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In this paper, we propose a novel adaptive batch selection algorithm called Recency Bias that exploits the uncertain samples predicted inconsistently in recent iterations. The historical label predictions of each sample are used to evaluate its predictive uncertainty within a sliding window. By taking advantage of this design, Recency Bias not only accelerates the training step but also achieves a more accurate network. We demonstrate the superiority of Recency Bias by extensive evaluation on two independent tasks. Compared with existing batch selection methods, the results showed that Recency Bias reduced the test error by up to $2 0 . 5 \%$ in a fixed wall-clock training time. At the same time, it improved the training time by up to $5 9 . 3 \%$ to reach the same test error. + +# 1 INTRODUCTION + +Stochastic gradient descent (SGD) for randomly selected mini-batch samples is commonly used to train deep neural networks (DNNs). However, many recent studies have pointed out that the performance of DNNs is heavily dependent on how well the mini-batch samples are selected (Shrivastava et al., 2016; Chang et al., 2017; Katharopoulos & Fleuret, 2018). In earlier approaches, a sample’s difficulty is employed to identify proper mini-batch samples, and these approaches achieve a more accurate and robust network (Han et al., 2018) or expedite the training convergence of SGD (Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016). However, the two opposing difficulty-based strategies, i.e., preferring easy samples (Kumar et al., 2010; Han et al., 2018) versus hard samples (Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016; Shrivastava et al., 2016), work well in different situations. Thus, for practical reasons to cover more diverse situations, recent approaches begin to exploit a sample’s uncertainty that indicates the consistency of previous predictions (Chang et al., 2017; Song et al., 2019). + +An important question here is how to evaluate the sample’s uncertainty based on its historical predictions during the training process. Intuitively, because a series of historical predictions can be seen as a series of data indexed in chronological order, the uncertainty can be measured based on two forms of handling time-series observations: (i) a growing window (Figure 1(a)) that consistently increases the size of a window to use all available observations and (ii) a sliding window (Figure 1(b)) that maintains a window of a fixed size on the most recent observations by deleting outdated ones. While the state-of-the-art algorithm, Active Bias (Chang et al., 2017), adopts the growing window, we propose to use the sliding window in this paper. + +![](images/e458d1497252151139443c48c27d2f144812ed6aab1303be2da2f6cc76f75502.jpg) +Figure 1: Two forms of handling the time-series observations. + +In more detail, Active Bias recognizes uncertain samples based on the inconsistency of the predictions in the entire history of past SGD iterations. Then, it emphasizes such uncertain samples by choosing them with high probability for the next mini-batch. However, according to our experiments presented in Section 5.2, such uncertain samples slowed down the convergence speed of training, though they ultimately reduced the generalization error. This weakness is attributed to the inherent limitation of the growing window, where older observations could be too outdated (Torgo, 2011). In other words, the outdated predictions no longer represent a network’s current behavior. As illustrated in Figure 2, when the label predictions of two samples were inconsistent for a long time, Active Bias invariably regards them as highly uncertain, although their recent label predictions become consistent along with the network’s training progress. This characteristic evidently entails the risk of emphasizing uninformative samples that are too easy or too hard at the current moment, thereby slowing down the convergence speed of training. + +![](images/bd841fdf12d106ed752fcde7b904650e1cbef63ebc12b70c914592c068d00dbd.jpg) +Figure 2: The difference in sample uncertainty estimated by Active Bias and Recency Bias. + +Therefore, we propose a simple but effective batch selection method, called Recency Bias, that takes advantage of the sliding window to evaluate the uncertainty in fresher observations. As opposed to Active Bias, Recency Bias excludes the outdated predictions by managing a sliding window of a fixed size and picks up the samples predicted inconsistently within the sliding window. Thus, as shown in Figure 2, the two samples uninformative at the moment are no longer selected by Recency Bias simply because their recent predictions are consistent. Consequently, since informative samples are effectively selected throughout the training process, this strategy not only accelerates the training speed but also leads to a more accurate network. + +To validate the superiority of Recency Bias, two popular convolutional neural networks (CNNs) were trained for two independent tasks: image classification and fine tuning. We compared Recency Bias with not only random batch selection (baseline) but also two state-of-the-art batch selection strategies. Compared with three batch selection strategies, Recency Bias provided a relative reduction of test error by $1 . 8 1 \% - 2 0 . 5 \%$ in a fixed wall-clock training time. At the same time, it significantly reduced the execution time by $2 4 . 6 \% { - } 5 9 . 3 \%$ to reach the same test error. + +# 2 RELATED WORK + +Let $\mathcal { D } = \{ ( x _ { i } , y _ { i } ) | 1 \leq i \leq N \}$ be the entire training dataset composed of a sample $x _ { i }$ with its true label $y _ { i }$ , where $N$ is the total number of training samples. Then, a straightforward strategy to construct a mini-batch $\mathcal { M } = \{ ( x _ { i } , y _ { i } ) | 1 \leq i \leq b \}$ is to select $b$ samples uniformly at random (i.e., $P ( x _ { i } | D ) = 1 / N )$ from the training dataset $\mathcal { D }$ . + +Because not all samples have an equal impact on training, many research efforts have been devoted to develop advanced sampling schemes. Bengio et al. (2009) first took easy samples and then gradually increased the difficulty of samples using heuristic rules. Kumar et al. (2010) determined the easiness of the samples using their prediction errors. Recently, Tsvetkov et al. (2016) used Bayesian optimization to learn an optimal curriculum for training dense, distributed word representations. Sachan & Xing (2016) emphasized that the right curriculum must introduce a small number of the samples dissimilar to those previously seen. Fan et al. (2017) proposed a neural data filter based on reinforcement learning to select training samples adaptively. However, it is common for deep learning to emphasize hard samples because of the plethora of easy ones (Katharopoulos & Fleuret, 2018). + +Loshchilov & Hutter (2016) proposed a difficulty-based sampling scheme, called Online Batch, that uses the rank of the loss computed from previous epochs. Online Batch sorts the previously computed losses of samples in descending order and exponentially decays the sampling probability of a sample according to its rank $r$ . Then, the $r$ -th ranked sample $x ( r )$ is selected with the probability dropping by a factor of exp $\left( \log ( s _ { e } ) / N \right)$ , where $s _ { e }$ is the selection pressure parameter that affects the probability gap between the most and the least important samples. When normalized to sum to 1.0, the probability $P ( x ( r ) | \mathcal { D } ; s _ { e } )$ is defined by Eq. (1). It has been reported that Online Batch accelerates the convergence of training but deteriorates the generalization error because of the overfitting to hard training samples (Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016). + +$$ +P ( x ( r ) | \mathcal { D } ; s _ { e } ) = \frac { 1 / \exp \left( \log ( s _ { e } ) / N \right) ^ { r } } { \sum _ { j = 1 } ^ { N } 1 / \exp \left( \log ( s _ { e } ) / N \right) ^ { j } } +$$ + +Most close to our work, Chang et al. (2017) devised an uncertainty-based sampling scheme, called Active Bias, that chooses uncertain samples with high probability for the next batch. Active Bias maintains the history $\mathcal { H } _ { i } ^ { t - 1 }$ that stores all $h ( y _ { i } | x _ { i } )$ before the current iteration $t$ (i.e., growing window), where $h ( y _ { i } | x _ { i } )$ is the softmax probability of a given sample $x _ { i }$ for its true label $y _ { i }$ . Then, it measures the uncertainty of the sample $x _ { i }$ by computing the variance over all $h ( y _ { i } | x _ { i } )$ in $\mathcal { H } _ { i } ^ { t - 1 }$ and draws the next mini-batch samples based on the normalized probability $P ( x _ { i } | \mathcal { D } , \mathcal { H } _ { i } ^ { t - 1 } ; \epsilon )$ in Eq. (2), where $\epsilon$ is the smoothness constant to prevent the low variance samples from never being selected again. As mentioned earlier in Section 1, Active Bias slows down the training process because the oldest part in the history $\mathcal { H } _ { i } ^ { t - 1 }$ no longer represents the current behavior of the network. + +$$ +P ( x _ { i } | \mathcal { D } , \mathcal { H } _ { i } ^ { t - 1 } ; \epsilon ) = \frac { \hat { s t d } ( \mathcal { H } _ { i } ^ { t - 1 } ) + \epsilon } { \sum _ { j = 1 } ^ { N } \left( s \hat { t } d ( \mathcal { H } _ { j } ^ { t - 1 } ) + \epsilon \right) } , s \hat { t } d ( \mathcal { H } _ { i } ^ { t - 1 } ) = \sqrt { v a r \big ( h ( y _ { i } | x _ { i } ) \big ) + \frac { v a r \big ( h ( y _ { i } | x _ { i } ) \big ) ^ { 2 } } { | \mathcal { H } _ { i } ^ { t - 1 } | } } +$$ + +For the completeness of the survey, we include the recent studies on submodular batch selection. Joseph et al. (2019) and Wang et al. (2019) designed their own submodular objectives that cover diverse aspects, such as sample redundancy and sample representativeness, for more effective batch selection. Differently from their work, we explore the issue of truly uncertain samples in an orthogonal perspective. Our uncertainty measure can be easily injected into their submodular optimization framework as a measure of sample informativeness. + +In Section 5, we will confirm that Recency Bias outperforms Online Batch and Active Bias, which are regarded as two state-of-the-art adaptive batch selection methods for deep learning. + +# 3 Recency Bias COMPONENTS + +# 3.1 CRITERION OF AN UNCERTAIN SAMPLE + +The main challenge of Recency Bias is to identify the samples whose recent label predictions are highly inconsistent, which are neither too easy nor too hard at the moment. Thus, we adopt the predictive uncertainty (Song et al., 2019) in Definition 3.1 that uses the information entropy (Chandler, 1987) to measure the inconsistency of recent label predictions. Here, the sample with high predictive uncertainty is regarded as uncertain and selected with high probability for the next mini-batch. + +Definition 3.1. (Predictive Uncertainty) Let $\hat { y } _ { i t } = \Phi ( x _ { i } , \theta _ { t } )$ be the predicted label of a sample $x _ { i }$ at time $t$ and $\mathcal { H } _ { x _ { i } } ( q ) = \{ \hat { y } _ { t _ { 1 } } , \hat { y } _ { t _ { 2 } } , . . . , \hat { y } _ { t _ { q } } \}$ be the label history of the sample $x _ { i }$ that stores the predicted labels at the previous $q$ times, where $\Phi$ is a neural network. The label history $\mathcal { H } _ { x _ { i } } ( q )$ corresponds to the sliding window of size $q$ to compute the uncertainty of the sample $x _ { i }$ . Next, $p ( \boldsymbol { y } _ { i } | \boldsymbol { x } _ { i } ; \boldsymbol { q } )$ is formulated such that it provides the probability of the label $y _ { i } \in \{ 1 , 2 , . . . , k \}$ estimated as the label of the sample $x _ { i }$ based on $\mathcal { H } _ { x _ { i } } ( q )$ as in Eq. (3), where $[ \cdot ]$ is the Iverson bracket1. + +$$ +p ( y _ { i } | x _ { i } ; q ) = \frac { \sum _ { \hat { y _ { i } } \in \mathcal { H } _ { x _ { i } } ( q ) } [ \hat { y _ { i } } = y _ { i } ] } { | \mathcal { H } _ { x _ { i } } ( q ) | } +$$ + +Then, to quantify the uncertainty of the sample $x _ { i }$ , the predictive uncertainty $F ( x _ { i } ; q )$ is defined using the empirical entropy as in Eq. (4). Because the uncertainty is bounded, we add the standardization term $\delta$ to normalize the value to $[ 0 , 1 ]$ . For $k$ classes, $\delta$ is the maximum entropy when $\forall _ { j } p ( j | x _ { i } ; q ) = 1 / k$ . + +$$ +\begin{array} { c } { F ( x _ { i } ; q ) = - ( 1 / \delta ) \displaystyle \sum _ { j = 1 } ^ { k } p ( j | x _ { i } ; q ) \log p ( j | x _ { i } ; q ) } \\ { \delta = - \log \left( 1 / k \right) \displaystyle \bigcup } \end{array} +$$ + +# 3.2 SAMPLING PROBABILITY FOR MINI-BATCH CONSTRUCTION + +To construct next mini-batch samples, we assign the sampling probability according to the predictive uncertainty in Definition 3.1. Motivated by Loshchilov & Hutter (2016), the sampling probability of a given sample $x _ { i }$ is exponentially decayed with its predictive uncertainty $F ( x _ { i } ; q )$ . In detail, we adopt the quantization method (Chen & Wornell, 2001) and use the quantization index to decay the sampling probability. The index is obtained by the simple quantizer $Q$ in Eq. (5), where $\Delta$ is the quantization step size. Compared with the rank-based index (Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016), the quantization index is known to well reflect the difference in actual values (Widrow et al., 1996). + +$$ +Q \big ( F ( x _ { i } ; q ) \big ) = \lceil \big ( 1 - F ( x _ { i } ; q ) \big ) / \Delta \rceil , 0 \leq F ( x _ { i } ; q ) \leq 1 +$$ + +In Eq. (5), we set $\Delta$ to be $1 / N$ such that the index is bounded to $N$ (the total number of samples). Then, the sampling probability $P ( x _ { i } | \mathcal { D } ; s _ { e } )$ is defined as in Eq. (6). The higher the predictive uncertainty, the smaller the quantization index. Therefore, a higher sampling probability is assigned for uncertain samples in Eq. (6). + +$$ +P ( x _ { i } | \mathcal { D } ; s _ { e } ) = \frac { 1 / \exp \left( \log ( s _ { e } ) / N \right) ^ { Q ( F ( x _ { i } ; q ) ) } } { \sum _ { j = 1 } ^ { N } 1 / \exp \left( \log ( s _ { e } ) / N \right) ^ { Q ( F ( x _ { j } ; q ) ) } } +$$ + +Meanwhile, it is known that using only some part of training data exacerbates the overfitting problem at a late stage of training (Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016; Zhou & Bilmes, 2018). Thus, to alleviate the problem, we include more training samples as the training progresses by exponentially decaying the selection pressure $s _ { e }$ as in Eq. (7). At each epoch $e$ from $e _ { 0 }$ to $e _ { e n d }$ , the selection pressure $s _ { e }$ exponentially decreases from $s _ { e _ { 0 } }$ to 1. Because this technique gradually reduces the sampling probability gap between the most and the least uncertain samples, more diverse samples are selected for the next mini-batch at a later epoch. When the selection pressure $s _ { e }$ becomes 1, the mini-batch samples are randomly chosen from the entire dataset. + +$$ +s _ { e } = s _ { e _ { 0 } } \Big ( \exp \big ( \log \big ( 1 / s _ { e _ { 0 } } \big ) / ( e _ { e n d } - e _ { 0 } ) \big ) \Big ) ^ { e - e _ { 0 } } +$$ + +# 4 Recency Bias ALGORITHM + +# Algorithm 1 Recency Bias Algorithm + +INPUT: $\mathcal { D }$ : data, epochs, b: batch size, $q$ : window size, $s _ { e _ { 0 } }$ : initial selection pressure, $\gamma$ : warm-u +OUTPUT: $\theta _ { t }$ : model parameter +1: $t \gets 1$ ; +2: ${ \theta _ { t } } \gets$ Initialize the model parameter; +3: for $i = 1$ to epochs do +4: $/ { ^ * }$ Sampling Probability Derivation $^ { * }$ +5: if $i > \gamma$ then +6: $s _ { e } \gets$ Decay_Selection_Pressure $( s _ { e _ { 0 } } , i )$ ; $/ { * }$ Decaying $s _ { e }$ by Eq. (7) \*/ +7: for $m = 1$ to $N$ do $/ { } ^ { * }$ Updating the index and the sampling probability in a batch $^ { * }$ +8: $q _ { - } d i c t [ x _ { m } ] = Q \bigl ( F ( x _ { m } ; q ) \bigr )$ ; $/ { } ^ { * }$ By Eq. (5) $^ { * }$ +9: $p \_ t a b l e \mathrm { C o } \mathrm { _ { } }$ mpute_Prob(q_dict, $s _ { e . }$ ); $/ { } ^ { * }$ By Eq. (6) $^ { * }$ +10: /\* Network Training $^ { * }$ +11: for $j = 1$ to $N / b$ do $/ { * }$ Mini-batch $^ { * }$ +12: if $i \leq \gamma$ then $/ { * }$ Warm-up $^ { * }$ +13: $\{ ( x _ { 1 } , y _ { 1 } ) , \dotsc , ( x _ { b } , y _ { b } ) \} $ Randomly select next mini-batch samples; +14: else $/ { * }$ Adaptive batch selection $^ { * }$ +15: $\{ ( x _ { 1 } , y _ { 1 } ) , \dotsc , ( x _ { b } , y _ { b } ) \} $ Select next mini-batch samples based on $p \_ t a b l e$ ; +16: losses, ${ l a b e l s }$ Inference_Step $\cdot ( \{ ( x _ { 1 } , y _ { 1 } ) , \dots , ( x _ { b } , y _ { b } ) \} , \theta _ { t } )$ ; $/ { } ^ { * }$ Forward $^ { * }$ +17: $\theta _ { t + 1 } \gets \mathrm { S G D } \_ { \mathrm { S t e p } } ( l o s s e s , \theta _ { t } )$ ; $/ { * }$ Backward $^ { * }$ +18: Update_Label_History(labels); $/ { * }$ By Definition $3 . 1 ~ ^ { * } /$ +19: $t \gets t + 1$ ; +20: return $\theta _ { t }$ ; + +Algorithm 1 describes the overall procedure of Recency Bias. The algorithm requires a warm-up period of $\gamma$ epochs because the quantization index for each sample is not confirmed yet. During the warm-up period, which should be at least $q$ epochs $( \gamma \geq q )$ to obtain the label history of size $q$ , randomly selected mini-batch samples are used for the network update (Lines 12–13). After the warm-up period, the algorithm decays the selection pressure $s _ { e }$ and updates not only the quantization index but also the sampling probability in a batch at the beginning of each epoch (Lines 4–9). Subsequently, the uncertain samples are selected for the next mini-batch according to the updated sampling probability (Line 14–15), and then the label history is updated along with the network update (Lines 16–19). + +Overall, the key technical novelty of Recency Bias is to incorporate the notion of a sliding window (Line 8) rather than a growing window into adaptive batch selection, thereby improving both training speed and generalization error. + +Time Complexity: The main “additional” cost of Recency Bias is the derivation of the sampling probability for each sample (Lines 4–9). Because only simple mathematical operations are needed per sample, its time complexity is linear to the number of samples (i.e., $O ( N ) )$ ), which is negligible compared with that of the forward and backward steps of a complex network (Lines 16–17). Therefore, we contend that Recency Bias does not add the complexity of an underlying optimization algorithm. + +# 5 EVALUATION + +We empirically show the improvement of Recency Bias over not only Random Batch (baseline) but also Online Batch (Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016) and Active Bias (Chang et al., 2017), which are two stateof-the-art adaptive batch selections. In particular, we elaborate on the effect of the sliding window approach (Recency Bias) compared with the growing window approach (Active Bias). Random Batch selects next mini-batch samples uniformly at random from the entire dataset. Online Batch selects hard samples based on the rank of the loss computed from previous epochs. Active Bias selects uncertain samples with high variance of true label probabilities in the growing window. All the algorithms were implemented using TensorFlow 1.8.0 and executed using a single NVIDIA Titan Volta GPU. For reproducibility, we provide the source code at https://github.com/anonymized. + +Image classification and fine-tuning tasks were performed to validate the superiority of Recency Bias. Because fine-tuning is used to quickly adapt to a new dataset, it is suitable to reap the benefit of fast training speed. In support of reliable evaluation, we repeated every task thrice and reported the average and standard error of the best test errors. The best test error in a given time has been widely used for the studies on fast and accurate training (Katharopoulos & Fleuret, 2018; Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016). + +# 5.1 ANALYSIS ON SELECTED MINI-BATCH SAMPLES + +For an in-depth analysis on selected samples, we plot the loss distribution of mini-batch samples selected from CIFAR-10 by four different strategies in Figure 3. (i) The distribution of Online Batch is the most skewed toward high loss by the design principle of selecting hard samples. (ii) Active Bias emphasizes moderately hard samples at an early training stage in considering that its loss distribution lies between those of Random Batch and Online Batch. However, owing to the outdated predictions caused by the growing window, the proportion of easy samples with low loss increases at a late training stage. These easy samples, which are misclassified as uncertain at that stage, tend to make the convergence of training slow down. (iii) In contrast to Active Bias, by virtue of the sliding window, the distribution of Recency Bias lies between those of Random Batch and Online Batch regardless of the training stage. Consequently, Recency Bias continues to highlight the moderately hard samples, which are likely to be informative, during the training process. + +![](images/8c8739f16ea42064903ff3fcdc18e71d24f92a506e69384e924af6d9a72dfa55.jpg) +Figure 3: The loss distribution of mini-batch samples selected by four batch selection strategies: (a) and (b) show the loss distribution at the $3 0 \%$ and $7 0 \%$ of total training epochs, respectively. + +# 5.2 TASK I: IMAGE CLASSIFICATION + +Experiment Setting: We trained DenseNet $\mathrm { L } { = } 4 0$ , $_ { \mathrm { k = } 1 2 }$ ) and ResNet $\mathrm { L } { = } 5 0 _ { , }$ ) with a momentum optimizer and an SGD optimizer on three benchmark datasets: MNIST (10 classes)2, classification of handwritten digits (LeCun, 1998), and CIFAR-10 (10 classes)3 and CIFAR-100 (100 classes)3, classification of a subset of 80 million categorical images (Krizhevsky et al., 2014). Specifically, we used data augmentation, batch normalization, a momentum of 0.9, and a batch size of 128. As for the algorithm parameters, we fixed the window size $q = 1 0$ and the initial selection pressure $s _ { e _ { 0 } } = 1 0 0$ , 4 which were the best values found by the grid search (see Appendix A for details). The warm-up epoch $\gamma$ was set to be 15. To reduce the performance variance caused by randomly initialized model parameters, all parameters were shared by all algorithms during the warm-up period. Regarding the training schedule, we trained the network for 40, 000 iterations and used an initial learning rate of 0.1, which was divided by 10 at $5 0 \%$ and $7 5 \%$ of the total number of training iterations. + +Results: Figure 4 shows the convergence curves of training loss and test error for four batch selection strategies using DenseNet and a momentum optimizer. In order to highlight the improvement of Recency Bias over the baseline (Random Batch), their lines are dark colored. The best test errors in Figures 4(b), 4(d), and 4(f) are summarized on the left side of Table 1. + +In general, Recency Bias achieved the most accurate network while accelerating the training process on all datasets. The training loss of Recency Bias converged faster (Figures 4(a), 4(c), and 4(e)) without the increase in the generalization error, thereby achieving the lower test error (Figures 4(b), 4(d), and 4(f)). In contrast, the test error of Online Batch was not the best even if its training loss converged the fastest among all strategies. As the training difficulty increased from CIFAR-10 to CIFAR-100, the test error of Online Batch became even worse than that of Random Batch. That is, emphasizing hard samples accelerated the training step but made the network overfit to hard samples. Meanwhile, Active Bias was prone to make the network better generalized on test data. In CIFAR-10, despite its highest training loss, the test error of Active Bias was better than that of Random Batch. However, Active Bias slowed down the training process because of the limitation of growing windows, as discussed in Section 5.1. We note that, although both Recency Bias and Active Bias exploited uncertain samples, only Recency Bias based on sliding windows succeeded to not only speed up the training process but also reduce the generalization error. + +The results of the best test error for ResNet or an SGD optimizer are summarized in Tables 1 and 2 (see Appendix C for more details). Regardless of a neural network and an optimizer, Recency Bias achieved the lowest test error except in MNIST with an SGD optimizer. The improvement of Recency Bias over the others was higher with an SGD optimizer than with a momentum optimizer. + +Table 1: The best test errors $( \% )$ of four batch selection strategies using DenseNet. + +
OptimizerMomentumin Figure 4SGD in Figure 9(Appendix C.1)
MethodMNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100MNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100
RandomBatch0.527± 0.037.33± 0.0928.0±0.161.23± 0.0314.9 ± 0.0940.2 ± 0.06
OnlineBatch0.514± 0.017.00±0.1028.4± 0.250.765± 0.0213.5± 0.0240.7 ± 0.12
Active Bias0.616±0.037.07 ± 0.0427.9 ± 0.110.679±0.0214.2 ± 0.2542.9 ± 0.05
Recency Bias0.490± 0.026.60 ± 0.0227.1 ± 0.190.986±0.0613.2 ± 0.1138.7 ± 0.11
+ +Table 2: The best test errors $( \% )$ of four batch selection strategies using ResNet. + +
OptimizerMomentum in Figure 10(Appendix C.2)SGD in Figure 11 (Appendix C.3)
MethodMNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100MNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100
RandomBatch0.636 ± 0.0410.2 ± 0.1233.2 ± 0.071.16 ± 0.0312.7 ± 0.0940.1 ± 0.16
OnlineBatch0.666 ± 0.0510.1± 0.0533.4 ± 0.010.890± 0.0312.2 ± 0.0840.7 ± 0.09
Active Bias0.613 ± 0.0410.6±0.0834.2 ± 0.070.804± 0.0113.5 ± 0.0745.6 ± 0.07
Recency Bias0.607 ± 0.019.79 ± 0.0432.4 ± 0.040.972 ± 0.0311.6 ± 0.0938.9 ± 0.14
+ +![](images/6b3815178b0ace16a53891bf390cb06795f2f8f94e51f5cb6b880c9de0b7be0f.jpg) +Figure 4: Convergence curves of four batch selection strategies using DenseNet with momentum. + +# 5.3 TASK II: FINE-TUNING + +Experiment Setting: We prepared DenseNet $_ { \mathrm { L } = 1 2 1 }$ , $\mathbf { k } = 3 2$ ) previously trained on ImageNet (Deng et al., 2009) and then fine-tuned the network on two benchmark datasets: MIT-67 (67 classes)5, classification of indoor scenes (Quattoni & Torralba, 2009), and Food-100 (100 classes)6, classification of popular foods in Japan (Kawano & Yanai, 2014). After replacing the last classification layer, the network was trained end-to-end for 50 epochs with a batch size 32 and a constant learning rate $2 \times 1 0 ^ { - 4 }$ . Data augmentation was not applied here. The other configurations were the same as those in Section 5.2. + +Results on Test Error: Figure 5 shows the convergence curves of training loss and test error for the fine-tuning task on MIT-67 and Food-100. Overall, all convergence curves showed similar trends to those of the classification task in Figure 4. Only Recency Bias converged faster than Random Batch in both training loss and test error. Online Batch converged the fastest in training loss, but its test error was rather higher than Random Batch owing to the overfitting. Active Bias converged the slowest in both training loss and test error. Quantitatively, compared with Random Batch, Recency Bias reduced the test error by $2 . 8 8 \%$ and $1 . 8 1 \%$ in MIT-67 and Food-100, respectively. + +![](images/4b10c356bdce14d65c703f0a0a5ba9e51549ccb62e4258dcdcc64892bc7d3fc1.jpg) +Figure 5: Convergence curves for fine-tuning on two benchmark datasets. + +Table 3: Recency Bias’s reduction in training time over other batch selection strategies. + +
MethodMIT-67FOOD-100
RandomBatch(5,218-3,936)/5,218 × 100= 24.6%(7,263-5,365)/7,263 × 100= 26.1%
OnlineBatch(6,079- 3,823)/6,079 × 100 = 37.1%(8,333-3,685)/8,333 × 100= 55.8%
Active Bias(5,738-3,032)/5,738×100=47.2%(7,933-3,227)/7,933× 100= 59.3%
+ +Results on Training Time: Moreover, to assess the performance gain in training time, we computed the reduction in the training time taken to reach the same error. For example, in Figure 5(b), the best test error of $2 8 . 8 \%$ achieved in 5, 218 seconds by Random Batch could be achieved only in 3, 936 seconds by Recency Bias; thus, Recency Bias improved the training time by $2 4 . 6 \%$ . Table 3 summarizes the reduction in the training time of Recency Bias over three other batch selection strategies. Notably, Recency Bias improved the training time by $2 4 . 6 \% { - 4 7 . 2 \% }$ and $2 6 . 1 \% { - 5 9 . 3 \% }$ in fine-tuning MIT-67 and FOOD-100 datasets, respectively. + +# 5.4 ABLATION STUDY ON SELECTION PRESSURE + +For an ablation study on the selection pressure, we trained DenseNet $( \mathrm { L } { = } 4 0 , \mathrm { k } { = } 1 2 )$ on two benchmark datasets using Recency Bias with four different decaying strategies: $s _ { e } : 1 0 \to 1 0$ , $s _ { e } : 1 0 0 \to 1 0 0$ , $s _ { e } : 1 0 \to 1$ , and $s _ { e } : 1 0 0 \to 1$ . The first two strategies used different initial selection pressures without decaying, but the remaining strategies exponentially decayed their initial selection pressures to 1. We used a momentum optimizer and the other experimental configurations were the same as those in Section 5.2. + +Figure 6 shows the convergence curves of Recency Bias using the different decaying strategies along with that of Random Batch. Generally, the two strategies without decaying (i.e., $s _ { e } : 1 0 \to 1 0$ , $s _ { e } : 1 0 0 \to 1 0 0 )$ showed much faster convergence speed in training loss compared with those with decaying (i.e., $s _ { e } : 1 0 \to 1$ , $s _ { e } : 1 0 0 \to 1 $ ). However, as mentioned earlier in Section 3.2, the two strategies without decaying exacerbated the overfitting problem because they only used the training samples classified as highly uncertain. Accordingly, their test errors were rather higher than that of Random Batch in CIFAR-100 dataset. On the other hand, the two strategies with decaying converged faster than Random Batch in both training loss and test error in all datasets because they exploited more diverse training samples by exponentially decaying the selection pressure. Thus, these observations empirically prove that decaying the selection pressure is an effective way to alleviate the overfitting problem at the later stage of training. + +![](images/79dff39f85eae7d3803dde22a0110a284299728a2929b4bad6b3e974ac003979.jpg) +0 80 10Figure 6: Ablation study on the effect of the selection pressure. + +# 6 CONCLUSION + +In this paper, we presented a novel adaptive batch selection algorithm called Recency Bias that emphasizes predictively uncertain samples for accelerating the training of neural networks. Toward this goal, the predictive uncertainty of each sample is evaluated using its recent label predictions managed by a sliding window of a fixed size. Then, uncertain samples at the moment are selected with high probability for the next mini-batch. We conducted extensive experiments on both classification and fine-tuning tasks. The results showed that Recency Bias is effective in reducing the training time as well as the best test error. It was worthwhile to note that using all historical observations to estimate the uncertainty has the side effect of slowing down the training process. Overall, a merger of uncertain samples and sliding windows greatly improves the power of adaptive batch selection. + +# REFERENCES + +Yoshua Bengio, Jérôme Louradour, Ronan Collobert, and Jason Weston. Curriculum learning. In ICML, pp. 41–48, 2009. + +David Chandler. Introduction to modern statistical mechanics. Oxford University Press, 1987. + +Haw-Shiuan Chang, Erik Learned-Miller, and Andrew McCallum. Active Bias: Training more accurate neural networks by emphasizing high variance samples. In NeurIPS, pp. 1002–1012, 2017. + +Brian Chen and Gregory W Wornell. Quantization index modulation: A class of provably good methods for digital watermarking and information embedding. IEEE Trans. on Information Theory, 47(4):1423–1443, 2001. + +Jia Deng, Wei Dong, Richard Socher, Li-Jia Li, Kai Li, and Li Fei-Fei. 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In ICLR, 2018. + +# A HYPERPARAMETER SELECTION + +Recency Bias receives the two hyperparameters: $( i )$ the initial selection pressure $s _ { e _ { 0 } }$ that determines the sampling probability gap between the most and the least uncertain samples and $( i i )$ the window size $q$ that determines how many recent label predictions are involved in predicting the uncertainty. To decide the best hyperparameters, we trained ResNet $( \mathrm { L } { = } 5 0 )$ ) on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 with a momentum optimizer. For hyperparameters selection, the two hyperparameters were chosen in a grid $s _ { e _ { 0 } } \in \{ 1 , 1 0 , \mathsf { \bar { 1 0 0 } } , 1 0 0 0 \}$ and $\mathsf { \bar { q } } \in \{ 5 , 1 0 , 1 5 \}$ . + +![](images/53618c6fcbdac2807406a8e3fde6e99b9b68913788a6e1b1e27d2915609b591c.jpg) +Figure 7: Grid search on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 datasets using ResNet. + +Figure 7 shows the test errors of Recency Bias obtained by the grid search on the two datasets. Regarding the initial selection pressure $s _ { e _ { 0 } }$ , the lowest test error was typically achieved when the $s _ { e _ { 0 } }$ value was 100. As for the window size $q$ , the test error was almost always the lowest when the $q$ value was 10. Similar trends were observed for the other combinations of a neural network and an optimizer. Therefore, in all experiments, we set $s _ { e _ { 0 } }$ to be 100 and $q$ to be 10. + +# B EXPERIMENT USING TINY-IMAGENET DATASET + +For a larger-scale experiment, we repeated the image classification task on Tiny-ImageNet (200 classes), a subset of ImageNet (Krizhevsky et al., 2012), with 100, 000 training and $1 0 , 0 0 0$ validation images. Because no test set exists, we used the validation set as the test data. For Tiny-ImageNet dataset, we trained the network for 80, 000 iterations and used an initial learning rate of 0.1, which was divided by 10 at $5 0 \%$ and $7 5 \%$ of the total number of training iterations. The remaining experimental configurations were the same as those in Section 5.2. + +![](images/a0eb70a7d351e780640a2e722bd4687c2db5edac63d5d35b4a532322ce1bc99e.jpg) +1 20 40 60 80 10Figure 8: Convergence curves of four batch selection strategies using DenseNet with momentum. + +Table 4: The best test errors $( \% )$ of four batch selection strategies using DenseNet. + +
MethodRandom BatchOnline BatchActiveBiasRecencyBias
Tiny-ImageNet51.6 ± 0.2652.5 ± 0.1952.2± 0.5251.0± 0.34
+ +Figure 8 shows the convergence curves of training loss and test error using four batch selection strategies on Tiny-ImageNet, where the best test errors are detailed in Table 4. Again, only Recency Bias converged faster than Random Batch in both training loss and test error. On the other hand, although Online Batch showed the fastest convergence in training loss, its test error was worse than that of Random Batch because of the overfitting to hard training samples. Similarly, the test error of Active Bias was also worse than that of Random Batch because of the side effect of slowing down the convergence speed of training. In summary, Recency Bias achieved the test error relatively lower by $1 . 1 6 \%$ than Random Batch, $\bar { 2 . 8 6 \% }$ than Online Batch, and $2 . 3 0 \%$ than Active Bias. + +# C GENERALIZATION OF Recency Bias + +# C.1 CONVERGENCE CURVES USING DENSENET WITH SGD + +Figure 9 shows the convergence curves of training loss and test error for four batch selection strategies using DenseNet and an SGD optimizer, which corresponds to the right side of Table 1. + +![](images/32e305ef129f849ef76894fc807af1fec09da6e472faa0f50ac6fdcecea3e289.jpg) +Figure 9: Convergence curves of four batch selection strategies using DenseNet with SGD. + +# C.2 CONVERGENCE CURVES USING RESNET WITH MOMENTUM + +Figure 10 shows the convergence curves of training loss and test error for four batch selection strategies using ResNet and a momentum optimizer, which corresponds to the left side of Table 2. + +![](images/859e6d9d9092bded29cb986dc8ac0591e6b7b2151db8e195070b18f50914df01.jpg) +Figure 10: Convergence curves of four batch selection strategies using ResNet with momentum. + +# C.3 CONVERGENCE CURVES USING RESNET WITH SGD + +Figure 11 shows the convergence curves of training loss and test error for four batch selection strategies using ResNet and an SGD optimizer, which corresponds to the right side of Table 2. + +![](images/9cdd13b1ed5dfb72b5ff3cffb7c31970c326a62bbae008f231ee97515d954596.jpg) +Figure 11: Convergence curves of four batch selection strategies using ResNet with SGD. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/parse/train/BklSv34KvB/BklSv34KvB_content_list.json b/parse/train/BklSv34KvB/BklSv34KvB_content_list.json new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..ac135c7b5f8375f075675bb6b4a9e47884722084 --- /dev/null +++ b/parse/train/BklSv34KvB/BklSv34KvB_content_list.json @@ -0,0 +1,1378 @@ +[ + { + "type": "text", + "text": "CARPE DIEM, SEIZE THE SAMPLES UNCERTAIN “AT THE MOMENT” FOR ADAPTIVE BATCH SELECTION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 98, + 821, + 146 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Anonymous authors Paper under double-blind review ", + "bbox": [ + 183, + 170, + 398, + 198 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "ABSTRACT ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 454, + 234, + 544, + 251 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The performance of deep neural networks is significantly affected by how well mini-batches are constructed. In this paper, we propose a novel adaptive batch selection algorithm called Recency Bias that exploits the uncertain samples predicted inconsistently in recent iterations. The historical label predictions of each sample are used to evaluate its predictive uncertainty within a sliding window. By taking advantage of this design, Recency Bias not only accelerates the training step but also achieves a more accurate network. We demonstrate the superiority of Recency Bias by extensive evaluation on two independent tasks. Compared with existing batch selection methods, the results showed that Recency Bias reduced the test error by up to $2 0 . 5 \\%$ in a fixed wall-clock training time. At the same time, it improved the training time by up to $5 9 . 3 \\%$ to reach the same test error. ", + "bbox": [ + 233, + 265, + 766, + 417 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "1 INTRODUCTION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 443, + 336, + 459 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Stochastic gradient descent (SGD) for randomly selected mini-batch samples is commonly used to train deep neural networks (DNNs). However, many recent studies have pointed out that the performance of DNNs is heavily dependent on how well the mini-batch samples are selected (Shrivastava et al., 2016; Chang et al., 2017; Katharopoulos & Fleuret, 2018). In earlier approaches, a sample’s difficulty is employed to identify proper mini-batch samples, and these approaches achieve a more accurate and robust network (Han et al., 2018) or expedite the training convergence of SGD (Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016). However, the two opposing difficulty-based strategies, i.e., preferring easy samples (Kumar et al., 2010; Han et al., 2018) versus hard samples (Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016; Shrivastava et al., 2016), work well in different situations. Thus, for practical reasons to cover more diverse situations, recent approaches begin to exploit a sample’s uncertainty that indicates the consistency of previous predictions (Chang et al., 2017; Song et al., 2019). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 474, + 825, + 627 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "An important question here is how to evaluate the sample’s uncertainty based on its historical predictions during the training process. Intuitively, because a series of historical predictions can be seen as a series of data indexed in chronological order, the uncertainty can be measured based on two forms of handling time-series observations: (i) a growing window (Figure 1(a)) that consistently increases the size of a window to use all available observations and (ii) a sliding window (Figure 1(b)) that maintains a window of a fixed size on the most recent observations by deleting outdated ones. While the state-of-the-art algorithm, Active Bias (Chang et al., 2017), adopts the growing window, we propose to use the sliding window in this paper. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 633, + 825, + 746 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/e458d1497252151139443c48c27d2f144812ed6aab1303be2da2f6cc76f75502.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 1: Two forms of handling the time-series observations. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 222, + 757, + 774, + 854 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In more detail, Active Bias recognizes uncertain samples based on the inconsistency of the predictions in the entire history of past SGD iterations. Then, it emphasizes such uncertain samples by choosing them with high probability for the next mini-batch. However, according to our experiments presented in Section 5.2, such uncertain samples slowed down the convergence speed of training, though they ultimately reduced the generalization error. This weakness is attributed to the inherent limitation of the growing window, where older observations could be too outdated (Torgo, 2011). In other words, the outdated predictions no longer represent a network’s current behavior. As illustrated in Figure 2, when the label predictions of two samples were inconsistent for a long time, Active Bias invariably regards them as highly uncertain, although their recent label predictions become consistent along with the network’s training progress. This characteristic evidently entails the risk of emphasizing uninformative samples that are too easy or too hard at the current moment, thereby slowing down the convergence speed of training. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 882, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/bd841fdf12d106ed752fcde7b904650e1cbef63ebc12b70c914592c068d00dbd.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 2: The difference in sample uncertainty estimated by Active Bias and Recency Bias. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 176, + 101, + 821, + 224 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 255, + 825, + 381 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Therefore, we propose a simple but effective batch selection method, called Recency Bias, that takes advantage of the sliding window to evaluate the uncertainty in fresher observations. As opposed to Active Bias, Recency Bias excludes the outdated predictions by managing a sliding window of a fixed size and picks up the samples predicted inconsistently within the sliding window. Thus, as shown in Figure 2, the two samples uninformative at the moment are no longer selected by Recency Bias simply because their recent predictions are consistent. Consequently, since informative samples are effectively selected throughout the training process, this strategy not only accelerates the training speed but also leads to a more accurate network. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 387, + 825, + 498 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "To validate the superiority of Recency Bias, two popular convolutional neural networks (CNNs) were trained for two independent tasks: image classification and fine tuning. We compared Recency Bias with not only random batch selection (baseline) but also two state-of-the-art batch selection strategies. Compared with three batch selection strategies, Recency Bias provided a relative reduction of test error by $1 . 8 1 \\% - 2 0 . 5 \\%$ in a fixed wall-clock training time. At the same time, it significantly reduced the execution time by $2 4 . 6 \\% { - } 5 9 . 3 \\%$ to reach the same test error. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 505, + 825, + 588 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2 RELATED WORK ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 602, + 344, + 618 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Let $\\mathcal { D } = \\{ ( x _ { i } , y _ { i } ) | 1 \\leq i \\leq N \\}$ be the entire training dataset composed of a sample $x _ { i }$ with its true label $y _ { i }$ , where $N$ is the total number of training samples. Then, a straightforward strategy to construct a mini-batch $\\mathcal { M } = \\{ ( x _ { i } , y _ { i } ) | 1 \\leq i \\leq b \\}$ is to select $b$ samples uniformly at random (i.e., $P ( x _ { i } | D ) = 1 / N )$ from the training dataset $\\mathcal { D }$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 630, + 825, + 685 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Because not all samples have an equal impact on training, many research efforts have been devoted to develop advanced sampling schemes. Bengio et al. (2009) first took easy samples and then gradually increased the difficulty of samples using heuristic rules. Kumar et al. (2010) determined the easiness of the samples using their prediction errors. Recently, Tsvetkov et al. (2016) used Bayesian optimization to learn an optimal curriculum for training dense, distributed word representations. Sachan & Xing (2016) emphasized that the right curriculum must introduce a small number of the samples dissimilar to those previously seen. Fan et al. (2017) proposed a neural data filter based on reinforcement learning to select training samples adaptively. However, it is common for deep learning to emphasize hard samples because of the plethora of easy ones (Katharopoulos & Fleuret, 2018). ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 693, + 825, + 818 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Loshchilov & Hutter (2016) proposed a difficulty-based sampling scheme, called Online Batch, that uses the rank of the loss computed from previous epochs. Online Batch sorts the previously computed losses of samples in descending order and exponentially decays the sampling probability of a sample according to its rank $r$ . Then, the $r$ -th ranked sample $x ( r )$ is selected with the probability dropping by a factor of exp $\\left( \\log ( s _ { e } ) / N \\right)$ , where $s _ { e }$ is the selection pressure parameter that affects the probability gap between the most and the least important samples. When normalized to sum to 1.0, the probability $P ( x ( r ) | \\mathcal { D } ; s _ { e } )$ is defined by Eq. (1). It has been reported that Online Batch accelerates the convergence of training but deteriorates the generalization error because of the overfitting to hard training samples (Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016). ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 824, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 103, + 823, + 132 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/9b96975ecea47dadea2d520448f3f106db6644b11f081199bd55d67e44bcb03e.jpg", + "text": "$$\nP ( x ( r ) | \\mathcal { D } ; s _ { e } ) = \\frac { 1 / \\exp \\left( \\log ( s _ { e } ) / N \\right) ^ { r } } { \\sum _ { j = 1 } ^ { N } 1 / \\exp \\left( \\log ( s _ { e } ) / N \\right) ^ { j } }\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 344, + 142, + 651, + 186 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Most close to our work, Chang et al. (2017) devised an uncertainty-based sampling scheme, called Active Bias, that chooses uncertain samples with high probability for the next batch. Active Bias maintains the history $\\mathcal { H } _ { i } ^ { t - 1 }$ that stores all $h ( y _ { i } | x _ { i } )$ before the current iteration $t$ (i.e., growing window), where $h ( y _ { i } | x _ { i } )$ is the softmax probability of a given sample $x _ { i }$ for its true label $y _ { i }$ . Then, it measures the uncertainty of the sample $x _ { i }$ by computing the variance over all $h ( y _ { i } | x _ { i } )$ in $\\mathcal { H } _ { i } ^ { t - 1 }$ and draws the next mini-batch samples based on the normalized probability $P ( x _ { i } | \\mathcal { D } , \\mathcal { H } _ { i } ^ { t - 1 } ; \\epsilon )$ in Eq. (2), where $\\epsilon$ is the smoothness constant to prevent the low variance samples from never being selected again. As mentioned earlier in Section 1, Active Bias slows down the training process because the oldest part in the history $\\mathcal { H } _ { i } ^ { t - 1 }$ no longer represents the current behavior of the network. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 191, + 825, + 321 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/d37c1396fb0cf91ab206031001bcba9f521c30adb36bc2b7e53cb955c8c4a55d.jpg", + "text": "$$\nP ( x _ { i } | \\mathcal { D } , \\mathcal { H } _ { i } ^ { t - 1 } ; \\epsilon ) = \\frac { \\hat { s t d } ( \\mathcal { H } _ { i } ^ { t - 1 } ) + \\epsilon } { \\sum _ { j = 1 } ^ { N } \\left( s \\hat { t } d ( \\mathcal { H } _ { j } ^ { t - 1 } ) + \\epsilon \\right) } , s \\hat { t } d ( \\mathcal { H } _ { i } ^ { t - 1 } ) = \\sqrt { v a r \\big ( h ( y _ { i } | x _ { i } ) \\big ) + \\frac { v a r \\big ( h ( y _ { i } | x _ { i } ) \\big ) ^ { 2 } } { | \\mathcal { H } _ { i } ^ { t - 1 } | } }\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 181, + 325, + 821, + 376 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "For the completeness of the survey, we include the recent studies on submodular batch selection. Joseph et al. (2019) and Wang et al. (2019) designed their own submodular objectives that cover diverse aspects, such as sample redundancy and sample representativeness, for more effective batch selection. Differently from their work, we explore the issue of truly uncertain samples in an orthogonal perspective. Our uncertainty measure can be easily injected into their submodular optimization framework as a measure of sample informativeness. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 391, + 825, + 476 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In Section 5, we will confirm that Recency Bias outperforms Online Batch and Active Bias, which are regarded as two state-of-the-art adaptive batch selection methods for deep learning. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 483, + 821, + 512 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3 Recency Bias COMPONENTS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 530, + 433, + 546 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.1 CRITERION OF AN UNCERTAIN SAMPLE ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 560, + 490, + 575 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The main challenge of Recency Bias is to identify the samples whose recent label predictions are highly inconsistent, which are neither too easy nor too hard at the moment. Thus, we adopt the predictive uncertainty (Song et al., 2019) in Definition 3.1 that uses the information entropy (Chandler, 1987) to measure the inconsistency of recent label predictions. Here, the sample with high predictive uncertainty is regarded as uncertain and selected with high probability for the next mini-batch. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 587, + 825, + 657 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Definition 3.1. (Predictive Uncertainty) Let $\\hat { y } _ { i t } = \\Phi ( x _ { i } , \\theta _ { t } )$ be the predicted label of a sample $x _ { i }$ at time $t$ and $\\mathcal { H } _ { x _ { i } } ( q ) = \\{ \\hat { y } _ { t _ { 1 } } , \\hat { y } _ { t _ { 2 } } , . . . , \\hat { y } _ { t _ { q } } \\}$ be the label history of the sample $x _ { i }$ that stores the predicted labels at the previous $q$ times, where $\\Phi$ is a neural network. The label history $\\mathcal { H } _ { x _ { i } } ( q )$ corresponds to the sliding window of size $q$ to compute the uncertainty of the sample $x _ { i }$ . Next, $p ( \\boldsymbol { y } _ { i } | \\boldsymbol { x } _ { i } ; \\boldsymbol { q } )$ is formulated such that it provides the probability of the label $y _ { i } \\in \\{ 1 , 2 , . . . , k \\}$ estimated as the label of the sample $x _ { i }$ based on $\\mathcal { H } _ { x _ { i } } ( q )$ as in Eq. (3), where $[ \\cdot ]$ is the Iverson bracket1. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 659, + 825, + 744 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/119ab4ac2f90c43046b4e91f406c6e55ff49ad9cee93c8ad49dbd20572ad62f9.jpg", + "text": "$$\np ( y _ { i } | x _ { i } ; q ) = \\frac { \\sum _ { \\hat { y _ { i } } \\in \\mathcal { H } _ { x _ { i } } ( q ) } [ \\hat { y _ { i } } = y _ { i } ] } { | \\mathcal { H } _ { x _ { i } } ( q ) | }\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 382, + 744, + 617, + 784 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Then, to quantify the uncertainty of the sample $x _ { i }$ , the predictive uncertainty $F ( x _ { i } ; q )$ is defined using the empirical entropy as in Eq. (4). Because the uncertainty is bounded, we add the standardization term $\\delta$ to normalize the value to $[ 0 , 1 ]$ . For $k$ classes, $\\delta$ is the maximum entropy when $\\forall _ { j } p ( j | x _ { i } ; q ) = 1 / k$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 787, + 825, + 843 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/91437da43d124264c65a4680d75d61302fdb29c6bc52ff09fdf1f8a95ea9760d.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\begin{array} { c } { F ( x _ { i } ; q ) = - ( 1 / \\delta ) \\displaystyle \\sum _ { j = 1 } ^ { k } p ( j | x _ { i } ; q ) \\log p ( j | x _ { i } ; q ) } \\\\ { \\delta = - \\log \\left( 1 / k \\right) \\displaystyle \\bigcup } \\end{array}\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 343, + 840, + 655, + 906 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.2 SAMPLING PROBABILITY FOR MINI-BATCH CONSTRUCTION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 630, + 118 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "To construct next mini-batch samples, we assign the sampling probability according to the predictive uncertainty in Definition 3.1. Motivated by Loshchilov & Hutter (2016), the sampling probability of a given sample $x _ { i }$ is exponentially decayed with its predictive uncertainty $F ( x _ { i } ; q )$ . In detail, we adopt the quantization method (Chen & Wornell, 2001) and use the quantization index to decay the sampling probability. The index is obtained by the simple quantizer $Q$ in Eq. (5), where $\\Delta$ is the quantization step size. Compared with the rank-based index (Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016), the quantization index is known to well reflect the difference in actual values (Widrow et al., 1996). ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 125, + 825, + 223 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/7f184627451441b9c4b76a670d1769b0ac748e35fe1f8cd2cca784c2cdb858eb.jpg", + "text": "$$\nQ \\big ( F ( x _ { i } ; q ) \\big ) = \\lceil \\big ( 1 - F ( x _ { i } ; q ) \\big ) / \\Delta \\rceil , 0 \\leq F ( x _ { i } ; q ) \\leq 1\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 312, + 229, + 686, + 248 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In Eq. (5), we set $\\Delta$ to be $1 / N$ such that the index is bounded to $N$ (the total number of samples). Then, the sampling probability $P ( x _ { i } | \\mathcal { D } ; s _ { e } )$ is defined as in Eq. (6). The higher the predictive uncertainty, the smaller the quantization index. Therefore, a higher sampling probability is assigned for uncertain samples in Eq. (6). ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 253, + 825, + 311 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/f0ac81455ede43b32a13e1cdbe316f74cabc482b1cf56d569331f3612d4e0862.jpg", + "text": "$$\nP ( x _ { i } | \\mathcal { D } ; s _ { e } ) = \\frac { 1 / \\exp \\left( \\log ( s _ { e } ) / N \\right) ^ { Q ( F ( x _ { i } ; q ) ) } } { \\sum _ { j = 1 } ^ { N } 1 / \\exp \\left( \\log ( s _ { e } ) / N \\right) ^ { Q ( F ( x _ { j } ; q ) ) } }\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 323, + 309, + 674, + 356 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Meanwhile, it is known that using only some part of training data exacerbates the overfitting problem at a late stage of training (Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016; Zhou & Bilmes, 2018). Thus, to alleviate the problem, we include more training samples as the training progresses by exponentially decaying the selection pressure $s _ { e }$ as in Eq. (7). At each epoch $e$ from $e _ { 0 }$ to $e _ { e n d }$ , the selection pressure $s _ { e }$ exponentially decreases from $s _ { e _ { 0 } }$ to 1. Because this technique gradually reduces the sampling probability gap between the most and the least uncertain samples, more diverse samples are selected for the next mini-batch at a later epoch. When the selection pressure $s _ { e }$ becomes 1, the mini-batch samples are randomly chosen from the entire dataset. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 361, + 825, + 473 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/68e359ec8417194d775bae239098b23cfca55cd709c742fb94582e46821f0902.jpg", + "text": "$$\ns _ { e } = s _ { e _ { 0 } } \\Big ( \\exp \\big ( \\log \\big ( 1 / s _ { e _ { 0 } } \\big ) / ( e _ { e n d } - e _ { 0 } ) \\big ) \\Big ) ^ { e - e _ { 0 } }\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 343, + 474, + 653, + 505 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "4 Recency Bias ALGORITHM ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 515, + 421, + 531 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Algorithm 1 Recency Bias Algorithm ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 540, + 424, + 555 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "INPUT: $\\mathcal { D }$ : data, epochs, b: batch size, $q$ : window size, $s _ { e _ { 0 } }$ : initial selection pressure, $\\gamma$ : warm-u \nOUTPUT: $\\theta _ { t }$ : model parameter \n1: $t \\gets 1$ ; \n2: ${ \\theta _ { t } } \\gets$ Initialize the model parameter; \n3: for $i = 1$ to epochs do \n4: $/ { ^ * }$ Sampling Probability Derivation $^ { * }$ \n5: if $i > \\gamma$ then \n6: $s _ { e } \\gets$ Decay_Selection_Pressure $( s _ { e _ { 0 } } , i )$ ; $/ { * }$ Decaying $s _ { e }$ by Eq. (7) \\*/ \n7: for $m = 1$ to $N$ do $/ { } ^ { * }$ Updating the index and the sampling probability in a batch $^ { * }$ \n8: $q _ { - } d i c t [ x _ { m } ] = Q \\bigl ( F ( x _ { m } ; q ) \\bigr )$ ; $/ { } ^ { * }$ By Eq. (5) $^ { * }$ \n9: $p \\_ t a b l e \\mathrm { C o } \\mathrm { _ { } }$ mpute_Prob(q_dict, $s _ { e . }$ ); $/ { } ^ { * }$ By Eq. (6) $^ { * }$ \n10: /\\* Network Training $^ { * }$ \n11: for $j = 1$ to $N / b$ do $/ { * }$ Mini-batch $^ { * }$ \n12: if $i \\leq \\gamma$ then $/ { * }$ Warm-up $^ { * }$ \n13: $\\{ ( x _ { 1 } , y _ { 1 } ) , \\dotsc , ( x _ { b } , y _ { b } ) \\} $ Randomly select next mini-batch samples; \n14: else $/ { * }$ Adaptive batch selection $^ { * }$ \n15: $\\{ ( x _ { 1 } , y _ { 1 } ) , \\dotsc , ( x _ { b } , y _ { b } ) \\} $ Select next mini-batch samples based on $p \\_ t a b l e$ ; \n16: losses, ${ l a b e l s }$ Inference_Step $\\cdot ( \\{ ( x _ { 1 } , y _ { 1 } ) , \\dots , ( x _ { b } , y _ { b } ) \\} , \\theta _ { t } )$ ; $/ { } ^ { * }$ Forward $^ { * }$ \n17: $\\theta _ { t + 1 } \\gets \\mathrm { S G D } \\_ { \\mathrm { S t e p } } ( l o s s e s , \\theta _ { t } )$ ; $/ { * }$ Backward $^ { * }$ \n18: Update_Label_History(labels); $/ { * }$ By Definition $3 . 1 ~ ^ { * } /$ \n19: $t \\gets t + 1$ ; \n20: return $\\theta _ { t }$ ; ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 560, + 753, + 866 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Algorithm 1 describes the overall procedure of Recency Bias. The algorithm requires a warm-up period of $\\gamma$ epochs because the quantization index for each sample is not confirmed yet. During the warm-up period, which should be at least $q$ epochs $( \\gamma \\geq q )$ to obtain the label history of size $q$ , randomly selected mini-batch samples are used for the network update (Lines 12–13). After the warm-up period, the algorithm decays the selection pressure $s _ { e }$ and updates not only the quantization index but also the sampling probability in a batch at the beginning of each epoch (Lines 4–9). Subsequently, the uncertain samples are selected for the next mini-batch according to the updated sampling probability (Line 14–15), and then the label history is updated along with the network update (Lines 16–19). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 882, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 825, + 188 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Overall, the key technical novelty of Recency Bias is to incorporate the notion of a sliding window (Line 8) rather than a growing window into adaptive batch selection, thereby improving both training speed and generalization error. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 194, + 825, + 236 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Time Complexity: The main “additional” cost of Recency Bias is the derivation of the sampling probability for each sample (Lines 4–9). Because only simple mathematical operations are needed per sample, its time complexity is linear to the number of samples (i.e., $O ( N ) )$ ), which is negligible compared with that of the forward and backward steps of a complex network (Lines 16–17). Therefore, we contend that Recency Bias does not add the complexity of an underlying optimization algorithm. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 243, + 825, + 313 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5 EVALUATION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 332, + 315, + 347 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We empirically show the improvement of Recency Bias over not only Random Batch (baseline) but also Online Batch (Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016) and Active Bias (Chang et al., 2017), which are two stateof-the-art adaptive batch selections. In particular, we elaborate on the effect of the sliding window approach (Recency Bias) compared with the growing window approach (Active Bias). Random Batch selects next mini-batch samples uniformly at random from the entire dataset. Online Batch selects hard samples based on the rank of the loss computed from previous epochs. Active Bias selects uncertain samples with high variance of true label probabilities in the growing window. All the algorithms were implemented using TensorFlow 1.8.0 and executed using a single NVIDIA Titan Volta GPU. For reproducibility, we provide the source code at https://github.com/anonymized. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 359, + 825, + 486 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Image classification and fine-tuning tasks were performed to validate the superiority of Recency Bias. Because fine-tuning is used to quickly adapt to a new dataset, it is suitable to reap the benefit of fast training speed. In support of reliable evaluation, we repeated every task thrice and reported the average and standard error of the best test errors. The best test error in a given time has been widely used for the studies on fast and accurate training (Katharopoulos & Fleuret, 2018; Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 492, + 826, + 561 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5.1 ANALYSIS ON SELECTED MINI-BATCH SAMPLES ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 577, + 550, + 590 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "For an in-depth analysis on selected samples, we plot the loss distribution of mini-batch samples selected from CIFAR-10 by four different strategies in Figure 3. (i) The distribution of Online Batch is the most skewed toward high loss by the design principle of selecting hard samples. (ii) Active Bias emphasizes moderately hard samples at an early training stage in considering that its loss distribution lies between those of Random Batch and Online Batch. However, owing to the outdated predictions caused by the growing window, the proportion of easy samples with low loss increases at a late training stage. These easy samples, which are misclassified as uncertain at that stage, tend to make the convergence of training slow down. (iii) In contrast to Active Bias, by virtue of the sliding window, the distribution of Recency Bias lies between those of Random Batch and Online Batch regardless of the training stage. Consequently, Recency Bias continues to highlight the moderately hard samples, which are likely to be informative, during the training process. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 599, + 825, + 752 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/8c8739f16ea42064903ff3fcdc18e71d24f92a506e69384e924af6d9a72dfa55.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 3: The loss distribution of mini-batch samples selected by four batch selection strategies: (a) and (b) show the loss distribution at the $3 0 \\%$ and $7 0 \\%$ of total training epochs, respectively. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 179, + 757, + 818, + 887 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5.2 TASK I: IMAGE CLASSIFICATION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 103, + 441, + 118 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Experiment Setting: We trained DenseNet $\\mathrm { L } { = } 4 0$ , $_ { \\mathrm { k = } 1 2 }$ ) and ResNet $\\mathrm { L } { = } 5 0 _ { , }$ ) with a momentum optimizer and an SGD optimizer on three benchmark datasets: MNIST (10 classes)2, classification of handwritten digits (LeCun, 1998), and CIFAR-10 (10 classes)3 and CIFAR-100 (100 classes)3, classification of a subset of 80 million categorical images (Krizhevsky et al., 2014). Specifically, we used data augmentation, batch normalization, a momentum of 0.9, and a batch size of 128. As for the algorithm parameters, we fixed the window size $q = 1 0$ and the initial selection pressure $s _ { e _ { 0 } } = 1 0 0$ , 4 which were the best values found by the grid search (see Appendix A for details). The warm-up epoch $\\gamma$ was set to be 15. To reduce the performance variance caused by randomly initialized model parameters, all parameters were shared by all algorithms during the warm-up period. Regarding the training schedule, we trained the network for 40, 000 iterations and used an initial learning rate of 0.1, which was divided by 10 at $5 0 \\%$ and $7 5 \\%$ of the total number of training iterations. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 126, + 825, + 282 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Results: Figure 4 shows the convergence curves of training loss and test error for four batch selection strategies using DenseNet and a momentum optimizer. In order to highlight the improvement of Recency Bias over the baseline (Random Batch), their lines are dark colored. The best test errors in Figures 4(b), 4(d), and 4(f) are summarized on the left side of Table 1. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 290, + 825, + 345 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In general, Recency Bias achieved the most accurate network while accelerating the training process on all datasets. The training loss of Recency Bias converged faster (Figures 4(a), 4(c), and 4(e)) without the increase in the generalization error, thereby achieving the lower test error (Figures 4(b), 4(d), and 4(f)). In contrast, the test error of Online Batch was not the best even if its training loss converged the fastest among all strategies. As the training difficulty increased from CIFAR-10 to CIFAR-100, the test error of Online Batch became even worse than that of Random Batch. That is, emphasizing hard samples accelerated the training step but made the network overfit to hard samples. Meanwhile, Active Bias was prone to make the network better generalized on test data. In CIFAR-10, despite its highest training loss, the test error of Active Bias was better than that of Random Batch. However, Active Bias slowed down the training process because of the limitation of growing windows, as discussed in Section 5.1. We note that, although both Recency Bias and Active Bias exploited uncertain samples, only Recency Bias based on sliding windows succeeded to not only speed up the training process but also reduce the generalization error. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 353, + 825, + 534 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The results of the best test error for ResNet or an SGD optimizer are summarized in Tables 1 and 2 (see Appendix C for more details). Regardless of a neural network and an optimizer, Recency Bias achieved the lowest test error except in MNIST with an SGD optimizer. The improvement of Recency Bias over the others was higher with an SGD optimizer than with a momentum optimizer. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 540, + 825, + 597 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/aacd71f7641d0403155f7600b0ceed921a47bc2c3002897b45d06eeff917d3dd.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 1: The best test errors $( \\% )$ of four batch selection strategies using DenseNet. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
OptimizerMomentumin Figure 4SGD in Figure 9(Appendix C.1)
MethodMNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100MNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100
RandomBatch0.527± 0.037.33± 0.0928.0±0.161.23± 0.0314.9 ± 0.0940.2 ± 0.06
OnlineBatch0.514± 0.017.00±0.1028.4± 0.250.765± 0.0213.5± 0.0240.7 ± 0.12
Active Bias0.616±0.037.07 ± 0.0427.9 ± 0.110.679±0.0214.2 ± 0.2542.9 ± 0.05
Recency Bias0.490± 0.026.60 ± 0.0227.1 ± 0.190.986±0.0613.2 ± 0.1138.7 ± 0.11
", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 633, + 823, + 719 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/bd7d6601450537ac0d7db53c179f0d9c6bfee8e189cd2666285e2fb9b58b2210.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 2: The best test errors $( \\% )$ of four batch selection strategies using ResNet. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
OptimizerMomentum in Figure 10(Appendix C.2)SGD in Figure 11 (Appendix C.3)
MethodMNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100MNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100
RandomBatch0.636 ± 0.0410.2 ± 0.1233.2 ± 0.071.16 ± 0.0312.7 ± 0.0940.1 ± 0.16
OnlineBatch0.666 ± 0.0510.1± 0.0533.4 ± 0.010.890± 0.0312.2 ± 0.0840.7 ± 0.09
Active Bias0.613 ± 0.0410.6±0.0834.2 ± 0.070.804± 0.0113.5 ± 0.0745.6 ± 0.07
Recency Bias0.607 ± 0.019.79 ± 0.0432.4 ± 0.040.972 ± 0.0311.6 ± 0.0938.9 ± 0.14
", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 768, + 823, + 854 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/6b3815178b0ace16a53891bf390cb06795f2f8f94e51f5cb6b880c9de0b7be0f.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 4: Convergence curves of four batch selection strategies using DenseNet with momentum. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 173, + 101, + 815, + 622 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5.3 TASK II: FINE-TUNING ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 662, + 377, + 678 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Experiment Setting: We prepared DenseNet $_ { \\mathrm { L } = 1 2 1 }$ , $\\mathbf { k } = 3 2$ ) previously trained on ImageNet (Deng et al., 2009) and then fine-tuned the network on two benchmark datasets: MIT-67 (67 classes)5, classification of indoor scenes (Quattoni & Torralba, 2009), and Food-100 (100 classes)6, classification of popular foods in Japan (Kawano & Yanai, 2014). After replacing the last classification layer, the network was trained end-to-end for 50 epochs with a batch size 32 and a constant learning rate $2 \\times 1 0 ^ { - 4 }$ . Data augmentation was not applied here. The other configurations were the same as those in Section 5.2. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 688, + 826, + 787 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Results on Test Error: Figure 5 shows the convergence curves of training loss and test error for the fine-tuning task on MIT-67 and Food-100. Overall, all convergence curves showed similar trends to those of the classification task in Figure 4. Only Recency Bias converged faster than Random Batch in both training loss and test error. Online Batch converged the fastest in training loss, but its test error was rather higher than Random Batch owing to the overfitting. Active Bias converged the slowest in both training loss and test error. Quantitatively, compared with Random Batch, Recency Bias reduced the test error by $2 . 8 8 \\%$ and $1 . 8 1 \\%$ in MIT-67 and Food-100, respectively. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 796, + 825, + 866 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/4b10c356bdce14d65c703f0a0a5ba9e51549ccb62e4258dcdcc64892bc7d3fc1.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 5: Convergence curves for fine-tuning on two benchmark datasets. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 174, + 102, + 803, + 450 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/19feb40f6b2b703d40e2dc3cc7a931ec7484f8486ce6f47ad5eaae9b47adaf84.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 3: Recency Bias’s reduction in training time over other batch selection strategies. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
MethodMIT-67FOOD-100
RandomBatch(5,218-3,936)/5,218 × 100= 24.6%(7,263-5,365)/7,263 × 100= 26.1%
OnlineBatch(6,079- 3,823)/6,079 × 100 = 37.1%(8,333-3,685)/8,333 × 100= 55.8%
Active Bias(5,738-3,032)/5,738×100=47.2%(7,933-3,227)/7,933× 100= 59.3%
", + "bbox": [ + 178, + 507, + 820, + 566 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 583, + 821, + 611 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Results on Training Time: Moreover, to assess the performance gain in training time, we computed the reduction in the training time taken to reach the same error. For example, in Figure 5(b), the best test error of $2 8 . 8 \\%$ achieved in 5, 218 seconds by Random Batch could be achieved only in 3, 936 seconds by Recency Bias; thus, Recency Bias improved the training time by $2 4 . 6 \\%$ . Table 3 summarizes the reduction in the training time of Recency Bias over three other batch selection strategies. Notably, Recency Bias improved the training time by $2 4 . 6 \\% { - 4 7 . 2 \\% }$ and $2 6 . 1 \\% { - 5 9 . 3 \\% }$ in fine-tuning MIT-67 and FOOD-100 datasets, respectively. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 618, + 825, + 717 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5.4 ABLATION STUDY ON SELECTION PRESSURE ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 728, + 526, + 742 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "For an ablation study on the selection pressure, we trained DenseNet $( \\mathrm { L } { = } 4 0 , \\mathrm { k } { = } 1 2 )$ on two benchmark datasets using Recency Bias with four different decaying strategies: $s _ { e } : 1 0 \\to 1 0$ , $s _ { e } : 1 0 0 \\to 1 0 0$ , $s _ { e } : 1 0 \\to 1$ , and $s _ { e } : 1 0 0 \\to 1$ . The first two strategies used different initial selection pressures without decaying, but the remaining strategies exponentially decayed their initial selection pressures to 1. We used a momentum optimizer and the other experimental configurations were the same as those in Section 5.2. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 750, + 825, + 833 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Figure 6 shows the convergence curves of Recency Bias using the different decaying strategies along with that of Random Batch. Generally, the two strategies without decaying (i.e., $s _ { e } : 1 0 \\to 1 0$ , $s _ { e } : 1 0 0 \\to 1 0 0 )$ showed much faster convergence speed in training loss compared with those with decaying (i.e., $s _ { e } : 1 0 \\to 1$ , $s _ { e } : 1 0 0 \\to 1 $ ). However, as mentioned earlier in Section 3.2, the two strategies without decaying exacerbated the overfitting problem because they only used the training samples classified as highly uncertain. Accordingly, their test errors were rather higher than that of Random Batch in CIFAR-100 dataset. On the other hand, the two strategies with decaying converged faster than Random Batch in both training loss and test error in all datasets because they exploited more diverse training samples by exponentially decaying the selection pressure. Thus, these observations empirically prove that decaying the selection pressure is an effective way to alleviate the overfitting problem at the later stage of training. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 840, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/79dff39f85eae7d3803dde22a0110a284299728a2929b4bad6b3e974ac003979.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "0 80 10Figure 6: Ablation study on the effect of the selection pressure. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 171, + 99, + 813, + 444 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 476, + 825, + 546 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "6 CONCLUSION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 566, + 318, + 582 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this paper, we presented a novel adaptive batch selection algorithm called Recency Bias that emphasizes predictively uncertain samples for accelerating the training of neural networks. Toward this goal, the predictive uncertainty of each sample is evaluated using its recent label predictions managed by a sliding window of a fixed size. Then, uncertain samples at the moment are selected with high probability for the next mini-batch. We conducted extensive experiments on both classification and fine-tuning tasks. The results showed that Recency Bias is effective in reducing the training time as well as the best test error. 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", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 820, + 823, + 849 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A HYPERPARAMETER SELECTION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 102, + 472, + 118 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Recency Bias receives the two hyperparameters: $( i )$ the initial selection pressure $s _ { e _ { 0 } }$ that determines the sampling probability gap between the most and the least uncertain samples and $( i i )$ the window size $q$ that determines how many recent label predictions are involved in predicting the uncertainty. To decide the best hyperparameters, we trained ResNet $( \\mathrm { L } { = } 5 0 )$ ) on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 with a momentum optimizer. For hyperparameters selection, the two hyperparameters were chosen in a grid $s _ { e _ { 0 } } \\in \\{ 1 , 1 0 , \\mathsf { \\bar { 1 0 0 } } , 1 0 0 0 \\}$ and $\\mathsf { \\bar { q } } \\in \\{ 5 , 1 0 , 1 5 \\}$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 133, + 825, + 218 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/53618c6fcbdac2807406a8e3fde6e99b9b68913788a6e1b1e27d2915609b591c.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 7: Grid search on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 datasets using ResNet. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 192, + 232, + 807, + 383 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Figure 7 shows the test errors of Recency Bias obtained by the grid search on the two datasets. Regarding the initial selection pressure $s _ { e _ { 0 } }$ , the lowest test error was typically achieved when the $s _ { e _ { 0 } }$ value was 100. As for the window size $q$ , the test error was almost always the lowest when the $q$ value was 10. Similar trends were observed for the other combinations of a neural network and an optimizer. Therefore, in all experiments, we set $s _ { e _ { 0 } }$ to be 100 and $q$ to be 10. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 416, + 826, + 486 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "B EXPERIMENT USING TINY-IMAGENET DATASET ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 506, + 606, + 522 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "For a larger-scale experiment, we repeated the image classification task on Tiny-ImageNet (200 classes), a subset of ImageNet (Krizhevsky et al., 2012), with 100, 000 training and $1 0 , 0 0 0$ validation images. Because no test set exists, we used the validation set as the test data. For Tiny-ImageNet dataset, we trained the network for 80, 000 iterations and used an initial learning rate of 0.1, which was divided by 10 at $5 0 \\%$ and $7 5 \\%$ of the total number of training iterations. The remaining experimental configurations were the same as those in Section 5.2. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 537, + 826, + 621 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/a0eb70a7d351e780640a2e722bd4687c2db5edac63d5d35b4a532322ce1bc99e.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "1 20 40 60 80 10Figure 8: Convergence curves of four batch selection strategies using DenseNet with momentum. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 176, + 631, + 807, + 818 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/b8f1bfb81a0f29d78f46aad6db16123a3c80e3982f338fa926bb0b73b176353d.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 4: The best test errors $( \\% )$ of four batch selection strategies using DenseNet. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
