALGORITHM", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 541, + 505, + 598 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 542, + 505, + 554 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 542, + 505, + 554 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To learn a uniform distribution over valid goal states, we present a method that iteratively increases", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 505, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 245, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the entropy of a generative model", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 245, + 554, + 256, + 565 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 552, + 419, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". In particular, given a generative model", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 419, + 554, + 434, + 565 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 434, + 552, + 482, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "at iteration", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 482, + 554, + 487, + 563 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 487, + 552, + 505, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 506, + 578 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 281, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "would like to train a new generative model", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 282, + 565, + 305, + 576 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 306, + 563, + 345, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "such that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 346, + 565, + 369, + 576 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 563, + 468, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "has higher entropy than", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 469, + 565, + 483, + 576 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 483, + 563, + 506, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "over", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 575, + 505, + 587 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 575, + 382, + 587 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the set of valid states. While we do not know the set of valid states", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 383, + 575, + 390, + 585 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 391, + 575, + 505, + 587 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we can sample states from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 585, + 384, + 600 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 585, + 148, + 598 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi _ { t } } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 149, + 585, + 300, + 600 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", resulting in an empirical distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 300, + 587, + 322, + 599 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 322, + 585, + 384, + 600 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "over the states", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 201, + 604, + 409, + 639 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 604, + 409, + 639 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 604, + 409, + 639 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { s } ) \\triangleq \\frac { 1 } { N } \\sum _ { n = 1 } ^ { N } \\mathbf { 1 } \\{ \\mathbf { s } = \\mathbf { S } _ { n } \\} , \\quad \\mathbf { S } _ { n } \\sim p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi _ { t } } ) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "d535d8723e3250175d1398fe29aea149e386ec1dc8da62b2b1df347e797a35b3.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 39.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 604, + 409, + 621.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 621.5, + 409, + 639.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 40 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 647, + 505, + 671 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 646, + 505, + 661 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 646, + 383, + 661 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and use this empirical distribution to train the next generative model", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 384, + 649, + 406, + 660 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 407, + 646, + 505, + 661 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". However, if we simply", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 657, + 502, + 674 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 657, + 127, + 674 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "train", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 127, + 660, + 150, + 672 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 150, + 657, + 488, + 674 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to model this empirical distribution, it may not necessarily have higher entropy than", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 488, + 660, + 502, + 671 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 42 + } + ], + "index": 41.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 675, + 505, + 733 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 674, + 505, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 674, + 505, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The intuition behind our method is quite simple: rather than fitting a generative model to our empirical", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 506, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 506, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "distribution, we skew the empirical distribution so that rarely visited states are given more weight.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 697, + 506, + 710 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 697, + 506, + 710 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "See Figure 2 for a visualization of this process. How should we skew the empirical distribution if", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 707, + 507, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 707, + 255, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we want to maximize the entropy of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 255, + 709, + 278, + 721 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 278, + 707, + 466, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "? If we had access to the density of each state,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 466, + 708, + 502, + 721 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 502, + 707, + 507, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 506, + 735 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 276, + 735 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "then we could simply weight each state by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 277, + 720, + 322, + 733 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "1 / p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 322, + 720, + 506, + 735 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We could then perform maximum likelihood", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "index": 45 + } + ], + "page_idx": 2, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 762 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 762 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 308, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 25, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 25, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2020", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 334, + 94 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 335, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 189, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.2 MAXIMIZING", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 190, + 82, + 216, + 95 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 81, + 335, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ": SETTING DIVERSE GOALS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 105, + 505, + 248 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 506, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 506, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We now turn to the problem of setting diverse goals or, mathematically, maximizing the entropy of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 187, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the goal distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 116, + 213, + 128 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 214, + 115, + 233, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 128, + 359, + 139 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 359, + 127, + 505, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be the goal distribution from which", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 137, + 506, + 151 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 137, + 129, + 151 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goals", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 130, + 138, + 140, + 148 + ], + "score": 0.57, + "content": "\\mathbf { G }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 137, + 347, + 151 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are sampled. 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Since the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 505, + 162 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 250, + 162 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "maximum entropy distribution over", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 251, + 149, + 259, + 159 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 149, + 366, + 162 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the uniform distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 149, + 380, + 160 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 381, + 149, + 434, + 162 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", maximizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 435, + 149, + 461, + 161 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 461, + 149, + 505, + 162 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "may seem", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 160, + 505, + 173 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 160, + 405, + 173 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as simple as choosing the uniform distribution to be our goal distribution:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 405, + 160, + 442, + 172 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "p _ { \\phi } = U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 443, + 160, + 505, + 173 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". However, this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 171, + 505, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 171, + 505, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "requires knowing the uniform distribution over valid states, which may be difficult to obtain when", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 181, + 504, + 195 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 182, + 115, + 192 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 181, + 172, + 195 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is a subset of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 182, + 186, + 192 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\mathbb { R } ^ { n }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 181, + 230, + 195 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", for some", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 184, + 237, + 192 + ], + "score": 0.7, + "content": "n", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 237, + 181, + 504, + 195 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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To derive and analyze our method, we introduce a simple model of this process: a goal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 276, + 506, + 288 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 276, + 140, + 288 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "{ \\bf G } \\sim p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 276, + 293, + 288 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is sampled from the goal distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 294, + 277, + 305, + 288 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 306, + 276, + 506, + 288 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and then the agent attempts to achieve this goal,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 286, + 505, + 299 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 286, + 257, + 299 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which results in a distribution of states", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 258, + 286, + 284, + 297 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\mathbf { S } \\in S", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 285, + 286, + 505, + 299 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "seen along the trajectory. We abstract this entire process", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 297, + 506, + 311 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 297, + 306, + 311 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by writing the resulting marginal distribution over", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 306, + 298, + 314, + 308 + ], + "score": 0.47, + "content": "\\mathbf { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 315, + 297, + 325, + 311 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 326, + 297, + 364, + 309 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 365, + 297, + 433, + 311 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We assume that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 433, + 297, + 471, + 309 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 472, + 297, + 506, + 311 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "has full", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 308, + 506, + 322 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 308, + 506, + 322 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "support, which can be accomplished with an epsilon-greedy goal reaching policy in a communicating", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 319, + 506, + 333 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 319, + 407, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MDP. We also assume that the entropy of the resulting state distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 407, + 319, + 462, + 332 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi } ) )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 462, + 319, + 506, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is no less", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 505, + 343 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 268, + 343 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "than the entropy of the goal distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 330, + 309, + 342 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( p _ { \\phi } ( \\mathbf { S } ) )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 310, + 330, + 505, + 343 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Without this assumption, a policy could ignore", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 340, + 506, + 354 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 340, + 506, + 354 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the goal and stay in a single state, no matter how diverse and realistic the goals are. Note that this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 506, + 365 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 302, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "assumption does not require that the entropy of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 303, + 352, + 342, + 365 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 352, + 506, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is strictly larger than the entropy of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 363, + 506, + 376 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 363, + 178, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goal distribution,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 179, + 365, + 190, + 375 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 190, + 363, + 506, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". This simplified model allows us to analyze the behavior of our goal-setting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 374, + 505, + 387 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 374, + 505, + 387 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "scheme separately from any specific goal-reaching algorithm. We will however show in Section 6", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 505, + 398 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 505, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that we can instantiate this approach into a practical algorithm that jointly learns the goal-reaching", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 505, + 409 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 425, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policy. In summary, our goal is to acquire a maximum-entropy goal distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 426, + 398, + 437, + 408 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 438, + 396, + 505, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "over valid states", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 407, + 352, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 407, + 114, + 417 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 407, + 308, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", while only having access to state samples from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 308, + 407, + 347, + 419 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "p ( \\mathbf { S } \\mid p _ { \\phi } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 407, + 352, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 21, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 253, + 506, + 420 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 439, + 474, + 452 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 438, + 476, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 438, + 476, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 SKEW-FIT: LEARNING A MAXIMUM ENTROPY GOAL DISTRIBUTION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 467, + 504, + 501 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 466, + 506, + 480 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 466, + 374, + 480 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our method, Skew-Fit, learns a maximum entropy goal distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 374, + 469, + 386, + 479 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 386, + 466, + 506, + 480 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using samples collected from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 477, + 506, + 493 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 477, + 506, + 493 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a goal-conditioned policy. We analyze the algorithm and show that Skew-Fit maximizes the entropy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 454, + 503 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 454, + 503 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the goal distribution, and present a practical instantiation for unsupervised deep RL.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 31, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 466, + 506, + 503 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 519, + 232, + 530 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 519, + 232, + 532 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 519, + 232, + 532 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.1 SKEW-FIT ALGORITHM", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 541, + 505, + 598 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 542, + 505, + 554 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 542, + 505, + 554 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To learn a uniform distribution over valid goal states, we present a method that iteratively increases", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 505, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 245, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the entropy of a generative model", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 245, + 554, + 256, + 565 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 552, + 419, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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How should we skew the empirical distribution if", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 707, + 507, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 707, + 255, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we want to maximize the entropy of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 255, + 709, + 278, + 721 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 278, + 707, + 466, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "? 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If our approximation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 489, + 445, + 503, + 454 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 453, + 505, + 465 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 453, + 217, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "was exact, we could choose", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 217, + 453, + 251, + 464 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\alpha = - 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 252, + 453, + 505, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and recover the exact importance sampling procedure described", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 464, + 505, + 476 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 464, + 146, + 476 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "above. If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 146, + 465, + 173, + 474 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\alpha = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 464, + 462, + 476 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", then this skew step has no effect. By choosing intermediate values of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 462, + 466, + 470, + 474 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "\\alpha", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 470, + 464, + 505, + 476 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we can", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 472, + 506, + 489 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 472, + 256, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trade off the reliability of our estimate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 256, + 475, + 285, + 487 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 285, + 472, + 506, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with the speed at which we want to increase the entropy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 486, + 202, + 499 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 486, + 202, + 499 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the goal distribution.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 509, + 506, + 577 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 510, + 505, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 510, + 505, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Variance Reduction As described, this procedure relies on importance sampling (IS), which can", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 521, + 506, + 534 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 521, + 247, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "have high variance, particularly if", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 247, + 521, + 295, + 533 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } ) \\approx 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 296, + 521, + 506, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We therefore choose a class of generative models", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 532, + 506, + 545 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 532, + 506, + 545 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where the probabilities are prevented from collapsing to zero, as we will describe in Section 4. To", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 542, + 507, + 557 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 542, + 249, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "further reduce the variance, we train", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 249, + 545, + 272, + 556 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 542, + 507, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with sampling importance resampling (SIR) (Rubin, 1988).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 552, + 506, + 569 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 552, + 214, + 569 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Rather than sampling from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 215, + 556, + 236, + 567 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 237, + 552, + 425, + 569 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and weighting the update from each sample by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 425, + 557, + 444, + 567 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "w _ { t , \\alpha }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 444, + 552, + 506, + 569 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", SIR explicitly", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 236, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 236, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "defines a skewed distribution as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 26.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 168, + 580, + 442, + 614 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 580, + 442, + 614 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 580, + 442, + 614 + ], + "score": 0.95, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { s } ) \\triangleq \\frac { 1 } { Z _ { \\alpha } } p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { s } ) w _ { t , \\alpha } ( \\mathbf { s } ) , \\quad Z _ { \\alpha } = \\sum _ { n = 1 } ^ { N } p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } _ { n } ) w _ { t , \\alpha } ( \\mathbf { S } _ { n } ) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "3082e6f76888592269c49511b78c251cdefd3ed61fd2f5188e3d6baa4d72eb03.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 31, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 580, + 442, + 591.3333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 591.3333333333334, + 442, + 602.6666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 602.6666666666667, + 442, + 614.0000000000001 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 32 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 619, + 505, + 664 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 618, + 506, + 634 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 618, + 133, + 634 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 620, + 147, + 631 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "Z _ { \\alpha }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 618, + 286, + 634 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the normalizing coefficient and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 621, + 308, + 633 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 308, + 618, + 506, + 634 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is given by Equation 2. We note that computing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 631, + 505, + 642 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 631, + 120, + 642 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "Z _ { \\alpha }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 631, + 505, + 642 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "adds little computational overhead, since all of the weights already need to be computed. We then", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 640, + 507, + 656 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 640, + 288, + 656 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fit the generative model at the next iteration", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 288, + 644, + 311, + 654 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 311, + 640, + 323, + 656 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 324, + 643, + 354, + 654 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 354, + 640, + 507, + 656 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using standard MLE. We found that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 652, + 500, + 665 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 652, + 500, + 665 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using SIR resulted in significantly lower variance than IS. See Appendix B.3 for this comparision.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 34.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 676, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 674, + 506, + 692 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 674, + 268, + 692 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Goal Sampling Alternative Because", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 679, + 335, + 690 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } } \\approx p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 336, + 674, + 387, + 692 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", at iteration", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 677, + 410, + 687 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "t + 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 410, + 674, + 506, + 692 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", one can sample goals", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 685, + 506, + 703 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 685, + 154, + 703 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from either", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 155, + 689, + 177, + 700 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 685, + 190, + 703 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "or", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 689, + 221, + 700 + ], + "score": 0.56, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 221, + 685, + 314, + 703 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Sampling goals from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 315, + 690, + 344, + 700 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 345, + 685, + 506, + 703 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "may be preferred if sampling from the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 713 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 208, + 713 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learned generative model", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 209, + 701, + 232, + 711 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 232, + 698, + 506, + 713 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is computationally or otherwise challenging. In either case, one still", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 252, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "needs to train the generative model", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 252, + 711, + 267, + 722 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 267, + 709, + 306, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to create", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 307, + 712, + 337, + 722 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 337, + 709, + 506, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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By choosing intermediate values of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 462, + 466, + 470, + 474 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "\\alpha", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 470, + 464, + 505, + 476 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we can", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 472, + 506, + 489 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 472, + 256, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trade off the reliability of our estimate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 256, + 475, + 285, + 487 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 285, + 472, + 506, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with the speed at which we want to increase the entropy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 486, + 202, + 499 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 486, + 202, + 499 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the goal distribution.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 21, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 439, + 506, + 499 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 509, + 506, + 577 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 510, + 505, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 510, + 505, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Variance Reduction As described, this procedure relies on importance sampling (IS), which can", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 521, + 506, + 534 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 521, + 247, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "have high variance, particularly if", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 247, + 521, + 295, + 533 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } ) \\approx 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 296, + 521, + 506, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We therefore choose a class of generative models", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 532, + 506, + 545 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 532, + 506, + 545 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where the probabilities are prevented from collapsing to zero, as we will describe in Section 4. To", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 542, + 507, + 557 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 542, + 249, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "further reduce the variance, we train", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 249, + 545, + 272, + 556 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 542, + 507, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with sampling importance resampling (SIR) (Rubin, 1988).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 552, + 506, + 569 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 552, + 214, + 569 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Rather than sampling from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 215, + 556, + 236, + 567 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 237, + 552, + 425, + 569 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and weighting the update from each sample by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 425, + 557, + 444, + 567 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "w _ { t , \\alpha }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 444, + 552, + 506, + 569 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", SIR explicitly", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 236, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 236, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "defines a skewed distribution as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 26.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 510, + 507, + 577 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 168, + 580, + 442, + 614 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 580, + 442, + 614 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 580, + 442, + 614 + ], + "score": 0.95, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { s } ) \\triangleq \\frac { 1 } { Z _ { \\alpha } } p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { s } ) w _ { t , \\alpha } ( \\mathbf { s } ) , \\quad Z _ { \\alpha } = \\sum _ { n = 1 } ^ { N } p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } _ { n } ) w _ { t , \\alpha } ( \\mathbf { S } _ { n } ) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "3082e6f76888592269c49511b78c251cdefd3ed61fd2f5188e3d6baa4d72eb03.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 31, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 580, + 442, + 591.3333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 591.3333333333334, + 442, + 602.6666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 602.6666666666667, + 442, + 614.0000000000001 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 32 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 619, + 505, + 664 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 618, + 506, + 634 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 618, + 133, + 634 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 620, + 147, + 631 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "Z _ { \\alpha }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 618, + 286, + 634 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the normalizing coefficient and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 621, + 308, + 633 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 308, + 618, + 506, + 634 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is given by Equation 2. We note that computing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 631, + 505, + 642 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 631, + 120, + 642 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "Z _ { \\alpha }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 631, + 505, + 642 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "adds little computational overhead, since all of the weights already need to be computed. We then", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 640, + 507, + 656 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 640, + 288, + 656 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fit the generative model at the next iteration", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 288, + 644, + 311, + 654 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 311, + 640, + 323, + 656 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 324, + 643, + 354, + 654 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 354, + 640, + 507, + 656 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using standard MLE. We found that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 652, + 500, + 665 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 652, + 500, + 665 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using SIR resulted in significantly lower variance than IS. See Appendix B.3 for this comparision.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 34.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 618, + 507, + 665 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 676, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 674, + 506, + 692 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 674, + 268, + 692 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Goal Sampling Alternative Because", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 679, + 335, + 690 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } } \\approx p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 336, + 674, + 387, + 692 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", at iteration", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 677, + 410, + 687 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "t + 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 410, + 674, + 506, + 692 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", one can sample goals", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 685, + 506, + 703 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 685, + 154, + 703 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from either", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 155, + 689, + 177, + 700 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 685, + 190, + 703 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "or", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 689, + 221, + 700 + ], + "score": 0.56, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 221, + 685, + 314, + 703 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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Our most", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 293, + 244, + 305 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 293, + 244, + 305 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "general result is stated as follows:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 14.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 309, + 505, + 354 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 308, + 506, + 322 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 308, + 175, + 322 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Lemma 3.1. Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 176, + 309, + 184, + 319 + ], + "score": 0.47, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 184, + 308, + 371, + 322 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be a compact set. Define the set of distributions", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 372, + 309, + 485, + 321 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\mathcal { Q } = \\{ p : s u p p o r t o f p i s \\mathcal { S } \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 486, + 308, + 506, + 322 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Let", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 319, + 506, + 333 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 321, + 157, + 331 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\mathcal { F } : \\mathcal { Q } \\mapsto \\mathcal { Q }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 319, + 310, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be a continuous function and such that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 310, + 321, + 383, + 333 + ], + "score": 0.95, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathcal { F } ( p ) ) \\geq \\mathcal { H } ( p )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 383, + 319, + 489, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with equality if and only if", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 489, + 322, + 495, + 331 + ], + "score": 0.36, + "content": "p", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 495, + 319, + 506, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 331, + 505, + 345 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 331, + 261, + 345 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the uniform probability distribution on", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 261, + 332, + 268, + 341 + ], + "score": 0.51, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 269, + 331, + 272, + 345 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 331, + 286, + 342 + ], + "score": 0.57, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 331, + 434, + 345 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Define the sequence of distributions", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 434, + 331, + 505, + 343 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "P = ( p _ { 1 } , p _ { 2 } , . . . )", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 381, + 355 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 188, + 355 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by starting with any", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 188, + 343, + 220, + 354 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "p _ { 1 } \\in \\mathcal { Q }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 220, + 342, + 318, + 355 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and recursively defining", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 319, + 342, + 376, + 354 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "p _ { t + 1 } = \\mathcal { F } ( p _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 376, + 342, + 381, + 355 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 18.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 358, + 241, + 370 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 356, + 238, + 374 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 356, + 162, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The sequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 163, + 360, + 171, + 369 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "P", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 172, + 356, + 225, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converges to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 225, + 360, + 238, + 370 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 382, + 237, + 394 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 382, + 238, + 395 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 382, + 238, + 395 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. See Appendix Section E.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 405, + 505, + 485 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 404, + 506, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 404, + 294, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We will apply Lemma 3.1 to be the map from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 295, + 408, + 325, + 417 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 325, + 404, + 337, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 338, + 408, + 376, + 418 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t + 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 376, + 404, + 430, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to show that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 430, + 408, + 460, + 417 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 461, + 404, + 506, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converges", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 415, + 505, + 429 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 415, + 117, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 117, + 416, + 131, + 428 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 415, + 505, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". If we assume that the goal-conditioned policy and generative model learning procedure are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 425, + 506, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 425, + 245, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "well behaved ( i.e., the maps from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 245, + 427, + 274, + 440 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 275, + 425, + 285, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 429, + 307, + 440 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 308, + 425, + 348, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 429, + 379, + 439 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 379, + 425, + 390, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 391, + 429, + 414, + 440 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 414, + 425, + 506, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are continuous ), then", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 438, + 506, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 438, + 304, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to apply Lemma 3.1, we only need to show that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 304, + 439, + 400, + 452 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } } ) \\geq \\mathcal { H } ( p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 401, + 438, + 506, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with equality if and only", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 449, + 506, + 465 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 449, + 115, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "if", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 451, + 164, + 463 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } = U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 164, + 449, + 279, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". For the simple case when", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 452, + 328, + 462 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } } = p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 328, + 449, + 506, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "identically at each iteration, we prove the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 462, + 506, + 476 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 462, + 294, + 476 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "convergence of Skew-Fit true for any value of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 295, + 463, + 343, + 474 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\alpha \\in [ - 1 , 0 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 462, + 506, + 476 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Appendix A.3. However, in practice,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 473, + 506, + 486 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 475, + 121, + 486 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 121, + 473, + 199, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "only approximates", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 199, + 475, + 221, + 486 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 221, + 473, + 506, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". To address this more realistic situation, we prove the following result:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 490, + 413, + 504 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 488, + 415, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 488, + 253, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Lemma 3.2. Given two distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 493, + 275, + 504 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p _ { e m p _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 275, + 488, + 294, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 294, + 492, + 308, + 504 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 308, + 488, + 336, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 336, + 490, + 394, + 504 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { e m p _ { t } } \\ll { p _ { \\phi _ { t } } } ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 394, + 488, + 415, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 218, + 511, + 392, + 527 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 511, + 392, + 527 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 511, + 392, + 527 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\mathrm { C o v } _ { \\mathbf { S } \\sim p _ { e m p _ { t } } } \\left[ \\log p _ { e m p _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } ) , \\log p _ { \\phi _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } ) \\right] > 0 ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "71903885246e0c1780b8e55d627bf0332a1309eaa15d5db113df5b31434bdeed.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 31, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 511, + 392, + 527 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 31 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 534, + 506, + 558 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 534, + 507, + 549 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 534, + 198, + 549 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "define the distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 537, + 228, + 547 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "p _ { s k e w e d _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 228, + 534, + 291, + 549 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as in Equation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 291, + 536, + 298, + 545 + ], + "score": 0.31, + "content": "^ { 4 . }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 534, + 318, + 549 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 318, + 535, + 347, + 547 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "{ \\mathcal { H } } _ { \\alpha } ( \\alpha )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 534, + 420, + 549 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be the entropy of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 420, + 536, + 450, + 547 + ], + "score": 0.71, + "content": "p _ { s k e w e d _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 450, + 534, + 495, + 549 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for a fixed", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 496, + 537, + 503, + 545 + ], + "score": 0.36, + "content": "\\alpha", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 503, + 534, + 507, + 549 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 544, + 355, + 560 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 544, + 219, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Then there exists a constant", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 547, + 244, + 556 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "a < 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 244, + 544, + 311, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "such that for all", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 311, + 547, + 351, + 558 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\alpha \\in [ a , 0 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 352, + 544, + 355, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 32.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 234, + 565, + 376, + 580 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 565, + 376, + 580 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 565, + 376, + 580 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( p _ { s k e w e d _ { t } } ) = \\mathcal { H } _ { \\alpha } ( \\alpha ) > \\mathcal { H } ( p _ { e m p _ { t } } ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "7ab99df7c7689bd491a8ea21b309bacd3f171fb6d9d9153dfe3b73eb39e5e9d2.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 34, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 565, + 376, + 580 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 34 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 589, + 237, + 601 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 589, + 238, + 602 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 589, + 238, + 602 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. See Appendix Section E.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 612, + 505, + 679 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 613, + 505, + 626 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 613, + 221, + 626 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Thus, our generative model", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 221, + 615, + 235, + 625 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 235, + 613, + 505, + 626 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "does not need to exactly fit the empirical distribution. We merely", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 624, + 505, + 638 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 624, + 222, + 638 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "need for the log densities of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 626, + 237, + 636 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 237, + 624, + 255, + 638 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 256, + 626, + 277, + 637 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 278, + 624, + 505, + 638 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to be correlated, which we expect to happen frequently", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 634, + 506, + 649 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 634, + 299, + 649 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with an accurate goal-conditioned policy, since", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 300, + 636, + 322, + 648 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 322, + 634, + 506, + 649 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the set of states seen when trying to reach", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 645, + 505, + 660 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 645, + 150, + 660 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goals from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 151, + 647, + 165, + 658 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 645, + 342, + 660 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". In this case, if we choose negative values of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 648, + 350, + 656 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\alpha", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 351, + 645, + 505, + 660 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that are small enough, then the entropy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 656, + 505, + 671 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 656, + 117, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 658, + 147, + 669 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 148, + 656, + 257, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "will be higher than that of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 658, + 279, + 669 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 279, + 656, + 394, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Empirically, we found that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 394, + 659, + 402, + 667 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "\\alpha", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 656, + 471, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "values as low as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 471, + 657, + 505, + 667 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\alpha = - 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 669, + 172, + 679 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 669, + 172, + 679 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performed well.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + } + ], + "index": 38.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 685, + 505, + 708 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 683, + 506, + 699 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 683, + 318, + 699 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In summary, we see that under certain assumptions,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 319, + 687, + 349, + 697 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 349, + 683, + 404, + 699 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converges to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 405, + 685, + 418, + 696 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 419, + 683, + 506, + 699 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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Let", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 319, + 506, + 333 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 321, + 157, + 331 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\mathcal { F } : \\mathcal { Q } \\mapsto \\mathcal { Q }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 319, + 310, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be a continuous function and such that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 310, + 321, + 383, + 333 + ], + "score": 0.95, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathcal { F } ( p ) ) \\geq \\mathcal { H } ( p )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 383, + 319, + 489, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with equality if and only if", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 489, + 322, + 495, + 331 + ], + "score": 0.36, + "content": "p", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 495, + 319, + 506, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 331, + 505, + 345 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 331, + 261, + 345 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the uniform probability distribution on", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 261, + 332, + 268, + 341 + ], + "score": 0.51, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 269, + 331, + 272, + 345 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 331, + 286, + 342 + ], + "score": 0.57, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 331, + 434, + 345 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Define the sequence of distributions", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 434, + 331, + 505, + 343 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "P = ( p _ { 1 } , p _ { 2 } , . . . )", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 381, + 355 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 188, + 355 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by starting with any", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 188, + 343, + 220, + 354 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "p _ { 1 } \\in \\mathcal { Q }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 220, + 342, + 318, + 355 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and recursively defining", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 319, + 342, + 376, + 354 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "p _ { t + 1 } = \\mathcal { F } ( p _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 376, + 342, + 381, + 355 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 18.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 308, + 506, + 355 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 358, + 241, + 370 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 356, + 238, + 374 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 356, + 162, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The sequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 163, + 360, + 171, + 369 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "P", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 172, + 356, + 225, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converges to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 225, + 360, + 238, + 370 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 21, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 356, + 238, + 374 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 382, + 237, + 394 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 382, + 238, + 395 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 382, + 238, + 395 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. See Appendix Section E.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 22, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 382, + 238, + 395 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 405, + 505, + 485 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 404, + 506, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 404, + 294, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We will apply Lemma 3.1 to be the map from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 295, + 408, + 325, + 417 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 325, + 404, + 337, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 338, + 408, + 376, + 418 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t + 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 376, + 404, + 430, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to show that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 430, + 408, + 460, + 417 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 461, + 404, + 506, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converges", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 415, + 505, + 429 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 415, + 117, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 117, + 416, + 131, + 428 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 415, + 505, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". If we assume that the goal-conditioned policy and generative model learning procedure are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 425, + 506, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 425, + 245, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "well behaved ( i.e., the maps from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 245, + 427, + 274, + 440 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 275, + 425, + 285, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 429, + 307, + 440 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 308, + 425, + 348, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 429, + 379, + 439 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 379, + 425, + 390, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 391, + 429, + 414, + 440 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 414, + 425, + 506, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are continuous ), then", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 438, + 506, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 438, + 304, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to apply Lemma 3.1, we only need to show that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 304, + 439, + 400, + 452 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } } ) \\geq \\mathcal { H } ( p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 401, + 438, + 506, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with equality if and only", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 449, + 506, + 465 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 449, + 115, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "if", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 451, + 164, + 463 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } } = U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 164, + 449, + 279, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". For the simple case when", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 452, + 328, + 462 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } } = p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 328, + 449, + 506, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "identically at each iteration, we prove the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 462, + 506, + 476 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 462, + 294, + 476 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "convergence of Skew-Fit true for any value of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 295, + 463, + 343, + 474 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\alpha \\in [ - 1 , 0 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 462, + 506, + 476 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Appendix A.3. However, in practice,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 473, + 506, + 486 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 475, + 121, + 486 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 121, + 473, + 199, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "only approximates", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 199, + 475, + 221, + 486 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 221, + 473, + 506, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". To address this more realistic situation, we prove the following result:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 26, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 404, + 506, + 486 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 490, + 413, + 504 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 488, + 415, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 488, + 253, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Lemma 3.2. Given two distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 493, + 275, + 504 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p _ { e m p _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 275, + 488, + 294, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 294, + 492, + 308, + 504 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 308, + 488, + 336, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 336, + 490, + 394, + 504 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { e m p _ { t } } \\ll { p _ { \\phi _ { t } } } ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 394, + 488, + 415, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + } + ], + "index": 30, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 488, + 415, + 507 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 218, + 511, + 392, + 527 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 511, + 392, + 527 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 511, + 392, + 527 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\mathrm { C o v } _ { \\mathbf { S } \\sim p _ { e m p _ { t } } } \\left[ \\log p _ { e m p _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } ) , \\log p _ { \\phi _ { t } } ( \\mathbf { S } ) \\right] > 0 ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "71903885246e0c1780b8e55d627bf0332a1309eaa15d5db113df5b31434bdeed.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 31, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 511, + 392, + 527 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 31 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 534, + 506, + 558 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 534, + 507, + 549 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 534, + 198, + 549 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "define the distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 537, + 228, + 547 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "p _ { s k e w e d _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 228, + 534, + 291, + 549 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as in Equation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 291, + 536, + 298, + 545 + ], + "score": 0.31, + "content": "^ { 4 . }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 534, + 318, + 549 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 318, + 535, + 347, + 547 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "{ \\mathcal { H } } _ { \\alpha } ( \\alpha )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 534, + 420, + 549 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be the entropy of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 420, + 536, + 450, + 547 + ], + "score": 0.71, + "content": "p _ { s k e w e d _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 450, + 534, + 495, + 549 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for a fixed", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 496, + 537, + 503, + 545 + ], + "score": 0.36, + "content": "\\alpha", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 503, + 534, + 507, + 549 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 544, + 355, + 560 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 544, + 219, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Then there exists a constant", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 547, + 244, + 556 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "a < 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 244, + 544, + 311, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "such that for all", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 311, + 547, + 351, + 558 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\alpha \\in [ a , 0 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 352, + 544, + 355, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 32.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 534, + 507, + 560 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 234, + 565, + 376, + 580 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 565, + 376, + 580 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 565, + 376, + 580 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( p _ { s k e w e d _ { t } } ) = \\mathcal { H } _ { \\alpha } ( \\alpha ) > \\mathcal { H } ( p _ { e m p _ { t } } ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "7ab99df7c7689bd491a8ea21b309bacd3f171fb6d9d9153dfe3b73eb39e5e9d2.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 34, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 565, + 376, + 580 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 34 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 589, + 237, + 601 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 589, + 238, + 602 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 589, + 238, + 602 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. See Appendix Section E.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 35, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 589, + 238, + 602 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 612, + 505, + 679 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 613, + 505, + 626 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 613, + 221, + 626 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Thus, our generative model", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 221, + 615, + 235, + 625 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 235, + 613, + 505, + 626 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "does not need to exactly fit the empirical distribution. We merely", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 624, + 505, + 638 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 624, + 222, + 638 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "need for the log densities of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 626, + 237, + 636 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 237, + 624, + 255, + 638 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 256, + 626, + 277, + 637 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 278, + 624, + 505, + 638 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to be correlated, which we expect to happen frequently", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 634, + 506, + 649 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 634, + 299, + 649 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with an accurate goal-conditioned policy, since", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 300, + 636, + 322, + 648 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 322, + 634, + 506, + 649 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the set of states seen when trying to reach", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 645, + 505, + 660 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 645, + 150, + 660 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goals from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 151, + 647, + 165, + 658 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 645, + 342, + 660 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". In this case, if we choose negative values of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 648, + 350, + 656 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\alpha", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 351, + 645, + 505, + 660 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that are small enough, then the entropy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 656, + 505, + 671 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 656, + 117, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 658, + 147, + 669 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 148, + 656, + 257, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "will be higher than that of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 658, + 279, + 669 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { e m p } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 279, + 656, + 394, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Empirically, we found that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 394, + 659, + 402, + 667 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "\\alpha", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 656, + 471, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "values as low as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 471, + 657, + 505, + 667 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\alpha = - 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 669, + 172, + 679 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 669, + 172, + 679 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performed well.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + } + ], + "index": 38.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 613, + 506, + 679 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 685, + 505, + 708 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 683, + 506, + 699 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 683, + 318, + 699 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In summary, we see that under certain assumptions,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 319, + 687, + 349, + 697 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 349, + 683, + 404, + 699 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converges to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 405, + 685, + 418, + 696 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 419, + 683, + 506, + 699 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Since we train each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 696, + 447, + 709 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 696, + 177, + 709 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "generative model", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 177, + 697, + 200, + 708 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t + 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 696, + 259, + 709 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by fitting it to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 698, + 289, + 708 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\mathrm { s k e w e d } _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 290, + 696, + 335, + 709 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we expect", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 336, + 698, + 351, + 708 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 351, + 696, + 429, + 709 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to also converge to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 430, + 696, + 443, + 707 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 443, + 696, + 447, + 709 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + } + ], + "index": 42.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 683, + 506, + 709 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 81, + 427, + 94 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 428, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 428, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4 TRAINING GOAL-CONDITIONED POLICIES WITH SKEW-FIT", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 106, + 504, + 151 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 505, + 119 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 505, + 119 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Thus far, we have presented and derived Skew-Fit assuming that we have access to a goal-reaching", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 118, + 506, + 131 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 118, + 370, + 131 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policy, allowing us to separately analyze how we can maximize", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 118, + 397, + 130 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 397, + 118, + 506, + 131 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". However, in practice we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 128, + 506, + 142 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 128, + 506, + 142 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "do not have access to such a policy, and in this section we discuss how we concurrently train a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 139, + 193, + 154 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 139, + 193, + 154 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goal-reaching policy.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 2.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 156, + 505, + 212 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 156, + 505, + 170 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 156, + 160, + 170 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Maximizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 160, + 156, + 194, + 169 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "I ( \\mathbf { S } ; \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 194, + 156, + 505, + 170 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be done by simultaneously performing Skew-Fit and training a goal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 167, + 505, + 181 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 167, + 237, + 181 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "conditioned policy to minimize", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 238, + 167, + 280, + 180 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 281, + 167, + 396, + 181 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", or, equivalently, maximize", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 397, + 167, + 447, + 180 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "- \\mathcal { H } ( \\textbf G | \\textbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 447, + 167, + 505, + 181 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Maximizing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 178, + 506, + 191 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 178, + 160, + 190 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "- \\mathcal { H } ( \\textbf { G } | \\textbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 160, + 178, + 295, + 191 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "requires computing the density", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 295, + 178, + 352, + 190 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\log p ( \\textbf { G } | \\textbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 352, + 178, + 506, + 191 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", which may be difficult to compute", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 188, + 506, + 203 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 188, + 375, + 203 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "without strong modeling assumptions. 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Thus, to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 249, + 401, + 262 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 249, + 146, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "minimize", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 250, + 187, + 262 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 188, + 249, + 401, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we train a policy to maximize the following reward:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 11.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 254, + 267, + 356, + 281 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 267, + 356, + 281 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 267, + 356, + 281 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "r ( \\mathbf { S } , \\mathbf { G } ) = \\log q ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "45bef4d1dc9d0e2de3016584949ffbd1533f1cfafa73dbc5e2095f942635db7d.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 13, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 267, + 356, + 281 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 13 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 293, + 506, + 447 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 293, + 506, + 306 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 293, + 506, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For the RL algorithm, we use reinforcement learning with imagined goals (RIG) (Nair et al., 2018),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 304, + 506, + 317 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 304, + 506, + 317 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "though in principle any goal-conditioned method could be used. RIG is an efficient off-policy goal-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 315, + 506, + 328 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 315, + 506, + 328 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "conditioned method that solves the vision-based RL problem in a learned latent space. In particular,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 506, + 338 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 147, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "RIG fits a", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 326, + 154, + 337 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\beta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 155, + 325, + 506, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-VAE and uses it to encode all observations and goals into a latent space, which it uses as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 337, + 506, + 350 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 337, + 280, + 350 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the state representation. RIG also uses the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 338, + 288, + 348 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\beta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 288, + 337, + 397, + 350 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-VAE to compute rewards,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 397, + 337, + 448, + 349 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\log q ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 449, + 337, + 506, + 350 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Unlike RIG,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 347, + 506, + 362 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 347, + 506, + 362 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we use the goal distribution from Skew-Fit to sample goals, both for exploration and for relabeling", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 506, + 372 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 506, + 372 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goals during training (Andrychowicz et al., 2017). Since RIG already trains a generative model over", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 370, + 506, + 383 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 370, + 189, + 383 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "states, we reuse this", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 190, + 370, + 197, + 381 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\beta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 197, + 370, + 322, + 383 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-VAE for the generative model", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 322, + 371, + 334, + 382 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 334, + 370, + 506, + 383 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of Skew-Fit. To make the most use of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 380, + 506, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 380, + 128, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "data,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 382, + 140, + 393 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 380, + 506, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is trained on all visited state rather than only the terminal states, which we found to work", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 390, + 506, + 405 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 390, + 434, + 405 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "well in practice. In other words, our method uses the likelihood estimates from the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 434, + 392, + 442, + 403 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\beta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 442, + 390, + 506, + 405 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-VAE to choose", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 506, + 416 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 506, + 416 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the probability of sampling each state in Equation 3. To prevent these probabilities from collapsing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 414, + 505, + 426 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 414, + 263, + 426 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to zero, we model the posterior of the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 414, + 271, + 425 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\beta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 271, + 414, + 505, + 426 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-VAE as a multivariate Gaussian distribution with a fixed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 425, + 505, + 437 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 425, + 505, + 437 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "variance and only learn the mean. We include a detailed summary of RIG and description our how", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 436, + 303, + 448 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 436, + 303, + 448 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we combine Skew-Fit and RIG in Appendix C.1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + } + ], + "index": 20.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 463, + 211, + 476 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 462, + 213, + 478 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 462, + 213, + 478 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5 RELATED WORK", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 489, + 506, + 589 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 490, + 505, + 501 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 490, + 505, + 501 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Many prior methods for training goal-conditioned policies assume that a goal distribution is available", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 501, + 506, + 512 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 501, + 506, + 512 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to sample from during exploration (Kaelbling, 1993; Schaul et al., 2015; Andrychowicz et al., 2017;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 505, + 524 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 505, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Pong et al., 2018). Other methods use data collected from a randomly initialized policy or heuristics", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 522, + 506, + 535 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 522, + 506, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "based on data collected online to design a non-parametric (Colas et al., 2018b; Warde-Farley et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 533, + 506, + 546 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 533, + 506, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2018; Florensa et al., 2018a; Zhao & Tresp, 2019) or parametric (Péré et al., 2018; Nair et al., 2018)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 543, + 506, + 557 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 543, + 506, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goal distribution. We remark that Warde-Farley et al. (2018) also motivate their work in terms of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 506, + 568 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 224, + 568 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "minimizing a lower bound for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 225, + 555, + 265, + 567 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 265, + 555, + 506, + 568 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Our work is complementary to these goal-reaching methods:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 565, + 506, + 580 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 565, + 506, + 580 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "rather than focusing on how to train goal-reaching policies, we propose a principled method for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 577, + 361, + 589 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 577, + 331, + 589 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "maximizing the entropy of a goal sampling distribution,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 331, + 577, + 357, + 589 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 358, + 577, + 361, + 589 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 594, + 505, + 693 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 594, + 505, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 594, + 505, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our method learns without any task rewards, directly acquiring a policy that can be reused to reach", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 506, + 617 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 506, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "user-specified goals. This stands in contrast to exploration methods that give bonus rewards based on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 628 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state visitation frequency (Bellemare et al., 2016; Ostrovski et al., 2017; Tang et al., 2017; Savinov", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 627, + 506, + 639 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 627, + 506, + 639 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2018; Chentanez et al., 2005; Lopes et al., 2012; Stadie et al., 2016; Pathak et al., 2017;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 637, + 506, + 651 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 637, + 506, + 651 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Burda et al., 2018; 2019; Mohamed & Rezende, 2015; Tang et al., 2017; Fu et al., 2017). While", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 648, + 505, + 662 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 648, + 505, + 662 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "these methods can also be used without a task reward, they provide no mechanism for distilling the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 660, + 505, + 673 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 660, + 505, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "knowledge gained from visiting diverse states into flexible policies that can be applied to accomplish", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 671, + 506, + 684 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 671, + 506, + 684 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "new goals at test-time: their policies visit novel states, and they quickly forget about them as other", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 682, + 214, + 694 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 682, + 214, + 694 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "states become more novel.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 699, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 698, + 505, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 698, + 505, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Other prior methods extract reusable skills in the form of latent-variable-conditioned policies, where", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 721 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 721 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "latent variables can be interpreted as options (Sutton et al., 1999) or abstract skills (Hausman et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 719, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 719, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2018; Gupta et al., 2018b; Eysenbach et al., 2019; Gupta et al., 2018a; Florensa et al., 2017). The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + } + ], + "index": 48 + } + ], + "page_idx": 5, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 308, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2020", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 752, + 309, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 310, + 762 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 310, + 762 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 81, + 427, + 94 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 428, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 428, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4 TRAINING GOAL-CONDITIONED POLICIES WITH SKEW-FIT", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 106, + 504, + 151 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 505, + 119 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 505, + 119 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Thus far, we have presented and derived Skew-Fit assuming that we have access to a goal-reaching", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 118, + 506, + 131 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 118, + 370, + 131 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policy, allowing us to separately analyze how we can maximize", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 118, + 397, + 130 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 397, + 118, + 506, + 131 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". However, in practice we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 128, + 506, + 142 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 128, + 506, + 142 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "do not have access to such a policy, and in this section we discuss how we concurrently train a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 139, + 193, + 154 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 139, + 193, + 154 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goal-reaching policy.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 2.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 105, + 506, + 154 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 156, + 505, + 212 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 156, + 505, + 170 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 156, + 160, + 170 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Maximizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 160, + 156, + 194, + 169 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "I ( \\mathbf { S } ; \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 194, + 156, + 505, + 170 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be done by simultaneously performing Skew-Fit and training a goal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 167, + 505, + 181 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 167, + 237, + 181 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "conditioned policy to minimize", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 238, + 167, + 280, + 180 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 281, + 167, + 396, + 181 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", or, equivalently, maximize", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 397, + 167, + 447, + 180 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "- \\mathcal { H } ( \\textbf G | \\textbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 447, + 167, + 505, + 181 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Maximizing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 178, + 506, + 191 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 178, + 160, + 190 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "- \\mathcal { H } ( \\textbf { G } | \\textbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 160, + 178, + 295, + 191 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "requires computing the density", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 295, + 178, + 352, + 190 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\log p ( \\textbf { G } | \\textbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 352, + 178, + 506, + 191 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", which may be difficult to compute", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 188, + 506, + 203 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 188, + 375, + 203 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "without strong modeling assumptions. However, for any distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 376, + 191, + 382, + 201 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "q", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 382, + 188, + 506, + 203 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the following lower bound for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 200, + 183, + 213 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 200, + 155, + 213 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "- \\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 155, + 200, + 183, + 213 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "holds:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 7, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 156, + 506, + 213 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 123, + 217, + 485, + 233 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 123, + 217, + 485, + 233 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 123, + 217, + 485, + 233 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { - \\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } ) = \\mathbb { E } _ { ( \\mathbf { G } , \\mathbf { S } ) \\sim p _ { \\phi _ { t } } , \\pi } \\left[ \\log q ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } ) \\right] + D _ { \\mathrm { K L } } ( p \\mid q ) \\ge \\mathbb { E } _ { ( \\mathbf { G } , \\mathbf { S } ) \\sim p _ { \\phi _ { t } } , \\pi } \\left[ \\log q ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } ) \\right] , } \\end{array}", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "21e0bcf16998fc3bd6bbbf06bc88010a1dc8381899d1046a216b7ec2b8638999.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 10, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 123, + 217, + 485, + 233 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 10 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 239, + 505, + 261 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 237, + 505, + 252 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 237, + 132, + 252 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 239, + 154, + 250 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "D _ { \\mathrm { K L } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 154, + 237, + 505, + 252 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denotes Kullback–Leibler divergence as discussed by Barber & Agakov (2004). Thus, to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 249, + 401, + 262 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 249, + 146, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "minimize", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 250, + 187, + 262 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 188, + 249, + 401, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we train a policy to maximize the following reward:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 11.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 237, + 505, + 262 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 254, + 267, + 356, + 281 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 267, + 356, + 281 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 267, + 356, + 281 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "r ( \\mathbf { S } , \\mathbf { G } ) = \\log q ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "45bef4d1dc9d0e2de3016584949ffbd1533f1cfafa73dbc5e2095f942635db7d.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 13, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 267, + 356, + 281 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 13 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 293, + 506, + 447 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 293, + 506, + 306 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 293, + 506, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For the RL algorithm, we use reinforcement learning with imagined goals (RIG) (Nair et al., 2018),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 304, + 506, + 317 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 304, + 506, + 317 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "though in principle any goal-conditioned method could be used. RIG is an efficient off-policy goal-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 315, + 506, + 328 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 315, + 506, + 328 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "conditioned method that solves the vision-based RL problem in a learned latent space. In particular,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 506, + 338 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 147, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "RIG fits a", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 326, + 154, + 337 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\beta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 155, + 325, + 506, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-VAE and uses it to encode all observations and goals into a latent space, which it uses as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 337, + 506, + 350 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 337, + 280, + 350 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the state representation. RIG also uses the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 338, + 288, + 348 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\beta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 288, + 337, + 397, + 350 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-VAE to compute rewards,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 397, + 337, + 448, + 349 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\log q ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 449, + 337, + 506, + 350 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Unlike RIG,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 347, + 506, + 362 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 347, + 506, + 362 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we use the goal distribution from Skew-Fit to sample goals, both for exploration and for relabeling", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 506, + 372 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 506, + 372 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goals during training (Andrychowicz et al., 2017). Since RIG already trains a generative model over", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 370, + 506, + 383 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 370, + 189, + 383 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "states, we reuse this", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 190, + 370, + 197, + 381 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\beta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 197, + 370, + 322, + 383 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-VAE for the generative model", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 322, + 371, + 334, + 382 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 334, + 370, + 506, + 383 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of Skew-Fit. To make the most use of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 380, + 506, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 380, + 128, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "data,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 382, + 140, + 393 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 380, + 506, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is trained on all visited state rather than only the terminal states, which we found to work", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 390, + 506, + 405 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 390, + 434, + 405 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "well in practice. In other words, our method uses the likelihood estimates from the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 434, + 392, + 442, + 403 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\beta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 442, + 390, + 506, + 405 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-VAE to choose", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 506, + 416 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 506, + 416 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the probability of sampling each state in Equation 3. To prevent these probabilities from collapsing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 414, + 505, + 426 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 414, + 263, + 426 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to zero, we model the posterior of the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 414, + 271, + 425 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\beta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 271, + 414, + 505, + 426 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-VAE as a multivariate Gaussian distribution with a fixed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 425, + 505, + 437 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 425, + 505, + 437 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "variance and only learn the mean. We include a detailed summary of RIG and description our how", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 436, + 303, + 448 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 436, + 303, + 448 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we combine Skew-Fit and RIG in Appendix C.1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + } + ], + "index": 20.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 293, + 506, + 448 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 463, + 211, + 476 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 462, + 213, + 478 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 462, + 213, + 478 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5 RELATED WORK", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 489, + 506, + 589 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 490, + 505, + 501 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 490, + 505, + 501 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Many prior methods for training goal-conditioned policies assume that a goal distribution is available", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 501, + 506, + 512 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 501, + 506, + 512 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to sample from during exploration (Kaelbling, 1993; Schaul et al., 2015; Andrychowicz et al., 2017;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 505, + 524 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 505, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Pong et al., 2018). Other methods use data collected from a randomly initialized policy or heuristics", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 522, + 506, + 535 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 522, + 506, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "based on data collected online to design a non-parametric (Colas et al., 2018b; Warde-Farley et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 533, + 506, + 546 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 533, + 506, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2018; Florensa et al., 2018a; Zhao & Tresp, 2019) or parametric (Péré et al., 2018; Nair et al., 2018)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 543, + 506, + 557 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 543, + 506, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goal distribution. We remark that Warde-Farley et al. (2018) also motivate their work in terms of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 506, + 568 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 224, + 568 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "minimizing a lower bound for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 225, + 555, + 265, + 567 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 265, + 555, + 506, + 568 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Our work is complementary to these goal-reaching methods:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 565, + 506, + 580 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 565, + 506, + 580 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "rather than focusing on how to train goal-reaching policies, we propose a principled method for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 577, + 361, + 589 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 577, + 331, + 589 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "maximizing the entropy of a goal sampling distribution,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 331, + 577, + 357, + 589 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 358, + 577, + 361, + 589 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "index": 33, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 490, + 506, + 589 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 594, + 505, + 693 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 594, + 505, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 594, + 505, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our method learns without any task rewards, directly acquiring a policy that can be reused to reach", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 506, + 617 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 506, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "user-specified goals. This stands in contrast to exploration methods that give bonus rewards based on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 628 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state visitation frequency (Bellemare et al., 2016; Ostrovski et al., 2017; Tang et al., 2017; Savinov", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 627, + 506, + 639 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 627, + 506, + 639 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2018; Chentanez et al., 2005; Lopes et al., 2012; Stadie et al., 2016; Pathak et al., 2017;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 637, + 506, + 651 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 637, + 506, + 651 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Burda et al., 2018; 2019; Mohamed & Rezende, 2015; Tang et al., 2017; Fu et al., 2017). While", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 648, + 505, + 662 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 648, + 505, + 662 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "these methods can also be used without a task reward, they provide no mechanism for distilling the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 660, + 505, + 673 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 660, + 505, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "knowledge gained from visiting diverse states into flexible policies that can be applied to accomplish", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 671, + 506, + 684 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 671, + 506, + 684 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "new goals at test-time: their policies visit novel states, and they quickly forget about them as other", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 682, + 214, + 694 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 682, + 214, + 694 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "states become more novel.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + } + ], + "index": 42, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 594, + 506, + 694 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 699, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 698, + 505, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 698, + 505, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Other prior methods extract reusable skills in the form of latent-variable-conditioned policies, where", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 721 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 721 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "latent variables can be interpreted as options (Sutton et al., 1999) or abstract skills (Hausman et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 719, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 719, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2018; Gupta et al., 2018b; Eysenbach et al., 2019; Gupta et al., 2018a; Florensa et al., 2017). The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 504, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 504, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "resulting skills may be diverse, but they have no grounded interpretation, while our method can be", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 437, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 437, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used immediately after unsupervised training to reach diverse user-specified goals.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 1 + } + ], + "index": 48, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 698, + 505, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 504, + 105 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 504, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 504, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "resulting skills may be diverse, but they have no grounded interpretation, while our method can be", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 437, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 437, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used immediately after unsupervised training to reach diverse user-specified goals.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + } + ], + "index": 0.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 110, + 505, + 199 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 110, + 505, + 123 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 110, + 505, + 123 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Some prior methods propose to choose goals based on heuristics such as learning progress (Baranes", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 121, + 506, + 134 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 121, + 506, + 134 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "& Oudeyer, 2012; Veeriah et al., 2018; Colas et al., 2018a), how off-policy the goal is (Nachum et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 145 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 145 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2018), level of difficulty (Florensa et al., 2018b) or likelihood ranking (Zhao & Tresp, 2019). In", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 144, + 506, + 155 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 144, + 506, + 155 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "contrast, our approach provides a principled framework for optimizing a concrete and well-motivated", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 507, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 507, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "exploration objective, and can be shown to maximize this objective under regularity assumptions.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 164, + 507, + 179 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 164, + 507, + 179 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The work of Hazan et al. (2018b) also provably optimizes a well-motivated exploration objective,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 505, + 189 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 505, + 189 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "but is limited to tabular MDPs, while Skew-Fit is able to handle high dimensional settings such as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 188, + 238, + 199 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 188, + 238, + 199 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "vision-based continuous control.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 5.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 215, + 200, + 228 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 215, + 201, + 230 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 215, + 201, + 230 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6 EXPERIMENTS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 241, + 505, + 285 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 506, + 254 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 506, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our experiments study the following questions: (1) Does Skew-Fit empirically result in a goal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 252, + 506, + 265 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 252, + 506, + 265 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "distribution with increasing entropy? (2) In image-based domains, how does Skew-Fit compare to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 263, + 507, + 275 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 263, + 507, + 275 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prior work on choosing goals for goal-conditioned RL? (3) Can Skew-Fit be applied to a real-world,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 275, + 206, + 285 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 275, + 206, + 285 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "vision-based robot task?", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 12.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 298, + 505, + 398 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 297, + 505, + 311 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 297, + 505, + 311 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Does Skew-Fit Maximize Entropy? To see the effects of Skew-Fit on goal distribution entropy in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 309, + 506, + 323 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 309, + 506, + 323 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "isolation of learning a goal-reaching policy, we begin by studying an idealized example where the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 320, + 506, + 334 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 320, + 506, + 334 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policy is a near-perfect goal-reaching policy. The MDP is defined on a 2-by-2 unit square-shaped", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 506, + 344 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 506, + 344 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "corridor (see Figure 3). At the beginning of an episode, the agent begins in the bottom-left corner", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 341, + 506, + 356 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 341, + 294, + 356 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and samples a goal from the goal distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 294, + 344, + 309, + 354 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 309, + 341, + 506, + 356 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". To simulate the stochasticity of the policy and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 353, + 505, + 366 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 353, + 505, + 366 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment, we add a Gaussian noise with standard deviation of 0.05 to this goal. The policy reaches", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 365, + 505, + 377 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 365, + 505, + 377 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the state that is closest to this noisy goal and inside the corridor, giving us a state S to add to our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 375, + 505, + 388 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 375, + 505, + 388 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "empirical distribution. We compare Skew-Fit to sampling uniformly from the replay buffer (labeled", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 386, + 507, + 401 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 386, + 153, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MLE). The", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 387, + 160, + 398 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "\\beta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 160, + 386, + 301, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-VAE hyperparameters used to train", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 388, + 316, + 399 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 316, + 386, + 507, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are given in Appendix C.5. As seen in Figure 3,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 161, + 404, + 452, + 494 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 161, + 404, + 452, + 494 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 161, + 404, + 452, + 494 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 161, + 404, + 452, + 494 + ], + "score": 0.969, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "a7efccfb2d480e2ee3ded9740d1ac703f88743c90286a6da7fb0d3f4d67fc854.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 25, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 161, + 404, + 452, + 434.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 161, + 434.0, + 452, + 464.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 161, + 464.0, + 452, + 494.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 26 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 507, + 505, + 550 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 507, + 505, + 519 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 507, + 505, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 3: (Left) The set of final states visited by our agent and MLE over the course of training. In contrast to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 517, + 505, + 530 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 517, + 505, + 530 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MLE, our method quickly approaches a uniform distribution over the set of valid states. (Right) The entropy of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 528, + 505, + 542 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 528, + 505, + 542 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the sample data distribution, which quickly reaches its maximum for Skew-Fit. The entropy was calculated via", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 540, + 234, + 551 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 540, + 234, + 551 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "discretization onto a 60 by 60 grid.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + } + ], + "index": 28.5 + } + ], + "index": 26.75 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 553, + 505, + 598 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 505, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 505, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "naively using previous experience to set goals results in a policy that primarily sets goal near the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 507, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 507, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "initial state distribution and only relies on the stochasticity of the policy and environment to explore.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 575, + 505, + 588 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 575, + 505, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In contrast, Skew-Fit results in quickly learning a high entropy, near-uniform distribution over the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 586, + 155, + 600 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 586, + 155, + 600 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state space.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 32.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 610, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 610, + 505, + 623 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 610, + 505, + 623 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Vision-Based Continuous Control Tasks We now evaluate Skew-Fit on a variety of continuous", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 623, + 505, + 634 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 623, + 505, + 634 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "control tasks, where the policy must control a robot arm using only image observations, without", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 505, + 645 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 505, + 645 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "access to any ground truth reward signal. We test our method on three different simulated continuous", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 505, + 656 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 505, + 656 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "control tasks released by the authors of RIG (Nair et al., 2018): Visual Door, Visual Pusher, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Visual Pickup. To our knowledge, these are the only goal-conditioned, vision-based continuous", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 506, + 679 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 506, + 679 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "control environments that are publicly available and used in experimental evaluations in prior work,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "making them a good point of comparison. See Figure 4 for visuals and Appendix C for details of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 689, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 689, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "these environments. The policies are trained in a completely unsupervised manner, without access", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 506, + 713 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 506, + 713 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to any prior information about the state-space or any pre-defined goal-sampling distribution. To", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 724 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 724 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "evaluate their performance, we sample goal images from a uniform distribution over valid states and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 506, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 506, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "report the agent’s final distance to the corresponding simulator states (e.g., distance of the object", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "page_idx": 6, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 308, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 25, + 309, + 39 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 25, + 309, + 39 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2020", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 308, + 759 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 750, + 309, + 762 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 750, + 309, + 762 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "7", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 504, + 105 + ], + "lines": [], + "index": 0.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 82, + 504, + 106 + ], + "lines_deleted": true + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 110, + 505, + 199 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 110, + 505, + 123 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 110, + 505, + 123 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Some prior methods propose to choose goals based on heuristics such as learning progress (Baranes", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 121, + 506, + 134 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 121, + 506, + 134 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "& Oudeyer, 2012; Veeriah et al., 2018; Colas et al., 2018a), how off-policy the goal is (Nachum et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 145 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 145 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2018), level of difficulty (Florensa et al., 2018b) or likelihood ranking (Zhao & Tresp, 2019). In", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 144, + 506, + 155 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 144, + 506, + 155 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "contrast, our approach provides a principled framework for optimizing a concrete and well-motivated", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 507, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 507, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "exploration objective, and can be shown to maximize this objective under regularity assumptions.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 164, + 507, + 179 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 164, + 507, + 179 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The work of Hazan et al. (2018b) also provably optimizes a well-motivated exploration objective,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 505, + 189 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 505, + 189 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "but is limited to tabular MDPs, while Skew-Fit is able to handle high dimensional settings such as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 188, + 238, + 199 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 188, + 238, + 199 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "vision-based continuous control.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 5.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 110, + 507, + 199 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 215, + 200, + 228 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 215, + 201, + 230 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 215, + 201, + 230 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6 EXPERIMENTS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 241, + 505, + 285 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 506, + 254 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 506, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our experiments study the following questions: (1) Does Skew-Fit empirically result in a goal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 252, + 506, + 265 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 252, + 506, + 265 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "distribution with increasing entropy? (2) In image-based domains, how does Skew-Fit compare to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 263, + 507, + 275 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 263, + 507, + 275 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prior work on choosing goals for goal-conditioned RL? (3) Can Skew-Fit be applied to a real-world,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 275, + 206, + 285 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 275, + 206, + 285 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "vision-based robot task?", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 12.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 241, + 507, + 285 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 298, + 505, + 398 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 297, + 505, + 311 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 297, + 505, + 311 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Does Skew-Fit Maximize Entropy? To see the effects of Skew-Fit on goal distribution entropy in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 309, + 506, + 323 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 309, + 506, + 323 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "isolation of learning a goal-reaching policy, we begin by studying an idealized example where the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 320, + 506, + 334 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 320, + 506, + 334 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policy is a near-perfect goal-reaching policy. The MDP is defined on a 2-by-2 unit square-shaped", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 506, + 344 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 506, + 344 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "corridor (see Figure 3). At the beginning of an episode, the agent begins in the bottom-left corner", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 341, + 506, + 356 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 341, + 294, + 356 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and samples a goal from the goal distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 294, + 344, + 309, + 354 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 309, + 341, + 506, + 356 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". To simulate the stochasticity of the policy and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 353, + 505, + 366 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 353, + 505, + 366 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment, we add a Gaussian noise with standard deviation of 0.05 to this goal. The policy reaches", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 365, + 505, + 377 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 365, + 505, + 377 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the state that is closest to this noisy goal and inside the corridor, giving us a state S to add to our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 375, + 505, + 388 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 375, + 505, + 388 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "empirical distribution. We compare Skew-Fit to sampling uniformly from the replay buffer (labeled", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 386, + 507, + 401 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 386, + 153, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MLE). The", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 387, + 160, + 398 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "\\beta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 160, + 386, + 301, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-VAE hyperparameters used to train", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 388, + 316, + 399 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "p _ { \\phi _ { t } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 316, + 386, + 507, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are given in Appendix C.5. As seen in Figure 3,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 505, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 505, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "naively using previous experience to set goals results in a policy that primarily sets goal near the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 507, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 507, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "initial state distribution and only relies on the stochasticity of the policy and environment to explore.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 575, + 505, + 588 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 575, + 505, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In contrast, Skew-Fit results in quickly learning a high entropy, near-uniform distribution over the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 586, + 155, + 600 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 586, + 155, + 600 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state space.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 19, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 297, + 507, + 401 + ] + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 161, + 404, + 452, + 494 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 161, + 404, + 452, + 494 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 161, + 404, + 452, + 494 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 161, + 404, + 452, + 494 + ], + "score": 0.969, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "a7efccfb2d480e2ee3ded9740d1ac703f88743c90286a6da7fb0d3f4d67fc854.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 25, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 161, + 404, + 452, + 434.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 161, + 434.0, + 452, + 464.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 161, + 464.0, + 452, + 494.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 26 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 507, + 505, + 550 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 507, + 505, + 519 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 507, + 505, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 3: (Left) The set of final states visited by our agent and MLE over the course of training. 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We test our method on three different simulated continuous", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 505, + 656 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 505, + 656 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "control tasks released by the authors of RIG (Nair et al., 2018): Visual Door, Visual Pusher, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Visual Pickup. To our knowledge, these are the only goal-conditioned, vision-based continuous", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 506, + 679 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 506, + 679 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "control environments that are publicly available and used in experimental evaluations in prior work,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "making them a good point of comparison. See Figure 4 for visuals and Appendix C for details of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 689, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 689, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "these environments. The policies are trained in a completely unsupervised manner, without access", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 506, + 713 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 506, + 713 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to any prior information about the state-space or any pre-defined goal-sampling distribution. To", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 724 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 724 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "evaluate their performance, we sample goal images from a uniform distribution over valid states and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 506, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 506, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "report the agent’s final distance to the corresponding simulator states (e.g., distance of the object", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 506, + 506, + 518 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 506, + 506, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to the target object location), but the agent never has access to this true uniform distribution nor", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 518, + 505, + 530 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 518, + 505, + 530 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the ground-truth state information during training. While this evaluation method and metric is only", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 528, + 506, + 541 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 528, + 506, + 541 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "practical in simulation, it provides us with a quantitative measure of a policy’s ability to reach a broad", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 280, + 553 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 280, + 553 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "coverage of goals in a vision-based setting.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 40, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 610, + 506, + 734 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 81, + 504, + 152 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 81, + 504, + 152 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 81, + 504, + 152 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 81, + 504, + 152 + ], + "score": 0.963, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "609f4b69c4699ff46c91c0eb13f2ac3b037b7837df7dc55eb94e4d73fcd0a057.