MethodRandom BatchOnline BatchActiveBiasRecencyBias
Tiny-ImageNet51.6 ± 0.2652.5 ± 0.1952.2± 0.5251.0± 0.34
", + "bbox": [ + 169, + 882, + 864, + 915 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Figure 8 shows the convergence curves of training loss and test error using four batch selection strategies on Tiny-ImageNet, where the best test errors are detailed in Table 4. Again, only Recency Bias converged faster than Random Batch in both training loss and test error. On the other hand, although Online Batch showed the fastest convergence in training loss, its test error was worse than that of Random Batch because of the overfitting to hard training samples. Similarly, the test error of Active Bias was also worse than that of Random Batch because of the side effect of slowing down the convergence speed of training. In summary, Recency Bias achieved the test error relatively lower by $1 . 1 6 \\%$ than Random Batch, $\\bar { 2 . 8 6 \\% }$ than Online Batch, and $2 . 3 0 \\%$ than Active Bias. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 103, + 825, + 214 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "C GENERALIZATION OF Recency Bias ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 173, + 234, + 496, + 251 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "C.1 CONVERGENCE CURVES USING DENSENET WITH SGD ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 179, + 266, + 593, + 281 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Figure 9 shows the convergence curves of training loss and test error for four batch selection strategies using DenseNet and an SGD optimizer, which corresponds to the right side of Table 1. ", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 292, + 825, + 321 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/32e305ef129f849ef76894fc807af1fec09da6e472faa0f50ac6fdcecea3e289.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 9: Convergence curves of four batch selection strategies using DenseNet with SGD. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 173, + 330, + 813, + 854 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "C.2 CONVERGENCE CURVES USING RESNET WITH MOMENTUM ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 630, + 117 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Figure 10 shows the convergence curves of training loss and test error for four batch selection strategies using ResNet and a momentum optimizer, which corresponds to the left side of Table 2. ", + "bbox": [ + 169, + 128, + 825, + 159 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/859e6d9d9092bded29cb986dc8ac0591e6b7b2151db8e195070b18f50914df01.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 10: Convergence curves of four batch selection strategies using ResNet with momentum. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 173, + 171, + 810, + 699 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "C.3 CONVERGENCE CURVES USING RESNET WITH SGD ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 171, + 103, + 576, + 117 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Figure 11 shows the convergence curves of training loss and test error for four batch selection strategies using ResNet and an SGD optimizer, which corresponds to the right side of Table 2. ", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 128, + 825, + 159 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/9cdd13b1ed5dfb72b5ff3cffb7c31970c326a62bbae008f231ee97515d954596.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 11: Convergence curves of four batch selection strategies using ResNet with SGD. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 173, + 171, + 810, + 699 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + } +] \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/parse/train/BklSv34KvB/BklSv34KvB_middle.json b/parse/train/BklSv34KvB/BklSv34KvB_middle.json new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..405865188a722e76f5dfbd5e01aa0738057dae24 --- /dev/null +++ b/parse/train/BklSv34KvB/BklSv34KvB_middle.json @@ -0,0 +1,32170 @@ +{ + "pdf_info": [ + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 78, + 503, + 116 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 77, + 506, + 97 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 77, + 506, + 97 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "CARPE DIEM, SEIZE THE SAMPLES UNCERTAIN “AT", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 99, + 481, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 99, + 481, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "THE MOMENT” FOR ADAPTIVE BATCH SELECTION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + } + ], + "index": 0.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 112, + 135, + 244, + 157 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 113, + 135, + 201, + 147 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 113, + 135, + 201, + 147 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Anonymous authors", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 111, + 146, + 245, + 158 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 111, + 146, + 245, + 158 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Paper under double-blind review", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + } + ], + "index": 2.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 278, + 186, + 333, + 199 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 276, + 185, + 336, + 200 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 276, + 185, + 336, + 200 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ABSTRACT", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 143, + 210, + 469, + 331 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 211, + 469, + 223 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 211, + 469, + 223 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The performance of deep neural networks is significantly affected by how well", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 221, + 470, + 235 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 221, + 470, + 235 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "mini-batches are constructed. In this paper, we propose a novel adaptive batch", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 233, + 469, + 245 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 233, + 469, + 245 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "selection algorithm called Recency Bias that exploits the uncertain samples", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 243, + 470, + 255 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 243, + 470, + 255 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predicted inconsistently in recent iterations. The historical label predictions of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 255, + 470, + 267 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 255, + 470, + 267 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "each sample are used to evaluate its predictive uncertainty within a sliding window.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 266, + 470, + 279 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 266, + 470, + 279 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "By taking advantage of this design, Recency Bias not only accelerates the training", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 276, + 469, + 290 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 276, + 469, + 290 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "step but also achieves a more accurate network. We demonstrate the superiority", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 287, + 470, + 300 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 287, + 470, + 300 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of Recency Bias by extensive evaluation on two independent tasks. Compared with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 298, + 470, + 310 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 298, + 470, + 310 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "existing batch selection methods, the results showed that Recency Bias reduced", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 309, + 471, + 322 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 309, + 230, + 322 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the test error by up to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 309, + 257, + 320 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "2 0 . 5 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 258, + 309, + 471, + 322 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in a fixed wall-clock training time. At the same time,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 320, + 435, + 333 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 320, + 294, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "it improved the training time by up to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 294, + 320, + 322, + 331 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "5 9 . 3 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 322, + 320, + 435, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to reach the same test error.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 351, + 206, + 364 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 350, + 208, + 367 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 350, + 208, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1 INTRODUCTION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 376, + 505, + 497 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 376, + 506, + 389 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 376, + 506, + 389 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Stochastic gradient descent (SGD) for randomly selected mini-batch samples is commonly used to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 387, + 506, + 400 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 387, + 506, + 400 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "train deep neural networks (DNNs). However, many recent studies have pointed out that the perfor-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 398, + 506, + 411 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 398, + 506, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "mance of DNNs is heavily dependent on how well the mini-batch samples are selected (Shrivastava", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 409, + 506, + 422 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 409, + 506, + 422 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2016; Chang et al., 2017; Katharopoulos & Fleuret, 2018). In earlier approaches, a sam-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 420, + 506, + 433 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 420, + 506, + 433 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ple’s difficulty is employed to identify proper mini-batch samples, and these approaches achieve", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 432, + 506, + 444 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 432, + 506, + 444 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a more accurate and robust network (Han et al., 2018) or expedite the training convergence of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 442, + 506, + 455 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 442, + 506, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "SGD (Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016). However, the two opposing difficulty-based strategies, i.e., prefer-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 452, + 507, + 466 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 452, + 507, + 466 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ring easy samples (Kumar et al., 2010; Han et al., 2018) versus hard samples (Loshchilov & Hutter,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 464, + 506, + 477 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 464, + 506, + 477 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2016; Shrivastava et al., 2016), work well in different situations. Thus, for practical reasons to cover", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 475, + 505, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 475, + 505, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "more diverse situations, recent approaches begin to exploit a sample’s uncertainty that indicates the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 487, + 405, + 498 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 487, + 405, + 498 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "consistency of previous predictions (Chang et al., 2017; Song et al., 2019).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 505, + 591 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 503, + 505, + 515 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 503, + 505, + 515 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "An important question here is how to evaluate the sample’s uncertainty based on its historical", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 514, + 505, + 527 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 514, + 505, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictions during the training process. 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Then, it emphasizes such uncertain samples by choosing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "them with high probability for the next mini-batch. 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In this paper, we propose a novel adaptive batch", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 233, + 469, + 245 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 233, + 469, + 245 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "selection algorithm called Recency Bias that exploits the uncertain samples", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 243, + 470, + 255 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 243, + 470, + 255 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predicted inconsistently in recent iterations. The historical label predictions of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 255, + 470, + 267 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 255, + 470, + 267 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "each sample are used to evaluate its predictive uncertainty within a sliding window.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 266, + 470, + 279 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 266, + 470, + 279 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "By taking advantage of this design, Recency Bias not only accelerates the training", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 276, + 469, + 290 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 276, + 469, + 290 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "step but also achieves a more accurate network. We demonstrate the superiority", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 287, + 470, + 300 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 287, + 470, + 300 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of Recency Bias by extensive evaluation on two independent tasks. Compared with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 298, + 470, + 310 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 298, + 470, + 310 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "existing batch selection methods, the results showed that Recency Bias reduced", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 309, + 471, + 322 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 309, + 230, + 322 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the test error by up to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 309, + 257, + 320 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "2 0 . 5 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 258, + 309, + 471, + 322 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in a fixed wall-clock training time. At the same time,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 320, + 435, + 333 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 320, + 294, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "it improved the training time by up to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 294, + 320, + 322, + 331 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "5 9 . 3 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 322, + 320, + 435, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to reach the same test error.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 10, + "bbox_fs": [ + 141, + 211, + 471, + 333 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 351, + 206, + 364 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 350, + 208, + 367 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 350, + 208, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1 INTRODUCTION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 376, + 505, + 497 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 376, + 506, + 389 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 376, + 506, + 389 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Stochastic gradient descent (SGD) for randomly selected mini-batch samples is commonly used to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 387, + 506, + 400 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 387, + 506, + 400 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "train deep neural networks (DNNs). However, many recent studies have pointed out that the perfor-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 398, + 506, + 411 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 398, + 506, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "mance of DNNs is heavily dependent on how well the mini-batch samples are selected (Shrivastava", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 409, + 506, + 422 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 409, + 506, + 422 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2016; Chang et al., 2017; Katharopoulos & Fleuret, 2018). In earlier approaches, a sam-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 420, + 506, + 433 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 420, + 506, + 433 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ple’s difficulty is employed to identify proper mini-batch samples, and these approaches achieve", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 432, + 506, + 444 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 432, + 506, + 444 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a more accurate and robust network (Han et al., 2018) or expedite the training convergence of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 442, + 506, + 455 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 442, + 506, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "SGD (Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016). However, the two opposing difficulty-based strategies, i.e., prefer-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 452, + 507, + 466 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 452, + 507, + 466 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ring easy samples (Kumar et al., 2010; Han et al., 2018) versus hard samples (Loshchilov & Hutter,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 464, + 506, + 477 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 464, + 506, + 477 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2016; Shrivastava et al., 2016), work well in different situations. Thus, for practical reasons to cover", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 475, + 505, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 475, + 505, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "more diverse situations, recent approaches begin to exploit a sample’s uncertainty that indicates the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 487, + 405, + 498 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 487, + 405, + 498 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "consistency of previous predictions (Chang et al., 2017; Song et al., 2019).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + } + ], + "index": 22, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 376, + 507, + 498 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 505, + 591 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 503, + 505, + 515 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 503, + 505, + 515 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "An important question here is how to evaluate the sample’s uncertainty based on its historical", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 514, + 505, + 527 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 514, + 505, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictions during the training process. 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Then, it emphasizes such uncertain samples by choosing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "them with high probability for the next mini-batch. However, according to our experiments presented", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 201, + 506, + 215 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 201, + 506, + 215 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Section 5.2, such uncertain samples slowed down the convergence speed of training, though they", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 213, + 506, + 225 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 213, + 506, + 225 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ultimately reduced the generalization error. This weakness is attributed to the inherent limitation of", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 224, + 506, + 237 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 224, + 506, + 237 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the growing window, where older observations could be too outdated (Torgo, 2011). In other words,", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 235, + 506, + 248 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 235, + 506, + 248 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the outdated predictions no longer represent a network’s current behavior. As illustrated in Figure", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 246, + 505, + 259 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 246, + 505, + 259 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2, when the label predictions of two samples were inconsistent for a long time, Active Bias invariably", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 257, + 506, + 271 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 257, + 506, + 271 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "regards them as highly uncertain, although their recent label predictions become consistent along", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 266, + 505, + 282 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 266, + 505, + 282 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with the network’s training progress. This characteristic evidently entails the risk of emphasizing", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 279, + 505, + 292 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 279, + 505, + 292 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "uninformative samples that are too easy or too hard at the current moment, thereby slowing down", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 289, + 246, + 304 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 289, + 246, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the convergence speed of training.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 41, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 698, + 505, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 80, + 503, + 178 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 80, + 503, + 178 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 80, + 503, + 178 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 80, + 503, + 178 + ], + "score": 0.961, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "bd841fdf12d106ed752fcde7b904650e1cbef63ebc12b70c914592c068d00dbd.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 80, + 503, + 112.66666666666666 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 112.66666666666666, + 503, + 145.33333333333331 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 145.33333333333331, + 503, + 177.99999999999997 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 122, + 180, + 487, + 192 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 122, + 180, + 488, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 122, + 180, + 488, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 2: The difference in sample uncertainty estimated by Active Bias and Recency Bias.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + } + ], + "index": 3 + } + ], + "index": 2.0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 202, + 505, + 302 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 201, + 506, + 215 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 201, + 506, + 215 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Section 5.2, such uncertain samples slowed down the convergence speed of training, though they", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 213, + 506, + 225 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 213, + 506, + 225 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ultimately reduced the generalization error. This weakness is attributed to the inherent limitation of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 224, + 506, + 237 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 224, + 506, + 237 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the growing window, where older observations could be too outdated (Torgo, 2011). In other words,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 235, + 506, + 248 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 235, + 506, + 248 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the outdated predictions no longer represent a network’s current behavior. As illustrated in Figure", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 246, + 505, + 259 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 246, + 505, + 259 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2, when the label predictions of two samples were inconsistent for a long time, Active Bias invariably", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 257, + 506, + 271 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 257, + 506, + 271 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "regards them as highly uncertain, although their recent label predictions become consistent along", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 266, + 505, + 282 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 266, + 505, + 282 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with the network’s training progress. This characteristic evidently entails the risk of emphasizing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 279, + 505, + 292 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 279, + 505, + 292 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "uninformative samples that are too easy or too hard at the current moment, thereby slowing down", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 289, + 246, + 304 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 289, + 246, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the convergence speed of training.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 307, + 505, + 395 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 306, + 505, + 320 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 306, + 505, + 320 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Therefore, we propose a simple but effective batch selection method, called Recency Bias, that takes", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 318, + 505, + 330 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 318, + 505, + 330 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "advantage of the sliding window to evaluate the uncertainty in fresher observations. As opposed to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 328, + 506, + 341 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 328, + 506, + 341 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Active Bias, Recency Bias excludes the outdated predictions by managing a sliding window of a fixed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 340, + 505, + 352 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 340, + 505, + 352 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "size and picks up the samples predicted inconsistently within the sliding window. Thus, as shown", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 351, + 505, + 363 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 351, + 505, + 363 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Figure 2, the two samples uninformative at the moment are no longer selected by Recency Bias", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 361, + 504, + 374 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 361, + 504, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "simply because their recent predictions are consistent. Consequently, since informative samples are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 372, + 505, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 372, + 505, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "effectively selected throughout the training process, this strategy not only accelerates the training", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 384, + 302, + 395 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 384, + 302, + 395 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "speed but also leads to a more accurate network.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 16.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 400, + 505, + 466 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 400, + 505, + 413 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 400, + 505, + 413 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To validate the superiority of Recency Bias, two popular convolutional neural networks (CNNs) were", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 411, + 505, + 424 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 411, + 505, + 424 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trained for two independent tasks: image classification and fine tuning. We compared Recency Bias", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 422, + 507, + 435 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 422, + 507, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with not only random batch selection (baseline) but also two state-of-the-art batch selection strategies.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 433, + 506, + 446 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 433, + 506, + 446 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Compared with three batch selection strategies, Recency Bias provided a relative reduction of test", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 444, + 504, + 456 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 444, + 140, + 456 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "error by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 444, + 199, + 455 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "1 . 8 1 \\% - 2 0 . 5 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 199, + 444, + 504, + 456 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in a fixed wall-clock training time. At the same time, it significantly reduced", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 366, + 468 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 195, + 468 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the execution time by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 195, + 455, + 253, + 466 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "2 4 . 6 \\% { - } 5 9 . 3 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 455, + 366, + 468 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to reach the same test error.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 23.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 477, + 211, + 490 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 475, + 213, + 492 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 475, + 213, + 492 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 RELATED WORK", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 499, + 505, + 543 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 498, + 506, + 513 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 498, + 123, + 513 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 123, + 499, + 240, + 511 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\mathcal { D } = \\{ ( x _ { i } , y _ { i } ) | 1 \\leq i \\leq N \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 241, + 498, + 459, + 513 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be the entire training dataset composed of a sample", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 459, + 501, + 470, + 510 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "x _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 470, + 498, + 506, + 513 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with its", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 509, + 506, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 509, + 147, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "true label", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 513, + 156, + 522 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "y _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 509, + 187, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 188, + 511, + 198, + 520 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "N", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 199, + 509, + 506, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the total number of training samples. Then, a straightforward strategy to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 521, + 506, + 534 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 521, + 200, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "construct a mini-batch", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 521, + 310, + 533 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\mathcal { M } = \\{ ( x _ { i } , y _ { i } ) | 1 \\leq i \\leq b \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 311, + 521, + 357, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is to select", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 357, + 522, + 363, + 531 + ], + "score": 0.66, + "content": "b", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 363, + 521, + 506, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "samples uniformly at random (i.e.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 532, + 293, + 545 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 532, + 177, + 544 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "P ( x _ { i } | D ) = 1 / N )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 177, + 532, + 279, + 545 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from the training dataset", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 533, + 289, + 542 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "\\mathcal { D }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 289, + 532, + 293, + 545 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 29.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 549, + 505, + 648 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 549, + 506, + 562 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 549, + 506, + 562 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Because not all samples have an equal impact on training, many research efforts have been devoted", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 560, + 505, + 573 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 560, + 505, + 573 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to develop advanced sampling schemes. Bengio et al. (2009) first took easy samples and then", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 570, + 506, + 584 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 570, + 506, + 584 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "gradually increased the difficulty of samples using heuristic rules. Kumar et al. (2010) determined the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 582, + 505, + 595 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 582, + 505, + 595 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "easiness of the samples using their prediction errors. Recently, Tsvetkov et al. (2016) used Bayesian", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 593, + 506, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 593, + 506, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "optimization to learn an optimal curriculum for training dense, distributed word representations.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 605, + 505, + 616 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 605, + 505, + 616 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Sachan & Xing (2016) emphasized that the right curriculum must introduce a small number of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 627 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 627 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "samples dissimilar to those previously seen. Fan et al. (2017) proposed a neural data filter based on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 624, + 505, + 640 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 624, + 505, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reinforcement learning to select training samples adaptively. However, it is common for deep learning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 637, + 498, + 649 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 637, + 498, + 649 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to emphasize hard samples because of the plethora of easy ones (Katharopoulos & Fleuret, 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 653, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 654, + 506, + 666 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 654, + 506, + 666 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Loshchilov & Hutter (2016) proposed a difficulty-based sampling scheme, called Online Batch,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 664, + 505, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 664, + 505, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that uses the rank of the loss computed from previous epochs. Online Batch sorts the previously", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 675, + 505, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 675, + 505, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "computed losses of samples in descending order and exponentially decays the sampling probability", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 236, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of a sample according to its rank", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 236, + 689, + 242, + 696 + ], + "score": 0.72, + "content": "r", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 242, + 686, + 285, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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Here, the sample with high predictive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 509, + 485, + 522 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 509, + 485, + 522 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "uncertainty is regarded as uncertain and selected with high probability for the next mini-batch.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + } + ], + "index": 28, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 465, + 506, + 522 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 522, + 505, + 590 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 522, + 506, + 535 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 522, + 290, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Definition 3.1. 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After the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 344, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "warm-up period, the algorithm decays the selection pressure", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 95, + 355, + 105 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "s _ { e }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 355, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and updates not only the quantization", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 103, + 507, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 103, + 507, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "index but also the sampling probability in a batch at the beginning of each epoch (Lines 4–9).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 506, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 506, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Subsequently, the uncertain samples are selected for the next mini-batch according to the updated", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 506, + 139 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 506, + 139 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sampling probability (Line 14–15), and then the label history is updated along with the network", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 196, + 149 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 196, + 149 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "update (Lines 16–19).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 2.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 154, + 505, + 187 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 154, + 506, + 166 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 154, + 506, + 166 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Overall, the key technical novelty of Recency Bias is to incorporate the notion of a sliding win-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 505, + 178 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 505, + 178 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dow (Line 8) rather than a growing window into adaptive batch selection, thereby improving both", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 177, + 265, + 189 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 177, + 265, + 189 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training speed and generalization error.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 193, + 505, + 248 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 505, + 206 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 505, + 206 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Time Complexity: The main “additional” cost of Recency Bias is the derivation of the sampling", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 505, + 217 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 505, + 217 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "probability for each sample (Lines 4–9). Because only simple mathematical operations are needed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 215, + 505, + 228 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 215, + 393, + 228 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "per sample, its time complexity is linear to the number of samples (i.e.,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 393, + 215, + 421, + 227 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "O ( N ) )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 421, + 215, + 505, + 228 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "), which is negligible", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 225, + 507, + 240 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 225, + 507, + 240 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "compared with that of the forward and backward steps of a complex network (Lines 16–17). Therefore,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 236, + 507, + 251 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 236, + 507, + 251 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we contend that Recency Bias does not add the complexity of an underlying optimization algorithm.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 263, + 193, + 275 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 261, + 195, + 278 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 261, + 195, + 278 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5 EVALUATION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 285, + 505, + 385 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 286, + 505, + 298 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 286, + 505, + 298 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We empirically show the improvement of Recency Bias over not only Random Batch (baseline) but also", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 295, + 507, + 309 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 295, + 507, + 309 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Online Batch (Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016) and Active Bias (Chang et al., 2017), which are two state-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 308, + 505, + 320 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 308, + 505, + 320 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of-the-art adaptive batch selections. In particular, we elaborate on the effect of the sliding window", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 318, + 506, + 331 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 318, + 506, + 331 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "approach (Recency Bias) compared with the growing window approach (Active Bias). Random Batch", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 329, + 505, + 341 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 329, + 505, + 341 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "selects next mini-batch samples uniformly at random from the entire dataset. Online Batch selects hard", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 340, + 505, + 353 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 340, + 505, + 353 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "samples based on the rank of the loss computed from previous epochs. Active Bias selects uncertain", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 351, + 505, + 365 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 351, + 505, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "samples with high variance of true label probabilities in the growing window. All the algorithms", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 362, + 507, + 374 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 362, + 507, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "were implemented using TensorFlow 1.8.0 and executed using a single NVIDIA Titan Volta GPU.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 373, + 485, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 373, + 485, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For reproducibility, we provide the source code at https://github.com/anonymized.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 390, + 506, + 445 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 390, + 506, + 402 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 390, + 506, + 402 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Image classification and fine-tuning tasks were performed to validate the superiority of Recency Bias.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 505, + 413 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 505, + 413 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Because fine-tuning is used to quickly adapt to a new dataset, it is suitable to reap the benefit of fast", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 411, + 506, + 426 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 411, + 506, + 426 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training speed. In support of reliable evaluation, we repeated every task thrice and reported the average", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 423, + 506, + 436 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 423, + 506, + 436 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and standard error of the best test errors. The best test error in a given time has been widely used for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 433, + 507, + 447 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 433, + 507, + 447 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the studies on fast and accurate training (Katharopoulos & Fleuret, 2018; Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 457, + 337, + 468 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 457, + 338, + 470 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 457, + 338, + 470 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5.1 ANALYSIS ON SELECTED MINI-BATCH SAMPLES", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 475, + 505, + 596 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 475, + 505, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 475, + 505, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For an in-depth analysis on selected samples, we plot the loss distribution of mini-batch samples", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 505, + 499 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 505, + 499 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "selected from CIFAR-10 by four different strategies in Figure 3. (i) The distribution of Online Batch", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 496, + 505, + 510 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 496, + 505, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the most skewed toward high loss by the design principle of selecting hard samples. (ii) Active Bias", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 508, + 505, + 521 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 508, + 505, + 521 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "emphasizes moderately hard samples at an early training stage in considering that its loss distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 505, + 532 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 505, + 532 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "lies between those of Random Batch and Online Batch. However, owing to the outdated predictions", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 529, + 506, + 543 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 529, + 506, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "caused by the growing window, the proportion of easy samples with low loss increases at a late", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 541, + 505, + 554 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 541, + 505, + 554 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training stage. These easy samples, which are misclassified as uncertain at that stage, tend to make the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 552, + 506, + 565 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 552, + 506, + 565 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "convergence of training slow down. (iii) In contrast to Active Bias, by virtue of the sliding window,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 506, + 576 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 506, + 576 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the distribution of Recency Bias lies between those of Random Batch and Online Batch regardless of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 506, + 587 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 506, + 587 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the training stage. Consequently, Recency Bias continues to highlight the moderately hard samples,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 357, + 598 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 357, + 598 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which are likely to be informative, during the training process.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 110, + 600, + 501, + 703 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 110, + 600, + 501, + 703 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 600, + 501, + 703 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 600, + 501, + 703 + ], + "score": 0.969, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "8c8739f16ea42064903ff3fcdc18e71d24f92a506e69384e924af6d9a72dfa55.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 42, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 600, + 501, + 634.3333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 634.3333333333334, + 501, + 668.6666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 668.6666666666667, + 501, + 703.0000000000001 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 43 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 706, + 505, + 729 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 705, + 506, + 719 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 705, + 506, + 719 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 3: The loss distribution of mini-batch samples selected by four batch selection strategies: (a)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 716, + 473, + 731 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 716, + 266, + 731 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and (b) show the loss distribution at the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 266, + 717, + 286, + 728 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "3 0 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 716, + 303, + 731 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 304, + 717, + 323, + 728 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "7 0 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 324, + 716, + 473, + 731 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of total training epochs, respectively.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + } + ], + "index": 44.5 + } + ], + "index": 43.25 + } + ], + "page_idx": 4, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 308, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2020", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 308, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 750, + 309, + 763 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 750, + 309, + 763 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 505, + 149 + ], + "lines": [], + "index": 2.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 82, + 507, + 149 + ], + "lines_deleted": true + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 154, + 505, + 187 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 154, + 506, + 166 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 154, + 506, + 166 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Overall, the key technical novelty of Recency Bias is to incorporate the notion of a sliding win-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 505, + 178 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 505, + 178 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dow (Line 8) rather than a growing window into adaptive batch selection, thereby improving both", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 177, + 265, + 189 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 177, + 265, + 189 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training speed and generalization error.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 7, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 154, + 506, + 189 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 193, + 505, + 248 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 505, + 206 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 505, + 206 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Time Complexity: The main “additional” cost of Recency Bias is the derivation of the sampling", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 505, + 217 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 505, + 217 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "probability for each sample (Lines 4–9). Because only simple mathematical operations are needed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 215, + 505, + 228 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 215, + 393, + 228 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "per sample, its time complexity is linear to the number of samples (i.e.,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 393, + 215, + 421, + 227 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "O ( N ) )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 421, + 215, + 505, + 228 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "), which is negligible", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 225, + 507, + 240 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 225, + 507, + 240 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "compared with that of the forward and backward steps of a complex network (Lines 16–17). Therefore,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 236, + 507, + 251 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 236, + 507, + 251 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we contend that Recency Bias does not add the complexity of an underlying optimization algorithm.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 11, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 192, + 507, + 251 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 263, + 193, + 275 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 261, + 195, + 278 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 261, + 195, + 278 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5 EVALUATION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 285, + 505, + 385 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 286, + 505, + 298 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 286, + 505, + 298 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We empirically show the improvement of Recency Bias over not only Random Batch (baseline) but also", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 295, + 507, + 309 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 295, + 507, + 309 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Online Batch (Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016) and Active Bias (Chang et al., 2017), which are two state-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 308, + 505, + 320 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 308, + 505, + 320 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of-the-art adaptive batch selections. In particular, we elaborate on the effect of the sliding window", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 318, + 506, + 331 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 318, + 506, + 331 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "approach (Recency Bias) compared with the growing window approach (Active Bias). Random Batch", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 329, + 505, + 341 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 329, + 505, + 341 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "selects next mini-batch samples uniformly at random from the entire dataset. Online Batch selects hard", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 340, + 505, + 353 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 340, + 505, + 353 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "samples based on the rank of the loss computed from previous epochs. Active Bias selects uncertain", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 351, + 505, + 365 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 351, + 505, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "samples with high variance of true label probabilities in the growing window. All the algorithms", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 362, + 507, + 374 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 362, + 507, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "were implemented using TensorFlow 1.8.0 and executed using a single NVIDIA Titan Volta GPU.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 373, + 485, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 373, + 485, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For reproducibility, we provide the source code at https://github.com/anonymized.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 19, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 286, + 507, + 386 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 390, + 506, + 445 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 390, + 506, + 402 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 390, + 506, + 402 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Image classification and fine-tuning tasks were performed to validate the superiority of Recency Bias.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 505, + 413 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 505, + 413 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Because fine-tuning is used to quickly adapt to a new dataset, it is suitable to reap the benefit of fast", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 411, + 506, + 426 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 411, + 506, + 426 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training speed. In support of reliable evaluation, we repeated every task thrice and reported the average", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 423, + 506, + 436 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 423, + 506, + 436 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and standard error of the best test errors. The best test error in a given time has been widely used for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 433, + 507, + 447 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 433, + 507, + 447 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the studies on fast and accurate training (Katharopoulos & Fleuret, 2018; Loshchilov & Hutter, 2016).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 26, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 390, + 507, + 447 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 457, + 337, + 468 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 457, + 338, + 470 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 457, + 338, + 470 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5.1 ANALYSIS ON SELECTED MINI-BATCH SAMPLES", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 475, + 505, + 596 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 475, + 505, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 475, + 505, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For an in-depth analysis on selected samples, we plot the loss distribution of mini-batch samples", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 505, + 499 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 505, + 499 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "selected from CIFAR-10 by four different strategies in Figure 3. (i) The distribution of Online Batch", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 496, + 505, + 510 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 496, + 505, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the most skewed toward high loss by the design principle of selecting hard samples. (ii) Active Bias", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 508, + 505, + 521 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 508, + 505, + 521 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "emphasizes moderately hard samples at an early training stage in considering that its loss distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 505, + 532 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 505, + 532 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "lies between those of Random Batch and Online Batch. However, owing to the outdated predictions", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 529, + 506, + 543 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 529, + 506, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "caused by the growing window, the proportion of easy samples with low loss increases at a late", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 541, + 505, + 554 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 541, + 505, + 554 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training stage. These easy samples, which are misclassified as uncertain at that stage, tend to make the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 552, + 506, + 565 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 552, + 506, + 565 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "convergence of training slow down. (iii) In contrast to Active Bias, by virtue of the sliding window,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 506, + 576 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 506, + 576 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the distribution of Recency Bias lies between those of Random Batch and Online Batch regardless of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 506, + 587 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 506, + 587 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the training stage. Consequently, Recency Bias continues to highlight the moderately hard samples,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 357, + 598 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 357, + 598 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which are likely to be informative, during the training process.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 35, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 475, + 506, + 598 + ] + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 110, + 600, + 501, + 703 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 110, + 600, + 501, + 703 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 600, + 501, + 703 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 600, + 501, + 703 + ], + "score": 0.969, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "8c8739f16ea42064903ff3fcdc18e71d24f92a506e69384e924af6d9a72dfa55.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 42, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 600, + 501, + 634.3333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 634.3333333333334, + 501, + 668.6666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 668.6666666666667, + 501, + 703.0000000000001 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 43 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 706, + 505, + 729 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 705, + 506, + 719 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 705, + 506, + 719 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 3: The loss distribution of mini-batch samples selected by four batch selection strategies: (a)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 716, + 473, + 731 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 716, + 266, + 731 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and (b) show the loss distribution at the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 266, + 717, + 286, + 728 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "3 0 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 716, + 303, + 731 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 304, + 717, + 323, + 728 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "7 0 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 324, + 716, + 473, + 731 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of total training epochs, respectively.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + } + ], + "index": 44.5 + } + ], + "index": 43.25 + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 82, + 270, + 94 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 271, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 271, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5.2 TASK I: IMAGE CLASSIFICATION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 100, + 505, + 224 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 101, + 505, + 114 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 101, + 289, + 114 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Experiment Setting: We trained DenseNet", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 290, + 101, + 313, + 112 + ], + "score": 0.69, + "content": "\\mathrm { L } { = } 4 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 313, + 101, + 317, + 114 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 317, + 101, + 340, + 112 + ], + "score": 0.58, + "content": "_ { \\mathrm { k = } 1 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 340, + 101, + 397, + 114 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") and ResNet", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 398, + 101, + 423, + 112 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "\\mathrm { L } { = } 5 0 _ { , }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 423, + 101, + 505, + 114 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") with a momentum", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 505, + 127 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 505, + 127 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "optimizer and an SGD optimizer on three benchmark datasets: MNIST (10 classes)2, classification", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 124, + 506, + 138 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 124, + 506, + 138 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of handwritten digits (LeCun, 1998), and CIFAR-10 (10 classes)3 and CIFAR-100 (100 classes)3,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 136, + 506, + 149 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 136, + 506, + 149 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "classification of a subset of 80 million categorical images (Krizhevsky et al., 2014). Specifically, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 147, + 505, + 159 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 147, + 505, + 159 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used data augmentation, batch normalization, a momentum of 0.9, and a batch size of 128. As for the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 157, + 506, + 172 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 157, + 296, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithm parameters, we fixed the window size", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 296, + 159, + 326, + 170 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "q = 1 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 326, + 157, + 455, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the initial selection pressure", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 455, + 158, + 497, + 171 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "s _ { e _ { 0 } } = 1 0 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 498, + 157, + 506, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", 4", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 168, + 506, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 168, + 506, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which were the best values found by the grid search (see Appendix A for details). 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Regarding", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 202, + 505, + 216 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 202, + 505, + 216 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the training schedule, we trained the network for 40, 000 iterations and used an initial learning rate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 213, + 470, + 226 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 213, + 246, + 226 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of 0.1, which was divided by 10 at", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 246, + 213, + 266, + 224 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "5 0 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 267, + 213, + 284, + 226 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 284, + 213, + 304, + 224 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "7 5 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 304, + 213, + 470, + 226 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the total number of training iterations.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 230, + 505, + 274 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 230, + 505, + 242 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 230, + 505, + 242 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Results: Figure 4 shows the convergence curves of training loss and test error for four batch selection", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 505, + 253 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 505, + 253 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "strategies using DenseNet and a momentum optimizer. In order to highlight the improvement of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 253, + 505, + 263 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 253, + 505, + 263 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Recency Bias over the baseline (Random Batch), their lines are dark colored. The best test errors in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 263, + 389, + 274 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 263, + 389, + 274 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figures 4(b), 4(d), and 4(f) are summarized on the left side of Table 1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 13.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 280, + 505, + 423 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 281, + 505, + 292 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 281, + 505, + 292 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In general, Recency Bias achieved the most accurate network while accelerating the training process", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 290, + 506, + 303 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 290, + 506, + 303 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on all datasets. The training loss of Recency Bias converged faster (Figures 4(a), 4(c), and 4(e))", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 301, + 506, + 315 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 301, + 506, + 315 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "without the increase in the generalization error, thereby achieving the lower test error (Figures 4(b),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 312, + 506, + 326 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 312, + 506, + 326 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4(d), and 4(f)). In contrast, the test error of Online Batch was not the best even if its training loss", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 324, + 506, + 336 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 324, + 506, + 336 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converged the fastest among all strategies. As the training difficulty increased from CIFAR-10 to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 335, + 506, + 347 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 335, + 506, + 347 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "CIFAR-100, the test error of Online Batch became even worse than that of Random Batch. That", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 506, + 358 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 506, + 358 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is, emphasizing hard samples accelerated the training step but made the network overfit to hard", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 356, + 507, + 370 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 356, + 507, + 370 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "samples. Meanwhile, Active Bias was prone to make the network better generalized on test data.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 367, + 506, + 380 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 367, + 506, + 380 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In CIFAR-10, despite its highest training loss, the test error of Active Bias was better than that of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 505, + 392 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 505, + 392 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Random Batch. However, Active Bias slowed down the training process because of the limitation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 389, + 505, + 402 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 389, + 505, + 402 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of growing windows, as discussed in Section 5.1. We note that, although both Recency Bias and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 399, + 506, + 413 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 399, + 506, + 413 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Active Bias exploited uncertain samples, only Recency Bias based on sliding windows succeeded", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 411, + 430, + 425 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 411, + 430, + 425 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to not only speed up the training process but also reduce the generalization error.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 428, + 505, + 473 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 428, + 505, + 440 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 428, + 505, + 440 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The results of the best test error for ResNet or an SGD optimizer are summarized in Tables 1 and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 438, + 506, + 452 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 438, + 506, + 452 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 (see Appendix C for more details). 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OptimizerMomentumin Figure 4SGD in Figure 9(Appendix C.1)
MethodMNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100MNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100
RandomBatch0.527± 0.037.33± 0.0928.0±0.161.23± 0.0314.9 ± 0.0940.2 ± 0.06
OnlineBatch0.514± 0.017.00±0.1028.4± 0.250.765± 0.0213.5± 0.0240.7 ± 0.12
Active Bias0.616±0.037.07 ± 0.0427.9 ± 0.110.679±0.0214.2 ± 0.2542.9 ± 0.05
Recency Bias0.490± 0.026.60 ± 0.0227.1 ± 0.190.986±0.0613.2 ± 0.1138.7 ± 0.11
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OptimizerMomentum in Figure 10(Appendix C.2)SGD in Figure 11 (Appendix C.3)
MethodMNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100MNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100
RandomBatch0.636 ± 0.0410.2 ± 0.1233.2 ± 0.071.16 ± 0.0312.7 ± 0.0940.1 ± 0.16
OnlineBatch0.666 ± 0.0510.1± 0.0533.4 ± 0.010.890± 0.0312.2 ± 0.0840.7 ± 0.09
Active Bias0.613 ± 0.0410.6±0.0834.2 ± 0.070.804± 0.0113.5 ± 0.0745.6 ± 0.07
Recency Bias0.607 ± 0.019.79 ± 0.0432.4 ± 0.040.972 ± 0.0311.6 ± 0.0938.9 ± 0.14
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In order to highlight the improvement of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 253, + 505, + 263 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 253, + 505, + 263 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Recency Bias over the baseline (Random Batch), their lines are dark colored. The best test errors in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 263, + 389, + 274 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 263, + 389, + 274 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figures 4(b), 4(d), and 4(f) are summarized on the left side of Table 1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 13.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 230, + 505, + 274 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 280, + 505, + 423 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 281, + 505, + 292 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 281, + 505, + 292 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In general, Recency Bias achieved the most accurate network while accelerating the training process", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 290, + 506, + 303 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 290, + 506, + 303 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on all datasets. The training loss of Recency Bias converged faster (Figures 4(a), 4(c), and 4(e))", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 301, + 506, + 315 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 301, + 506, + 315 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "without the increase in the generalization error, thereby achieving the lower test error (Figures 4(b),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 312, + 506, + 326 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 312, + 506, + 326 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4(d), and 4(f)). In contrast, the test error of Online Batch was not the best even if its training loss", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 324, + 506, + 336 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 324, + 506, + 336 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converged the fastest among all strategies. As the training difficulty increased from CIFAR-10 to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 335, + 506, + 347 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 335, + 506, + 347 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "CIFAR-100, the test error of Online Batch became even worse than that of Random Batch. That", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 506, + 358 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 506, + 358 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is, emphasizing hard samples accelerated the training step but made the network overfit to hard", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 356, + 507, + 370 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 356, + 507, + 370 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "samples. Meanwhile, Active Bias was prone to make the network better generalized on test data.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 367, + 506, + 380 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 367, + 506, + 380 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In CIFAR-10, despite its highest training loss, the test error of Active Bias was better than that of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 505, + 392 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 505, + 392 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Random Batch. However, Active Bias slowed down the training process because of the limitation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 389, + 505, + 402 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 389, + 505, + 402 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of growing windows, as discussed in Section 5.1. We note that, although both Recency Bias and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 399, + 506, + 413 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 399, + 506, + 413 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Active Bias exploited uncertain samples, only Recency Bias based on sliding windows succeeded", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 411, + 430, + 425 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 411, + 430, + 425 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to not only speed up the training process but also reduce the generalization error.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 22, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 281, + 507, + 425 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 428, + 505, + 473 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 428, + 505, + 440 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 428, + 505, + 440 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The results of the best test error for ResNet or an SGD optimizer are summarized in Tables 1 and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 438, + 506, + 452 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 438, + 506, + 452 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 (see Appendix C for more details). Regardless of a neural network and an optimizer, Recency", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 505, + 463 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 505, + 463 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Bias achieved the lowest test error except in MNIST with an SGD optimizer. The improvement of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 461, + 502, + 474 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 461, + 502, + 474 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Recency Bias over the others was higher with an SGD optimizer than with a momentum optimizer.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 30.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 428, + 506, + 474 + ] + }, + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 502, + 504, + 570 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_caption", + "bbox": [ + 138, + 482, + 470, + 494 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 138, + 481, + 471, + 496 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 138, + 481, + 253, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Table 1: The best test errors", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 483, + 269, + 493 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "( \\% )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 269, + 481, + 471, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of four batch selection strategies using DenseNet.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 502, + 504, + 570 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 502, + 504, + 570 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 502, + 504, + 570 + ], + "score": 0.982, + "html": "
OptimizerMomentumin Figure 4SGD in Figure 9(Appendix C.1)
MethodMNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100MNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100
RandomBatch0.527± 0.037.33± 0.0928.0±0.161.23± 0.0314.9 ± 0.0940.2 ± 0.06
OnlineBatch0.514± 0.017.00±0.1028.4± 0.250.765± 0.0213.5± 0.0240.7 ± 0.12
Active Bias0.616±0.037.07 ± 0.0427.9 ± 0.110.679±0.0214.2 ± 0.2542.9 ± 0.05
Recency Bias0.490± 0.026.60 ± 0.0227.1 ± 0.190.986±0.0613.2 ± 0.1138.7 ± 0.11
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OptimizerMomentum in Figure 10(Appendix C.2)SGD in Figure 11 (Appendix C.3)
MethodMNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100MNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100
RandomBatch0.636 ± 0.0410.2 ± 0.1233.2 ± 0.071.16 ± 0.0312.7 ± 0.0940.1 ± 0.16
OnlineBatch0.666 ± 0.0510.1± 0.0533.4 ± 0.010.890± 0.0312.2 ± 0.0840.7 ± 0.09
Active Bias0.613 ± 0.0410.6±0.0834.2 ± 0.070.804± 0.0113.5 ± 0.0745.6 ± 0.07
Recency Bias0.607 ± 0.019.79 ± 0.0432.4 ± 0.040.972 ± 0.0311.6 ± 0.0938.9 ± 0.14
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After replacing the last classification", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 590, + 506, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 590, + 506, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "layer, the network was trained end-to-end for 50 epochs with a batch size 32 and a constant learning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 601, + 506, + 617 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 601, + 124, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "rate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 602, + 164, + 613 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "2 \\times 1 0 ^ { - 4 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 164, + 601, + 506, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Data augmentation was not applied here. 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MethodMIT-67FOOD-100
RandomBatch(5,218-3,936)/5,218 × 100= 24.6%(7,263-5,365)/7,263 × 100= 26.1%
OnlineBatch(6,079- 3,823)/6,079 × 100 = 37.1%(8,333-3,685)/8,333 × 100= 55.8%
Active Bias(5,738-3,032)/5,738×100=47.2%(7,933-3,227)/7,933× 100= 59.3%
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However, as mentioned earlier in Section 3.2, the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 721 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 721 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "two strategies without decaying exacerbated the overfitting problem because they only used the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training samples classified as highly uncertain. 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MethodMIT-67FOOD-100
RandomBatch(5,218-3,936)/5,218 × 100= 24.6%(7,263-5,365)/7,263 × 100= 26.1%
OnlineBatch(6,079- 3,823)/6,079 × 100 = 37.1%(8,333-3,685)/8,333 × 100= 55.8%
Active Bias(5,738-3,032)/5,738×100=47.2%(7,933-3,227)/7,933× 100= 59.3%
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For example, in Figure 5(b), the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 506, + 525 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 177, + 525 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "best test error of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 512, + 205, + 523 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "2 8 . 8 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 205, + 510, + 506, + 525 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "achieved in 5, 218 seconds by Random Batch could be achieved only in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 523, + 505, + 536 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 523, + 447, + 536 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3, 936 seconds by Recency Bias; thus, Recency Bias improved the training time by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 447, + 523, + 475, + 534 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "2 4 . 6 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 475, + 523, + 505, + 536 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Table", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 534, + 505, + 546 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 534, + 505, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 summarizes the reduction in the training time of Recency Bias over three other batch selection", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 545, + 505, + 557 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 545, + 360, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "strategies. Notably, Recency Bias improved the training time by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 360, + 545, + 418, + 556 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "2 4 . 6 \\% { - 4 7 . 2 \\% }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 418, + 545, + 435, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 436, + 545, + 494, + 556 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "2 6 . 1 \\% { - 5 9 . 3 \\% }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 494, + 545, + 505, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 339, + 570 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 339, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fine-tuning MIT-67 and FOOD-100 datasets, respectively.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 13, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 490, + 506, + 570 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 577, + 322, + 588 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 577, + 324, + 589 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 577, + 324, + 589 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5.4 ABLATION STUDY ON SELECTION PRESSURE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 594, + 505, + 660 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 593, + 506, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 593, + 377, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For an ablation study on the selection pressure, we trained DenseNet", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 378, + 594, + 428, + 605 + ], + "score": 0.32, + "content": "( \\mathrm { L } { = } 4 0 , \\mathrm { k } { = } 1 2 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 428, + 593, + 506, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on two benchmark", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 605, + 506, + 617 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 605, + 381, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "datasets using Recency Bias with four different decaying strategies:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 381, + 605, + 435, + 616 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "s _ { e } : 1 0 \\to 1 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 435, + 605, + 438, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 439, + 605, + 502, + 616 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "s _ { e } : 1 0 0 \\to 1 0 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 503, + 605, + 506, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 615, + 506, + 629 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 616, + 159, + 627 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "s _ { e } : 1 0 \\to 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 159, + 615, + 181, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 181, + 616, + 238, + 627 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "s _ { e } : 1 0 0 \\to 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 238, + 615, + 506, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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We used a momentum optimizer and the other experimental configurations were the same as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 649, + 189, + 660 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 649, + 189, + 660 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "those in Section 5.2.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 20.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 593, + 506, + 660 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 664, + 505, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 664, + 505, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 6 shows the convergence curves of Recency Bias using the different decaying strategies along", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 676, + 506, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 676, + 442, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with that of Random Batch. 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However, as mentioned earlier in Section 3.2, the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 721 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 721 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "two strategies without decaying exacerbated the overfitting problem because they only used the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training samples classified as highly uncertain. Accordingly, their test errors were rather higher than", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 376, + 505, + 390 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 376, + 505, + 390 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that of Random Batch in CIFAR-100 dataset. On the other hand, the two strategies with decaying", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 387, + 505, + 401 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 387, + 505, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "converged faster than Random Batch in both training loss and test error in all datasets because they", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 400, + 505, + 411 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 400, + 505, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "exploited more diverse training samples by exponentially decaying the selection pressure. 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In ICLR, 2018.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 38.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 649, + 505, + 673 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 81, + 289, + 94 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 79, + 290, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 79, + 290, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A HYPERPARAMETER SELECTION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 106, + 505, + 173 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 106, + 505, + 119 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 106, + 300, + 119 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Recency Bias receives the two hyperparameters:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 300, + 107, + 311, + 118 + ], + "score": 0.48, + "content": "( i )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 312, + 106, + 426, + 119 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the initial selection pressure", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 426, + 108, + 440, + 118 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "s _ { e _ { 0 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 440, + 106, + 505, + 119 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that determines", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 118, + 505, + 129 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 118, + 441, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the sampling probability gap between the most and the least uncertain samples and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 441, + 118, + 455, + 128 + ], + "score": 0.51, + "content": "( i i )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 455, + 118, + 505, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the window", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 507, + 142 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 124, + 142 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "size", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 130, + 131, + 140 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "q", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 127, + 507, + 142 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that determines how many recent label predictions are involved in predicting the uncertainty.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 138, + 506, + 151 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 138, + 326, + 151 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To decide the best hyperparameters, we trained ResNet", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 326, + 140, + 353, + 150 + ], + "score": 0.73, + "content": "( \\mathrm { L } { = } 5 0 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 353, + 138, + 506, + 151 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 with a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 150, + 506, + 163 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 150, + 506, + 163 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "momentum optimizer. For hyperparameters selection, the two hyperparameters were chosen in a grid", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 161, + 290, + 173 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 161, + 206, + 173 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "s _ { e _ { 0 } } \\in \\{ 1 , 1 0 , \\mathsf { \\bar { 1 0 0 } } , 1 0 0 0 \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 161, + 224, + 173 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 224, + 161, + 286, + 173 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathsf { \\bar { q } } \\in \\{ 5 , 1 0 , 1 5 \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 161, + 290, + 173 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 3.5 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 118, + 184, + 494, + 304 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 118, + 184, + 494, + 304 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 184, + 494, + 304 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 184, + 494, + 304 + ], + "score": 0.97, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "53618c6fcbdac2807406a8e3fde6e99b9b68913788a6e1b1e27d2915609b591c.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 8, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 184, + 494, + 224.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 224.0, + 494, + 264.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 264.0, + 494, + 304.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 9 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 153, + 309, + 456, + 321 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 308, + 457, + 322 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 308, + 457, + 322 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 7: Grid search on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 datasets using ResNet.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 9.0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 330, + 506, + 385 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 329, + 507, + 343 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 329, + 507, + 343 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 7 shows the test errors of Recency Bias obtained by the grid search on the two datasets.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 342, + 505, + 353 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 342, + 268, + 353 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Regarding the initial selection pressure", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 343, + 282, + 353 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "s _ { e _ { 0 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 282, + 342, + 505, + 353 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the lowest test error was typically achieved when the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 351, + 504, + 367 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 354, + 120, + 364 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "s _ { e _ { 0 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 351, + 277, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "value was 100. As for the window size", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 278, + 354, + 284, + 363 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "q", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 284, + 351, + 497, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the test error was almost always the lowest when the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 497, + 354, + 504, + 363 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "q", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 362, + 505, + 376 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 362, + 505, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "value was 10. Similar trends were observed for the other combinations of a neural network and an", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 414, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 298, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "optimizer. Therefore, in all experiments, we set", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 298, + 376, + 311, + 386 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "s _ { e _ { 0 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 312, + 374, + 369, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to be 100 and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 376, + 376, + 385 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "q", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 376, + 374, + 414, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to be 10.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 401, + 371, + 414 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 372, + 416 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 372, + 416 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "B EXPERIMENT USING TINY-IMAGENET DATASET", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 426, + 506, + 492 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 426, + 505, + 438 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 426, + 505, + 438 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For a larger-scale experiment, we repeated the image classification task on Tiny-ImageNet (200", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 437, + 505, + 450 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 437, + 432, + 450 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "classes), a subset of ImageNet (Krizhevsky et al., 2012), with 100, 000 training and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 433, + 438, + 463, + 449 + ], + "score": 0.32, + "content": "1 0 , 0 0 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 463, + 437, + 505, + 450 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "validation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 448, + 505, + 460 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 448, + 505, + 460 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "images. 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For Tiny-ImageNet", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 460, + 505, + 471 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 460, + 505, + 471 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dataset, we trained the network for 80, 000 iterations and used an initial learning rate of 0.1, which was", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 505, + 482 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 172, + 482 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "divided by 10 at", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 172, + 470, + 192, + 481 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "5 0 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 469, + 209, + 482 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 209, + 470, + 229, + 481 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "7 5 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 469, + 505, + 482 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the total number of training iterations. The remaining experimental", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 482, + 318, + 492 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 482, + 318, + 492 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "configurations were the same as those in Section 5.2.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 19.5 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 500, + 494, + 648 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 500, + 494, + 648 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 500, + 494, + 648 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 500, + 494, + 648 + ], + "score": 0.967, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "a0eb70a7d351e780640a2e722bd4687c2db5edac63d5d35b4a532322ce1bc99e.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 24, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 500, + 494, + 549.3333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 549.3333333333334, + 494, + 598.6666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 598.6666666666667, + 494, + 648.0000000000001 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 25 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 104, + 652, + 502, + 665 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 651, + 504, + 667 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 651, + 504, + 667 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1 20 40 60 80 10Figure 8: Convergence curves of four batch selection strategies using DenseNet with momentum.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 25.0 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 104, + 699, + 529, + 725 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_caption", + "bbox": [ + 139, + 678, + 471, + 690 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 138, + 677, + 471, + 692 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 138, + 677, + 253, + 692 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Table 4: The best test errors", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 679, + 269, + 690 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "( \\% )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 270, + 677, + 471, + 692 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of four batch selection strategies using DenseNet.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 104, + 699, + 529, + 725 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 699, + 529, + 725 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 699, + 529, + 725 + ], + "score": 0.953, + "html": "
MethodRandom BatchOnline BatchActiveBiasRecencyBias
Tiny-ImageNet51.6 ± 0.2652.5 ± 0.1952.2± 0.5251.0± 0.34
", + "type": "table", + "image_path": "b8f1bfb81a0f29d78f46aad6db16123a3c80e3982f338fa926bb0b73b176353d.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 28, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 699, + 529, + 725 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 28 + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 27.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 10, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 308, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2020", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 300, + 751, + 310, + 761 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 312, + 765 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 312, + 765 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "11", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 81, + 289, + 94 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 79, + 290, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 79, + 290, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A HYPERPARAMETER SELECTION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 106, + 505, + 173 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 106, + 505, + 119 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 106, + 300, + 119 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Recency Bias receives the two hyperparameters:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 300, + 107, + 311, + 118 + ], + "score": 0.48, + "content": "( i )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 312, + 106, + 426, + 119 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the initial selection pressure", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 426, + 108, + 440, + 118 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "s _ { e _ { 0 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 440, + 106, + 505, + 119 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that determines", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 118, + 505, + 129 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 118, + 441, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the sampling probability gap between the most and the least uncertain samples and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 441, + 118, + 455, + 128 + ], + "score": 0.51, + "content": "( i i )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 455, + 118, + 505, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the window", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 507, + 142 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 124, + 142 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "size", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 130, + 131, + 140 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "q", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 127, + 507, + 142 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that determines how many recent label predictions are involved in predicting the uncertainty.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 138, + 506, + 151 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 138, + 326, + 151 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To decide the best hyperparameters, we trained ResNet", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 326, + 140, + 353, + 150 + ], + "score": 0.73, + "content": "( \\mathrm { L } { = } 5 0 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 353, + 138, + 506, + 151 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 with a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 150, + 506, + 163 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 150, + 506, + 163 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "momentum optimizer. 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As for the window size", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 278, + 354, + 284, + 363 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "q", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 284, + 351, + 497, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the test error was almost always the lowest when the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 497, + 354, + 504, + 363 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "q", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 362, + 505, + 376 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 362, + 505, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "value was 10. Similar trends were observed for the other combinations of a neural network and an", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 414, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 298, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "optimizer. Therefore, in all experiments, we set", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 298, + 376, + 311, + 386 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "s _ { e _ { 0 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 312, + 374, + 369, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to be 100 and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 376, + 376, + 385 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "q", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 376, + 374, + 414, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to be 10.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 13, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 329, + 507, + 386 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 401, + 371, + 414 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 372, + 416 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 372, + 416 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "B EXPERIMENT USING TINY-IMAGENET DATASET", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 426, + 506, + 492 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 426, + 505, + 438 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 426, + 505, + 438 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For a larger-scale experiment, we repeated the image classification task on Tiny-ImageNet (200", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 437, + 505, + 450 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 437, + 432, + 450 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "classes), a subset of ImageNet (Krizhevsky et al., 2012), with 100, 000 training and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 433, + 438, + 463, + 449 + ], + "score": 0.32, + "content": "1 0 , 0 0 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 463, + 437, + 505, + 450 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "validation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 448, + 505, + 460 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 448, + 505, + 460 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "images. Because no test set exists, we used the validation set as the test data. For Tiny-ImageNet", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 460, + 505, + 471 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 460, + 505, + 471 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dataset, we trained the network for 80, 000 iterations and used an initial learning rate of 0.1, which was", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 505, + 482 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 172, + 482 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "divided by 10 at", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 172, + 470, + 192, + 481 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "5 0 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 469, + 209, + 482 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 209, + 470, + 229, + 481 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "7 5 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 469, + 505, + 482 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the total number of training iterations. The remaining experimental", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 482, + 318, + 492 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 482, + 318, + 492 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "configurations were the same as those in Section 5.2.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 19.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 426, + 505, + 492 + ] + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 500, + 494, + 648 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 500, + 494, + 648 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 500, + 494, + 648 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 500, + 494, + 648 + ], + "score": 0.967, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "a0eb70a7d351e780640a2e722bd4687c2db5edac63d5d35b4a532322ce1bc99e.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 24, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 500, + 494, + 549.3333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 549.3333333333334, + 494, + 598.6666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 598.6666666666667, + 494, + 648.0000000000001 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 25 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 104, + 652, + 502, + 665 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 651, + 504, + 667 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 651, + 504, + 667 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1 20 40 60 80 10Figure 8: Convergence curves of four batch selection strategies using DenseNet with momentum.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 25.0 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 104, + 699, + 529, + 725 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_caption", + "bbox": [ + 139, + 678, + 471, + 690 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 138, + 677, + 471, + 692 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 138, + 677, + 253, + 692 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Table 4: The best test errors", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 679, + 269, + 690 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "( \\% )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 270, + 677, + 471, + 692 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of four batch selection strategies using DenseNet.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 104, + 699, + 529, + 725 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 699, + 529, + 725 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 699, + 529, + 725 + ], + "score": 0.953, + "html": "
MethodRandom BatchOnline BatchActiveBiasRecencyBias
Tiny-ImageNet51.6 ± 0.2652.5 ± 0.1952.2± 0.5251.0± 0.34
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OptimizerMomentumin Figure 4SGD in Figure 9(Appendix C.1)
MethodMNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100MNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100
RandomBatch0.527± 0.037.33± 0.0928.0±0.161.23± 0.0314.9 ± 0.0940.2 ± 0.06
OnlineBatch0.514± 0.017.00±0.1028.4± 0.250.765± 0.0213.5± 0.0240.7 ± 0.12
Active Bias0.616±0.037.07 ± 0.0427.9 ± 0.110.679±0.0214.2 ± 0.2542.9 ± 0.05
Recency Bias0.490± 0.026.60 ± 0.0227.1 ± 0.190.986±0.0613.2 ± 0.1138.7 ± 0.11
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OptimizerMomentum in Figure 10(Appendix C.2)SGD in Figure 11 (Appendix C.3)
MethodMNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100MNISTCIFAR-10CIFAR-100
RandomBatch0.636 ± 0.0410.2 ± 0.1233.2 ± 0.071.16 ± 0.0312.7 ± 0.0940.1 ± 0.16
OnlineBatch0.666 ± 0.0510.1± 0.0533.4 ± 0.010.890± 0.0312.2 ± 0.0840.7 ± 0.09
Active Bias0.613 ± 0.0410.6±0.0834.2 ± 0.070.804± 0.0113.5 ± 0.0745.6 ± 0.07
Recency Bias0.607 ± 0.019.79 ± 0.0432.4 ± 0.040.972 ± 0.0311.6 ± 0.0938.9 ± 0.14
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MethodMIT-67FOOD-100
RandomBatch(5,218-3,936)/5,218 × 100= 24.6%(7,263-5,365)/7,263 × 100= 26.1%
OnlineBatch(6,079- 3,823)/6,079 × 100 = 37.1%(8,333-3,685)/8,333 × 100= 55.8%
Active Bias(5,738-3,032)/5,738×100=47.2%(7,933-3,227)/7,933× 100= 59.3%
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b/parse/train/H1exf64KwH/H1exf64KwH.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..5b9c68983c1752832721b3b3b81e0cddbbea1d4e --- /dev/null +++ b/parse/train/H1exf64KwH/H1exf64KwH.md @@ -0,0 +1,426 @@ +# EXPLORING MODEL-BASED PLANNING WITH POLICY NETWORKS + +Tingwu Wang1,2& Jimmy $\mathbf { B a } ^ { 1 , 2 }$ +1 Department of Computer Science, University of Toronto 2 Vector Institute +{tingwuwang,jba}@cs.toronto.edu + +# ABSTRACT + +Model-based reinforcement learning (MBRL) with model-predictive control or online planning has shown great potential for locomotion control tasks in both sample efficiency and asymptotic performance. Despite the successes, the existing planning methods search from candidate sequences randomly generated in the action space, which is inefficient in complex high-dimensional environments. In this paper, we propose a novel MBRL algorithm, model-based policy planning (POPLIN), that combines policy networks with online planning. More specifically, we formulate action planning at each time-step as an optimization problem using neural networks. We experiment with both optimization w.r.t. the action sequences initialized from the policy network, and also online optimization directly w.r.t. the parameters of the policy network. We show that in the MuJoCo benchmarking environments, POPLIN is about $3 \mathbf { x }$ more sample efficient than the previously stateof-the-art algorithms, such as PETS, TD3 and SAC. To explain the effectiveness of our algorithm, we show that the optimization surface in parameter space is smoother than in action space. Further more, we found the distilled policy network can be effectively applied without the expansive model predictive control during test time for some environments such as Cheetah. Code is released here1. + +# 1 INTRODUCTION + +A model-based reinforcement learning (MBRL) agent learns its internal model of the world, i.e. the dynamics, from repeated interactions with the environment. With the learnt dynamics, a MBRL agent can for example perform online planning, interact with imaginary data, or optimize the controller through dynamics, which provides significantly better sample efficiency (Deisenroth & Rasmussen, 2011; Sutton, 1990; Levine & Abbeel, 2014; Levine & Koltun, 2013). However, MBRL algorithms generally do not scale well with the increasing complexity of the reinforcement learning (RL) tasks in practice. And modelling errors in dynamics that accumulate with time-steps greatly limit the applications of MBRL algorithms. As a result, many latest progresses in RL has been made with model-free reinforcement learning (MFRL) algorithms that are capable of solving complex tasks at the cost of large number of samples (Schulman et al., 2017; Heess et al., 2017; Schulman et al., 2015; Mnih et al., 2013; Lillicrap et al., 2015; Haarnoja et al., 2018). + +With the success of deep learning, a few recent works have proposed to learn neural network-based dynamics models for MBRL. Among them, random shooting algorithms (RS), which uses modelpredictive control (MPC), is shown to have good robustness and scalability (Richards, 2005). In shooting algorithms, the agent randomly generates action sequences, use the dynamics to predict the future states, and choose the first action from the sequence with the best expected reward. However, RS usually has worse asymptotic performance than model-free controllers (Nagabandi et al., 2017), and the authors of the the PETS algorithm (Chua et al., 2018) suggest that the performance of RS is directly affected by the quality of the learnt dynamics. They propose a probabilistic ensemble to capture model uncertainty, which enables PETS algorithm to achieve both better sample efficiency and better asymptotic performance than state-of-the-art model-free controllers in environments such as Cheetah. However, PETS is not as effective on environments with higher dimensionality. + +![](images/ad3dddae5537aad63d7ae3de75a7d3d6229eccb8ab15eeda336635a3a20e249d.jpg) +Figure 1: We transform each planned candidate action trajectory with PCA into a 2D blue scatter. The top and bottom figures are respectively the visualization of PETS (Chua et al., 2018) and our algorithm. The red area has higher reward. From left to right, we show how candidate trajectories are updated, across different planning iterations within one time-step. As we can see, while both reward surface is not smooth with respect to action trajectory. POPLIN, using policy networks, has much better search efficiency, while PETS is stuck around its initialization. The details are in section 5.3. + +In this paper, we explore MBRL algorithms from a different perspective, where we treat the planning at each time-step as an optimization problem. Random search in action space, as what is being done in state-of-the-art MBRL algorithms such as PETS, is insufficient for more complex environments. On the one hand, we are inspired by the success of AlphaGo (Silver et al., 2016; 2017), where a policy network is used to generate proposals for the Monte-Carlo tree search. On the other hand, we are inspired by the recent research into understanding deep neural networks (Nguyen & Hein, 2017; Li et al., 2018; Soudry & Hoffer, 2017). Deep neural networks, frequently observed in practices, is much less likely to get stuck in sub-optimal points. In Figure 1, we apply principal component analysis (PCA) on the action sequences generated in each planning iteration within one time-step. The reward surface of the action space is not smooth and prone to local-minimas. We argue that optimization in the policy network’s parameter space will be more efficient. Furthermore, we note that the state-of-the-art MBRL algorithm with MPC cannot be applied real-time. We therefore experiment with different policy network distillation schemes for fast control without MPC. To sum up, the contribution of this paper is three-fold: + +• We apply policy networks to generate proposals for MPC in high dimensional locomotion control problems with unknown dynamics. +• We formulate planning as optimization with neural networks, and propose policy planning in parameter space, which obtain state-of-the-art performance on current bench-marking environments, being about 3x more sample efficient than the previous state-of-the-art algorithm, such as PETS (Chua et al., 2018), TD3 (Fujimoto et al., 2018) and SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018). +• We also explore policy network distillation from the planned trajectories. We found the distilled policy network alone achieves high performance on environments like Cheetah without the expansive online planning. + +# 2 RELATED WORK + +Model-based reinforcement learning (MBRL) has been long studied. Dyna (Sutton, 1990; 1991) algorithm alternately performs sampling in the real environments and optimize the controllers on the learned model of the environments. Other pioneering work includes PILCO (Deisenroth & Rasmussen, 2011), where the authors model the dynamics using Gaussian Process and directly optimize the surrogate expected reward. Effective as it is to solve simple environments, PILCO heavily suffers the curse of dimensionality. In (Levine & Abbeel, 2014; Levine & Koltun, 2013; Levine et al., 2016; Chebotar et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2018), the authors propose guided policy search (GPS). GPS uses iLQG (Li & Todorov, 2004; Todorov & Li, 2005; Tassa et al., 2012) as the local controller, and distill the knowledge into a policy neural network. In SVG (Heess et al., 2015), the authors uses stochastic value gradient so that the stochastic policy network can be optimized by back-propagation with off-policy data. Recently with the progress of model-free algorithms such as TRPO and PPO (Schulman et al., 2015; 2017), Kurutach et al. (2018); Luo et al. (2019) propose modern variants of Dyna, where TRPO (Schulman et al., 2015) is used to optimize the policy network using data generated by the learnt dynamics. Concurrent to this work, Janner et al. (2019) further use SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018) to train the policy network, and gets state-of-the-art performance on many tasks. At the same time, random shooting methods proposed by Nagabandi et al. (2017); Chua et al. (2018) have shown its robustness and effectiveness on benchmarking environments. PETS algorithm (Chua et al., 2018) is considered by many to be the state-of-the-art shooting algorithm, which we discuss in detail in section 3. Dynamics is also used to obtain better value estimation to speed up training (Gu et al., 2016; Feinberg et al., 2018; Buckman et al., 2018). Latent dynamics models using VAE (Kingma & Welling, 2013) are commonly used to solve problems with image input (Ha & Schmidhuber, 2018a;b; Hafner et al., 2018; Kaiser et al., 2019). + +# 3 BACKGROUND + +# 3.1 REINFORCEMENT LEARNING + +In reinforcement learning, the problem of solving the given task is formulated as a infinite-horizon discounted Markov decision process. For the agent, we denote the action space and state space respectively as $\mathcal { A }$ and $s$ . We also denote the reward function and transition function as $r ( s _ { t } , a _ { t } )$ and $f ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , a _ { t } )$ , where $s _ { t } \in S$ and $a _ { t } \in \mathcal A$ are the state and action at time-step $t$ . The reward $\begin{array} { r } { J ( \pi ) = \mathbb { E } _ { \pi } [ \sum _ { t = 0 } ^ { \infty } r ( s _ { t } , a _ { t } ) ] } \end{array}$ to the agent in this work. The agent mwith respect to the agent’s controller $\pi$ ximizes its expected total reward. + +# 3.2 RANDOM SHOOTING ALGORITHM AND PETS + +Our proposed algorithm is based on the random shooting algorithm (Richards, 2005). In random shooting algorithms (Nagabandi et al., 2017; Chua et al., 2018), a data-set of $\mathcal { D } = \{ ( s _ { t } , a _ { t } , s _ { t + 1 } ) \}$ is collected from previously generated real trajectories. The agent learns an ensemble of neural networks denoted as $f _ { \phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , a _ { t } )$ , with the parameters of the neural networks denoted as $\phi$ . In planning, the agent randomly generates a population of $K$ candidate action sequences. Each action sequence, denoted as $\mathbf { a } = \{ a _ { 0 } , . . . , a _ { \tau } \}$ , contains the control signals at every time-steps within the planning horizon $\tau$ . The action sequence with the best expected reward given the current dynamics network $f _ { \phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , a _ { t } )$ is chosen. RS, as a model-predictive control algorithm, only executes the first action signal and re-plan at time-step. In PETS (Chua et al., 2018), the authors further use cross entropy method (CEM) (De Boer et al., 2005; Botev et al., 2013) to re-samples sequences near the best sequences from the last CEM iteration. + +# 4 MODEL-BASED POLICY PLANNING + +In this section, we describe two variants of POPLIN: model-based policy planning in action space (POPLIN-A) and model-based policy planning in parameter space (POPLIN-P). Following the notations in section 3.2, we define the expected planning reward function at time-step $i$ as follows: + +
Algorithm1GeneralPOPLINFramework
1: while Training iterations not Finished do
2:for ith time-step of the agent do
3:CEM planning as in section 4.1, 4.2
4:Execute the first action from CEM.
5:end for
6:Dynamics update and policy distillation.
7: end while
+ +$$ +\mathcal { R } ( s _ { i } , \mathbf { a } _ { i } ) = \mathbb { E } \left[ \sum _ { t = i } ^ { i + \tau } r ( s _ { t } , a _ { t } ) \right] , \mathrm { w h e r e } s _ { t + 1 } \sim f _ { \phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , a _ { t } ) . +$$ + +The action sequence $\mathbf { a } _ { i } = \{ a _ { i } , a _ { i + 1 } , . . . , a _ { i + \tau } \}$ is generated by the policy search module, as later described in Section 4.1 and 4.2. The expectation of predicted trajectories $\{ s _ { i } , s _ { i + 1 } , . . . , s _ { i + \tau } \}$ is estimated by creating $P$ particles from the current state. The dynamics model $f _ { \phi } ^ { k , t } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , a _ { t } )$ used by $k ^ { t h }$ particle at time-step $t$ is sampled from deterministic or probabilistic ensemble models. To better illustrate, throughout the paper we denote this dynamics as a fixed deterministic model, i.e. $f _ { \phi } ^ { k , t } \equiv f _ { \phi }$ . In practice the dynamics uses probabilistic ensemble models, which requires some trivial modifications to the math and we refer readers to PETS Chua et al. (2018) for details. + +# 4.1 MODEL-BASED POLICY PLANNING IN ACTION SPACE + +In model-based policy planning in action space (POPLIN-A), we use a policy network to generate good initial action distribution. We denote the policy network as $\pi ( s _ { t } )$ . Once the policy network proposes sequences of actions on the expected trajectories, we add Gaussian noise to the candidate actions and use CEM to fine-tune the mean and standard deviation of the noise distribution. + +Similar to defining $\mathbf { a } _ { i } = \{ a _ { i } , a _ { i + 1 } , . . . , a _ { i + \tau } \}$ , we denote the noise sequence at time-step $t$ with horizon $\tau$ as $\delta _ { i } = \{ \delta _ { i } , \delta _ { i + 1 } , . . . , \delta _ { i + \tau } \}$ . We initialize the noise distribution as a Gaussian distribution with mean $\mu _ { 0 } = \mathbf { 0 }$ and covariance $\Sigma _ { 0 } = \sigma _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } { \cal I }$ , where $\sigma _ { 0 } ^ { 2 }$ is the initial noise variance. In each CEM iteration, we first sort out the sequences with the top $\xi + 1$ expected planning reward, whose noise sequences are denoted as $\{ \delta _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \delta _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \delta _ { i } ^ { \xi } \}$ . Then we estimate the noise distribution of the elite candidates, i. e., + +$$ +\Sigma ^ { \prime } \mathrm { C o v } ( \{ \delta _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \delta _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \delta _ { i } ^ { \xi } \} ) , \mu ^ { \prime } \mathrm { M e a n } ( \{ \delta _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \delta _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \delta _ { i } ^ { \xi } \} ) . +$$ + +The elite distribution $( \mu ^ { \prime } , \Sigma ^ { \prime } )$ in CEM algorithm is used to update the candidate noise distribution as $\mu = ( 1 - \alpha ) \mu + \alpha \dot { \mu } ^ { \prime }$ , $\Sigma = ( 1 - \alpha ) \Sigma + \alpha \Sigma ^ { \prime }$ . For every time-step, several CEM iterations are performed by candidate re-sampling and noise distribution updating. We provide detailed algorithm boxes in appendix A.1. We consider the following two schemes to add action noise. + +POPLIN-A-Init: In this planning schemes, we use the policy network only to propose the initialization of the action sequences. When planning at time-step $i$ with observed state $s _ { i }$ , we first obtain the initial reference action sequences, denoted as $\hat { \mathbf { a } } _ { i } = \{ \hat { a } _ { i } , \hat { a } _ { i + 1 } , . . . , \hat { a } _ { i + \tau } \}$ , by running the initial forward pass with policy network. At each planning time-step $t$ , where $i \leq t \leq i + \tau$ , we have $\hat { a } _ { t } = \pi ( \hat { s } _ { t } )$ , where $\hat { s } _ { t } = f _ { \phi } ( \hat { s } _ { t - 1 } , a _ { t - 1 } )$ , $\hat { s _ { i } } = s _ { i }$ The expected reward given search noise $\delta _ { i }$ will be: + +$$ +\mathcal { R } ( s _ { i } , \delta _ { i } ) = \mathbb { E } \left[ \sum _ { t = i } ^ { i + \tau } r ( s _ { t } , \hat { a } _ { t } + \delta _ { t } ) \right] , \mathrm { w h e r e } s _ { t + 1 } = f _ { \phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , \hat { a } _ { t } + \delta _ { t } ) . +$$ + +POPLIN-A-Replan: POPLIN-A-Replan is a more aggressive planning schemes, which always re-plans the controller according the changed trajectory given the current noise distribution. If we had the perfect dynamics network and the policy network, then we expect re-planning to achieve faster convergence the optimal action distribution. But it increases the risk of divergent behaviors. In this case, the expected reward for each trajectory is + +$$ +\mathcal { R } ( s _ { i } , \delta _ { i } ) = \mathbb { E } \left[ \sum _ { t = i } ^ { i + \tau } r ( s _ { t } , \pi ( s _ { t } ) + \delta _ { t } ) \right] , \mathrm { w h e r e } s _ { t + 1 } = f _ { \phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , \pi ( s _ { t } ) + \delta _ { t } ) . +$$ + +# 4.2 MODEL-BASED POLICY PLANNING IN PARAMETER SPACE + +While planning in the action space is a natural extension of the original PETS algorithm, we found it provides little performance improvement in complex environments. One potential reason is that POPLIN-A still performs CEM searching in action sequence space, where the conditions of convergence for CEM is usually not met. Let’s assume that a robot arm needs to either go left or right to get past the obstacle in the middle. In CEM planning in the action space, the theoretic distribution mean is always going straight, which fails to model the bi-modal action distribution. + +Indeed, planning in action space is a non-convex optimization whose surface has lots of holes and peaks. Recently, much research progress has been made in understanding why deep neural networks are much less likely to get stuck in sub-optimal points Nguyen & Hein (2017); Li et al. (2018); Soudry & Hoffer (2017). And we believe that planning in parameter space is essentially using deeper neural networks. Therefore, we propose model-based policy planning in parameter space (POPLIN-P). + +Instead of adding noise in the action space, POPLIN-P adds noise in the parameter space of the policy network. We denote the parameter vector of policy network as $\theta$ , and the parameter noise sequence starting from time-step $i$ as $\omega _ { i } = \{ \omega _ { i } , \omega _ { i + 1 } , . . . , \omega _ { i + \tau } \}$ . The expected reward function is now + +$$ +\mathcal { R } ( s _ { i } , \omega _ { i } ) = \mathbb { E } \left[ \sum _ { t = i } ^ { i + \tau } r \left( s _ { t } , \pi _ { \theta + \omega _ { t } } ( s _ { t } ) \right) \right] , \mathrm { w h e r e } s _ { t + 1 } = f _ { \phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , \pi _ { \theta + \omega _ { t } } ( s _ { t } ) ) . +$$ + +Similarly, we update the CEM distribution towards the following elite distribution: + +$$ +\Sigma ^ { \prime } \mathrm { C o v } ( \{ \omega _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \omega _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \omega _ { i } ^ { \xi } \} ) , \mu ^ { \prime } \mathrm { M e a n } ( \{ \omega _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \omega _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \omega _ { i } ^ { \xi } \} ) . +$$ + +We can force the policy network noise within the sequence to be consistent, i.e. $\omega _ { i } = \omega _ { i + 1 } = . . . =$ $\omega _ { i + \tau }$ , which we name as POPLIN-P-Uni. This reduces the size of the flattened noise vector from $( \tau + 1 ) | \theta |$ to $| \theta |$ , and is more consistent in policy behaviors. The noise can also be separate for each time-step, which we name as POPLIN-P-Sep. We benchmark both schemes in section 5.4. + +Equivalence to re-parameterized stochastic policy: Stochastic policy network encourages exploration, and increases the robustness against the impact of compounded model errors. POPLIN-P, which inserts exogenous noise into the parameter space, can be regarded as a re-parameterized stochastic policy network, which natural combines stochastic policy network with planning. + +# 4.3 MODEL-PREDICTIVE CONTROL AND POLICY CONTROL + +MBRL with online re-planning or model-predictive control (MPC) is effective, but at the same time time-consuming. Many previous attempts have tried to distill the planned trajectories into a policy network Levine & Abbeel (2014); Levine & Koltun (2013); Chebotar et al. (2017); Zhang et al. (2018), and control only with policy network. In this paper, we define two settings of using POPLIN: MPC Control and Policy Control. In MPC control, the agent uses policy network during the online planning and only execute the first action. In policy control, the agent directly executes the signal produced by the policy network given current observation, just like how policy network is used in MFRL algorithms. We show both performance of POPLIN in this paper. + +# 4.4 POLICY DISTILLATION SCHEMES + +The agents iterate between interacting with the environments, and distilling the knowledge from planning trajectory into a policy network. We consider several policy distillation schemes here, and discuss their effectiveness in the later experimental section. + +Behavior cloning (BC): BC can be applied to POPLIN-A and POPLIN-P, by minimizing the squared L2 loss as Equation 7. $\mathcal { D }$ is the collection of observation and planned action from real environment. When applying BC to POPLIN-P, we fix parameter noise of the network to be zeros. + +$$ +\operatorname* { m i n } _ { \theta } \mathbb { E } _ { s , a \in \mathcal { D } } | | \pi _ { \theta } ( s ) - a | | ^ { 2 } . +$$ + +Generative adversarial network training (GAN) Goodfellow et al. (2014): GAN can be applied to POPLIN-P. We consider the following fact. During MPC control, the agent only needs to cover the best action sequence in its action sequence distribution. Therefore, instead of point-to-point supervised training such as BC, we can train the policy network using GAN: + +$$ +\operatorname* { m i n } _ { \pi _ { \theta } } \operatorname* { m a x } _ { \psi } \mathbb { E } _ { s , a \in \mathcal { D } } \log ( D _ { \psi } ( s , a ) ) + \mathbb { E } _ { s \in \mathcal { D } , z \sim \mathcal { N } ( \mathbf { 0 } , \sigma _ { 0 } I ) } \log ( 1 - D _ { \psi } ( s , \pi _ { \theta + z } ( s ) ) ) , +$$ + +where a discriminator $D$ parameterized by $\psi$ is used, and we sample the random noise $z$ from the initial CEM distribution $\mathcal { N } ( \mathbf { 0 } , \sigma _ { 0 } \pmb { I } )$ . + +Setting parameter average (AVG): AVG is also applicable to POPLIN-P. During interaction with real environment, we also record the optimized parameter noise in to the data-set, i. e. $\mathcal { D } = \{ ( s , \omega ) \}$ . And we sacrifice the effectiveness of the policy control and only use policy network as a good search initialization. The new parameter is updated as $\theta = \theta + 1 / | \mathcal { D } | \sum _ { \omega \in \mathcal { D } } \omega$ . + +![](images/0954ae969c23a32d6b70e33aa2e83b3c5cd6c3df60c039a0bfbdacac64afb471.jpg) + +Figure 2: Performance curves on different bench-marking environments. 4 random seeds are run for each environment. The full figures of all 12 MuJoCo environments are summarized in appendix 8. + +
CheetahAntHopperSwimmerCheetah-v0Walker2d
POPLIN-P (ours)12227.9 ± 5652.82330.1 ± 320.92055.2 ± 613.8334.4 ± 34.24235.0 ± 1133.0597.0 ± 478.8
POPLIN-A (ours)4651.1 ± 1088.51148.4 ± 438.3202.5 ± 962.5344.9 ± 7.11562.8 ± 1136.7-105.0 ± 249.8
PETS (Chua et al., 2018)4204.5 ± 789.01165.5 ± 226.9114.9 ± 621.0326.2 ± 12.62288.4 ± 1019.0282.5 ± 501.6
METRPO (Kurutach et al., 2018)-744.8 ± 707.1282.2 ±18.01272.5 ± 500.9225.5 ± 104.62283.7 ± 900.4-1609.3 ± 657.5
TD3 (Fujimoto et al.,2018)218.9 ± 593.3870.1 ± 283.81816.6 ± 994.872.1 ± 130.93015.7 ± 969.8-516.4 ± 812.2
SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018)1745.9 ± 839.2548.1 ± 146.6788.3 ± 738.2204.6 ± 69.33459.8 ± 1326.6164.5 ± 1318.6
Training Time-step5000020000020000050000200000200000
Reacher3DPusherPendulumInvertedPendulumAcrobotCartpole
POPLIN-P (ours)-29.0± 25.2-55.8 ± 23.1167.9 ± 45.9-0.0 ±0.023.2 ± 27.2200.8 ± 0.3
POPLIN-A (ours)-27.7 ± 25.2-56.0 ± 24.3178.3 ± 19.3-0.0±0.020.5 ± 20.1200.6 ± 1.3
PETS (Chua et al.,2018)-47.7 ± 43.6-52.7 ± 23.5155.7 ± 79.3-29.5 ± 37.8-18.4 ± 46.3199.6 ± 4.6
METRPO (Kurutach et al., 2018)-43.5 ± 3.7-98.5 ± 12.6174.8 ± 6.2-29.3 ± 29.5-78.7 ± 5.0138.5 ± 63.2
TD3 (Fujimoto et al.,2018)-331.6 ± 134.6-216.4 ± 39.6168.6 ± 12.7-102.9 ± 101.0-76.5 ± 10.2-409.2 ± 928.8
SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018)-161.6 ± 43.7-227.6 ± 42.2159.5 ± 12.1-0.2 ± 0.1-69.4 ± 7.0195.5 ± 8.7
Training Time-step500005000050000500005000050000
+ +Table 1: The training time-step varies from 50,000 to 200,000 depending on the difficulty of the tasks. +The performance is averaged across four random seeds with the last 3 episodes. + +# 5 EXPERIMENTS + +In section 5.1, we compare POPLIN with existing algorithms. We also show the policy control performance of POPLIN with different training methods in section 5.2. In section 5.3, we provide explanations and analysis for the effectiveness of our proposed algorithms by exploring and visualizing the planner’s reward optimization surface. In section 5.4, we study the sensitivity of our algorithms with respect to hyper-parameters, and show the performance of different algorithm variants. + +# 5.1 MUJOCO BENCHMARKING PERFORMANCE + +In this section, we compare POPLIN with existing reinforcement learning algorithms including PETS (Chua et al., 2018), GPS (Levine et al., 2016), RS (Richards, 2005), MBMF (Nagabandi et al., 2017), TD3 (Fujimoto et al., 2018) METRPO (Kurutach et al., 2018), PPO (Schulman et al., 2017; Heess et al., 2017), TRPO (Schulman et al., 2015) and SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018), which includes the most recent progress of both model-free and model-based algorithms. We examine the algorithms with 12 environments, which is a wide collection of environments from OpenAI Gym (Brockman et al., 2016) and the environments proposed in PETS (Chua et al., 2018), which are summarized in appendix A.2. Due to the page limit and to better visualize the results, we put the complete figures and tables in appendix A.3. And in Figure 2 and Table 1, we show the performance of our algorithms and the best performing baselines. The hyper-parameter search is summarized in appendix A.3.1. + +As shown in Table 1, POPLIN achieves state-of-the-art performance in almost all environments, solving most of the them with 200,000 or 50,000 time-steps, instead of 1 million time-steps commonly used in MFRL algorithms. POPLIN-A (POPLIN-A-BC-Replan) has the best performance in simpler environments such as Pendulum, Cart-pole, Swimmer. But on complex environments such as Ant, Cheetah or Hopper, POPLIN-A does not have obvious performance gain compared with PETS. POPLIN-P (POPLIN-P-Sep-AVG) on the other hand, has consistent and stable performance among different environments. POPLIN-P is significantly better than all other algorithms in complex environments such as Ant and Cheetah. However, like other model-based algorithms, POPLIN cannot solve environments such as Walker and Humanoid. the performance of POPLIN plateaus quickly. Gradually model-free algorithms will have better asymptotic performance. We view this as a bottleneck of our algorithms and leave it to future research. + +![](images/34206e50481f86d9d1ff67f7d876af5c62077c8724b725fa6cd4cddb3dff6a0d.jpg) +Figure 3: The MPC control and policy control performance of the proposed POPLIN-A, and POPLINP with its three training schemes, which are namely behavior cloning (BC), generative adversarial network training (GAN) and setting parameter average (Avg). + +![](images/68c77255f3ee36d9b9ca5cc8396725e12243d8c23a72c6b5e6e0b6833c8633b5.jpg) +Figure 4: The performance of PETS, POPLIN-A, POPLIN-P using different population size of candidates on Cheetah. The variance of the candidates trajectory $\sigma$ in POPLIN-P is set to 0.1. + +# 5.2 POLICY CONTROL PERFORMANCE + +In this section, we show the performance of POPLIN without MPC. To be more specific, we show the performance with the Cheetah, Pendulum, Pusher and Reacher3D, as shown in Figure 3, and we refer readers to appendix A.4 for the full results. + +We note that policy control is not always successful, and in environments such as Ant and Walker2D, the performance is almost random. In simple environments such as Pusher and Reacher3D, POPLIN-A has the best MPC performance, but has worse policy control performance compared with POPLIN-PBC and POPLIN-P-GAN. At the same time, both POPLIN-P-BC and POPLIN-P-GAN are able to efficiently distill the knowledge from planned trajectory. Which one of POPLIN-P-BC and POPLIN-PGAN is better depends on the environment tested, and they can be used interchangeably. This indicates that POPLIN-A, which uses a deterministic policy network, is more prone to distillation collapse than POPLIN-P, which can be interpreted as using a stochastic policy network with reparameterization trick. POPLIN-P-Avg, which only use policy network as optimization initialization has good MPC performance, but sacrifices the policy control performance. In general, the performance of policy control lags behind MPC control. + +# 5.3 SEARCH EFFECTIVENESS AND REWARD SURFACE + +In this section, we explore the reasons for the effectiveness of POPLIN. In Figure 4, we show the performance of PETS, POPLIN-A and POPLIN-P with different population sizes. As we can see, PETS and POPLIN-A, which are the two algorithms that add search noise in the action space, cannot increase their performance by having bigger population size. However, POPLIN-P is able to efficiently increase performance with bigger population size. We then visualize the candidates in their reward or optimization surface in Figure 1. We use PCA (principal component analysis) to transform the action sequences into 2D features. As we can see, the reward surface is not smooth, with lots of local-minima and local-maxima islands. The CEM distribution of PETS algorithm is almost fixed across iterations on this surface, even if there are potentially higher reward regions. POPLIN is able to efficiently search through the jagged reward surface, from the low-reward center to the high reward left-down corner. To further understand why POPLIN is much better at searching through the reward surface, we then plot the figures in the solution space in Figure 5. More specifically, we now perform PCA on the policy parameters for POPLIN-P. As we can see in Figure 5 (c), the reward surface in parameter space is much smoother than the reward surface in action space, which are shown in Figure 5 (a), (b). POPLIN-P can efficiently search through the smoother reward surface in parameter space. + +![](images/d8e2a87ec31b5725be0a377ebc989b6db12deb393309a31ba0ae66d0846a6fa6.jpg) +Figure 5: The reward optimization surface in the solution space. The expected reward is higher from color blue to color red. We visualize candidates using different colors as defined in the legend. The full results can be seen in appendix A.7. + +![](images/602ec86d32c596f9197c83835dbe46c307fa2a17434f00ab22cb6ce160d6fba6.jpg) +Figure 7: The ablation study of of POPLIN-A, POPLIN-P-BC, POPLIN-P-Avg, POPLIN-P-GAN. + +In Figure 6, we also visualize the actions distribution in one episode taken by PETS, POPLIN-A and POPLINP using policy networks of different number of hidden layers. We again use PCA to project the actions into 2D feature space. As we can see, POPLIN-P shows a clear pattern of being more multi-modal with the use of deeper the network. + +![](images/45e471c80af2fbf96b218d3a5ea609ba6bd3c0b45b446d8ca5a58d8597883886.jpg) +x x Figure 6: Projected action distribution. + +# 5.4 ABLATION STUDY + +In this section, we study how sensitive our algorithms are with respect to some of the crucial hyperparameters, for example, the initial variance of the CEM noise distribution. We also show the performance of different algorithm variants. The full ablation study and performance against different random seeds are included in appendix A.5. In Figure 7 (a), we show the performance of POPLIN-A using different training schemes. We try both training with only the real data samples, which we denote as "Real", and training also with imaginary data the agent plans into the future, which we denote as "Hallucination". In practice, POPLIN-A-Init performs better than POPLIN-A-Replan, which suggests that there can be divergent or overconfident update in POPLIN-A-Replan. And training with or without imaginary does not have big impact on the performance. In Figure7 (b) and (c), we also compare the performance of POPLIN-P-Uni with POPLIN-P-Sep, where we show that POPLIN-P-Sep has much better performance than POPLIN-P-Uni, indicating the search is not efficient enough in the constrained parameter space. For POPLIN-P-Avg, with bigger initial variance of the noise distribution, the agent gets better at planning. However, increasing initial noise variance does not increase the performance of PETS algorithm, as shown in 7 (b), (d). It is worth mentioning that POPLIN-P-GAN is highly sensitive to the entropy penalty we add to the discriminator, with the 3 curves in Figure7 (c) using entropy penalty of 0.003, 0.001 and 0.0001 respectively, + +# 6 CONCLUSIONS + +In this paper, we explore efficient ways to combine policy networks with model-based planning. We propose POPLIN, which obtains state-of-the-art performance on the MuJoCo benchmarking environments. We study different distillation schemes to provide fast controllers during testing. More importantly, we formulate online planning as optimization using deep neural networks. We believe POPLIN will scale to more complex environments in the future. + +# REFERENCES + +Zdravko I Botev, Dirk P Kroese, Reuven Y Rubinstein, and Pierre L’Ecuyer. The cross-entropy method for optimization. In Handbook of statistics, volume 31, pp. 35–59. Elsevier, 2013. + +Greg Brockman, Vicki Cheung, Ludwig Pettersson, Jonas Schneider, John Schulman, Jie Tang, and Wojciech Zaremba. 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Solar: Deep structured latent representations for model-based reinforcement learning. arXiv preprint arXiv:1808.09105, 2018. + +# A APPENDIX + +# A.1 ALGORITHM DIAGRAMS + +To better illustrate the algorithm variants of our proposed methods, we summarize them in Algorithm 2, 3, 4. + +# Algorithm 2 POPLIN-A-Init + +1: Initialize policy network parameters $\theta$ , dynamics network parameters $\phi$ , data-set $\mathcal { D }$ +2: while Training iterations not Finished do +3: for $i ^ { t h }$ time-step of the agent do . Sampling Data +4: Initialize reference action sequence $\{ \hat { a } _ { i } , \hat { a } _ { i + 1 } , . . . , \hat { a } _ { i + \tau } \}$ . . Using Equation 3 +5: Initialize action-sequence noise distribution. $\mu = \mu _ { 0 }$ , $\dot { \Sigma } = \sigma _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } { \cal I }$ +6: for $j ^ { t h }$ CEM Update do . CEM Planning +7: Sample action noise sequences $\{ \delta _ { i } \}$ from $\mathcal { N } ( \boldsymbol { \mu } , \boldsymbol { \Sigma } )$ . +8: for Every candidate $\delta _ { i }$ do $\triangleright$ Trajectory Predicting +9: for $t = i$ to $i + \tau$ , $s _ { t + 1 } = f _ { \phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , a _ { t } = \hat { a } _ { t } + \delta _ { t } )$ +10: Evaluate expected reward of this candidate. +11: end for +12: Fit distribution of the elite candidates as $\mu ^ { \prime } , \Sigma ^ { \prime }$ . +13: Update noise distribution $\mu = ( 1 - \alpha ) \mu + \alpha \mu ^ { \prime }$ , $\Sigma = ( 1 - \alpha ) \Sigma + \alpha \Sigma ^ { \prime }$ +14: end for +15: Execute the first action from the optimal candidate action sequence. +16: end for +17: Update $\phi$ using data-set $\mathcal { D }$ $\triangleright$ Dynamics Update +18: Update $\theta$ using data-set $\mathcal { D }$ . Policy Distillation +19: end while + +# Algorithm 3 POPLIN-A-Replan + +1: Initialize policy network parameters $\theta$ , dynamics network parameters $\phi$ , data-set $\mathcal { D }$ +2: while Training iterations not Finished do +3: for $i ^ { t h }$ time-step of the agent do . Sampling Data +4: Initialize action-sequence noise distribution. $\mu = \mu _ { 0 }$ , $\Sigma = \sigma _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } I$ +5: for $j ^ { t h }$ CEM Update do . CEM Planning +6: Sample action noise sequences $\{ \delta _ { i } \}$ from $\mathcal { N } ( \boldsymbol { \mu } , \boldsymbol { \Sigma } )$ . +7: for Every candidate $\delta _ { i }$ do . Trajectory Predicting +8: for $t = i$ to $i + \tau$ , $s _ { t + 1 } = f _ { \phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , a _ { t } = \pi _ { \theta } ( s _ { t } ) + \delta _ { t } )$ +9: Evaluate expected reward of this candidate. +10: end for +11: Fit distribution of the elite candidates as $\mu ^ { \prime } , \Sigma ^ { \prime }$ . +12: Update noise distribution $\mu = ( 1 - \alpha ) \mu + \alpha \mu ^ { \prime }$ , $\Sigma = ( 1 - \alpha ) \Sigma + \alpha \Sigma ^ { \prime }$ +13: end for +14: Execute the first action from the optimal candidate action sequence. +15: end for +16: Update $\phi$ using data-set $\mathcal { D }$ $\triangleright$ Dynamics Update +17: Update $\theta$ using data-set $\mathcal { D }$ . Policy Distillation +18: end while + +# A.2 BENCH-MARKING ENVIRONMENTS + +In the original PETS paper Chua et al. (2018), the authors only experiment with 4 environments, which are namely Reacher3D, Pusher, Cartpole and Cheetah. In this paper, we experiment with the 9 more environments based on the standard bench-marking environments from OpenAI Gym Brockman et al. (2016). More specifically, we experiment with InvertedPendulum, Acrobot, Pendulum, Ant, Hopper, Swimmer, Walker2d. We also note that the Cheetah environment in PETS Chua et al. (2018) is different from the standard HalfCheetah-v1 in OpenAI Gym. Therefore we experiment with both versions in our paper, where the Cheetah from PETS is named as "Cheetah", and the HalfCHeetah + +# Algorithm 4 POPLIN-P + +
1: Initialize policy network parameters 0, dynamics network parameters Φ, data-set D 2: while Training iterations not Finished do
3:for ith time-step of the agent do > Sampling Data
4: 5:Initialize parameter-sequence noise distribution. μ = μo,∑ = o² I for jth CEM Update do CEM Planning
6:Sample parameter noise sequences {ωi} from N(μ,Σ).