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 81, + 504, + 104.66666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 104.66666666666667, + 504, + 128.33333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 128.33333333333334, + 504, + 152.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 161, + 505, + 204 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 160, + 506, + 173 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 160, + 506, + 173 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 4: We evaluate on these continuous control environments. From left to right: Visual Pusher, a simulated", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 172, + 506, + 185 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 172, + 506, + 185 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "pushing task; Visual Door, a door opening task; Visual Pickup, a picking task; and Real World Visual Door,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 182, + 506, + 196 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 182, + 506, + 196 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a real world door opening task. All tasks are solved from images and without any task-specific reward. See", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 194, + 193, + 205 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 194, + 193, + 205 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Appendix D for details.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 4.5 + } + ], + "index": 2.75 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 221, + 503, + 431 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 221, + 503, + 431 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 221, + 503, + 431 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 221, + 503, + 431 + ], + "score": 0.973, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "6804bd20ac047d2e426986cc88b5535a2a71d82eb57336a96817a814247fae7d.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 8, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 221, + 503, + 291.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 291.0, + 503, + 361.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 361.0, + 503, + 431.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 9 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 432, + 505, + 497 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 431, + 505, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 431, + 505, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 5: (Left) Learning curves for simulated continuous control experiments. Lower is better. For each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 441, + 506, + 454 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 441, + 506, + 454 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment and method, we show the mean and standard deviation of 6 seeds and smooth temporally across", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 453, + 505, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 453, + 505, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "25 epochs within each seed. Skew-Fit consistently outperforms RIG and various baselines. See the text for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 464, + 506, + 475 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 464, + 506, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "description of each method. (Right) The first column displays example test goal images for each environment.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 474, + 506, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 474, + 506, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In the next two columns, we display final images reached by Skew-Fit and RIG respectively. Under each image", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 456, + 497 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 456, + 497 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the final distance in state space to provide a notion of the behavior of each method in the plots.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 12.5 + } + ], + "index": 10.25 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 506, + 505, + 551 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 506, + 506, + 518 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 506, + 506, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to the target object location), but the agent never has access to this true uniform distribution nor", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 518, + 505, + 530 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 518, + 505, + 530 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the ground-truth state information during training. While this evaluation method and metric is only", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 528, + 506, + 541 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 528, + 506, + 541 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "practical in simulation, it provides us with a quantitative measure of a policy’s ability to reach a broad", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 280, + 553 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 280, + 553 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "coverage of goals in a vision-based setting.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 17.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 556, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 556, + 505, + 569 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 556, + 505, + 569 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We use these domains to compare Skew-Fit to a number of existing methods on goal-sampling. We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 567, + 506, + 580 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 567, + 506, + 580 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "compare to Warde-Farley et al. (2018), a vision-based method which uses a non-parametric approach", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 578, + 505, + 591 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 578, + 505, + 591 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "based on clustering to sample goals and an image discriminator to compute rewards. We denote this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 588, + 507, + 602 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 588, + 507, + 602 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method as DISCERN. The other methods that we compare to were developed in non-vision, state-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 600, + 505, + 612 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 600, + 505, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "based environments. To ensure a fair comparison across methods, we combine these prior methods", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 611, + 506, + 623 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 611, + 506, + 623 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a policy trained using RIG. First, we compare to RIG without Skew-Fit. We also compared to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 622, + 505, + 635 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 622, + 505, + 635 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "RIG using the relabeling scheme described in the hindsight experience replay (labeled HER). We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 645 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 645 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "compare to curiosity-driven prioritization (Ranked-Based Priority) (Zhao & Tresp, 2019), a variant", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 644, + 506, + 657 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 644, + 506, + 657 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of HER that samples goals for relabeling based on their ranked likelihoods. Florensa et al. (2018b)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "samples goals from a GAN based on the difficulty of reaching the goal. We compare against this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 506, + 679 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 190, + 679 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method by replacing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 667, + 203, + 678 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 203, + 665, + 506, + 679 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with the GAN and label it AutoGoal GAN. We also separately compare to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 675, + 505, + 691 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 675, + 505, + 691 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the goal proposal mechanism proposed by Warde-Farley et al. (2018) and otherwise train the policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 265, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with RIG, which we label DISCERN-", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 266, + 689, + 271, + 699 + ], + "score": 0.39, + "content": "\\mathbf { g }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Lastly, to demonstrate the difficulty of the exploration", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "challenge in these domains, we compare to # Exploration (Tang et al., 2017), an exploration method", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that assigns bonus rewards based on the novelty of new states. Implementation details of the prior", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 247, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 247, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods is given in Appendix C.3.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 27.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 7, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 308, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2020", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 752, + 308, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 762 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 762 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "", + "type": "text", + "height": 12, + "width": 9 + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 81, + 504, + 152 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 81, + 504, + 152 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 81, + 504, + 152 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 81, + 504, + 152 + ], + "score": 0.963, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "609f4b69c4699ff46c91c0eb13f2ac3b037b7837df7dc55eb94e4d73fcd0a057.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 81, + 504, + 104.66666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 104.66666666666667, + 504, + 128.33333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 128.33333333333334, + 504, + 152.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 161, + 505, + 204 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 160, + 506, + 173 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 160, + 506, + 173 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 4: We evaluate on these continuous control environments. From left to right: Visual Pusher, a simulated", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 172, + 506, + 185 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 172, + 506, + 185 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "pushing task; Visual Door, a door opening task; Visual Pickup, a picking task; and Real World Visual Door,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 182, + 506, + 196 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 182, + 506, + 196 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a real world door opening task. All tasks are solved from images and without any task-specific reward. 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Lower is better. For each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 441, + 506, + 454 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 441, + 506, + 454 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment and method, we show the mean and standard deviation of 6 seeds and smooth temporally across", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 453, + 505, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 453, + 505, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "25 epochs within each seed. Skew-Fit consistently outperforms RIG and various baselines. See the text for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 464, + 506, + 475 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 464, + 506, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "description of each method. (Right) The first column displays example test goal images for each environment.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 474, + 506, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 474, + 506, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In the next two columns, we display final images reached by Skew-Fit and RIG respectively. Under each image", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 456, + 497 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 456, + 497 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the final distance in state space to provide a notion of the behavior of each method in the plots.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 12.5 + } + ], + "index": 10.25 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 506, + 505, + 551 + ], + "lines": [], + "index": 17.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 506, + 506, + 553 + ], + "lines_deleted": true + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 556, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 556, + 505, + 569 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 556, + 505, + 569 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We use these domains to compare Skew-Fit to a number of existing methods on goal-sampling. We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 567, + 506, + 580 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 567, + 506, + 580 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "compare to Warde-Farley et al. (2018), a vision-based method which uses a non-parametric approach", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 578, + 505, + 591 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 578, + 505, + 591 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "based on clustering to sample goals and an image discriminator to compute rewards. We denote this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 588, + 507, + 602 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 588, + 507, + 602 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method as DISCERN. The other methods that we compare to were developed in non-vision, state-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 600, + 505, + 612 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 600, + 505, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "based environments. To ensure a fair comparison across methods, we combine these prior methods", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 611, + 506, + 623 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 611, + 506, + 623 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a policy trained using RIG. First, we compare to RIG without Skew-Fit. We also compared to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 622, + 505, + 635 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 622, + 505, + 635 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "RIG using the relabeling scheme described in the hindsight experience replay (labeled HER). We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 645 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 645 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "compare to curiosity-driven prioritization (Ranked-Based Priority) (Zhao & Tresp, 2019), a variant", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 644, + 506, + 657 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 644, + 506, + 657 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of HER that samples goals for relabeling based on their ranked likelihoods. Florensa et al. (2018b)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "samples goals from a GAN based on the difficulty of reaching the goal. We compare against this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 506, + 679 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 190, + 679 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method by replacing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 667, + 203, + 678 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 203, + 665, + 506, + 679 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with the GAN and label it AutoGoal GAN. We also separately compare to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 675, + 505, + 691 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 675, + 505, + 691 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the goal proposal mechanism proposed by Warde-Farley et al. (2018) and otherwise train the policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 265, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with RIG, which we label DISCERN-", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 266, + 689, + 271, + 699 + ], + "score": 0.39, + "content": "\\mathbf { g }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Lastly, to demonstrate the difficulty of the exploration", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "challenge in these domains, we compare to # Exploration (Tang et al., 2017), an exploration method", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that assigns bonus rewards based on the novelty of new states. Implementation details of the prior", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 247, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 247, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods is given in Appendix C.3.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 27.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 556, + 507, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 505, + 182 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 506, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 506, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We see in Figure 5 that Skew-Fit significantly outperforms prior methods both in terms of task", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 94, + 505, + 105 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 94, + 505, + 105 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance and sample complexity. The most common failure mode for prior methods is that the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 507, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 507, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goal distributions collapse, resulting in the agent learning to reach only a fraction of the state space,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 362, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as shown in Figure 1. For comparison, additional samples of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 362, + 117, + 374, + 128 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 374, + 115, + 506, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "when trained with and without", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 506, + 140 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 390, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Skew-Fit are shown in Appendix B.4. Those images show that without", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 391, + 127, + 443, + 137 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "S k e w - F i t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 443, + 126, + 446, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 447, + 127, + 459, + 138 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 459, + 126, + 506, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "produces a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 138, + 505, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 138, + 505, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "small, non-diverse distribution for each environment: the object is in the same place for pickup, the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 506, + 161 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 506, + 161 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "puck is often in the starting position for pushing, and the door is always closed. In contrast, Skew-Fit", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 159, + 507, + 172 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 159, + 507, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "proposes goals where the object is in the air and on the ground, where the puck positions are varied,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 170, + 220, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 170, + 220, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the door angle changes.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 187, + 505, + 286 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 187, + 506, + 200 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 187, + 506, + 200 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The direct effect of these goal choices can be seen by visualizing more example rollouts for RIG and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 198, + 505, + 210 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 198, + 505, + 210 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Skew-Fit. Due to space constraints, these visuals are in Figure 16 in Appendix B.4. The figure shows", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 210, + 505, + 221 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 210, + 505, + 221 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that standard RIG only learns to reach states close to the initial position, while Skew-Fit learns to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 220, + 506, + 233 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 220, + 506, + 233 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reach the entire state space. A quantitative comparison of the various methods on the pickup task can", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 231, + 506, + 244 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 231, + 506, + 244 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be seen in Figure 6, which gives the cumulative total exploration pickups for each method. From the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 242, + 505, + 255 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 242, + 505, + 255 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "graph, we can see that only Skew-Fit learns to pay attention to the object and therefore consistently", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 253, + 506, + 266 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 253, + 506, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "increases the rate at which the policy picks up the object during exploration. In contrast, the other", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 264, + 506, + 276 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 264, + 263, + 276 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods have near constant slopes past", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 264, + 279, + 275 + ], + "score": 0.37, + "content": "4 0 \\mathrm { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 264, + 506, + 276 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "steps, meaning that they do not continue to learning, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 273, + 430, + 289 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 273, + 430, + 289 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "many methods have a near-constant rate of object lifts throughout all of training.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 124, + 288, + 481, + 393 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 124, + 288, + 481, + 393 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 288, + 481, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 288, + 481, + 393 + ], + "score": 0.97, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "c9e4d5facae1d025fe7c393bd49a4852d6c62eac706c06b099385758e883dd58.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 19, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 288, + 481, + 323.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 323.0, + 481, + 358.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 358.0, + 481, + 393.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 20 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 394, + 505, + 426 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 393, + 505, + 405 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 393, + 505, + 405 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 6: Cumulative total pickups during exploration for each method. The prior methods fail to pay attention", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 404, + 505, + 417 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 404, + 505, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to the object and only pick it up at the same rate as the initial policy. In contrast, after seeing the object picked up", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 504, + 428 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 504, + 428 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a few times, Skew-Fit practices picking up the object more often by sampling the appriopriate exploration goals.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 20.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 439, + 336, + 625 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 438, + 337, + 451 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 438, + 337, + 451 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Real-World Vision-Based Robotic Manipulation We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 450, + 336, + 461 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 450, + 336, + 461 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "also demonstrate that Skew-Fit scales well to the real world", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 461, + 336, + 472 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 461, + 336, + 472 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a door opening task, Real World Visual Door. See", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 471, + 337, + 484 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 471, + 337, + 484 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 4 for a picture of this environment. While a number", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 483, + 337, + 495 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 483, + 337, + 495 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of prior works have studied RL-based learning of door", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 494, + 338, + 506 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 494, + 338, + 506 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "opening Kalakrishnan et al. (2011); Chebotar et al. (2017),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 504, + 338, + 518 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 504, + 338, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we demonstrate the first method for autonomous learning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 516, + 339, + 528 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 516, + 339, + 528 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of door opening without a user-provided, task-specific re-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 527, + 337, + 538 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 527, + 337, + 538 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ward function. As in simulation, we do not provide any", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 538, + 338, + 549 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 538, + 338, + 549 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goals to the agent and simply let it interact with the door", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 548, + 337, + 561 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 548, + 337, + 561 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to solve the door opening task from scratch, without any", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 559, + 337, + 571 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 559, + 337, + 571 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "human guidance or reward signal. We train two agents", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 571, + 338, + 581 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 571, + 338, + 581 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using Skew-Fit with RIG and RIG alone. Unlike in sim-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 582, + 337, + 592 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 582, + 337, + 592 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ulation, we cannot measure the difference between the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 593, + 337, + 604 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 593, + 337, + 604 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policy’s achieved and desired door angle since we do not", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 603, + 337, + 615 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 603, + 337, + 615 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "have access to the true state of the world. Instead, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 614, + 337, + 626 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 614, + 337, + 626 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "simply visually denote a binary success/failure for each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 344, + 438, + 504, + 530 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 344, + 438, + 504, + 530 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 438, + 504, + 530 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 438, + 504, + 530 + ], + "score": 0.967, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "e2c4e8720ca6f6aceb3fbf839042dce61934c8cccc44d522be0ff43c1d0eb560.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 44, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 438, + 504, + 451.14285714285717 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 451.14285714285717, + 504, + 464.28571428571433 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 464.28571428571433, + 504, + 477.4285714285715 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 477.4285714285715, + 504, + 490.57142857142867 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 490.57142857142867, + 504, + 503.71428571428584 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 503.71428571428584, + 504, + 516.857142857143 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 516.857142857143, + 504, + 530.0000000000001 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 47 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 344, + 539, + 505, + 614 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 538, + 505, + 549 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 538, + 505, + 549 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 7: Learning curve for Real World", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 550, + 505, + 560 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 550, + 505, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Visual Door environment. We visually label", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 560, + 505, + 571 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 560, + 505, + 571 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a success if the policy opens the door to the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 572, + 506, + 582 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 572, + 506, + 582 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "target angle by the last state of the trajec-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 583, + 505, + 593 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 583, + 505, + 593 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tory. Skew-Fit results in considerable sample", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 593, + 506, + 605 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 593, + 506, + 605 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "efficiency gains over prior work on this real-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 605, + 385, + 615 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 605, + 385, + 615 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "world task.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 54 + } + ], + "index": 51 + } + ], + "index": 47.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 625, + 506, + 702 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 625, + 506, + 638 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 625, + 506, + 638 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goal based on whether the last state in the trajectory achieves the target angle. Every seven and a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 55 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 635, + 505, + 648 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 635, + 505, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "half minutes of interaction time we evaluate on 5 goals and plot the cumulative successes for each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 56 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 647, + 505, + 659 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 647, + 505, + 659 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method. As Figure 7 shows, standard RIG only starts to open the door after five hours of training. In", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 57 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 658, + 506, + 670 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 658, + 506, + 670 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "contrast, Skew-Fit learns to occasionally open the door after three hours of training and achieves a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 58 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 669, + 506, + 681 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 669, + 506, + 681 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "near-perfect success rate after five and a half hours of interaction time, demonstrating that Skew-Fit", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 59 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 680, + 507, + 693 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 680, + 507, + 693 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is a promising technique for solving real world tasks without any human-provided reward function.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 60 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 690, + 475, + 703 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 690, + 475, + 703 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Videos of Skew-Fit solving this task and the simulated tasks can be viewed on our website.3", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 61 + } + ], + "index": 58 + } + ], + "page_idx": 8, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 117, + 721, + 416, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 719, + 417, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 719, + 417, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3Anonymous while under review: https://sites.google.com/view/skew-fit-iclr-2020", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 308, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2020", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 308, + 759 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 762 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 762 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "9", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 505, + 182 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 506, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 506, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We see in Figure 5 that Skew-Fit significantly outperforms prior methods both in terms of task", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 94, + 505, + 105 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 94, + 505, + 105 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance and sample complexity. The most common failure mode for prior methods is that the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 507, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 507, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goal distributions collapse, resulting in the agent learning to reach only a fraction of the state space,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 362, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as shown in Figure 1. For comparison, additional samples of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 362, + 117, + 374, + 128 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 374, + 115, + 506, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "when trained with and without", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 506, + 140 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 390, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Skew-Fit are shown in Appendix B.4. Those images show that without", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 391, + 127, + 443, + 137 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "S k e w - F i t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 443, + 126, + 446, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 447, + 127, + 459, + 138 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 459, + 126, + 506, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "produces a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 138, + 505, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 138, + 505, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "small, non-diverse distribution for each environment: the object is in the same place for pickup, the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 506, + 161 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 506, + 161 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "puck is often in the starting position for pushing, and the door is always closed. In contrast, Skew-Fit", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 159, + 507, + 172 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 159, + 507, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "proposes goals where the object is in the air and on the ground, where the puck positions are varied,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 170, + 220, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 170, + 220, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the door angle changes.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 4, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 82, + 507, + 183 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 187, + 505, + 286 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 187, + 506, + 200 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 187, + 506, + 200 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The direct effect of these goal choices can be seen by visualizing more example rollouts for RIG and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 198, + 505, + 210 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 198, + 505, + 210 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Skew-Fit. Due to space constraints, these visuals are in Figure 16 in Appendix B.4. The figure shows", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 210, + 505, + 221 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 210, + 505, + 221 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that standard RIG only learns to reach states close to the initial position, while Skew-Fit learns to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 220, + 506, + 233 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 220, + 506, + 233 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reach the entire state space. A quantitative comparison of the various methods on the pickup task can", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 231, + 506, + 244 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 231, + 506, + 244 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be seen in Figure 6, which gives the cumulative total exploration pickups for each method. From the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 242, + 505, + 255 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 242, + 505, + 255 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "graph, we can see that only Skew-Fit learns to pay attention to the object and therefore consistently", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 253, + 506, + 266 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 253, + 506, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "increases the rate at which the policy picks up the object during exploration. In contrast, the other", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 264, + 506, + 276 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 264, + 263, + 276 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods have near constant slopes past", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 264, + 279, + 275 + ], + "score": 0.37, + "content": "4 0 \\mathrm { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 264, + 506, + 276 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "steps, meaning that they do not continue to learning, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 273, + 430, + 289 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 273, + 430, + 289 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "many methods have a near-constant rate of object lifts throughout all of training.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 13, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 187, + 506, + 289 + ] + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 124, + 288, + 481, + 393 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 124, + 288, + 481, + 393 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 288, + 481, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 288, + 481, + 393 + ], + "score": 0.97, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "c9e4d5facae1d025fe7c393bd49a4852d6c62eac706c06b099385758e883dd58.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 19, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 288, + 481, + 323.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 323.0, + 481, + 358.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 358.0, + 481, + 393.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 20 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 394, + 505, + 426 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 393, + 505, + 405 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 393, + 505, + 405 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 6: Cumulative total pickups during exploration for each method. The prior methods fail to pay attention", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 404, + 505, + 417 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 404, + 505, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to the object and only pick it up at the same rate as the initial policy. In contrast, after seeing the object picked up", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 504, + 428 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 504, + 428 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a few times, Skew-Fit practices picking up the object more often by sampling the appriopriate exploration goals.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 20.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 439, + 336, + 625 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 438, + 337, + 451 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 438, + 337, + 451 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Real-World Vision-Based Robotic Manipulation We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 450, + 336, + 461 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 450, + 336, + 461 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "also demonstrate that Skew-Fit scales well to the real world", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 461, + 336, + 472 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 461, + 336, + 472 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a door opening task, Real World Visual Door. See", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 471, + 337, + 484 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 471, + 337, + 484 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 4 for a picture of this environment. While a number", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 483, + 337, + 495 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 483, + 337, + 495 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of prior works have studied RL-based learning of door", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 494, + 338, + 506 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 494, + 338, + 506 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "opening Kalakrishnan et al. (2011); Chebotar et al. (2017),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 504, + 338, + 518 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 504, + 338, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we demonstrate the first method for autonomous learning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 516, + 339, + 528 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 516, + 339, + 528 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of door opening without a user-provided, task-specific re-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 527, + 337, + 538 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 527, + 337, + 538 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ward function. As in simulation, we do not provide any", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 538, + 338, + 549 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 538, + 338, + 549 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goals to the agent and simply let it interact with the door", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 548, + 337, + 561 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 548, + 337, + 561 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to solve the door opening task from scratch, without any", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 559, + 337, + 571 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 559, + 337, + 571 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "human guidance or reward signal. We train two agents", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 571, + 338, + 581 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 571, + 338, + 581 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using Skew-Fit with RIG and RIG alone. Unlike in sim-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 582, + 337, + 592 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 582, + 337, + 592 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ulation, we cannot measure the difference between the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 593, + 337, + 604 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 593, + 337, + 604 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policy’s achieved and desired door angle since we do not", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 603, + 337, + 615 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 603, + 337, + 615 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "have access to the true state of the world. Instead, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 614, + 337, + 626 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 614, + 337, + 626 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "simply visually denote a binary success/failure for each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 625, + 506, + 638 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 625, + 506, + 638 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goal based on whether the last state in the trajectory achieves the target angle. Every seven and a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 55 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 635, + 505, + 648 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 635, + 505, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "half minutes of interaction time we evaluate on 5 goals and plot the cumulative successes for each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 56 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 647, + 505, + 659 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 647, + 505, + 659 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method. As Figure 7 shows, standard RIG only starts to open the door after five hours of training. 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Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 127, + 188, + 136 + ], + "score": 0.68, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 189, + 126, + 387, + 139 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be a compact set. Define the set of distributions", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 387, + 127, + 502, + 138 + ], + "score": 0.53, + "content": "\\mathcal { Q } = \\{ p : s u p p o r t o f p i s \\ : S \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 503, + 126, + 506, + 139 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 136, + 506, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 136, + 123, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 123, + 138, + 178, + 149 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\mathcal { F } : \\mathcal { Q } \\mapsto \\mathcal { Q }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 136, + 344, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be a continuous function and such that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 137, + 419, + 149 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathcal { F } ( p ) ) \\geq \\mathcal { H } ( { \\bar { p } } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 420, + 136, + 506, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with equality if and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 149, + 505, + 161 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 149, + 136, + 161 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "only if", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 136, + 150, + 143, + 159 + ], + "score": 0.66, + "content": "p", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 149, + 319, + 161 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the uniform probability distribution on", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 319, + 149, + 327, + 158 + ], + "score": 0.46, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 327, + 149, + 332, + 161 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 332, + 149, + 345, + 159 + ], + "score": 0.49, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 346, + 149, + 505, + 161 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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The uniform distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 201, + 254, + 211 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 255, + 200, + 343, + 213 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is well defined since", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 201, + 351, + 210 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 352, + 200, + 441, + 213 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is compact. Because", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 441, + 201, + 449, + 210 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 450, + 200, + 506, + 213 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is a compact", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 210, + 505, + 223 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 210, + 335, + 223 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "set, by Prokhorov’s Theorem Billingsley (2013), the set", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 335, + 212, + 344, + 222 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\mathcal { Q }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 345, + 210, + 471, + 223 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is sequentially compact. 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Thus,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 363, + 415, + 373 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "P ^ { \\prime }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 415, + 362, + 506, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converges to the only", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 374, + 505, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 374, + 154, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fixed point,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 154, + 374, + 168, + 385 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 374, + 454, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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Given two distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 256, + 441, + 275, + 453 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "p ( x )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 276, + 439, + 294, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 294, + 441, + 313, + 453 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "q ( x )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 314, + 439, + 341, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 341, + 442, + 368, + 453 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p \\ll q", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 439, + 388, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 243, + 456, + 368, + 470 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 456, + 368, + 470 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 456, + 368, + 470 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "0 < \\operatorname { C o v } _ { p } [ \\log p ( X ) , \\log q ( X ) ]", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "365f4849aa31216f686db7b0e2300ffba30620457ce2ca6626e51fb6c4eb10dc.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 23, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 456, + 368, + 470 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 23 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 474, + 220, + 486 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 472, + 221, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 472, + 196, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "define the distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 196, + 477, + 208, + 486 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "p _ { \\alpha }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 208, + 472, + 221, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 257, + 489, + 354, + 514 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 489, + 354, + 514 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 489, + 354, + 514 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "p _ { \\alpha } ( x ) = \\frac { 1 } { Z _ { \\alpha } } p ( x ) q ( x ) ^ { \\alpha }", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "e8aadbb7e161d5b89cb55a8a885e503d148015760364a2b2886ede3db983471c.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 25, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 489, + 354, + 514 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 25 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 518, + 505, + 541 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 518, + 504, + 531 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 518, + 133, + 531 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 519, + 160, + 528 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\alpha \\in \\mathbb { R }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 160, + 518, + 178, + 531 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 179, + 519, + 192, + 529 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "Z _ { \\alpha }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 518, + 312, + 531 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the normalizing factor. 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Define the sequence of distributions", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 158, + 452, + 173 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 160, + 178, + 171 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "P = ( p _ { 1 } , p _ { 2 } , . . . )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 158, + 261, + 173 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by starting with any", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 261, + 160, + 292, + 171 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "p _ { 1 } \\in \\mathcal { Q }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 293, + 158, + 391, + 173 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and recursively defining", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 392, + 159, + 448, + 171 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "p _ { t + 1 } = \\mathcal { F } ( p _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 449, + 158, + 452, + 173 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 3.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 126, + 506, + 173 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 176, + 241, + 188 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 173, + 238, + 191 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 173, + 162, + 191 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The sequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 163, + 177, + 171, + 186 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "P", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 172, + 173, + 225, + 191 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converges to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 225, + 177, + 238, + 187 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 6, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 173, + 238, + 191 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 199, + 506, + 255 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 200, + 506, + 213 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 200, + 240, + 213 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. The uniform distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 201, + 254, + 211 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 255, + 200, + 343, + 213 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is well defined since", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 201, + 351, + 210 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 352, + 200, + 441, + 213 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is compact. Because", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 441, + 201, + 449, + 210 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 450, + 200, + 506, + 213 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is a compact", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 210, + 505, + 223 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 210, + 335, + 223 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "set, by Prokhorov’s Theorem Billingsley (2013), the set", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 335, + 212, + 344, + 222 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\mathcal { Q }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 345, + 210, + 471, + 223 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is sequentially compact. Thus,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 471, + 212, + 481, + 221 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "P", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 481, + 210, + 505, + 223 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "has a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 221, + 506, + 235 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 221, + 203, + 235 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "convergent subsequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 204, + 222, + 306, + 234 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "P ^ { \\prime } = ( p _ { k _ { 1 } } , p _ { k _ { 2 } } , \\dots ) \\subset P", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 307, + 221, + 321, + 235 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 322, + 222, + 380, + 233 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "k _ { 1 } < k _ { 2 } < . . .", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 380, + 221, + 506, + 235 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that converges to a distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 231, + 506, + 248 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 233, + 138, + 244 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "p ^ { * } \\in \\mathcal { Q }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 138, + 231, + 177, + 248 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Because", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 234, + 187, + 243 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\mathcal { F }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 231, + 246, + 248 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is continuous,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 246, + 234, + 257, + 244 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "p ^ { * }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 231, + 355, + 248 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "must be a fixed point of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 355, + 234, + 365, + 243 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\mathcal { F }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 365, + 231, + 506, + 248 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "since by the convergence mapping", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 243, + 197, + 255 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 243, + 197, + 255 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "theorem, we have that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 9, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 200, + 506, + 255 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 217, + 259, + 393, + 278 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 217, + 259, + 393, + 278 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 217, + 259, + 393, + 278 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\operatorname* { l i m } _ { i \\to \\infty } p _ { k _ { i } } = p ^ { * } \\implies \\operatorname* { l i m } _ { i \\to \\infty } \\mathcal { F } ( p _ { k _ { i } } ) = \\mathcal { H } ( p ^ { * } )", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "f6b3589568cc6760ddb7678a122e5a7cde688083df98c26a80ca328fcf4e3f63.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 12, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 217, + 259, + 393, + 278 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 12 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 281, + 134, + 292 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 280, + 135, + 293 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 280, + 135, + 293 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and so", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 13, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 280, + 135, + 293 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 263, + 296, + 347, + 349 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 296, + 347, + 349 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 296, + 347, + 349 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r c l } { p ^ { * } = \\displaystyle \\operatorname* { l i m } _ { i \\to \\infty } p _ { k _ { i } } } \\\\ { = \\displaystyle \\operatorname* { l i m } _ { i \\to \\infty } \\mathcal { F } ( p _ { k _ { i - 1 } } ) } \\\\ { = \\mathcal { H } ( p ^ { * } ) . } \\end{array}", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "547b87ff9535247346362f99a18df4ea74a445e8b78b8c8c0bc592eda64c79a3.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 14.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 296, + 347, + 322.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 322.5, + 347, + 349.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 15 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 351, + 506, + 407 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 506, + 365 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 205, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The only fixed point of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 352, + 216, + 362 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\mathcal { F }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 351, + 227, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 227, + 352, + 241, + 363 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 241, + 351, + 349, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "since for any distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 350, + 354, + 357, + 363 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "p", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 357, + 351, + 506, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that is not the uniform distribution,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 362, + 506, + 376 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 363, + 120, + 374 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 362, + 178, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we have that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 179, + 363, + 252, + 375 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathcal { F } ( p ) ) > \\mathcal { H } ( p )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 252, + 362, + 331, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which implies that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 332, + 363, + 372, + 375 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { F } ( p ) \\neq p", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 373, + 362, + 402, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Thus,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 363, + 415, + 373 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "P ^ { \\prime }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 415, + 362, + 506, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converges to the only", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 374, + 505, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 374, + 154, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fixed point,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 154, + 374, + 168, + 385 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 374, + 454, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Since the entropy cannot decrease, then entropy of the distributions in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 455, + 374, + 463, + 384 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "P", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 464, + 374, + 505, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "must also", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 384, + 506, + 398 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 384, + 212, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converge to the entropy of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 385, + 226, + 396 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 226, + 384, + 473, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Lastly, since entropy is a continuous function of distribution,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 473, + 385, + 482, + 395 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "P", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 482, + 384, + 506, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "must", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 394, + 506, + 410 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 394, + 155, + 410 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converge to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 155, + 396, + 169, + 407 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 394, + 173, + 410 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 494, + 396, + 506, + 408 + ], + "score": 0.995, + "content": "□", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 18, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 351, + 506, + 410 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 420, + 229, + 432 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 419, + 230, + 433 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 419, + 230, + 433 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.2 PROOF OF LEMMA 3.2", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 441, + 387, + 453 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 388, + 455 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 255, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Lemma A.2. Given two distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 256, + 441, + 275, + 453 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "p ( x )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 276, + 439, + 294, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 294, + 441, + 313, + 453 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "q ( x )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 314, + 439, + 341, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 341, + 442, + 368, + 453 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p \\ll q", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 439, + 388, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 22, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 439, + 388, + 455 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 243, + 456, + 368, + 470 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 456, + 368, + 470 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 456, + 368, + 470 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "0 < \\operatorname { C o v } _ { p } [ \\log p ( X ) , \\log q ( X ) ]", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "365f4849aa31216f686db7b0e2300ffba30620457ce2ca6626e51fb6c4eb10dc.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 23, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 456, + 368, + 470 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 23 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 474, + 220, + 486 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 472, + 221, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 472, + 196, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "define the distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 196, + 477, + 208, + 486 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "p _ { \\alpha }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 208, + 472, + 221, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 24, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 472, + 221, + 488 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 257, + 489, + 354, + 514 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 489, + 354, + 514 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 489, + 354, + 514 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "p _ { \\alpha } ( x ) = \\frac { 1 } { Z _ { \\alpha } } p ( x ) q ( x ) ^ { \\alpha }", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "e8aadbb7e161d5b89cb55a8a885e503d148015760364a2b2886ede3db983471c.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 25, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 489, + 354, + 514 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 25 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 518, + 505, + 541 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 518, + 504, + 531 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 518, + 133, + 531 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 519, + 160, + 528 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\alpha \\in \\mathbb { R }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 160, + 518, + 178, + 531 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 179, + 519, + 192, + 529 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "Z _ { \\alpha }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 518, + 312, + 531 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the normalizing factor. Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 312, + 518, + 341, + 530 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "{ \\mathcal { H } } _ { \\alpha } ( \\alpha )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 518, + 411, + 531 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be the entropy of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 412, + 520, + 423, + 530 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "p _ { \\alpha }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 423, + 518, + 497, + 531 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Then there exists", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 498, + 521, + 504, + 528 + ], + "score": 0.33, + "content": "a", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 528, + 286, + 542 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 528, + 143, + 542 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "constant", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 143, + 530, + 168, + 540 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "a > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 528, + 234, + 542 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "such that for all", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 235, + 529, + 283, + 541 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\alpha \\in [ - a , 0 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 283, + 528, + 286, + 542 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + } + ], + "index": 26.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 518, + 504, + 542 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 251, + 545, + 360, + 559 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 251, + 545, + 360, + 559 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 251, + 545, + 360, + 559 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\mathcal { H } _ { \\alpha } ( \\alpha ) > \\mathcal { H } _ { \\alpha } ( 0 ) = \\mathcal { H } ( p ) . } \\end{array}", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "104fccdfe3e91d9bbf1ce12f42ad7b6ba504129c2883ec8d11e927aa84034586.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 28, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 251, + 545, + 360, + 559 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 28 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 568, + 429, + 582 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 566, + 429, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 566, + 189, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. 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Given any distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 295, + 242, + 314, + 254 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "p ( \\mathbf { s } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 314, + 242, + 387, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "whose support is", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 387, + 242, + 395, + 252 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 395, + 242, + 473, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", recursively define", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 474, + 243, + 483, + 253 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "p _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 484, + 242, + 505, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 254, + 155, + 264 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 254, + 136, + 264 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p _ { 1 } = p", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 136, + 254, + 155, + 264 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 240, + 267, + 371, + 292 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 267, + 371, + 292 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 267, + 371, + 292 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "p _ { t + 1 } ( \\mathbf { s } ) = \\frac { 1 } { Z _ { \\alpha } ^ { t } } p _ { t } ( \\mathbf { s } ) ^ { \\alpha } , \\quad \\forall \\mathbf { s } \\in \\mathcal { S }", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "a4fc7d689257d388ca0210db9e6476370403c984d08335a353e53290ebd933fd.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 12, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 267, + 371, + 292 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 12 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 295, + 320, + 308 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 295, + 320, + 309 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 295, + 133, + 309 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 295, + 146, + 308 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "Z _ { \\alpha } ^ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 295, + 276, + 309 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the normalizing constant and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 276, + 296, + 316, + 308 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\alpha \\in [ 0 , 1 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 317, + 295, + 320, + 309 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 312, + 392, + 325 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 310, + 393, + 327 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 310, + 163, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The sequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 163, + 313, + 212, + 325 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "( p _ { 1 } , p _ { 2 } , \\dots )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 310, + 266, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converges to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 266, + 313, + 279, + 324 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 310, + 381, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the uniform distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 381, + 313, + 389, + 323 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 389, + 310, + 393, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 336, + 504, + 360 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 336, + 505, + 349 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 336, + 145, + 349 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. 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Assume the set", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 226, + 231, + 234, + 240 + ], + "score": 0.71, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 229, + 430, + 243 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "has finite volume so that its uniform distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 430, + 231, + 444, + 241 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 444, + 229, + 506, + 243 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is well defined", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 242, + 505, + 254 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 242, + 295, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and has finite entropy. Given any distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 295, + 242, + 314, + 254 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "p ( \\mathbf { s } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 314, + 242, + 387, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "whose support is", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 387, + 242, + 395, + 252 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 395, + 242, + 473, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", recursively define", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 474, + 243, + 483, + 253 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "p _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 484, + 242, + 505, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 254, + 155, + 264 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 254, + 136, + 264 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p _ { 1 } = p", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 136, + 254, + 155, + 264 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 10, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 229, + 506, + 264 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 240, + 267, + 371, + 292 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 267, + 371, + 292 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 267, + 371, + 292 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "p _ { t + 1 } ( \\mathbf { s } ) = \\frac { 1 } { Z _ { \\alpha } ^ { t } } p _ { t } ( \\mathbf { s } ) ^ { \\alpha } , \\quad \\forall \\mathbf { s } \\in \\mathcal { S }", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "a4fc7d689257d388ca0210db9e6476370403c984d08335a353e53290ebd933fd.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 12, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 267, + 371, + 292 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 12 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 295, + 320, + 308 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 295, + 320, + 309 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 295, + 133, + 309 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 295, + 146, + 308 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "Z _ { \\alpha } ^ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 295, + 276, + 309 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the normalizing constant and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 276, + 296, + 316, + 308 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\alpha \\in [ 0 , 1 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 317, + 295, + 320, + 309 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 13, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 295, + 320, + 309 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 312, + 392, + 325 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 310, + 393, + 327 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 310, + 163, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The sequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 163, + 313, + 212, + 325 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "( p _ { 1 } , p _ { 2 } , \\dots )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 310, + 266, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converges to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 266, + 313, + 279, + 324 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "U _ { S }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 310, + 381, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the uniform distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 381, + 313, + 389, + 323 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "s", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 389, + 310, + 393, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 14, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 310, + 393, + 327 + ] + }, + { + "type": "list", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 336, + 504, + 360 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 336, + 505, + 349 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 336, + 145, + 349 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. 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Thus, Equation 9 is only true if", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 409, + 710, + 445, + 722 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\log p _ { t } ( \\mathbf { s } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 446, + 708, + 507, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converges to a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 159, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "constant, i.e.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 160, + 722, + 169, + 732 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "p _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 170, + 720, + 323, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converges to the uniform distribution.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 495, + 722, + 505, + 731 + ], + "score": 0.999, + "content": "□", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 38.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 708, + 507, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 80, + 437, + 236 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 80, + 437, + 236 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 174, + 80, + 437, + 236 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 174, + 80, + 437, + 236 + ], + "score": 0.971, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "7157a6d5e573ea20ef91644a3e31387f89e670199a503eefb1e228a7b14f477c.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 174, + 80, + 437, + 132.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 174, + 132.0, + 437, + 184.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 174, + 184.0, + 437, + 236.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 256, + 505, + 289 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 256, + 505, + 268 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 256, + 505, + 268 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 8: (Top) Coverage over time on the classic 4-room domain, shown on the right. (Bottom) Coverage over", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 267, + 505, + 278 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 267, + 505, + 278 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "time on a more challenging maze domain, shown on the right. In both cases, we see that not using Skew-Fit", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 278, + 446, + 290 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 278, + 109, + 290 + ], + "score": 0.0, + "content": "", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 278, + 134, + 288 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\alpha = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 134, + 278, + 446, + 290 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") results in significantly slower learning that primarily stays near the start (yellow star).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 2.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 298, + 271, + 311 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 298, + 273, + 312 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 298, + 273, + 312 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "B ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 325, + 372, + 337 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 374, + 338 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 374, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "B.1 SKEW-FIT FOR EXPLORING LOW-DIMENSIONAL SPACES", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 347, + 505, + 436 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 348, + 505, + 360 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 348, + 505, + 360 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Skew-Fit is a general method that enables exploration when it is infeasible to sample goal states", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 359, + 505, + 371 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 359, + 505, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "uniformly across the entire state space. While the experiments in Section 6 focused on image-based", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 371, + 505, + 381 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 371, + 505, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state spaces, there exists many low-dimensional domains in which we know that the goal space is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 505, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 154, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a subset of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 154, + 380, + 167, + 390 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\mathbb { R } ^ { d }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 167, + 380, + 208, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for some", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 208, + 381, + 235, + 391 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "d < n", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 236, + 380, + 505, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", but the exact goal space is still unknown. This scenario is quite", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 392, + 505, + 404 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 392, + 505, + 404 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "common in domains such as robotics: we know that we want an agent to move the position of its", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 505, + 416 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 505, + 416 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "center of mass (CoM), but we do not know the set of valid CoM positions, as this requires knowing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 414, + 505, + 426 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 414, + 505, + 426 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the geometry of all potential obstacles a priori. We conduct a series of experiments that study whether", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 424, + 474, + 437 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 424, + 474, + 437 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Skew-Fit enable effectively exploration in these state spaces containing unknown obstacles.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 11.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 451, + 505, + 628 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 452, + 505, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 452, + 505, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2D Maze Navigation with Oracle Policy To study the impact of Skew-Fit on exploration in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 464, + 506, + 476 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 464, + 506, + 476 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "isolation of learning a goal-reaching policy, our first set of experiments use a near-perfect policy that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 475, + 505, + 486 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 475, + 505, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches the goal state and then takes a step in a random direction (while taking wall-collisions into", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 485, + 505, + 497 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 485, + 505, + 497 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "account). The random step size is Gaussian with a standard deviation of 0.1 units, and the size of each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 506, + 509 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 506, + 509 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "square shown in Figure 8 is 1.8 units. Due to the relatively small step size, the agent cannot rely on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 505, + 519 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 505, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "random actions to explore the environment and must instead learn to set goals that are progressively", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 517, + 506, + 531 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 517, + 506, + 531 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "farther and farther from the initial state. The first environment is the Four Rooms environment (Sutton", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 529, + 506, + 541 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 529, + 506, + 541 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 1999), shown in Figure 8 (top). This environment requires a policy to explore four different", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 506, + 552 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 506, + 552 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "rooms, each of which requires passing through a narrow doorway. The maze environment (Figure 8,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 551, + 506, + 563 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 551, + 506, + 563 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "bottom) presents a more challenging exploration problem and consists of various long corridors that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 562, + 505, + 574 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 562, + 505, + 574 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "require setting goals progressively deeper into the maze. In both domains, setting goals near the state", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 572, + 505, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 572, + 505, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state (represented by the yellow star) and taking small actions will result in minimal exploration. To", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 505, + 596 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 505, + 596 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "measure exploration, we discretize the space into squares (see Figure 8 for square sizes) and measure", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 595, + 506, + 607 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 595, + 506, + 607 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "what fraction of the squares the agent has ever visited during exploration. We see in Figure 8 that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 505, + 619 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 376, + 619 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using Skew-Fit significantly improves exploration, whereas training", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 376, + 607, + 388, + 618 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 389, + 605, + 505, + 619 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on samples drawn uniformly", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 340, + 629 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 200, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from the replay buffer (", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 617, + 227, + 627 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\alpha = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 227, + 617, + 340, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") results in little exploration.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 23.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 643, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 643, + 506, + 657 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 643, + 506, + 657 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2D Navigation with Learned Policy Next, we reproduce the 2D navigation environment ex-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "periment from Section 6, and replace the oracle goal-reacher with a goal-reaching policy that is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "simultaneously trained with the goal setter. The policy outputs velocities with maximum speed of one.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Evaluation goals are chosen uniformly over the valid states. The hyperparameters for this experiment", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 506, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 506, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are given in Table 2. In Figure 9a, we can see that a policy trained with a goal distribution trained", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by Skew-Fit consistently learns to reach all goals, whereas a goal distribution trained with uniform", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sampling, labeled MLE, results in a policy that fails to reach states far from the starting position (the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 187, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 187, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "bottom left corner).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 35.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 14, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 27, + 308, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2020", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 300, + 751, + 310, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 312, + 764 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 312, + 764 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "", + "type": "text", + "height": 14, + "width": 13 + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 80, + 437, + 236 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 80, + 437, + 236 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 174, + 80, + 437, + 236 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 174, + 80, + 437, + 236 + ], + "score": 0.971, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "7157a6d5e573ea20ef91644a3e31387f89e670199a503eefb1e228a7b14f477c.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 174, + 80, + 437, + 132.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 174, + 132.0, + 437, + 184.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 174, + 184.0, + 437, + 236.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 256, + 505, + 289 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 256, + 505, + 268 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 256, + 505, + 268 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 8: (Top) Coverage over time on the classic 4-room domain, shown on the right. (Bottom) Coverage over", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 267, + 505, + 278 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 267, + 505, + 278 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "time on a more challenging maze domain, shown on the right. In both cases, we see that not using Skew-Fit", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 278, + 446, + 290 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 278, + 109, + 290 + ], + "score": 0.0, + "content": "", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 278, + 134, + 288 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\alpha = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 134, + 278, + 446, + 290 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") results in significantly slower learning that primarily stays near the start (yellow star).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 2.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 298, + 271, + 311 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 298, + 273, + 312 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 298, + 273, + 312 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "B ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 6, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 298, + 273, + 312 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 325, + 372, + 337 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 374, + 338 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 374, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "B.1 SKEW-FIT FOR EXPLORING LOW-DIMENSIONAL SPACES", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 347, + 505, + 436 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 348, + 505, + 360 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 348, + 505, + 360 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Skew-Fit is a general method that enables exploration when it is infeasible to sample goal states", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 359, + 505, + 371 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 359, + 505, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "uniformly across the entire state space. While the experiments in Section 6 focused on image-based", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 371, + 505, + 381 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 371, + 505, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state spaces, there exists many low-dimensional domains in which we know that the goal space is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 505, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 154, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a subset of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 154, + 380, + 167, + 390 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\mathbb { R } ^ { d }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 167, + 380, + 208, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for some", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 208, + 381, + 235, + 391 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "d < n", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 236, + 380, + 505, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", but the exact goal space is still unknown. This scenario is quite", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 392, + 505, + 404 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 392, + 505, + 404 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "common in domains such as robotics: we know that we want an agent to move the position of its", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 505, + 416 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 505, + 416 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "center of mass (CoM), but we do not know the set of valid CoM positions, as this requires knowing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 414, + 505, + 426 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 414, + 505, + 426 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the geometry of all potential obstacles a priori. We conduct a series of experiments that study whether", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 424, + 474, + 437 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 424, + 474, + 437 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Skew-Fit enable effectively exploration in these state spaces containing unknown obstacles.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 11.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 348, + 505, + 437 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 451, + 505, + 628 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 452, + 505, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 452, + 505, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2D Maze Navigation with Oracle Policy To study the impact of Skew-Fit on exploration in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 464, + 506, + 476 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 464, + 506, + 476 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "isolation of learning a goal-reaching policy, our first set of experiments use a near-perfect policy that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 475, + 505, + 486 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 475, + 505, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches the goal state and then takes a step in a random direction (while taking wall-collisions into", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 485, + 505, + 497 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 485, + 505, + 497 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "account). The random step size is Gaussian with a standard deviation of 0.1 units, and the size of each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 506, + 509 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 506, + 509 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "square shown in Figure 8 is 1.8 units. Due to the relatively small step size, the agent cannot rely on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 505, + 519 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 505, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "random actions to explore the environment and must instead learn to set goals that are progressively", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 517, + 506, + 531 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 517, + 506, + 531 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "farther and farther from the initial state. The first environment is the Four Rooms environment (Sutton", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 529, + 506, + 541 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 529, + 506, + 541 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 1999), shown in Figure 8 (top). This environment requires a policy to explore four different", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 506, + 552 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 506, + 552 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "rooms, each of which requires passing through a narrow doorway. The maze environment (Figure 8,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 551, + 506, + 563 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 551, + 506, + 563 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "bottom) presents a more challenging exploration problem and consists of various long corridors that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 562, + 505, + 574 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 562, + 505, + 574 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "require setting goals progressively deeper into the maze. In both domains, setting goals near the state", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 572, + 505, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 572, + 505, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state (represented by the yellow star) and taking small actions will result in minimal exploration. To", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 505, + 596 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 505, + 596 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "measure exploration, we discretize the space into squares (see Figure 8 for square sizes) and measure", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 595, + 506, + 607 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 595, + 506, + 607 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "what fraction of the squares the agent has ever visited during exploration. We see in Figure 8 that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 505, + 619 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 376, + 619 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using Skew-Fit significantly improves exploration, whereas training", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 376, + 607, + 388, + 618 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "p _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 389, + 605, + 505, + 619 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on samples drawn uniformly", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 340, + 629 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 200, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from the replay buffer (", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 617, + 227, + 627 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\alpha = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 227, + 617, + 340, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") results in little exploration.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 23.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 452, + 506, + 629 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 643, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 643, + 506, + 657 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 643, + 506, + 657 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2D Navigation with Learned Policy Next, we reproduce the 2D navigation environment ex-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "periment from Section 6, and replace the oracle goal-reacher with a goal-reaching policy that is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "simultaneously trained with the goal setter. The policy outputs velocities with maximum speed of one.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Evaluation goals are chosen uniformly over the valid states. The hyperparameters for this experiment", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 506, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 506, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are given in Table 2. In Figure 9a, we can see that a policy trained with a goal distribution trained", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by Skew-Fit consistently learns to reach all goals, whereas a goal distribution trained with uniform", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sampling, labeled MLE, results in a policy that fails to reach states far from the starting position (the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 187, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 187, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "bottom left corner).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 35.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 643, + 506, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 146, + 81, + 466, + 201 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 146, + 81, + 466, + 201 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 146, + 81, + 466, + 201 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 146, + 81, + 466, + 201 + ], + "score": 0.969, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "2aba6465194be867e1f3ff649ce48cd9610ef27d1f243e647d0c627b34946876.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 146, + 81, + 466, + 121.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 146, + 121.0, + 466, + 161.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 146, + 161.0, + 466, + 201.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 205, + 505, + 249 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 205, + 505, + 217 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 205, + 505, + 217 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 9: (a) Comparison of Skew-Fit vs MLE goal sampling on final distance to goal on RL version of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 216, + 506, + 227 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 216, + 506, + 227 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "pointmass environment. Skew-Fit consistently learns to solve the task, while MLE often fails. (b) Heatmaps of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 228, + 505, + 238 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 228, + 505, + 238 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "final distance to each possible goal location for Skew-Fit and MLE. Skew-Fit learns a good policy over the entire", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 238, + 493, + 249 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 238, + 493, + 249 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state space, but MLE performs poorly for states far away from the starting position (the bottom left corner).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 4.5 + } + ], + "index": 2.75 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 114, + 265, + 495, + 376 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 114, + 265, + 495, + 376 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 265, + 495, + 376 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 265, + 495, + 376 + ], + "score": 0.971, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "78d05fe11fa53cd4baf34907979561a1486a9c0a9d0f3e27fb7641f15a6cfb4d.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 8, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 265, + 495, + 302.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 302.0, + 495, + 339.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 339.0, + 495, + 376.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 9 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 385, + 505, + 429 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 505, + 397 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 505, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 10: (Left) Ant navigation environment. (Right) Evaluation on reaching joint and XY position. Policies are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 505, + 408 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 505, + 408 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trained from state. Reward is L2-norm between the current and target joint angle and XY position concatenated", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 505, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 505, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "together. We use Skew-Fit to sample goals for relabeling and exploration, and compare to other goal sampling", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 420, + 301, + 430 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 420, + 301, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods. See main paper for description of baselines.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 11.5 + } + ], + "index": 9.75 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 441, + 505, + 541 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 442, + 504, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 442, + 504, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Quadruped “Ant” Locomotion with Learned Policy Lastly, we test Skew-Fit in an exploration", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 452, + 505, + 466 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 452, + 505, + 466 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "task that requires training a simulated quadruped “ant” robot to navigate to random XY positions", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 464, + 505, + 477 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 464, + 505, + 477 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in a plane, as shown in Figure 10. The input to the policy is the joint and velocity of each angle", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 474, + 505, + 487 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 474, + 505, + 487 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the reward is the distance to the goal XY-position. While the goal space is known to reside in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 486, + 505, + 498 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 486, + 505, + 498 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the XY-plane, the agent does not know about the location of the center obstacle, and so it must still", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 496, + 506, + 510 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 496, + 506, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learn about the set of valid goals by controlling its 8 joint actuators. 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MethodNLL
MLE on uniform (oracle)20175.4
Skew-Fit onunbalanced20175.9
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MethodNLL
MLE on uniform (oracle)20175.4
Skew-Fit onunbalanced20175.9
MLEon unbalanced20178.03
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Values of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 463, + 328, + 470, + 336 + ], + "score": 0.73, + "content": "\\alpha", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 471, + 326, + 505, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "less than", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 338, + 397, + 349 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 338, + 119, + 348 + ], + "score": 0.67, + "content": "^ { - 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 338, + 397, + 349 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are numerically unstable for importance sampling (IS), but not for Skew-Fit.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 14.5 + } + ], + "index": 11.75 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 356, + 505, + 488 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 356, + 505, + 369 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 356, + 505, + 369 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We measure the gradient variance of training a VAE on an unbalanced Visual Door image dataset with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 366, + 506, + 380 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 366, + 506, + 380 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Skew-Fit vs Skew-Fit with importance sampling (IS) vs no Skew-Fit (labeled MLE). 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We found that maximum entropy policies", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 277, + 506, + 290 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 277, + 506, + 290 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in general improved the performance of RIG, and that we did not need to add noise on top of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 288, + 505, + 300 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 288, + 505, + 300 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the stochastic policy’s noise. 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We found that maximum entropy policies", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 277, + 506, + 290 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 277, + 506, + 290 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in general improved the performance of RIG, and that we did not need to add noise on top of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 288, + 505, + 300 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 288, + 505, + 300 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the stochastic policy’s noise. 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Hyper-parameterValue
AlgorithmTD3 Fujimoto et al. (2018)a
# training batches per time step1
Q network hidden sizes400,300
Policy network hidden sizes400,300
Q network and policy activationReLU
Exploration NoiseNone
RL Batch Size1024
Discount Factor0.99
Path length25
Reward Scaling100
Number of steps per epoch5000
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Hyper-parameterValueComments
# training batches per time step2Marginal improvementsafter2
Exploration NoiseNone (SAC policy is stochastic)Did not tune
RL Batch Size1024smaller batch sizes work as well
VAE Batch Size64Did not tune
Discount Factor0.99Did not tune
Reward Scaling1Did not tune
Path length100Did not tune
Replay Buffer Size100000Did not tune
Number of Latents for Estimating Density(N)10Marginal improvements beyond 10
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Hyper-parameterVisualPusherVisual DoorVisual PickupReal World Visual Door
Path Length5010050100
β for β-VAE20203060
Latent Dimension Size4161616
α for Skew-Fit-1-1/2-1-1/2
VAE Training Schedule2121
Sample Goals FromPPskewedPskewedPskewed
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Hyper-parameterValue
AlgorithmTD3 Fujimoto et al. (2018)a
# training batches per time step1
Q network hidden sizes400,300
Policy network hidden sizes400,300
Q network and policy activationReLU
Exploration NoiseNone
RL Batch Size1024
Discount Factor0.99
Path length25
Reward Scaling100
Number of steps per epoch5000
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Hyper-parameterValueComments
# training batches per time step2Marginal improvementsafter2
Exploration NoiseNone (SAC policy is stochastic)Did not tune
RL Batch Size1024smaller batch sizes work as well
VAE Batch Size64Did not tune
Discount Factor0.99Did not tune
Reward Scaling1Did not tune
Path length100Did not tune
Replay Buffer Size100000Did not tune
Number of Latents for Estimating Density(N)10Marginal improvements beyond 10
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Hyper-parameterVisualPusherVisual DoorVisual PickupReal World Visual Door
Path Length5010050100
β for β-VAE20203060
Latent Dimension Size4161616
α for Skew-Fit-1-1/2-1-1/2
VAE Training Schedule2121
Sample Goals FromPPskewedPskewedPskewed
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The observation is the 2D position, and the agent must specify a velocity as the 2D action.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 506, + 501 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 506, + 501 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The reward at each time step is the negative distance between the achieved position and desired", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 54 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 500, + 144, + 511 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 500, + 144, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "position.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 55 + } + ], + "index": 53.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 466, + 506, + 511 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 516, + 505, + 582 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 516, + 505, + 528 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 516, + 145, + 528 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Maze: A", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 516, + 195, + 527 + ], + "score": 0.53, + "content": "2 0 \\times 2 0 \\ : 2 \\mathrm { D }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 195, + 516, + 505, + 528 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "pointmass environment in the shape of a maze. 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The arm must pull the door", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 287, + 505, + 299 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 287, + 384, + 299 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "open to a target angle. The agent controls the arm by commanding the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 384, + 288, + 411, + 298 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "x , y , z", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 411, + 287, + 505, + 299 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "velocity of the EE. Our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 298, + 505, + 310 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 298, + 294, + 310 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "controller commands actions at a rate of up to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 294, + 298, + 318, + 308 + ], + "score": 0.52, + "content": "1 0 \\mathrm { H z }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 318, + 298, + 505, + 310 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with the scale of actions ranging up to 1cm in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 308, + 505, + 321 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 308, + 505, + 321 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "magnitude. The underlying state and goal is the same as in Visual Door. 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The door angle lies in the range", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 445, + 342, + 470, + 354 + ], + "score": 0.27, + "content": "[ 0 , 4 5 ]", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 470, + 342, + 506, + 354 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "degrees.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 19, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 276, + 506, + 354 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 369, + 498, + 382 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 367, + 498, + 384 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 367, + 449, + 384 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "E GOAL-CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT LEARNING MINIMIZES", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 450, + 368, + 498, + 383 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 393, + 505, + 515 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 394, + 506, + 407 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 394, + 506, + 407 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Some goal-conditioned RL methods such as Warde-Farley et al. (2018); Nair et al. (2018) present", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 405, + 506, + 419 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 405, + 282, + 419 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods for minimizing a lower bound for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 282, + 405, + 323, + 417 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 323, + 405, + 402, + 419 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", by approximating", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 402, + 405, + 453, + 417 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\log p ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 454, + 405, + 506, + 419 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and using it", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 415, + 506, + 428 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 415, + 506, + 428 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as the reward. Other goal-conditioned RL methods (Kaelbling, 1993; Lillicrap et al., 2016; Schaul", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 427, + 506, + 439 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 427, + 506, + 439 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2015; Andrychowicz et al., 2017; Pong et al., 2018; Florensa et al., 2018a) are not developed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 438, + 506, + 450 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 438, + 336, + 450 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with the intention of minimizing the conditional entropy", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 336, + 438, + 376, + 450 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 377, + 438, + 506, + 450 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Nevertheless, one can see that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 448, + 506, + 462 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 448, + 280, + 462 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goal-conditioned RL generally minimizes", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 449, + 322, + 461 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 323, + 448, + 506, + 462 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by noting that the optimal goal-conditioned", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 459, + 506, + 473 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 459, + 506, + 473 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policy will deterministically reach the goal. The corresponding conditional entropy of the goal given", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 471, + 506, + 484 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 471, + 144, + 484 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the state,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 471, + 185, + 483 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 185, + 471, + 506, + 484 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", would be zero, since given the current state, there would be no uncertainty over", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 482, + 506, + 494 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 482, + 506, + 494 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the goal (the goal must have been the current state since the policy is optimal). So, the objective of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 493, + 506, + 506 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 493, + 374, + 506 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goal-conditioned RL can be interpreted as finding a policy such that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 375, + 493, + 434, + 505 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\mathcal { H } ( \\mathbf { G } \\mid \\mathbf { S } ) = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 434, + 493, + 506, + 506 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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Hyper-parameterVisualPusherVisual DoorVisual PickupReal World Visual Door
Path Length5010050100
β for β-VAE20203060
Latent Dimension Size4161616
α for Skew-Fit-1-1/2-1-1/2
VAE Training Schedule2121
Sample Goals FromPPskewedPskewedPskewed
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Hyper-parameterValueComments
# training batches per time step2Marginal improvementsafter2
Exploration NoiseNone (SAC policy is stochastic)Did not tune
RL Batch Size1024smaller batch sizes work as well
VAE Batch Size64Did not tune
Discount Factor0.99Did not tune
Reward Scaling1Did not tune
Path length100Did not tune
Replay Buffer Size100000Did not tune
Number of Latents for Estimating Density(N)10Marginal improvements beyond 10
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Hyper-parameterValue
AlgorithmTD3 Fujimoto et al. (2018)a
# training batches per time step1
Q network hidden sizes400,300
Policy network hidden sizes400,300
Q network and policy activationReLU
Exploration NoiseNone
RL Batch Size1024
Discount Factor0.99
Path length25
Reward Scaling100
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0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..1aca56d28d11dad22c811a680816ff40287fa2ef --- /dev/null +++ b/parse/train/rJlEojAqFm/rJlEojAqFm.md @@ -0,0 +1,291 @@ +# RELATIONAL FORWARD MODELS FOR MULTI-AGENT LEARNING + +Andrea Tacchetti\*, H. Francis Song\*, Pedro A. M. Mediano\*, Vinicius Zambaldi, +János Kramár, Neil C. Rabinowitz, Thore Graepel, Matthew Botvinick & Peter W. Battaglia +\* denotes equal contrubtion +Google DeepMind +{atacchet,songf,pmediano,vzambaldi +janosk,ncr,thore,botvinick,peterbattaglia}@google.com + +# ABSTRACT + +The behavioral dynamics of multi-agent systems have a rich and orderly structure, which can be leveraged to understand these systems, and to improve how artificial agents learn to operate in them. Here we introduce Relational Forward Models (RFM) for multi-agent learning, networks that can learn to make accurate predictions of agents’ future behavior in multi-agent environments. Because these models operate on the discrete entities and relations present in the environment, they produce interpretable intermediate representations which offer insights into what drives agents’ behavior, and what events mediate the intensity and valence of social interactions. Furthermore, we show that embedding RFM modules inside agents results in faster learning systems compared to non-augmented baselines. As more and more of the autonomous systems we develop and interact with become multi-agent in nature, developing richer analysis tools for characterizing how and why agents make decisions is increasingly necessary. Moreover, developing artificial agents that quickly and safely learn to coordinate with one another, and with humans in shared environments, is crucial. + +# 1 INTRODUCTION + +The study of multi-agent systems has received considerable attention in recent years and some of the most advanced autonomous systems in the world today are multi-agent in nature (e.g. assembly lines and warehouse management systems). In particular, research in multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL), where multiple learning agents perceive and act in a shared environment, has produced impressive results (Jaderberg et al., 2018; Pachocki et al., 2018; Leibo et al., 2017; Hughes et al., 2018; Peysakhovich & Lerer, 2017a; Lerer & Peysakhovich, 2017; Bansal et al., 2017; Lanctot et al., 2017). + +One of the outstanding challenges in this domain is how to foster coordinated behavior among learning agents. In hand-engineered multi-agent systems (e.g. assembly lines), it is possible to obtain coordination by design, where expert engineers carefully orchestrate each agent’s behavior and role in the system. This, however, rules out situations where either humans or artificial learning agents are present in the environment. In learning-based systems, there have been some successes by introducing a centralized controller (D’Andrea, 2012; Foerster et al., 2016; 2017; Hong et al., 2017; Lowe et al., 2017). However, these cannot scale to large number of agents or to mixed human-robot ensembles. There is thus an increasing focus on multi-agent systems that learn how to coordinate on their own (Jaderberg et al., 2018; Pachocki et al., 2018; Perolat et al., 2017). + +Alongside the challenges of learning coordinated behaviors, there are also the challenges of measuring them. In learning-based systems, the analysis tools currently available to researchers focus on the functioning of each single agent, and are ill-equipped to characterize systems of diverse agents as a whole. Moreover, there has been little development of tools for measuring the contextual interdependence of agents’ behaviors in complex environment, which will be valuable for identifying the conditions under which agents are successfully coordinating. + +Here we address these two challenges by developing Relational Forward Models (RFM) for multiagent systems. We build on recent advances in neural networks that effectively perform relational reasoning with graph networks (GN) (Battaglia et al., 2018) to construct models that learn to predict the forward dynamics of multi-agent systems. First, we show that our models can surpass previous top methods on this task (Kipf et al., 2018; Hoshen, 2017). Perhaps more importantly, they produce intermediate representations that support the social analysis of multi-agent systems: we use our models to propose a new way to characterize what drives each agent’s behavior, track when agents influence each other, and identify which factors in the environment mediate the presence and valence of social interactions. Finally, we embed our models inside agents and use them to augment the host agent’s observations with predictions of others’ behavior. Our results show that this leads to agents that learn to coordinate with one another faster than non-augmented baselines. + +# 1.1 RELATED WORK + +Relational reasoning has received considerable attention in recent years and researchers have developed deep learning models that operate on graphs, rather than vectors or images, and structure their computations accordingly. These methods have been successfully applied to learning the forward dynamics of systems comprised of multiple entities and a rich relational structure, like physics simulation, multi-object scenes, visual question answering and motion-capture data (Scarselli et al., 2009; Battaglia et al., 2016; Raposo et al., 2017; Santoro et al., 2017; Gilmer et al., 2017; Watters et al., 2017; Kipf et al., 2018; Zambaldi et al., 2018). Recently, this class of methods have been shown to successfully predict the forward dynamics of multi-agent systems, like basketball or soccer games, and to some extent, to provide insights into the relational and social structures present in the data (Hoshen, 2017; Kipf et al., 2018; Zhan et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2017). + +With the recent renaissance of deep-learning methods in general, and of deep reinforcement learning (RL) in particular, considerable attention has been devoted to developing analysis tools that allow researchers to understand what drives agents’ behavior, what are the most common failure modes and provide insights into the inner workings of learning systems (Zeiler & Fergus, 2013; Yosinski et al., 2015; Olah et al., 2017; Morcos et al., 2018). In particular, Rabinowitz et al. (2018) embed entire behavioral trajectories of single RL agents as points in an unstructured, high-dimensional space, relying on the inherent structure of the data to yield interpretable representations of whole behavioral motifs. + +Finally, coordination in multi-agent system has been a topic of major interest as of late and some of the most advanced MARL systems rely on the emergence of coordination among teammates to complete the task at hand (Jaderberg et al., 2018; Pachocki et al., 2018). Despite these recent successes, coordination is still considered a hard problem and several attempts have been made to promote the emergence of coordination by relaxing some assumptions (Foerster et al., 2016; 2017; Sukhbaatar et al., 2016; Raileanu et al., 2018; He et al., 2016a). Here we show that, by embedding RFM modules in RL agents, they can learn to coordinate with one another faster than baseline agents, analogous to imagination-augmented agents in single-agent RL settings (Hamrick et al., 2017; Pascanu et al., 2017; Weber et al., 2017). + +# 2 RELATIONAL ANALYSIS OF MARL SYSTEMS + +# 2.1 METHODS + +Our RFM is based on graph networks (GN) (Battaglia et al., 2018), and is trained by supervised learning to predict the dynamics of multi-agent systems. Our model takes as input a semantic description of the state of the environment, and outputs either an action prediction for each agent, or a prediction of the cumulative reward each agent will receive until the end of the episode. We show that our model performs well at these tasks, and crucially, produces interpretable intermediate representations that are useful both as analysis tools, and as inputs to artificial agents who can exploit these predictions to improve their decision-making. + +![](images/a1361e59b1d9307a42f513fe008b2b608f8f2ccb922fe1672153e2e14fd23f9f.jpg) +Figure 1: (a) The RFM module stacks a GN Encoder, a Graph GRU and a GN Decoder to obtain a relational reasoning module that holds state information across time steps. (b) Example of an environment graph representation. Edges connect agents (magenta and orange) to all entities and are color-coded according to the identity of the receiver. (c) RFM-augmented agents, the output of the the RFM module is appended to the original observation input to the policy network. The on-board RFM module is trained with full supervision and alongside the policy network. + +# 2.1.1 RELATIONAL FORWARD MODELS AND BASELINES ARCHITECTURES + +A GN is a neural network that operates on graphs. The input to a GN is a directed graph, $( u , V , E )$ , where $u \in \mathbb { R } ^ { d _ { u } }$ is a graph-level attribute vector (e.g. the score in a football game), $V = \{ v _ { i } \} _ { i = 1 : n _ { v } }$ is a set of vertices (e.g. the players) with attributes $\bar { v _ { i } } \in \mathbb { R } ^ { d _ { v } }$ (e.g the players’ $( x , y )$ coordinates on the pitch), and $E = \{ ( \bar { e } _ { k } , r _ { k } , s _ { k } ) \} _ { k = 1 : n _ { e } }$ is a set of directed edges which connect sender vertex, $v _ { s _ { k } }$ to receiver vertex ${ \boldsymbol { v } } _ { { \boldsymbol { r } } _ { k } }$ and have attribute $e _ { k } \in \mathbb { R } ^ { d _ { e } }$ (e.g. same team or opponent). The output of a GN is also a graph, with the same connectivity structure as the input graph (i.e., same number of vertices and edges, as well as same sender and receiver for each edge), but updated global, vertex, and edge attributes. See Fig. 1b for an example graph. + +The sequence of computations in a GN proceed by updating the edge attributes, followed by the vertex attributes, and finally the global attributes. These computations are implemented via three “update” functions (the $\phi \mathbf { s } _ { \cdot }$ ) and three “aggregation” functions (the $\rho \mathbf { s } _ { , }$ ), + +$$ +\begin{array} { l l } { { e _ { k } ^ { \prime } = \phi ^ { e } \left( e _ { k } , v _ { r _ { k } } , v _ { s _ { k } } , u \right) , } } & { { \qquad { \bar { e } } _ { i } ^ { \prime } = \rho ^ { e \to v } \left( E _ { i } ^ { \prime } \right) , } } \\ { { v _ { i } ^ { \prime } = \phi ^ { v } \left( { \bar { e } } _ { i } ^ { \prime } , v _ { i } , u \right) , } } & { { \qquad { \bar { v } } ^ { \prime } = \rho ^ { v \to u } \left( V ^ { \prime } \right) , } } \\ { { u ^ { \prime } = \phi ^ { u } \left( { \bar { e } } ^ { \prime } , { \bar { v } } ^ { \prime } , u \right) , } } & { { \qquad { \bar { e } } ^ { \prime } = \rho ^ { e \to u } \left( E ^ { \prime } \right) } } \end{array} +$$ + +where $E _ { i } ^ { \prime } = \{ ( e _ { k } ^ { \prime } , r _ { k } , s _ { k } ) \} _ { r _ { k } = i }$ . The edges are updated by $\phi ^ { e }$ , as a function of the sender vertex, receiver vertex, edge, and global attributes. We term the updated edge attribute the “message”, $\boldsymbol { e } _ { k } ^ { \prime }$ . Next, each vertex, $i$ , is updated by aggregating the $\boldsymbol { e } _ { k } ^ { \prime }$ messages for which $i = r _ { k }$ , and computing the updated vertex attribute, $\boldsymbol { v } _ { i } ^ { \prime }$ , as a function $( \phi ^ { v } )$ of these aggregated messages, as well as the current vertex and global attributes. Finally, the global attributes are updated, by $\phi ^ { u }$ , as a function of the current global attribute and all aggregated $\boldsymbol { e } _ { k } ^ { \prime }$ and $\boldsymbol { v } _ { i } ^ { \prime }$ attributes. + +Since a GN takes as input a graph and outputs a graph, GN blocks can be composed to form more complex, and powerful, architectures. These architecture can also be made recurrent in time by introducing a state graph, and using recurrent neural networks (RNNs) as the $\phi$ functions. GN-based architectures can be optimized with respect to some objective function by gradient descent (using backpropagation through time for recurrent implementations). Here we focus on supervised learning using datasets of input-output pairs. See (Battaglia et al., 2018) for further details. + +We construct our RFM architecture by arranging three GN blocks as in Fig. 1a. We selected this specific architecture to allow our model to perform relational reasoning steps both on the raw input data, before time recurrence is included, and then again on the output of our time recurrent block. This allows the recurrent block to construct memories of the relations between entities and not simply of their current state. + +Architecture details are as follows: input graphs $G _ { \mathrm { i n } } ^ { t }$ go through a GN encoder block, a basic GN module whose $\phi ^ { v }$ , $\phi ^ { e }$ and $\phi ^ { u }$ are three separate 64-unit MLPs, with 1 hidden layer, and ReLU activations and whose functions are summations. The output of the GN encoder block is used, in conjunction with a state graph Unit (GRU) (Cho et al., 2014) $G _ { \mathrm { h i d } } ^ { t - 1 }$ , in a “GraphGRU”, where each a hidden state size of 32 for eac $\phi$ function is a Gated Recurrentof vertices, edges and globals. The GraphGRU’s output is then copied into a state graph and an output graph. The state graph is used in the following time step, while the output graph is passed through a GN decoder block. This last block’s structure has an identical to the GN encoder’s, and outputs the model’s predictions (e.g. the actions of each agent). + +We compared the prediction performance of our RFM module to two state-of-the-art relational reasoning baselines: Neural Relational Inference networks (Kipf et al., 2018) and Vertex Attention Interaction Networks (Hoshen, 2017). These architectures are similar to our RFM module. In particular, NRI models operate on graph structured data and, with the exception that the graph connectivity map is not given, but rather estimated from trajectories using an auto-encoder architecture, they are identical to our model. VAIN networks are essentially single feed-forward GN blocks where the $\phi ^ { e }$ and $\rho ^ { e \to v }$ functions take particular and restricted form: $\phi ^ { e } ( e _ { k } , v _ { r _ { k } } , v _ { s _ { k } } , u ) = e ^ { \| a ( v _ { r _ { k } } ) - a ( v _ { s _ { k } } ) \| ^ { 2 } }$ and $\rho ^ { e v } ( \not E _ { i } ^ { \prime } ) = v _ { i } \sum _ { s _ { k } } e _ { k } ^ { \prime }$ , with $a ( \cdot )$ a learnable function. + +We also compared our full RFM against ablated variants, which allowed us to measure the importance of the relational reasoning component, and of time recurrence. In particular we considered a Feedforward model, which had no GraphGRU block, and a No-relation model, which was a full fledged RFM module but operated on graphs with only self-connections (i.e., edges where $s _ { i } = r _ { i } ,$ ). Finally, we included a vector-based $\mathbf { M L P + L S T M }$ model among our baselines, so as to highlight the advantage of using graphs over vector based modules. This last model operated on the concatenation of the vertex attributes and had a standard Encoder MLP (64-units), LSTM (32-hidden units), Decoder MLP (2 hidden layers, 32-units each) architecture. We matched all models for capacity (with the exception of NRI which has about $3 \mathbf { x }$ more parameters than other models because of its autoencoder connectivity map estimator). Models were within $3 \%$ of each other in terms of number of parameters (as reported by the TensorFlow checkpoint loader). + +# 2.1.2 MARL ENVIRONMENTS AND AGENT ARCHITECTURE + +We considered three multi-agent environments for our study: Cooperative Navigation (Lowe et al., 2017), Coin Game (Raileanu et al., 2018) and Stag Hunt (Peysakhovich & Lerer, 2017b). + +Cooperative Navigation (Lowe et al., 2017). Two agents navigate an empty $6 \times 6$ arena to cover two tiles. A reward of $+ 1$ is given to both agents whenever both tiles are covered, i.e., when each agent is on a tile of its own. Episodes are of fixed length (20 environment steps), to encourage a swift resolution of the underlying assignment problem. The positions of both tiles and the starting positions of each agent are randomized at the start of each episode. + +Coin Game (Raileanu et al., 2018). Two agents roam an $8 \times 8$ arena populated with 12 coins, 4 of each of 3 colors, for 10 environment steps. Agents can collect coins by stepping on them; out of the 3 coin colors, two colors carried a reward and one a punishment. Crucially, each of the two agents only has access to information about 1 good color. The short episode duration incentivizes agents to quickly infer what the unknown good color is by observing their teammate actions, so that all good coins can be collected. At the end of each episode both agents are rewarded according to how many good coins have been collected by either agent. Conversely, they are penalized according to the number of bad coins collected, again by either agent. The role of each color, coin positions, and starting coordinates for the agents are randomized in each episode. + +Stag Hunt (Peysakhovich & Lerer, 2017b). We implemented a Markov version of the classic Stag Hunt game where two (or four) agents navigate an arena populated with 3 red Stags (each of which is static, and occupies a $2 \times 2$ tile) and 12 green apples, for 32 environment steps. Agents can collect apples by themselves for a reward of $+ 1$ or, by both stepping on the same stag, capture it for a reward of $+ 1 0$ . Collected apples and captured stags became unavailable for some time (denoted by dimmed colors), and at each time step have a small probability of becoming available again. All entities’ locations are randomized at the start of each episode. + +We trained populations of RL agents to convergence on these three tasks using a multi-agent implementation of importance-weighted actor-learner (Jaderberg et al., 2018; Espeholt et al., 2018), a batched advantage actor-critic (A2C) algorithm. For each episode, a group of agents were randomly sampled, with replacement, from a population of 4 learners; at each time step agents received an ego-centric, top-down view of the environment which was large enough to contain the entire arena, and, in the Coin Game, one of the 2 good colors. Agents then selected one of 5 actions to be performed (move left, move right, move up, move down, and stay). Within each agent, the input image was parsed by a single convolutional layer $3 \times 3$ -filters, 6 output channels) whose output was fed to a 256-unit single-layer MLP. The MLP output vector was concatenated with each player’s last reward, and one-hot encoded last action, as well as, for the Coin Game, one of the two coin colors that carried a positive reward. The resulting vector served as input to a 256-hidden-units LSTM whose output was fed into a single soft-max layer. Throughout the learning process, there was no sharing of weights, gradients or any communication channel between the agents, consistent with standard MARL settings. + +![](images/22ee00c20cc9be260628d783715e7ea87bf98a8f093ada01077139d180c8231c.jpg) +Figure 2: Action prediction performance of our RFM module and baseline models. The reported quantity is the mean number of environment steps for which the predicted actions matched the ground truth exactly, for all agents. Mean across 128 episodes, bars indicate standard deviation across episodes. Alternative measures of model performance show similar results (Fig. 10). + +# .1.3 OFFLINE TRAJECTORIES COLLECTION AND MODEL TRAINING + +To train the forward RFM model, we collected 500,000 episodes of behavioral trajectories of trained agents acting in their respective environments. At each time step, we collected a semantic description of the state of the environment, as well as the action taken by each agent and the reward they received. These descriptions were compiled into a graph, where agents and static entities (i.e., apples, stags, coins, and tiles) were represented by vertices whose attributes, $v _ { i }$ , were: the entity’s position in the arena; the one-hot encoded type of the entity (e.g. agent, apple, etc.); (when applicable) the entity’s state (e.g. available / collected); and (when applicable) the last action taken. When attributes were not applicable (e.g. the last action of an apple), we padded the corresponding attribute features with zeros. Edges connected all non-agent entities to all agents as well as agents to each other. Input edges contained no attributes and were characterized by senders and receivers only (see Fig. 1b for an example environment graph). In order to understand our analysis contributions, it is crucial to note that while the input graph to our RFM module contained no edge attributes, and edges were simply characterized by their sender and receiver vertices, the edges of a RFM’s output graph did contain attributes. These attributes were computed by the network itself and amounted to distributed representations of the effect the sender entity had on the receiver agent. + +We also collected 2,500 further episode trajectories for performance reporting and analysis. Training of both RFM and baseline models was conducted using gradient descent to minimize the cross-entropy loss between predicted and ground-truth actions. The training procedure was halted after one million steps, during each of which the gradient was estimated using a batch of 128 episodes. Results are presented in Sec. 2.2.1. + +# 2.2 RESULTS + +# 2.2.1 ACTION PREDICTION PERFORMANCE + +We trained our RFM modules and baseline models to predict the actions of each agent in each of the three games we considered. Models were given a graph representation of the state of the environment, and produced an action prediction for each agent. After training (see Sec. 2.1.3), we used held-out episodes to assess the performance of each model in terms of mean length of perfect roll-out: the mean number of steps during which prediction and ground truth do not diverge. This metric gives us a measure of how long we could simulate the agents’ behavior before making a mistake. For completeness, we report next-action classification accuracy in Sec. A.5. + +Results are shown in Fig. 2. As expected, all models achieve similar scores on the Coop Nav game, which is a rather simple environment. Our RFM module outperforms the NRI baseline by a substantial margin on the Coin Game and Stag Hunt environments. Since the two models are identical, except for the initial graph structure inference step, this result suggests that when the importance of some relations is revealed over time, rather than obvious from the start, the graph structure inference step proposed in NRI might not be appropriate. Our RFM consistently outperforms the VAIN model, and on Stag Hunt our Feedforward model does as well. This indicates that, for this particular task, distributed interaction representations are superior to simple attention weights. Finally, the MLP+LSTM and No-relation models performed worst across the board, which suggests that relations between entities, rather than the state of the entities themselves, carry most of the predictive power in these environments. + +These results reproduce and advance the conclusion that relational models can be trained to perform action prediction for multi-agent systems, and are superior to non-relational models for this task (Kipf et al., 2018; Hoshen, 2017). + +2.2.2 RELATIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE STAG HUNT GAME: ACTIONS + +Here we introduce our relational analysis tools and use the Stag Hunt game as a case study. While we illustrate our findings on a simple game, these intuitions can be easily transferred to more complex domains. + +We propose the Euclidean norm of a message vector (i.e., $\| e _ { k } ^ { \prime } \| ,$ as a measure of the influence a sender entity, $v _ { s _ { k } }$ , has on a receiver, ${ \boldsymbol { v } } _ { { \boldsymbol { r } } _ { k } }$ . We validate this suggestion in Fig. 3 (top row), where we show that the edge norm between a sender entity (either a stag or an apple) and a receiver agent is predictive of which entity the agent will move towards, or away from, at the next time step. + +This intuition can be developed to discover the events that qualitatively change agents’ behavior, as well as the factors that mediate how agents interact with one another. Fig. 3 (middle row), for example, shows how the norm of an edge between a stag and an agent changes over time. The importance of the relation is modulated by the prey’s state: when a stag becomes available, the edge norm rises substantially; when a stag is consumed, the edge norm drops. Remarkably, the presence or absence of a stag also influences the edge norm between the two teammates, as shown in Fig. 3 (bottom row): in the time step immediately before they consume a stag, the edge between the two teammates is higher than immediately afterwards. In contrast, this effect does not occur with apples, which do not require coordination between teammates to consume. Finally, as shown in Fig. 3 (bottom row), we find that agents’ influence on each other’s behavior is higher when there is a scarcity of apples (as agents compete for this resource). We note that while significant changes in edge norm or the rank order of edge norm can be used to discover events that qualitatively change agents behavior and factors that mediate agents’ social interaction, the raw values have no intrinsic meaning. + +Taken as a whole, these findings highlight how the norm of the edge messages, computed by a RFM which is trained to predict the future actions in a multi-agent system, contain intepretable and quantifiable information about when and how certain entities and relations influence agents’ behavior, and about which entities and situations mediate the social influence between agents. + +# 2.2.3 RELATIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE STAG HUNT GAME: RETURN + +A second key finding is that beyond measuring the intensity of a social influence relation, RFM modules can also be used to quantify their valence. We trained a RFM model to predict the return received by each agent (until the end of the episode), rather than their future action. We used this model to measure the marginal utility of the actual social context, i.e., to ask: what would happen to agent 1’s return if we didn’t know the exact state of agent 2? + +![](images/8876b23114a521b0b294b75e762708512458f6464005314b1c15a14f48e77a2a.jpg) +(c) Edge activation magnitude discovers situations that alter agents’ social influence. +Figure 3: Edge analysis. Top-row: the norm of output edge activations is predictive of future behavior. On the $y$ -axis we plot the average relative displacement between the agent (receiver) and an entity (sender), we order the plot by the rank of the edge activation magnitude; predictive power declines sharply with rank. Middle-row: edge activations discover what agents care about and how this changes over time, here we have time series plots (left and right) of an edge activation norm when a stag becomes available and unavailable, and averages over all time steps grouped by stag state (middle). Bottom row: when stags become available, agents care about each other more than just before that happens, $\mathit { p } < 0 . 