7:for Every candidate ωi do
Trajectory Predicting
8:fort=itoi+T,St+1 = f(St+1lSt,at = Tθ+ωt(St))
9:Evaluate expected reward of this candidate.
10:end for
11:Fit distribution of the elite candidates as μ',∑'.
12:Update noise distribution μ= (1-α)μ + αμ',∑= (1-α)Σ+αΣ'
13:end for
14:Execute the first action from the optimal candidate action sequence.
15:end for
16:Update using data-set D
17:
18: end whileUpdate 0 using data-set D
+ +Table 2: Performance of each algorithm on environments based on OpenAI Gym Brockman et al. (2016) MuJoCoTodorov et al. (2012) environments. In the table, we record the performance at 200,000 time-step. + +
CheetahAntHopperSwimmerCheetah-v0Walker2dSwimmer-v0
POPLIN-P12227.9 ± 5652.82330.1 ± 320.92055.2 ±613.8334.4 ± 34.24235.0± 1133.0597.0 ± 478.837.1 ± 4.6
POPLIN-A4651.1 ± 1088.51148.4 ± 438.3202.5 ± 962.5344.9 ± 7.11562.8 ± 1136.7-105.0 ± 249.826.7 ± 13.2
PETS4204.5 ± 789.01165.5 ± 226.9114.9 ± 621.0326.2 ± 12.62288.4± 1019.0282.5 ± 501.6-2060.3 ± 228.029.7 ± 13.526.8± 2.3
RS191.1 ± 21.2535.5± 37.0-2491.5 ± 35.122.4±9.7421.0 ± 55.2
MBMFTRPO-459.5 ± 62.5134.2 ± 50.4-1047.4 ± 1098.7110.7 ± 45.6126.9 ± 72.7-2218.1 ± 437.730.6 ± 4.9
-412.4 ± 33.3323.3 ± 24.9-2100.1 ± 640.647.8 ± 11.1-12.0 ± 85.5-2286.3± 373.326.3 ± 2.6
PPO-483.0± 46.1321.0 ± 51.2-103.8 ± 1028.0155.5 ± 14.917.2 ± 84.4-1893.6± 234.124.7 ± 4.08.2 ±10.235.4± 2.2
GPS129.4 ± 140.4445.5 ± 212.9-768.5 ± 200.9-30.9 ± 6.352.3 ± 41.7-1730.8 ± 441.7
METRPO-744.8 ± 707.1282.2 ± 18.01272.5 ± 500.9225.5 ± 104.62283.7 ± 900.4-1609.3 ± 657.5
TD3218.9 ± 593.3870.1 ± 283.81816.6 ± 994.872.1 ± 130.93015.7 ±969.8-516.4 ± 812.217.0 ± 12.9
SACRandom1745.9 ± 839.2-284.2 ± 83.3548.1 ± 146.6788.3 ± 738.2204.6 ± 69.33459.8 ± 1326.6164.5 ± 1318.623.0 ± 17.32.4 ± 12.0
478.0 ± 47.8-2768.0 ± 571.6-12.4 ± 12.8-312.4± 44.2-2450.1± 406.5
Time-step5000020000020000050000200000200000200000
+ +Table 3: The normalized performance of Table 2. + +
CheetahAntHopperSwimmerCheetah-v0Walker2dSwimmer-v0
POPLIN-PPOPLIN-A0.944 ± 0.0790.395 ± 0.0570.932 ± 0.1280.459 ± 0.1750.919 ± 0.1120.936 ± 0.0860.927 ± 0.2270.968 ± 0.150.928 ± 0.115
0.582 ± 0.1750.962 ± 0.0180.393 ± 0.2270.748 ± 0.0780.668 ± 0.33
PETS0.363 ± 0.0020.466 ± 0.0910.566 ± 0.1130.916 ± 0.0320.538 ± 0.2040.87 ± 0.1570.743 ± 0.338
RS0.072 ± 0.0050.214 ± 0.0150.092 ± 0.0060.156 ± 0.0240.164 ± 0.0110.137 ± 0.0710.67 ± 0.058
MBMF0.025 ± 0.0020.054 ±0.020.355± 0.20.377 ± 0.1140.105 ± 0.0150.088 ± 0.137.1370.765 ± 0.123
TRPO0.028 ± 0.0030.129 ± 0.010.164 ± 0.1160.22 ± 0.0280.078 ± 0.0170.067 ± 0.117.1177
PPO0.023 ± 0.010.128 ± 0.020.527 ± 0.1870.489 ± 0.0370.083 ± 0.0170.19 ± 0.073
GPS0.067 ± 0.0510.178 ± 0.0850.406 ±0.0370.023 ± 0.0160.09 ± 0.0080.24 ±0.1380.205 ± 0.255
METRPO0.004 ± 0.0430.113 ± 0.0070.777 ± 0.0910.664 ± 0.2620.537 ± 0.180.278 ± 0.2050.885 ± 0.055
TD3SACRandom0.074 ± 0.0610.184 ± 0.0060.037±00.074 ± 0.0610.348 ± 0.1140.876 ± 0.1810.28 ±0.3270.683 ± 0.1940.62 ± 0.254
0.219 ± 0.059.0190.689 ± 0.1340.042 ± 0.1040.612 ± 0.1730.069 ± 0.0320.772 ± 0.2650.833 ± 0.412
0.191 ± 0.0190.0.018 ± 0.0090.016 ± 0.127
max, min13000,-8002500,02500,02500,02500,-3000360,-40-400,4600
+ +from OpenAI Gym is named as "Cheetah-v0". Empirically, Cheetah is much easier to solve than Cheetah-v0, as show in Table 2 and Table 4. We also include two swimmer, which we name as Swimmer and Swimmer-v0, which we explain in section A.2.1. + +![](images/afd38f05377d3237fb55a77e96efb88d6fd11e191551ac2c0f45a0e4fd559ffd.jpg) +Figure 8: Full Performance of POPLIN-P, POPLIN-A and other state-of-the-art algorithms on 12 different bench-marking environments. In the figure, we include baselines such as TD3, SAC, PPO, METRPO, PETS, RS and our proposed algorithm. + +# A.2.1 FIXING THE SWIMMER ENVIRONMENTS + +We also notice that after an update in the Gym environments, the swimmer became unsolvable for almost all algorithms. The reward threshold for solving is around 340 for the original swimmer, but almost all algorithms, including the results shown in many published papers Schulman et al. (2017), will be stuck at the 130 reward local-minima. We note that this is due the fact that the velocity sensor is on the neck of the swimmer, making swimmer extremely prone to this performance local-minimum. We provide a fixed swimmer, which we name as Swimmer, by moving the sensor from the neck to the head. We believe this modification is necessary to test the effectiveness of the algorithms. + +
Reacher3DPusherPendulumInvertedPendulumAcrobotCartpole
POPLIN-PPOPLIN-A-29.0 ± 25.2-55.8 ± 23.1167.9 ± 45.9-0.0±0.023.2 ± 27.2200.8 ± 0.3200.6 ± 1.3
-27.7 ± 25.2-56.0 ± 24.3178.3 ± 19.3-0.0±0.020.5± 20.1
PETS-47.7 ± 43.6-52.7± 23.5155.7 ± 79.3-29.5 ± 37.8-18.4 ± 46.3199.6 ± 4.6
RS-107.6 ± 5.2-146.4± 3.2161.2 ± 11.5-0.0±0.0-12.5 ± 14.3201.0 ± 0.0
MBMF-168.6 ± 23.2-285.8 ±15.2163.7 ± 15.2-202.3 ± 17.0-146.8 ± 29.922.5 ± 67.7
TRPO-176.5 ± 24.3-235.5 ± 6.2158.7 ± 9.1-134.6 ± 6.9-291.2 ± 6.746.3 ±6.0
PPO-162.2 ± 15.7-243.2 ± 6.9160.9 ± 12.5-137.3 ± 12.4-205.4 ± 51.568.8 ± 4.9
GPS-552.8 ± 577.7-151.2 ± 1.3164.3 ± 4.1-14.7 ± 20.7-214.3 ± 15.3-18.7 ± 101.1
METRPO-43.5± 3.7-98.5 ± 12.6174.8 ± 6.2-29.3 ± 29.5-78.7 ±5.0138.5 ± 63.2
TD3-331.6 ± 134.6-216.4 ± 39.6168.6 ± 12.7-102.9 ± 101.0-76.5 ±10.2-409.2 ± 928.8
SACRandom-161.6 ± 43.7-183.1 ± 41.5-227.6 ± 42.2159.5 ± 12.1-0.2 ± 0.1-69.4 ± 7.0195.5 ± 8.7
-199.0 ± 10.0-249.5 ± 228.4-205.9 ± 12.1-374.1 ± 15.631.3 ± 36.3
Time-step500005000050000500005000050000
+ +Table 4: Performance of each algorithm on environments based on OpenAI Gym Brockman et al. +(2016) classic control environments. In the table, we record the performance at 50000 time-step. + +# A.3 FULL RESULTS OF BENCH-MARKING PERFORMANCE + +In this section, we show the figures of all the environments in Figure 8. We also include the final performance in the Table 2 and 4. As we can see, POPLIN has consistently the best performance among almost all the environments. We also include the time-steps we use on each environment for all the algorithms in Table 2 and 4. + +# A.3.1 HYPER-PARAMETERS + +In this section, we introduce the hyper-parameters we search during the experiments. One thing to notice is that, for all of the experiments on PETS, POPLIN, we use the model type PE (probabilistic ensembles) and propagation method of E (expectation). While other combinations of model type and propagation methods might result in better performance, they are usually prohibitively computationally expensive. For example, the combination of PE-DS requires a training time of about 68 hours for one random seed, for PETS to train with 200 iteration, which is 200,000 time-step. As a matter of fact, PE-E is actually one of the best combination in many environments. Since POPLIN is based on PETS, we believe this is a fair comparison for all the algorithms. + +We show the hyper-parameter search we perform for PETS in the paper in Table 5. For the hyperparameters specific to POPLIN, we summarize them in 6 and 7. + +Table 5: Hyper-parameter grid search options for PETS. + +
Hyper-parameterValue Tried
Population Size100,200,.., 2000
Planning Horizon30,50,100
Initial Distribution Sigma0.01, 0.03, 0.1, 0.25, 0.3, 0.5
CEMIterations5,8,10,20
ELite Size g50,100,200
+ +Table 6: Hyper-parameter grid search options for POPLIN-A. + +
Hyper-parameterValue Tried
Training Datareal data, hallucination data
VariantReplan, Init
Initial Distribution Sigma0.001, 0.003, 0.01, 0.03, 0.1
+ +Table 7: Hyper-parameter grid search options for POPLIN-P. We also experiment with using WGAN in Salimans et al. (2016) to train the policy network, which does not results in good performance and is not put into the article. + +
Hyper-parameterValue Tried
Training Datareal data, hallucination data
Training VariantBC, GAN, Avg
Noise VariantUni, Sep
Initial Distribution Sigma0.001, 0.003, 0.01, 0.03, 0.1
+ +# A.4 FULL RESULTS OF POLICY CONTROL + +Due to the space limit, we are not able to put all of the results of policy control in the main article. More specifically, we add the figure for the original Cheetah-v0 compared to the figures shown in the main article, as can be seen in 9 (b). Again, we note that POPLIN-P-BC and POPLIN-P-GAN are comparable to each other, as mentioned in the main article. POPLIN-P-BC and POPLIN-P-GAN are the better algorithms respectively in Cheetah and Cheetah-v0, which are essentially the same environment with different observation functions. + +![](images/8221b21f6322860b9f01fa92ae6488a1dbcc9b6192e40aded7f385f33ba9e368.jpg) +Figure 9: The planning performance and the testing performance of the proposed POPLIN-A, and POPLIN-P with its three training schemes, which are namely behavior cloning (BC), generative adversarial network training (GAN) and setting parameter average (Avg). + +# A.5 ABLATION STUDY FOR DIFFERENT VARIANT OF POPLIN + +In this section, we show the results of different variant of our algorithm. In Figure 11, the performances of different random seeds are visualized, where we show that POPLIN has similar randomness in performance to PETS. Additionally, we visualize POPLIN-P-BC in Figure 10 (b), whose best distribution variance for policy planning is 0.01, while the best setting for testing is 0.03. + +# A.6 POPULATION SIZE + +In Figure 12, we include more detailed figures of the performance of different algorithms with different population size. One interesting finding is that even with fixed parameters of zeros, POPLINP can still performance very efficient search. This is indicating that the efficiency in optimization of + +![](images/56075b1bdfb9944a39483a27e6378e6d32d67609de583511325741d53fdb37bc.jpg) +Figure 10: The performance of POPLIN-A, POPLIN-P-BC, POPLIN-P-Avg, POPLIN-P-GAN using different hyper-parameters. The tested environment is Cheetah. + +![](images/37f1689d9f7c2c377533c3073a23b7a68344d3e3de373082a97a539657c4b491.jpg) +Figure 11: The performance of POPLIN-A, POPLIN-P, and PETS of different random seeds on Cheetah environment. + +POPLIN-P, especially of POPLIN-P-AVG, is the key reasons for successful planning. However, this scheme naturally sacrifices the policy distillation and thus cannot be applied without planning. + +# A.7 THE REWARD SURFACE OF DIFFERENT ALGORITHM + +In this section, we provide a more detailed description of the reward surface with respect the the solution space (action space for PETS and POPLIN-A, and parameter space for POPLIN-P) in Figure 13, 14, 15, 16, 17. As we can see, variants of POPLIN-A are better at searching, but the reward surface is still not smooth. POPLIN-A-Replan is more efficient in searching than POPLIN-A-Init, but the errors in dynamics limit its performance. We also include the results for POPLIN-P using a 1-layer neural network in solution space in Figure 16 (g), (h). The results indicate that the deeper the network, the better the search efficiency. + +We also provide more detailed version of Figure 1 in Figure 18. We respectively show the surface for PETS, POPLIN-P-P using 1 and 0 hidden layers. Their planned trajectories across different CEM updates are visualized in Figure 19, 20, 21. Originally in Figure 1, we use the trajectories in iteration + +![](images/13d8c2c97675d52ebb0b6435803d019388a3a7530fc3276090c5030c2722e88a.jpg) +Figure 12: The performance of PETS, POPLIN-A, POPLIN-P-Avg, POPLIN-P-BC and POPLIN$\mathrm { \bf P }$ whose network has fixed parameters of zeros. The variance of the candidates trajectory $\sigma$ in POPLIN-P is set to 0.1. The tested environment is Cheetah. + +![](images/8f77e02c33e9d8032249a47c856791eb40f6304908a8323a6943886cdf154998.jpg) +Figure 13: Reward surface in solution space (action space) for PETS algorithm. + +1, 3, 5 for better illustration. In the appendix, we also provide all the iteration data. Again, the color indicates the expected cost (negative of expected reward). From left to right, we show the updated the trajectories in each iteration with blue scatters. + +![](images/2576f42a4b17ce79560f36d35914df4a7897d92f2dcd92bb0dcce3414668eb4c.jpg) +Figure 14: Reward surface in solution space (action space) for POPLIN-A-Replan. + +![](images/a4aa1551605bf7d787a031cdc502f7a6a1a5e38f13f5e05061933ce66e69f0bb.jpg) +Figure 15: Reward surface in solution space (action space) for POPLIN-A-Init. + +![](images/2abed00bf9a008870d2822d44e72121619319eebb4ad815526bbbebdd4b08325.jpg) +Figure 16: Reward surface in solution space (parameter space) for POPLIN-P with 0 hidden layer. + +![](images/c4bc85def0313485dc21d825ae6c6528918b50b86eb717381eb36040dba5f461.jpg) +Figure 17: Reward surface in solution space (parameter space) for POPLIN-P using 1 hidden layer. + +![](images/78bece7f6f57925094360628dab866de56993b44e50053a457e01e4cae8dc292.jpg) +Figure 18: The color indicates the expected cost (negative of expected reward). We emphasis that all these figures are visualized in the action space. And all of them are very unsmooth. For the figures visualized in solution space, we refer to Figure 13. + +![](images/0734c7052f7e4bdbe24c4b7ad28bb43200e9c4063acc79bfe8fc2722fdf0f3ff.jpg) +Figure 19: The figures are the planned trajectories of PETS. + +![](images/a9e671208826b8c04f165509cdceb59ba0f3c6b6e97b6c754a464e5f616cacd7.jpg) +Figure 20: The figures are the planned trajectories of POPLIN-P using 1 hidden layer MLP. + +![](images/af3d30179ece38af09b204be587041a0d2f026e011c6f333432814274ff483d8.jpg) +Figure 21: The figures are the planned trajectories of POPLIN-P using 0 hidden layer MLP. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/parse/train/H1exf64KwH/H1exf64KwH_content_list.json b/parse/train/H1exf64KwH/H1exf64KwH_content_list.json new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..9b91ea1d6dade8c9eb2cbc1c7fe0e29eb67ada93 --- /dev/null +++ b/parse/train/H1exf64KwH/H1exf64KwH_content_list.json @@ -0,0 +1,2074 @@ +[ + { + "type": "text", + "text": "EXPLORING MODEL-BASED PLANNING WITH POLICY NETWORKS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 99, + 820, + 145 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Tingwu Wang1,2& Jimmy $\\mathbf { B a } ^ { 1 , 2 }$ \n1 Department of Computer Science, University of Toronto 2 Vector Institute \n{tingwuwang,jba}@cs.toronto.edu ", + "bbox": [ + 183, + 167, + 679, + 212 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "ABSTRACT ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 454, + 250, + 544, + 265 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Model-based reinforcement learning (MBRL) with model-predictive control or online planning has shown great potential for locomotion control tasks in both sample efficiency and asymptotic performance. Despite the successes, the existing planning methods search from candidate sequences randomly generated in the action space, which is inefficient in complex high-dimensional environments. In this paper, we propose a novel MBRL algorithm, model-based policy planning (POPLIN), that combines policy networks with online planning. More specifically, we formulate action planning at each time-step as an optimization problem using neural networks. We experiment with both optimization w.r.t. the action sequences initialized from the policy network, and also online optimization directly w.r.t. the parameters of the policy network. We show that in the MuJoCo benchmarking environments, POPLIN is about $3 \\mathbf { x }$ more sample efficient than the previously stateof-the-art algorithms, such as PETS, TD3 and SAC. To explain the effectiveness of our algorithm, we show that the optimization surface in parameter space is smoother than in action space. Further more, we found the distilled policy network can be effectively applied without the expansive model predictive control during test time for some environments such as Cheetah. Code is released here1. ", + "bbox": [ + 233, + 282, + 766, + 517 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "1 INTRODUCTION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 549, + 334, + 565 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A model-based reinforcement learning (MBRL) agent learns its internal model of the world, i.e. the dynamics, from repeated interactions with the environment. With the learnt dynamics, a MBRL agent can for example perform online planning, interact with imaginary data, or optimize the controller through dynamics, which provides significantly better sample efficiency (Deisenroth & Rasmussen, 2011; Sutton, 1990; Levine & Abbeel, 2014; Levine & Koltun, 2013). However, MBRL algorithms generally do not scale well with the increasing complexity of the reinforcement learning (RL) tasks in practice. And modelling errors in dynamics that accumulate with time-steps greatly limit the applications of MBRL algorithms. As a result, many latest progresses in RL has been made with model-free reinforcement learning (MFRL) algorithms that are capable of solving complex tasks at the cost of large number of samples (Schulman et al., 2017; Heess et al., 2017; Schulman et al., 2015; Mnih et al., 2013; Lillicrap et al., 2015; Haarnoja et al., 2018). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 583, + 825, + 736 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "With the success of deep learning, a few recent works have proposed to learn neural network-based dynamics models for MBRL. Among them, random shooting algorithms (RS), which uses modelpredictive control (MPC), is shown to have good robustness and scalability (Richards, 2005). In shooting algorithms, the agent randomly generates action sequences, use the dynamics to predict the future states, and choose the first action from the sequence with the best expected reward. However, RS usually has worse asymptotic performance than model-free controllers (Nagabandi et al., 2017), and the authors of the the PETS algorithm (Chua et al., 2018) suggest that the performance of RS is directly affected by the quality of the learnt dynamics. They propose a probabilistic ensemble to capture model uncertainty, which enables PETS algorithm to achieve both better sample efficiency and better asymptotic performance than state-of-the-art model-free controllers in environments such as Cheetah. However, PETS is not as effective on environments with higher dimensionality. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 742, + 825, + 895 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/ad3dddae5537aad63d7ae3de75a7d3d6229eccb8ab15eeda336635a3a20e249d.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 1: We transform each planned candidate action trajectory with PCA into a 2D blue scatter. The top and bottom figures are respectively the visualization of PETS (Chua et al., 2018) and our algorithm. The red area has higher reward. From left to right, we show how candidate trajectories are updated, across different planning iterations within one time-step. As we can see, while both reward surface is not smooth with respect to action trajectory. POPLIN, using policy networks, has much better search efficiency, while PETS is stuck around its initialization. The details are in section 5.3. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 173, + 101, + 823, + 347 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this paper, we explore MBRL algorithms from a different perspective, where we treat the planning at each time-step as an optimization problem. Random search in action space, as what is being done in state-of-the-art MBRL algorithms such as PETS, is insufficient for more complex environments. On the one hand, we are inspired by the success of AlphaGo (Silver et al., 2016; 2017), where a policy network is used to generate proposals for the Monte-Carlo tree search. On the other hand, we are inspired by the recent research into understanding deep neural networks (Nguyen & Hein, 2017; Li et al., 2018; Soudry & Hoffer, 2017). Deep neural networks, frequently observed in practices, is much less likely to get stuck in sub-optimal points. In Figure 1, we apply principal component analysis (PCA) on the action sequences generated in each planning iteration within one time-step. The reward surface of the action space is not smooth and prone to local-minimas. We argue that optimization in the policy network’s parameter space will be more efficient. Furthermore, we note that the state-of-the-art MBRL algorithm with MPC cannot be applied real-time. We therefore experiment with different policy network distillation schemes for fast control without MPC. To sum up, the contribution of this paper is three-fold: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 450, + 826, + 645 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "• We apply policy networks to generate proposals for MPC in high dimensional locomotion control problems with unknown dynamics. \n• We formulate planning as optimization with neural networks, and propose policy planning in parameter space, which obtain state-of-the-art performance on current bench-marking environments, being about 3x more sample efficient than the previous state-of-the-art algorithm, such as PETS (Chua et al., 2018), TD3 (Fujimoto et al., 2018) and SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018). \n• We also explore policy network distillation from the planned trajectories. We found the distilled policy network alone achieves high performance on environments like Cheetah without the expansive online planning. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 657, + 826, + 795 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2 RELATED WORK ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 820, + 344, + 838 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Model-based reinforcement learning (MBRL) has been long studied. Dyna (Sutton, 1990; 1991) algorithm alternately performs sampling in the real environments and optimize the controllers on the learned model of the environments. Other pioneering work includes PILCO (Deisenroth & Rasmussen, 2011), where the authors model the dynamics using Gaussian Process and directly optimize the surrogate expected reward. Effective as it is to solve simple environments, PILCO heavily suffers the curse of dimensionality. In (Levine & Abbeel, 2014; Levine & Koltun, 2013; Levine et al., 2016; Chebotar et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2018), the authors propose guided policy search (GPS). GPS uses iLQG (Li & Todorov, 2004; Todorov & Li, 2005; Tassa et al., 2012) as the local controller, and distill the knowledge into a policy neural network. In SVG (Heess et al., 2015), the authors uses stochastic value gradient so that the stochastic policy network can be optimized by back-propagation with off-policy data. Recently with the progress of model-free algorithms such as TRPO and PPO (Schulman et al., 2015; 2017), Kurutach et al. (2018); Luo et al. (2019) propose modern variants of Dyna, where TRPO (Schulman et al., 2015) is used to optimize the policy network using data generated by the learnt dynamics. Concurrent to this work, Janner et al. (2019) further use SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018) to train the policy network, and gets state-of-the-art performance on many tasks. At the same time, random shooting methods proposed by Nagabandi et al. (2017); Chua et al. (2018) have shown its robustness and effectiveness on benchmarking environments. PETS algorithm (Chua et al., 2018) is considered by many to be the state-of-the-art shooting algorithm, which we discuss in detail in section 3. Dynamics is also used to obtain better value estimation to speed up training (Gu et al., 2016; Feinberg et al., 2018; Buckman et al., 2018). Latent dynamics models using VAE (Kingma & Welling, 2013) are commonly used to solve problems with image input (Ha & Schmidhuber, 2018a;b; Hafner et al., 2018; Kaiser et al., 2019). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 853, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 825, + 339 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3 BACKGROUND ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 359, + 326, + 376 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.1 REINFORCEMENT LEARNING ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 392, + 415, + 406 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In reinforcement learning, the problem of solving the given task is formulated as a infinite-horizon discounted Markov decision process. For the agent, we denote the action space and state space respectively as $\\mathcal { A }$ and $s$ . We also denote the reward function and transition function as $r ( s _ { t } , a _ { t } )$ and $f ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , a _ { t } )$ , where $s _ { t } \\in S$ and $a _ { t } \\in \\mathcal A$ are the state and action at time-step $t$ . The reward $\\begin{array} { r } { J ( \\pi ) = \\mathbb { E } _ { \\pi } [ \\sum _ { t = 0 } ^ { \\infty } r ( s _ { t } , a _ { t } ) ] } \\end{array}$ to the agent in this work. The agent mwith respect to the agent’s controller $\\pi$ ximizes its expected total reward. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 419, + 825, + 503 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.2 RANDOM SHOOTING ALGORITHM AND PETS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 521, + 531, + 535 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Our proposed algorithm is based on the random shooting algorithm (Richards, 2005). In random shooting algorithms (Nagabandi et al., 2017; Chua et al., 2018), a data-set of $\\mathcal { D } = \\{ ( s _ { t } , a _ { t } , s _ { t + 1 } ) \\}$ is collected from previously generated real trajectories. The agent learns an ensemble of neural networks denoted as $f _ { \\phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , a _ { t } )$ , with the parameters of the neural networks denoted as $\\phi$ . In planning, the agent randomly generates a population of $K$ candidate action sequences. Each action sequence, denoted as $\\mathbf { a } = \\{ a _ { 0 } , . . . , a _ { \\tau } \\}$ , contains the control signals at every time-steps within the planning horizon $\\tau$ . The action sequence with the best expected reward given the current dynamics network $f _ { \\phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , a _ { t } )$ is chosen. RS, as a model-predictive control algorithm, only executes the first action signal and re-plan at time-step. In PETS (Chua et al., 2018), the authors further use cross entropy method (CEM) (De Boer et al., 2005; Botev et al., 2013) to re-samples sequences near the best sequences from the last CEM iteration. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 546, + 825, + 699 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "4 MODEL-BASED POLICY PLANNING ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 722, + 500, + 738 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section, we describe two variants of POPLIN: model-based policy planning in action space (POPLIN-A) and model-based policy planning in parameter space (POPLIN-P). Following the notations in section 3.2, we define the expected planning reward function at time-step $i$ as follows: ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 753, + 500, + 837 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/4b461317e71eea401f935c5bb1288b7ac9f583da1c611208b4bfff26a6b8998a.jpg", + "table_caption": [], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
Algorithm1GeneralPOPLINFramework
1: while Training iterations not Finished do
2:for ith time-step of the agent do
3:CEM planning as in section 4.1, 4.2
4:Execute the first action from CEM.
5:end for
6:Dynamics update and policy distillation.
7: end while
", + "bbox": [ + 513, + 724, + 825, + 842 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/eb14745ccea78de22cb4e31f20695df6a2926cbadbeca0f0de5ceb62f7247bd9.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\mathcal { R } ( s _ { i } , \\mathbf { a } _ { i } ) = \\mathbb { E } \\left[ \\sum _ { t = i } ^ { i + \\tau } r ( s _ { t } , a _ { t } ) \\right] , \\mathrm { w h e r e } s _ { t + 1 } \\sim f _ { \\phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , a _ { t } ) .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 292, + 843, + 704, + 888 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The action sequence $\\mathbf { a } _ { i } = \\{ a _ { i } , a _ { i + 1 } , . . . , a _ { i + \\tau } \\}$ is generated by the policy search module, as later described in Section 4.1 and 4.2. The expectation of predicted trajectories $\\{ s _ { i } , s _ { i + 1 } , . . . , s _ { i + \\tau } \\}$ is estimated by creating $P$ particles from the current state. The dynamics model $f _ { \\phi } ^ { k , t } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , a _ { t } )$ used by $k ^ { t h }$ particle at time-step $t$ is sampled from deterministic or probabilistic ensemble models. To better illustrate, throughout the paper we denote this dynamics as a fixed deterministic model, i.e. $f _ { \\phi } ^ { k , t } \\equiv f _ { \\phi }$ . In practice the dynamics uses probabilistic ensemble models, which requires some trivial modifications to the math and we refer readers to PETS Chua et al. (2018) for details. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 895, + 823, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 102, + 826, + 181 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "4.1 MODEL-BASED POLICY PLANNING IN ACTION SPACE ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 173, + 196, + 586, + 213 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In model-based policy planning in action space (POPLIN-A), we use a policy network to generate good initial action distribution. We denote the policy network as $\\pi ( s _ { t } )$ . Once the policy network proposes sequences of actions on the expected trajectories, we add Gaussian noise to the candidate actions and use CEM to fine-tune the mean and standard deviation of the noise distribution. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 223, + 825, + 280 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Similar to defining $\\mathbf { a } _ { i } = \\{ a _ { i } , a _ { i + 1 } , . . . , a _ { i + \\tau } \\}$ , we denote the noise sequence at time-step $t$ with horizon $\\tau$ as $\\delta _ { i } = \\{ \\delta _ { i } , \\delta _ { i + 1 } , . . . , \\delta _ { i + \\tau } \\}$ . We initialize the noise distribution as a Gaussian distribution with mean $\\mu _ { 0 } = \\mathbf { 0 }$ and covariance $\\Sigma _ { 0 } = \\sigma _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } { \\cal I }$ , where $\\sigma _ { 0 } ^ { 2 }$ is the initial noise variance. In each CEM iteration, we first sort out the sequences with the top $\\xi + 1$ expected planning reward, whose noise sequences are denoted as $\\{ \\delta _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \\delta _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \\delta _ { i } ^ { \\xi } \\}$ . Then we estimate the noise distribution of the elite candidates, i. e., ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 286, + 825, + 373 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/dfb753f5abc27e035667f33dccad5f93dbc76d3a0f780e0ea2f6ad375d145ddc.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\Sigma ^ { \\prime } \\mathrm { C o v } ( \\{ \\delta _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \\delta _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \\delta _ { i } ^ { \\xi } \\} ) , \\mu ^ { \\prime } \\mathrm { M e a n } ( \\{ \\delta _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \\delta _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \\delta _ { i } ^ { \\xi } \\} ) .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 378, + 694, + 398 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The elite distribution $( \\mu ^ { \\prime } , \\Sigma ^ { \\prime } )$ in CEM algorithm is used to update the candidate noise distribution as $\\mu = ( 1 - \\alpha ) \\mu + \\alpha \\dot { \\mu } ^ { \\prime }$ , $\\Sigma = ( 1 - \\alpha ) \\Sigma + \\alpha \\Sigma ^ { \\prime }$ . For every time-step, several CEM iterations are performed by candidate re-sampling and noise distribution updating. We provide detailed algorithm boxes in appendix A.1. We consider the following two schemes to add action noise. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 405, + 825, + 462 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "POPLIN-A-Init: In this planning schemes, we use the policy network only to propose the initialization of the action sequences. When planning at time-step $i$ with observed state $s _ { i }$ , we first obtain the initial reference action sequences, denoted as $\\hat { \\mathbf { a } } _ { i } = \\{ \\hat { a } _ { i } , \\hat { a } _ { i + 1 } , . . . , \\hat { a } _ { i + \\tau } \\}$ , by running the initial forward pass with policy network. At each planning time-step $t$ , where $i \\leq t \\leq i + \\tau$ , we have $\\hat { a } _ { t } = \\pi ( \\hat { s } _ { t } )$ , where $\\hat { s } _ { t } = f _ { \\phi } ( \\hat { s } _ { t - 1 } , a _ { t - 1 } )$ , $\\hat { s _ { i } } = s _ { i }$ The expected reward given search noise $\\delta _ { i }$ will be: ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 468, + 825, + 540 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/b2ab5b8a7c0d1bbaff13940841eb267c66a759f84de2211e3d524d4d55e8f016.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\mathcal { R } ( s _ { i } , \\delta _ { i } ) = \\mathbb { E } \\left[ \\sum _ { t = i } ^ { i + \\tau } r ( s _ { t } , \\hat { a } _ { t } + \\delta _ { t } ) \\right] , \\mathrm { w h e r e } s _ { t + 1 } = f _ { \\phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , \\hat { a } _ { t } + \\delta _ { t } ) .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 258, + 545, + 738, + 589 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "POPLIN-A-Replan: POPLIN-A-Replan is a more aggressive planning schemes, which always re-plans the controller according the changed trajectory given the current noise distribution. If we had the perfect dynamics network and the policy network, then we expect re-planning to achieve faster convergence the optimal action distribution. But it increases the risk of divergent behaviors. In this case, the expected reward for each trajectory is ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 602, + 823, + 672 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/24b5d4ad7bb7142458fdfe5d198d59c0df6c10a4914f8218c6ca5641a8440177.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\mathcal { R } ( s _ { i } , \\delta _ { i } ) = \\mathbb { E } \\left[ \\sum _ { t = i } ^ { i + \\tau } r ( s _ { t } , \\pi ( s _ { t } ) + \\delta _ { t } ) \\right] , \\mathrm { w h e r e } s _ { t + 1 } = f _ { \\phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , \\pi ( s _ { t } ) + \\delta _ { t } ) .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 236, + 679, + 759, + 723 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "4.2 MODEL-BASED POLICY PLANNING IN PARAMETER SPACE ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 736, + 617, + 752 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "While planning in the action space is a natural extension of the original PETS algorithm, we found it provides little performance improvement in complex environments. One potential reason is that POPLIN-A still performs CEM searching in action sequence space, where the conditions of convergence for CEM is usually not met. Let’s assume that a robot arm needs to either go left or right to get past the obstacle in the middle. In CEM planning in the action space, the theoretic distribution mean is always going straight, which fails to model the bi-modal action distribution. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 762, + 825, + 848 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Indeed, planning in action space is a non-convex optimization whose surface has lots of holes and peaks. Recently, much research progress has been made in understanding why deep neural networks are much less likely to get stuck in sub-optimal points Nguyen & Hein (2017); Li et al. (2018); Soudry & Hoffer (2017). And we believe that planning in parameter space is essentially using deeper neural networks. Therefore, we propose model-based policy planning in parameter space (POPLIN-P). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 853, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Instead of adding noise in the action space, POPLIN-P adds noise in the parameter space of the policy network. We denote the parameter vector of policy network as $\\theta$ , and the parameter noise sequence starting from time-step $i$ as $\\omega _ { i } = \\{ \\omega _ { i } , \\omega _ { i + 1 } , . . . , \\omega _ { i + \\tau } \\}$ . The expected reward function is now ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 825, + 147 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/ad78af2ee6f93e7b4ac0d6a2597f7c2f0da49f2f0fa37022ad45d092e8f38e6d.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\mathcal { R } ( s _ { i } , \\omega _ { i } ) = \\mathbb { E } \\left[ \\sum _ { t = i } ^ { i + \\tau } r \\left( s _ { t } , \\pi _ { \\theta + \\omega _ { t } } ( s _ { t } ) \\right) \\right] , \\mathrm { w h e r e } s _ { t + 1 } = f _ { \\phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , \\pi _ { \\theta + \\omega _ { t } } ( s _ { t } ) ) .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 236, + 156, + 761, + 200 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Similarly, we update the CEM distribution towards the following elite distribution: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 208, + 714, + 223 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/2d7bee2433b923270c8d7425b4fee7a5e414922a5de7ed2de03d292742e7b0fa.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\Sigma ^ { \\prime } \\mathrm { C o v } ( \\{ \\omega _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \\omega _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \\omega _ { i } ^ { \\xi } \\} ) , \\mu ^ { \\prime } \\mathrm { M e a n } ( \\{ \\omega _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \\omega _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \\omega _ { i } ^ { \\xi } \\} ) .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 294, + 233, + 702, + 253 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We can force the policy network noise within the sequence to be consistent, i.e. $\\omega _ { i } = \\omega _ { i + 1 } = . . . =$ $\\omega _ { i + \\tau }$ , which we name as POPLIN-P-Uni. This reduces the size of the flattened noise vector from $( \\tau + 1 ) | \\theta |$ to $| \\theta |$ , and is more consistent in policy behaviors. The noise can also be separate for each time-step, which we name as POPLIN-P-Sep. We benchmark both schemes in section 5.4. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 263, + 825, + 319 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Equivalence to re-parameterized stochastic policy: Stochastic policy network encourages exploration, and increases the robustness against the impact of compounded model errors. POPLIN-P, which inserts exogenous noise into the parameter space, can be regarded as a re-parameterized stochastic policy network, which natural combines stochastic policy network with planning. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 325, + 826, + 382 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "4.3 MODEL-PREDICTIVE CONTROL AND POLICY CONTROL ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 401, + 596, + 416 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "MBRL with online re-planning or model-predictive control (MPC) is effective, but at the same time time-consuming. Many previous attempts have tried to distill the planned trajectories into a policy network Levine & Abbeel (2014); Levine & Koltun (2013); Chebotar et al. (2017); Zhang et al. (2018), and control only with policy network. In this paper, we define two settings of using POPLIN: MPC Control and Policy Control. In MPC control, the agent uses policy network during the online planning and only execute the first action. In policy control, the agent directly executes the signal produced by the policy network given current observation, just like how policy network is used in MFRL algorithms. We show both performance of POPLIN in this paper. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 429, + 826, + 542 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "4.4 POLICY DISTILLATION SCHEMES ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 561, + 444, + 577 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The agents iterate between interacting with the environments, and distilling the knowledge from planning trajectory into a policy network. We consider several policy distillation schemes here, and discuss their effectiveness in the later experimental section. ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 589, + 825, + 632 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Behavior cloning (BC): BC can be applied to POPLIN-A and POPLIN-P, by minimizing the squared L2 loss as Equation 7. $\\mathcal { D }$ is the collection of observation and planned action from real environment. When applying BC to POPLIN-P, we fix parameter noise of the network to be zeros. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 638, + 825, + 681 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/2e97db96ae4f53e50ca0f7d363bdbfc6f25b752fc214d228f6172af90154b045.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\operatorname* { m i n } _ { \\theta } \\mathbb { E } _ { s , a \\in \\mathcal { D } } | | \\pi _ { \\theta } ( s ) - a | | ^ { 2 } .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 406, + 689, + 589, + 714 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Generative adversarial network training (GAN) Goodfellow et al. (2014): GAN can be applied to POPLIN-P. We consider the following fact. During MPC control, the agent only needs to cover the best action sequence in its action sequence distribution. Therefore, instead of point-to-point supervised training such as BC, we can train the policy network using GAN: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 731, + 825, + 787 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/14901db3d3fcf1787a945b06d28a94d1ad673c3563d6afd4dc0f72f136c81f00.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\operatorname* { m i n } _ { \\pi _ { \\theta } } \\operatorname* { m a x } _ { \\psi } \\mathbb { E } _ { s , a \\in \\mathcal { D } } \\log ( D _ { \\psi } ( s , a ) ) + \\mathbb { E } _ { s \\in \\mathcal { D } , z \\sim \\mathcal { N } ( \\mathbf { 0 } , \\sigma _ { 0 } I ) } \\log ( 1 - D _ { \\psi } ( s , \\pi _ { \\theta + z } ( s ) ) ) ,\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 235, + 797, + 759, + 823 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where a discriminator $D$ parameterized by $\\psi$ is used, and we sample the random noise $z$ from the initial CEM distribution $\\mathcal { N } ( \\mathbf { 0 } , \\sigma _ { 0 } \\pmb { I } )$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 832, + 825, + 861 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Setting parameter average (AVG): AVG is also applicable to POPLIN-P. During interaction with real environment, we also record the optimized parameter noise in to the data-set, i. e. $\\mathcal { D } = \\{ ( s , \\omega ) \\}$ . And we sacrifice the effectiveness of the policy control and only use policy network as a good search initialization. The new parameter is updated as $\\theta = \\theta + 1 / | \\mathcal { D } | \\sum _ { \\omega \\in \\mathcal { D } } \\omega$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 867, + 825, + 926 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/0954ae969c23a32d6b70e33aa2e83b3c5cd6c3df60c039a0bfbdacac64afb471.jpg", + "image_caption": [], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 171, + 99, + 826, + 241 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/28d2a4a10847e1c8f77434c0cfdc9c3c5670a062016e8c8c9146a31086262552.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Figure 2: Performance curves on different bench-marking environments. 4 random seeds are run for each environment. The full figures of all 12 MuJoCo environments are summarized in appendix 8. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
CheetahAntHopperSwimmerCheetah-v0Walker2d
POPLIN-P (ours)12227.9 ± 5652.82330.1 ± 320.92055.2 ± 613.8334.4 ± 34.24235.0 ± 1133.0597.0 ± 478.8
POPLIN-A (ours)4651.1 ± 1088.51148.4 ± 438.3202.5 ± 962.5344.9 ± 7.11562.8 ± 1136.7-105.0 ± 249.8
PETS (Chua et al., 2018)4204.5 ± 789.01165.5 ± 226.9114.9 ± 621.0326.2 ± 12.62288.4 ± 1019.0282.5 ± 501.6
METRPO (Kurutach et al., 2018)-744.8 ± 707.1282.2 ±18.01272.5 ± 500.9225.5 ± 104.62283.7 ± 900.4-1609.3 ± 657.5
TD3 (Fujimoto et al.,2018)218.9 ± 593.3870.1 ± 283.81816.6 ± 994.872.1 ± 130.93015.7 ± 969.8-516.4 ± 812.2
SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018)1745.9 ± 839.2548.1 ± 146.6788.3 ± 738.2204.6 ± 69.33459.8 ± 1326.6164.5 ± 1318.6
Training Time-step5000020000020000050000200000200000
Reacher3DPusherPendulumInvertedPendulumAcrobotCartpole
POPLIN-P (ours)-29.0± 25.2-55.8 ± 23.1167.9 ± 45.9-0.0 ±0.023.2 ± 27.2200.8 ± 0.3
POPLIN-A (ours)-27.7 ± 25.2-56.0 ± 24.3178.3 ± 19.3-0.0±0.020.5 ± 20.1200.6 ± 1.3
PETS (Chua et al.,2018)-47.7 ± 43.6-52.7 ± 23.5155.7 ± 79.3-29.5 ± 37.8-18.4 ± 46.3199.6 ± 4.6
METRPO (Kurutach et al., 2018)-43.5 ± 3.7-98.5 ± 12.6174.8 ± 6.2-29.3 ± 29.5-78.7 ± 5.0138.5 ± 63.2
TD3 (Fujimoto et al.,2018)-331.6 ± 134.6-216.4 ± 39.6168.6 ± 12.7-102.9 ± 101.0-76.5 ± 10.2-409.2 ± 928.8
SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018)-161.6 ± 43.7-227.6 ± 42.2159.5 ± 12.1-0.2 ± 0.1-69.4 ± 7.0195.5 ± 8.7
Training Time-step500005000050000500005000050000
", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 285, + 825, + 453 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Table 1: The training time-step varies from 50,000 to 200,000 depending on the difficulty of the tasks. \nThe performance is averaged across four random seeds with the last 3 episodes. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 468, + 825, + 496 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5 EXPERIMENTS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 512, + 326, + 529 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In section 5.1, we compare POPLIN with existing algorithms. We also show the policy control performance of POPLIN with different training methods in section 5.2. In section 5.3, we provide explanations and analysis for the effectiveness of our proposed algorithms by exploring and visualizing the planner’s reward optimization surface. In section 5.4, we study the sensitivity of our algorithms with respect to hyper-parameters, and show the performance of different algorithm variants. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 537, + 825, + 608 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5.1 MUJOCO BENCHMARKING PERFORMANCE ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 626, + 513, + 640 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section, we compare POPLIN with existing reinforcement learning algorithms including PETS (Chua et al., 2018), GPS (Levine et al., 2016), RS (Richards, 2005), MBMF (Nagabandi et al., 2017), TD3 (Fujimoto et al., 2018) METRPO (Kurutach et al., 2018), PPO (Schulman et al., 2017; Heess et al., 2017), TRPO (Schulman et al., 2015) and SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018), which includes the most recent progress of both model-free and model-based algorithms. We examine the algorithms with 12 environments, which is a wide collection of environments from OpenAI Gym (Brockman et al., 2016) and the environments proposed in PETS (Chua et al., 2018), which are summarized in appendix A.2. Due to the page limit and to better visualize the results, we put the complete figures and tables in appendix A.3. And in Figure 2 and Table 1, we show the performance of our algorithms and the best performing baselines. The hyper-parameter search is summarized in appendix A.3.1. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 652, + 825, + 791 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "As shown in Table 1, POPLIN achieves state-of-the-art performance in almost all environments, solving most of the them with 200,000 or 50,000 time-steps, instead of 1 million time-steps commonly used in MFRL algorithms. POPLIN-A (POPLIN-A-BC-Replan) has the best performance in simpler environments such as Pendulum, Cart-pole, Swimmer. But on complex environments such as Ant, Cheetah or Hopper, POPLIN-A does not have obvious performance gain compared with PETS. POPLIN-P (POPLIN-P-Sep-AVG) on the other hand, has consistent and stable performance among different environments. POPLIN-P is significantly better than all other algorithms in complex environments such as Ant and Cheetah. However, like other model-based algorithms, POPLIN cannot solve environments such as Walker and Humanoid. the performance of POPLIN plateaus quickly. Gradually model-free algorithms will have better asymptotic performance. We view this as a bottleneck of our algorithms and leave it to future research. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 797, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/34206e50481f86d9d1ff67f7d876af5c62077c8724b725fa6cd4cddb3dff6a0d.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 3: The MPC control and policy control performance of the proposed POPLIN-A, and POPLINP with its three training schemes, which are namely behavior cloning (BC), generative adversarial network training (GAN) and setting parameter average (Avg). " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 173, + 99, + 825, + 239 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/68c77255f3ee36d9b9ca5cc8396725e12243d8c23a72c6b5e6e0b6833c8633b5.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 4: The performance of PETS, POPLIN-A, POPLIN-P using different population size of candidates on Cheetah. The variance of the candidates trajectory $\\sigma$ in POPLIN-P is set to 0.1. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 173, + 304, + 825, + 428 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 482, + 821, + 511 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5.2 POLICY CONTROL PERFORMANCE ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 527, + 450, + 541 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section, we show the performance of POPLIN without MPC. To be more specific, we show the performance with the Cheetah, Pendulum, Pusher and Reacher3D, as shown in Figure 3, and we refer readers to appendix A.4 for the full results. ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 553, + 823, + 595 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We note that policy control is not always successful, and in environments such as Ant and Walker2D, the performance is almost random. In simple environments such as Pusher and Reacher3D, POPLIN-A has the best MPC performance, but has worse policy control performance compared with POPLIN-PBC and POPLIN-P-GAN. At the same time, both POPLIN-P-BC and POPLIN-P-GAN are able to efficiently distill the knowledge from planned trajectory. Which one of POPLIN-P-BC and POPLIN-PGAN is better depends on the environment tested, and they can be used interchangeably. This indicates that POPLIN-A, which uses a deterministic policy network, is more prone to distillation collapse than POPLIN-P, which can be interpreted as using a stochastic policy network with reparameterization trick. POPLIN-P-Avg, which only use policy network as optimization initialization has good MPC performance, but sacrifices the policy control performance. In general, the performance of policy control lags behind MPC control. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 603, + 825, + 755 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5.3 SEARCH EFFECTIVENESS AND REWARD SURFACE ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 772, + 558, + 786 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section, we explore the reasons for the effectiveness of POPLIN. In Figure 4, we show the performance of PETS, POPLIN-A and POPLIN-P with different population sizes. As we can see, PETS and POPLIN-A, which are the two algorithms that add search noise in the action space, cannot increase their performance by having bigger population size. However, POPLIN-P is able to efficiently increase performance with bigger population size. We then visualize the candidates in their reward or optimization surface in Figure 1. We use PCA (principal component analysis) to transform the action sequences into 2D features. As we can see, the reward surface is not smooth, with lots of local-minima and local-maxima islands. The CEM distribution of PETS algorithm is almost fixed across iterations on this surface, even if there are potentially higher reward regions. POPLIN is able to efficiently search through the jagged reward surface, from the low-reward center to the high reward left-down corner. To further understand why POPLIN is much better at searching through the reward surface, we then plot the figures in the solution space in Figure 5. More specifically, we now perform PCA on the policy parameters for POPLIN-P. As we can see in Figure 5 (c), the reward surface in parameter space is much smoother than the reward surface in action space, which are shown in Figure 5 (a), (b). POPLIN-P can efficiently search through the smoother reward surface in parameter space. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 797, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/d8e2a87ec31b5725be0a377ebc989b6db12deb393309a31ba0ae66d0846a6fa6.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 5: The reward optimization surface in the solution space. The expected reward is higher from color blue to color red. We visualize candidates using different colors as defined in the legend. The full results can be seen in appendix A.7. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 196, + 102, + 802, + 209 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/602ec86d32c596f9197c83835dbe46c307fa2a17434f00ab22cb6ce160d6fba6.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 7: The ablation study of of POPLIN-A, POPLIN-P-BC, POPLIN-P-Avg, POPLIN-P-GAN. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 179, + 286, + 818, + 395 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 436, + 825, + 530 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In Figure 6, we also visualize the actions distribution in one episode taken by PETS, POPLIN-A and POPLINP using policy networks of different number of hidden layers. We again use PCA to project the actions into 2D feature space. As we can see, POPLIN-P shows a clear pattern of being more multi-modal with the use of deeper the network. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 541, + 550, + 638 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/45e471c80af2fbf96b218d3a5ea609ba6bd3c0b45b446d8ca5a58d8597883886.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "x x Figure 6: Projected action distribution. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 562, + 523, + 825, + 665 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5.4 ABLATION STUDY ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 671, + 339, + 684 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section, we study how sensitive our algorithms are with respect to some of the crucial hyperparameters, for example, the initial variance of the CEM noise distribution. We also show the performance of different algorithm variants. The full ablation study and performance against different random seeds are included in appendix A.5. In Figure 7 (a), we show the performance of POPLIN-A using different training schemes. We try both training with only the real data samples, which we denote as \"Real\", and training also with imaginary data the agent plans into the future, which we denote as \"Hallucination\". In practice, POPLIN-A-Init performs better than POPLIN-A-Replan, which suggests that there can be divergent or overconfident update in POPLIN-A-Replan. And training with or without imaginary does not have big impact on the performance. In Figure7 (b) and (c), we also compare the performance of POPLIN-P-Uni with POPLIN-P-Sep, where we show that POPLIN-P-Sep has much better performance than POPLIN-P-Uni, indicating the search is not efficient enough in the constrained parameter space. For POPLIN-P-Avg, with bigger initial variance of the noise distribution, the agent gets better at planning. However, increasing initial noise variance does not increase the performance of PETS algorithm, as shown in 7 (b), (d). It is worth mentioning that POPLIN-P-GAN is highly sensitive to the entropy penalty we add to the discriminator, with the 3 curves in Figure7 (c) using entropy penalty of 0.003, 0.001 and 0.0001 respectively, ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 702, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "6 CONCLUSIONS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 102, + 328, + 118 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this paper, we explore efficient ways to combine policy networks with model-based planning. We propose POPLIN, which obtains state-of-the-art performance on the MuJoCo benchmarking environments. We study different distillation schemes to provide fast controllers during testing. More importantly, we formulate online planning as optimization using deep neural networks. We believe POPLIN will scale to more complex environments in the future. 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", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 460, + 825, + 502 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Marvin Zhang, Sharad Vikram, Laura Smith, Pieter Abbeel, Matthew J Johnson, and Sergey Levine. Solar: Deep structured latent representations for model-based reinforcement learning. arXiv preprint arXiv:1808.09105, 2018. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 512, + 826, + 554 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A APPENDIX ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 102, + 299, + 118 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.1 ALGORITHM DIAGRAMS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 132, + 390, + 147 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "To better illustrate the algorithm variants of our proposed methods, we summarize them in Algorithm 2, 3, 4. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 159, + 823, + 188 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Algorithm 2 POPLIN-A-Init ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 202, + 367, + 215 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "1: Initialize policy network parameters $\\theta$ , dynamics network parameters $\\phi$ , data-set $\\mathcal { D }$ \n2: while Training iterations not Finished do \n3: for $i ^ { t h }$ time-step of the agent do . Sampling Data \n4: Initialize reference action sequence $\\{ \\hat { a } _ { i } , \\hat { a } _ { i + 1 } , . . . , \\hat { a } _ { i + \\tau } \\}$ . . Using Equation 3 \n5: Initialize action-sequence noise distribution. $\\mu = \\mu _ { 0 }$ , $\\dot { \\Sigma } = \\sigma _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } { \\cal I }$ \n6: for $j ^ { t h }$ CEM Update do . CEM Planning \n7: Sample action noise sequences $\\{ \\delta _ { i } \\}$ from $\\mathcal { N } ( \\boldsymbol { \\mu } , \\boldsymbol { \\Sigma } )$ . \n8: for Every candidate $\\delta _ { i }$ do $\\triangleright$ Trajectory Predicting \n9: for $t = i$ to $i + \\tau$ , $s _ { t + 1 } = f _ { \\phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , a _ { t } = \\hat { a } _ { t } + \\delta _ { t } )$ \n10: Evaluate expected reward of this candidate. \n11: end for \n12: Fit distribution of the elite candidates as $\\mu ^ { \\prime } , \\Sigma ^ { \\prime }$ . \n13: Update noise distribution $\\mu = ( 1 - \\alpha ) \\mu + \\alpha \\mu ^ { \\prime }$ , $\\Sigma = ( 1 - \\alpha ) \\Sigma + \\alpha \\Sigma ^ { \\prime }$ \n14: end for \n15: Execute the first action from the optimal candidate action sequence. \n16: end for \n17: Update $\\phi$ using data-set $\\mathcal { D }$ $\\triangleright$ Dynamics Update \n18: Update $\\theta$ using data-set $\\mathcal { D }$ . Policy Distillation \n19: end while ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 217, + 826, + 483 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Algorithm 3 POPLIN-A-Replan ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 506, + 390, + 521 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "1: Initialize policy network parameters $\\theta$ , dynamics network parameters $\\phi$ , data-set $\\mathcal { D }$ \n2: while Training iterations not Finished do \n3: for $i ^ { t h }$ time-step of the agent do . Sampling Data \n4: Initialize action-sequence noise distribution. $\\mu = \\mu _ { 0 }$ , $\\Sigma = \\sigma _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } I$ \n5: for $j ^ { t h }$ CEM Update do . CEM Planning \n6: Sample action noise sequences $\\{ \\delta _ { i } \\}$ from $\\mathcal { N } ( \\boldsymbol { \\mu } , \\boldsymbol { \\Sigma } )$ . \n7: for Every candidate $\\delta _ { i }$ do . Trajectory Predicting \n8: for $t = i$ to $i + \\tau$ , $s _ { t + 1 } = f _ { \\phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , a _ { t } = \\pi _ { \\theta } ( s _ { t } ) + \\delta _ { t } )$ \n9: Evaluate expected reward of this candidate. \n10: end for \n11: Fit distribution of the elite candidates as $\\mu ^ { \\prime } , \\Sigma ^ { \\prime }$ . \n12: Update noise distribution $\\mu = ( 1 - \\alpha ) \\mu + \\alpha \\mu ^ { \\prime }$ , $\\Sigma = ( 1 - \\alpha ) \\Sigma + \\alpha \\Sigma ^ { \\prime }$ \n13: end for \n14: Execute the first action from the optimal candidate action sequence. \n15: end for \n16: Update $\\phi$ using data-set $\\mathcal { D }$ $\\triangleright$ Dynamics Update \n17: Update $\\theta$ using data-set $\\mathcal { D }$ . Policy Distillation \n18: end while ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 523, + 826, + 776 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.2 BENCH-MARKING ENVIRONMENTS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 178, + 800, + 460, + 814 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In the original PETS paper Chua et al. (2018), the authors only experiment with 4 environments, which are namely Reacher3D, Pusher, Cartpole and Cheetah. In this paper, we experiment with the 9 more environments based on the standard bench-marking environments from OpenAI Gym Brockman et al. (2016). More specifically, we experiment with InvertedPendulum, Acrobot, Pendulum, Ant, Hopper, Swimmer, Walker2d. We also note that the Cheetah environment in PETS Chua et al. (2018) is different from the standard HalfCheetah-v1 in OpenAI Gym. Therefore we experiment with both versions in our paper, where the Cheetah from PETS is named as \"Cheetah\", and the HalfCHeetah ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 825, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Algorithm 4 POPLIN-P ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 336, + 117 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/0b992def416e5c825ba020f37fd46488a2831ad66f4ee4b11aa5b9f7e16f20d4.jpg", + "table_caption": [], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
1: Initialize policy network parameters 0, dynamics network parameters Φ, data-set D 2: while Training iterations not Finished do
3:for ith time-step of the agent do > Sampling Data
4: 5:Initialize parameter-sequence noise distribution. μ = μo,∑ = o² I for jth CEM Update do CEM Planning
6:Sample parameter noise sequences {ωi} from N(μ,Σ).