0 5$ ; middle). Apples becoming available has no effect $p = 0 . 2 7$ ; middle). See also control experiments in Fig. 9. The norm of the edge connecting the two agents is also modulated by scarcity (right), agents compete for apple consumption and the fewer apple there are, the more the two agents influence each other behavior $\mathrm { \Delta \cdot } r = - 0 . 3 9$ , $p < 0 . 0 5 )$ . + +The proposed approach is to effectively compare two estimators for agent 1’s return: + +$$ +\begin{array} { r l r } { { \hat { R } _ { \mathrm { F u l l \ g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } = M ( s _ { a _ { 1 } } , s _ { a _ { 2 } } , z ) } } \\ & { } & { \hat { R } _ { \mathrm { P r u n e d \ g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } = M ( s _ { a _ { 1 } } , z ) } \\ & { } & { \approx \int M ( s _ { a _ { 1 } } , s _ { a _ { 2 } } ^ { \prime } , z ) p ( s _ { a _ { 2 } } ^ { \prime } | s _ { a _ { 1 } } , z ) d s _ { a _ { 2 } } ^ { \prime } } \end{array} +$$ + +![](images/bb970aebc8d62ab60c6adf6d02f55bb9c660ccfb7b0cee19a26f6fb03d0b6f3e.jpg) +Figure 4: Return analysis: we trained our RFM model to predict the return (until the end of the episode) received by each agent. We trained our model on graphs with and without edges connecting the two Full graph Pruned Graph estimates that the social influence has a positive marginal utility. (Right) $\bar { \hat { R } } _ { \mathrm { F u l l g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } - \hat { R } _ { \mathrm { P r u n e d G r a p h } } ^ { \bar { a } _ { 1 } }$ uth and predicted return (using both graphs) for a sample episode. (Middle)around the time a stag is captured. Positive value indicates that the model $\hat { R } _ { \mathrm { F u l l g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } - \hat { R } _ { \mathrm { P r u } } ^ { a _ { 1 } }$ ned Graph right before and right after a stag is captured: agents’ influence are most beneficial for each other when they a capture a stag. Episodes ran for 128 steps for this analysis. + +where $\hat { R } _ { \mathrm { F u l l \ g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } }$ is the model $M$ ’s estimate of the return received by agent 1, given the state of both agents 1 and 2, and all other environment variables, $z$ , whereas $\hat { R } _ { \mathrm { P r u n e d g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } }$ is that same estimate, without knowledge of the state of agent 2 (i.e., marginalizing out $s _ { a _ { 2 } }$ ). In practice, this latter estimate can be obtained by removing the edge connecting the two agents from the input graph1. + +If we find thagent 2 (i.e., $\hat { R } _ { \mathrm { F u l l g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } > \hat { R } _ { \mathrm { P r u n e d g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } )$ e predicted return decreases when removing information about, we would conclude that the actual state of agent 2 results in a better-than-expected return for agent 1, that is, agent 2 is helping agent 1. Conversely, if the predicted return increases we would conclude that agent 2 is hindering agent 1. + +We ran this experiment using a set-up identical to the one we used for action prediction, except for three modifications: (1) the target variable and (2) loss function were changed, from cross-entropy between predicted and ground-truth actions, to mean squared error between predicted and true return; and (3) the training set contained an equal proportion of environment graphs with and without edges between teammates. The latter modification ensured that the pruned-graph computations were not out-of-distribution. The ground truth and predicted return (using both the full and pruned graph) for a sample episode are shown in Fig. 4 (left). + +We note that within this setup, both the pruned-graph estimator and the full-graph estimator are produced by a single graph neural network. This network is trained to predict agent 1’s return both using the full graph (i.e. knowing the actual state of $a _ { 2 }$ ) and the pruned graph (i.e. not knowing the actual state of $a _ { 2 }$ ). During training we randomly drop out edges between teammates (to ensure that both full graph and pruned graph are in-distribution for $M$ ). At test time, we then compute the full-graph estimate by using all edges, and the pruned-graph estimator by dropping out edges between teammates. + +Similar to the edge-norm relational analysis above, we can find the entities and events that mediate the value of a social interaction. Fa teammate’s particular state (i.e. $\hat { R } _ { \mathrm { F u l l g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } - \hat { R } _ { \mathrm { P r u n e d G r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } )$ le and right) show the marginal value of over time and around the time of a stag capture. Thus the model estimates that teammates’ specific interactions during this time are beneficial to their return. + +![](images/6b23386f80013c5f206166b19af3d5594a967b3f8971e8aafae43255f6addeb1.jpg) +Figure 5: Training curves for A2C agents with and without on-board RFM modules. Allowing agents to access the output of a RFM module results in agents that learn to coordinate faster than baseline agents. This also scales to different number of agents. Importantly, the on-board RFM module is trained alongside the policy network, and there is no sharing of parameters or gradients between the agents. We also show curves for training alongside learning teammates in Fig. 8. Embedding an RFM is also more beneficial than embedding an MLP+LSTM (see Fig. 7.) + +# 3 RFM-AUGMENTED AGENTS + +# 3.1 METHODS + +We have shown that relational reasoning modules capture information about the social dynamics of multi-agent environments. We now detail how these modules’ predictions can be useful for improving MARL agents’ speed of learning. We extended the agent architecture (described in Sec. 2.1.2) by embedding a RFM module in each agent, and augmenting the policy network’s observations with the RFM’s output. This agent architecture is depicted in Fig. 1c. + +Incorporating an on-board RFM module did not provide the agents with any additional information above and beyond that provided to baseline agents. All games were fully observable, so the additional inputs (i.e. the true last action, and the environment graph, which was provided as input to the embedded RFM) did not add any new information to the original egocentric observations. Similarly, the on-board RFM modules were trained from scratch alongside the policy networks, while the agents were learning to act, so that no additional game structure was given to the augmented agents. Finally, we highlight that each learning agent in the arena had its own RFM module and policy networks; there was never any sharing of weights, gradients or communication between the agents. + +Our baseline agent policy network architecture comprised of a CNN that processed the actor’s egocentric observation, followed by a MLP+LSTM network that provided action logits (see Sec. 2.1.2 for architecture details). Our augmented agents had an embedded RFM module, which was fed graph representations of the state of the environment, just as in the offline RFM modules in the forward modeling experiments. We trained this module to minimize the cross-entropy loss between its prediction and the last action taken by all fellow agents. We used the prediction output of the on-board RFM module to augment the observation stream at the input of the original policy network. Specifically, the output of the RFM module—predicted action logits for fellow agents—was rendered as image planes whose pixel intensity was proportional to the estimated probability that an agent would be at a certain location at the next time step2. These image planes were appended to the ego-centric top-down observation and fed to the original policy network. + +# 3.1.1 RESULTS + +Our experimental design was relatively straightforward. First, we trained A2C agents (as described in Sec. 2.1.2) to play the three games we considered, as well as a four-player variant of the Stag Hunt game. Second, we paired learning agents with these pre-trained experts: learning agents occupied a single-player slot in each game, while all their teammates were pre-trained experts. We repeated this procedure using both RFM-enhanced agents and baseline A2C agents as learners. During training we recorded the reward received by the singular learning agent in each episode. + +Our results show that agents that explicitly model each other using an on-board RFM learn to coordinate with one another faster than baseline agents (Fig. 5). In Stag Hunt our RFM-augmented agent achieves a score above 25 after around 600K steps, while baseline agents required around 1M steps. This effect is even more prominent in the 4-player version of the game where these scores are achieved around 500K and 1M steps respectively. Similarly in Coop Nav baseline agents required twice as many steps of experience to consistently score above 25 as our RFM-augmented agents. Moreover, in the Coin Game environment, the faster learning rate of RFM-augmented agents appears to be due to a superior efficiency in learning to interpret the teammate’s action and infer the negative coin color in each episode (see Sec. A.1). Finally, we found that augmenting agents with on-board RFM modules was more beneficial to agents learning than using $\mathbf { M L P + L S T M }$ models (see Sec. A.2). These results suggest that agents take into account the on-board RFM’s predictions when planning their next action, and that this results in agents that learn faster to coordinate with others, and to discover others’ preferences from their actions. + +# 4 CONCLUSIONS + +Here we showed that our Relational Forward Model can capture the rich social dynamics of multiagent environments, that its intermediate representations contained valuable interpretable information, and that providing this information to learning agents results in faster learning system. + +The analysis tools we introduced allow researchers to answer new questions, which are specifically tailored to multi-agent systems, such as what entities, relations and social interactions drive agents’ behaviors, and what environment events or behavior patterns mediate these social and non-social influence signals. Importantly our methods require no access to agents internals, only to behavioral trajectories, making them amenable to analyzing human behavior, sports and ecological systems. + +Providing agents with access the output of RFM modules results in agents that learn to coordinate with one another faster than non-augmented baselines. We posit that explicit modeling of teammates and opponents is an important research direction in multi-agent RL, and one that might alleviate the need for communication, parameter sharing or centralized controllers to achieve coordination. + +Future work will see our methods applied to more complex and varied domains where artificial and non-artificial agents interact and learn in shared environments. We will focus on identifying entire patterns of behavior for in-agent modeling, so as to adapt the host agent policy more efficiently. + +# REFERENCES + +Trapit Bansal, Jakub Pachocki, Szymon Sidor, Ilya Sutskever, and Igor Mordatch. 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URL http://arxiv.org/abs/1706.07138. + +# A APPENDIX + +# A.1 COIN COLLECTION ANALYSIS IN THE COIN GAME + +![](images/c3298d56aa55ed2094bbd963c48458027cc78a8cf7639c206268ea7efcd2e084.jpg) +Figure 6: Coin collection analysis in the Coin Game. + +As described in the main text, RFM-augmented agents learn the Coin Game faster than non-augmented baseline agents. This appears to result from learning more efficiently to discern their teammate’s preference. In Fig. 6, the middle panel shows the average number of coins of each color (R: revealed good, U: unrevealed good, B: bad) collected by our RFM-augmented agent during an episode. The right panel shows the same quantities for our baseline agent. We find that the gap between the U curve and the B curve is significantly wider for the RFM-augmented agent than it is for the baseline agent (see, for example, around 50M steps). This suggests that the learning efficiency difference is due to a superior ability to discern the teammate’s preferences. + +Finally we highlight that our agents, as well as our baselines, vastly outperform previously-published agents on this game: Separate policy predictor agents (He et al., 2016b) and Self-Other Modeling agents (see Fig. 3 in Raileanu et al. (2018). This might imply that the original paper where this game was suggested had poor baseline agents. We suspect this game is not as complex as it may appear, and that baseline agents are close to optimal; this leaves less room for improvement than other games explored in this work. + +![](images/fee39abd74a6b7b32af1a09248bc0642cc23d753df64a6c5475bed805daa604d.jpg) +A.2 AUGMENTING AGENTS WITH NON-RELATIONAL MODELS +Figure 7: Augmenting agents with predictions from a non-relational model. + +In the main text we showed that agents that explicitly model each other using an on-board RFM learn to coordinate with one another faster than baseline agents. For completeness, we show in Fig. 7 the learning performance of agents that have instead been augmented with $\mathbf { M L P + L S T M }$ models (as described in the main text). The learning performance of these agents (red) falls between baseline agents (green), which do not explicitly model other agents, and the RFM-augmented agents (blue), which use a relational architecture to model their teammates’ behavior. The better performance of RFM-augmented agents is expected, given the more accurate forward predictions that RFMs provide. + +# A.3 TRAINING WITH NON-EXPERT TEAMMATES + +In the main text we showed how RFM augmented agents learn to coordinate with expert teammates faster than non-augmented baselines. This set-up as is relevant for many interesting situations, e.g. + +![](images/125466d1ce71155544de51884daf86a28ed64e99f1599475abbcf5e4d26f1d69.jpg) +Figure 8: Agents training with non-expert teammates. Reward shown as the average return per agent, averaged over four agent seeds. + +![](images/34ecd1e15fae21f59fc0b80a5393a2c1c5fa10f246fea0a9f0182410ea845d9b.jpg) +(a) Stags carry no reward. Differences are not signifi-(b) Stags can be collected by lone hunters. Differences cant $\gamma = 0 . 3 4$ for Stag, $p = 0 . 4 6$ for apples). are not significant $( p = 0 . 6 7$ for Stag, $p = 0 . 3 2$ for apples). +Figure 9: If coordination is not required to collect stags, or if agents are not interested in collecting stags, the edge norm between the two agents is not affected by the appearance of available stags. (Compare to Fig. 3 bottom row left and middle panels.) + +when artificial learning agents interact with human experts. For completeness, we show in Fig. 8 the corresponding results when RFM-augments agents train alongside other learning agents (i.e. non-experts). In this case, either all agents in the environment were RFM-augmented (green), or all agents were baseline (blue). We use longer episodes in these experiments (128 steps, rather than 32) in order to make training easier (hence total returns were higher). For brevity, we only report results on the two-player versions of the games. + +We see a similar result to the main text: allowing agents to model one another explicitly results in faster learning (e.g. in StagHunt $\mathbf { R F M } + \mathbf { A } 2 \mathbf { C }$ achieves scores around 48 around 30M steps while vanilla A2C requires 45M training steps. Similarly in CoinGame $\mathrm { R F M } + \mathrm { A } 2 \mathrm { C }$ achieves a score around 15 in 100M steps while vanilla A2C requires almost 200M steps). We note that this setting presents an additional challenge: a learned model of a teammate’s behavior can only provide useful information for coordination after the teammate’s policy becomes sensible. The advantage conferred by embedding the RFM into the learning agent will thus be delayed relative to the expert teammate condition shown in the main text. Nonetheless, augmenting agents with RFM models still results in faster learning than omitting it altogether. + +# A.4 CONTROL EXPERIMENTS: WHICH EVENTS MEDIATE INTERDEPENDENT BEHAVIOR + +In the main text we showed that our RFM model reveals how agents’ influence on each other is contextual. In particular, we observe in Fig: 3 (bottom row, left and middle panels) that the Euclidean norm of the activation of the edge between the two agents increases when a stag appears. We argue that this indicates that agents coordinate their behavior when stags are available. Here we report control experiments to test alternative hypotheses. In these experiments, we trained agents on two modifications of the StagHunt game, wherein there is no explicit incentive for agents to coordinate: + +• Stags carry no rewards. This tests whether the changes in Fig. 3 could be due to arbitrary changes in the environment. Here our hypothesis predicts that stag appearance would have no effect on edge norms, since agents should learn to ignore them. + +• Stags can be collected by a lone hunter. This tests whether the changes in Fig. 3 could be due to the appearance of new reward-carrying objects that do not require coordination. Again, our hypothesis predicts that stags would have no effect on the edge norm between agents, since collecting a stag does not require coordination, like apples. + +In both cases our experimental pipeline was as described in the main text: (1) train A2C agents on the modified version of the StagHunt game; (2) collect behavioral trajectories from these agents; (3) train a RFM model to predict the action of each agent given the state of the environment; and (4) report the Euclidean norm of the edge activations in the link connecting the two agents at a time just before and just after a Stag or an Apple appear. + +Consistent with our primary hypothesis, there is no significant change in the norm of the activations in the edge connecting two agents when Stags (or apples) appear in these situation. This provides evidence that our RFM model is able to reveal which events in the environment mediate how agents influence each one another. + +# A.5 ACCURACY MEASURE + +![](images/6d8b68227de19a025d238f648f60a2b6036d1cd9e98a45fd0a37649dd47f73ac.jpg) +Figure 10: Next-step action classification accuracy. + +In the main text we show that our RFM model provides longer perfect rollouts than competing models. Here we provide an alternative metric to measure the relative accuracy of different models. In Fig. 10, we show the next-step action classification accuracy, in the same manner as Fig. 2. Model ranking remain unchanged (with the exception of NRI on CoinGame): the RFM outperforms other models on predicting agent behavior. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/parse/train/rJlEojAqFm/rJlEojAqFm_content_list.json b/parse/train/rJlEojAqFm/rJlEojAqFm_content_list.json new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..dd7f374a6449b2d68fd778670df44a76b689ea6c --- /dev/null +++ b/parse/train/rJlEojAqFm/rJlEojAqFm_content_list.json @@ -0,0 +1,1578 @@ +[ + { + "type": "text", + "text": "RELATIONAL FORWARD MODELS FOR MULTI-AGENT LEARNING ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 98, + 823, + 145 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Andrea Tacchetti\\*, H. Francis Song\\*, Pedro A. M. Mediano\\*, Vinicius Zambaldi, \nJános Kramár, Neil C. Rabinowitz, Thore Graepel, Matthew Botvinick & Peter W. Battaglia \n\\* denotes equal contrubtion \nGoogle DeepMind \n{atacchet,songf,pmediano,vzambaldi \njanosk,ncr,thore,botvinick,peterbattaglia}@google.com ", + "bbox": [ + 184, + 169, + 825, + 253 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "ABSTRACT ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 454, + 290, + 544, + 305 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The behavioral dynamics of multi-agent systems have a rich and orderly structure, which can be leveraged to understand these systems, and to improve how artificial agents learn to operate in them. Here we introduce Relational Forward Models (RFM) for multi-agent learning, networks that can learn to make accurate predictions of agents’ future behavior in multi-agent environments. Because these models operate on the discrete entities and relations present in the environment, they produce interpretable intermediate representations which offer insights into what drives agents’ behavior, and what events mediate the intensity and valence of social interactions. Furthermore, we show that embedding RFM modules inside agents results in faster learning systems compared to non-augmented baselines. As more and more of the autonomous systems we develop and interact with become multi-agent in nature, developing richer analysis tools for characterizing how and why agents make decisions is increasingly necessary. Moreover, developing artificial agents that quickly and safely learn to coordinate with one another, and with humans in shared environments, is crucial. ", + "bbox": [ + 233, + 325, + 766, + 534 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "1 INTRODUCTION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 569, + 334, + 584 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The study of multi-agent systems has received considerable attention in recent years and some of the most advanced autonomous systems in the world today are multi-agent in nature (e.g. assembly lines and warehouse management systems). In particular, research in multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL), where multiple learning agents perceive and act in a shared environment, has produced impressive results (Jaderberg et al., 2018; Pachocki et al., 2018; Leibo et al., 2017; Hughes et al., 2018; Peysakhovich & Lerer, 2017a; Lerer & Peysakhovich, 2017; Bansal et al., 2017; Lanctot et al., 2017). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 603, + 825, + 700 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "One of the outstanding challenges in this domain is how to foster coordinated behavior among learning agents. In hand-engineered multi-agent systems (e.g. assembly lines), it is possible to obtain coordination by design, where expert engineers carefully orchestrate each agent’s behavior and role in the system. This, however, rules out situations where either humans or artificial learning agents are present in the environment. In learning-based systems, there have been some successes by introducing a centralized controller (D’Andrea, 2012; Foerster et al., 2016; 2017; Hong et al., 2017; Lowe et al., 2017). However, these cannot scale to large number of agents or to mixed human-robot ensembles. There is thus an increasing focus on multi-agent systems that learn how to coordinate on their own (Jaderberg et al., 2018; Pachocki et al., 2018; Perolat et al., 2017). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 708, + 825, + 833 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Alongside the challenges of learning coordinated behaviors, there are also the challenges of measuring them. In learning-based systems, the analysis tools currently available to researchers focus on the functioning of each single agent, and are ill-equipped to characterize systems of diverse agents as a whole. Moreover, there has been little development of tools for measuring the contextual interdependence of agents’ behaviors in complex environment, which will be valuable for identifying the conditions under which agents are successfully coordinating. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 840, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Here we address these two challenges by developing Relational Forward Models (RFM) for multiagent systems. We build on recent advances in neural networks that effectively perform relational reasoning with graph networks (GN) (Battaglia et al., 2018) to construct models that learn to predict the forward dynamics of multi-agent systems. First, we show that our models can surpass previous top methods on this task (Kipf et al., 2018; Hoshen, 2017). Perhaps more importantly, they produce intermediate representations that support the social analysis of multi-agent systems: we use our models to propose a new way to characterize what drives each agent’s behavior, track when agents influence each other, and identify which factors in the environment mediate the presence and valence of social interactions. Finally, we embed our models inside agents and use them to augment the host agent’s observations with predictions of others’ behavior. Our results show that this leads to agents that learn to coordinate with one another faster than non-augmented baselines. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 825, + 256 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "1.1 RELATED WORK ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 291, + 330, + 305 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Relational reasoning has received considerable attention in recent years and researchers have developed deep learning models that operate on graphs, rather than vectors or images, and structure their computations accordingly. These methods have been successfully applied to learning the forward dynamics of systems comprised of multiple entities and a rich relational structure, like physics simulation, multi-object scenes, visual question answering and motion-capture data (Scarselli et al., 2009; Battaglia et al., 2016; Raposo et al., 2017; Santoro et al., 2017; Gilmer et al., 2017; Watters et al., 2017; Kipf et al., 2018; Zambaldi et al., 2018). Recently, this class of methods have been shown to successfully predict the forward dynamics of multi-agent systems, like basketball or soccer games, and to some extent, to provide insights into the relational and social structures present in the data (Hoshen, 2017; Kipf et al., 2018; Zhan et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2017). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 324, + 825, + 463 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "With the recent renaissance of deep-learning methods in general, and of deep reinforcement learning (RL) in particular, considerable attention has been devoted to developing analysis tools that allow researchers to understand what drives agents’ behavior, what are the most common failure modes and provide insights into the inner workings of learning systems (Zeiler & Fergus, 2013; Yosinski et al., 2015; Olah et al., 2017; Morcos et al., 2018). In particular, Rabinowitz et al. (2018) embed entire behavioral trajectories of single RL agents as points in an unstructured, high-dimensional space, relying on the inherent structure of the data to yield interpretable representations of whole behavioral motifs. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 469, + 825, + 580 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Finally, coordination in multi-agent system has been a topic of major interest as of late and some of the most advanced MARL systems rely on the emergence of coordination among teammates to complete the task at hand (Jaderberg et al., 2018; Pachocki et al., 2018). Despite these recent successes, coordination is still considered a hard problem and several attempts have been made to promote the emergence of coordination by relaxing some assumptions (Foerster et al., 2016; 2017; Sukhbaatar et al., 2016; Raileanu et al., 2018; He et al., 2016a). Here we show that, by embedding RFM modules in RL agents, they can learn to coordinate with one another faster than baseline agents, analogous to imagination-augmented agents in single-agent RL settings (Hamrick et al., 2017; Pascanu et al., 2017; Weber et al., 2017). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 588, + 825, + 713 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2 RELATIONAL ANALYSIS OF MARL SYSTEMS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 751, + 576, + 767 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2.1 METHODS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 792, + 285, + 808 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Our RFM is based on graph networks (GN) (Battaglia et al., 2018), and is trained by supervised learning to predict the dynamics of multi-agent systems. Our model takes as input a semantic description of the state of the environment, and outputs either an action prediction for each agent, or a prediction of the cumulative reward each agent will receive until the end of the episode. We show that our model performs well at these tasks, and crucially, produces interpretable intermediate representations that are useful both as analysis tools, and as inputs to artificial agents who can exploit these predictions to improve their decision-making. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 825, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/a1361e59b1d9307a42f513fe008b2b608f8f2ccb922fe1672153e2e14fd23f9f.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 1: (a) The RFM module stacks a GN Encoder, a Graph GRU and a GN Decoder to obtain a relational reasoning module that holds state information across time steps. (b) Example of an environment graph representation. Edges connect agents (magenta and orange) to all entities and are color-coded according to the identity of the receiver. (c) RFM-augmented agents, the output of the the RFM module is appended to the original observation input to the policy network. The on-board RFM module is trained with full supervision and alongside the policy network. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 173, + 99, + 813, + 202 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2.1.1 RELATIONAL FORWARD MODELS AND BASELINES ARCHITECTURES", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 325, + 696, + 339 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A GN is a neural network that operates on graphs. The input to a GN is a directed graph, $( u , V , E )$ , where $u \\in \\mathbb { R } ^ { d _ { u } }$ is a graph-level attribute vector (e.g. the score in a football game), $V = \\{ v _ { i } \\} _ { i = 1 : n _ { v } }$ is a set of vertices (e.g. the players) with attributes $\\bar { v _ { i } } \\in \\mathbb { R } ^ { d _ { v } }$ (e.g the players’ $( x , y )$ coordinates on the pitch), and $E = \\{ ( \\bar { e } _ { k } , r _ { k } , s _ { k } ) \\} _ { k = 1 : n _ { e } }$ is a set of directed edges which connect sender vertex, $v _ { s _ { k } }$ to receiver vertex ${ \\boldsymbol { v } } _ { { \\boldsymbol { r } } _ { k } }$ and have attribute $e _ { k } \\in \\mathbb { R } ^ { d _ { e } }$ (e.g. same team or opponent). The output of a GN is also a graph, with the same connectivity structure as the input graph (i.e., same number of vertices and edges, as well as same sender and receiver for each edge), but updated global, vertex, and edge attributes. See Fig. 1b for an example graph. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 348, + 826, + 463 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The sequence of computations in a GN proceed by updating the edge attributes, followed by the vertex attributes, and finally the global attributes. These computations are implemented via three “update” functions (the $\\phi \\mathbf { s } _ { \\cdot }$ ) and three “aggregation” functions (the $\\rho \\mathbf { s } _ { , }$ ), ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 468, + 825, + 511 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/504db74edaaa09d515a758bbb2868ba1a82ad908ebd02e171823cd1af4f2d49a.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\begin{array} { l l } { { e _ { k } ^ { \\prime } = \\phi ^ { e } \\left( e _ { k } , v _ { r _ { k } } , v _ { s _ { k } } , u \\right) , } } & { { \\qquad { \\bar { e } } _ { i } ^ { \\prime } = \\rho ^ { e \\to v } \\left( E _ { i } ^ { \\prime } \\right) , } } \\\\ { { v _ { i } ^ { \\prime } = \\phi ^ { v } \\left( { \\bar { e } } _ { i } ^ { \\prime } , v _ { i } , u \\right) , } } & { { \\qquad { \\bar { v } } ^ { \\prime } = \\rho ^ { v \\to u } \\left( V ^ { \\prime } \\right) , } } \\\\ { { u ^ { \\prime } = \\phi ^ { u } \\left( { \\bar { e } } ^ { \\prime } , { \\bar { v } } ^ { \\prime } , u \\right) , } } & { { \\qquad { \\bar { e } } ^ { \\prime } = \\rho ^ { e \\to u } \\left( E ^ { \\prime } \\right) } } \\end{array}\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 295, + 517, + 700, + 577 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where $E _ { i } ^ { \\prime } = \\{ ( e _ { k } ^ { \\prime } , r _ { k } , s _ { k } ) \\} _ { r _ { k } = i }$ . The edges are updated by $\\phi ^ { e }$ , as a function of the sender vertex, receiver vertex, edge, and global attributes. We term the updated edge attribute the “message”, $\\boldsymbol { e } _ { k } ^ { \\prime }$ . Next, each vertex, $i$ , is updated by aggregating the $\\boldsymbol { e } _ { k } ^ { \\prime }$ messages for which $i = r _ { k }$ , and computing the updated vertex attribute, $\\boldsymbol { v } _ { i } ^ { \\prime }$ , as a function $( \\phi ^ { v } )$ of these aggregated messages, as well as the current vertex and global attributes. Finally, the global attributes are updated, by $\\phi ^ { u }$ , as a function of the current global attribute and all aggregated $\\boldsymbol { e } _ { k } ^ { \\prime }$ and $\\boldsymbol { v } _ { i } ^ { \\prime }$ attributes. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 582, + 826, + 666 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Since a GN takes as input a graph and outputs a graph, GN blocks can be composed to form more complex, and powerful, architectures. These architecture can also be made recurrent in time by introducing a state graph, and using recurrent neural networks (RNNs) as the $\\phi$ functions. GN-based architectures can be optimized with respect to some objective function by gradient descent (using backpropagation through time for recurrent implementations). Here we focus on supervised learning using datasets of input-output pairs. See (Battaglia et al., 2018) for further details. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 672, + 825, + 757 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We construct our RFM architecture by arranging three GN blocks as in Fig. 1a. We selected this specific architecture to allow our model to perform relational reasoning steps both on the raw input data, before time recurrence is included, and then again on the output of our time recurrent block. This allows the recurrent block to construct memories of the relations between entities and not simply of their current state. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 762, + 825, + 833 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Architecture details are as follows: input graphs $G _ { \\mathrm { i n } } ^ { t }$ go through a GN encoder block, a basic GN module whose $\\phi ^ { v }$ , $\\phi ^ { e }$ and $\\phi ^ { u }$ are three separate 64-unit MLPs, with 1 hidden layer, and ReLU activations and whose functions are summations. The output of the GN encoder block is used, in conjunction with a state graph Unit (GRU) (Cho et al., 2014) $G _ { \\mathrm { h i d } } ^ { t - 1 }$ , in a “GraphGRU”, where each a hidden state size of 32 for eac $\\phi$ function is a Gated Recurrentof vertices, edges and globals. The GraphGRU’s output is then copied into a state graph and an output graph. The state graph is used in the following time step, while the output graph is passed through a GN decoder block. This last block’s structure has an identical to the GN encoder’s, and outputs the model’s predictions (e.g. the actions of each agent). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 839, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 103, + 823, + 146 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We compared the prediction performance of our RFM module to two state-of-the-art relational reasoning baselines: Neural Relational Inference networks (Kipf et al., 2018) and Vertex Attention Interaction Networks (Hoshen, 2017). These architectures are similar to our RFM module. In particular, NRI models operate on graph structured data and, with the exception that the graph connectivity map is not given, but rather estimated from trajectories using an auto-encoder architecture, they are identical to our model. VAIN networks are essentially single feed-forward GN blocks where the $\\phi ^ { e }$ and $\\rho ^ { e \\to v }$ functions take particular and restricted form: $\\phi ^ { e } ( e _ { k } , v _ { r _ { k } } , v _ { s _ { k } } , u ) = e ^ { \\| a ( v _ { r _ { k } } ) - a ( v _ { s _ { k } } ) \\| ^ { 2 } }$ and $\\rho ^ { e v } ( \\not E _ { i } ^ { \\prime } ) = v _ { i } \\sum _ { s _ { k } } e _ { k } ^ { \\prime }$ , with $a ( \\cdot )$ a learnable function. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 152, + 825, + 268 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We also compared our full RFM against ablated variants, which allowed us to measure the importance of the relational reasoning component, and of time recurrence. In particular we considered a Feedforward model, which had no GraphGRU block, and a No-relation model, which was a full fledged RFM module but operated on graphs with only self-connections (i.e., edges where $s _ { i } = r _ { i } ,$ ). Finally, we included a vector-based $\\mathbf { M L P + L S T M }$ model among our baselines, so as to highlight the advantage of using graphs over vector based modules. This last model operated on the concatenation of the vertex attributes and had a standard Encoder MLP (64-units), LSTM (32-hidden units), Decoder MLP (2 hidden layers, 32-units each) architecture. We matched all models for capacity (with the exception of NRI which has about $3 \\mathbf { x }$ more parameters than other models because of its autoencoder connectivity map estimator). Models were within $3 \\%$ of each other in terms of number of parameters (as reported by the TensorFlow checkpoint loader). ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 273, + 825, + 426 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2.1.2 MARL ENVIRONMENTS AND AGENT ARCHITECTURE ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 450, + 594, + 464 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We considered three multi-agent environments for our study: Cooperative Navigation (Lowe et al., 2017), Coin Game (Raileanu et al., 2018) and Stag Hunt (Peysakhovich & Lerer, 2017b). ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 478, + 823, + 506 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Cooperative Navigation (Lowe et al., 2017). Two agents navigate an empty $6 \\times 6$ arena to cover two tiles. A reward of $+ 1$ is given to both agents whenever both tiles are covered, i.e., when each agent is on a tile of its own. Episodes are of fixed length (20 environment steps), to encourage a swift resolution of the underlying assignment problem. The positions of both tiles and the starting positions of each agent are randomized at the start of each episode. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 512, + 825, + 582 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Coin Game (Raileanu et al., 2018). Two agents roam an $8 \\times 8$ arena populated with 12 coins, 4 of each of 3 colors, for 10 environment steps. Agents can collect coins by stepping on them; out of the 3 coin colors, two colors carried a reward and one a punishment. Crucially, each of the two agents only has access to information about 1 good color. The short episode duration incentivizes agents to quickly infer what the unknown good color is by observing their teammate actions, so that all good coins can be collected. At the end of each episode both agents are rewarded according to how many good coins have been collected by either agent. Conversely, they are penalized according to the number of bad coins collected, again by either agent. The role of each color, coin positions, and starting coordinates for the agents are randomized in each episode. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 589, + 825, + 715 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Stag Hunt (Peysakhovich & Lerer, 2017b). We implemented a Markov version of the classic Stag Hunt game where two (or four) agents navigate an arena populated with 3 red Stags (each of which is static, and occupies a $2 \\times 2$ tile) and 12 green apples, for 32 environment steps. Agents can collect apples by themselves for a reward of $+ 1$ or, by both stepping on the same stag, capture it for a reward of $+ 1 0$ . Collected apples and captured stags became unavailable for some time (denoted by dimmed colors), and at each time step have a small probability of becoming available again. All entities’ locations are randomized at the start of each episode. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 722, + 825, + 819 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We trained populations of RL agents to convergence on these three tasks using a multi-agent implementation of importance-weighted actor-learner (Jaderberg et al., 2018; Espeholt et al., 2018), a batched advantage actor-critic (A2C) algorithm. For each episode, a group of agents were randomly sampled, with replacement, from a population of 4 learners; at each time step agents received an ego-centric, top-down view of the environment which was large enough to contain the entire arena, and, in the Coin Game, one of the 2 good colors. Agents then selected one of 5 actions to be performed (move left, move right, move up, move down, and stay). Within each agent, the input image was parsed by a single convolutional layer $3 \\times 3$ -filters, 6 output channels) whose output was fed to a 256-unit single-layer MLP. The MLP output vector was concatenated with each player’s last reward, and one-hot encoded last action, as well as, for the Coin Game, one of the two coin colors that carried a positive reward. The resulting vector served as input to a 256-hidden-units LSTM whose output was fed into a single soft-max layer. Throughout the learning process, there was no sharing of weights, gradients or any communication channel between the agents, consistent with standard MARL settings. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 827, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/22ee00c20cc9be260628d783715e7ea87bf98a8f093ada01077139d180c8231c.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 2: Action prediction performance of our RFM module and baseline models. The reported quantity is the mean number of environment steps for which the predicted actions matched the ground truth exactly, for all agents. Mean across 128 episodes, bars indicate standard deviation across episodes. Alternative measures of model performance show similar results (Fig. 10). " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 176, + 99, + 816, + 244 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 347, + 825, + 445 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": ".1.3 OFFLINE TRAJECTORIES COLLECTION AND MODEL TRAINING ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 187, + 467, + 647, + 479 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "To train the forward RFM model, we collected 500,000 episodes of behavioral trajectories of trained agents acting in their respective environments. At each time step, we collected a semantic description of the state of the environment, as well as the action taken by each agent and the reward they received. These descriptions were compiled into a graph, where agents and static entities (i.e., apples, stags, coins, and tiles) were represented by vertices whose attributes, $v _ { i }$ , were: the entity’s position in the arena; the one-hot encoded type of the entity (e.g. agent, apple, etc.); (when applicable) the entity’s state (e.g. available / collected); and (when applicable) the last action taken. When attributes were not applicable (e.g. the last action of an apple), we padded the corresponding attribute features with zeros. Edges connected all non-agent entities to all agents as well as agents to each other. Input edges contained no attributes and were characterized by senders and receivers only (see Fig. 1b for an example environment graph). In order to understand our analysis contributions, it is crucial to note that while the input graph to our RFM module contained no edge attributes, and edges were simply characterized by their sender and receiver vertices, the edges of a RFM’s output graph did contain attributes. These attributes were computed by the network itself and amounted to distributed representations of the effect the sender entity had on the receiver agent. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 492, + 825, + 700 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We also collected 2,500 further episode trajectories for performance reporting and analysis. Training of both RFM and baseline models was conducted using gradient descent to minimize the cross-entropy loss between predicted and ground-truth actions. The training procedure was halted after one million steps, during each of which the gradient was estimated using a batch of 128 episodes. Results are presented in Sec. 2.2.1. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 707, + 825, + 776 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2.2 RESULTS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 799, + 277, + 814 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2.2.1 ACTION PREDICTION PERFORMANCE ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 828, + 482, + 842 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We trained our RFM modules and baseline models to predict the actions of each agent in each of the three games we considered. Models were given a graph representation of the state of the environment, and produced an action prediction for each agent. After training (see Sec. 2.1.3), we used held-out episodes to assess the performance of each model in terms of mean length of perfect roll-out: the mean number of steps during which prediction and ground truth do not diverge. This metric gives us a measure of how long we could simulate the agents’ behavior before making a mistake. For completeness, we report next-action classification accuracy in Sec. A.5. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 854, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 103, + 823, + 132 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Results are shown in Fig. 2. As expected, all models achieve similar scores on the Coop Nav game, which is a rather simple environment. Our RFM module outperforms the NRI baseline by a substantial margin on the Coin Game and Stag Hunt environments. Since the two models are identical, except for the initial graph structure inference step, this result suggests that when the importance of some relations is revealed over time, rather than obvious from the start, the graph structure inference step proposed in NRI might not be appropriate. Our RFM consistently outperforms the VAIN model, and on Stag Hunt our Feedforward model does as well. This indicates that, for this particular task, distributed interaction representations are superior to simple attention weights. Finally, the MLP+LSTM and No-relation models performed worst across the board, which suggests that relations between entities, rather than the state of the entities themselves, carry most of the predictive power in these environments. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 138, + 825, + 291 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "These results reproduce and advance the conclusion that relational models can be trained to perform action prediction for multi-agent systems, and are superior to non-relational models for this task (Kipf et al., 2018; Hoshen, 2017). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 299, + 825, + 340 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2.2.2 RELATIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE STAG HUNT GAME: ACTIONS ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 383, + 650, + 398 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Here we introduce our relational analysis tools and use the Stag Hunt game as a case study. While we illustrate our findings on a simple game, these intuitions can be easily transferred to more complex domains. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 420, + 825, + 460 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We propose the Euclidean norm of a message vector (i.e., $\\| e _ { k } ^ { \\prime } \\| ,$ as a measure of the influence a sender entity, $v _ { s _ { k } }$ , has on a receiver, ${ \\boldsymbol { v } } _ { { \\boldsymbol { r } } _ { k } }$ . We validate this suggestion in Fig. 3 (top row), where we show that the edge norm between a sender entity (either a stag or an apple) and a receiver agent is predictive of which entity the agent will move towards, or away from, at the next time step. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 468, + 825, + 525 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "This intuition can be developed to discover the events that qualitatively change agents’ behavior, as well as the factors that mediate how agents interact with one another. Fig. 3 (middle row), for example, shows how the norm of an edge between a stag and an agent changes over time. The importance of the relation is modulated by the prey’s state: when a stag becomes available, the edge norm rises substantially; when a stag is consumed, the edge norm drops. Remarkably, the presence or absence of a stag also influences the edge norm between the two teammates, as shown in Fig. 3 (bottom row): in the time step immediately before they consume a stag, the edge between the two teammates is higher than immediately afterwards. In contrast, this effect does not occur with apples, which do not require coordination between teammates to consume. Finally, as shown in Fig. 3 (bottom row), we find that agents’ influence on each other’s behavior is higher when there is a scarcity of apples (as agents compete for this resource). We note that while significant changes in edge norm or the rank order of edge norm can be used to discover events that qualitatively change agents behavior and factors that mediate agents’ social interaction, the raw values have no intrinsic meaning. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 531, + 825, + 712 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Taken as a whole, these findings highlight how the norm of the edge messages, computed by a RFM which is trained to predict the future actions in a multi-agent system, contain intepretable and quantifiable information about when and how certain entities and relations influence agents’ behavior, and about which entities and situations mediate the social influence between agents. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 719, + 825, + 775 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2.2.3 RELATIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE STAG HUNT GAME: RETURN ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 818, + 648, + 833 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A second key finding is that beyond measuring the intensity of a social influence relation, RFM modules can also be used to quantify their valence. We trained a RFM model to predict the return received by each agent (until the end of the episode), rather than their future action. We used this model to measure the marginal utility of the actual social context, i.e., to ask: what would happen to agent 1’s return if we didn’t know the exact state of agent 2? ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 853, + 823, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/8876b23114a521b0b294b75e762708512458f6464005314b1c15a14f48e77a2a.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "(c) Edge activation magnitude discovers situations that alter agents’ social influence. ", + "Figure 3: Edge analysis. Top-row: the norm of output edge activations is predictive of future behavior. On the $y$ -axis we plot the average relative displacement between the agent (receiver) and an entity (sender), we order the plot by the rank of the edge activation magnitude; predictive power declines sharply with rank. Middle-row: edge activations discover what agents care about and how this changes over time, here we have time series plots (left and right) of an edge activation norm when a stag becomes available and unavailable, and averages over all time steps grouped by stag state (middle). Bottom row: when stags become available, agents care about each other more than just before that happens, $\\mathit { p } < 0 . 0 5$ ; middle). Apples becoming available has no effect $p = 0 . 2 7$ ; middle). See also control experiments in Fig. 9. The norm of the edge connecting the two agents is also modulated by scarcity (right), agents compete for apple consumption and the fewer apple there are, the more the two agents influence each other behavior $\\mathrm { \\Delta \\cdot } r = - 0 . 3 9$ , $p < 0 . 0 5 )$ . " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 176, + 90, + 825, + 609 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The proposed approach is to effectively compare two estimators for agent 1’s return: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 820, + 725, + 835 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/7bf4b9cbda8ee0719e1ce57829610dd9371884baec574112d46bf1af99933ddc.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\begin{array} { r l r } { { \\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { F u l l \\ g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } = M ( s _ { a _ { 1 } } , s _ { a _ { 2 } } , z ) } } \\\\ & { } & { \\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { P r u n e d \\ g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } = M ( s _ { a _ { 1 } } , z ) } \\\\ & { } & { \\approx \\int M ( s _ { a _ { 1 } } , s _ { a _ { 2 } } ^ { \\prime } , z ) p ( s _ { a _ { 2 } } ^ { \\prime } | s _ { a _ { 1 } } , z ) d s _ { a _ { 2 } } ^ { \\prime } } \\end{array}\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 333, + 843, + 663, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/bb970aebc8d62ab60c6adf6d02f55bb9c660ccfb7b0cee19a26f6fb03d0b6f3e.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 4: Return analysis: we trained our RFM model to predict the return (until the end of the episode) received by each agent. We trained our model on graphs with and without edges connecting the two Full graph Pruned Graph estimates that the social influence has a positive marginal utility. (Right) $\\bar { \\hat { R } } _ { \\mathrm { F u l l g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } - \\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { P r u n e d G r a p h } } ^ { \\bar { a } _ { 1 } }$ uth and predicted return (using both graphs) for a sample episode. (Middle)around the time a stag is captured. Positive value indicates that the model $\\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { F u l l g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } - \\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { P r u } } ^ { a _ { 1 } }$ ned Graph right before and right after a stag is captured: agents’ influence are most beneficial for each other when they a capture a stag. Episodes ran for 128 steps for this analysis. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 179, + 104, + 821, + 250 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where $\\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { F u l l \\ g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } }$ is the model $M$ ’s estimate of the return received by agent 1, given the state of both agents 1 and 2, and all other environment variables, $z$ , whereas $\\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { P r u n e d g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } }$ is that same estimate, without knowledge of the state of agent 2 (i.e., marginalizing out $s _ { a _ { 2 } }$ ). In practice, this latter estimate can be obtained by removing the edge connecting the two agents from the input graph1. ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 503, + 825, + 569 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "If we find thagent 2 (i.e., $\\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { F u l l g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } > \\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { P r u n e d g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } )$ e predicted return decreases when removing information about, we would conclude that the actual state of agent 2 results in a better-than-expected return for agent 1, that is, agent 2 is helping agent 1. Conversely, if the predicted return increases we would conclude that agent 2 is hindering agent 1. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 574, + 825, + 635 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We ran this experiment using a set-up identical to the one we used for action prediction, except for three modifications: (1) the target variable and (2) loss function were changed, from cross-entropy between predicted and ground-truth actions, to mean squared error between predicted and true return; and (3) the training set contained an equal proportion of environment graphs with and without edges between teammates. The latter modification ensured that the pruned-graph computations were not out-of-distribution. The ground truth and predicted return (using both the full and pruned graph) for a sample episode are shown in Fig. 4 (left). ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 641, + 825, + 739 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We note that within this setup, both the pruned-graph estimator and the full-graph estimator are produced by a single graph neural network. This network is trained to predict agent 1’s return both using the full graph (i.e. knowing the actual state of $a _ { 2 }$ ) and the pruned graph (i.e. not knowing the actual state of $a _ { 2 }$ ). During training we randomly drop out edges between teammates (to ensure that both full graph and pruned graph are in-distribution for $M$ ). At test time, we then compute the full-graph estimate by using all edges, and the pruned-graph estimator by dropping out edges between teammates. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 746, + 825, + 843 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Similar to the edge-norm relational analysis above, we can find the entities and events that mediate the value of a social interaction. Fa teammate’s particular state (i.e. $\\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { F u l l g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } - \\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { P r u n e d G r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } )$ le and right) show the marginal value of over time and around the time of a stag capture. Thus the model estimates that teammates’ specific interactions during this time are beneficial to their return. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 849, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/6b23386f80013c5f206166b19af3d5594a967b3f8971e8aafae43255f6addeb1.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 5: Training curves for A2C agents with and without on-board RFM modules. Allowing agents to access the output of a RFM module results in agents that learn to coordinate faster than baseline agents. This also scales to different number of agents. Importantly, the on-board RFM module is trained alongside the policy network, and there is no sharing of parameters or gradients between the agents. We also show curves for training alongside learning teammates in Fig. 8. Embedding an RFM is also more beneficial than embedding an MLP+LSTM (see Fig. 7.) " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 176, + 99, + 821, + 213 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3 RFM-AUGMENTED AGENTS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 335, + 436, + 351 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.1 METHODS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 366, + 287, + 381 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We have shown that relational reasoning modules capture information about the social dynamics of multi-agent environments. We now detail how these modules’ predictions can be useful for improving MARL agents’ speed of learning. We extended the agent architecture (described in Sec. 2.1.2) by embedding a RFM module in each agent, and augmenting the policy network’s observations with the RFM’s output. This agent architecture is depicted in Fig. 1c. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 392, + 825, + 462 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Incorporating an on-board RFM module did not provide the agents with any additional information above and beyond that provided to baseline agents. All games were fully observable, so the additional inputs (i.e. the true last action, and the environment graph, which was provided as input to the embedded RFM) did not add any new information to the original egocentric observations. Similarly, the on-board RFM modules were trained from scratch alongside the policy networks, while the agents were learning to act, so that no additional game structure was given to the augmented agents. Finally, we highlight that each learning agent in the arena had its own RFM module and policy networks; there was never any sharing of weights, gradients or communication between the agents. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 469, + 825, + 580 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Our baseline agent policy network architecture comprised of a CNN that processed the actor’s egocentric observation, followed by a MLP+LSTM network that provided action logits (see Sec. 2.1.2 for architecture details). Our augmented agents had an embedded RFM module, which was fed graph representations of the state of the environment, just as in the offline RFM modules in the forward modeling experiments. We trained this module to minimize the cross-entropy loss between its prediction and the last action taken by all fellow agents. We used the prediction output of the on-board RFM module to augment the observation stream at the input of the original policy network. Specifically, the output of the RFM module—predicted action logits for fellow agents—was rendered as image planes whose pixel intensity was proportional to the estimated probability that an agent would be at a certain location at the next time step2. These image planes were appended to the ego-centric top-down observation and fed to the original policy network. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 588, + 825, + 741 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.1.1 RESULTS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 756, + 292, + 770 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Our experimental design was relatively straightforward. First, we trained A2C agents (as described in Sec. 2.1.2) to play the three games we considered, as well as a four-player variant of the Stag Hunt game. Second, we paired learning agents with these pre-trained experts: learning agents occupied a single-player slot in each game, while all their teammates were pre-trained experts. We repeated this procedure using both RFM-enhanced agents and baseline A2C agents as learners. During training we recorded the reward received by the singular learning agent in each episode. ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 780, + 823, + 821 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 103, + 823, + 146 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Our results show that agents that explicitly model each other using an on-board RFM learn to coordinate with one another faster than baseline agents (Fig. 5). In Stag Hunt our RFM-augmented agent achieves a score above 25 after around 600K steps, while baseline agents required around 1M steps. This effect is even more prominent in the 4-player version of the game where these scores are achieved around 500K and 1M steps respectively. Similarly in Coop Nav baseline agents required twice as many steps of experience to consistently score above 25 as our RFM-augmented agents. Moreover, in the Coin Game environment, the faster learning rate of RFM-augmented agents appears to be due to a superior efficiency in learning to interpret the teammate’s action and infer the negative coin color in each episode (see Sec. A.1). Finally, we found that augmenting agents with on-board RFM modules was more beneficial to agents learning than using $\\mathbf { M L P + L S T M }$ models (see Sec. A.2). These results suggest that agents take into account the on-board RFM’s predictions when planning their next action, and that this results in agents that learn faster to coordinate with others, and to discover others’ preferences from their actions. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 154, + 825, + 333 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "4 CONCLUSIONS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 353, + 328, + 369 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Here we showed that our Relational Forward Model can capture the rich social dynamics of multiagent environments, that its intermediate representations contained valuable interpretable information, and that providing this information to learning agents results in faster learning system. ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 385, + 825, + 428 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The analysis tools we introduced allow researchers to answer new questions, which are specifically tailored to multi-agent systems, such as what entities, relations and social interactions drive agents’ behaviors, and what environment events or behavior patterns mediate these social and non-social influence signals. Importantly our methods require no access to agents internals, only to behavioral trajectories, making them amenable to analyzing human behavior, sports and ecological systems. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 434, + 825, + 503 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Providing agents with access the output of RFM modules results in agents that learn to coordinate with one another faster than non-augmented baselines. We posit that explicit modeling of teammates and opponents is an important research direction in multi-agent RL, and one that might alleviate the need for communication, parameter sharing or centralized controllers to achieve coordination. ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 511, + 825, + 566 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Future work will see our methods applied to more complex and varied domains where artificial and non-artificial agents interact and learn in shared environments. 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URL http://arxiv.org/abs/ 1707.06203. ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 854, + 826, + 922 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Jason Yosinski, Jeff Clune, Anh Nguyen, Thomas Fuchs, and Hod Lipson. Understanding Neural Networks Through Deep Visualization. 2015. URL http://arxiv.org/abs/1506.06579. \nVinicius Zambaldi, David Raposo, Adam Santoro, Victor Bapst, Yujia Li, Igor Babuschkin, Karl Tuyls, David Reichert, Timothy Lillicrap, Edward Lockhart, Murray Shanahan, Victoria Langston, Razvan Pascanu, Matthew Botvinick, Oriol Vinyals, and Peter Battaglia. Relational Deep Reinforcement Learning. 2018. URL http://arxiv.org/abs/1806.01830. \nMatthew D Zeiler and Rob Fergus. Visualizing and Understanding Convolutional Networks. 2013. URL http://arxiv.org/abs/1311.2901. \nEric Zhan, Stephan Zheng, Yisong Yue, Long Sha, and Patrick Lucey. Generative Multi-Agent Behavioral Cloning. 2018. URL http://arxiv.org/abs/1803.07612. \nStephan Zheng, Yisong Yue, and Patrick Lucey. Generating Long-term Trajectories Using Deep Hierarchical Networks. 2017. URL http://arxiv.org/abs/1706.07138. ", + "bbox": [ + 169, + 99, + 828, + 313 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A APPENDIX ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 103, + 297, + 117 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.1 COIN COLLECTION ANALYSIS IN THE COIN GAME ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 133, + 565, + 147 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/c3298d56aa55ed2094bbd963c48458027cc78a8cf7639c206268ea7efcd2e084.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 6: Coin collection analysis in the Coin Game. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 179, + 161, + 821, + 309 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "As described in the main text, RFM-augmented agents learn the Coin Game faster than non-augmented baseline agents. This appears to result from learning more efficiently to discern their teammate’s preference. In Fig. 6, the middle panel shows the average number of coins of each color (R: revealed good, U: unrevealed good, B: bad) collected by our RFM-augmented agent during an episode. The right panel shows the same quantities for our baseline agent. We find that the gap between the U curve and the B curve is significantly wider for the RFM-augmented agent than it is for the baseline agent (see, for example, around 50M steps). This suggests that the learning efficiency difference is due to a superior ability to discern the teammate’s preferences. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 353, + 825, + 465 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Finally we highlight that our agents, as well as our baselines, vastly outperform previously-published agents on this game: Separate policy predictor agents (He et al., 2016b) and Self-Other Modeling agents (see Fig. 3 in Raileanu et al. (2018). This might imply that the original paper where this game was suggested had poor baseline agents. We suspect this game is not as complex as it may appear, and that baseline agents are close to optimal; this leaves less room for improvement than other games explored in this work. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 472, + 825, + 554 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/fee39abd74a6b7b32af1a09248bc0642cc23d753df64a6c5475bed805daa604d.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "A.2 AUGMENTING AGENTS WITH NON-RELATIONAL MODELS ", + "Figure 7: Augmenting agents with predictions from a non-relational model. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 178, + 598, + 825, + 712 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In the main text we showed that agents that explicitly model each other using an on-board RFM learn to coordinate with one another faster than baseline agents. For completeness, we show in Fig. 7 the learning performance of agents that have instead been augmented with $\\mathbf { M L P + L S T M }$ models (as described in the main text). The learning performance of these agents (red) falls between baseline agents (green), which do not explicitly model other agents, and the RFM-augmented agents (blue), which use a relational architecture to model their teammates’ behavior. The better performance of RFM-augmented agents is expected, given the more accurate forward predictions that RFMs provide. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 756, + 826, + 853 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.3 TRAINING WITH NON-EXPERT TEAMMATES", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 871, + 516, + 883 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In the main text we showed how RFM augmented agents learn to coordinate with expert teammates faster than non-augmented baselines. This set-up as is relevant for many interesting situations, e.g. ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 895, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/125466d1ce71155544de51884daf86a28ed64e99f1599475abbcf5e4d26f1d69.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 8: Agents training with non-expert teammates. Reward shown as the average return per agent, averaged over four agent seeds. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 178, + 101, + 820, + 252 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/34ecd1e15fae21f59fc0b80a5393a2c1c5fa10f246fea0a9f0182410ea845d9b.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "(a) Stags carry no reward. Differences are not signifi-(b) Stags can be collected by lone hunters. Differences cant $\\gamma = 0 . 3 4$ for Stag, $p = 0 . 4 6$ for apples). are not significant $( p = 0 . 6 7$ for Stag, $p = 0 . 3 2$ for apples). ", + "Figure 9: If coordination is not required to collect stags, or if agents are not interested in collecting stags, the edge norm between the two agents is not affected by the appearance of available stags. (Compare to Fig. 3 bottom row left and middle panels.) " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 178, + 321, + 816, + 429 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "when artificial learning agents interact with human experts. For completeness, we show in Fig. 8 the corresponding results when RFM-augments agents train alongside other learning agents (i.e. non-experts). In this case, either all agents in the environment were RFM-augmented (green), or all agents were baseline (blue). We use longer episodes in these experiments (128 steps, rather than 32) in order to make training easier (hence total returns were higher). For brevity, we only report results on the two-player versions of the games. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 565, + 825, + 648 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We see a similar result to the main text: allowing agents to model one another explicitly results in faster learning (e.g. in StagHunt $\\mathbf { R F M } + \\mathbf { A } 2 \\mathbf { C }$ achieves scores around 48 around 30M steps while vanilla A2C requires 45M training steps. Similarly in CoinGame $\\mathrm { R F M } + \\mathrm { A } 2 \\mathrm { C }$ achieves a score around 15 in 100M steps while vanilla A2C requires almost 200M steps). We note that this setting presents an additional challenge: a learned model of a teammate’s behavior can only provide useful information for coordination after the teammate’s policy becomes sensible. The advantage conferred by embedding the RFM into the learning agent will thus be delayed relative to the expert teammate condition shown in the main text. Nonetheless, augmenting agents with RFM models still results in faster learning than omitting it altogether. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 656, + 825, + 781 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.4 CONTROL EXPERIMENTS: WHICH EVENTS MEDIATE INTERDEPENDENT BEHAVIOR ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 173, + 810, + 779, + 824 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In the main text we showed that our RFM model reveals how agents’ influence on each other is contextual. In particular, we observe in Fig: 3 (bottom row, left and middle panels) that the Euclidean norm of the activation of the edge between the two agents increases when a stag appears. We argue that this indicates that agents coordinate their behavior when stags are available. Here we report control experiments to test alternative hypotheses. In these experiments, we trained agents on two modifications of the StagHunt game, wherein there is no explicit incentive for agents to coordinate: ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 840, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "• Stags carry no rewards. This tests whether the changes in Fig. 3 could be due to arbitrary changes in the environment. Here our hypothesis predicts that stag appearance would have no effect on edge norms, since agents should learn to ignore them. ", + "bbox": [ + 214, + 103, + 825, + 146 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "• Stags can be collected by a lone hunter. This tests whether the changes in Fig. 3 could be due to the appearance of new reward-carrying objects that do not require coordination. Again, our hypothesis predicts that stags would have no effect on the edge norm between agents, since collecting a stag does not require coordination, like apples. ", + "bbox": [ + 220, + 150, + 823, + 207 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In both cases our experimental pipeline was as described in the main text: (1) train A2C agents on the modified version of the StagHunt game; (2) collect behavioral trajectories from these agents; (3) train a RFM model to predict the action of each agent given the state of the environment; and (4) report the Euclidean norm of the edge activations in the link connecting the two agents at a time just before and just after a Stag or an Apple appear. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 219, + 825, + 290 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Consistent with our primary hypothesis, there is no significant change in the norm of the activations in the edge connecting two agents when Stags (or apples) appear in these situation. This provides evidence that our RFM model is able to reveal which events in the environment mediate how agents influence each one another. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 296, + 825, + 352 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.5 ACCURACY MEASURE ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 369, + 375, + 382 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/6d8b68227de19a025d238f648f60a2b6036d1cd9e98a45fd0a37649dd47f73ac.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 10: Next-step action classification accuracy. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 174, + 398, + 818, + 707 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In the main text we show that our RFM model provides longer perfect rollouts than competing models. Here we provide an alternative metric to measure the relative accuracy of different models. In Fig. 10, we show the next-step action classification accuracy, in the same manner as Fig. 2. Model ranking remain unchanged (with the exception of NRI on CoinGame): the RFM outperforms other models on predicting agent behavior. 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In learning-based systems, there have been some successes by introducing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 629 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a centralized controller (D’Andrea, 2012; Foerster et al., 2016; 2017; Hong et al., 2017; Lowe et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 626, + 507, + 640 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 626, + 507, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2017). 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Because these", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 313, + 470, + 325 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 313, + 470, + 325 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "models operate on the discrete entities and relations present in the environment,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 324, + 469, + 336 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 324, + 469, + 336 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "they produce interpretable intermediate representations which offer insights into", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 335, + 470, + 347 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 335, + 470, + 347 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "what drives agents’ behavior, and what events mediate the intensity and valence of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 346, + 469, + 357 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 346, + 469, + 357 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "social interactions. Furthermore, we show that embedding RFM modules inside", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 357, + 469, + 369 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 357, + 469, + 369 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agents results in faster learning systems compared to non-augmented baselines. As", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 368, + 469, + 380 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 368, + 469, + 380 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "more and more of the autonomous systems we develop and interact with become", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 379, + 469, + 391 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 379, + 469, + 391 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "multi-agent in nature, developing richer analysis tools for characterizing how and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 390, + 471, + 402 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 390, + 471, + 402 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "why agents make decisions is increasingly necessary. 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Moreover, there has been little development of tools for measuring the contextual inter-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dependence of agents’ behaviors in complex environment, which will be valuable for identifying the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 352, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 352, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "conditions under which agents are successfully coordinating.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + } + ], + "index": 43.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 663, + 506, + 734 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 505, + 203 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Here we address these two challenges by developing Relational Forward Models (RFM) for multi-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent systems. We build on recent advances in neural networks that effectively perform relational", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 506, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 506, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reasoning with graph networks (GN) (Battaglia et al., 2018) to construct models that learn to predict", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 506, + 129 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 506, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the forward dynamics of multi-agent systems. First, we show that our models can surpass previous", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 125, + 506, + 140 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 125, + 506, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "top methods on this task (Kipf et al., 2018; Hoshen, 2017). Perhaps more importantly, they produce", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 506, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 506, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "intermediate representations that support the social analysis of multi-agent systems: we use our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 505, + 161 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 505, + 161 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "models to propose a new way to characterize what drives each agent’s behavior, track when agents", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 505, + 172 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 505, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "influence each other, and identify which factors in the environment mediate the presence and valence", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 171, + 505, + 182 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 171, + 505, + 182 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of social interactions. Finally, we embed our models inside agents and use them to augment the host", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 505, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 505, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent’s observations with predictions of others’ behavior. Our results show that this leads to agents", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 420, + 204 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 420, + 204 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that learn to coordinate with one another faster than non-augmented baselines.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 231, + 202, + 242 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 230, + 205, + 244 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 230, + 205, + 244 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1.1 RELATED WORK", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 257, + 505, + 367 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 257, + 506, + 269 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 257, + 506, + 269 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Relational reasoning has received considerable attention in recent years and researchers have devel-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 267, + 506, + 281 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 267, + 506, + 281 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "oped deep learning models that operate on graphs, rather than vectors or images, and structure their", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 280, + 505, + 291 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 280, + 505, + 291 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "computations accordingly. These methods have been successfully applied to learning the forward", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 290, + 506, + 303 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 290, + 506, + 303 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dynamics of systems comprised of multiple entities and a rich relational structure, like physics", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 301, + 506, + 314 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 301, + 506, + 314 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "simulation, multi-object scenes, visual question answering and motion-capture data (Scarselli et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 311, + 506, + 325 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 311, + 506, + 325 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2009; Battaglia et al., 2016; Raposo et al., 2017; Santoro et al., 2017; Gilmer et al., 2017; Watters", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 323, + 506, + 335 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 323, + 506, + 335 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2017; Kipf et al., 2018; Zambaldi et al., 2018). Recently, this class of methods have been", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 334, + 506, + 347 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 334, + 506, + 347 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "shown to successfully predict the forward dynamics of multi-agent systems, like basketball or soccer", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 506, + 358 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 506, + 358 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "games, and to some extent, to provide insights into the relational and social structures present in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 356, + 412, + 368 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 356, + 412, + 368 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "data (Hoshen, 2017; Kipf et al., 2018; Zhan et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2017).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 16.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 372, + 505, + 460 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 371, + 506, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 371, + 506, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "With the recent renaissance of deep-learning methods in general, and of deep reinforcement learning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 384, + 506, + 396 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 384, + 506, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(RL) in particular, considerable attention has been devoted to developing analysis tools that allow", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 395, + 505, + 407 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 395, + 505, + 407 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "researchers to understand what drives agents’ behavior, what are the most common failure modes and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 405, + 506, + 418 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 405, + 506, + 418 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "provide insights into the inner workings of learning systems (Zeiler & Fergus, 2013; Yosinski et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 505, + 429 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 505, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2015; Olah et al., 2017; Morcos et al., 2018). In particular, Rabinowitz et al. (2018) embed entire", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 427, + 507, + 441 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 427, + 507, + 441 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "behavioral trajectories of single RL agents as points in an unstructured, high-dimensional space,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 439, + 505, + 451 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 439, + 505, + 451 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "relying on the inherent structure of the data to yield interpretable representations of whole behavioral", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 449, + 138, + 461 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 449, + 138, + 461 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "motifs.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 25.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 466, + 505, + 565 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 465, + 506, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 465, + 506, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Finally, coordination in multi-agent system has been a topic of major interest as of late and some", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 477, + 506, + 491 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 477, + 506, + 491 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the most advanced MARL systems rely on the emergence of coordination among teammates", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 489, + 505, + 501 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 489, + 505, + 501 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to complete the task at hand (Jaderberg et al., 2018; Pachocki et al., 2018). Despite these recent", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 506, + 512 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 506, + 512 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "successes, coordination is still considered a hard problem and several attempts have been made to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 506, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 506, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "promote the emergence of coordination by relaxing some assumptions (Foerster et al., 2016; 2017;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 505, + 534 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 505, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Sukhbaatar et al., 2016; Raileanu et al., 2018; He et al., 2016a). Here we show that, by embedding", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 533, + 506, + 544 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 533, + 506, + 544 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "RFM modules in RL agents, they can learn to coordinate with one another faster than baseline", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 543, + 506, + 556 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 543, + 506, + 556 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agents, analogous to imagination-augmented agents in single-agent RL settings (Hamrick et al., 2017;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 554, + 271, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 554, + 271, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Pascanu et al., 2017; Weber et al., 2017).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 595, + 353, + 608 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 354, + 610 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 354, + 610 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 RELATIONAL ANALYSIS OF MARL SYSTEMS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 628, + 175, + 640 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 177, + 641 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 177, + 641 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.1 METHODS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 654, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 655, + 505, + 667 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 655, + 505, + 667 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our RFM is based on graph networks (GN) (Battaglia et al., 2018), and is trained by supervised", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 505, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 505, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning to predict the dynamics of multi-agent systems. Our model takes as input a semantic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 506, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 506, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "description of the state of the environment, and outputs either an action prediction for each agent,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "or a prediction of the cumulative reward each agent will receive until the end of the episode. We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "show that our model performs well at these tasks, and crucially, produces interpretable intermediate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "representations that are useful both as analysis tools, and as inputs to artificial agents who can exploit", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 314, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 314, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "these predictions to improve their decision-making.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "index": 44 + } + ], + "page_idx": 1, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 27, + 293, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Published as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 763 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 763 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 505, + 203 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Here we address these two challenges by developing Relational Forward Models (RFM) for multi-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent systems. We build on recent advances in neural networks that effectively perform relational", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 506, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 506, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reasoning with graph networks (GN) (Battaglia et al., 2018) to construct models that learn to predict", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 506, + 129 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 506, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the forward dynamics of multi-agent systems. First, we show that our models can surpass previous", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 125, + 506, + 140 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 125, + 506, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "top methods on this task (Kipf et al., 2018; Hoshen, 2017). Perhaps more importantly, they produce", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 506, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 506, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "intermediate representations that support the social analysis of multi-agent systems: we use our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 505, + 161 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 505, + 161 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "models to propose a new way to characterize what drives each agent’s behavior, track when agents", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 505, + 172 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 505, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "influence each other, and identify which factors in the environment mediate the presence and valence", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 171, + 505, + 182 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 171, + 505, + 182 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of social interactions. Finally, we embed our models inside agents and use them to augment the host", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 505, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 182, + 505, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent’s observations with predictions of others’ behavior. Our results show that this leads to agents", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 420, + 204 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 420, + 204 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that learn to coordinate with one another faster than non-augmented baselines.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 204 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 231, + 202, + 242 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 230, + 205, + 244 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 230, + 205, + 244 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1.1 RELATED WORK", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 257, + 505, + 367 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 257, + 506, + 269 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 257, + 506, + 269 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Relational reasoning has received considerable attention in recent years and researchers have devel-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 267, + 506, + 281 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 267, + 506, + 281 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "oped deep learning models that operate on graphs, rather than vectors or images, and structure their", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 280, + 505, + 291 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 280, + 505, + 291 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "computations accordingly. These methods have been successfully applied to learning the forward", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 290, + 506, + 303 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 290, + 506, + 303 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dynamics of systems comprised of multiple entities and a rich relational structure, like physics", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 301, + 506, + 314 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 301, + 506, + 314 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "simulation, multi-object scenes, visual question answering and motion-capture data (Scarselli et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 311, + 506, + 325 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 311, + 506, + 325 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2009; Battaglia et al., 2016; Raposo et al., 2017; Santoro et al., 2017; Gilmer et al., 2017; Watters", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 323, + 506, + 335 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 323, + 506, + 335 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2017; Kipf et al., 2018; Zambaldi et al., 2018). Recently, this class of methods have been", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 334, + 506, + 347 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 334, + 506, + 347 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "shown to successfully predict the forward dynamics of multi-agent systems, like basketball or soccer", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 506, + 358 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 506, + 358 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "games, and to some extent, to provide insights into the relational and social structures present in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 356, + 412, + 368 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 356, + 412, + 368 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "data (Hoshen, 2017; Kipf et al., 2018; Zhan et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2017).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 16.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 257, + 506, + 368 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 372, + 505, + 460 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 371, + 506, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 371, + 506, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "With the recent renaissance of deep-learning methods in general, and of deep reinforcement learning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 384, + 506, + 396 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 384, + 506, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(RL) in particular, considerable attention has been devoted to developing analysis tools that allow", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 395, + 505, + 407 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 395, + 505, + 407 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "researchers to understand what drives agents’ behavior, what are the most common failure modes and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 405, + 506, + 418 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 405, + 506, + 418 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "provide insights into the inner workings of learning systems (Zeiler & Fergus, 2013; Yosinski et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 505, + 429 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 505, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2015; Olah et al., 2017; Morcos et al., 2018). In particular, Rabinowitz et al. (2018) embed entire", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 427, + 507, + 441 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 427, + 507, + 441 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "behavioral trajectories of single RL agents as points in an unstructured, high-dimensional space,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 439, + 505, + 451 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 439, + 505, + 451 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "relying on the inherent structure of the data to yield interpretable representations of whole behavioral", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 449, + 138, + 461 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 449, + 138, + 461 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "motifs.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 25.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 371, + 507, + 461 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 466, + 505, + 565 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 465, + 506, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 465, + 506, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Finally, coordination in multi-agent system has been a topic of major interest as of late and some", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 477, + 506, + 491 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 477, + 506, + 491 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the most advanced MARL systems rely on the emergence of coordination among teammates", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 489, + 505, + 501 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 489, + 505, + 501 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to complete the task at hand (Jaderberg et al., 2018; Pachocki et al., 2018). Despite these recent", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 506, + 512 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 506, + 512 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "successes, coordination is still considered a hard problem and several attempts have been made to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 506, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 506, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "promote the emergence of coordination by relaxing some assumptions (Foerster et al., 2016; 2017;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 505, + 534 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 505, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Sukhbaatar et al., 2016; Raileanu et al., 2018; He et al., 2016a). Here we show that, by embedding", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 533, + 506, + 544 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 533, + 506, + 544 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "RFM modules in RL agents, they can learn to coordinate with one another faster than baseline", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 543, + 506, + 556 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 543, + 506, + 556 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agents, analogous to imagination-augmented agents in single-agent RL settings (Hamrick et al., 2017;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 554, + 271, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 554, + 271, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Pascanu et al., 2017; Weber et al., 2017).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 34, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 465, + 506, + 566 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 595, + 353, + 608 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 354, + 610 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 354, + 610 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 RELATIONAL ANALYSIS OF MARL SYSTEMS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 628, + 175, + 640 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 177, + 641 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 177, + 641 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.1 METHODS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 654, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 655, + 505, + 667 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 655, + 505, + 667 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our RFM is based on graph networks (GN) (Battaglia et al., 2018), and is trained by supervised", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 505, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 505, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning to predict the dynamics of multi-agent systems. Our model takes as input a semantic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 506, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 506, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "description of the state of the environment, and outputs either an action prediction for each agent,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "or a prediction of the cumulative reward each agent will receive until the end of the episode. 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(b) Example of an", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 191, + 505, + 204 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 191, + 505, + 204 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment graph representation. Edges connect agents (magenta and orange) to all entities and are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 202, + 505, + 215 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 202, + 505, + 215 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "color-coded according to the identity of the receiver. (c) RFM-augmented agents, the output of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 213, + 506, + 226 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 213, + 506, + 226 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the RFM module is appended to the original observation input to the policy network. The on-board", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 223, + 424, + 237 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 223, + 424, + 237 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "RFM module is trained with full supervision and alongside the policy network.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 5.5 + } + ], + "index": 3.25 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 258, + 426, + 269 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 428, + 270 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 428, + 270 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.1.1 RELATIONAL FORWARD MODELS AND BASELINES ARCHITECTURES", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 276, + 506, + 367 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 276, + 506, + 290 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 276, + 465, + 290 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A GN is a neural network that operates on graphs. 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The output of a GN is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 333, + 505, + 345 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 333, + 505, + 345 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "also a graph, with the same connectivity structure as the input graph (i.e., same number of vertices", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 505, + 357 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 505, + 357 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and edges, as well as same sender and receiver for each edge), but updated global, vertex, and edge", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 355, + 286, + 367 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 355, + 286, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "attributes. See Fig. 1b for an example graph.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 13.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 371, + 505, + 405 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 371, + 505, + 385 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 371, + 505, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The sequence of computations in a GN proceed by updating the edge attributes, followed by the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 383, + 504, + 394 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 383, + 504, + 394 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "vertex attributes, and finally the global attributes. 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(b) Example of an", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 191, + 505, + 204 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 191, + 505, + 204 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment graph representation. Edges connect agents (magenta and orange) to all entities and are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 202, + 505, + 215 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 202, + 505, + 215 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "color-coded according to the identity of the receiver. (c) RFM-augmented agents, the output of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 213, + 506, + 226 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 213, + 506, + 226 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the RFM module is appended to the original observation input to the policy network. The on-board", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 223, + 424, + 237 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 223, + 424, + 237 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "RFM module is trained with full supervision and alongside the policy network.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 5.5 + } + ], + "index": 3.25 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 258, + 426, + 269 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 428, + 270 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 428, + 270 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.1.1 RELATIONAL FORWARD MODELS AND BASELINES ARCHITECTURES", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 276, + 506, + 367 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 276, + 506, + 290 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 276, + 465, + 290 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A GN is a neural network that operates on graphs. 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The output of a GN is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 333, + 505, + 345 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 333, + 505, + 345 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "also a graph, with the same connectivity structure as the input graph (i.e., same number of vertices", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 505, + 357 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 505, + 357 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and edges, as well as same sender and receiver for each edge), but updated global, vertex, and edge", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 355, + 286, + 367 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 355, + 286, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "attributes. See Fig. 1b for an example graph.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 13.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 276, + 507, + 367 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 371, + 505, + 405 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 371, + 505, + 385 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 371, + 505, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The sequence of computations in a GN proceed by updating the edge attributes, followed by the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 383, + 504, + 394 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 383, + 504, + 394 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "vertex attributes, and finally the global attributes. 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The edges are updated by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 462, + 359, + 473 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\phi ^ { e }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 360, + 461, + 507, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", as a function of the sender vertex,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 470, + 507, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 470, + 492, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "receiver vertex, edge, and global attributes. 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These architecture can also be made recurrent in time by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 505, + 568 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 412, + 568 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "introducing a state graph, and using recurrent neural networks (RNNs) as the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 412, + 556, + 420, + 567 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\phi", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 420, + 555, + 505, + 568 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "functions. GN-based", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 505, + 580 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 505, + 580 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "architectures can be optimized with respect to some objective function by gradient descent (using", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 576, + 506, + 591 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 576, + 506, + 591 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "backpropagation through time for recurrent implementations). Here we focus on supervised learning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 588, + 436, + 600 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 588, + 436, + 600 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using datasets of input-output pairs. See (Battaglia et al., 2018) for further details.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 32.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 533, + 506, + 600 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 604, + 505, + 660 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 605, + 505, + 617 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 605, + 505, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We construct our RFM architecture by arranging three GN blocks as in Fig. 1a. We selected this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 629 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "specific architecture to allow our model to perform relational reasoning steps both on the raw input", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 626, + 507, + 639 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 626, + 507, + 639 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "data, before time recurrence is included, and then again on the output of our time recurrent block.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 636, + 505, + 651 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 636, + 505, + 651 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This allows the recurrent block to construct memories of the relations between entities and not simply", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 191, + 661 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 191, + 661 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of their current state.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 38, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 605, + 507, + 661 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 665, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 506, + 679 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 306, + 679 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Architecture details are as follows: input graphs", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 306, + 666, + 320, + 678 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "G _ { \\mathrm { i n } } ^ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 321, + 665, + 506, + 679 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "go through a GN encoder block, a basic GN", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 505, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 169, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "module whose", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 170, + 677, + 181, + 689 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "\\phi ^ { v }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 182, + 677, + 186, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 677, + 198, + 689 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\phi ^ { e }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 199, + 677, + 218, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 677, + 231, + 688 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\phi ^ { u }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 231, + 677, + 505, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are three separate 64-unit MLPs, with 1 hidden layer, and ReLU", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 197, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "activations and whose", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 204, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "functions are summations. The output of the GN encoder block is used, in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 101, + 693, + 509, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 101, + 693, + 229, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "conjunction with a state graph Unit (GRU) (Cho et al., 2014)", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 699, + 251, + 711 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "G _ { \\mathrm { h i d } } ^ { t - 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 252, + 693, + 378, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", in a “GraphGRU”, where each a hidden state size of 32 for eac", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 378, + 700, + 385, + 710 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\phi", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 386, + 693, + 509, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "function is a Gated Recurrentof vertices, edges and globals.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 506, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 506, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The GraphGRU’s output is then copied into a state graph and an output graph. The state graph is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used in the following time step, while the output graph is passed through a GN decoder block. This", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 91, + 506, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 91, + 506, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "last block’s structure has an identical to the GN encoder’s, and outputs the model’s predictions (e.g.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 103, + 213, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 103, + 213, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the actions of each agent).", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 2 + } + ], + "index": 43, + "bbox_fs": [ + 101, + 665, + 509, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 82, + 504, + 116 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used in the following time step, while the output graph is passed through a GN decoder block. This", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 91, + 506, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 91, + 506, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "last block’s structure has an identical to the GN encoder’s, and outputs the model’s predictions (e.g.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 103, + 213, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 103, + 213, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the actions of each agent).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 121, + 505, + 213 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 121, + 505, + 133 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 121, + 505, + 133 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We compared the prediction performance of our RFM module to two state-of-the-art relational", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 144 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 144 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reasoning baselines: Neural Relational Inference networks (Kipf et al., 2018) and Vertex Attention", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 142, + 505, + 155 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 142, + 505, + 155 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Interaction Networks (Hoshen, 2017). These architectures are similar to our RFM module. In", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 506, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 506, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "particular, NRI models operate on graph structured data and, with the exception that the graph", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 164, + 507, + 178 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 164, + 507, + 178 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "connectivity map is not given, but rather estimated from trajectories using an auto-encoder architecture,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 177, + 505, + 188 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 177, + 505, + 188 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "they are identical to our model. VAIN networks are essentially single feed-forward GN blocks where", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 187, + 503, + 203 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 187, + 120, + 203 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 190, + 132, + 201 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\phi ^ { e }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 187, + 149, + 203 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 149, + 189, + 171, + 200 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\rho ^ { e \\to v }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 172, + 187, + 347, + 203 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "functions take particular and restricted form:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 187, + 503, + 201 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\phi ^ { e } ( e _ { k } , v _ { r _ { k } } , v _ { s _ { k } } , u ) = e ^ { \\| a ( v _ { r _ { k } } ) - a ( v _ { s _ { k } } ) \\| ^ { 2 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 199, + 345, + 214 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 199, + 123, + 214 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 200, + 218, + 214 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\rho ^ { e v } ( \\not E _ { i } ^ { \\prime } ) = v _ { i } \\sum _ { s _ { k } } e _ { k } ^ { \\prime }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 199, + 242, + 214 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 242, + 200, + 259, + 212 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "a ( \\cdot )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 199, + 345, + 214 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a learnable function.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 6.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 217, + 505, + 338 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 216, + 505, + 230 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 216, + 505, + 230 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We also compared our full RFM against ablated variants, which allowed us to measure the importance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 228, + 506, + 241 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 228, + 506, + 241 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the relational reasoning component, and of time recurrence. In particular we considered a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 240, + 505, + 251 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 240, + 505, + 251 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Feedforward model, which had no GraphGRU block, and a No-relation model, which was a full", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 249, + 506, + 263 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 249, + 469, + 263 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fledged RFM module but operated on graphs with only self-connections (i.e., edges where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 469, + 251, + 500, + 261 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "s _ { i } = r _ { i } ,", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 501, + 249, + 506, + 263 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ").", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 261, + 506, + 273 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 261, + 248, + 273 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Finally, we included a vector-based", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 248, + 261, + 307, + 272 + ], + "score": 0.58, + "content": "\\mathbf { M L P + L S T M }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 307, + 261, + 506, + 273 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "model among our baselines, so as to highlight the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 272, + 506, + 285 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 272, + 506, + 285 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "advantage of using graphs over vector based modules. This last model operated on the concatenation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 282, + 506, + 295 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 282, + 506, + 295 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the vertex attributes and had a standard Encoder MLP (64-units), LSTM (32-hidden units), Decoder", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 293, + 505, + 306 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 293, + 505, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MLP (2 hidden layers, 32-units each) architecture. We matched all models for capacity (with the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 304, + 506, + 317 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 304, + 244, + 317 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "exception of NRI which has about", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 244, + 306, + 255, + 315 + ], + "score": 0.57, + "content": "3 \\mathbf { x }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 256, + 304, + 506, + 317 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "more parameters than other models because of its autoencoder", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 315, + 505, + 328 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 315, + 302, + 328 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "connectivity map estimator). Models were within", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 316, + 317, + 326 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "3 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 317, + 315, + 505, + 328 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of each other in terms of number of parameters", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 327, + 312, + 339 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 327, + 312, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(as reported by the TensorFlow checkpoint loader).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 357, + 364, + 368 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 365, + 369 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 365, + 369 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.1.2 MARL ENVIRONMENTS AND AGENT ARCHITECTURE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 379, + 504, + 401 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 378, + 506, + 391 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 378, + 506, + 391 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We considered three multi-agent environments for our study: Cooperative Navigation (Lowe et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 389, + 464, + 402 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 389, + 464, + 402 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2017), Coin Game (Raileanu et al., 2018) and Stag Hunt (Peysakhovich & Lerer, 2017b).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 23.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 406, + 505, + 461 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 506, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 419, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Cooperative Navigation (Lowe et al., 2017). Two agents navigate an empty", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 419, + 407, + 443, + 417 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "6 \\times 6", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 444, + 406, + 506, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "arena to cover", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 418, + 505, + 430 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 418, + 198, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "two tiles. A reward of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 199, + 418, + 213, + 428 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "+ 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 418, + 505, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is given to both agents whenever both tiles are covered, i.e., when each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 428, + 505, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 428, + 505, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent is on a tile of its own. Episodes are of fixed length (20 environment steps), to encourage a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 505, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 505, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "swift resolution of the underlying assignment problem. The positions of both tiles and the starting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 375, + 463 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 375, + 463 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "positions of each agent are randomized at the start of each episode.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 467, + 505, + 567 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 468, + 505, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 468, + 335, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Coin Game (Raileanu et al., 2018). Two agents roam an", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 335, + 468, + 359, + 478 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "8 \\times 8", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 360, + 468, + 505, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "arena populated with 12 coins, 4 of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 478, + 506, + 491 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 478, + 506, + 491 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "each of 3 colors, for 10 environment steps. Agents can collect coins by stepping on them; out of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 489, + 505, + 502 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 489, + 505, + 502 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 coin colors, two colors carried a reward and one a punishment. Crucially, each of the two agents", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 500, + 506, + 513 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 500, + 506, + 513 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "only has access to information about 1 good color. The short episode duration incentivizes agents", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 505, + 524 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 505, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to quickly infer what the unknown good color is by observing their teammate actions, so that all", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 522, + 505, + 536 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 522, + 505, + 536 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "good coins can be collected. At the end of each episode both agents are rewarded according to how", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 506, + 547 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 506, + 547 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "many good coins have been collected by either agent. Conversely, they are penalized according to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 544, + 506, + 557 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 544, + 506, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the number of bad coins collected, again by either agent. The role of each color, coin positions, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 556, + 374, + 568 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 556, + 374, + 568 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "starting coordinates for the agents are randomized in each episode.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 572, + 505, + 649 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 571, + 505, + 586 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 571, + 505, + 586 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Stag Hunt (Peysakhovich & Lerer, 2017b). We implemented a Markov version of the classic Stag", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 582, + 506, + 596 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 582, + 506, + 596 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Hunt game where two (or four) agents navigate an arena populated with 3 red Stags (each of which is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 594, + 505, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 595, + 194, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "static, and occupies a", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 194, + 594, + 218, + 604 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "2 \\times 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 595, + 505, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tile) and 12 green apples, for 32 environment steps. Agents can collect", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 506, + 618 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 252, + 618 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "apples by themselves for a reward of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 252, + 605, + 266, + 615 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "+ 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 266, + 605, + 506, + 618 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "or, by both stepping on the same stag, capture it for a reward", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 505, + 628 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 117, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 117, + 616, + 136, + 627 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "+ 1 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 137, + 616, + 505, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Collected apples and captured stags became unavailable for some time (denoted by dimmed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 626, + 506, + 640 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 626, + 506, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "colors), and at each time step have a small probability of becoming available again. All entities’", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 638, + 320, + 650 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 638, + 320, + 650 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "locations are randomized at the start of each episode.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 655, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 655, + 506, + 667 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 655, + 506, + 667 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We trained populations of RL agents to convergence on these three tasks using a multi-agent im-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "plementation of importance-weighted actor-learner (Jaderberg et al., 2018; Espeholt et al., 2018), a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 505, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 505, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "batched advantage actor-critic (A2C) algorithm. For each episode, a group of agents were randomly", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sampled, with replacement, from a population of 4 learners; at each time step agents received an", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 507, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 507, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ego-centric, top-down view of the environment which was large enough to contain the entire arena,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and, in the Coin Game, one of the 2 good colors. Agents then selected one of 5 actions to be", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 505, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 505, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performed (move left, move right, move up, move down, and stay). Within each agent, the input", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + } + ], + "index": 49 + } + ], + "page_idx": 3, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 27, + 293, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Published as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 752, + 308, + 759 + ], + "lines": [] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 82, + 504, + 116 + ], + "lines": [], + "index": 1, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 117 + ], + "lines_deleted": true + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 121, + 505, + 213 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 121, + 505, + 133 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 121, + 505, + 133 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We compared the prediction performance of our RFM module to two state-of-the-art relational", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 144 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 144 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reasoning baselines: Neural Relational Inference networks (Kipf et al., 2018) and Vertex Attention", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 142, + 505, + 155 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 142, + 505, + 155 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Interaction Networks (Hoshen, 2017). These architectures are similar to our RFM module. In", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 506, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 506, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "particular, NRI models operate on graph structured data and, with the exception that the graph", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 164, + 507, + 178 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 164, + 507, + 178 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "connectivity map is not given, but rather estimated from trajectories using an auto-encoder architecture,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 177, + 505, + 188 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 177, + 505, + 188 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "they are identical to our model. VAIN networks are essentially single feed-forward GN blocks where", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 187, + 503, + 203 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 187, + 120, + 203 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 190, + 132, + 201 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\phi ^ { e }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 187, + 149, + 203 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 149, + 189, + 171, + 200 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\rho ^ { e \\to v }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 172, + 187, + 347, + 203 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "functions take particular and restricted form:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 187, + 503, + 201 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\phi ^ { e } ( e _ { k } , v _ { r _ { k } } , v _ { s _ { k } } , u ) = e ^ { \\| a ( v _ { r _ { k } } ) - a ( v _ { s _ { k } } ) \\| ^ { 2 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 199, + 345, + 214 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 199, + 123, + 214 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 200, + 218, + 214 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\rho ^ { e v } ( \\not E _ { i } ^ { \\prime } ) = v _ { i } \\sum _ { s _ { k } } e _ { k } ^ { \\prime }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 199, + 242, + 214 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 242, + 200, + 259, + 212 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "a ( \\cdot )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 199, + 345, + 214 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a learnable function.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 6.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 103, + 121, + 507, + 214 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 217, + 505, + 338 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 216, + 505, + 230 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 216, + 505, + 230 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We also compared our full RFM against ablated variants, which allowed us to measure the importance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 228, + 506, + 241 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 228, + 506, + 241 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the relational reasoning component, and of time recurrence. In particular we considered a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 240, + 505, + 251 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 240, + 505, + 251 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Feedforward model, which had no GraphGRU block, and a No-relation model, which was a full", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 249, + 506, + 263 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 249, + 469, + 263 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fledged RFM module but operated on graphs with only self-connections (i.e., edges where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 469, + 251, + 500, + 261 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "s _ { i } = r _ { i } ,", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 501, + 249, + 506, + 263 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ").", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 261, + 506, + 273 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 261, + 248, + 273 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Finally, we included a vector-based", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 248, + 261, + 307, + 272 + ], + "score": 0.58, + "content": "\\mathbf { M L P + L S T M }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 307, + 261, + 506, + 273 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "model among our baselines, so as to highlight the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 272, + 506, + 285 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 272, + 506, + 285 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "advantage of using graphs over vector based modules. This last model operated on the concatenation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 282, + 506, + 295 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 282, + 506, + 295 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the vertex attributes and had a standard Encoder MLP (64-units), LSTM (32-hidden units), Decoder", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 293, + 505, + 306 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 293, + 505, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MLP (2 hidden layers, 32-units each) architecture. We matched all models for capacity (with the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 304, + 506, + 317 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 304, + 244, + 317 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "exception of NRI which has about", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 244, + 306, + 255, + 315 + ], + "score": 0.57, + "content": "3 \\mathbf { x }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 256, + 304, + 506, + 317 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "more parameters than other models because of its autoencoder", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 315, + 505, + 328 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 315, + 302, + 328 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "connectivity map estimator). Models were within", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 316, + 317, + 326 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "3 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 317, + 315, + 505, + 328 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of each other in terms of number of parameters", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 327, + 312, + 339 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 327, + 312, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(as reported by the TensorFlow checkpoint loader).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 16, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 216, + 506, + 339 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 357, + 364, + 368 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 365, + 369 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 365, + 369 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.1.2 MARL ENVIRONMENTS AND AGENT ARCHITECTURE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 379, + 504, + 401 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 378, + 506, + 391 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 378, + 506, + 391 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We considered three multi-agent environments for our study: Cooperative Navigation (Lowe et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 389, + 464, + 402 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 389, + 464, + 402 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2017), Coin Game (Raileanu et al., 2018) and Stag Hunt (Peysakhovich & Lerer, 2017b).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 23.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 378, + 506, + 402 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 406, + 505, + 461 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 506, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 419, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Cooperative Navigation (Lowe et al., 2017). Two agents navigate an empty", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 419, + 407, + 443, + 417 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "6 \\times 6", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 444, + 406, + 506, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "arena to cover", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 418, + 505, + 430 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 418, + 198, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "two tiles. A reward of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 199, + 418, + 213, + 428 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "+ 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 418, + 505, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is given to both agents whenever both tiles are covered, i.e., when each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 428, + 505, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 428, + 505, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent is on a tile of its own. Episodes are of fixed length (20 environment steps), to encourage a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 505, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 505, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "swift resolution of the underlying assignment problem. The positions of both tiles and the starting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 375, + 463 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 375, + 463 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "positions of each agent are randomized at the start of each episode.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 27, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 406, + 506, + 463 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 467, + 505, + 567 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 468, + 505, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 468, + 335, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Coin Game (Raileanu et al., 2018). Two agents roam an", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 335, + 468, + 359, + 478 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "8 \\times 8", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 360, + 468, + 505, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "arena populated with 12 coins, 4 of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 478, + 506, + 491 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 478, + 506, + 491 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "each of 3 colors, for 10 environment steps. Agents can collect coins by stepping on them; out of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 489, + 505, + 502 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 489, + 505, + 502 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 coin colors, two colors carried a reward and one a punishment. Crucially, each of the two agents", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 500, + 506, + 513 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 500, + 506, + 513 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "only has access to information about 1 good color. The short episode duration incentivizes agents", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 505, + 524 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 505, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to quickly infer what the unknown good color is by observing their teammate actions, so that all", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 522, + 505, + 536 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 522, + 505, + 536 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "good coins can be collected. At the end of each episode both agents are rewarded according to how", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 506, + 547 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 506, + 547 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "many good coins have been collected by either agent. Conversely, they are penalized according to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 544, + 506, + 557 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 544, + 506, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the number of bad coins collected, again by either agent. The role of each color, coin positions, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 556, + 374, + 568 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 556, + 374, + 568 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "starting coordinates for the agents are randomized in each episode.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 34, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 468, + 506, + 568 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 572, + 505, + 649 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 571, + 505, + 586 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 571, + 505, + 586 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Stag Hunt (Peysakhovich & Lerer, 2017b). We implemented a Markov version of the classic Stag", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 582, + 506, + 596 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 582, + 506, + 596 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Hunt game where two (or four) agents navigate an arena populated with 3 red Stags (each of which is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 594, + 505, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 595, + 194, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "static, and occupies a", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 194, + 594, + 218, + 604 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "2 \\times 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 595, + 505, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tile) and 12 green apples, for 32 environment steps. Agents can collect", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 506, + 618 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 252, + 618 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "apples by themselves for a reward of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 252, + 605, + 266, + 615 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "+ 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 266, + 605, + 506, + 618 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "or, by both stepping on the same stag, capture it for a reward", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 505, + 628 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 117, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 117, + 616, + 136, + 627 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "+ 1 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 137, + 616, + 505, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Collected apples and captured stags became unavailable for some time (denoted by dimmed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 626, + 506, + 640 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 626, + 506, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "colors), and at each time step have a small probability of becoming available again. All entities’", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 638, + 320, + 650 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 638, + 320, + 650 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "locations are randomized at the start of each episode.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + } + ], + "index": 42, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 571, + 506, + 650 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 655, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 655, + 506, + 667 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 655, + 506, + 667 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We trained populations of RL agents to convergence on these three tasks using a multi-agent im-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "plementation of importance-weighted actor-learner (Jaderberg et al., 2018; Espeholt et al., 2018), a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 505, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 505, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "batched advantage actor-critic (A2C) algorithm. For each episode, a group of agents were randomly", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sampled, with replacement, from a population of 4 learners; at each time step agents received an", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 507, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 507, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ego-centric, top-down view of the environment which was large enough to contain the entire arena,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and, in the Coin Game, one of the 2 good colors. 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At each time step, we collected a semantic description", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 506, + 425 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 506, + 425 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the state of the environment, as well as the action taken by each agent and the reward they received.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 422, + 506, + 437 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 422, + 506, + 437 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "These descriptions were compiled into a graph, where agents and static entities (i.e., apples, stags,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 434, + 504, + 446 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 434, + 359, + 446 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "coins, and tiles) were represented by vertices whose attributes,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 360, + 436, + 369, + 445 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "v _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 434, + 504, + 446 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", were: the entity’s position in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 445, + 506, + 459 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 445, + 506, + 459 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "arena; the one-hot encoded type of the entity (e.g. agent, apple, etc.); (when applicable) the entity’s", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 456, + 505, + 469 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 456, + 505, + 469 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state (e.g. available / collected); and (when applicable) the last action taken. When attributes were", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 467, + 505, + 480 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 467, + 505, + 480 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "not applicable (e.g. the last action of an apple), we padded the corresponding attribute features with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 478, + 505, + 491 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 478, + 505, + 491 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "zeros. Edges connected all non-agent entities to all agents as well as agents to each other. Input", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 490, + 505, + 501 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 490, + 505, + 501 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "edges contained no attributes and were characterized by senders and receivers only (see Fig. 1b for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 500, + 505, + 512 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 500, + 505, + 512 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "an example environment graph). In order to understand our analysis contributions, it is crucial to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 505, + 524 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 505, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "note that while the input graph to our RFM module contained no edge attributes, and edges were", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 522, + 505, + 534 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 522, + 505, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "simply characterized by their sender and receiver vertices, the edges of a RFM’s output graph did", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 506, + 545 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 506, + 545 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "contain attributes. These attributes were computed by the network itself and amounted to distributed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 544, + 393, + 556 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 544, + 393, + 556 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "representations of the effect the sender entity had on the receiver agent.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 22, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 390, + 506, + 556 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 560, + 505, + 615 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 559, + 506, + 574 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 559, + 506, + 574 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We also collected 2,500 further episode trajectories for performance reporting and analysis. Training", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 570, + 505, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 570, + 505, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of both RFM and baseline models was conducted using gradient descent to minimize the cross-entropy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 582, + 505, + 596 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 582, + 505, + 596 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "loss between predicted and ground-truth actions. The training procedure was halted after one million", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 593, + 505, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 593, + 505, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "steps, during each of which the gradient was estimated using a batch of 128 episodes. Results are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 201, + 616 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 201, + 616 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "presented in Sec. 2.2.1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 32, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 559, + 506, + 616 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 633, + 170, + 645 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 632, + 171, + 646 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 632, + 171, + 646 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.2 RESULTS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 656, + 295, + 667 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 656, + 297, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 656, + 297, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.2.1 ACTION PREDICTION PERFORMANCE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 677, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 505, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 505, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We trained our RFM modules and baseline models to predict the actions of each agent in each of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "three games we considered. Models were given a graph representation of the state of the environment,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 699, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 699, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and produced an action prediction for each agent. After training (see Sec. 2.1.3), we used held-out", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "episodes to assess the performance of each model in terms of mean length of perfect roll-out: the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 505, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 505, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "mean number of steps during which prediction and ground truth do not diverge. This metric gives", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 506, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 506, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "us a measure of how long we could simulate the agents’ behavior before making a mistake. For", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 394, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 394, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "completeness, we report next-action classification accuracy in Sec. A.5.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 1 + } + ], + "index": 39, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 734 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 504, + 105 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 506, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 506, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "us a measure of how long we could simulate the agents’ behavior before making a mistake. For", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 394, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 394, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "completeness, we report next-action classification accuracy in Sec. A.5.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + } + ], + "index": 0.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 110, + 505, + 231 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 111, + 506, + 123 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 111, + 506, + 123 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Results are shown in Fig. 2. As expected, all models achieve similar scores on the Coop Nav game,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 122, + 506, + 133 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 122, + 506, + 133 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which is a rather simple environment. Our RFM module outperforms the NRI baseline by a substantial", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 146 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 146 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "margin on the Coin Game and Stag Hunt environments. Since the two models are identical, except", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 144, + 505, + 156 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 144, + 505, + 156 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for the initial graph structure inference step, this result suggests that when the importance of some", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 505, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 505, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "relations is revealed over time, rather than obvious from the start, the graph structure inference step", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 507, + 178 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 507, + 178 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "proposed in NRI might not be appropriate. Our RFM consistently outperforms the VAIN model,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 506, + 189 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 506, + 189 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and on Stag Hunt our Feedforward model does as well. This indicates that, for this particular", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 505, + 200 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 505, + 200 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "task, distributed interaction representations are superior to simple attention weights. Finally, the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 198, + 505, + 210 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 198, + 505, + 210 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MLP+LSTM and No-relation models performed worst across the board, which suggests that relations", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 209, + 505, + 222 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 209, + 505, + 222 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "between entities, rather than the state of the entities themselves, carry most of the predictive power in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 221, + 188, + 232 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 221, + 188, + 232 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "these environments.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 237, + 505, + 270 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 236, + 505, + 249 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 236, + 505, + 249 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "These results reproduce and advance the conclusion that relational models can be trained to perform", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 248, + 506, + 260 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 248, + 506, + 260 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "action prediction for multi-agent systems, and are superior to non-relational models for this task", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 244, + 272 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 244, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Kipf et al., 2018; Hoshen, 2017).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 304, + 398, + 316 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 304, + 400, + 317 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 304, + 400, + 317 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.2.2 RELATIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE STAG HUNT GAME: ACTIONS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 333, + 505, + 365 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 332, + 505, + 345 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 332, + 505, + 345 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Here we introduce our relational analysis tools and use the Stag Hunt game as a case study. While we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 343, + 505, + 357 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 343, + 505, + 357 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "illustrate our findings on a simple game, these intuitions can be easily transferred to more complex", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 354, + 146, + 367 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 354, + 146, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "domains.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 371, + 505, + 416 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 371, + 506, + 385 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 371, + 331, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We propose the Euclidean norm of a message vector (i.e.,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 331, + 372, + 353, + 384 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\| e _ { k } ^ { \\prime } \\| ,", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 354, + 371, + 506, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as a measure of the influence a sender", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 506, + 396 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 133, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "entity,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 384, + 147, + 395 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "v _ { s _ { k } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 383, + 221, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", has on a receiver,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 221, + 384, + 235, + 395 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "{ \\boldsymbol { v } } _ { { \\boldsymbol { r } } _ { k } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 235, + 383, + 506, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We validate this suggestion in Fig. 3 (top row), where we show that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 393, + 506, + 406 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 393, + 506, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the edge norm between a sender entity (either a stag or an apple) and a receiver agent is predictive of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 404, + 419, + 418 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 404, + 419, + 418 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which entity the agent will move towards, or away from, at the next time step.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 21.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 421, + 505, + 564 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 421, + 505, + 434 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 421, + 505, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This intuition can be developed to discover the events that qualitatively change agents’ behavior, as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 432, + 506, + 445 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 432, + 506, + 445 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "well as the factors that mediate how agents interact with one another. Fig. 3 (middle row), for example,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 442, + 506, + 456 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 442, + 506, + 456 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "shows how the norm of an edge between a stag and an agent changes over time. The importance of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 454, + 505, + 467 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 454, + 505, + 467 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the relation is modulated by the prey’s state: when a stag becomes available, the edge norm rises", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 465, + 506, + 478 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 465, + 506, + 478 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "substantially; when a stag is consumed, the edge norm drops. Remarkably, the presence or absence", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 506, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 506, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of a stag also influences the edge norm between the two teammates, as shown in Fig. 3 (bottom row):", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 487, + 506, + 500 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 487, + 506, + 500 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the time step immediately before they consume a stag, the edge between the two teammates is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 506, + 511 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 506, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "higher than immediately afterwards. In contrast, this effect does not occur with apples, which do", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 510, + 506, + 522 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 510, + 506, + 522 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "not require coordination between teammates to consume. Finally, as shown in Fig. 3 (bottom row),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 506, + 534 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 506, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we find that agents’ influence on each other’s behavior is higher when there is a scarcity of apples", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 531, + 505, + 544 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 531, + 505, + 544 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(as agents compete for this resource). We note that while significant changes in edge norm or the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 542, + 506, + 555 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 542, + 506, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "rank order of edge norm can be used to discover events that qualitatively change agents behavior and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 459, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 459, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "factors that mediate agents’ social interaction, the raw values have no intrinsic meaning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 570, + 505, + 614 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 569, + 506, + 583 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 569, + 506, + 583 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Taken as a whole, these findings highlight how the norm of the edge messages, computed by a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 581, + 506, + 594 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 581, + 506, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "RFM which is trained to predict the future actions in a multi-agent system, contain intepretable and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 592, + 507, + 605 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 592, + 507, + 605 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "quantifiable information about when and how certain entities and relations influence agents’ behavior,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 602, + 443, + 615 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 602, + 443, + 615 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and about which entities and situations mediate the social influence between agents.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 38.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 648, + 397, + 660 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 399, + 661 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 399, + 661 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.2.3 RELATIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE STAG HUNT GAME: RETURN", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 676, + 504, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 505, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 505, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A second key finding is that beyond measuring the intensity of a social influence relation, RFM", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "modules can also be used to quantify their valence. We trained a RFM model to predict the return", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 505, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 505, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "received by each agent (until the end of the episode), rather than their future action. We used this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "model to measure the marginal utility of the actual social context, i.e., to ask: what would happen to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 350, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 350, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent 1’s return if we didn’t know the exact state of agent 2?", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + } + ], + "index": 44 + } + ], + "page_idx": 5, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 27, + 293, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Published as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 752, + 308, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 762 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 762 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 504, + 105 + ], + "lines": [], + "index": 0.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 81, + 506, + 106 + ], + "lines_deleted": true + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 110, + 505, + 231 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 111, + 506, + 123 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 111, + 506, + 123 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Results are shown in Fig. 2. As expected, all models achieve similar scores on the Coop Nav game,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 122, + 506, + 133 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 122, + 506, + 133 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which is a rather simple environment. Our RFM module outperforms the NRI baseline by a substantial", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 146 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 146 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "margin on the Coin Game and Stag Hunt environments. Since the two models are identical, except", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 144, + 505, + 156 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 144, + 505, + 156 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for the initial graph structure inference step, this result suggests that when the importance of some", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 505, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 505, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "relations is revealed over time, rather than obvious from the start, the graph structure inference step", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 507, + 178 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 507, + 178 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "proposed in NRI might not be appropriate. Our RFM consistently outperforms the VAIN model,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 506, + 189 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 506, + 189 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and on Stag Hunt our Feedforward model does as well. This indicates that, for this particular", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 505, + 200 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 505, + 200 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "task, distributed interaction representations are superior to simple attention weights. Finally, the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 198, + 505, + 210 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 198, + 505, + 210 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MLP+LSTM and No-relation models performed worst across the board, which suggests that relations", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 209, + 505, + 222 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 209, + 505, + 222 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "between entities, rather than the state of the entities themselves, carry most of the predictive power in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 221, + 188, + 232 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 221, + 188, + 232 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "these environments.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 7, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 111, + 507, + 232 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 237, + 505, + 270 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 236, + 505, + 249 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 236, + 505, + 249 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "These results reproduce and advance the conclusion that relational models can be trained to perform", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 248, + 506, + 260 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 248, + 506, + 260 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "action prediction for multi-agent systems, and are superior to non-relational models for this task", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 244, + 272 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 244, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Kipf et al., 2018; Hoshen, 2017).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 14, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 236, + 506, + 272 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 304, + 398, + 316 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 304, + 400, + 317 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 304, + 400, + 317 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.2.2 RELATIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE STAG HUNT GAME: ACTIONS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 304, + 400, + 317 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 333, + 505, + 365 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 332, + 505, + 345 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 332, + 505, + 345 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Here we introduce our relational analysis tools and use the Stag Hunt game as a case study. While we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 343, + 505, + 357 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 343, + 505, + 357 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "illustrate our findings on a simple game, these intuitions can be easily transferred to more complex", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 354, + 146, + 367 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 354, + 146, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "domains.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 18, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 332, + 505, + 367 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 371, + 505, + 416 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 371, + 506, + 385 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 371, + 331, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We propose the Euclidean norm of a message vector (i.e.,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 331, + 372, + 353, + 384 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\| e _ { k } ^ { \\prime } \\| ,", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 354, + 371, + 506, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as a measure of the influence a sender", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 506, + 396 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 133, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "entity,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 384, + 147, + 395 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "v _ { s _ { k } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 383, + 221, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", has on a receiver,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 221, + 384, + 235, + 395 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "{ \\boldsymbol { v } } _ { { \\boldsymbol { r } } _ { k } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 235, + 383, + 506, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We validate this suggestion in Fig. 3 (top row), where we show that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 393, + 506, + 406 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 393, + 506, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the edge norm between a sender entity (either a stag or an apple) and a receiver agent is predictive of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 404, + 419, + 418 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 404, + 419, + 418 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which entity the agent will move towards, or away from, at the next time step.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 21.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 371, + 506, + 418 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 421, + 505, + 564 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 421, + 505, + 434 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 421, + 505, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This intuition can be developed to discover the events that qualitatively change agents’ behavior, as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 432, + 506, + 445 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 432, + 506, + 445 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "well as the factors that mediate how agents interact with one another. Fig. 3 (middle row), for example,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 442, + 506, + 456 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 442, + 506, + 456 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "shows how the norm of an edge between a stag and an agent changes over time. The importance of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 454, + 505, + 467 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 454, + 505, + 467 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the relation is modulated by the prey’s state: when a stag becomes available, the edge norm rises", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 465, + 506, + 478 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 465, + 506, + 478 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "substantially; when a stag is consumed, the edge norm drops. Remarkably, the presence or absence", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 506, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 506, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of a stag also influences the edge norm between the two teammates, as shown in Fig. 3 (bottom row):", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 487, + 506, + 500 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 487, + 506, + 500 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the time step immediately before they consume a stag, the edge between the two teammates is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 506, + 511 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 506, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "higher than immediately afterwards. In contrast, this effect does not occur with apples, which do", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 510, + 506, + 522 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 510, + 506, + 522 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "not require coordination between teammates to consume. Finally, as shown in Fig. 3 (bottom row),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 506, + 534 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 506, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we find that agents’ influence on each other’s behavior is higher when there is a scarcity of apples", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 531, + 505, + 544 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 531, + 505, + 544 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(as agents compete for this resource). We note that while significant changes in edge norm or the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 542, + 506, + 555 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 542, + 506, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "rank order of edge norm can be used to discover events that qualitatively change agents behavior and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 459, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 459, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "factors that mediate agents’ social interaction, the raw values have no intrinsic meaning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 30, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 421, + 506, + 567 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 570, + 505, + 614 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 569, + 506, + 583 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 569, + 506, + 583 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Taken as a whole, these findings highlight how the norm of the edge messages, computed by a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 581, + 506, + 594 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 581, + 506, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "RFM which is trained to predict the future actions in a multi-agent system, contain intepretable and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 592, + 507, + 605 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 592, + 507, + 605 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "quantifiable information about when and how certain entities and relations influence agents’ behavior,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 602, + 443, + 615 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 602, + 443, + 615 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and about which entities and situations mediate the social influence between agents.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 38.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 569, + 507, + 615 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 648, + 397, + 660 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 399, + 661 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 399, + 661 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.2.3 RELATIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE STAG HUNT GAME: RETURN", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 676, + 504, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 505, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 505, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A second key finding is that beyond measuring the intensity of a social influence relation, RFM", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "modules can also be used to quantify their valence. 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Positive value indicates that the model", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 406, + 256, + 473, + 272 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { F u l l g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } - \\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { P r u } } ^ { a _ { 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 473, + 248, + 509, + 278 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ned Graph", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 506, + 283 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 506, + 283 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "right before and right after a stag is captured: agents’ influence are most beneficial for each other", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 281, + 393, + 295 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 281, + 393, + 295 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "when they a capture a stag. 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In practice, this latter estimate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 458, + 451 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 458, + 451 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be obtained by removing the edge connecting the two agents from the input graph1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 9.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 455, + 505, + 503 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 102, + 456, + 510, + 489 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 102, + 456, + 158, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "If we find thagent 2 (i.e.,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 466, + 257, + 482 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { F u l l g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } > \\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { P r u n e d g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 258, + 456, + 510, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "e predicted return decreases when removing information about, we would conclude that the actual state of agent 2 results in a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 505, + 493 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 505, + 493 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "better-than-expected return for agent 1, that is, agent 2 is helping agent 1. Conversely, if the predicted", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 385, + 503 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 385, + 503 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "return increases we would conclude that agent 2 is hindering agent 1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 508, + 505, + 586 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 509, + 505, + 521 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 509, + 505, + 521 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We ran this experiment using a set-up identical to the one we used for action prediction, except for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 505, + 533 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 505, + 533 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "three modifications: (1) the target variable and (2) loss function were changed, from cross-entropy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 529, + 506, + 544 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 529, + 506, + 544 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "between predicted and ground-truth actions, to mean squared error between predicted and true return;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 506, + 555 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 506, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and (3) the training set contained an equal proportion of environment graphs with and without edges", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 505, + 565 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 505, + 565 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "between teammates. 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The ground truth and predicted return (using both the full and pruned graph) for a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 274, + 587 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 274, + 587 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sample episode are shown in Fig. 4 (left).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 591, + 505, + 668 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 590, + 505, + 604 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 590, + 505, + 604 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We note that within this setup, both the pruned-graph estimator and the full-graph estimator are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 603, + 505, + 615 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 603, + 505, + 615 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "produced by a single graph neural network. 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During training we randomly drop out edges between teammates (to ensure", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 635, + 505, + 648 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 635, + 348, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that both full graph and pruned graph are in-distribution for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 636, + 360, + 645 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "M", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 360, + 635, + 505, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "). At test time, we then compute the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 645, + 505, + 659 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 645, + 505, + 659 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "full-graph estimate by using all edges, and the pruned-graph estimator by dropping out edges between", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 658, + 154, + 669 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 658, + 154, + 669 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "teammates.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 673, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 673, + 505, + 686 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 673, + 505, + 686 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Similar to the edge-norm relational analysis above, we can find the entities and events that mediate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 101, + 685, + 508, + 717 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 101, + 685, + 243, + 717 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the value of a social interaction. 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We trained our model on graphs with and without edges connecting the two", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 101, + 231, + 510, + 278 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 101, + 248, + 406, + 278 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Full graph Pruned Graph estimates that the social influence has a positive marginal utility. (Right)", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 242, + 204, + 258 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\bar { \\hat { R } } _ { \\mathrm { F u l l g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } - \\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { P r u n e d G r a p h } } ^ { \\bar { a } _ { 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 204, + 231, + 510, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "uth and predicted return (using both graphs) for a sample episode. (Middle)around the time a stag is captured. Positive value indicates that the model", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 406, + 256, + 473, + 272 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { F u l l g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } - \\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { P r u } } ^ { a _ { 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 473, + 248, + 509, + 278 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ned Graph", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 506, + 283 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 506, + 283 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "right before and right after a stag is captured: agents’ influence are most beneficial for each other", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 281, + 393, + 295 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 281, + 393, + 295 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "when they a capture a stag. Episodes ran for 128 steps for this analysis.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 3.0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 399, + 505, + 451 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 393, + 509, + 423 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 393, + 136, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 136, + 399, + 174, + 415 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { F u l l \\ g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 174, + 393, + 226, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the model", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 226, + 401, + 239, + 411 + ], + "score": 0.66, + "content": "M", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 239, + 393, + 509, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "’s estimate of the return received by agent 1, given the state of both", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 102, + 408, + 510, + 435 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 102, + 408, + 321, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agents 1 and 2, and all other environment variables,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 321, + 418, + 327, + 426 + ], + "score": 0.66, + "content": "z", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 327, + 408, + 367, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", whereas", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 368, + 414, + 414, + 429 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { P r u n e d g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 415, + 408, + 510, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is that same estimate,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 427, + 505, + 441 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 427, + 362, + 441 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "without knowledge of the state of agent 2 (i.e., marginalizing out", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 362, + 429, + 376, + 440 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "s _ { a _ { 2 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 377, + 427, + 505, + 441 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "). In practice, this latter estimate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 458, + 451 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 458, + 451 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be obtained by removing the edge connecting the two agents from the input graph1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 9.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 102, + 393, + 510, + 451 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 455, + 505, + 503 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 102, + 456, + 510, + 489 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 102, + 456, + 158, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "If we find thagent 2 (i.e.,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 466, + 257, + 482 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { F u l l g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } > \\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { P r u n e d g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 258, + 456, + 510, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "e predicted return decreases when removing information about, we would conclude that the actual state of agent 2 results in a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 505, + 493 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 505, + 493 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "better-than-expected return for agent 1, that is, agent 2 is helping agent 1. Conversely, if the predicted", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 385, + 503 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 385, + 503 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "return increases we would conclude that agent 2 is hindering agent 1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 13, + "bbox_fs": [ + 102, + 456, + 510, + 503 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 508, + 505, + 586 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 509, + 505, + 521 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 509, + 505, + 521 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We ran this experiment using a set-up identical to the one we used for action prediction, except for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 505, + 533 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 505, + 533 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "three modifications: (1) the target variable and (2) loss function were changed, from cross-entropy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 529, + 506, + 544 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 529, + 506, + 544 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "between predicted and ground-truth actions, to mean squared error between predicted and true return;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 506, + 555 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 540, + 506, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and (3) the training set contained an equal proportion of environment graphs with and without edges", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 505, + 565 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 505, + 565 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "between teammates. The latter modification ensured that the pruned-graph computations were not", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 564, + 506, + 576 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 564, + 506, + 576 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "out-of-distribution. The ground truth and predicted return (using both the full and pruned graph) for a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 274, + 587 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 274, + 587 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sample episode are shown in Fig. 4 (left).