7:for Every candidate ωi do
Trajectory Predicting
8:fort=itoi+T,St+1 = f(St+1lSt,at = Tθ+ωt(St))
9:Evaluate expected reward of this candidate.
10:end for
11:Fit distribution of the elite candidates as μ',∑'.
12:Update noise distribution μ= (1-α)μ + αμ',∑= (1-α)Σ+αΣ'
13:end for
14:Execute the first action from the optimal candidate action sequence.
15:end for
16:Update using data-set D
17:
18: end whileUpdate 0 using data-set D
", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 118, + 826, + 372 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/61ced92083f631bf1740344c175a8d67615850358c7f3ef6ea19ee8c4a888508.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 2: Performance of each algorithm on environments based on OpenAI Gym Brockman et al. (2016) MuJoCoTodorov et al. (2012) environments. In the table, we record the performance at 200,000 time-step. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
CheetahAntHopperSwimmerCheetah-v0Walker2dSwimmer-v0
POPLIN-P12227.9 ± 5652.82330.1 ± 320.92055.2 ±613.8334.4 ± 34.24235.0± 1133.0597.0 ± 478.837.1 ± 4.6
POPLIN-A4651.1 ± 1088.51148.4 ± 438.3202.5 ± 962.5344.9 ± 7.11562.8 ± 1136.7-105.0 ± 249.826.7 ± 13.2
PETS4204.5 ± 789.01165.5 ± 226.9114.9 ± 621.0326.2 ± 12.62288.4± 1019.0282.5 ± 501.6-2060.3 ± 228.029.7 ± 13.526.8± 2.3
RS191.1 ± 21.2535.5± 37.0-2491.5 ± 35.122.4±9.7421.0 ± 55.2
MBMFTRPO-459.5 ± 62.5134.2 ± 50.4-1047.4 ± 1098.7110.7 ± 45.6126.9 ± 72.7-2218.1 ± 437.730.6 ± 4.9
-412.4 ± 33.3323.3 ± 24.9-2100.1 ± 640.647.8 ± 11.1-12.0 ± 85.5-2286.3± 373.326.3 ± 2.6
PPO-483.0± 46.1321.0 ± 51.2-103.8 ± 1028.0155.5 ± 14.917.2 ± 84.4-1893.6± 234.124.7 ± 4.08.2 ±10.235.4± 2.2
GPS129.4 ± 140.4445.5 ± 212.9-768.5 ± 200.9-30.9 ± 6.352.3 ± 41.7-1730.8 ± 441.7
METRPO-744.8 ± 707.1282.2 ± 18.01272.5 ± 500.9225.5 ± 104.62283.7 ± 900.4-1609.3 ± 657.5
TD3218.9 ± 593.3870.1 ± 283.81816.6 ± 994.872.1 ± 130.93015.7 ±969.8-516.4 ± 812.217.0 ± 12.9
SACRandom1745.9 ± 839.2-284.2 ± 83.3548.1 ± 146.6788.3 ± 738.2204.6 ± 69.33459.8 ± 1326.6164.5 ± 1318.623.0 ± 17.32.4 ± 12.0
478.0 ± 47.8-2768.0 ± 571.6-12.4 ± 12.8-312.4± 44.2-2450.1± 406.5
Time-step5000020000020000050000200000200000200000
", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 407, + 825, + 553 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/daaacf946d23a32dd1e57f3e6bc19f1aa9fe3b0cdd7ee3ac1aaf8457c0d15d00.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 3: The normalized performance of Table 2. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
CheetahAntHopperSwimmerCheetah-v0Walker2dSwimmer-v0
POPLIN-PPOPLIN-A0.944 ± 0.0790.395 ± 0.0570.932 ± 0.1280.459 ± 0.1750.919 ± 0.1120.936 ± 0.0860.927 ± 0.2270.968 ± 0.150.928 ± 0.115
0.582 ± 0.1750.962 ± 0.0180.393 ± 0.2270.748 ± 0.0780.668 ± 0.33
PETS0.363 ± 0.0020.466 ± 0.0910.566 ± 0.1130.916 ± 0.0320.538 ± 0.2040.87 ± 0.1570.743 ± 0.338
RS0.072 ± 0.0050.214 ± 0.0150.092 ± 0.0060.156 ± 0.0240.164 ± 0.0110.137 ± 0.0710.67 ± 0.058
MBMF0.025 ± 0.0020.054 ±0.020.355± 0.20.377 ± 0.1140.105 ± 0.0150.088 ± 0.137.1370.765 ± 0.123
TRPO0.028 ± 0.0030.129 ± 0.010.164 ± 0.1160.22 ± 0.0280.078 ± 0.0170.067 ± 0.117.1177
PPO0.023 ± 0.010.128 ± 0.020.527 ± 0.1870.489 ± 0.0370.083 ± 0.0170.19 ± 0.073
GPS0.067 ± 0.0510.178 ± 0.0850.406 ±0.0370.023 ± 0.0160.09 ± 0.0080.24 ±0.1380.205 ± 0.255
METRPO0.004 ± 0.0430.113 ± 0.0070.777 ± 0.0910.664 ± 0.2620.537 ± 0.180.278 ± 0.2050.885 ± 0.055
TD3SACRandom0.074 ± 0.0610.184 ± 0.0060.037±00.074 ± 0.0610.348 ± 0.1140.876 ± 0.1810.28 ±0.3270.683 ± 0.1940.62 ± 0.254
0.219 ± 0.059.0190.689 ± 0.1340.042 ± 0.1040.612 ± 0.1730.069 ± 0.0320.772 ± 0.2650.833 ± 0.412
0.191 ± 0.0190.0.018 ± 0.0090.016 ± 0.127
max, min13000,-8002500,02500,02500,02500,-3000360,-40-400,4600
", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 646, + 825, + 803 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "from OpenAI Gym is named as \"Cheetah-v0\". Empirically, Cheetah is much easier to solve than Cheetah-v0, as show in Table 2 and Table 4. We also include two swimmer, which we name as Swimmer and Swimmer-v0, which we explain in section A.2.1. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 882, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 12 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/afd38f05377d3237fb55a77e96efb88d6fd11e191551ac2c0f45a0e4fd559ffd.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 8: Full Performance of POPLIN-P, POPLIN-A and other state-of-the-art algorithms on 12 different bench-marking environments. In the figure, we include baselines such as TD3, SAC, PPO, METRPO, PETS, RS and our proposed algorithm. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 173, + 94, + 823, + 670 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.2.1 FIXING THE SWIMMER ENVIRONMENTS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 784, + 508, + 799 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We also notice that after an update in the Gym environments, the swimmer became unsolvable for almost all algorithms. The reward threshold for solving is around 340 for the original swimmer, but almost all algorithms, including the results shown in many published papers Schulman et al. (2017), will be stuck at the 130 reward local-minima. We note that this is due the fact that the velocity sensor is on the neck of the swimmer, making swimmer extremely prone to this performance local-minimum. We provide a fixed swimmer, which we name as Swimmer, by moving the sensor from the neck to the head. We believe this modification is necessary to test the effectiveness of the algorithms. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 825, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/96b7fe54bf368e915e9f96f1848459fd6a28077adecc19c9fdca17d05f92fed6.jpg", + "table_caption": [], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
Reacher3DPusherPendulumInvertedPendulumAcrobotCartpole
POPLIN-PPOPLIN-A-29.0 ± 25.2-55.8 ± 23.1167.9 ± 45.9-0.0±0.023.2 ± 27.2200.8 ± 0.3200.6 ± 1.3
-27.7 ± 25.2-56.0 ± 24.3178.3 ± 19.3-0.0±0.020.5± 20.1
PETS-47.7 ± 43.6-52.7± 23.5155.7 ± 79.3-29.5 ± 37.8-18.4 ± 46.3199.6 ± 4.6
RS-107.6 ± 5.2-146.4± 3.2161.2 ± 11.5-0.0±0.0-12.5 ± 14.3201.0 ± 0.0
MBMF-168.6 ± 23.2-285.8 ±15.2163.7 ± 15.2-202.3 ± 17.0-146.8 ± 29.922.5 ± 67.7
TRPO-176.5 ± 24.3-235.5 ± 6.2158.7 ± 9.1-134.6 ± 6.9-291.2 ± 6.746.3 ±6.0
PPO-162.2 ± 15.7-243.2 ± 6.9160.9 ± 12.5-137.3 ± 12.4-205.4 ± 51.568.8 ± 4.9
GPS-552.8 ± 577.7-151.2 ± 1.3164.3 ± 4.1-14.7 ± 20.7-214.3 ± 15.3-18.7 ± 101.1
METRPO-43.5± 3.7-98.5 ± 12.6174.8 ± 6.2-29.3 ± 29.5-78.7 ±5.0138.5 ± 63.2
TD3-331.6 ± 134.6-216.4 ± 39.6168.6 ± 12.7-102.9 ± 101.0-76.5 ±10.2-409.2 ± 928.8
SACRandom-161.6 ± 43.7-183.1 ± 41.5-227.6 ± 42.2159.5 ± 12.1-0.2 ± 0.1-69.4 ± 7.0195.5 ± 8.7
-199.0 ± 10.0-249.5 ± 228.4-205.9 ± 12.1-374.1 ± 15.631.3 ± 36.3
Time-step500005000050000500005000050000
", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 101, + 825, + 273 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Table 4: Performance of each algorithm on environments based on OpenAI Gym Brockman et al. \n(2016) classic control environments. In the table, we record the performance at 50000 time-step. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 289, + 826, + 318 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.3 FULL RESULTS OF BENCH-MARKING PERFORMANCE ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 347, + 584, + 362 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section, we show the figures of all the environments in Figure 8. We also include the final performance in the Table 2 and 4. As we can see, POPLIN has consistently the best performance among almost all the environments. We also include the time-steps we use on each environment for all the algorithms in Table 2 and 4. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 375, + 825, + 431 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.3.1 HYPER-PARAMETERS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 449, + 382, + 464 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section, we introduce the hyper-parameters we search during the experiments. One thing to notice is that, for all of the experiments on PETS, POPLIN, we use the model type PE (probabilistic ensembles) and propagation method of E (expectation). While other combinations of model type and propagation methods might result in better performance, they are usually prohibitively computationally expensive. For example, the combination of PE-DS requires a training time of about 68 hours for one random seed, for PETS to train with 200 iteration, which is 200,000 time-step. As a matter of fact, PE-E is actually one of the best combination in many environments. Since POPLIN is based on PETS, we believe this is a fair comparison for all the algorithms. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 474, + 825, + 587 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We show the hyper-parameter search we perform for PETS in the paper in Table 5. For the hyperparameters specific to POPLIN, we summarize them in 6 and 7. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 593, + 823, + 622 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/8e0e2b3cd9459449b0bd23798868e0e3bbe40a8e37f3309ceeabefc43736da51.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 5: Hyper-parameter grid search options for PETS. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
Hyper-parameterValue Tried
Population Size100,200,.., 2000
Planning Horizon30,50,100
Initial Distribution Sigma0.01, 0.03, 0.1, 0.25, 0.3, 0.5
CEMIterations5,8,10,20
ELite Size g50,100,200
", + "bbox": [ + 299, + 638, + 697, + 738 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/0c6a309a40b6c5685d36e7df818bb3dfa0eadbe9e9c8920d58a0a4a963bddedb.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 6: Hyper-parameter grid search options for POPLIN-A. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
Hyper-parameterValue Tried
Training Datareal data, hallucination data
VariantReplan, Init
Initial Distribution Sigma0.001, 0.003, 0.01, 0.03, 0.1
", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 801, + 694, + 873 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/836fc64364e6abcef2877ea4293af7689a82465f5fff73ca335828f9bfd481a1.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 7: Hyper-parameter grid search options for POPLIN-P. We also experiment with using WGAN in Salimans et al. (2016) to train the policy network, which does not results in good performance and is not put into the article. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
Hyper-parameterValue Tried
Training Datareal data, hallucination data
Training VariantBC, GAN, Avg
Noise VariantUni, Sep
Initial Distribution Sigma0.001, 0.003, 0.01, 0.03, 0.1
", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 102, + 696, + 186 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.4 FULL RESULTS OF POLICY CONTROL ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 270, + 475, + 285 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Due to the space limit, we are not able to put all of the results of policy control in the main article. More specifically, we add the figure for the original Cheetah-v0 compared to the figures shown in the main article, as can be seen in 9 (b). Again, we note that POPLIN-P-BC and POPLIN-P-GAN are comparable to each other, as mentioned in the main article. POPLIN-P-BC and POPLIN-P-GAN are the better algorithms respectively in Cheetah and Cheetah-v0, which are essentially the same environment with different observation functions. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 296, + 826, + 380 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/8221b21f6322860b9f01fa92ae6488a1dbcc9b6192e40aded7f385f33ba9e368.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 9: The planning performance and the testing performance of the proposed POPLIN-A, and POPLIN-P with its three training schemes, which are namely behavior cloning (BC), generative adversarial network training (GAN) and setting parameter average (Avg). " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 176, + 390, + 823, + 672 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.5 ABLATION STUDY FOR DIFFERENT VARIANT OF POPLIN ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 755, + 617, + 770 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section, we show the results of different variant of our algorithm. In Figure 11, the performances of different random seeds are visualized, where we show that POPLIN has similar randomness in performance to PETS. Additionally, we visualize POPLIN-P-BC in Figure 10 (b), whose best distribution variance for policy planning is 0.01, while the best setting for testing is 0.03. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 781, + 825, + 837 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.6 POPULATION SIZE ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 856, + 346, + 869 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In Figure 12, we include more detailed figures of the performance of different algorithms with different population size. One interesting finding is that even with fixed parameters of zeros, POPLINP can still performance very efficient search. This is indicating that the efficiency in optimization of ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 882, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 15 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/56075b1bdfb9944a39483a27e6378e6d32d67609de583511325741d53fdb37bc.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 10: The performance of POPLIN-A, POPLIN-P-BC, POPLIN-P-Avg, POPLIN-P-GAN using different hyper-parameters. The tested environment is Cheetah. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 174, + 99, + 825, + 377 + ], + "page_idx": 16 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/37f1689d9f7c2c377533c3073a23b7a68344d3e3de373082a97a539657c4b491.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 11: The performance of POPLIN-A, POPLIN-P, and PETS of different random seeds on Cheetah environment. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 334, + 434, + 661, + 633 + ], + "page_idx": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "POPLIN-P, especially of POPLIN-P-AVG, is the key reasons for successful planning. However, this scheme naturally sacrifices the policy distillation and thus cannot be applied without planning. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 702, + 823, + 731 + ], + "page_idx": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A.7 THE REWARD SURFACE OF DIFFERENT ALGORITHM ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 750, + 581, + 765 + ], + "page_idx": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section, we provide a more detailed description of the reward surface with respect the the solution space (action space for PETS and POPLIN-A, and parameter space for POPLIN-P) in Figure 13, 14, 15, 16, 17. As we can see, variants of POPLIN-A are better at searching, but the reward surface is still not smooth. POPLIN-A-Replan is more efficient in searching than POPLIN-A-Init, but the errors in dynamics limit its performance. We also include the results for POPLIN-P using a 1-layer neural network in solution space in Figure 16 (g), (h). The results indicate that the deeper the network, the better the search efficiency. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 776, + 825, + 875 + ], + "page_idx": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We also provide more detailed version of Figure 1 in Figure 18. We respectively show the surface for PETS, POPLIN-P-P using 1 and 0 hidden layers. Their planned trajectories across different CEM updates are visualized in Figure 19, 20, 21. Originally in Figure 1, we use the trajectories in iteration ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 882, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 16 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/13d8c2c97675d52ebb0b6435803d019388a3a7530fc3276090c5030c2722e88a.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 12: The performance of PETS, POPLIN-A, POPLIN-P-Avg, POPLIN-P-BC and POPLIN$\\mathrm { \\bf P }$ whose network has fixed parameters of zeros. The variance of the candidates trajectory $\\sigma$ in POPLIN-P is set to 0.1. The tested environment is Cheetah. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 181, + 98, + 816, + 371 + ], + "page_idx": 17 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/8f77e02c33e9d8032249a47c856791eb40f6304908a8323a6943886cdf154998.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 13: Reward surface in solution space (action space) for PETS algorithm. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 236, + 439, + 759, + 655 + ], + "page_idx": 17 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "1, 3, 5 for better illustration. In the appendix, we also provide all the iteration data. Again, the color indicates the expected cost (negative of expected reward). From left to right, we show the updated the trajectories in each iteration with blue scatters. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 708, + 823, + 751 + ], + "page_idx": 17 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/2576f42a4b17ce79560f36d35914df4a7897d92f2dcd92bb0dcce3414668eb4c.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 14: Reward surface in solution space (action space) for POPLIN-A-Replan. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 236, + 113, + 759, + 330 + ], + "page_idx": 18 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/a4aa1551605bf7d787a031cdc502f7a6a1a5e38f13f5e05061933ce66e69f0bb.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 15: Reward surface in solution space (action space) for POPLIN-A-Init. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 236, + 390, + 759, + 607 + ], + "page_idx": 18 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/2abed00bf9a008870d2822d44e72121619319eebb4ad815526bbbebdd4b08325.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 16: Reward surface in solution space (parameter space) for POPLIN-P with 0 hidden layer. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 236, + 665, + 759, + 883 + ], + "page_idx": 18 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/c4bc85def0313485dc21d825ae6c6528918b50b86eb717381eb36040dba5f461.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 17: Reward surface in solution space (parameter space) for POPLIN-P using 1 hidden layer. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 236, + 104, + 759, + 321 + ], + "page_idx": 19 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/78bece7f6f57925094360628dab866de56993b44e50053a457e01e4cae8dc292.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 18: The color indicates the expected cost (negative of expected reward). We emphasis that all these figures are visualized in the action space. And all of them are very unsmooth. For the figures visualized in solution space, we refer to Figure 13. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 181, + 361, + 815, + 539 + ], + "page_idx": 19 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/0734c7052f7e4bdbe24c4b7ad28bb43200e9c4063acc79bfe8fc2722fdf0f3ff.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 19: The figures are the planned trajectories of PETS. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 174, + 604, + 807, + 732 + ], + "page_idx": 19 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/a9e671208826b8c04f165509cdceb59ba0f3c6b6e97b6c754a464e5f616cacd7.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 20: The figures are the planned trajectories of POPLIN-P using 1 hidden layer MLP. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 174, + 767, + 807, + 895 + ], + "page_idx": 19 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/af3d30179ece38af09b204be587041a0d2f026e011c6f333432814274ff483d8.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 21: The figures are the planned trajectories of POPLIN-P using 0 hidden layer MLP. 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We experiment with both optimization w.r.t. the action sequences", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 323, + 469, + 335 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 323, + 469, + 335 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "initialized from the policy network, and also online optimization directly w.r.t. the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 333, + 470, + 348 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 333, + 470, + 348 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameters of the policy network. We show that in the MuJoCo benchmarking", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 345, + 470, + 357 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 345, + 270, + 357 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environments, POPLIN is about", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 270, + 345, + 282, + 355 + ], + "score": 0.34, + "content": "3 \\mathbf { x }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 282, + 345, + 470, + 357 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "more sample efficient than the previously state-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 356, + 470, + 367 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 356, + 470, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of-the-art algorithms, such as PETS, TD3 and SAC. To explain the effectiveness", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 367, + 470, + 379 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 367, + 470, + 379 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of our algorithm, we show that the optimization surface in parameter space is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 378, + 470, + 391 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 378, + 470, + 391 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "smoother than in action space. Further more, we found the distilled policy network", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 389, + 469, + 401 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 389, + 469, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be effectively applied without the expansive model predictive control during", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 400, + 436, + 411 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 400, + 436, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "test time for some environments such as Cheetah. Code is released here1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 14, + "bbox_fs": [ + 141, + 225, + 470, + 411 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 435, + 205, + 448 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 434, + 208, + 451 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 434, + 208, + 451 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1 INTRODUCTION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 462, + 505, + 583 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 461, + 505, + 475 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 461, + 505, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A model-based reinforcement learning (MBRL) agent learns its internal model of the world, i.e. the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 473, + 505, + 485 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 473, + 505, + 485 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dynamics, from repeated interactions with the environment. With the learnt dynamics, a MBRL agent", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 483, + 506, + 496 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 483, + 506, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can for example perform online planning, interact with imaginary data, or optimize the controller", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 494, + 506, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 494, + 506, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "through dynamics, which provides significantly better sample efficiency (Deisenroth & Rasmussen,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 505, + 505, + 519 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 505, + 505, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2011; Sutton, 1990; Levine & Abbeel, 2014; Levine & Koltun, 2013). However, MBRL algorithms", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 516, + 506, + 530 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 516, + 506, + 530 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "generally do not scale well with the increasing complexity of the reinforcement learning (RL) tasks", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 527, + 506, + 541 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 527, + 506, + 541 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in practice. And modelling errors in dynamics that accumulate with time-steps greatly limit the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 538, + 506, + 551 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 538, + 506, + 551 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "applications of MBRL algorithms. As a result, many latest progresses in RL has been made with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 550, + 506, + 562 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 550, + 506, + 562 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "model-free reinforcement learning (MFRL) algorithms that are capable of solving complex tasks at", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 561, + 506, + 573 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 561, + 506, + 573 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the cost of large number of samples (Schulman et al., 2017; Heess et al., 2017; Schulman et al., 2015;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 571, + 358, + 584 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 571, + 358, + 584 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Mnih et al., 2013; Lillicrap et al., 2015; Haarnoja et al., 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 29, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 461, + 506, + 584 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 588, + 505, + 709 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 506, + 601 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 506, + 601 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "With the success of deep learning, a few recent works have proposed to learn neural network-based", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 600, + 506, + 612 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 600, + 506, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dynamics models for MBRL. Among them, random shooting algorithms (RS), which uses model-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 610, + 506, + 623 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 610, + 506, + 623 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictive control (MPC), is shown to have good robustness and scalability (Richards, 2005). In", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 621, + 505, + 634 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 621, + 505, + 634 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "shooting algorithms, the agent randomly generates action sequences, use the dynamics to predict the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 631, + 507, + 646 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 631, + 507, + 646 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "future states, and choose the first action from the sequence with the best expected reward. However,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 643, + 506, + 655 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 643, + 506, + 655 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "RS usually has worse asymptotic performance than model-free controllers (Nagabandi et al., 2017),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 654, + 505, + 667 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 654, + 505, + 667 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the authors of the the PETS algorithm (Chua et al., 2018) suggest that the performance of RS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 664, + 506, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 664, + 506, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is directly affected by the quality of the learnt dynamics. They propose a probabilistic ensemble to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "capture model uncertainty, which enables PETS algorithm to achieve both better sample efficiency", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and better asymptotic performance than state-of-the-art model-free controllers in environments such", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 697, + 474, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 697, + 474, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as Cheetah. However, PETS is not as effective on environments with higher dimensionality.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + } + ], + "index": 40, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 587, + 507, + 711 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 80, + 504, + 275 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 80, + 504, + 275 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 80, + 504, + 275 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 80, + 504, + 275 + ], + "score": 0.978, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "ad3dddae5537aad63d7ae3de75a7d3d6229eccb8ab15eeda336635a3a20e249d.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 80, + 504, + 145.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 145.0, + 504, + 210.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 210.0, + 504, + 275.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 283, + 505, + 349 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 282, + 507, + 295 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 282, + 507, + 295 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 1: We transform each planned candidate action trajectory with PCA into a 2D blue scatter.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 294, + 506, + 306 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 294, + 506, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The top and bottom figures are respectively the visualization of PETS (Chua et al., 2018) and our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 306, + 505, + 317 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 306, + 505, + 317 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithm. The red area has higher reward. From left to right, we show how candidate trajectories are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 316, + 506, + 328 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 316, + 506, + 328 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "updated, across different planning iterations within one time-step. As we can see, while both reward", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 327, + 505, + 340 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 327, + 505, + 340 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "surface is not smooth with respect to action trajectory. POPLIN, using policy networks, has much", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 338, + 504, + 349 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 338, + 504, + 349 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "better search efficiency, while PETS is stuck around its initialization. The details are in section 5.3.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 5.5 + } + ], + "index": 3.25 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 506, + 511 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 357, + 506, + 371 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 357, + 506, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this paper, we explore MBRL algorithms from a different perspective, where we treat the planning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 369, + 505, + 381 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 369, + 505, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "at each time-step as an optimization problem. Random search in action space, as what is being done", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 506, + 392 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 506, + 392 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in state-of-the-art MBRL algorithms such as PETS, is insufficient for more complex environments.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 389, + 506, + 403 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 389, + 506, + 403 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "On the one hand, we are inspired by the success of AlphaGo (Silver et al., 2016; 2017), where a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 506, + 414 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 506, + 414 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policy network is used to generate proposals for the Monte-Carlo tree search. On the other hand, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 506, + 425 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 506, + 425 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are inspired by the recent research into understanding deep neural networks (Nguyen & Hein, 2017;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 423, + 506, + 436 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 423, + 506, + 436 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Li et al., 2018; Soudry & Hoffer, 2017). Deep neural networks, frequently observed in practices,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 434, + 506, + 447 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 434, + 506, + 447 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is much less likely to get stuck in sub-optimal points. In Figure 1, we apply principal component", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 444, + 507, + 459 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 444, + 507, + 459 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "analysis (PCA) on the action sequences generated in each planning iteration within one time-step.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 456, + 506, + 469 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 456, + 506, + 469 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The reward surface of the action space is not smooth and prone to local-minimas. We argue that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 506, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 506, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "optimization in the policy network’s parameter space will be more efficient. Furthermore, we note that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 478, + 505, + 490 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 478, + 505, + 490 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the state-of-the-art MBRL algorithm with MPC cannot be applied real-time. We therefore experiment", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 506, + 502 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 506, + 502 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with different policy network distillation schemes for fast control without MPC. To sum up, the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 500, + 263, + 512 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 500, + 263, + 512 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "contribution of this paper is three-fold:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 15.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 521, + 506, + 630 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 520, + 505, + 534 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 520, + 505, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "• We apply policy networks to generate proposals for MPC in high dimensional locomotion control", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 533, + 258, + 545 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 533, + 258, + 545 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "problems with unknown dynamics.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 547, + 505, + 561 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 547, + 505, + 561 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "• We formulate planning as optimization with neural networks, and propose policy planning in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 559, + 506, + 572 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 559, + 506, + 572 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameter space, which obtain state-of-the-art performance on current bench-marking environ-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 570, + 505, + 582 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 570, + 505, + 582 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ments, being about 3x more sample efficient than the previous state-of-the-art algorithm, such as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 581, + 467, + 594 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 581, + 467, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PETS (Chua et al., 2018), TD3 (Fujimoto et al., 2018) and SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 596, + 506, + 609 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 596, + 506, + 609 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "• We also explore policy network distillation from the planned trajectories. We found the distilled pol-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 608, + 505, + 620 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 608, + 505, + 620 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "icy network alone achieves high performance on environments like Cheetah without the expansive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 618, + 184, + 632 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 618, + 184, + 632 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "online planning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 650, + 211, + 664 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 650, + 213, + 666 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 650, + 213, + 666 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 RELATED WORK", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 676, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Model-based reinforcement learning (MBRL) has been long studied. Dyna (Sutton, 1990; 1991)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 687, + 506, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 687, + 506, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithm alternately performs sampling in the real environments and optimize the controllers on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the learned model of the environments. Other pioneering work includes PILCO (Deisenroth &", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Rasmussen, 2011), where the authors model the dynamics using Gaussian Process and directly", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 719, + 505, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 719, + 505, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "optimize the surrogate expected reward. Effective as it is to solve simple environments, PILCO", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "page_idx": 1, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 293, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 293, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 293, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Published as a conference paper at ICLR 2020", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 763 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 763 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 80, + 504, + 275 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 80, + 504, + 275 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 80, + 504, + 275 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 80, + 504, + 275 + ], + "score": 0.978, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "ad3dddae5537aad63d7ae3de75a7d3d6229eccb8ab15eeda336635a3a20e249d.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 80, + 504, + 145.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 145.0, + 504, + 210.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 210.0, + 504, + 275.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 283, + 505, + 349 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 282, + 507, + 295 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 282, + 507, + 295 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 1: We transform each planned candidate action trajectory with PCA into a 2D blue scatter.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 294, + 506, + 306 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 294, + 506, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The top and bottom figures are respectively the visualization of PETS (Chua et al., 2018) and our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 306, + 505, + 317 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 306, + 505, + 317 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithm. The red area has higher reward. From left to right, we show how candidate trajectories are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 316, + 506, + 328 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 316, + 506, + 328 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "updated, across different planning iterations within one time-step. As we can see, while both reward", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 327, + 505, + 340 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 327, + 505, + 340 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "surface is not smooth with respect to action trajectory. POPLIN, using policy networks, has much", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 338, + 504, + 349 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 338, + 504, + 349 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "better search efficiency, while PETS is stuck around its initialization. The details are in section 5.3.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 5.5 + } + ], + "index": 3.25 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 506, + 511 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 357, + 506, + 371 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 357, + 506, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this paper, we explore MBRL algorithms from a different perspective, where we treat the planning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 369, + 505, + 381 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 369, + 505, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "at each time-step as an optimization problem. Random search in action space, as what is being done", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 506, + 392 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 506, + 392 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in state-of-the-art MBRL algorithms such as PETS, is insufficient for more complex environments.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 389, + 506, + 403 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 389, + 506, + 403 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "On the one hand, we are inspired by the success of AlphaGo (Silver et al., 2016; 2017), where a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 506, + 414 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 401, + 506, + 414 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "policy network is used to generate proposals for the Monte-Carlo tree search. On the other hand, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 506, + 425 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 506, + 425 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are inspired by the recent research into understanding deep neural networks (Nguyen & Hein, 2017;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 423, + 506, + 436 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 423, + 506, + 436 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Li et al., 2018; Soudry & Hoffer, 2017). Deep neural networks, frequently observed in practices,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 434, + 506, + 447 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 434, + 506, + 447 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is much less likely to get stuck in sub-optimal points. In Figure 1, we apply principal component", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 444, + 507, + 459 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 444, + 507, + 459 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "analysis (PCA) on the action sequences generated in each planning iteration within one time-step.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 456, + 506, + 469 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 456, + 506, + 469 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The reward surface of the action space is not smooth and prone to local-minimas. We argue that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 506, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 506, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "optimization in the policy network’s parameter space will be more efficient. Furthermore, we note that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 478, + 505, + 490 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 478, + 505, + 490 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the state-of-the-art MBRL algorithm with MPC cannot be applied real-time. We therefore experiment", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 506, + 502 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 506, + 502 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with different policy network distillation schemes for fast control without MPC. To sum up, the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 500, + 263, + 512 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 500, + 263, + 512 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "contribution of this paper is three-fold:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 15.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 357, + 507, + 512 + ] + }, + { + "type": "list", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 521, + 506, + 630 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 520, + 505, + 534 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 520, + 505, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "• We apply policy networks to generate proposals for MPC in high dimensional locomotion control", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23, + "is_list_start_line": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 533, + 258, + 545 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 533, + 258, + 545 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "problems with unknown dynamics.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24, + "is_list_end_line": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 547, + 505, + 561 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 547, + 505, + 561 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "• We formulate planning as optimization with neural networks, and propose policy planning in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25, + "is_list_start_line": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 559, + 506, + 572 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 559, + 506, + 572 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameter space, which obtain state-of-the-art performance on current bench-marking environ-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 570, + 505, + 582 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 570, + 505, + 582 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ments, being about 3x more sample efficient than the previous state-of-the-art algorithm, such as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 581, + 467, + 594 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 581, + 467, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PETS (Chua et al., 2018), TD3 (Fujimoto et al., 2018) and SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28, + "is_list_end_line": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 596, + 506, + 609 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 596, + 506, + 609 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "• We also explore policy network distillation from the planned trajectories. We found the distilled pol-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29, + "is_list_start_line": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 608, + 505, + 620 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 608, + 505, + 620 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "icy network alone achieves high performance on environments like Cheetah without the expansive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 618, + 184, + 632 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 618, + 184, + 632 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "online planning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31, + "is_list_end_line": true + } + ], + "index": 27, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 520, + 506, + 632 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 650, + 211, + 664 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 650, + 213, + 666 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 650, + 213, + 666 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 RELATED WORK", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 676, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Model-based reinforcement learning (MBRL) has been long studied. Dyna (Sutton, 1990; 1991)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 687, + 506, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 687, + 506, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithm alternately performs sampling in the real environments and optimize the controllers on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the learned model of the environments. Other pioneering work includes PILCO (Deisenroth &", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Rasmussen, 2011), where the authors model the dynamics using Gaussian Process and directly", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 719, + 505, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 719, + 505, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "optimize the surrogate expected reward. Effective as it is to solve simple environments, PILCO", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 506, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 506, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "heavily suffers the curse of dimensionality. In (Levine & Abbeel, 2014; Levine & Koltun, 2013;", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 92, + 506, + 108 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 92, + 506, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Levine et al., 2016; Chebotar et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2018), the authors propose guided policy", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 104, + 506, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 104, + 506, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "search (GPS). GPS uses iLQG (Li & Todorov, 2004; Todorov & Li, 2005; Tassa et al., 2012) as the", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "local controller, and distill the knowledge into a policy neural network. In SVG (Heess et al., 2015),", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 505, + 140 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 505, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the authors uses stochastic value gradient so that the stochastic policy network can be optimized by", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 137, + 505, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 137, + 505, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "back-propagation with off-policy data. Recently with the progress of model-free algorithms such", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 147, + 506, + 162 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 147, + 506, + 162 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as TRPO and PPO (Schulman et al., 2015; 2017), Kurutach et al. (2018); Luo et al. (2019) propose", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 159, + 506, + 172 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 159, + 506, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "modern variants of Dyna, where TRPO (Schulman et al., 2015) is used to optimize the policy network", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 170, + 506, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 170, + 506, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using data generated by the learnt dynamics. Concurrent to this work, Janner et al. (2019) further", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 181, + 505, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 181, + 505, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "use SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018) to train the policy network, and gets state-of-the-art performance", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 506, + 205 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 506, + 205 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on many tasks. At the same time, random shooting methods proposed by Nagabandi et al. (2017);", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 202, + 506, + 217 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 202, + 506, + 217 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Chua et al. (2018) have shown its robustness and effectiveness on benchmarking environments. PETS", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 213, + 506, + 227 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 213, + 506, + 227 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithm (Chua et al., 2018) is considered by many to be the state-of-the-art shooting algorithm,", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 225, + 504, + 236 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 225, + 504, + 236 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which we discuss in detail in section 3. Dynamics is also used to obtain better value estimation to", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 236, + 506, + 249 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 236, + 506, + 249 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "speed up training (Gu et al., 2016; Feinberg et al., 2018; Buckman et al., 2018). Latent dynamics", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 245, + 505, + 261 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 245, + 505, + 261 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "models using VAE (Kingma & Welling, 2013) are commonly used to solve problems with image", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 258, + 413, + 270 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 258, + 413, + 270 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "input (Ha & Schmidhuber, 2018a;b; Hafner et al., 2018; Kaiser et al., 2019).", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 35, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 734 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 505, + 269 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 506, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 506, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "heavily suffers the curse of dimensionality. In (Levine & Abbeel, 2014; Levine & Koltun, 2013;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 92, + 506, + 108 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 92, + 506, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Levine et al., 2016; Chebotar et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2018), the authors propose guided policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 104, + 506, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 104, + 506, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "search (GPS). GPS uses iLQG (Li & Todorov, 2004; Todorov & Li, 2005; Tassa et al., 2012) as the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "local controller, and distill the knowledge into a policy neural network. In SVG (Heess et al., 2015),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 505, + 140 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 505, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the authors uses stochastic value gradient so that the stochastic policy network can be optimized by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 137, + 505, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 137, + 505, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "back-propagation with off-policy data. Recently with the progress of model-free algorithms such", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 147, + 506, + 162 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 147, + 506, + 162 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as TRPO and PPO (Schulman et al., 2015; 2017), Kurutach et al. (2018); Luo et al. 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Latent dynamics", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 245, + 505, + 261 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 245, + 505, + 261 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "models using VAE (Kingma & Welling, 2013) are commonly used to solve problems with image", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 258, + 413, + 270 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 258, + 413, + 270 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "input (Ha & Schmidhuber, 2018a;b; Hafner et al., 2018; Kaiser et al., 2019).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 285, + 200, + 298 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 284, + 201, + 301 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 284, + 201, + 301 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 BACKGROUND", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 311, + 254, + 322 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 311, + 255, + 324 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 311, + 255, + 324 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.1 REINFORCEMENT LEARNING", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 332, + 505, + 399 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 332, + 505, + 345 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 332, + 505, + 345 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In reinforcement learning, the problem of solving the given task is formulated as a infinite-horizon", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 343, + 505, + 356 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 343, + 505, + 356 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "discounted Markov decision process. 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We also denote the reward function and transition function as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 470, + 354, + 505, + 366 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "r ( s _ { t } , a _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 365, + 506, + 379 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 365, + 124, + 379 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 365, + 181, + 378 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "f ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , a _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 182, + 365, + 213, + 379 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 214, + 366, + 244, + 376 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "s _ { t } \\in S", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 244, + 365, + 263, + 379 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 366, + 295, + 376 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "a _ { t } \\in \\mathcal A", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 295, + 365, + 445, + 379 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are the state and action at time-step", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 445, + 366, + 450, + 375 + ], + "score": 0.64, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 451, + 365, + 506, + 379 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The reward", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 376, + 506, + 405 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 387, + 218, + 400 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { J ( \\pi ) = \\mathbb { E } _ { \\pi } [ \\sum _ { t = 0 } ^ { \\infty } r ( s _ { t } , a _ { t } ) ] } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 376, + 367, + 405 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to the agent in this work. 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In random", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 444, + 504, + 458 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 444, + 419, + 458 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "shooting algorithms (Nagabandi et al., 2017; Chua et al., 2018), a data-set of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 420, + 444, + 504, + 457 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { D } = \\{ ( s _ { t } , a _ { t } , s _ { t + 1 } ) \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 505, + 468 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 505, + 468 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is collected from previously generated real trajectories. 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Algorithm1GeneralPOPLINFramework
1: while Training iterations not Finished do
2:for ith time-step of the agent do
3:CEM planning as in section 4.1, 4.2
4:Execute the first action from CEM.
5:end for
6:Dynamics update and policy distillation.
7: end while
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Algorithm1GeneralPOPLINFramework
1: while Training iterations not Finished do
2:for ith time-step of the agent do
3:CEM planning as in section 4.1, 4.2
4:Execute the first action from CEM.
5:end for
6:Dynamics update and policy distillation.
7: end while
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In practice the dynamics uses probabilistic ensemble models, which requires some trivial", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 450, + 144 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 450, + 144 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "modifications to the math and we refer readers to PETS Chua et al. 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The dynamics model", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 416, + 81, + 483, + 96 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "f _ { \\phi } ^ { k , t } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , a _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 483, + 78, + 507, + 99 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 94, + 506, + 110 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 94, + 119, + 110 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 95, + 134, + 106 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "k ^ { t h }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 135, + 94, + 219, + 110 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "particle at time-step", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 97, + 225, + 106 + ], + "score": 0.68, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 225, + 94, + 506, + 110 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is sampled from deterministic or probabilistic ensemble models. To", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 106, + 507, + 120 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 106, + 507, + 120 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "better illustrate, throughout the paper we denote this dynamics as a fixed deterministic model, i.e.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 114, + 508, + 138 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 118, + 147, + 134 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "f _ { \\phi } ^ { k , t } \\equiv f _ { \\phi }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 114, + 508, + 138 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". In practice the dynamics uses probabilistic ensemble models, which requires some trivial", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 450, + 144 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 450, + 144 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "modifications to the math and we refer readers to PETS Chua et al. (2018) for details.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 156, + 359, + 169 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 156, + 360, + 170 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 156, + 360, + 170 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4.1 MODEL-BASED POLICY PLANNING IN ACTION SPACE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 177, + 505, + 222 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 178, + 505, + 191 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 178, + 505, + 191 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In model-based policy planning in action space (POPLIN-A), we use a policy network to generate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 188, + 507, + 201 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 188, + 373, + 201 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "good initial action distribution. We denote the policy network as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 374, + 189, + 396, + 201 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\pi ( s _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 397, + 188, + 507, + 201 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Once the policy network", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 201, + 505, + 212 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 201, + 505, + 212 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "proposes sequences of actions on the expected trajectories, we add Gaussian noise to the candidate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 210, + 473, + 223 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 210, + 473, + 223 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "actions and use CEM to fine-tune the mean and standard deviation of the noise distribution.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 7.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 227, + 505, + 296 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 226, + 506, + 241 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 226, + 188, + 241 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Similar to defining", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 188, + 227, + 293, + 240 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\mathbf { a } _ { i } = \\{ a _ { i } , a _ { i + 1 } , . . . , a _ { i + \\tau } \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 293, + 226, + 477, + 241 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we denote the noise sequence at time-step", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 477, + 229, + 482, + 237 + ], + "score": 0.7, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 483, + 226, + 506, + 241 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 237, + 506, + 252 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 237, + 139, + 252 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "horizon", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 241, + 146, + 249 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "\\tau", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 237, + 158, + 252 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 159, + 239, + 256, + 250 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\delta _ { i } = \\{ \\delta _ { i } , \\delta _ { i + 1 } , . . . , \\delta _ { i + \\tau } \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 237, + 506, + 252 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We initialize the noise distribution as a Gaussian distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 249, + 505, + 262 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 249, + 153, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with mean", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 251, + 188, + 261 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mu _ { 0 } = \\mathbf { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 189, + 249, + 256, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and covariance", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 256, + 249, + 302, + 262 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\Sigma _ { 0 } = \\sigma _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } { \\cal I }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 303, + 249, + 336, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 336, + 249, + 348, + 261 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\sigma _ { 0 } ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 249, + 505, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the initial noise variance. In each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 259, + 506, + 273 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 259, + 343, + 273 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "CEM iteration, we first sort out the sequences with the top", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 261, + 367, + 272 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\xi + 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 259, + 506, + 273 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "expected planning reward, whose", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 272, + 506, + 286 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 272, + 233, + 286 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "noise sequences are denoted as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 233, + 272, + 295, + 286 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "\\{ \\delta _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \\delta _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \\delta _ { i } ^ { \\xi } \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 296, + 272, + 506, + 286 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Then we estimate the noise distribution of the elite", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 284, + 174, + 297 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 284, + 174, + 297 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "candidates, i. e.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 12.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 185, + 300, + 425, + 316 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 185, + 300, + 425, + 316 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 185, + 300, + 425, + 316 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\Sigma ^ { \\prime } \\mathrm { C o v } ( \\{ \\delta _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \\delta _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \\delta _ { i } ^ { \\xi } \\} ) , \\mu ^ { \\prime } \\mathrm { M e a n } ( \\{ \\delta _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \\delta _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \\delta _ { i } ^ { \\xi } \\} ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "dfb753f5abc27e035667f33dccad5f93dbc76d3a0f780e0ea2f6ad375d145ddc.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 16, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 185, + 300, + 425, + 316 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 16 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 321, + 505, + 366 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 321, + 505, + 334 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 321, + 194, + 334 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The elite distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 194, + 321, + 225, + 333 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( \\mu ^ { \\prime } , \\Sigma ^ { \\prime } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 226, + 321, + 505, + 334 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in CEM algorithm is used to update the candidate noise distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 332, + 506, + 345 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 332, + 118, + 345 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 332, + 205, + 344 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\mu = ( 1 - \\alpha ) \\mu + \\alpha \\dot { \\mu } ^ { \\prime }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 332, + 210, + 345 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 211, + 333, + 302, + 344 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\Sigma = ( 1 - \\alpha ) \\Sigma + \\alpha \\Sigma ^ { \\prime }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 332, + 506, + 345 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". For every time-step, several CEM iterations are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 505, + 356 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 505, + 356 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performed by candidate re-sampling and noise distribution updating. We provide detailed algorithm", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 354, + 442, + 366 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 354, + 442, + 366 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "boxes in appendix A.1. We consider the following two schemes to add action noise.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 18.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 371, + 505, + 428 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 371, + 506, + 384 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 371, + 506, + 384 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "POPLIN-A-Init: In this planning schemes, we use the policy network only to propose the initial-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 383, + 505, + 395 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 383, + 347, + 395 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ization of the action sequences. When planning at time-step", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 383, + 352, + 392 + ], + "score": 0.72, + "content": "i", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 352, + 383, + 432, + 395 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with observed state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 433, + 384, + 441, + 393 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "s _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 442, + 383, + 505, + 395 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we first obtain", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 393, + 505, + 406 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 393, + 309, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the initial reference action sequences, denoted as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 309, + 393, + 412, + 405 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\hat { \\mathbf { a } } _ { i } = \\{ \\hat { a } _ { i } , \\hat { a } _ { i + 1 } , . . . , \\hat { a } _ { i + \\tau } \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 412, + 393, + 505, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", by running the initial", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 403, + 505, + 417 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 403, + 367, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "forward pass with policy network. At each planning time-step", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 406, + 372, + 414 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 372, + 403, + 403, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 405, + 464, + 415 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "i \\leq t \\leq i + \\tau", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 465, + 403, + 505, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we have", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 414, + 503, + 429 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 415, + 151, + 427 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\hat { a } _ { t } = \\pi ( \\hat { s } _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 152, + 414, + 183, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 183, + 415, + 265, + 428 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\hat { s } _ { t } = f _ { \\phi } ( \\hat { s } _ { t - 1 } , a _ { t - 1 } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 266, + 414, + 270, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 270, + 415, + 300, + 426 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\hat { s _ { i } } = s _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 300, + 414, + 459, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The expected reward given search noise", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 459, + 416, + 469, + 426 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\delta _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 469, + 414, + 503, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "will be:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 158, + 432, + 452, + 467 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 432, + 452, + 467 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 432, + 452, + 467 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { R } ( s _ { i } , \\delta _ { i } ) = \\mathbb { E } \\left[ \\sum _ { t = i } ^ { i + \\tau } r ( s _ { t } , \\hat { a } _ { t } + \\delta _ { t } ) \\right] , \\mathrm { w h e r e } s _ { t + 1 } = f _ { \\phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , \\hat { a } _ { t } + \\delta _ { t } ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "b2ab5b8a7c0d1bbaff13940841eb267c66a759f84de2211e3d524d4d55e8f016.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 27, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 432, + 452, + 443.6666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 443.6666666666667, + 452, + 455.33333333333337 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 455.33333333333337, + 452, + 467.00000000000006 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 28 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 504, + 533 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 477, + 506, + 491 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 477, + 506, + 491 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "POPLIN-A-Replan: POPLIN-A-Replan is a more aggressive planning schemes, which always", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 505, + 501 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 505, + 501 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "re-plans the controller according the changed trajectory given the current noise distribution. If we had", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 500, + 505, + 512 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 500, + 505, + 512 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the perfect dynamics network and the policy network, then we expect re-planning to achieve faster", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 506, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 506, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "convergence the optimal action distribution. But it increases the risk of divergent behaviors. In this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 523, + 295, + 534 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 523, + 295, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "case, the expected reward for each trajectory is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 145, + 538, + 465, + 573 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 538, + 465, + 573 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 538, + 465, + 573 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { R } ( s _ { i } , \\delta _ { i } ) = \\mathbb { E } \\left[ \\sum _ { t = i } ^ { i + \\tau } r ( s _ { t } , \\pi ( s _ { t } ) + \\delta _ { t } ) \\right] , \\mathrm { w h e r e } s _ { t + 1 } = f _ { \\phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , \\pi ( s _ { t } ) + \\delta _ { t } ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "24b5d4ad7bb7142458fdfe5d198d59c0df6c10a4914f8218c6ca5641a8440177.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 35, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 538, + 465, + 549.6666666666666 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 549.6666666666666, + 465, + 561.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 561.3333333333333, + 465, + 572.9999999999999 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 36 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 583, + 378, + 596 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 379, + 597 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 379, + 597 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4.2 MODEL-BASED POLICY PLANNING IN PARAMETER SPACE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 604, + 505, + 672 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 604, + 505, + 617 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 604, + 505, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "While planning in the action space is a natural extension of the original PETS algorithm, we found", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 616, + 505, + 628 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 616, + 505, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "it provides little performance improvement in complex environments. One potential reason is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 626, + 506, + 640 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 626, + 506, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that POPLIN-A still performs CEM searching in action sequence space, where the conditions of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 505, + 650 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 505, + 650 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "convergence for CEM is usually not met. Let’s assume that a robot arm needs to either go left or right", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 649, + 506, + 661 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 649, + 506, + 661 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to get past the obstacle in the middle. In CEM planning in the action space, the theoretic distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 444, + 671 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 444, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "mean is always going straight, which fails to model the bi-modal action distribution.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + } + ], + "index": 40.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 676, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 505, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 505, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Indeed, planning in action space is a non-convex optimization whose surface has lots of holes and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "peaks. Recently, much research progress has been made in understanding why deep neural networks", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 505, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are much less likely to get stuck in sub-optimal points Nguyen & Hein (2017); Li et al. (2018); Soudry", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 708, + 506, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 708, + 506, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "& Hoffer (2017). And we believe that planning in parameter space is essentially using deeper neural", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 507, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 507, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "networks. Therefore, we propose model-based policy planning in parameter space (POPLIN-P).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + } + ], + "index": 46 + } + ], + "page_idx": 3, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 293, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Published as a conference paper at ICLR 2020", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 752, + 308, + 759 + ], + "lines": [] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 81, + 506, + 144 + ], + "lines": [], + "index": 2, + "bbox_fs": [ + 103, + 78, + 508, + 144 + ], + "lines_deleted": true + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 156, + 359, + 169 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 156, + 360, + 170 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 156, + 360, + 170 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4.1 MODEL-BASED POLICY PLANNING IN ACTION SPACE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 177, + 505, + 222 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 178, + 505, + 191 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 178, + 505, + 191 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In model-based policy planning in action space (POPLIN-A), we use a policy network to generate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 188, + 507, + 201 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 188, + 373, + 201 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "good initial action distribution. We denote the policy network as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 374, + 189, + 396, + 201 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\pi ( s _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 397, + 188, + 507, + 201 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Once the policy network", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 201, + 505, + 212 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 201, + 505, + 212 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "proposes sequences of actions on the expected trajectories, we add Gaussian noise to the candidate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 210, + 473, + 223 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 210, + 473, + 223 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "actions and use CEM to fine-tune the mean and standard deviation of the noise distribution.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 7.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 178, + 507, + 223 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 227, + 505, + 296 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 226, + 506, + 241 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 226, + 188, + 241 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Similar to defining", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 188, + 227, + 293, + 240 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\mathbf { a } _ { i } = \\{ a _ { i } , a _ { i + 1 } , . . . , a _ { i + \\tau } \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 293, + 226, + 477, + 241 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we denote the noise sequence at time-step", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 477, + 229, + 482, + 237 + ], + "score": 0.7, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 483, + 226, + 506, + 241 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 237, + 506, + 252 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 237, + 139, + 252 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "horizon", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 241, + 146, + 249 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "\\tau", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 237, + 158, + 252 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 159, + 239, + 256, + 250 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\delta _ { i } = \\{ \\delta _ { i } , \\delta _ { i + 1 } , . . . , \\delta _ { i + \\tau } \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 237, + 506, + 252 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We initialize the noise distribution as a Gaussian distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 249, + 505, + 262 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 249, + 153, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with mean", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 251, + 188, + 261 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mu _ { 0 } = \\mathbf { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 189, + 249, + 256, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and covariance", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 256, + 249, + 302, + 262 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\Sigma _ { 0 } = \\sigma _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } { \\cal I }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 303, + 249, + 336, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 336, + 249, + 348, + 261 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\sigma _ { 0 } ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 249, + 505, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the initial noise variance. In each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 259, + 506, + 273 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 259, + 343, + 273 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "CEM iteration, we first sort out the sequences with the top", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 261, + 367, + 272 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\xi + 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 259, + 506, + 273 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "expected planning reward, whose", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 272, + 506, + 286 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 272, + 233, + 286 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "noise sequences are denoted as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 233, + 272, + 295, + 286 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "\\{ \\delta _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \\delta _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \\delta _ { i } ^ { \\xi } \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 296, + 272, + 506, + 286 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Then we estimate the noise distribution of the elite", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 284, + 174, + 297 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 284, + 174, + 297 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "candidates, i. e.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 12.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 226, + 506, + 297 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 185, + 300, + 425, + 316 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 185, + 300, + 425, + 316 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 185, + 300, + 425, + 316 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\Sigma ^ { \\prime } \\mathrm { C o v } ( \\{ \\delta _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \\delta _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \\delta _ { i } ^ { \\xi } \\} ) , \\mu ^ { \\prime } \\mathrm { M e a n } ( \\{ \\delta _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \\delta _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \\delta _ { i } ^ { \\xi } \\} ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "dfb753f5abc27e035667f33dccad5f93dbc76d3a0f780e0ea2f6ad375d145ddc.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 16, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 185, + 300, + 425, + 316 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 16 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 321, + 505, + 366 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 321, + 505, + 334 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 321, + 194, + 334 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The elite distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 194, + 321, + 225, + 333 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( \\mu ^ { \\prime } , \\Sigma ^ { \\prime } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 226, + 321, + 505, + 334 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in CEM algorithm is used to update the candidate noise distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 332, + 506, + 345 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 332, + 118, + 345 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 332, + 205, + 344 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\mu = ( 1 - \\alpha ) \\mu + \\alpha \\dot { \\mu } ^ { \\prime }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 332, + 210, + 345 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 211, + 333, + 302, + 344 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\Sigma = ( 1 - \\alpha ) \\Sigma + \\alpha \\Sigma ^ { \\prime }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 332, + 506, + 345 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". For every time-step, several CEM iterations are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 505, + 356 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 505, + 356 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performed by candidate re-sampling and noise distribution updating. We provide detailed algorithm", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 354, + 442, + 366 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 354, + 442, + 366 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "boxes in appendix A.1. We consider the following two schemes to add action noise.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 18.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 321, + 506, + 366 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 371, + 505, + 428 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 371, + 506, + 384 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 371, + 506, + 384 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "POPLIN-A-Init: In this planning schemes, we use the policy network only to propose the initial-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 383, + 505, + 395 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 383, + 347, + 395 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ization of the action sequences. When planning at time-step", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 383, + 352, + 392 + ], + "score": 0.72, + "content": "i", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 352, + 383, + 432, + 395 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with observed state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 433, + 384, + 441, + 393 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "s _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 442, + 383, + 505, + 395 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we first obtain", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 393, + 505, + 406 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 393, + 309, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the initial reference action sequences, denoted as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 309, + 393, + 412, + 405 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\hat { \\mathbf { a } } _ { i } = \\{ \\hat { a } _ { i } , \\hat { a } _ { i + 1 } , . . . , \\hat { a } _ { i + \\tau } \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 412, + 393, + 505, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", by running the initial", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 403, + 505, + 417 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 403, + 367, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "forward pass with policy network. At each planning time-step", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 406, + 372, + 414 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 372, + 403, + 403, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 405, + 464, + 415 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "i \\leq t \\leq i + \\tau", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 465, + 403, + 505, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we have", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 414, + 503, + 429 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 415, + 151, + 427 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\hat { a } _ { t } = \\pi ( \\hat { s } _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 152, + 414, + 183, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 183, + 415, + 265, + 428 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\hat { s } _ { t } = f _ { \\phi } ( \\hat { s } _ { t - 1 } , a _ { t - 1 } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 266, + 414, + 270, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 270, + 415, + 300, + 426 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\hat { s _ { i } } = s _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 300, + 414, + 459, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The expected reward given search noise", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 459, + 416, + 469, + 426 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\delta _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 469, + 414, + 503, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "will be:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 23, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 371, + 506, + 429 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 158, + 432, + 452, + 467 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 432, + 452, + 467 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 432, + 452, + 467 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { R } ( s _ { i } , \\delta _ { i } ) = \\mathbb { E } \\left[ \\sum _ { t = i } ^ { i + \\tau } r ( s _ { t } , \\hat { a } _ { t } + \\delta _ { t } ) \\right] , \\mathrm { w h e r e } s _ { t + 1 } = f _ { \\phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , \\hat { a } _ { t } + \\delta _ { t } ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "b2ab5b8a7c0d1bbaff13940841eb267c66a759f84de2211e3d524d4d55e8f016.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 27, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 432, + 452, + 443.6666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 443.6666666666667, + 452, + 455.33333333333337 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 455.33333333333337, + 452, + 467.00000000000006 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 28 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 504, + 533 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 477, + 506, + 491 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 477, + 506, + 491 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "POPLIN-A-Replan: POPLIN-A-Replan is a more aggressive planning schemes, which always", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 505, + 501 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 505, + 501 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "re-plans the controller according the changed trajectory given the current noise distribution. If we had", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 500, + 505, + 512 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 500, + 505, + 512 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the perfect dynamics network and the policy network, then we expect re-planning to achieve faster", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 506, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 506, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "convergence the optimal action distribution. But it increases the risk of divergent behaviors. In this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 523, + 295, + 534 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 523, + 295, + 534 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "case, the expected reward for each trajectory is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 31, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 477, + 506, + 534 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 145, + 538, + 465, + 573 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 538, + 465, + 573 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 538, + 465, + 573 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { R } ( s _ { i } , \\delta _ { i } ) = \\mathbb { E } \\left[ \\sum _ { t = i } ^ { i + \\tau } r ( s _ { t } , \\pi ( s _ { t } ) + \\delta _ { t } ) \\right] , \\mathrm { w h e r e } s _ { t + 1 } = f _ { \\phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , \\pi ( s _ { t } ) + \\delta _ { t } ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "24b5d4ad7bb7142458fdfe5d198d59c0df6c10a4914f8218c6ca5641a8440177.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 35, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 538, + 465, + 549.6666666666666 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 549.6666666666666, + 465, + 561.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 561.3333333333333, + 465, + 572.9999999999999 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 36 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 583, + 378, + 596 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 379, + 597 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 379, + 597 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4.2 MODEL-BASED POLICY PLANNING IN PARAMETER SPACE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 604, + 505, + 672 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 604, + 505, + 617 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 604, + 505, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "While planning in the action space is a natural extension of the original PETS algorithm, we found", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 616, + 505, + 628 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 616, + 505, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "it provides little performance improvement in complex environments. One potential reason is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 626, + 506, + 640 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 626, + 506, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that POPLIN-A still performs CEM searching in action sequence space, where the conditions of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 505, + 650 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 505, + 650 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "convergence for CEM is usually not met. Let’s assume that a robot arm needs to either go left or right", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 649, + 506, + 661 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 649, + 506, + 661 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to get past the obstacle in the middle. In CEM planning in the action space, the theoretic distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 444, + 671 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 444, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "mean is always going straight, which fails to model the bi-modal action distribution.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + } + ], + "index": 40.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 604, + 506, + 671 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 676, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 505, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 505, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Indeed, planning in action space is a non-convex optimization whose surface has lots of holes and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "peaks. Recently, much research progress has been made in understanding why deep neural networks", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 505, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are much less likely to get stuck in sub-optimal points Nguyen & Hein (2017); Li et al. (2018); Soudry", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 708, + 506, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 708, + 506, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "& Hoffer (2017). And we believe that planning in parameter space is essentially using deeper neural", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 507, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 507, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "networks. Therefore, we propose model-based policy planning in parameter space (POPLIN-P).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + } + ], + "index": 46, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 677, + 507, + 734 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 505, + 117 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 505, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 505, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Instead of adding noise in the action space, POPLIN-P adds noise in the parameter space of the policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 358, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "network. We denote the parameter vector of policy network as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 358, + 94, + 365, + 104 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "\\theta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 365, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and the parameter noise sequence", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 478, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 200, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "starting from time-step", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 105, + 205, + 114 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "i", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 205, + 104, + 217, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 217, + 104, + 323, + 117 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\omega _ { i } = \\{ \\omega _ { i } , \\omega _ { i + 1 } , . . . , \\omega _ { i + \\tau } \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 323, + 104, + 478, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The expected reward function is now", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 145, + 124, + 466, + 159 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 124, + 466, + 159 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 124, + 466, + 159 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { R } ( s _ { i } , \\omega _ { i } ) = \\mathbb { E } \\left[ \\sum _ { t = i } ^ { i + \\tau } r \\left( s _ { t } , \\pi _ { \\theta + \\omega _ { t } } ( s _ { t } ) \\right) \\right] , \\mathrm { w h e r e } s _ { t + 1 } = f _ { \\phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , \\pi _ { \\theta + \\omega _ { t } } ( s _ { t } ) ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "ad78af2ee6f93e7b4ac0d6a2597f7c2f0da49f2f0fa37022ad45d092e8f38e6d.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 4, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 124, + 466, + 135.66666666666666 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 135.66666666666666, + 466, + 147.33333333333331 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 147.33333333333331, + 466, + 158.99999999999997 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 5 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 437, + 177 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 438, + 179 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 438, + 179 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Similarly, we update the CEM distribution towards the following elite distribution:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 180, + 185, + 430, + 201 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 185, + 430, + 201 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 185, + 430, + 201 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\Sigma ^ { \\prime } \\mathrm { C o v } ( \\{ \\omega _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \\omega _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \\omega _ { i } ^ { \\xi } \\} ) , \\mu ^ { \\prime } \\mathrm { M e a n } ( \\{ \\omega _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \\omega _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \\omega _ { i } ^ { \\xi } \\} ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "2d7bee2433b923270c8d7425b4fee7a5e414922a5de7ed2de03d292742e7b0fa.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 7, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 185, + 430, + 201 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 7 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 209, + 505, + 253 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 208, + 505, + 222 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 208, + 428, + 222 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We can force the policy network noise within the sequence to be consistent, i.e.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 428, + 211, + 505, + 221 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\omega _ { i } = \\omega _ { i + 1 } = . . . =", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 219, + 506, + 232 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 221, + 127, + 231 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\omega _ { i + \\tau }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 219, + 506, + 232 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", which we name as POPLIN-P-Uni. This reduces the size of the flattened noise vector from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 231, + 506, + 244 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 232, + 147, + 243 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( \\tau + 1 ) | \\theta |", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 231, + 159, + 244 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 159, + 231, + 171, + 243 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "| \\theta |", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 171, + 231, + 506, + 244 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and is more consistent in policy behaviors. The noise can also be separate for each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 242, + 474, + 253 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 242, + 474, + 253 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "time-step, which we name as POPLIN-P-Sep. We benchmark both schemes in section 5.4.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 9.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 258, + 506, + 303 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 506, + 271 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 506, + 271 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Equivalence to re-parameterized stochastic policy: Stochastic policy network encourages explo-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 506, + 282 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 506, + 282 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ration, and increases the robustness against the impact of compounded model errors. POPLIN-P,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 280, + 506, + 294 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 280, + 506, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which inserts exogenous noise into the parameter space, can be regarded as a re-parameterized", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 291, + 474, + 304 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 291, + 474, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "stochastic policy network, which natural combines stochastic policy network with planning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 13.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 318, + 365, + 330 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 318, + 367, + 332 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 318, + 367, + 332 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4.3 MODEL-PREDICTIVE CONTROL AND POLICY CONTROL", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 340, + 506, + 430 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 505, + 354 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 505, + 354 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MBRL with online re-planning or model-predictive control (MPC) is effective, but at the same time", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 506, + 366 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 506, + 366 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "time-consuming. Many previous attempts have tried to distill the planned trajectories into a policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 506, + 375 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 506, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "network Levine & Abbeel (2014); Levine & Koltun (2013); Chebotar et al. (2017); Zhang et al.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 507, + 387 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 507, + 387 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(2018), and control only with policy network. In this paper, we define two settings of using POPLIN:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 505, + 397 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 505, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MPC Control and Policy Control. In MPC control, the agent uses policy network during the online", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 506, + 410 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 506, + 410 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "planning and only execute the first action. In policy control, the agent directly executes the signal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 406, + 506, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 406, + 506, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "produced by the policy network given current observation, just like how policy network is used in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 418, + 398, + 431 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 418, + 398, + 431 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MFRL algorithms. We show both performance of POPLIN in this paper.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 20.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 445, + 272, + 457 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 445, + 273, + 458 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 445, + 273, + 458 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4.4 POLICY DISTILLATION SCHEMES", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 467, + 505, + 501 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 468, + 505, + 480 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 468, + 505, + 480 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The agents iterate between interacting with the environments, and distilling the knowledge from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 479, + 505, + 491 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 479, + 505, + 491 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "planning trajectory into a policy network. We consider several policy distillation schemes here, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 490, + 345, + 502 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 490, + 345, + 502 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "discuss their effectiveness in the later experimental section.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 506, + 505, + 540 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 506, + 519 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 506, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Behavior cloning (BC): BC can be applied to POPLIN-A and POPLIN-P, by minimizing the squared", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 517, + 506, + 529 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 517, + 198, + 529 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "L2 loss as Equation 7.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 518, + 207, + 527 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "\\mathcal { D }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 208, + 517, + 506, + 529 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the collection of observation and planned action from real environment.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 529, + 447, + 541 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 529, + 447, + 541 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "When applying BC to POPLIN-P, we fix parameter noise of the network to be zeros.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 249, + 546, + 361, + 566 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 249, + 546, + 361, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 249, + 546, + 361, + 566 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\operatorname* { m i n } _ { \\theta } \\mathbb { E } _ { s , a \\in \\mathcal { D } } | | \\pi _ { \\theta } ( s ) - a | | ^ { 2 } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "2e97db96ae4f53e50ca0f7d363bdbfc6f25b752fc214d228f6172af90154b045.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 32, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 249, + 546, + 361, + 566 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 32 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 579, + 505, + 624 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 580, + 505, + 592 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 580, + 505, + 592 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Generative adversarial network training (GAN) Goodfellow et al. (2014): GAN can be applied", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 591, + 506, + 603 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 591, + 506, + 603 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to POPLIN-P. We consider the following fact. During MPC control, the agent only needs to cover", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 603, + 505, + 614 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 603, + 505, + 614 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the best action sequence in its action sequence distribution. Therefore, instead of point-to-point", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 613, + 414, + 626 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 613, + 414, + 626 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "supervised training such as BC, we can train the policy network using GAN:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 34.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 144, + 632, + 465, + 652 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 632, + 465, + 652 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 632, + 465, + 652 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\operatorname* { m i n } _ { \\pi _ { \\theta } } \\operatorname* { m a x } _ { \\psi } \\mathbb { E } _ { s , a \\in \\mathcal { D } } \\log ( D _ { \\psi } ( s , a ) ) + \\mathbb { E } _ { s \\in \\mathcal { D } , z \\sim \\mathcal { N } ( \\mathbf { 0 } , \\sigma _ { 0 } I ) } \\log ( 1 - D _ { \\psi } ( s , \\pi _ { \\theta + z } ( s ) ) ) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "14901db3d3fcf1787a945b06d28a94d1ad673c3563d6afd4dc0f72f136c81f00.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 37, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 632, + 465, + 652 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 37 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 659, + 505, + 682 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 659, + 505, + 672 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 659, + 198, + 672 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where a discriminator", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 660, + 207, + 670 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "D", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 208, + 659, + 281, + 672 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameterized by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 281, + 660, + 290, + 672 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\psi", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 290, + 659, + 460, + 672 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is used, and we sample the random noise", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 460, + 662, + 466, + 670 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "z", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 467, + 659, + 505, + 672 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 668, + 253, + 684 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 668, + 204, + 684 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "initial CEM distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 205, + 671, + 249, + 683 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\mathcal { N } ( \\mathbf { 0 } , \\sigma _ { 0 } \\pmb { I } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 249, + 668, + 253, + 684 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 38.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 687, + 505, + 734 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Setting parameter average (AVG): AVG is also applicable to POPLIN-P. During interaction with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 697, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 697, + 447, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "real environment, we also record the optimized parameter noise in to the data-set, i. e.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 447, + 699, + 503, + 711 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\mathcal { D } = \\{ ( s , \\omega ) \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 503, + 697, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "And we sacrifice the effectiveness of the policy control and only use policy network as a good search", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 717, + 400, + 737 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 717, + 296, + 737 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "initialization. The new parameter is updated as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 296, + 721, + 393, + 734 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\theta = \\theta + 1 / | \\mathcal { D } | \\sum _ { \\omega \\in \\mathcal { D } } \\omega", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 394, + 717, + 400, + 737 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + } + ], + "index": 41.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 4, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 294, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 25, + 294, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 25, + 294, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Published as a conference paper at ICLR 2020", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 762 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 762 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 505, + 117 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 505, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 505, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Instead of adding noise in the action space, POPLIN-P adds noise in the parameter space of the policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 358, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "network. We denote the parameter vector of policy network as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 358, + 94, + 365, + 104 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "\\theta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 365, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and the parameter noise sequence", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 478, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 200, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "starting from time-step", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 105, + 205, + 114 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "i", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 205, + 104, + 217, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 217, + 104, + 323, + 117 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\omega _ { i } = \\{ \\omega _ { i } , \\omega _ { i + 1 } , . . . , \\omega _ { i + \\tau } \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 323, + 104, + 478, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The expected reward function is now", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + } + ], + "index": 1, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 81, + 505, + 117 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 145, + 124, + 466, + 159 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 124, + 466, + 159 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 124, + 466, + 159 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\mathcal { R } ( s _ { i } , \\omega _ { i } ) = \\mathbb { E } \\left[ \\sum _ { t = i } ^ { i + \\tau } r \\left( s _ { t } , \\pi _ { \\theta + \\omega _ { t } } ( s _ { t } ) \\right) \\right] , \\mathrm { w h e r e } s _ { t + 1 } = f _ { \\phi } ( s _ { t + 1 } | s _ { t } , \\pi _ { \\theta + \\omega _ { t } } ( s _ { t } ) ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "ad78af2ee6f93e7b4ac0d6a2597f7c2f0da49f2f0fa37022ad45d092e8f38e6d.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 4, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 124, + 466, + 135.66666666666666 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 135.66666666666666, + 466, + 147.33333333333331 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 147.33333333333331, + 466, + 158.99999999999997 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 5 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 437, + 177 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 438, + 179 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 438, + 179 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Similarly, we update the CEM distribution towards the following elite distribution:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 6, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 165, + 438, + 179 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 180, + 185, + 430, + 201 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 185, + 430, + 201 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 185, + 430, + 201 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\Sigma ^ { \\prime } \\mathrm { C o v } ( \\{ \\omega _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \\omega _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \\omega _ { i } ^ { \\xi } \\} ) , \\mu ^ { \\prime } \\mathrm { M e a n } ( \\{ \\omega _ { i } ^ { 0 } , \\omega _ { i } ^ { 1 } , . . . , \\omega _ { i } ^ { \\xi } \\} ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "2d7bee2433b923270c8d7425b4fee7a5e414922a5de7ed2de03d292742e7b0fa.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 7, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 185, + 430, + 201 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 7 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 209, + 505, + 253 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 208, + 505, + 222 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 208, + 428, + 222 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We can force the policy network noise within the sequence to be consistent, i.e.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 428, + 211, + 505, + 221 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\omega _ { i } = \\omega _ { i + 1 } = . . . =", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 219, + 506, + 232 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 221, + 127, + 231 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\omega _ { i + \\tau }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 219, + 506, + 232 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", which we name as POPLIN-P-Uni. This reduces the size of the flattened noise vector from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 231, + 506, + 244 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 232, + 147, + 243 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( \\tau + 1 ) | \\theta |", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 231, + 159, + 244 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 159, + 231, + 171, + 243 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "| \\theta |", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 171, + 231, + 506, + 244 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and is more consistent in policy behaviors. The noise can also be separate for each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 242, + 474, + 253 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 242, + 474, + 253 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "time-step, which we name as POPLIN-P-Sep. We benchmark both schemes in section 5.4.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 9.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 208, + 506, + 253 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 258, + 506, + 303 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 506, + 271 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 506, + 271 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Equivalence to re-parameterized stochastic policy: Stochastic policy network encourages explo-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 506, + 282 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 506, + 282 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ration, and increases the robustness against the impact of compounded model errors. POPLIN-P,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 280, + 506, + 294 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 280, + 506, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which inserts exogenous noise into the parameter space, can be regarded as a re-parameterized", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 291, + 474, + 304 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 291, + 474, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "stochastic policy network, which natural combines stochastic policy network with planning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 13.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 258, + 506, + 304 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 318, + 365, + 330 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 318, + 367, + 332 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 318, + 367, + 332 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4.3 MODEL-PREDICTIVE CONTROL AND POLICY CONTROL", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 340, + 506, + 430 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 505, + 354 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 505, + 354 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MBRL with online re-planning or model-predictive control (MPC) is effective, but at the same time", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 506, + 366 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 506, + 366 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "time-consuming. Many previous attempts have tried to distill the planned trajectories into a policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 506, + 375 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 506, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "network Levine & Abbeel (2014); Levine & Koltun (2013); Chebotar et al. (2017); Zhang et al.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 507, + 387 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 507, + 387 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(2018), and control only with policy network. In this paper, we define two settings of using POPLIN:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 505, + 397 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 505, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MPC Control and Policy Control. In MPC control, the agent uses policy network during the online", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 506, + 410 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 506, + 410 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "planning and only execute the first action. In policy control, the agent directly executes the signal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 406, + 506, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 406, + 506, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "produced by the policy network given current observation, just like how policy network is used in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 418, + 398, + 431 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 418, + 398, + 431 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "MFRL algorithms. We show both performance of POPLIN in this paper.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 20.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 342, + 507, + 431 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 445, + 272, + 457 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 445, + 273, + 458 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 445, + 273, + 458 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4.4 POLICY DISTILLATION SCHEMES", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 467, + 505, + 501 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 468, + 505, + 480 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 468, + 505, + 480 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The agents iterate between interacting with the environments, and distilling the knowledge from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 479, + 505, + 491 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 479, + 505, + 491 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "planning trajectory into a policy network. We consider several policy distillation schemes here, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 490, + 345, + 502 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 490, + 345, + 502 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "discuss their effectiveness in the later experimental section.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 27, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 468, + 505, + 502 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 506, + 505, + 540 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 506, + 519 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 506, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Behavior cloning (BC): BC can be applied to POPLIN-A and POPLIN-P, by minimizing the squared", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 517, + 506, + 529 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 517, + 198, + 529 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "L2 loss as Equation 7.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 518, + 207, + 527 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "\\mathcal { D }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 208, + 517, + 506, + 529 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the collection of observation and planned action from real environment.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 529, + 447, + 541 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 529, + 447, + 541 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "When applying BC to POPLIN-P, we fix parameter noise of the network to be zeros.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 30, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 506, + 506, + 541 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 249, + 546, + 361, + 566 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 249, + 546, + 361, + 566 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 249, + 546, + 361, + 566 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\operatorname* { m i n } _ { \\theta } \\mathbb { E } _ { s , a \\in \\mathcal { D } } | | \\pi _ { \\theta } ( s ) - a | | ^ { 2 } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "2e97db96ae4f53e50ca0f7d363bdbfc6f25b752fc214d228f6172af90154b045.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 32, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 249, + 546, + 361, + 566 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 32 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 579, + 505, + 624 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 580, + 505, + 592 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 580, + 505, + 592 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Generative adversarial network training (GAN) Goodfellow et al. (2014): GAN can be applied", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 591, + 506, + 603 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 591, + 506, + 603 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to POPLIN-P. We consider the following fact. During MPC control, the agent only needs to cover", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 603, + 505, + 614 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 603, + 505, + 614 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the best action sequence in its action sequence distribution. 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During interaction with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 697, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 697, + 447, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "real environment, we also record the optimized parameter noise in to the data-set, i. e.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 447, + 699, + 503, + 711 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\mathcal { D } = \\{ ( s , \\omega ) \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 503, + 697, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "And we sacrifice the effectiveness of the policy control and only use policy network as a good search", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 717, + 400, + 737 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 717, + 296, + 737 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "initialization. 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CheetahAntHopperSwimmerCheetah-v0Walker2d
POPLIN-P (ours)12227.9 ± 5652.82330.1 ± 320.92055.2 ± 613.8334.4 ± 34.24235.0 ± 1133.0597.0 ± 478.8
POPLIN-A (ours)4651.1 ± 1088.51148.4 ± 438.3202.5 ± 962.5344.9 ± 7.11562.8 ± 1136.7-105.0 ± 249.8
PETS (Chua et al., 2018)4204.5 ± 789.01165.5 ± 226.9114.9 ± 621.0326.2 ± 12.62288.4 ± 1019.0282.5 ± 501.6
METRPO (Kurutach et al., 2018)-744.8 ± 707.1282.2 ±18.01272.5 ± 500.9225.5 ± 104.62283.7 ± 900.4-1609.3 ± 657.5
TD3 (Fujimoto et al.,2018)218.9 ± 593.3870.1 ± 283.81816.6 ± 994.872.1 ± 130.93015.7 ± 969.8-516.4 ± 812.2
SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018)1745.9 ± 839.2548.1 ± 146.6788.3 ± 738.2204.6 ± 69.33459.8 ± 1326.6164.5 ± 1318.6
Training Time-step5000020000020000050000200000200000
Reacher3DPusherPendulumInvertedPendulumAcrobotCartpole
POPLIN-P (ours)-29.0± 25.2-55.8 ± 23.1167.9 ± 45.9-0.0 ±0.023.2 ± 27.2200.8 ± 0.3
POPLIN-A (ours)-27.7 ± 25.2-56.0 ± 24.3178.3 ± 19.3-0.0±0.020.5 ± 20.1200.6 ± 1.3
PETS (Chua et al.,2018)-47.7 ± 43.6-52.7 ± 23.5155.7 ± 79.3-29.5 ± 37.8-18.4 ± 46.3199.6 ± 4.6
METRPO (Kurutach et al., 2018)-43.5 ± 3.7-98.5 ± 12.6174.8 ± 6.2-29.3 ± 29.5-78.7 ± 5.0138.5 ± 63.2
TD3 (Fujimoto et al.,2018)-331.6 ± 134.6-216.4 ± 39.6168.6 ± 12.7-102.9 ± 101.0-76.5 ± 10.2-409.2 ± 928.8
SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018)-161.6 ± 43.7-227.6 ± 42.2159.5 ± 12.1-0.2 ± 0.1-69.4 ± 7.0195.5 ± 8.7
Training Time-step500005000050000500005000050000
", + "type": "table", + "image_path": "28d2a4a10847e1c8f77434c0cfdc9c3c5670a062016e8c8c9146a31086262552.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 6, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 226, + 505, + 270.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 270.3333333333333, + 505, + 314.66666666666663 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 314.66666666666663, + 505, + 358.99999999999994 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 7 + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 4.75 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 371, + 505, + 393 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 370, + 506, + 384 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 370, + 506, + 384 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Table 1: The training time-step varies from 50,000 to 200,000 depending on the difficulty of the tasks.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 382, + 426, + 394 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 382, + 426, + 394 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The performance is averaged across four random seeds with the last 3 episodes.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 8.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 406, + 200, + 419 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 201, + 421 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 201, + 421 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5 EXPERIMENTS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 426, + 505, + 482 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 425, + 505, + 439 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 425, + 505, + 439 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In section 5.1, we compare POPLIN with existing algorithms. We also show the policy control", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 437, + 505, + 450 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 437, + 505, + 450 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance of POPLIN with different training methods in section 5.2. In section 5.3, we provide", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 447, + 506, + 463 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 447, + 506, + 463 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "explanations and analysis for the effectiveness of our proposed algorithms by exploring and visualizing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 460, + 505, + 472 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 460, + 505, + 472 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the planner’s reward optimization surface. In section 5.4, we study the sensitivity of our algorithms", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 471, + 473, + 483 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 471, + 473, + 483 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with respect to hyper-parameters, and show the performance of different algorithm variants.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 496, + 314, + 507 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 496, + 316, + 509 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 496, + 316, + 509 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5.1 MUJOCO BENCHMARKING PERFORMANCE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 517, + 505, + 627 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 516, + 506, + 531 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 516, + 506, + 531 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we compare POPLIN with existing reinforcement learning algorithms including", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 526, + 507, + 542 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 526, + 507, + 542 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PETS (Chua et al., 2018), GPS (Levine et al., 2016), RS (Richards, 2005), MBMF (Nagabandi et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 539, + 506, + 552 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 539, + 506, + 552 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2017), TD3 (Fujimoto et al., 2018) METRPO (Kurutach et al., 2018), PPO (Schulman et al., 2017;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 549, + 506, + 563 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 549, + 506, + 563 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Heess et al., 2017), TRPO (Schulman et al., 2015) and SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018), which includes", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 561, + 505, + 574 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 561, + 505, + 574 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the most recent progress of both model-free and model-based algorithms. We examine the algorithms", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 571, + 505, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 571, + 505, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with 12 environments, which is a wide collection of environments from OpenAI Gym (Brockman", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 505, + 595 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 505, + 595 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2016) and the environments proposed in PETS (Chua et al., 2018), which are summarized in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 505, + 607 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 505, + 607 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "appendix A.2. Due to the page limit and to better visualize the results, we put the complete figures", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 605, + 504, + 617 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 605, + 504, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and tables in appendix A.3. And in Figure 2 and Table 1, we show the performance of our algorithms", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 497, + 629 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 497, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the best performing baselines. The hyper-parameter search is summarized in appendix A.3.1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 21.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 632, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 633, + 506, + 645 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 633, + 506, + 645 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "As shown in Table 1, POPLIN achieves state-of-the-art performance in almost all environments,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 643, + 506, + 657 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 643, + 506, + 657 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "solving most of the them with 200,000 or 50,000 time-steps, instead of 1 million time-steps commonly", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 654, + 506, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 654, + 506, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used in MFRL algorithms. POPLIN-A (POPLIN-A-BC-Replan) has the best performance in simpler", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environments such as Pendulum, Cart-pole, Swimmer. But on complex environments such as Ant,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Cheetah or Hopper, POPLIN-A does not have obvious performance gain compared with PETS.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 506, + 702 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 506, + 702 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "POPLIN-P (POPLIN-P-Sep-AVG) on the other hand, has consistent and stable performance among", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "different environments. POPLIN-P is significantly better than all other algorithms in complex", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environments such as Ant and Cheetah. However, like other model-based algorithms, POPLIN", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "cannot solve environments such as Walker and Humanoid. the performance of POPLIN plateaus", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "page_idx": 5, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 293, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 293, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 293, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Published as a conference paper at ICLR 2020", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 752, + 308, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 762 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 762 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 79, + 506, + 191 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 79, + 506, + 191 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 79, + 506, + 191 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 79, + 506, + 191 + ], + "score": 0.969, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "0954ae969c23a32d6b70e33aa2e83b3c5cd6c3df60c039a0bfbdacac64afb471.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 79, + 506, + 116.33333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 116.33333333333334, + 506, + 153.66666666666669 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 153.66666666666669, + 506, + 191.00000000000003 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 226, + 505, + 359 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 199, + 504, + 222 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 199, + 505, + 212 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 199, + 505, + 212 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 2: Performance curves on different bench-marking environments. 4 random seeds are run for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 210, + 501, + 223 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 210, + 501, + 223 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "each environment. The full figures of all 12 MuJoCo environments are summarized in appendix 8.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 3.5 + }, + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 226, + 505, + 359 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 226, + 505, + 359 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 226, + 505, + 359 + ], + "score": 0.975, + "html": "
CheetahAntHopperSwimmerCheetah-v0Walker2d
POPLIN-P (ours)12227.9 ± 5652.82330.1 ± 320.92055.2 ± 613.8334.4 ± 34.24235.0 ± 1133.0597.0 ± 478.8
POPLIN-A (ours)4651.1 ± 1088.51148.4 ± 438.3202.5 ± 962.5344.9 ± 7.11562.8 ± 1136.7-105.0 ± 249.8
PETS (Chua et al., 2018)4204.5 ± 789.01165.5 ± 226.9114.9 ± 621.0326.2 ± 12.62288.4 ± 1019.0282.5 ± 501.6
METRPO (Kurutach et al., 2018)-744.8 ± 707.1282.2 ±18.01272.5 ± 500.9225.5 ± 104.62283.7 ± 900.4-1609.3 ± 657.5
TD3 (Fujimoto et al.,2018)218.9 ± 593.3870.1 ± 283.81816.6 ± 994.872.1 ± 130.93015.7 ± 969.8-516.4 ± 812.2
SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018)1745.9 ± 839.2548.1 ± 146.6788.3 ± 738.2204.6 ± 69.33459.8 ± 1326.6164.5 ± 1318.6
Training Time-step5000020000020000050000200000200000
Reacher3DPusherPendulumInvertedPendulumAcrobotCartpole
POPLIN-P (ours)-29.0± 25.2-55.8 ± 23.1167.9 ± 45.9-0.0 ±0.023.2 ± 27.2200.8 ± 0.3
POPLIN-A (ours)-27.7 ± 25.2-56.0 ± 24.3178.3 ± 19.3-0.0±0.020.5 ± 20.1200.6 ± 1.3
PETS (Chua et al.,2018)-47.7 ± 43.6-52.7 ± 23.5155.7 ± 79.3-29.5 ± 37.8-18.4 ± 46.3199.6 ± 4.6
METRPO (Kurutach et al., 2018)-43.5 ± 3.7-98.5 ± 12.6174.8 ± 6.2-29.3 ± 29.5-78.7 ± 5.0138.5 ± 63.2
TD3 (Fujimoto et al.,2018)-331.6 ± 134.6-216.4 ± 39.6168.6 ± 12.7-102.9 ± 101.0-76.5 ± 10.2-409.2 ± 928.8
SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018)-161.6 ± 43.7-227.6 ± 42.2159.5 ± 12.1-0.2 ± 0.1-69.4 ± 7.0195.5 ± 8.7
Training Time-step500005000050000500005000050000
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We also show the policy control", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 437, + 505, + 450 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 437, + 505, + 450 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance of POPLIN with different training methods in section 5.2. In section 5.3, we provide", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 447, + 506, + 463 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 447, + 506, + 463 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "explanations and analysis for the effectiveness of our proposed algorithms by exploring and visualizing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 460, + 505, + 472 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 460, + 505, + 472 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the planner’s reward optimization surface. In section 5.4, we study the sensitivity of our algorithms", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 471, + 473, + 483 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 471, + 473, + 483 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with respect to hyper-parameters, and show the performance of different algorithm variants.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 13, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 425, + 506, + 483 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 496, + 314, + 507 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 496, + 316, + 509 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 496, + 316, + 509 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5.1 MUJOCO BENCHMARKING PERFORMANCE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 517, + 505, + 627 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 516, + 506, + 531 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 516, + 506, + 531 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we compare POPLIN with existing reinforcement learning algorithms including", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 526, + 507, + 542 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 526, + 507, + 542 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PETS (Chua et al., 2018), GPS (Levine et al., 2016), RS (Richards, 2005), MBMF (Nagabandi et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 539, + 506, + 552 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 539, + 506, + 552 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2017), TD3 (Fujimoto et al., 2018) METRPO (Kurutach et al., 2018), PPO (Schulman et al., 2017;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 549, + 506, + 563 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 549, + 506, + 563 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Heess et al., 2017), TRPO (Schulman et al., 2015) and SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018), which includes", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 561, + 505, + 574 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 561, + 505, + 574 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the most recent progress of both model-free and model-based algorithms. We examine the algorithms", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 571, + 505, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 571, + 505, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with 12 environments, which is a wide collection of environments from OpenAI Gym (Brockman", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 505, + 595 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 505, + 595 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2016) and the environments proposed in PETS (Chua et al., 2018), which are summarized in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 505, + 607 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 505, + 607 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "appendix A.2. Due to the page limit and to better visualize the results, we put the complete figures", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 605, + 504, + 617 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 605, + 504, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and tables in appendix A.3. And in Figure 2 and Table 1, we show the performance of our algorithms", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 497, + 629 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 497, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the best performing baselines. The hyper-parameter search is summarized in appendix A.3.1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 21.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 516, + 507, + 629 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 632, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 633, + 506, + 645 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 633, + 506, + 645 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "As shown in Table 1, POPLIN achieves state-of-the-art performance in almost all environments,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 643, + 506, + 657 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 643, + 506, + 657 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "solving most of the them with 200,000 or 50,000 time-steps, instead of 1 million time-steps commonly", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 654, + 506, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 654, + 506, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used in MFRL algorithms. POPLIN-A (POPLIN-A-BC-Replan) has the best performance in simpler", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environments such as Pendulum, Cart-pole, Swimmer. But on complex environments such as Ant,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Cheetah or Hopper, POPLIN-A does not have obvious performance gain compared with PETS.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 506, + 702 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 506, + 702 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "POPLIN-P (POPLIN-P-Sep-AVG) on the other hand, has consistent and stable performance among", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "different environments. POPLIN-P is significantly better than all other algorithms in complex", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environments such as Ant and Cheetah. However, like other model-based algorithms, POPLIN", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "cannot solve environments such as Walker and Humanoid. the performance of POPLIN plateaus", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 381, + 506, + 395 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 381, + 506, + 395 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "quickly. Gradually model-free algorithms will have better asymptotic performance. 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The variance of the candidates trajectory", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 366, + 360, + 374, + 368 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "\\sigma", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 374, + 358, + 482, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in POPLIN-P is set to 0.1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 9.5 + } + ], + "index": 8.25 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 382, + 503, + 405 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 381, + 506, + 395 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 381, + 506, + 395 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "quickly. Gradually model-free algorithms will have better asymptotic performance. We view this as a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 394, + 345, + 405 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 394, + 345, + 405 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "bottleneck of our algorithms and leave it to future research.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 11.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 418, + 276, + 429 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 417, + 279, + 430 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 417, + 279, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5.2 POLICY CONTROL PERFORMANCE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 438, + 504, + 472 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 438, + 505, + 451 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 438, + 505, + 451 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we show the performance of POPLIN without MPC. To be more specific, we show", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 505, + 462 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 505, + 462 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the performance with the Cheetah, Pendulum, Pusher and Reacher3D, as shown in Figure 3, and we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 462, + 301, + 473 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 462, + 301, + 473 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "refer readers to appendix A.4 for the full results.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 478, + 505, + 598 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 478, + 506, + 490 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 478, + 506, + 490 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We note that policy control is not always successful, and in environments such as Ant and Walker2D,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 506, + 500 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 488, + 506, + 500 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the performance is almost random. 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Which one of POPLIN-P-BC and POPLIN-P-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 532, + 505, + 545 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 532, + 505, + 545 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "GAN is better depends on the environment tested, and they can be used interchangeably. 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POPLIN-P-Avg, which only use policy network as optimization initialization has good MPC", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 576, + 505, + 590 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 576, + 505, + 590 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance, but sacrifices the policy control performance. 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In Figure 4, we show", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 643, + 506, + 657 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 643, + 506, + 657 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the performance of PETS, POPLIN-A and POPLIN-P with different population sizes. As we can", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 507, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 507, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "see, PETS and POPLIN-A, which are the two algorithms that add search noise in the action space,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 506, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 506, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "cannot increase their performance by having bigger population size. 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This indicates", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 543, + 505, + 556 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 543, + 505, + 556 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that POPLIN-A, which uses a deterministic policy network, is more prone to distillation collapse than", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 554, + 505, + 568 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 554, + 505, + 568 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "POPLIN-P, which can be interpreted as using a stochastic policy network with reparameterization", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 565, + 506, + 578 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 565, + 506, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trick. POPLIN-P-Avg, which only use policy network as optimization initialization has good MPC", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 576, + 505, + 590 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 576, + 505, + 590 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance, but sacrifices the policy control performance. In general, the performance of policy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 242, + 599 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 242, + 599 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "control lags behind MPC control.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + } + ], + "index": 22, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 478, + 506, + 599 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 612, + 342, + 623 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 612, + 343, + 625 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 612, + 343, + 625 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5.3 SEARCH EFFECTIVENESS AND REWARD SURFACE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 632, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 633, + 505, + 645 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 633, + 505, + 645 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we explore the reasons for the effectiveness of POPLIN. In Figure 4, we show", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 643, + 506, + 657 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 643, + 506, + 657 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the performance of PETS, POPLIN-A and POPLIN-P with different population sizes. As we can", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 507, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 507, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "see, PETS and POPLIN-A, which are the two algorithms that add search noise in the action space,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 506, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 506, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "cannot increase their performance by having bigger population size. However, POPLIN-P is able to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 506, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 506, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "efficiently increase performance with bigger population size. We then visualize the candidates in their", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reward or optimization surface in Figure 1. We use PCA (principal component analysis) to transform", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the action sequences into 2D features. As we can see, the reward surface is not smooth, with lots of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 710, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 710, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "local-minima and local-maxima islands. The CEM distribution of PETS algorithm is almost fixed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 506, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 506, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "across iterations on this surface, even if there are potentially higher reward regions. POPLIN is able", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 506, + 360 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 506, + 360 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to efficiently search through the jagged reward surface, from the low-reward center to the high reward", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 505, + 370 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 505, + 370 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "left-down corner. To further understand why POPLIN is much better at searching through the reward", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 369, + 505, + 381 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 369, + 505, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "surface, we then plot the figures in the solution space in Figure 5. More specifically, we now perform", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 379, + 505, + 392 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 379, + 505, + 392 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PCA on the policy parameters for POPLIN-P. As we can see in Figure 5 (c), the reward surface", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 390, + 505, + 403 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 390, + 505, + 403 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in parameter space is much smoother than the reward surface in action space, which are shown in", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 402, + 506, + 414 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 402, + 506, + 414 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 5 (a), (b). POPLIN-P can efficiently search through the smoother reward surface in parameter", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 414, + 131, + 422 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 414, + 131, + 422 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "space.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 33, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 633, + 507, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 120, + 81, + 491, + 166 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 120, + 81, + 491, + 166 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 81, + 491, + 166 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 81, + 491, + 166 + ], + "score": 0.971, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "d8e2a87ec31b5725be0a377ebc989b6db12deb393309a31ba0ae66d0846a6fa6.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 81, + 491, + 109.33333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 109.33333333333333, + 491, + 137.66666666666666 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 137.66666666666666, + 491, + 166.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 173, + 505, + 207 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 173, + 505, + 186 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 173, + 505, + 186 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 5: The reward optimization surface in the solution space. The expected reward is higher from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 184, + 504, + 196 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 184, + 504, + 196 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "color blue to color red. We visualize candidates using different colors as defined in the legend. The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 195, + 269, + 208 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 195, + 269, + 208 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "full results can be seen in appendix A.7.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 2.5 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 110, + 227, + 501, + 313 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 110, + 227, + 501, + 313 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 227, + 501, + 313 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 227, + 501, + 313 + ], + "score": 0.966, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "602ec86d32c596f9197c83835dbe46c307fa2a17434f00ab22cb6ce160d6fba6.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 7, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 227, + 501, + 255.66666666666666 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 255.66666666666666, + 501, + 284.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 284.3333333333333, + 501, + 313.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 8 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 320, + 502, + 333 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 319, + 504, + 334 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 319, + 504, + 334 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 7: The ablation study of of POPLIN-A, POPLIN-P-BC, POPLIN-P-Avg, POPLIN-P-GAN.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 8.0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 346, + 505, + 420 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 506, + 360 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 506, + 360 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to efficiently search through the jagged reward surface, from the low-reward center to the high reward", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 505, + 370 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 505, + 370 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "left-down corner. To further understand why POPLIN is much better at searching through the reward", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 369, + 505, + 381 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 369, + 505, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "surface, we then plot the figures in the solution space in Figure 5. More specifically, we now perform", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 379, + 505, + 392 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 379, + 505, + 392 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PCA on the policy parameters for POPLIN-P. As we can see in Figure 5 (c), the reward surface", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 390, + 505, + 403 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 390, + 505, + 403 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in parameter space is much smoother than the reward surface in action space, which are shown in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 402, + 506, + 414 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 402, + 506, + 414 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 5 (a), (b). POPLIN-P can efficiently search through the smoother reward surface in parameter", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 414, + 131, + 422 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 414, + 131, + 422 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "space.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 429, + 337, + 506 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 429, + 337, + 441 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 429, + 337, + 441 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In Figure 6, we also visualize the actions distribution in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 441, + 338, + 451 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 441, + 338, + 451 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "one episode taken by PETS, POPLIN-A and POPLIN-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 336, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 336, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "P using policy networks of different number of hidden", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 462, + 337, + 474 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 462, + 337, + 474 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "layers. We again use PCA to project the actions into 2D", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 474, + 337, + 485 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 474, + 337, + 485 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "feature space. As we can see, POPLIN-P shows a clear", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 484, + 338, + 497 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 484, + 338, + 497 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "pattern of being more multi-modal with the use of deeper", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 496, + 158, + 506 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 496, + 158, + 506 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the network.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 344, + 415, + 505, + 527 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 344, + 415, + 505, + 527 + ], + "group_id": 2, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 415, + 505, + 527 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 415, + 505, + 527 + ], + "score": 0.963, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "45e471c80af2fbf96b218d3a5ea609ba6bd3c0b45b446d8ca5a58d8597883886.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 27.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 415, + 505, + 429.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 429.0, + 505, + 443.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 443.0, + 505, + 457.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 457.0, + 505, + 471.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 471.0, + 505, + 485.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 485.0, + 505, + 499.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 499.0, + 505, + 513.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 513.0, + 505, + 527.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 31 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 347, + 529, + 502, + 541 + ], + "group_id": 2, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 345, + 527, + 503, + 542 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 345, + 527, + 503, + 542 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "x x Figure 6: Projected action distribution.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 30.25 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 532, + 208, + 542 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 530, + 210, + 544 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 530, + 210, + 544 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5.4 ABLATION STUDY", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 556, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 556, + 506, + 569 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 556, + 506, + 569 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we study how sensitive our algorithms are with respect to some of the crucial hyper-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 568, + 505, + 579 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 568, + 505, + 579 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameters, for example, the initial variance of the CEM noise distribution. We also show the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 578, + 506, + 591 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 578, + 506, + 591 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance of different algorithm variants. The full ablation study and performance against different", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 589, + 505, + 601 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 589, + 505, + 601 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "random seeds are included in appendix A.5. In Figure 7 (a), we show the performance of POPLIN-A", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 600, + 505, + 613 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 600, + 505, + 613 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using different training schemes. We try both training with only the real data samples, which we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 610, + 506, + 624 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 610, + 506, + 624 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote as \"Real\", and training also with imaginary data the agent plans into the future, which we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 506, + 634 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 506, + 634 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote as \"Hallucination\". In practice, POPLIN-A-Init performs better than POPLIN-A-Replan,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 646 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 646 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which suggests that there can be divergent or overconfident update in POPLIN-A-Replan. And", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 644, + 506, + 657 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 644, + 506, + 657 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training with or without imaginary does not have big impact on the performance. In Figure7 (b)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 505, + 667 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 505, + 667 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and (c), we also compare the performance of POPLIN-P-Uni with POPLIN-P-Sep, where we show", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 505, + 679 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 505, + 679 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that POPLIN-P-Sep has much better performance than POPLIN-P-Uni, indicating the search is not", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "efficient enough in the constrained parameter space. For POPLIN-P-Avg, with bigger initial variance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the noise distribution, the agent gets better at planning. However, increasing initial noise variance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 505, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "does not increase the performance of PETS algorithm, as shown in 7 (b), (d). It is worth mentioning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that POPLIN-P-GAN is highly sensitive to the entropy penalty we add to the discriminator, with the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 451, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 451, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 curves in Figure7 (c) using entropy penalty of 0.003, 0.001 and 0.0001 respectively,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + } + ], + "index": 41.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 7, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 293, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 293, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 293, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Published as a conference paper at ICLR 2020", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 308, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 300, + 750, + 309, + 761 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 300, + 750, + 309, + 761 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "8", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 120, + 81, + 491, + 166 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 120, + 81, + 491, + 166 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 81, + 491, + 166 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 81, + 491, + 166 + ], + "score": 0.971, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "d8e2a87ec31b5725be0a377ebc989b6db12deb393309a31ba0ae66d0846a6fa6.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 81, + 491, + 109.33333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 109.33333333333333, + 491, + 137.66666666666666 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 137.66666666666666, + 491, + 166.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 173, + 505, + 207 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 173, + 505, + 186 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 173, + 505, + 186 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 5: The reward optimization surface in the solution space. 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We try both training with only the real data samples, which we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 610, + 506, + 624 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 610, + 506, + 624 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote as \"Real\", and training also with imaginary data the agent plans into the future, which we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 506, + 634 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 622, + 506, + 634 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote as \"Hallucination\". In practice, POPLIN-A-Init performs better than POPLIN-A-Replan,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 646 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 646 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which suggests that there can be divergent or overconfident update in POPLIN-A-Replan. And", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 644, + 506, + 657 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 644, + 506, + 657 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training with or without imaginary does not have big impact on the performance. In Figure7 (b)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 505, + 667 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 655, + 505, + 667 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and (c), we also compare the performance of POPLIN-P-Uni with POPLIN-P-Sep, where we show", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 505, + 679 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 505, + 679 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that POPLIN-P-Sep has much better performance than POPLIN-P-Uni, indicating the search is not", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "efficient enough in the constrained parameter space. For POPLIN-P-Avg, with bigger initial variance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the noise distribution, the agent gets better at planning. However, increasing initial noise variance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 505, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "does not increase the performance of PETS algorithm, as shown in 7 (b), (d). It is worth mentioning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that POPLIN-P-GAN is highly sensitive to the entropy penalty we add to the discriminator, with the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 451, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 451, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 curves in Figure7 (c) using entropy penalty of 0.003, 0.001 and 0.0001 respectively,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + } + ], + "index": 41.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 556, + 506, + 734 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 81, + 201, + 94 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 78, + 203, + 97 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 78, + 203, + 97 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6 CONCLUSIONS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 105, + 505, + 161 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 507, + 119 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 507, + 119 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this paper, we explore efficient ways to combine policy networks with model-based planning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 131 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 131 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We propose POPLIN, which obtains state-of-the-art performance on the MuJoCo benchmarking", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 505, + 141 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 127, + 505, + 141 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environments. We study different distillation schemes to provide fast controllers during testing. More", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 139, + 505, + 152 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 139, + 505, + 152 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "importantly, we formulate online planning as optimization using deep neural networks. 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(2018), the authors only experiment with 4 environments,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which are namely Reacher3D, Pusher, Cartpole and Cheetah. In this paper, we experiment with the 9", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "more environments based on the standard bench-marking environments from OpenAI Gym Brockman", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 506, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 506, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. (2016). More specifically, we experiment with InvertedPendulum, Acrobot, Pendulum, Ant,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 698, + 506, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 698, + 506, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Hopper, Swimmer, Walker2d. We also note that the Cheetah environment in PETS Chua et al. (2018)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is different from the standard HalfCheetah-v1 in OpenAI Gym. Therefore we experiment with both", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 505, + 732 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 505, + 732 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "versions in our paper, where the Cheetah from PETS is named as \"Cheetah\", and the HalfCHeetah", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + } + ], + "index": 47, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 654, + 507, + 732 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 206, + 93 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 81, + 207, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 81, + 207, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Algorithm 4 POPLIN-P", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 94, + 506, + 295 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 94, + 506, + 295 + ], + "group_id": 2, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 94, + 506, + 295 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 94, + 506, + 295 + ], + "score": 0.725, + "html": "
1: Initialize policy network parameters 0, dynamics network parameters Φ, data-set D 2: while Training iterations not Finished do
3:for ith time-step of the agent do > Sampling Data
4: 5:Initialize parameter-sequence noise distribution. μ = μo,∑ = o² I for jth CEM Update do CEM Planning
6:Sample parameter noise sequences {ωi} from N(μ,Σ).