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 18, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 509, + 506, + 587 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 591, + 505, + 668 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 590, + 505, + 604 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 590, + 505, + 604 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We note that within this setup, both the pruned-graph estimator and the full-graph estimator are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 603, + 505, + 615 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 603, + 505, + 615 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "produced by a single graph neural network. This network is trained to predict agent 1’s return both", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 612, + 505, + 627 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 612, + 324, + 627 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using the full graph (i.e. knowing the actual state of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 325, + 614, + 336, + 624 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "a _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 336, + 612, + 505, + 627 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") and the pruned graph (i.e. not knowing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 624, + 505, + 637 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 624, + 180, + 637 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the actual state of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 626, + 191, + 635 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "a _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 624, + 505, + 637 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "). During training we randomly drop out edges between teammates (to ensure", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 635, + 505, + 648 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 635, + 348, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that both full graph and pruned graph are in-distribution for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 636, + 360, + 645 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "M", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 360, + 635, + 505, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "). At test time, we then compute the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 645, + 505, + 659 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 645, + 505, + 659 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "full-graph estimate by using all edges, and the pruned-graph estimator by dropping out edges between", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 658, + 154, + 669 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 658, + 154, + 669 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "teammates.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 25, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 590, + 505, + 669 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 673, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 673, + 505, + 686 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 673, + 505, + 686 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Similar to the edge-norm relational analysis above, we can find the entities and events that mediate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 101, + 685, + 508, + 717 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 101, + 685, + 243, + 717 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the value of a social interaction. Fa teammate’s particular state (i.e.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 696, + 343, + 711 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { F u l l g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } - \\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { P r u n e d G r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 685, + 508, + 717 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "le and right) show the marginal value of over time and around the time of a stag", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "capture. Thus the model estimates that teammates’ specific interactions during this time are beneficial", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 165, + 732 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 165, + 732 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to their return.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 30.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 101, + 673, + 508, + 732 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 503, + 169 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 503, + 169 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 503, + 169 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 503, + 169 + ], + "score": 0.961, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "6b23386f80013c5f206166b19af3d5594a967b3f8971e8aafae43255f6addeb1.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 503, + 109.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 109.0, + 503, + 139.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 139.0, + 503, + 169.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 178, + 505, + 245 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 178, + 505, + 192 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 178, + 505, + 192 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 5: Training curves for A2C agents with and without on-board RFM modules. Allowing agents", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 190, + 505, + 202 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 190, + 505, + 202 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to access the output of a RFM module results in agents that learn to coordinate faster than baseline", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 200, + 506, + 214 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 200, + 506, + 214 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agents. This also scales to different number of agents. Importantly, the on-board RFM module is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 213, + 505, + 224 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 213, + 505, + 224 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trained alongside the policy network, and there is no sharing of parameters or gradients between the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 222, + 505, + 235 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 222, + 505, + 235 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agents. We also show curves for training alongside learning teammates in Fig. 8. Embedding an RFM", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 232, + 382, + 246 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 232, + 382, + 246 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is also more beneficial than embedding an MLP+LSTM (see Fig. 7.)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 5.5 + } + ], + "index": 3.25 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 266, + 267, + 278 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 264, + 268, + 280 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 264, + 268, + 280 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 RFM-AUGMENTED AGENTS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 290, + 176, + 302 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 289, + 177, + 304 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 289, + 177, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.1 METHODS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 311, + 505, + 366 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 311, + 505, + 323 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 311, + 505, + 323 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We have shown that relational reasoning modules capture information about the social dynamics of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 321, + 505, + 335 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 321, + 505, + 335 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "multi-agent environments. We now detail how these modules’ predictions can be useful for improving", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 332, + 506, + 347 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 332, + 506, + 347 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MARL agents’ speed of learning. We extended the agent architecture (described in Sec. 2.1.2) by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 344, + 505, + 357 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 344, + 505, + 357 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "embedding a RFM module in each agent, and augmenting the policy network’s observations with the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 356, + 350, + 367 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 356, + 350, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "RFM’s output. This agent architecture is depicted in Fig. 1c.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 372, + 505, + 460 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 371, + 505, + 385 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 371, + 505, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Incorporating an on-board RFM module did not provide the agents with any additional information", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 383, + 506, + 396 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 383, + 506, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "above and beyond that provided to baseline agents. All games were fully observable, so the additional", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 394, + 505, + 406 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 394, + 505, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "inputs (i.e. the true last action, and the environment graph, which was provided as input to the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 405, + 506, + 418 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 405, + 506, + 418 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "embedded RFM) did not add any new information to the original egocentric observations. Similarly,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 415, + 505, + 429 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 415, + 505, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the on-board RFM modules were trained from scratch alongside the policy networks, while the agents", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 426, + 506, + 440 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 426, + 506, + 440 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "were learning to act, so that no additional game structure was given to the augmented agents. Finally,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 438, + 506, + 451 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 438, + 506, + 451 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we highlight that each learning agent in the arena had its own RFM module and policy networks;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 450, + 461, + 461 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 450, + 461, + 461 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "there was never any sharing of weights, gradients or communication between the agents.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 19.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 466, + 505, + 587 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 506, + 478 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 506, + 478 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our baseline agent policy network architecture comprised of a CNN that processed the actor’s ego-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 476, + 506, + 489 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 476, + 506, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "centric observation, followed by a MLP+LSTM network that provided action logits (see Sec. 2.1.2", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 487, + 506, + 500 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 487, + 506, + 500 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for architecture details). Our augmented agents had an embedded RFM module, which was fed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 506, + 511 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 506, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "graph representations of the state of the environment, just as in the offline RFM modules in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 508, + 506, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 508, + 506, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "forward modeling experiments. We trained this module to minimize the cross-entropy loss between", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 521, + 506, + 533 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 521, + 506, + 533 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "its prediction and the last action taken by all fellow agents. We used the prediction output of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 532, + 506, + 544 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 532, + 506, + 544 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on-board RFM module to augment the observation stream at the input of the original policy network.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 543, + 506, + 555 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 543, + 506, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Specifically, the output of the RFM module—predicted action logits for fellow agents—was rendered", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 506, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 506, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as image planes whose pixel intensity was proportional to the estimated probability that an agent", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 506, + 578 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 506, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "would be at a certain location at the next time step2. These image planes were appended to the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 576, + 398, + 587 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 576, + 398, + 587 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ego-centric top-down observation and fed to the original policy network.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 599, + 179, + 610 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 597, + 180, + 612 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 597, + 180, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.1.1 RESULTS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 618, + 504, + 651 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 618, + 506, + 631 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 618, + 506, + 631 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our experimental design was relatively straightforward. First, we trained A2C agents (as described in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 629, + 505, + 641 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 629, + 505, + 641 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Sec. 2.1.2) to play the three games we considered, as well as a four-player variant of the Stag Hunt", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 640, + 506, + 653 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 640, + 506, + 653 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "game. Second, we paired learning agents with these pre-trained experts: learning agents occupied a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "page_idx": 8, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 293, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Published as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 308, + 759 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 762 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 762 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "9", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 660, + 504, + 691 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 649, + 511, + 682 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 649, + 209, + 682 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1It is worth highlighting", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 649, + 239, + 682 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "t eve", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 246, + 649, + 374, + 682 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "though the edge from agent 2 is re", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 649, + 448, + 682 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ed, the estimator", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 448, + 659, + 489, + 673 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\hat { R } _ { \\mathrm { P r u n e d g r a p h } } ^ { a _ { 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 489, + 649, + 511, + 682 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "", + "type": "text", + "height": 33, + "width": 22 + } + ] + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 210, + 672, + 388, + 682 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 210, + 672, + 222, + 681 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "s _ { a _ { 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 673, + 245, + 680 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "z", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 374, + 672, + 388, + 682 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "s _ { a _ { 2 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ] + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 680, + 375, + 693 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 680, + 191, + 693 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "this reason, we include", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 681, + 240, + 692 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "p ( s _ { a _ { 2 } } \\vert s _ { a _ { 1 } } , z )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 241, + 680, + 282, + 693 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "rather than", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 283, + 681, + 308, + 692 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "p ( s _ { a _ { 2 } } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 308, + 680, + 375, + 693 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in equation 2.2.3.", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 692, + 505, + 731 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 689, + 505, + 704 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 689, + 505, + 704 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2For example, consider a fellow agent at the center of the map, and prediction logits indicating that, at the", + "type": "text" + } + ] + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 702, + 505, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 702, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "next time step, it might move up with a probability of 0.3, and down with a probability of 0.7. The additional", + "type": "text" + } + ] + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 711, + 506, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 711, + 506, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "image plane would be zero everywhere, with the exception of the pixel above the center (which would have a", + "type": "text" + } + ] + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 722, + 390, + 732 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 722, + 390, + 732 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "value of 0.3) and the one below the center (which would have an value of 0.7).", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 503, + 169 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 503, + 169 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 503, + 169 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 503, + 169 + ], + "score": 0.961, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "6b23386f80013c5f206166b19af3d5594a967b3f8971e8aafae43255f6addeb1.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 503, + 109.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 109.0, + 503, + 139.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 139.0, + 503, + 169.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 178, + 505, + 245 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 178, + 505, + 192 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 178, + 505, + 192 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 5: Training curves for A2C agents with and without on-board RFM modules. Allowing agents", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 190, + 505, + 202 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 190, + 505, + 202 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to access the output of a RFM module results in agents that learn to coordinate faster than baseline", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 200, + 506, + 214 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 200, + 506, + 214 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agents. This also scales to different number of agents. Importantly, the on-board RFM module is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 213, + 505, + 224 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 213, + 505, + 224 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trained alongside the policy network, and there is no sharing of parameters or gradients between the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 222, + 505, + 235 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 222, + 505, + 235 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agents. We also show curves for training alongside learning teammates in Fig. 8. Embedding an RFM", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 232, + 382, + 246 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 232, + 382, + 246 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is also more beneficial than embedding an MLP+LSTM (see Fig. 7.)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 5.5 + } + ], + "index": 3.25 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 266, + 267, + 278 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 264, + 268, + 280 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 264, + 268, + 280 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 RFM-AUGMENTED AGENTS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 290, + 176, + 302 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 289, + 177, + 304 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 289, + 177, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.1 METHODS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 311, + 505, + 366 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 311, + 505, + 323 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 311, + 505, + 323 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We have shown that relational reasoning modules capture information about the social dynamics of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 321, + 505, + 335 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 321, + 505, + 335 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "multi-agent environments. We now detail how these modules’ predictions can be useful for improving", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 332, + 506, + 347 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 332, + 506, + 347 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MARL agents’ speed of learning. We extended the agent architecture (described in Sec. 2.1.2) by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 344, + 505, + 357 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 344, + 505, + 357 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "embedding a RFM module in each agent, and augmenting the policy network’s observations with the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 356, + 350, + 367 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 356, + 350, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "RFM’s output. This agent architecture is depicted in Fig. 1c.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 13, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 311, + 506, + 367 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 372, + 505, + 460 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 371, + 505, + 385 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 371, + 505, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Incorporating an on-board RFM module did not provide the agents with any additional information", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 383, + 506, + 396 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 383, + 506, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "above and beyond that provided to baseline agents. All games were fully observable, so the additional", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 394, + 505, + 406 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 394, + 505, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "inputs (i.e. the true last action, and the environment graph, which was provided as input to the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 405, + 506, + 418 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 405, + 506, + 418 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "embedded RFM) did not add any new information to the original egocentric observations. Similarly,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 415, + 505, + 429 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 415, + 505, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the on-board RFM modules were trained from scratch alongside the policy networks, while the agents", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 426, + 506, + 440 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 426, + 506, + 440 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "were learning to act, so that no additional game structure was given to the augmented agents. Finally,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 438, + 506, + 451 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 438, + 506, + 451 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we highlight that each learning agent in the arena had its own RFM module and policy networks;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 450, + 461, + 461 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 450, + 461, + 461 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "there was never any sharing of weights, gradients or communication between the agents.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 19.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 371, + 506, + 461 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 466, + 505, + 587 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 506, + 478 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 506, + 478 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our baseline agent policy network architecture comprised of a CNN that processed the actor’s ego-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 476, + 506, + 489 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 476, + 506, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "centric observation, followed by a MLP+LSTM network that provided action logits (see Sec. 2.1.2", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 487, + 506, + 500 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 487, + 506, + 500 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for architecture details). Our augmented agents had an embedded RFM module, which was fed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 506, + 511 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 498, + 506, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "graph representations of the state of the environment, just as in the offline RFM modules in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 508, + 506, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 508, + 506, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "forward modeling experiments. We trained this module to minimize the cross-entropy loss between", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 521, + 506, + 533 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 521, + 506, + 533 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "its prediction and the last action taken by all fellow agents. We used the prediction output of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 532, + 506, + 544 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 532, + 506, + 544 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on-board RFM module to augment the observation stream at the input of the original policy network.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 543, + 506, + 555 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 543, + 506, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Specifically, the output of the RFM module—predicted action logits for fellow agents—was rendered", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 506, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 506, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as image planes whose pixel intensity was proportional to the estimated probability that an agent", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 506, + 578 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 506, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "would be at a certain location at the next time step2. These image planes were appended to the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 576, + 398, + 587 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 576, + 398, + 587 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ego-centric top-down observation and fed to the original policy network.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 29, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 466, + 506, + 587 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 599, + 179, + 610 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 597, + 180, + 612 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 597, + 180, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.1.1 RESULTS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 618, + 504, + 651 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 618, + 506, + 631 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 618, + 506, + 631 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our experimental design was relatively straightforward. First, we trained A2C agents (as described in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 629, + 505, + 641 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 629, + 505, + 641 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Sec. 2.1.2) to play the three games we considered, as well as a four-player variant of the Stag Hunt", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 640, + 506, + 653 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 640, + 506, + 653 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "game. Second, we paired learning agents with these pre-trained experts: learning agents occupied a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 505, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 505, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "single-player slot in each game, while all their teammates were pre-trained experts. We repeated this", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 93, + 505, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 93, + 505, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "procedure using both RFM-enhanced agents and baseline A2C agents as learners. During training we", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 411, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 411, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "recorded the reward received by the singular learning agent in each episode.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 2 + } + ], + "index": 37, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 618, + 506, + 653 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 82, + 504, + 116 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 505, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 505, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "single-player slot in each game, while all their teammates were pre-trained experts. We repeated this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 93, + 505, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 93, + 505, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "procedure using both RFM-enhanced agents and baseline A2C agents as learners. During training we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 411, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 411, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "recorded the reward received by the singular learning agent in each episode.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 122, + 505, + 264 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 121, + 506, + 134 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 121, + 506, + 134 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our results show that agents that explicitly model each other using an on-board RFM learn to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 133, + 505, + 144 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 133, + 505, + 144 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "coordinate with one another faster than baseline agents (Fig. 5). In Stag Hunt our RFM-augmented", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 142, + 505, + 156 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 142, + 505, + 156 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent achieves a score above 25 after around 600K steps, while baseline agents required around 1M", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 154, + 505, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 154, + 505, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "steps. This effect is even more prominent in the 4-player version of the game where these scores are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 505, + 178 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 505, + 178 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "achieved around 500K and 1M steps respectively. Similarly in Coop Nav baseline agents required", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 506, + 190 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 506, + 190 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "twice as many steps of experience to consistently score above 25 as our RFM-augmented agents.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 505, + 200 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 505, + 200 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Moreover, in the Coin Game environment, the faster learning rate of RFM-augmented agents appears", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 197, + 506, + 212 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 197, + 506, + 212 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to be due to a superior efficiency in learning to interpret the teammate’s action and infer the negative", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 208, + 506, + 222 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 208, + 506, + 222 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "coin color in each episode (see Sec. A.1). Finally, we found that augmenting agents with on-board", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 219, + 506, + 233 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 219, + 358, + 233 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "RFM modules was more beneficial to agents learning than using", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 358, + 220, + 416, + 231 + ], + "score": 0.39, + "content": "\\mathbf { M L P + L S T M }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 417, + 219, + 506, + 233 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "models (see Sec. A.2).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 229, + 506, + 245 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 229, + 506, + 245 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "These results suggest that agents take into account the on-board RFM’s predictions when planning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 242, + 505, + 255 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 242, + 505, + 255 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "their next action, and that this results in agents that learn faster to coordinate with others, and to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 253, + 296, + 265 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 253, + 296, + 265 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "discover others’ preferences from their actions.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 280, + 201, + 293 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 278, + 203, + 296 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 278, + 203, + 296 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4 CONCLUSIONS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 305, + 505, + 339 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 305, + 506, + 317 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 305, + 506, + 317 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Here we showed that our Relational Forward Model can capture the rich social dynamics of multi-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 316, + 507, + 330 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 316, + 507, + 330 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent environments, that its intermediate representations contained valuable interpretable information,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 327, + 452, + 341 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 327, + 452, + 341 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and that providing this information to learning agents results in faster learning system.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 344, + 505, + 399 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 345, + 505, + 357 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 345, + 505, + 357 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The analysis tools we introduced allow researchers to answer new questions, which are specifically", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 356, + 505, + 367 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 356, + 505, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tailored to multi-agent systems, such as what entities, relations and social interactions drive agents’", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 366, + 505, + 378 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 366, + 505, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "behaviors, and what environment events or behavior patterns mediate these social and non-social", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 378, + 505, + 390 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 378, + 505, + 390 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "influence signals. Importantly our methods require no access to agents internals, only to behavioral", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 388, + 495, + 402 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 388, + 495, + 402 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trajectories, making them amenable to analyzing human behavior, sports and ecological systems.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 405, + 505, + 449 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 405, + 505, + 417 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 405, + 505, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Providing agents with access the output of RFM modules results in agents that learn to coordinate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 417, + 505, + 429 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 417, + 505, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with one another faster than non-augmented baselines. We posit that explicit modeling of teammates", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 428, + 505, + 439 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 428, + 505, + 439 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and opponents is an important research direction in multi-agent RL, and one that might alleviate the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 439, + 482, + 450 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 439, + 482, + 450 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "need for communication, parameter sharing or centralized controllers to achieve coordination.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 26.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 455, + 505, + 488 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 506, + 468 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 506, + 468 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Future work will see our methods applied to more complex and varied domains where artificial and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 466, + 505, + 478 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 466, + 505, + 478 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "non-artificial agents interact and learn in shared environments. We will focus on identifying entire", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 477, + 489, + 490 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 477, + 489, + 490 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "patterns of behavior for in-agent modeling, so as to adapt the host agent policy more efficiently.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 505, + 175, + 517 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 505, + 177, + 519 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 505, + 177, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "REFERENCES", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 523, + 505, + 546 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 522, + 506, + 537 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 522, + 506, + 537 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Trapit Bansal, Jakub Pachocki, Szymon Sidor, Ilya Sutskever, and Igor Mordatch. 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Learning Phrase Representations using RNN Encoder-Decoder for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 690, + 480, + 703 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 690, + 480, + 703 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Statistical Machine Translation. 2014. URL http://arxiv.org/abs/1406.1078.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 709, + 504, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Raffaello D’Andrea. Guest Editorial: A Revolution in the Warehouse: A Retrospective on Kiva", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Systems and the Grand Challenges Ahead. 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In Stag Hunt our RFM-augmented", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 142, + 505, + 156 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 142, + 505, + 156 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent achieves a score above 25 after around 600K steps, while baseline agents required around 1M", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 154, + 505, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 154, + 505, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "steps. This effect is even more prominent in the 4-player version of the game where these scores are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 505, + 178 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 505, + 178 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "achieved around 500K and 1M steps respectively. 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A.2).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 229, + 506, + 245 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 229, + 506, + 245 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "These results suggest that agents take into account the on-board RFM’s predictions when planning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 242, + 505, + 255 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 242, + 505, + 255 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "their next action, and that this results in agents that learn faster to coordinate with others, and to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 253, + 296, + 265 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 253, + 296, + 265 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "discover others’ preferences from their actions.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 9, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 121, + 506, + 265 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 280, + 201, + 293 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 278, + 203, + 296 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 278, + 203, + 296 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4 CONCLUSIONS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 305, + 505, + 339 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 305, + 506, + 317 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 305, + 506, + 317 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Here we showed that our Relational Forward Model can capture the rich social dynamics of multi-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 316, + 507, + 330 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 316, + 507, + 330 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent environments, that its intermediate representations contained valuable interpretable information,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 327, + 452, + 341 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 327, + 452, + 341 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and that providing this information to learning agents results in faster learning system.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 18, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 305, + 507, + 341 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 344, + 505, + 399 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 345, + 505, + 357 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 345, + 505, + 357 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The analysis tools we introduced allow researchers to answer new questions, which are specifically", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 356, + 505, + 367 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 356, + 505, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tailored to multi-agent systems, such as what entities, relations and social interactions drive agents’", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 366, + 505, + 378 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 366, + 505, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "behaviors, and what environment events or behavior patterns mediate these social and non-social", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 378, + 505, + 390 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 378, + 505, + 390 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "influence signals. Importantly our methods require no access to agents internals, only to behavioral", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 388, + 495, + 402 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 388, + 495, + 402 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trajectories, making them amenable to analyzing human behavior, sports and ecological systems.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 22, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 345, + 505, + 402 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 405, + 505, + 449 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 405, + 505, + 417 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 405, + 505, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Providing agents with access the output of RFM modules results in agents that learn to coordinate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 417, + 505, + 429 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 417, + 505, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with one another faster than non-augmented baselines. We posit that explicit modeling of teammates", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 428, + 505, + 439 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 428, + 505, + 439 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and opponents is an important research direction in multi-agent RL, and one that might alleviate the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 439, + 482, + 450 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 439, + 482, + 450 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "need for communication, parameter sharing or centralized controllers to achieve coordination.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 26.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 405, + 505, + 450 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 455, + 505, + 488 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 506, + 468 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 506, + 468 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Future work will see our methods applied to more complex and varied domains where artificial and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 466, + 505, + 478 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 466, + 505, + 478 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "non-artificial agents interact and learn in shared environments. 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This appears to result from learning more efficiently to discern their teammate’s", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 302, + 505, + 314 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 302, + 505, + 314 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "preference. In Fig. 6, the middle panel shows the average number of coins of each color (R: revealed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 313, + 505, + 326 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 313, + 505, + 326 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "good, U: unrevealed good, B: bad) collected by our RFM-augmented agent during an episode. The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 324, + 505, + 336 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 324, + 505, + 336 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "right panel shows the same quantities for our baseline agent. 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This suggests that the learning efficiency difference is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 359, + 370 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 359, + 370 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "due to a superior ability to discern the teammate’s preferences.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 9.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 374, + 505, + 439 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 373, + 506, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 373, + 506, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Finally we highlight that our agents, as well as our baselines, vastly outperform previously-published", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 384, + 506, + 398 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 384, + 506, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agents on this game: Separate policy predictor agents (He et al., 2016b) and Self-Other Modeling", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 506, + 409 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 506, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agents (see Fig. 3 in Raileanu et al. (2018). This might imply that the original paper where this game", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 506, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 506, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "was suggested had poor baseline agents. 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The learning performance of these agents (red) falls between baseline", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 642, + 506, + 655 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 642, + 506, + 655 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agents (green), which do not explicitly model other agents, and the RFM-augmented agents (blue),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 653, + 506, + 666 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 653, + 506, + 666 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which use a relational architecture to model their teammates’ behavior. The better performance of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 664, + 506, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 664, + 506, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "RFM-augmented agents is expected, given the more accurate forward predictions that RFMs provide.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 690, + 316, + 700 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 689, + 317, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 689, + 317, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.3 TRAINING WITH NON-EXPERT TEAMMATES", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 709, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In the main text we showed how RFM augmented agents learn to coordinate with expert teammates", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 718, + 507, + 736 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 718, + 507, + 736 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "faster than non-augmented baselines. This set-up as is relevant for many interesting situations, e.g.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 33.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 13, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 27, + 293, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Published as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 300, + 752, + 310, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 312, + 764 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 312, + 764 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "", + "type": "text", + "height": 14, + "width": 13 + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 82, + 182, + 93 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 79, + 184, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 79, + 184, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A APPENDIX", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 106, + 346, + 117 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 346, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 346, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.1 COIN COLLECTION ANALYSIS IN THE COIN GAME", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 110, + 128, + 503, + 245 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 110, + 128, + 503, + 245 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 128, + 503, + 245 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 128, + 503, + 245 + ], + "score": 0.97, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "c3298d56aa55ed2094bbd963c48458027cc78a8cf7639c206268ea7efcd2e084.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 3, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 128, + 503, + 167.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 167.0, + 503, + 206.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 206.0, + 503, + 245.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 4 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 199, + 255, + 411, + 267 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 199, + 255, + 412, + 269 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 199, + 255, + 412, + 269 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 6: Coin collection analysis in the Coin Game.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 4.0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 280, + 505, + 369 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 280, + 505, + 292 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 280, + 505, + 292 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "As described in the main text, RFM-augmented agents learn the Coin Game faster than non-augmented", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 291, + 506, + 303 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 291, + 506, + 303 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "baseline agents. This appears to result from learning more efficiently to discern their teammate’s", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 302, + 505, + 314 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 302, + 505, + 314 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "preference. In Fig. 6, the middle panel shows the average number of coins of each color (R: revealed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 313, + 505, + 326 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 313, + 505, + 326 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "good, U: unrevealed good, B: bad) collected by our RFM-augmented agent during an episode. The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 324, + 505, + 336 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 324, + 505, + 336 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "right panel shows the same quantities for our baseline agent. We find that the gap between the U", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 335, + 505, + 348 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 335, + 505, + 348 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "curve and the B curve is significantly wider for the RFM-augmented agent than it is for the baseline", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 506, + 359 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 506, + 359 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent (see, for example, around 50M steps). This suggests that the learning efficiency difference is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 359, + 370 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 359, + 370 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "due to a superior ability to discern the teammate’s preferences.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 9.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 280, + 506, + 370 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 374, + 505, + 439 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 373, + 506, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 373, + 506, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Finally we highlight that our agents, as well as our baselines, vastly outperform previously-published", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 384, + 506, + 398 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 384, + 506, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agents on this game: Separate policy predictor agents (He et al., 2016b) and Self-Other Modeling", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 506, + 409 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 506, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agents (see Fig. 3 in Raileanu et al. (2018). This might imply that the original paper where this game", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 506, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 506, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "was suggested had poor baseline agents. 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Differences are not signifi-(b) Stags can be collected by lone hunters. Differences", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 356, + 502, + 367 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 109, + 356, + 128, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "cant", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 129, + 356, + 164, + 366 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\gamma = 0 . 3 4", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 164, + 356, + 198, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for Stag,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 356, + 233, + 366 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p = 0 . 4 6", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 233, + 356, + 276, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for apples).", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 305, + 356, + 376, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are not significant", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 377, + 356, + 415, + 366 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "( p = 0 . 6 7", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 415, + 356, + 451, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for Stag,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 451, + 356, + 488, + 366 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "p = 0 . 3 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 488, + 356, + 502, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 304, + 365, + 337, + 377 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 304, + 365, + 337, + 377 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "apples).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 385, + 505, + 419 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 384, + 505, + 399 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 384, + 505, + 399 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 9: If coordination is not required to collect stags, or if agents are not interested in collecting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 507, + 410 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 507, + 410 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "stags, the edge norm between the two agents is not affected by the appearance of available stags.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 408, + 330, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 408, + 330, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Compare to Fig. 3 bottom row left and middle panels.)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 448, + 505, + 514 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 447, + 505, + 461 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 447, + 505, + 461 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "when artificial learning agents interact with human experts. For completeness, we show in Fig. 8", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 460, + 506, + 471 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 460, + 506, + 471 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the corresponding results when RFM-augments agents train alongside other learning agents (i.e.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 471, + 504, + 482 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 471, + 504, + 482 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "non-experts). In this case, either all agents in the environment were RFM-augmented (green), or all", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 505, + 494 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 505, + 494 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agents were baseline (blue). We use longer episodes in these experiments (128 steps, rather than 32)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 492, + 505, + 505 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 492, + 505, + 505 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in order to make training easier (hence total returns were higher). For brevity, we only report results", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 503, + 271, + 516 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 503, + 271, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the two-player versions of the games.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 16.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 520, + 505, + 619 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 519, + 505, + 533 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 519, + 505, + 533 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We see a similar result to the main text: allowing agents to model one another explicitly results in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 531, + 505, + 543 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 531, + 240, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "faster learning (e.g. in StagHunt", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 241, + 531, + 294, + 542 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\mathbf { R F M } + \\mathbf { A } 2 \\mathbf { C }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 295, + 531, + 505, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "achieves scores around 48 around 30M steps while", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 542, + 506, + 555 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 542, + 379, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "vanilla A2C requires 45M training steps. Similarly in CoinGame", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 379, + 542, + 434, + 553 + ], + "score": 0.69, + "content": "\\mathrm { R F M } + \\mathrm { A } 2 \\mathrm { C }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 434, + 542, + 506, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "achieves a score", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 505, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 505, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "around 15 in 100M steps while vanilla A2C requires almost 200M steps). We note that this setting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 505, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 505, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "presents an additional challenge: a learned model of a teammate’s behavior can only provide useful", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 505, + 588 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 505, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "information for coordination after the teammate’s policy becomes sensible. The advantage conferred", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 586, + 505, + 599 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 586, + 505, + 599 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by embedding the RFM into the learning agent will thus be delayed relative to the expert teammate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 506, + 611 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 506, + 611 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "condition shown in the main text. 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In particular, we observe in Fig: 3 (bottom row, left and middle panels) that the Euclidean", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "norm of the activation of the edge between the two agents increases when a stag appears. We argue", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that this indicates that agents coordinate their behavior when stags are available. Here we report", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "control experiments to test alternative hypotheses. 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For completeness, we show in Fig. 8", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 460, + 506, + 471 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 460, + 506, + 471 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the corresponding results when RFM-augments agents train alongside other learning agents (i.e.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 471, + 504, + 482 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 471, + 504, + 482 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "non-experts). In this case, either all agents in the environment were RFM-augmented (green), or all", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 505, + 494 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 505, + 494 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agents were baseline (blue). We use longer episodes in these experiments (128 steps, rather than 32)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 492, + 505, + 505 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 492, + 505, + 505 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in order to make training easier (hence total returns were higher). For brevity, we only report results", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 503, + 271, + 516 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 503, + 271, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the two-player versions of the games.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 16.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 447, + 506, + 516 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 520, + 505, + 619 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 519, + 505, + 533 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 519, + 505, + 533 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We see a similar result to the main text: allowing agents to model one another explicitly results in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 531, + 505, + 543 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 531, + 240, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "faster learning (e.g. in StagHunt", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 241, + 531, + 294, + 542 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\mathbf { R F M } + \\mathbf { A } 2 \\mathbf { C }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 295, + 531, + 505, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "achieves scores around 48 around 30M steps while", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 542, + 506, + 555 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 542, + 379, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "vanilla A2C requires 45M training steps. Similarly in CoinGame", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 379, + 542, + 434, + 553 + ], + "score": 0.69, + "content": "\\mathrm { R F M } + \\mathrm { A } 2 \\mathrm { C }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 434, + 542, + 506, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "achieves a score", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 505, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 552, + 505, + 566 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "around 15 in 100M steps while vanilla A2C requires almost 200M steps). We note that this setting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 505, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 505, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "presents an additional challenge: a learned model of a teammate’s behavior can only provide useful", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 505, + 588 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 505, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "information for coordination after the teammate’s policy becomes sensible. The advantage conferred", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 586, + 505, + 599 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 586, + 505, + 599 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by embedding the RFM into the learning agent will thus be delayed relative to the expert teammate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 506, + 611 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 506, + 611 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "condition shown in the main text. 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In particular, we observe in Fig: 3 (bottom row, left and middle panels) that the Euclidean", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "norm of the activation of the edge between the two agents increases when a stag appears. We argue", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that this indicates that agents coordinate their behavior when stags are available. Here we report", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "control experiments to test alternative hypotheses. 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