7:for Every candidate ωi do
Trajectory Predicting
8:fort=itoi+T,St+1 = f(St+1lSt,at = Tθ+ωt(St))
9:Evaluate expected reward of this candidate.
10:end for
11:Fit distribution of the elite candidates as μ',∑'.
12:Update noise distribution μ= (1-α)μ + αμ',∑= (1-α)Σ+αΣ'
13:end for
14:Execute the first action from the optimal candidate action sequence.
15:end for
16:Update using data-set D
17:
18: end whileUpdate 0 using data-set D
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CheetahAntHopperSwimmerCheetah-v0Walker2dSwimmer-v0
POPLIN-P12227.9 ± 5652.82330.1 ± 320.92055.2 ±613.8334.4 ± 34.24235.0± 1133.0597.0 ± 478.837.1 ± 4.6
POPLIN-A4651.1 ± 1088.51148.4 ± 438.3202.5 ± 962.5344.9 ± 7.11562.8 ± 1136.7-105.0 ± 249.826.7 ± 13.2
PETS4204.5 ± 789.01165.5 ± 226.9114.9 ± 621.0326.2 ± 12.62288.4± 1019.0282.5 ± 501.6-2060.3 ± 228.029.7 ± 13.526.8± 2.3
RS191.1 ± 21.2535.5± 37.0-2491.5 ± 35.122.4±9.7421.0 ± 55.2
MBMFTRPO-459.5 ± 62.5134.2 ± 50.4-1047.4 ± 1098.7110.7 ± 45.6126.9 ± 72.7-2218.1 ± 437.730.6 ± 4.9
-412.4 ± 33.3323.3 ± 24.9-2100.1 ± 640.647.8 ± 11.1-12.0 ± 85.5-2286.3± 373.326.3 ± 2.6
PPO-483.0± 46.1321.0 ± 51.2-103.8 ± 1028.0155.5 ± 14.917.2 ± 84.4-1893.6± 234.124.7 ± 4.08.2 ±10.235.4± 2.2
GPS129.4 ± 140.4445.5 ± 212.9-768.5 ± 200.9-30.9 ± 6.352.3 ± 41.7-1730.8 ± 441.7
METRPO-744.8 ± 707.1282.2 ± 18.01272.5 ± 500.9225.5 ± 104.62283.7 ± 900.4-1609.3 ± 657.5
TD3218.9 ± 593.3870.1 ± 283.81816.6 ± 994.872.1 ± 130.93015.7 ±969.8-516.4 ± 812.217.0 ± 12.9
SACRandom1745.9 ± 839.2-284.2 ± 83.3548.1 ± 146.6788.3 ± 738.2204.6 ± 69.33459.8 ± 1326.6164.5 ± 1318.623.0 ± 17.32.4 ± 12.0
478.0 ± 47.8-2768.0 ± 571.6-12.4 ± 12.8-312.4± 44.2-2450.1± 406.5
Time-step5000020000020000050000200000200000200000
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CheetahAntHopperSwimmerCheetah-v0Walker2dSwimmer-v0
POPLIN-PPOPLIN-A0.944 ± 0.0790.395 ± 0.0570.932 ± 0.1280.459 ± 0.1750.919 ± 0.1120.936 ± 0.0860.927 ± 0.2270.968 ± 0.150.928 ± 0.115
0.582 ± 0.1750.962 ± 0.0180.393 ± 0.2270.748 ± 0.0780.668 ± 0.33
PETS0.363 ± 0.0020.466 ± 0.0910.566 ± 0.1130.916 ± 0.0320.538 ± 0.2040.87 ± 0.1570.743 ± 0.338
RS0.072 ± 0.0050.214 ± 0.0150.092 ± 0.0060.156 ± 0.0240.164 ± 0.0110.137 ± 0.0710.67 ± 0.058
MBMF0.025 ± 0.0020.054 ±0.020.355± 0.20.377 ± 0.1140.105 ± 0.0150.088 ± 0.137.1370.765 ± 0.123
TRPO0.028 ± 0.0030.129 ± 0.010.164 ± 0.1160.22 ± 0.0280.078 ± 0.0170.067 ± 0.117.1177
PPO0.023 ± 0.010.128 ± 0.020.527 ± 0.1870.489 ± 0.0370.083 ± 0.0170.19 ± 0.073
GPS0.067 ± 0.0510.178 ± 0.0850.406 ±0.0370.023 ± 0.0160.09 ± 0.0080.24 ±0.1380.205 ± 0.255
METRPO0.004 ± 0.0430.113 ± 0.0070.777 ± 0.0910.664 ± 0.2620.537 ± 0.180.278 ± 0.2050.885 ± 0.055
TD3SACRandom0.074 ± 0.0610.184 ± 0.0060.037±00.074 ± 0.0610.348 ± 0.1140.876 ± 0.1810.28 ±0.3270.683 ± 0.1940.62 ± 0.254
0.219 ± 0.059.0190.689 ± 0.1340.042 ± 0.1040.612 ± 0.1730.069 ± 0.0320.772 ± 0.2650.833 ± 0.412
0.191 ± 0.0190.0.018 ± 0.0090.016 ± 0.127
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1: Initialize policy network parameters 0, dynamics network parameters Φ, data-set D 2: while Training iterations not Finished do
3:for ith time-step of the agent do > Sampling Data
4: 5:Initialize parameter-sequence noise distribution. μ = μo,∑ = o² I for jth CEM Update do CEM Planning
6:Sample parameter noise sequences {ωi} from N(μ,Σ).
7:for Every candidate ωi do
Trajectory Predicting
8:fort=itoi+T,St+1 = f(St+1lSt,at = Tθ+ωt(St))
9:Evaluate expected reward of this candidate.
10:end for
11:Fit distribution of the elite candidates as μ',∑'.
12:Update noise distribution μ= (1-α)μ + αμ',∑= (1-α)Σ+αΣ'
13:end for
14:Execute the first action from the optimal candidate action sequence.
15:end for
16:Update using data-set D
17:
18: end whileUpdate 0 using data-set D
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CheetahAntHopperSwimmerCheetah-v0Walker2dSwimmer-v0
POPLIN-P12227.9 ± 5652.82330.1 ± 320.92055.2 ±613.8334.4 ± 34.24235.0± 1133.0597.0 ± 478.837.1 ± 4.6
POPLIN-A4651.1 ± 1088.51148.4 ± 438.3202.5 ± 962.5344.9 ± 7.11562.8 ± 1136.7-105.0 ± 249.826.7 ± 13.2
PETS4204.5 ± 789.01165.5 ± 226.9114.9 ± 621.0326.2 ± 12.62288.4± 1019.0282.5 ± 501.6-2060.3 ± 228.029.7 ± 13.526.8± 2.3
RS191.1 ± 21.2535.5± 37.0-2491.5 ± 35.122.4±9.7421.0 ± 55.2
MBMFTRPO-459.5 ± 62.5134.2 ± 50.4-1047.4 ± 1098.7110.7 ± 45.6126.9 ± 72.7-2218.1 ± 437.730.6 ± 4.9
-412.4 ± 33.3323.3 ± 24.9-2100.1 ± 640.647.8 ± 11.1-12.0 ± 85.5-2286.3± 373.326.3 ± 2.6
PPO-483.0± 46.1321.0 ± 51.2-103.8 ± 1028.0155.5 ± 14.917.2 ± 84.4-1893.6± 234.124.7 ± 4.08.2 ±10.235.4± 2.2
GPS129.4 ± 140.4445.5 ± 212.9-768.5 ± 200.9-30.9 ± 6.352.3 ± 41.7-1730.8 ± 441.7
METRPO-744.8 ± 707.1282.2 ± 18.01272.5 ± 500.9225.5 ± 104.62283.7 ± 900.4-1609.3 ± 657.5
TD3218.9 ± 593.3870.1 ± 283.81816.6 ± 994.872.1 ± 130.93015.7 ±969.8-516.4 ± 812.217.0 ± 12.9
SACRandom1745.9 ± 839.2-284.2 ± 83.3548.1 ± 146.6788.3 ± 738.2204.6 ± 69.33459.8 ± 1326.6164.5 ± 1318.623.0 ± 17.32.4 ± 12.0
478.0 ± 47.8-2768.0 ± 571.6-12.4 ± 12.8-312.4± 44.2-2450.1± 406.5
Time-step5000020000020000050000200000200000200000
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CheetahAntHopperSwimmerCheetah-v0Walker2dSwimmer-v0
POPLIN-PPOPLIN-A0.944 ± 0.0790.395 ± 0.0570.932 ± 0.1280.459 ± 0.1750.919 ± 0.1120.936 ± 0.0860.927 ± 0.2270.968 ± 0.150.928 ± 0.115
0.582 ± 0.1750.962 ± 0.0180.393 ± 0.2270.748 ± 0.0780.668 ± 0.33
PETS0.363 ± 0.0020.466 ± 0.0910.566 ± 0.1130.916 ± 0.0320.538 ± 0.2040.87 ± 0.1570.743 ± 0.338
RS0.072 ± 0.0050.214 ± 0.0150.092 ± 0.0060.156 ± 0.0240.164 ± 0.0110.137 ± 0.0710.67 ± 0.058
MBMF0.025 ± 0.0020.054 ±0.020.355± 0.20.377 ± 0.1140.105 ± 0.0150.088 ± 0.137.1370.765 ± 0.123
TRPO0.028 ± 0.0030.129 ± 0.010.164 ± 0.1160.22 ± 0.0280.078 ± 0.0170.067 ± 0.117.1177
PPO0.023 ± 0.010.128 ± 0.020.527 ± 0.1870.489 ± 0.0370.083 ± 0.0170.19 ± 0.073
GPS0.067 ± 0.0510.178 ± 0.0850.406 ±0.0370.023 ± 0.0160.09 ± 0.0080.24 ±0.1380.205 ± 0.255
METRPO0.004 ± 0.0430.113 ± 0.0070.777 ± 0.0910.664 ± 0.2620.537 ± 0.180.278 ± 0.2050.885 ± 0.055
TD3SACRandom0.074 ± 0.0610.184 ± 0.0060.037±00.074 ± 0.0610.348 ± 0.1140.876 ± 0.1810.28 ±0.3270.683 ± 0.1940.62 ± 0.254
0.219 ± 0.059.0190.689 ± 0.1340.042 ± 0.1040.612 ± 0.1730.069 ± 0.0320.772 ± 0.2650.833 ± 0.412
0.191 ± 0.0190.0.018 ± 0.0090.016 ± 0.127
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In the figure, we include baselines such as TD3, SAC, PPO,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 558, + 310, + 571 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 558, + 310, + 571 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "METRPO, PETS, RS and our proposed algorithm.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 2.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 621, + 311, + 633 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 621, + 312, + 634 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 621, + 312, + 634 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.2.1 FIXING THE SWIMMER ENVIRONMENTS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 654, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 655, + 506, + 667 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 655, + 506, + 667 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We also notice that after an update in the Gym environments, the swimmer became unsolvable for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 506, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "almost all algorithms. The reward threshold for solving is around 340 for the original swimmer, but", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 506, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "almost all algorithms, including the results shown in many published papers Schulman et al. (2017),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 506, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 506, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "will be stuck at the 130 reward local-minima. We note that this is due the fact that the velocity sensor", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is on the neck of the swimmer, making swimmer extremely prone to this performance local-minimum.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We provide a fixed swimmer, which we name as Swimmer, by moving the sensor from the neck to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 479, + 732 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 479, + 732 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the head. We believe this modification is necessary to test the effectiveness of the algorithms.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 10, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 655, + 506, + 732 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 80, + 505, + 217 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 80, + 505, + 217 + ], + "group_id": 2, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 80, + 505, + 217 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 80, + 505, + 217 + ], + "score": 0.984, + "html": "
Reacher3DPusherPendulumInvertedPendulumAcrobotCartpole
POPLIN-PPOPLIN-A-29.0 ± 25.2-55.8 ± 23.1167.9 ± 45.9-0.0±0.023.2 ± 27.2200.8 ± 0.3200.6 ± 1.3
-27.7 ± 25.2-56.0 ± 24.3178.3 ± 19.3-0.0±0.020.5± 20.1
PETS-47.7 ± 43.6-52.7± 23.5155.7 ± 79.3-29.5 ± 37.8-18.4 ± 46.3199.6 ± 4.6
RS-107.6 ± 5.2-146.4± 3.2161.2 ± 11.5-0.0±0.0-12.5 ± 14.3201.0 ± 0.0
MBMF-168.6 ± 23.2-285.8 ±15.2163.7 ± 15.2-202.3 ± 17.0-146.8 ± 29.922.5 ± 67.7
TRPO-176.5 ± 24.3-235.5 ± 6.2158.7 ± 9.1-134.6 ± 6.9-291.2 ± 6.746.3 ±6.0
PPO-162.2 ± 15.7-243.2 ± 6.9160.9 ± 12.5-137.3 ± 12.4-205.4 ± 51.568.8 ± 4.9
GPS-552.8 ± 577.7-151.2 ± 1.3164.3 ± 4.1-14.7 ± 20.7-214.3 ± 15.3-18.7 ± 101.1
METRPO-43.5± 3.7-98.5 ± 12.6174.8 ± 6.2-29.3 ± 29.5-78.7 ±5.0138.5 ± 63.2
TD3-331.6 ± 134.6-216.4 ± 39.6168.6 ± 12.7-102.9 ± 101.0-76.5 ±10.2-409.2 ± 928.8
SACRandom-161.6 ± 43.7-183.1 ± 41.5-227.6 ± 42.2159.5 ± 12.1-0.2 ± 0.1-69.4 ± 7.0195.5 ± 8.7
-199.0 ± 10.0-249.5 ± 228.4-205.9 ± 12.1-374.1 ± 15.631.3 ± 36.3
Time-step500005000050000500005000050000
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In the table, we record the performance at 50000 time-step.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 3.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 275, + 358, + 287 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 275, + 360, + 288 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 275, + 360, + 288 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.3 FULL RESULTS OF BENCH-MARKING PERFORMANCE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 297, + 505, + 342 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 297, + 505, + 309 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 297, + 505, + 309 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we show the figures of all the environments in Figure 8. We also include the final", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 308, + 505, + 321 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 308, + 505, + 321 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance in the Table 2 and 4. As we can see, POPLIN has consistently the best performance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 320, + 505, + 331 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 320, + 505, + 331 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "among almost all the environments. We also include the time-steps we use on each environment for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 331, + 248, + 342 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 331, + 248, + 342 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "all the algorithms in Table 2 and 4.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 7.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 356, + 234, + 368 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 234, + 369 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 234, + 369 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.3.1 HYPER-PARAMETERS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 376, + 505, + 465 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 376, + 506, + 390 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 376, + 506, + 390 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we introduce the hyper-parameters we search during the experiments. One thing to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 388, + 505, + 400 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 388, + 505, + 400 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "notice is that, for all of the experiments on PETS, POPLIN, we use the model type PE (probabilistic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 399, + 505, + 411 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 399, + 505, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ensembles) and propagation method of E (expectation). While other combinations of model type and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 410, + 506, + 423 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 410, + 506, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "propagation methods might result in better performance, they are usually prohibitively computation-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 420, + 506, + 433 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 420, + 506, + 433 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ally expensive. For example, the combination of PE-DS requires a training time of about 68 hours for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 432, + 506, + 444 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 432, + 506, + 444 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "one random seed, for PETS to train with 200 iteration, which is 200,000 time-step. As a matter of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 443, + 505, + 455 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 443, + 505, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fact, PE-E is actually one of the best combination in many environments. Since POPLIN is based on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 453, + 367, + 466 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 453, + 367, + 466 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PETS, we believe this is a fair comparison for all the algorithms.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + } + ], + "index": 14.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 470, + 504, + 493 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 506, + 484 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 506, + 484 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We show the hyper-parameter search we perform for PETS in the paper in Table 5. For the hyper-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 482, + 363, + 493 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 482, + 363, + 493 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameters specific to POPLIN, we summarize them in 6 and 7.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 19.5 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 183, + 506, + 427, + 585 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 183, + 506, + 427, + 585 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 183, + 506, + 427, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 183, + 506, + 427, + 585 + ], + "score": 0.979, + "html": "
Hyper-parameterValue Tried
Population Size100,200,.., 2000
Planning Horizon30,50,100
Initial Distribution Sigma0.01, 0.03, 0.1, 0.25, 0.3, 0.5
CEMIterations5,8,10,20
ELite Size g50,100,200
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Hyper-parameterValue Tried
Training Datareal data, hallucination data
VariantReplan, Init
Initial Distribution Sigma0.001, 0.003, 0.01, 0.03, 0.1
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Reacher3DPusherPendulumInvertedPendulumAcrobotCartpole
POPLIN-PPOPLIN-A-29.0 ± 25.2-55.8 ± 23.1167.9 ± 45.9-0.0±0.023.2 ± 27.2200.8 ± 0.3200.6 ± 1.3
-27.7 ± 25.2-56.0 ± 24.3178.3 ± 19.3-0.0±0.020.5± 20.1
PETS-47.7 ± 43.6-52.7± 23.5155.7 ± 79.3-29.5 ± 37.8-18.4 ± 46.3199.6 ± 4.6
RS-107.6 ± 5.2-146.4± 3.2161.2 ± 11.5-0.0±0.0-12.5 ± 14.3201.0 ± 0.0
MBMF-168.6 ± 23.2-285.8 ±15.2163.7 ± 15.2-202.3 ± 17.0-146.8 ± 29.922.5 ± 67.7
TRPO-176.5 ± 24.3-235.5 ± 6.2158.7 ± 9.1-134.6 ± 6.9-291.2 ± 6.746.3 ±6.0
PPO-162.2 ± 15.7-243.2 ± 6.9160.9 ± 12.5-137.3 ± 12.4-205.4 ± 51.568.8 ± 4.9
GPS-552.8 ± 577.7-151.2 ± 1.3164.3 ± 4.1-14.7 ± 20.7-214.3 ± 15.3-18.7 ± 101.1
METRPO-43.5± 3.7-98.5 ± 12.6174.8 ± 6.2-29.3 ± 29.5-78.7 ±5.0138.5 ± 63.2
TD3-331.6 ± 134.6-216.4 ± 39.6168.6 ± 12.7-102.9 ± 101.0-76.5 ±10.2-409.2 ± 928.8
SACRandom-161.6 ± 43.7-183.1 ± 41.5-227.6 ± 42.2159.5 ± 12.1-0.2 ± 0.1-69.4 ± 7.0195.5 ± 8.7
-199.0 ± 10.0-249.5 ± 228.4-205.9 ± 12.1-374.1 ± 15.631.3 ± 36.3
Time-step500005000050000500005000050000
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In the table, we record the performance at 50000 time-step.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4, + "is_list_start_line": true, + "is_list_end_line": true + } + ], + "index": 3.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 228, + 506, + 254 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 275, + 358, + 287 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 275, + 360, + 288 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 275, + 360, + 288 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.3 FULL RESULTS OF BENCH-MARKING PERFORMANCE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 297, + 505, + 342 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 297, + 505, + 309 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 297, + 505, + 309 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we show the figures of all the environments in Figure 8. We also include the final", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 308, + 505, + 321 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 308, + 505, + 321 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance in the Table 2 and 4. As we can see, POPLIN has consistently the best performance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 320, + 505, + 331 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 320, + 505, + 331 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "among almost all the environments. We also include the time-steps we use on each environment for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 331, + 248, + 342 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 331, + 248, + 342 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "all the algorithms in Table 2 and 4.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 7.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 297, + 505, + 342 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 356, + 234, + 368 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 234, + 369 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 234, + 369 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.3.1 HYPER-PARAMETERS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 376, + 505, + 465 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 376, + 506, + 390 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 376, + 506, + 390 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we introduce the hyper-parameters we search during the experiments. One thing to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 388, + 505, + 400 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 388, + 505, + 400 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "notice is that, for all of the experiments on PETS, POPLIN, we use the model type PE (probabilistic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 399, + 505, + 411 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 399, + 505, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ensembles) and propagation method of E (expectation). While other combinations of model type and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 410, + 506, + 423 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 410, + 506, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "propagation methods might result in better performance, they are usually prohibitively computation-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 420, + 506, + 433 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 420, + 506, + 433 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ally expensive. For example, the combination of PE-DS requires a training time of about 68 hours for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 432, + 506, + 444 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 432, + 506, + 444 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "one random seed, for PETS to train with 200 iteration, which is 200,000 time-step. As a matter of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 443, + 505, + 455 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 443, + 505, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fact, PE-E is actually one of the best combination in many environments. Since POPLIN is based on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 453, + 367, + 466 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 453, + 367, + 466 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PETS, we believe this is a fair comparison for all the algorithms.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + } + ], + "index": 14.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 376, + 506, + 466 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 470, + 504, + 493 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 506, + 484 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 506, + 484 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We show the hyper-parameter search we perform for PETS in the paper in Table 5. For the hyper-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 482, + 363, + 493 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 482, + 363, + 493 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameters specific to POPLIN, we summarize them in 6 and 7.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 19.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 469, + 506, + 493 + ] + }, + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 183, + 506, + 427, + 585 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 183, + 506, + 427, + 585 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 183, + 506, + 427, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 183, + 506, + 427, + 585 + ], + "score": 0.979, + "html": "
Hyper-parameterValue Tried
Population Size100,200,.., 2000
Planning Horizon30,50,100
Initial Distribution Sigma0.01, 0.03, 0.1, 0.25, 0.3, 0.5
CEMIterations5,8,10,20
ELite Size g50,100,200
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Hyper-parameterValue Tried
Training Datareal data, hallucination data
VariantReplan, Init
Initial Distribution Sigma0.001, 0.003, 0.01, 0.03, 0.1
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Hyper-parameterValue Tried
Training Datareal data, hallucination data
Training VariantBC, GAN, Avg
Noise VariantUni, Sep
Initial Distribution Sigma0.001, 0.003, 0.01, 0.03, 0.1
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We also experiment with using WGAN", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 170, + 505, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 170, + 505, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Salimans et al. (2016) to train the policy network, which does not results in good performance and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 181, + 208, + 193 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 181, + 208, + 193 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is not put into the article.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 4.0 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 214, + 291, + 226 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 214, + 293, + 227 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 214, + 293, + 227 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.4 FULL RESULTS OF POLICY CONTROL", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 235, + 506, + 301 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 235, + 506, + 248 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 235, + 506, + 248 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Due to the space limit, we are not able to put all of the results of policy control in the main article.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 246, + 506, + 259 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 246, + 506, + 259 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "More specifically, we add the figure for the original Cheetah-v0 compared to the figures shown in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 257, + 506, + 270 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 257, + 506, + 270 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "main article, as can be seen in 9 (b). Again, we note that POPLIN-P-BC and POPLIN-P-GAN are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 268, + 505, + 280 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 268, + 505, + 280 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "comparable to each other, as mentioned in the main article. POPLIN-P-BC and POPLIN-P-GAN", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 279, + 506, + 292 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 279, + 506, + 292 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are the better algorithms respectively in Cheetah and Cheetah-v0, which are essentially the same", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 290, + 307, + 303 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 290, + 307, + 303 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment with different observation functions.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 11.5 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 309, + 504, + 533 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 309, + 504, + 533 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 309, + 504, + 533 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 309, + 504, + 533 + ], + "score": 0.976, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "8221b21f6322860b9f01fa92ae6488a1dbcc9b6192e40aded7f385f33ba9e368.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 16, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 309, + 504, + 383.6666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 383.6666666666667, + 504, + 458.33333333333337 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 458.33333333333337, + 504, + 533.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 17 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 541, + 505, + 575 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 540, + 505, + 554 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 540, + 505, + 554 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 9: The planning performance and the testing performance of the proposed POPLIN-A, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 551, + 505, + 565 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 551, + 505, + 565 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "POPLIN-P with its three training schemes, which are namely behavior cloning (BC), generative", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 401, + 576 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 401, + 576 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "adversarial network training (GAN) and setting parameter average (Avg).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 17.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 598, + 378, + 610 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 597, + 379, + 611 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 597, + 379, + 611 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.5 ABLATION STUDY FOR DIFFERENT VARIANT OF POPLIN", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 619, + 505, + 663 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 619, + 505, + 631 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 619, + 505, + 631 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we show the results of different variant of our algorithm. In Figure 11, the performances", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 631, + 505, + 642 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 631, + 505, + 642 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of different random seeds are visualized, where we show that POPLIN has similar randomness in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 642, + 506, + 654 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 642, + 506, + 654 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance to PETS. Additionally, we visualize POPLIN-P-BC in Figure 10 (b), whose best", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 652, + 463, + 665 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 652, + 463, + 665 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "distribution variance for policy planning is 0.01, while the best setting for testing is 0.03.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 23.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 678, + 212, + 689 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 213, + 691 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 213, + 691 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.6 POPULATION SIZE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 699, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In Figure 12, we include more detailed figures of the performance of different algorithms with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 507, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 507, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "different population size. One interesting finding is that even with fixed parameters of zeros, POPLIN-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 506, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 506, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "P can still performance very efficient search. This is indicating that the efficiency in optimization of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "page_idx": 15, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 293, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Published as a conference paper at ICLR 2020", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 300, + 751, + 311, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 312, + 764 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 312, + 764 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "16", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 185, + 81, + 426, + 148 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 185, + 81, + 426, + 148 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 185, + 81, + 426, + 148 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 185, + 81, + 426, + 148 + ], + "score": 0.974, + "html": "
Hyper-parameterValue Tried
Training Datareal data, hallucination data
Training VariantBC, GAN, Avg
Noise VariantUni, Sep
Initial Distribution Sigma0.001, 0.003, 0.01, 0.03, 0.1
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We also experiment with using WGAN", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 170, + 505, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 170, + 505, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Salimans et al. (2016) to train the policy network, which does not results in good performance and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 181, + 208, + 193 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 181, + 208, + 193 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is not put into the article.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 4.0 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 214, + 291, + 226 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 214, + 293, + 227 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 214, + 293, + 227 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.4 FULL RESULTS OF POLICY CONTROL", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 235, + 506, + 301 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 235, + 506, + 248 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 235, + 506, + 248 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Due to the space limit, we are not able to put all of the results of policy control in the main article.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 246, + 506, + 259 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 246, + 506, + 259 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "More specifically, we add the figure for the original Cheetah-v0 compared to the figures shown in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 257, + 506, + 270 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 257, + 506, + 270 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "main article, as can be seen in 9 (b). Again, we note that POPLIN-P-BC and POPLIN-P-GAN are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 268, + 505, + 280 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 268, + 505, + 280 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "comparable to each other, as mentioned in the main article. POPLIN-P-BC and POPLIN-P-GAN", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 279, + 506, + 292 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 279, + 506, + 292 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are the better algorithms respectively in Cheetah and Cheetah-v0, which are essentially the same", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 290, + 307, + 303 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 290, + 307, + 303 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment with different observation functions.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 11.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 235, + 506, + 303 + ] + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 309, + 504, + 533 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 309, + 504, + 533 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 309, + 504, + 533 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 309, + 504, + 533 + ], + "score": 0.976, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "8221b21f6322860b9f01fa92ae6488a1dbcc9b6192e40aded7f385f33ba9e368.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 16, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 309, + 504, + 383.6666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 383.6666666666667, + 504, + 458.33333333333337 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 458.33333333333337, + 504, + 533.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 17 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 541, + 505, + 575 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 540, + 505, + 554 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 540, + 505, + 554 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 9: The planning performance and the testing performance of the proposed POPLIN-A, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 551, + 505, + 565 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 551, + 505, + 565 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "POPLIN-P with its three training schemes, which are namely behavior cloning (BC), generative", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 401, + 576 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 401, + 576 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "adversarial network training (GAN) and setting parameter average (Avg).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 17.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 598, + 378, + 610 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 597, + 379, + 611 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 597, + 379, + 611 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.5 ABLATION STUDY FOR DIFFERENT VARIANT OF POPLIN", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 619, + 505, + 663 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 619, + 505, + 631 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 619, + 505, + 631 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we show the results of different variant of our algorithm. In Figure 11, the performances", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 631, + 505, + 642 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 631, + 505, + 642 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of different random seeds are visualized, where we show that POPLIN has similar randomness in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 642, + 506, + 654 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 642, + 506, + 654 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "performance to PETS. Additionally, we visualize POPLIN-P-BC in Figure 10 (b), whose best", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 652, + 463, + 665 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 652, + 463, + 665 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "distribution variance for policy planning is 0.01, while the best setting for testing is 0.03.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 23.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 619, + 506, + 665 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 678, + 212, + 689 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 213, + 691 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 213, + 691 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.6 POPULATION SIZE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 699, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In Figure 12, we include more detailed figures of the performance of different algorithms with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 507, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 507, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "different population size. One interesting finding is that even with fixed parameters of zeros, POPLIN-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 506, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 506, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "P can still performance very efficient search. This is indicating that the efficiency in optimization of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 28, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 699, + 507, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 79, + 505, + 299 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 79, + 505, + 299 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 79, + 505, + 299 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 79, + 505, + 299 + ], + "score": 0.971, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "56075b1bdfb9944a39483a27e6378e6d32d67609de583511325741d53fdb37bc.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 79, + 505, + 152.33333333333331 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 152.33333333333331, + 505, + 225.66666666666663 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 225.66666666666663, + 505, + 298.99999999999994 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 306, + 504, + 330 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 305, + 506, + 321 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 305, + 506, + 321 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 10: The performance of POPLIN-A, POPLIN-P-BC, POPLIN-P-Avg, POPLIN-P-GAN using", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 317, + 361, + 331 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 317, + 361, + 331 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "different hyper-parameters. 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However, this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 567, + 485, + 581 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 567, + 485, + 581 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "scheme naturally sacrifices the policy distillation and thus cannot be applied without planning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 18.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 594, + 356, + 606 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 594, + 357, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 594, + 357, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.7 THE REWARD SURFACE OF DIFFERENT ALGORITHM", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 615, + 505, + 693 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 505, + 628 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 505, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we provide a more detailed description of the reward surface with respect the the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 505, + 639 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 505, + 639 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "solution space (action space for PETS and POPLIN-A, and parameter space for POPLIN-P) in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 505, + 650 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 505, + 650 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 13, 14, 15, 16, 17. As we can see, variants of POPLIN-A are better at searching, but the reward", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 506, + 662 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 506, + 662 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "surface is still not smooth. POPLIN-A-Replan is more efficient in searching than POPLIN-A-Init,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 658, + 506, + 673 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 658, + 506, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "but the errors in dynamics limit its performance. We also include the results for POPLIN-P using a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 670, + 505, + 684 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 670, + 505, + 684 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1-layer neural network in solution space in Figure 16 (g), (h). The results indicate that the deeper the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 681, + 270, + 695 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 681, + 270, + 695 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "network, the better the search efficiency.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 699, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 698, + 505, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 698, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We also provide more detailed version of Figure 1 in Figure 18. We respectively show the surface for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PETS, POPLIN-P-P using 1 and 0 hidden layers. Their planned trajectories across different CEM", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 505, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 505, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "updates are visualized in Figure 19, 20, 21. 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However, this", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 567, + 485, + 581 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 567, + 485, + 581 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "scheme naturally sacrifices the policy distillation and thus cannot be applied without planning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 18.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 555, + 505, + 581 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 594, + 356, + 606 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 594, + 357, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 594, + 357, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.7 THE REWARD SURFACE OF DIFFERENT ALGORITHM", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 615, + 505, + 693 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 505, + 628 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 505, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we provide a more detailed description of the reward surface with respect the the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 505, + 639 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 505, + 639 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "solution space (action space for PETS and POPLIN-A, and parameter space for POPLIN-P) in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 505, + 650 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 505, + 650 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 13, 14, 15, 16, 17. As we can see, variants of POPLIN-A are better at searching, but the reward", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 506, + 662 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 506, + 662 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "surface is still not smooth. POPLIN-A-Replan is more efficient in searching than POPLIN-A-Init,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 658, + 506, + 673 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 658, + 506, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "but the errors in dynamics limit its performance. We also include the results for POPLIN-P using a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 670, + 505, + 684 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 670, + 505, + 684 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1-layer neural network in solution space in Figure 16 (g), (h). The results indicate that the deeper the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 681, + 270, + 695 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 681, + 270, + 695 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "network, the better the search efficiency.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + } + ], + "index": 24, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 616, + 506, + 695 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 699, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 698, + 505, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 698, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We also provide more detailed version of Figure 1 in Figure 18. We respectively show the surface for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "PETS, POPLIN-P-P using 1 and 0 hidden layers. 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Algorithm1GeneralPOPLINFramework
1: while Training iterations not Finished do
2:for ith time-step of the agent do
3:CEM planning as in section 4.1, 4.2
4:Execute the first action from CEM.
5:end for
6:Dynamics update and policy distillation.
7: end while
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CheetahAntHopperSwimmerCheetah-v0Walker2d
POPLIN-P (ours)12227.9 ± 5652.82330.1 ± 320.92055.2 ± 613.8334.4 ± 34.24235.0 ± 1133.0597.0 ± 478.8
POPLIN-A (ours)4651.1 ± 1088.51148.4 ± 438.3202.5 ± 962.5344.9 ± 7.11562.8 ± 1136.7-105.0 ± 249.8
PETS (Chua et al., 2018)4204.5 ± 789.01165.5 ± 226.9114.9 ± 621.0326.2 ± 12.62288.4 ± 1019.0282.5 ± 501.6
METRPO (Kurutach et al., 2018)-744.8 ± 707.1282.2 ±18.01272.5 ± 500.9225.5 ± 104.62283.7 ± 900.4-1609.3 ± 657.5
TD3 (Fujimoto et al.,2018)218.9 ± 593.3870.1 ± 283.81816.6 ± 994.872.1 ± 130.93015.7 ± 969.8-516.4 ± 812.2
SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018)1745.9 ± 839.2548.1 ± 146.6788.3 ± 738.2204.6 ± 69.33459.8 ± 1326.6164.5 ± 1318.6
Training Time-step5000020000020000050000200000200000
Reacher3DPusherPendulumInvertedPendulumAcrobotCartpole
POPLIN-P (ours)-29.0± 25.2-55.8 ± 23.1167.9 ± 45.9-0.0 ±0.023.2 ± 27.2200.8 ± 0.3
POPLIN-A (ours)-27.7 ± 25.2-56.0 ± 24.3178.3 ± 19.3-0.0±0.020.5 ± 20.1200.6 ± 1.3
PETS (Chua et al.,2018)-47.7 ± 43.6-52.7 ± 23.5155.7 ± 79.3-29.5 ± 37.8-18.4 ± 46.3199.6 ± 4.6
METRPO (Kurutach et al., 2018)-43.5 ± 3.7-98.5 ± 12.6174.8 ± 6.2-29.3 ± 29.5-78.7 ± 5.0138.5 ± 63.2
TD3 (Fujimoto et al.,2018)-331.6 ± 134.6-216.4 ± 39.6168.6 ± 12.7-102.9 ± 101.0-76.5 ± 10.2-409.2 ± 928.8
SAC (Haarnoja et al., 2018)-161.6 ± 43.7-227.6 ± 42.2159.5 ± 12.1-0.2 ± 0.1-69.4 ± 7.0195.5 ± 8.7
Training Time-step500005000050000500005000050000
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1: Initialize policy network parameters θ,dynamics network parameters ,data-set D while Training iterations not Finished do
2: 3:for ith time-step of the agent do Initialize action-sequence noise distribution. μ = μo, ∑ = σ² I> Sampling Data
4: CEM Planning
5:for jth CEM Update do
6:Sample action noise sequences {δi} fromN(μ,Σ).
7:for Every candidate δ doTrajectory Predicting
8:fort=itoi+T,St+1 = f(St+1lst,at = πθ(st)+δt)
9:Evaluate expected reward of this candidate.
10:end for
11:Fit distribution of the elite candidates as μ',£'.
12:Update noise distribution μ= (1-α)μ +αμ',∑= (1-α)Σ+αΣ'
13:end for
14:Execute the first action from the optimal candidate action sequence.
15:end for
16:Update using data-set DDynamics Update
17:>Policy Distillation
Update 0 using data-set D
18:end while
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CheetahAntHopperSwimmerCheetah-v0Walker2dSwimmer-v0
POPLIN-PPOPLIN-A0.944 ± 0.0790.395 ± 0.0570.932 ± 0.1280.459 ± 0.1750.919 ± 0.1120.936 ± 0.0860.927 ± 0.2270.968 ± 0.150.928 ± 0.115
0.582 ± 0.1750.962 ± 0.0180.393 ± 0.2270.748 ± 0.0780.668 ± 0.33
PETS0.363 ± 0.0020.466 ± 0.0910.566 ± 0.1130.916 ± 0.0320.538 ± 0.2040.87 ± 0.1570.743 ± 0.338
RS0.072 ± 0.0050.214 ± 0.0150.092 ± 0.0060.156 ± 0.0240.164 ± 0.0110.137 ± 0.0710.67 ± 0.058
MBMF0.025 ± 0.0020.054 ±0.020.355± 0.20.377 ± 0.1140.105 ± 0.0150.088 ± 0.137.1370.765 ± 0.123
TRPO0.028 ± 0.0030.129 ± 0.010.164 ± 0.1160.22 ± 0.0280.078 ± 0.0170.067 ± 0.117.1177
PPO0.023 ± 0.010.128 ± 0.020.527 ± 0.1870.489 ± 0.0370.083 ± 0.0170.19 ± 0.073
GPS0.067 ± 0.0510.178 ± 0.0850.406 ±0.0370.023 ± 0.0160.09 ± 0.0080.24 ±0.1380.205 ± 0.255
METRPO0.004 ± 0.0430.113 ± 0.0070.777 ± 0.0910.664 ± 0.2620.537 ± 0.180.278 ± 0.2050.885 ± 0.055
TD3SACRandom0.074 ± 0.0610.184 ± 0.0060.037±00.074 ± 0.0610.348 ± 0.1140.876 ± 0.1810.28 ±0.3270.683 ± 0.1940.62 ± 0.254
0.219 ± 0.059.0190.689 ± 0.1340.042 ± 0.1040.612 ± 0.1730.069 ± 0.0320.772 ± 0.2650.833 ± 0.412
0.191 ± 0.0190.0.018 ± 0.0090.016 ± 0.127
max, min13000,-8002500,02500,02500,02500,-3000360,-40-400,4600
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CheetahAntHopperSwimmerCheetah-v0Walker2dSwimmer-v0
POPLIN-P12227.9 ± 5652.82330.1 ± 320.92055.2 ±613.8334.4 ± 34.24235.0± 1133.0597.0 ± 478.837.1 ± 4.6
POPLIN-A4651.1 ± 1088.51148.4 ± 438.3202.5 ± 962.5344.9 ± 7.11562.8 ± 1136.7-105.0 ± 249.826.7 ± 13.2
PETS4204.5 ± 789.01165.5 ± 226.9114.9 ± 621.0326.2 ± 12.62288.4± 1019.0282.5 ± 501.6-2060.3 ± 228.029.7 ± 13.526.8± 2.3
RS191.1 ± 21.2535.5± 37.0-2491.5 ± 35.122.4±9.7421.0 ± 55.2
MBMFTRPO-459.5 ± 62.5134.2 ± 50.4-1047.4 ± 1098.7110.7 ± 45.6126.9 ± 72.7-2218.1 ± 437.730.6 ± 4.9
-412.4 ± 33.3323.3 ± 24.9-2100.1 ± 640.647.8 ± 11.1-12.0 ± 85.5-2286.3± 373.326.3 ± 2.6
PPO-483.0± 46.1321.0 ± 51.2-103.8 ± 1028.0155.5 ± 14.917.2 ± 84.4-1893.6± 234.124.7 ± 4.08.2 ±10.235.4± 2.2
GPS129.4 ± 140.4445.5 ± 212.9-768.5 ± 200.9-30.9 ± 6.352.3 ± 41.7-1730.8 ± 441.7
METRPO-744.8 ± 707.1282.2 ± 18.01272.5 ± 500.9225.5 ± 104.62283.7 ± 900.4-1609.3 ± 657.5
TD3218.9 ± 593.3870.1 ± 283.81816.6 ± 994.872.1 ± 130.93015.7 ±969.8-516.4 ± 812.217.0 ± 12.9
SACRandom1745.9 ± 839.2-284.2 ± 83.3548.1 ± 146.6788.3 ± 738.2204.6 ± 69.33459.8 ± 1326.6164.5 ± 1318.623.0 ± 17.32.4 ± 12.0
478.0 ± 47.8-2768.0 ± 571.6-12.4 ± 12.8-312.4± 44.2-2450.1± 406.5
Time-step5000020000020000050000200000200000200000
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1: Initialize policy network parameters 0, dynamics network parameters Φ, data-set D 2: while Training iterations not Finished do
3:for ith time-step of the agent do > Sampling Data
4: 5:Initialize parameter-sequence noise distribution. μ = μo,∑ = o² I for jth CEM Update do CEM Planning
6:Sample parameter noise sequences {ωi} from N(μ,Σ).
7:for Every candidate ωi do
Trajectory Predicting
8:fort=itoi+T,St+1 = f(St+1lSt,at = Tθ+ωt(St))
9:Evaluate expected reward of this candidate.
10:end for
11:Fit distribution of the elite candidates as μ',∑'.
12:Update noise distribution μ= (1-α)μ + αμ',∑= (1-α)Σ+αΣ'
13:end for
14:Execute the first action from the optimal candidate action sequence.
15:end for
16:Update using data-set D
17:
18: end whileUpdate 0 using data-set D
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Reacher3DPusherPendulumInvertedPendulumAcrobotCartpole
POPLIN-PPOPLIN-A-29.0 ± 25.2-55.8 ± 23.1167.9 ± 45.9-0.0±0.023.2 ± 27.2200.8 ± 0.3200.6 ± 1.3
-27.7 ± 25.2-56.0 ± 24.3178.3 ± 19.3-0.0±0.020.5± 20.1
PETS-47.7 ± 43.6-52.7± 23.5155.7 ± 79.3-29.5 ± 37.8-18.4 ± 46.3199.6 ± 4.6
RS-107.6 ± 5.2-146.4± 3.2161.2 ± 11.5-0.0±0.0-12.5 ± 14.3201.0 ± 0.0
MBMF-168.6 ± 23.2-285.8 ±15.2163.7 ± 15.2-202.3 ± 17.0-146.8 ± 29.922.5 ± 67.7
TRPO-176.5 ± 24.3-235.5 ± 6.2158.7 ± 9.1-134.6 ± 6.9-291.2 ± 6.746.3 ±6.0
PPO-162.2 ± 15.7-243.2 ± 6.9160.9 ± 12.5-137.3 ± 12.4-205.4 ± 51.568.8 ± 4.9
GPS-552.8 ± 577.7-151.2 ± 1.3164.3 ± 4.1-14.7 ± 20.7-214.3 ± 15.3-18.7 ± 101.1
METRPO-43.5± 3.7-98.5 ± 12.6174.8 ± 6.2-29.3 ± 29.5-78.7 ±5.0138.5 ± 63.2
TD3-331.6 ± 134.6-216.4 ± 39.6168.6 ± 12.7-102.9 ± 101.0-76.5 ±10.2-409.2 ± 928.8
SACRandom-161.6 ± 43.7-183.1 ± 41.5-227.6 ± 42.2159.5 ± 12.1-0.2 ± 0.1-69.4 ± 7.0195.5 ± 8.7
-199.0 ± 10.0-249.5 ± 228.4-205.9 ± 12.1-374.1 ± 15.631.3 ± 36.3
Time-step500005000050000500005000050000
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Hyper-parameterValue Tried
Population Size100,200,.., 2000
Planning Horizon30,50,100
Initial Distribution Sigma0.01, 0.03, 0.1, 0.25, 0.3, 0.5
CEMIterations5,8,10,20
ELite Size g50,100,200
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Hyper-parameterValue Tried
Training Datareal data, hallucination data
VariantReplan, Init
Initial Distribution Sigma0.001, 0.003, 0.01, 0.03, 0.1
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Hyper-parameterValue Tried
Training Datareal data, hallucination data
Training VariantBC, GAN, Avg
Noise VariantUni, Sep
Initial Distribution Sigma0.001, 0.003, 0.01, 0.03, 0.1
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In this work, we study the case of binary classification and prove various properties of learning in such networks under strong assumptions such as linear separability of the data. Extending existing results from the linear case, we confirm empirical observations by proving that the classification error also follows a sigmoidal shape in nonlinear architectures. We show that given proper initialization, learning expounds parallel independent modes and that certain regions of parameter space might lead to failed training. We also demonstrate that input norm and features’ frequency in the dataset lead to distinct convergence speeds which might shed some light on the generalization capabilities of deep neural networks. We provide a comparison between the dynamics of learning with cross-entropy and hinge losses, which could prove useful to understand recent progress in the training of generative adversarial networks. Finally, we identify a phenomenon that we baptize gradient starvation where the most frequent features in a dataset prevent the learning of other less frequent but equally informative features. + +# 1 Introduction + +Due to extremely complex interactions between millions of parameters, nonlinear activation functions and optimization techniques, the dynamics of learning observed in deep neural networks remain much of a mystery to this day. What principles govern the evolution of the neural network weights? Why does the training error evolve as it does? How do data and optimization techniques like stochastic gradient descent interact? Where does the implicit regularization of deep neural networks trained with stochastic gradient descent come from? Shedding some light on those questions would make training neural networks more understandable, and potentially pave the way to better techniques. + +It is commonly accepted that learning is composed of alternating phases: plateaus where the error remains fairly constant and periods of fast improvement where a lot of progress is made over the course of few epochs (Saxe et al., 2013a). Theoretic explanations of that phenomenon exist in the case of regression on linear neural networks (Saxe, 2015) but extensions to the nonlinear case (Heskes & Kappen, 1993; Raghu et al., 2017; Arora et al., 2018) fail to provide analytical solutions. + +It has been observed in countless experiments that deep networks present strong generalization abilities. Those abilities are however difficult to ground in solid theoretical foundations. The fact that deep network have millions of parameters – a number sometimes orders of magnitude larger than the dataset size – contradicts the expectations set by classic statistical learning theory on the necessity of regularizers (Vapnik, 1998; Poggio et al., 2004). This observation drove Zhang et al. (2016) to suggest the existence of an implicit regularization happening during the training of deep neural networks. Advani & Saxe (2017) show that the dynamics of gradient descent can protect against overfitting in large networks. Kleinberg et al. (2018) also offer some explanations of the phenomenon but understanding its roots remains an open problem. + +In this work, we study the learning dynamics of a deep nonlinear neural network – i.e. how its weights and outputs evolve throughout learning – trained on a standard classification task using two different losses: the cross-entropy and the hinge loss. We mainly focus on binary classification, some of the results and properties can however be extended to the multi-class case. The questions we address in Sections 3, 4 and 5 respectively can be summarized as follows: + +How does the confidence of a classifier evolve throughout learning? How does the loss used during training impact its dynamics? Which properties of the features present in a dataset impact learning, and how? + +Independent mode learning We show that, similarly to the case of linear networks and under certain initial conditions, learning happens independently between different classes, i.e. classes induce a partition of the network activations, corresponding to orthogonal modes of the data. + +Learning dynamics We prove that in accordance to experimental findings, the hidden activations and the classification error of the network show a sigmoidal shape with slow learning at the beginning followed by fast saturation of the curve. We also characterize a region in the initialization space where learning is frozen or eventually dies out. + +Hinge loss We study how using the hinge loss impacts learning and quantitatively compare it to the classic cross-entropy loss. We show that the hinge loss allows one to solve a classification task much faster, by providing strong gradients no matter how close to convergence the neural network is. + +Gradient starvation Finally, we identify a phenomenon that we call gradient starvation where the most frequent features present in the dataset starve the learning of other very informative but less frequent features. Gradient starvation occurs naturally when training a neural network with gradient descent and might be part of the explanation as to why neural networks generalize so well. They intrinsically implement a variant of Occam’s razor (Ariew, 1976): the simplest explanation is the one they converge to first. + +# 2 Setup and notations + +We are interested in a simple binary classification task, solved by training a deep neural network with gradient descent. This simple setup encompasses for instance the training of generative adversarial networks discriminators. Some of our results extend to multi-class classification, but, for the sake of conciseness, that case is treated in Appendix A. We let $D = \{ ( x _ { i } , l _ { i } ) \} _ { 1 \leq i \leq n } \subset$ $\mathbb { R } ^ { d } \times \{ 1 , 2 \}$ denote our dataset of vectors and labels. The classifier we consider is a simple neural network with one hidden layer of $h$ neurons and a ReLU non-linearity (see Fig. 1). + +The output of the network is passed through a function denoted $o$ which is either the sigmoid $\sigma$ in the binary cross-entropy case or the identity in the hinge loss case. The full function can be written as + +$$ +P _ { t } ( x ) : = o ( u _ { t } ( x ) ) : = o ( Z _ { t } ^ { T } ( W _ { t } x ) _ { + } ) , +$$ + +![](images/f7126aaa021e2ee05a8d063973cff15215bba2e16d529869dc7591ec10759a44.jpg) +Figure 1: Network Architecture + +where $W _ { t }$ is an $h \times d$ matrix and $Z _ { t }$ a vector of length $h$ . In the $C$ -class case, $Z _ { t }$ is instead a $C \times h$ matrix and $o$ the softmax function. An extension to deeper networks can be found in Appendix B. $W _ { t }$ and $Z _ { t }$ are the parameters of the neural network. The subscript $^ +$ (resp. t) denotes the positive part of a real number (resp. the state of the element at time step $t$ of training). + +The superscript $T$ stands for the transpose operation. In the case of cross-entropy, $P _ { t } ( x )$ represents the probability that $x$ belongs to class 1, for the hinge loss, $P _ { t } ( x )$ is trained to reach $\{ 1 , - 1 \}$ for classes 1 and 2. For a given class $k$ , we let $D _ { k }$ denote the set of vectors belonging to it. We make the assumption + +(H1) For any $x , x ^ { \prime } \in D _ { k }$ , $x ^ { T } x ^ { \prime } > 0$ . For any $x \in D _ { 1 }$ and $x ^ { \prime } \in D _ { 2 }$ , $x ^ { T } x ^ { \prime } \leq 0$ + +It implies linear separability of the data, an assumption often necessary in theoretical studies (Soudry et al., 2017; Liao & Couillet, 2018; Nacson et al., 2018; Xu et al., 2018) and the positioning of the origin between the two sets. It is a very strong assumption which admittedly bypasses a large part of the deep learning dynamics. Nevertheless, it allows the discovery of interesting properties and is potentially a first step towards understanding behaviors observed in more general settings. + +# 3 Learning dynamics for binary cross-entropy + +In this section, we focus on the case of the binary cross-entropy loss + +$$ +\begin{array} { r } { L _ { B C E } ( W _ { t } , Z _ { t } ; x ) = - \mathbb { 1 } _ { x \in D _ { 1 } } \log ( \sigma ( Z _ { t } ^ { T } ( W _ { t } x ) _ { + } ) ) - \mathbb { 1 } _ { x \in D _ { 2 } } \log ( 1 - \sigma ( Z _ { t } ^ { T } ( W _ { t } x ) _ { + } ) ) , } \end{array} +$$ + +and train our network using stochastic gradient descent to minimize $L _ { B C E }$ + +# 3.1 Independent modes of learning + +Our first lemma states that over the course of training and under suitable initialization, the active neurons of the hidden layer remain the same for each datapoint, and the coordinates of $Z _ { t }$ remain of the same sign. To prove it, we let $w _ { t } ^ { i }$ denote the $i$ -th row of $W _ { t }$ and make the additional assumptions: there exists a partition $\{ \mathcal { T } _ { 1 } , \mathcal { T } _ { 2 } \}$ of $\{ 1 , \ldots , h \}$ such that with $k \in \{ 1 , 2 \}$ + +(H2) For any $i \in \mathcal { Z } _ { k }$ , $x \in D _ { k }$ and $x ^ { \prime } \notin D _ { k }$ , $w _ { 0 } ^ { i } x > 0$ and $w _ { 0 } ^ { i } x ^ { \prime } \leq 0$ . + +(H3) The $i$ -th coordinate of $Z _ { 0 }$ is positive if $i \in \mathcal { Z } _ { 1 }$ , negative otherwise. + +Assumption (H2) states that at the beginning of training, data points from different classes do not activate the same neurons. It is an analogue to the orthogonal initialization used in Saxe et al. (2013b). In Appendix A.8, we show that relaxing it hints towards an extended period of slow learning in the early stages of training. (H3) is introduced for Lemma 3.1 and Theorem 3.2 but will be relaxed later. + +Lemma 3.1. For any $k \in \{ 1 , 2 \}$ , $x \in D _ { k }$ and $t \geq 0$ , the only non-negative elements of $W _ { t } x$ are the ones with an index $i \in \mathcal { T } _ { k }$ . The signs of the coordinates of $Z _ { t }$ remain the same throughout training. + +This lemma proves that updates to the parameters of our network are fully decoupled from one class to the other. An update for a data point in $D _ { k }$ will only influence the corresponding active rows and elements of $W _ { t }$ and $Z _ { t }$ . This "independent mode learning" is an equivalent of the results by Saxe et al. (2013b) in a non-linear network trained on the cross entropy loss. The proof of the lemma and its extension to $N - 1$ hidden layers and multi-class classification can be found in Appendix A. + +# 3.2 Learning dynamics + +We are now interested in the actual dynamics of learning, and move from discrete updates to continuous ones by considering an infinitesimal learning rate $\alpha$ (Heskes & Kappen, 1993). Lemma 3.1 can easily be extended to this setting. For simplicity we assume $h = 2$ , but similar results hold for arbitrary $h$ (see Appendix A.4). For the moment, we maintain the assumptions (H1-3). + +Theorem 3.2. Assuming that each class $k$ contains the same vector $x _ { k }$ repeated $| D _ { k } |$ times, then the output of the classifier on $D _ { k }$ verifies (with $p _ { k } = | D _ { k } | / | D |$ the fraction of $D$ belonging to $D _ { k }$ ): + +$$ +\begin{array} { r l r } { P _ { t } ( x _ { k } \in D _ { k } ) } & { { } = } & { \sigma ( u ( \| x _ { k } \| p _ { k } t ) ) , } \end{array} +$$ + +where u is defined below. The classification curves are sigmoidal and can be found on Fig. 2 Right. + +Proof. To simplify the notations, we arbitrarily assume that ${ { \cal T } _ { 1 } } ~ = ~ \{ 1 \}$ and we write $w _ { t }$ and $z _ { t }$ the row and element modified by an update made using $x \in D _ { 1 }$ (the case of $D _ { 2 }$ can be treated symmetrically). By the independence above, we know that $w _ { t }$ and $z _ { t }$ are only affected by updates from $D _ { 1 }$ . This greatly simplifies our evolution equations to: $\bar { w _ { t } ^ { \prime } } = \delta _ { f } \bar { ( x ) } z _ { t } x ^ { T }$ and $z _ { t } ^ { \prime } = \delta _ { f } ( x ) \ w _ { t } x$ where $\delta _ { f } ( x )$ is the gradient of the loss with respect to the pre-sigmoid output of the network $u _ { t } ( x )$ : $\delta _ { f } ( x ) \stackrel { } { = } 1 _ { \{ k = 1 \} } - \sigma ( u _ { t } ( x ) )$ and the prime indicates a time derivative. We let $y _ { t } = w _ { t } x$ , which gives + +$$ +y _ { t } ^ { \prime } = { \frac { x ^ { T } x z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { y _ { t } z _ { t } } } } , \qquad z _ { t } ^ { \prime } = { \frac { y _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { y _ { t } z _ { t } } } } . +$$ + +Writing $\| x \| ^ { 2 } = x ^ { T } x$ , we see that the quantity $y _ { t _ { - } } ^ { 2 } - \| x \| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } ^ { 2 }$ is an invariant of the problem, so its solutions live on hyperbolas of equation $y ^ { 2 } - \| x \| ^ { 2 } z ^ { 2 } = \pm c$ with $c : = | y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } - \| x \| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } |$ . + +We only treat the case of a degenerate hyperbola $c = 0$ i.e. $y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } = \| x \| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 }$ , and refer the interested reader to Appendix A.3 for the full derivation. In the case $c = 0$ , we have $\forall t$ , $y _ { t } = \| x \| z _ { t }$ (those quantities are both positive as $x \in D _ { 1 }$ and (H2-3)). $u ( t ) : = z _ { t } w _ { t } x = z _ { t } y _ { t }$ thus follows the equation + +![](images/245d3d29eedaecb147295f8011901366ab5610b50699954194a3e1f07d7ddebb.jpg) +Figure 2: Left. Phase diagram representing the dynamics of learning for the couple $\left( z _ { t } , y _ { t } \right)$ depending on its initialization. $y _ { t }$ is the value for the class considered, in which all examples have lined up. Each couple lives on a hyperbola. The slope of the linear curves is equal $\pm \| x \|$ (set to 0.7 in this diagram). The green region represents the initializations of $( y , z )$ where the classification task will be solved by the network. In the red region, learning does not start (the neuron is inactive at the beginning of training) or collapses as the neuron dies off when $y$ reaches 0. The $c _ { i }$ points show the three cases from Section 3.3. Right. $y _ { t }$ and $P _ { t } ( x \in D _ { 1 } ) = \sigma ( z _ { t } y _ { t } )$ for different values of $c$ and $\lVert x \rVert$ . + +$u ^ { \prime } ( t ) = 2 \| x \| u ( t ) \sigma ( - u ( t ) )$ . One can see the equivalence between our evolution equation and Eq. (10) in Saxe et al. (2013b). Its analytical solution is (see Appendix A.3): + +$$ +u ( t ) = ( \log + E i ) ^ { < - 1 > } ( 2 \| x \| t + \log ( u _ { 0 } ) + E i ( u _ { 0 } ) ) , +$$ + +where $E i$ is the exponential integral (Wiki., 2018) and ${ < - 1 > }$ denotes the inverse function. + +We let $\bar { u }$ denote that function for $\| { \boldsymbol x } \| = 1$ . For $x \in D _ { 2 }$ , the degeneracy assumption becomes $y _ { 0 } =$ $- \| x \| z _ { 0 }$ . It can be shown similarly that $v ( t ) : = z _ { t } y _ { t }$ verifies the equation $v ^ { \prime } ( t ) = 2 \| x \| v ( t ) \sigma ( v ( t ) )$ with a negative initial condition (H2-3). In other words, $u$ and $v$ follow symmetric trajectories on the positive/negative real line. Below, $\bar { u }$ (resp. $\bar { v }$ ) denote those two trajectories for $\| x \| = 1$ and initial conditions $u _ { 0 } > 0$ (resp. $v _ { 0 } < 0$ ). Let us now write $p _ { 1 } = | D _ { 1 } | / | D |$ the fraction of points belonging to $D _ { 1 }$ . Because we sample randomly from the dataset, this amounts to sampling $p _ { 1 }$ (resp. $1 - p _ { 1 } )$ points from $D _ { 1 }$ (resp. $D _ { 2 }$ ) for each time unit during training, i.e. to rescaling the time axis by $p _ { 1 }$ for $D _ { 1 }$ and $1 - p _ { 1 }$ for $D _ { 2 }$ . This allows us to quantify the network’s performance at any time $t$ : + +$$ +\left\{ \begin{array} { r c l l } { \mathrm { ~ } \begin{array} { r c l } { P _ { t } ( x \in D _ { 1 } ) } & { = } & { \sigma ( \bar { u } ( \| x \| p _ { 1 } t ) ) } & { \qquad \quad } & { \mathrm { i f ~ } x \in D _ { 1 } } \\ { P _ { t } ( x \in D _ { 2 } ) } & { = } & { \sigma ( - \bar { v } ( \| x \| ( 1 - p _ { 1 } ) t ) ) } & { \qquad \mathrm { i f ~ } x \in D _ { 2 } } \end{array} } \end{array} \right. +$$ + +In particular, the convergence of $u ( t )$ to $+ \infty$ can be bounded using our results: convergence happens at a rate slower than $\log ( t )$ (Appendix A.3), a fact proved on its own by Soudry et al. (2017). □ + +Interpretation Fig. 2 Right. shows the learning dynamics for different values of $\| x \|$ and $c$ . One common characteristic between all the curves is their sigmoidal shape. Learning is slow at first, then accelerates before saturating. This is aligned with empirical results from the literature. We also see on e.g. the blue and yellow curves that a larger $\| x \|$ (or similarly a larger $p$ ) converges much faster. The effect of $c$ on the dynamics can mostly been seen at the beginning of training (for instance on the green and yellow curves). It fades as convergence happens, corresponding to points of the hyperbolas getting closer to the asymptote $y = \| x \| z$ , see Fig. 2 Left. and below for more details. We can characterize the convergence speeds more quantitatively with the following corollary. + +Corollary 3.3. Let $\delta$ be the required accuracy on the classification task (i.e. $P _ { t } ( x \in D _ { 1 } ) \geq 1 - \delta$ for $x \in D _ { 1 } $ ). Under certain assumptions, the times $t _ { 1 } ^ { * }$ and $t _ { 2 } ^ { * }$ required to reach that accuracy for each classifier verify $\begin{array} { r } { \frac { t _ { 2 } ^ { * } } { t _ { 1 } ^ { * } } \approx \frac { \| x _ { 1 } \| } { \| x _ { 2 } \| } \frac { p _ { 1 } } { 1 - p _ { 1 } } } \end{array}$ where $\| x _ { k } \|$ is the norm of vector $\| x _ { k } \|$ from class $k$ . + +The proof can be found in Appendix A.5. More frequent classes and larger inputs will be classified at a given level of confidence faster. The class frequency observation is fairly straightforward as updates on a more frequent class occur at a higher rate. As far as input sizes are considered, this can be seen as an analogous to the results from Saxe et al. (2013b) stating that input-output correlations drive the speed of learning. Because a sigmoid is applied on the network output, its (pre-sigmoid) targets are sent to $\pm \infty$ . A larger input is more correlated with its target and converges faster. + +On the assumptions The assumption that each class only contains one vector allows us to obtain the first closed-form solutions of the learning dynamics for the binary cross-entropy. It can be relaxed to classes containing orthogonal datapoints (see Appendix A.7) which still remains restrictive. A possible interpretation is the following: if one were to consider a deep neural network that has learnt two discriminative features for the two classes, applying classic SGD on those features would result in a learning rate proportional to the prominence of those two features in the original dataset, and to learning curves of that exact shape. It is worth noting that such shapes are regularly observed by ML practitioners (Saxe et al., 2013b), our results reveal insights - otherwise unobtainable - into them. + +# 3.3 Phase diagram + +In this section, we build the phase diagram of Fig. 2 Left. The notations follow Theorem 3.2, in particular $y _ { t } = w _ { t } x$ . So far, we have considered points in the top-right quadrant. In that region, the couple $\left( z _ { t } , y _ { t } \right)$ lives on a hyperbola of equation $\dot { y } ^ { 2 } - \| x \| ^ { 2 } z ^ { 2 } = \pm c$ where $c \geq 0$ . The sign in the equation is defined by the position of $( z _ { 0 } , y _ { 0 } )$ relative to the function $y = \| x \| z$ (positive if above, negative otherwise). If $\left( z _ { 0 } , y _ { 0 } \right)$ is originally on that line, it will remain there throughout training. We now explore the rest of the parameter space by relaxing some of our assumptions. We still consider a point $x \in D _ { 1 }$ , the diagram for $D _ { 2 }$ can be obtained by mirroring the $z$ axis. + +Assumption $( H 2 )$ . Let us first consider the simple case of $w _ { 0 } x = y _ { 0 } < 0$ . The neuron is initially inactive because of the ReLU. No updates will ever be made to $w _ { t }$ during training. This corresponds to the bottom half of the phase diagram, the parameters are frozen (also see Advani & Saxe (2017)). + +Assumption $( H 3 )$ . We now assume that $z _ { 0 } \le 0$ . In that case, a simple extension of Lemma 3.1 shows that learning still happens independently on each row of $w _ { t }$ . The outcome from Theorem 3.2 is still valid: the couple $( z _ { t } , y _ { t } )$ lives on a hyperbola. It is however not guaranteed anymore that $y _ { t }$ shall remain positive throughout training. There are three possible situations (numbered 1 to 3), each represented by the corresponding point on the diagram. + +1) If $y _ { 0 } = - \| x \| z _ { 0 }$ , then the points $\left( z _ { t } , y _ { t } \right)$ are stuck in the top-left quadrant and converge to zero. The equation verified by the logit $u ( t )$ is $\dot { u } ^ { \prime } ( t ) = - 2 \| x \| u ( t ) \sigma ( - u ( t ) )$ (see Appendix A.6). + +2) If $y _ { 0 } > - \| x \| z _ { 0 }$ , the points $( z _ { t } , y _ { t } )$ move on the hyperbola towards the top-right quadrant, at which point $z _ { t }$ becomes positive and $y _ { t }$ starts increasing again. + +3) If $y _ { 0 } < - \| x \| z _ { 0 }$ , the points $( z _ { t } , y _ { t } )$ move on the hyperbola towards the bottom-left quadrant, at which point $y _ { t }$ becomes negative. When that happens, the neuron dies out, learning stops. + +Only in the second case will the classifier end up solving the task: random initialization only functions in certain parts of the $( y _ { t } , z _ { t } )$ space. Those findings are summarized in the phase diagram Fig. 2 Left. The red region represents the initialization where the network will not be able to solve the task. + +Failure modes Assumption (H2) essentially means that the network’s first layer is able to separate the data at $t = 0$ . It is remarkable that even under (H2) the model fails on a non-zero measure set of the initialization space (top-left red region of Fig. 2 Left): in that region, it converges to a classifier assigning a probability of 0.5 to the true class (dash-dotted curves in Fig. 3 Right). + +# 3.4 Relaxing Assumption (H2) + +Assumption (H2) states that for any $i \in \mathcal { T } _ { k }$ , $x \in D _ { k }$ and $x ^ { \prime } \notin D _ { k }$ , $w _ { 0 } ^ { i } x > 0$ and $w _ { 0 } ^ { i } x ^ { \prime } \leq 0$ . We now relax it by assuming that a point $x _ { 2 }$ in $D _ { 2 }$ verifies $w _ { 0 } ^ { 1 } x _ { 2 } > 0$ and we study the evolution of $w _ { t } ^ { 1 }$ . We consider updates coming from sampling equally $x _ { 1 }$ from $D _ { 1 }$ and $x _ { 2 }$ from $D _ { 2 }$ . To simplify the analysis, we assume that $x _ { 1 } ^ { T } x _ { 2 } = 0$ and write $\alpha _ { t } = w _ { t } ^ { 1 } x _ { 1 }$ (equivalent to $y _ { t }$ above) and $\beta _ { t } \doteq \dot { w } _ { t } ^ { 1 } x _ { 2 }$ . The triplet $( \alpha _ { t } , \beta _ { t } , z _ { t } )$ satisfies the following system of ODEs (see Appendix A.8 for the derivation): + +$$ +\alpha _ { t } ^ { \prime } = \frac { \| x _ { 1 } \| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } \alpha _ { t } } } , \qquad \beta _ { t } ^ { \prime } = - \frac { \| x _ { 2 } \| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { - z _ { t } \beta _ { t } } } , \qquad z _ { t } ^ { \prime } = \frac { \alpha _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } \alpha _ { t } } } - \frac { \beta _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { - z _ { t } \beta _ { t } } } . +$$ + +From our relaxation of (H2), we have $\alpha _ { 0 } , \beta _ { 0 } \ > \ 0$ . Since the system is symmetric under the transformation $( \alpha _ { t } , \beta _ { t } , z _ { t } ) ( \beta _ { t } , \alpha _ { t } , - z _ { t } )$ , we can assume $z _ { 0 } \geq 0$ . Due to the ReLU activations of the network, whenever $\alpha _ { t }$ or $\beta _ { t }$ reaches zero, it becomes constant and its contribution to $z _ { t }$ disappears: the model reaches the independent modes of learning regime from Section 3.1 and evolves according to the results above (e.g. green hyperbolas in the plane $\beta = 0$ on Fig. 3 Left). If $\beta _ { t }$ (resp. $\alpha _ { t }$ ) reaches 0 at some point, $D _ { 1 }$ (resp. $D _ { 2 }$ ) becomes the only class activating the neuron. Let us now characterize how the initialization of the network influences the outcome of learning. + +![](images/bc93abd14e3afec4cdf8beb267423044a26778d151f37049af617db99630b3d6.jpg) +Figure 3: Left. Solutions of (4) for different initializations and $c = 1$ . Right. Values of $\alpha _ { t }$ , $\beta _ { t }$ and $P _ { t }$ the confidence of the classifier on an example from class $D _ { 1 }$ for three different initializations. The “full” curves correspond to $( \alpha _ { 0 } , \beta _ { 0 } , z _ { 0 } ) \stackrel { - } { = } ( 0 . 1 , 0 . 1 , 0 . 1 )$ i.e. a trajectory in the green region where $\beta _ { t }$ reaches 0 (orange curve). The confidence on class $D _ { 1 }$ tends to 1 (green curve). The “dashed” curves correspond to $( \alpha _ { 0 } , \beta _ { 0 } , z _ { 0 } ) = ( 0 . 2 , 0 . 9 , 0 . 2 )$ i.e. a trajectory in the yellow region, corresponding to $\alpha _ { t }$ reaching 0 (red curve). The confidence on $D _ { 1 }$ goes to 0.5 in that case (brown curve), and the confidence on class $D _ { 2 }$ goes to 1 (not shown). The “dash-dotted" curves correspond to $( \alpha _ { 0 } , \beta _ { 0 } , z _ { 0 } ) \ = \ ( 1 , 0 , - 1 . 1 )$ and are an instance of the aforementioned failure mode: $\alpha _ { t }$ (or equivalently $y _ { t }$ ) tends to 0 (pink curve), $\beta _ { t }$ (not shown) remains 0 and $P _ { t }$ tends to 0.5 (grey curve). + +Theorem 3.4. Letting $c : = \alpha _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } / \| x _ { 1 } \| ^ { 2 } + \beta _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } / \| x _ { 2 } \| ^ { 2 } - z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 }$ , the solutions of (4) verify for all $t \geq 0$ $\alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \lVert x _ { 1 } \rVert ^ { 2 } + \beta _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \lVert x _ { 2 } \rVert ^ { 2 } - z _ { t } ^ { 2 } = c$ . In other terms, they live on hyperboloids (see Fig. 3 Left). + +If $c \leq 0$ , $\beta _ { t }$ reaches 0 at some point during training (Fig. 6 of the Appendix). If $c > 0$ , there exists $a$ curve $\mathcal { C } _ { c }$ (shown in black on Fig. 3 Left) such that as $t \to + \infty$ , for any initialization $( \alpha _ { 0 } , \beta _ { 0 } , z _ { 0 } ) \in \mathcal { C } _ { c }$ + +$$ +\alpha _ { t } \to ( \frac { 1 } { \| x _ { 1 } \| ^ { 2 } } + \frac { 1 } { \| x _ { 2 } \| ^ { 2 } } ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \sqrt { c } , \qquad \beta _ { t } \to ( \frac { 1 } { \| x _ { 1 } \| ^ { 2 } } + \frac { 1 } { \| x _ { 2 } \| ^ { 2 } } ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \sqrt { c } , \qquad z _ { t } \to 0 . +$$ + +That curve defines two regions of the initialization space. In one, colored yellow on Fig. 3 Left, the trajectories verify $\alpha _ { t } = 0$ for some t. In the other, colored green, $\beta _ { t }$ reaches 0 at some point. + +Interpretation The proof of the theorem can be found in Appendix A.8. Fig. 3 Left shows some solutions of (4). Concretely, we see from the equations that the sign of $z _ { t }$ determines whether $\alpha _ { t }$ and $\beta _ { t }$ increase or decrease, and how fast they do so. $z _ { t }$ ’s evolution on the other hand is the result of a competition between $\alpha _ { t }$ and $\beta _ { t }$ . If $z _ { 0 }$ and/or $\alpha _ { 0 }$ are sufficiently large, $\beta _ { t }$ will decrease fast and long enough to reach 0 at some point (green curves). Conversely, for a large $\beta _ { 0 }$ , $z _ { t }$ can reach 0 before $\beta _ { t }$ . When that is the case, $\alpha _ { t }$ then decreases until it reaches 0 (yellow curves). We plot examples of those behaviors in Fig. 3 Right. We notice in particular the classic sigmoidal shape appearing, even when Assumption (H2) is violated. This can be explained as follows. In the regime of small initializations (customary in deep learning), the competition between $\alpha _ { t }$ , $\beta _ { t }$ and $z _ { t }$ happens in a part of parameter space where all the weights are small (i.e. where the confidence of the network is close to 0.5). When one class finally prevails over the other, e.g. $\beta _ { t }$ reaching 0 (orange curve in the plot), the analytical solutions from previous sections apply and the sigmoidal shape arises. + +# 4 On the hinge loss + +Recent results in the field of generative adversarial networks have resurrected the hinge loss (Miyato et al., 2018). While its exact impact on performance is unclear, we run a small experiment to show its ability to generate better samples than the customary cross-entropy (see Fig. 4 and Appendix E). In order to perhaps uncover reasons behind its efficiency, we extend our results to the hinge loss: + +$$ +L _ { H } ( W _ { t } , Z _ { t } ; x ) = \operatorname* { m a x } ( 0 , 1 - Z _ { t } ^ { T } ( W _ { t } x ) _ { + } \cdot ( \mathbb { 1 } _ { x \in D _ { 1 } } - \mathbb { 1 } _ { x \in D _ { 2 } } ) ) . +$$ + +![](images/d6b56cf465cea6ff97ef9fdc7ee945eacc0ffc5742f04e6b8cebb0a61d9518cb.jpg) +Figure 4: Left. The three figures on the left are the result of training a generative adversarial network on 8 Gaussians (see Appendix E for details on the experiment). The samples from the hinge loss are incomparably better. Right. Comparison between hinge loss and binary cross-entropy: training time required to reach a confidence $\delta$ on the classification problem. Subplot: Solutions of Eqs. 3 and 5. + +The hinge loss is non differentiable, but one can simply consider that learning stops as soon as the output of the network reaches 1 (resp. -1) for class $D _ { 1 }$ (resp. $D _ { 2 }$ ). Under the same assumptions than in Theorem 3.2 (some of which can be relaxed, see Appendix C), we have the following result: + +Theorem 4.1. For $x \in D _ { 1 }$ (for $D _ { 2 }$ it is simply the opposite), the output $u ( t )$ of the network verifies + +$$ +u ( t ) = \operatorname* { m i n } ( 1 , \mathrm { ~ } u _ { 0 } \ : e ^ { 2 p \| x \| t ) } ) , \qquad u ( t ) = \operatorname* { m i n } ( 1 , \mathrm { ~ } \frac { c } { 2 \| x \| } \sinh ( \theta _ { 0 } + 2 p \| x \| t ) ) , +$$ + +where $\theta _ { 0 } = \cosh ^ { - 1 } \bigl ( \frac { y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } + \| x \| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } } { c } \bigr )$ and the left and right equations correspond to $c = 0$ and $c \neq 0$ + +Proof. Simple computations show that the dynamics of the system are governed by $y _ { t } ^ { \prime } = x ^ { T } x \ z _ { t }$ and $z _ { t } ^ { \prime } = y _ { t }$ . Following the method from Section 3, we see that $u ^ { \prime } ( t ) = 2 \| x \| u ( t )$ in the case where $c = 0$ , leading to to the result. When $c \neq 0$ , a classic hyperbolic change of variables allows to find the solution. Its full derivation is presented in Appendix C. □ + +The learning curves are plotted in Fig. 4 Right. We notice a hard sigmoidal shape corresponding to learning stopping when $u _ { t }$ reaches 1. Confidence increases exponentially in $t$ , much faster than for binary cross-entropy (all other parameters kept equal) where $\bar { u ( t ) } \sim \log \bar { ( t ) }$ . With $\delta$ the required confidence for our classifier, the time $t ^ { * }$ required to reach $\delta$ can easily be computed. We plot it in Fig. 4 Right which confirms visually that the hinge loss converges much faster. We also notice the expected divergence of $t ^ { * }$ for the binary cross entropy as $\delta$ reaches 1 (training never converges in that case). We refer the interested reader to Appendix C for a more general treatment of the Hinge loss, which fully relaxes the assumption on the number of points in the classes. + +# 5 Gradient Starvation + +In this section, we attempt to quantify the impact of feature frequency inside a given class. We keep our simplified framework and consider that the input $x$ to our network is composed of two underlying features $x _ { 1 } \in \mathbb { R } ^ { d _ { 1 } }$ and $x _ { 2 } \in \mathbb { R } ^ { d _ { 2 } }$ with $d = d _ { 1 } + d _ { 2 }$ . We let $( x _ { 1 } , x _ { 2 } ) \in \mathbb { R } ^ { d }$ denote the concatenation of the vectors $x _ { 1 }$ and $x _ { 2 }$ . We assume that all the points in class $D _ { 1 }$ contain the feature $x _ { 1 }$ but only a fraction $\lambda$ of them contains the feature $x _ { 2 }$ . This is equivalent to making continuous gradient updates using the vector $( x _ { 1 } , x _ { 2 } )$ with a rate $\lambda$ and the vector $( x _ { 1 } , 0 )$ with a rate $1 - \lambda$ . We also assume that those features are fully informative for $D _ { 1 } - i . e$ . are absent from class $D _ { 2 }$ . A network trained using gradient descent on the dataset we just described has the following property + +Even though the feature represented by $x _ { 2 }$ is fully informative of the class, the network will not classify a sample containing only $x _ { 2 }$ with high confidence. + +It is the result of a phenomenon we coin gradient starvation where the most frequent features starve the gradient for the least frequent ones, resulting in a slower learning of those: + +Theorem 5.1. Let $\delta$ be our confidence requirement on class $D _ { 1 }$ i.e. training stops as soon as $\forall x \in D _ { 1 }$ , $P _ { t } ( x \in D _ { 1 } ) \geq 1 - \delta$ , and let $t ^ { * }$ denote that instant. Then, under some mild assumptions, + +$$ +P _ { t ^ { * } } ( ( 0 , x _ { 2 } ) \in D _ { 1 } ) \le \frac { 1 } { 1 + e ^ { - \lambda \log ( \frac { 1 - \delta } { \delta } ) } } . +$$ + +Proof. From Lemma 3.1, assumptions (H2-3) are sufficient to guarantee independent mode learning as well as positiveness of $z _ { t }$ . We decompose $w _ { t } = ( \alpha _ { t } x _ { 1 } , \beta _ { t } x _ { 2 } ) \overset { \vartriangle } { + } ( x _ { 1 } ^ { \perp } , x _ { 2 } ^ { \perp } )$ where $x _ { 1 } ^ { T } x _ { 1 } ^ { \perp } = x _ { 2 } ^ { T } x _ { 2 } ^ { \perp } =$ 0, and assume that $\alpha _ { 0 } \geq \beta _ { 0 } / \lambda > 0$ (in App. D, we relax some of those assumptions and prove an equivalent result). The evolution equation for $w _ { t }$ is $\begin{array} { r } { w _ { t } ^ { \prime } = \frac { z _ { t } x } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } w _ { t } x } } } \end{array}$ with $\boldsymbol { x } = ( x _ { 1 } , x _ { 2 } )$ (resp. $( x _ { 1 } , 0 ) \big )$ ) at an $\lambda$ (resp. $1 - \lambda )$ rate. Projecting on $x _ { 1 }$ and $x _ { 2 }$ gives + +$$ +\alpha _ { t } ^ { \prime } = \lambda \frac { z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } ( \alpha _ { t } + \beta _ { t } ) } } + ( 1 - \lambda ) \frac { z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } \alpha _ { t } } } , \beta _ { t } ^ { \prime } = \lambda \frac { z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } ( \alpha _ { t } + \beta _ { t } ) } } . +$$ + +From $z _ { t } > 0$ , we see that $\beta _ { t }$ is an increasing function of time, which guarantees $\beta _ { t } > 0$ , and + +$$ +\alpha _ { t } ^ { \prime } \geq \beta _ { t } ^ { \prime } + ( 1 - \lambda ) \frac { z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } ( \alpha _ { t } + \beta _ { t } ) } } = ( 1 + \frac { 1 - \lambda } { \lambda } ) \beta _ { t } ^ { \prime } = \frac { \beta _ { t } ^ { \prime } } { \lambda } . +$$ + +This proves that $\forall t \geq 0$ , $\alpha _ { t } \geq \beta _ { t } / \lambda$ . We now consider $t ^ { * }$ such that $\begin{array} { r } { z _ { t ^ { * } } \alpha _ { t ^ { * } } = \log ( \frac { 1 - \delta } { \delta } ) } \end{array}$ . It is the smallest $t$ such that $P _ { t } ( ( x _ { 1 } , x _ { 2 } ) \in D _ { 1 } ) \ge P _ { t } ( ( x _ { 1 } , 0 ) \in D _ { 1 } ) = 1 - \delta$ , its existence is guaranteed by $z _ { t }$ and $\alpha _ { t }$ being increasing (we also assume that $t = 0$ does not verify those (in)equalities). We get + +$$ +P _ { t ^ { * } } ( ( 0 , x _ { 2 } ) \in D _ { 1 } ) = \frac { 1 } { 1 + e ^ { - z _ { t ^ { * } } \beta _ { t ^ { * } } } } \leq \frac { 1 } { 1 + e ^ { - \lambda z _ { t ^ { * } } \alpha _ { t ^ { * } } } } = \frac { 1 } { 1 + e ^ { - \lambda \log ( \frac { 1 - \delta } { \delta } ) } } . +$$ + +As can be seen in Eq. 7, the presence of $\alpha _ { t }$ – which detects feature $x _ { 1 }$ – in the denominator of $\beta _ { t } ^ { \prime }$ greatly reduces its value, thus preventing the network from learning $x _ { 2 }$ properly. □ + +![](images/2643ba970dae94e21a480289c4717394738b03e9fd01112f8676a8eecdd8ff9a.jpg) +Figure 5: Upper bound on $P _ { t ^ { * } } ( ( 0 , x _ { 2 } ) \ \in \ D _ { 1 } )$ as a function of $1 - \delta$ for different values of $\lambda$ . + +Table 1: Gradient starvation + +
8
0.50.2 0.10.01
99%91%71%61% 51%
99.99%99%86% 72%52%
+ +Table 2: Accuracy on the cats and dogs dataset (Real means the untouched test set) + +
TrainingTestingTesting (Real)
100%100%43.2%
+ +In Fig. 5 Left., we plot for different values of $\lambda$ the confidence of the network when classifying $x _ { 2 }$ as a function of its confidence on $x _ { 1 }$ (see App. D. for more details). The gap between the two is very significant: with e.g. $\lambda = 0 . 1$ and $\delta = 1 0 ^ { - 4 }$ (Table 1), $P _ { t ^ { * } } ( ( 0 , x _ { 2 } ) \in D _ { 1 } ) \leq 7 2 \% !$ Even though $x _ { 2 }$ is exclusively present in $D _ { 1 }$ , and is thus extremely informative, the network is unable to classify it. + +Experiment To validate those findings empirically, we design an artificial experiment based on the cats and dogs dataset (Kaggle, 2018). We create a very strong, perfectly discriminative feature by making the dog pictures brighter, and the cat pictures darker. We then train a standard deep neural network to classify the modified images and measure its performance on the untouched testing set. + +Results The results can be seen in Table 2. The network perfectly learns to classify both the train and test modified set, but utterly fails on the real test data. This proves that the handcrafted light feature was learnt by the network, and is used exclusively to classify images. All the features allowing to recognize a cat from a dog are still present in the data, but the low level features (e.g. the presence of whiskers, how edges combine to form the shape of the animals and so on) are far less frequent than the light intensity, and thus were not learnt. The most frequent feature starved all the others. + +# 6 Related work + +The learning dynamics of neural networks have been explored for decades. Baldi & Hornik (1989) studied the energy landscape of linear networks and the fixed point structure of gradient descent learning in that context. Heskes & Kappen (1993) developed a theory encompassing stochastic gradient descent and parameter dynamics and wrote down their evolution equations in on-line learning. However, those equations are heavily nonlinear and do not have closed-form solutions in the general case. Saxe et al. (2013b) study the case of deep linear networks trained with regression. They prove the existence of nonlinear learning phenomena similar to those seen in simulations of nonlinear networks and provide exact solutions to the dynamics of learning in the linear case. Some of our results are an extension of theirs to nonlinear networks. Choromanska et al. (2014); Raghu et al. (2017); Saxe (2015); Yosinski et al. (2014) also focus on neural network dynamics, while Nacson et al. (2018); Xu et al. (2018); Soudry et al. (2017) study the convergence rate of learning on separable data. Arora et al. (2018) prove that overparameterization can lead to faster optimization. + +Recent work in the domain of generative adversarial networks (Goodfellow et al., 2014) has shown the resurgence of the hinge loss (Rosasco et al., 2004). In particular, part of the success encountered by Miyato et al. (2018) is due to their use of that specific loss function. Their main contribution however is a spectral normalization technique that produces state-of-the-art results on image generation. Their paper is part of a larger trend focusing on the spectra of neural network weight matrices and their evolution during learning (Vorontsov et al., 2017; Odena et al., 2018; Pennington et al., 2017). It, nevertheless, remains a poorly understood subject. + +Zhang et al. (2016) performed some experiments proving that deep neural networks expound a socalled implicit regularization. Even though they have the ability to entirely memorize the dataset, they still converge to solutions that generalize well. A variety of explanations for that phenomenon have been advanced: correlation between flatness of minima and generalization (Hochreiter & Schmidhuber, 1997), natural convergence of stochastic gradient descent towards such minima (Kleinberg et al., 2018), built-in hierarchical representations (LeCun et al., 2015), gradient descent naturally protecting against overfitting (Advani & Saxe, 2017), and structure of deep networks biasing learning towards simpler functions (Neyshabur et al., 2014; Perez et al., 2018). Our results from Section 5 suggest that gradient descent indeed has a beneficial effect, but can also hurt in some situations. + +# 7 Discussion + +In order to obtain closed form solutions for the learning dynamics, we made the extremely simplifying assumption that each class only contains one point. We leave overcoming that limitation to future work. In the spirit of the proof in Section 5 where we considered two datapoints, we might be able to obtain upper and lower bounds on the learning dynamics. + +Our comparison between the cross-entropy and the hinge losses reveals fundamental differences. It is noteworthy that the hinge loss is an important ingredient of the recently introduced spectral normalization (Miyato et al., 2018). The fast convergence of networks trained with the hinge loss might in part explain its beneficial impact. A deeper analysis of the connections between the two would lead to a better understanding of the performance of the algorithm. + +In this paper, we introduce the concept of gradient starvation and suggest that it might be a plausible explanation for the generalization abilities of deep neural networks. By focusing most of the learning on the frequent features of the dataset, it makes the network ignore the idiosyncrasies of individual datapoints. 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URL http: //dblp.uni-trier.de/db/journals/corr/corr1611.html#ZhangBHRV16. + +# Appendix A. + +A.1 Proof of Lemma 3.1 + +In this section, we prove the following lemma: + +Lemma 3.1 For any $k \in \{ 1 , 2 \}$ , $x \in D _ { k }$ and $t \geq 0$ , the only non-negative elements of $W _ { t } x$ are the ones with an index $i \in \mathcal { Z } _ { k }$ . The signs of the coordinates of $Z _ { t }$ remain the same throughout training. + +Proof. We prove this with a simple induction. The claim is true at $t = 0$ from assumptions (H1-3). Let us assume that at time set $t$ , the different parts of the lemma are true. The SGD updates to the weights stemming from a single observation $x \in D _ { k }$ (the extension to a mini-batch is straightforward) with a learning rate $\alpha$ are: + +$$ +\Delta Z _ { t } ( x ) = \alpha \delta _ { f } ( x ) \left( W _ { t } x \right) _ { + } \qquad \Delta W _ { t } ( x ) = \alpha \delta _ { f } ( x ) \left( Z _ { t } ^ { T } \otimes e _ { k } \right) x ^ { T } , +$$ + +where $\otimes$ denotes the element-wise product of two vectors and $\boldsymbol { e } _ { k } \in \mathbb { R } ^ { h }$ is the binary vector with ones on the indices from $\mathcal { T } _ { k }$ . $\delta _ { f } ( x )$ is the gradient of the loss with respect to the pre-sigmoid output of the network $F _ { t } ( x )$ : $\delta _ { f } \dot { ( } x ) = 1 _ { \{ k = 1 \} } - \sigma ( F _ { t } ( x ) )$ . The updates to $Z _ { t }$ are positive on its indices belonging to $\mathcal { T } _ { 1 }$ , and negative otherwise, proving the second claim of the lemma. Moving to $W _ { t }$ , only its rows and hidden neurons with indices $i \in \mathcal { Z } _ { k }$ are modified. For an element $x ^ { \prime } \in D$ , $\begin{array} { r } { W _ { t + 1 } x ^ { \prime } \stackrel { } { = } W _ { t } x ^ { \prime } + \alpha \delta _ { f } ( x ) ( \sum _ { i \in \mathcal { T } _ { k } } z _ { i } ) \| x \| ^ { \prime } } \end{array}$ where $z _ { i }$ is the $i$ -th element of $Z _ { t }$ . By induction, $\textstyle \sum _ { i \in { \mathcal { T } } _ { k } } z _ { i }$ has the same sign as $\delta _ { f } ( x )$ (positive on $D _ { 1 }$ , negative on $D _ { 2 }$ ). From (H1), $\| x \| ^ { \prime }$ is positive (resp. negative) if $x ^ { \prime }$ is in $D _ { k }$ (resp. otherwise). The update keeps the $k$ -th neuron active (resp. inactive). □ + +# A.2 Extension of Lemma 3.1 to multi-class classification + +Let us consider a simple $C$ -classification task. $D = \{ ( x _ { i } , y _ { i } ) \} _ { 1 \leq i \leq n } \subset \mathbb { R } ^ { d } \times C$ is our dataset of vectors/labels where $C$ denotes both the set of possible labels and its cardinal depending on the context. The classifier we are training is a simple neural network with one hidden layer of $C$ neurons, a ReLU non-linearity and a softmax $\sigma$ . The full function is written as + +$$ +P _ { t } ( x ) : = \sigma ( F _ { t } ( x ) ) : = \sigma ( Z _ { t } ( W _ { t } x ) _ { + } ) , +$$ + +where $W _ { t }$ (resp. $Z _ { t }$ ) is a $C \times d$ (resp. $C \times C )$ weight matrix and $\sigma$ the softmax function. The subscript $^ +$ denotes the positive part of a real number. $P _ { t } ( x )$ is a $C$ -vector representing the probability that $x$ belongs to each class. The subscript $t$ denotes the state of the element at time step $t$ of training. + +For a given class $k$ , we let $D _ { k }$ be the set of vectors belonging to class $k$ . We make the following assumptions, with $k \neq k ^ { \prime } \in C$ two arbitrary classes + +(H4) For any $x , x ^ { \prime } \in D _ { k }$ , $x ^ { T } x ^ { \prime } > 0$ . For any $x \in D _ { k }$ and $\boldsymbol { x } ^ { \prime } \in D _ { \boldsymbol { k } ^ { \prime } }$ , $x ^ { T } x ^ { \prime } \leq 0$ . +(H5) For any $x \in D _ { k }$ and $x ^ { \prime } \in D \setminus D _ { k } , w _ { 0 } ^ { k } x > 0$ and $w _ { 0 } ^ { k } x ^ { \prime } \leq 0$ , where $w _ { 0 } ^ { k }$ is the $k$ -th row of $W _ { 0 }$ . +(H6) $Z _ { 0 }$ is initialized randomly to positive numbers on the diagonal, and non-positive elsewhere. + +Those assumptions are straightforward extensions of the ones from the main text. We train the classifier using stochastic gradient descent on the cross-entropy loss of our problem. $F _ { t + 1 }$ is the state of the neural network after one SGD update to $F _ { t }$ . Our first lemma states that over the course of training, the active neurons of the hidden layer remain the same for each element of the dataset, and the elements of $Z _ { t }$ remain of the same sign. + +Lemma A.1. For any $k \in C$ , $x \in D _ { k }$ and $t \geq 0$ , the only non-negative element of $W _ { t } x$ is its $k$ -th element and all diagonal (resp. non-diagonal) elements of $Z _ { t }$ are positive (resp. negative). + +Proof. We prove this with a simple induction. The claim is true at $t = 0$ from assumptions (H4-6). Let us assume that at time set $t$ , the different parts of the lemma are true. The SGD updates to the weight matrices stemming from a single observation $x \in D _ { k ^ { * } }$ (the extension to a mini-batch is straightforward) and a learning rate $\alpha$ are: + +$$ +\delta Z _ { t } = \alpha \nabla _ { y } L ( W _ { t } x ) _ { + } ^ { T } \qquad \delta W _ { t } = \alpha ( Z _ { t } ^ { T } \nabla _ { y } L \otimes e _ { k ^ { * } } ) x ^ { T } , +$$ + +where $\otimes$ denotes the element-wise product of two vectors and $e _ { k ^ { * } }$ the $k ^ { * }$ basis vector of $\mathbb { R } ^ { C }$ . $\nabla _ { y } L$ is the gradient of $\log F _ { t } ( x ) _ { k ^ { * } }$ (the cross entropy loss for a sample from class $k ^ { * }$ ) with respect to the output of $Z _ { t }$ . One can show that $\begin{array} { r } { ( \nabla _ { y } L ) _ { k ^ { * } } = 1 - \frac { e ^ { F _ { t } ( x ) _ { k ^ { * } } } } { \sum _ { j } { e ^ { F _ { t } ( x ) _ { j } } } } } \end{array}$ and $\begin{array} { r } { ( \nabla _ { y } L ) _ { i } = - \frac { e ^ { F _ { t } ( x ) _ { i } } } { \sum _ { j } e ^ { F _ { t } ( x ) _ { j } } } } \end{array}$ for $i \neq k ^ { * }$ i.e. $\nabla _ { y } L = e _ { k ^ { * } } - Y _ { t } ( x )$ . The update to $Z _ { t }$ is non-negative on the diagonal, and non-positive elsewhere, which proves the second claim of the lemma. As far as $W _ { t }$ is concerned, only its $k ^ { * }$ - th row is modified. For an element $x ^ { \prime } \in D$ , $\boldsymbol { W _ { t + 1 } } \boldsymbol { x ^ { \prime } } = \boldsymbol { W _ { t } } \boldsymbol { x ^ { \prime } } + \boldsymbol { K } \boldsymbol { x ^ { T } } \boldsymbol { x ^ { \prime } } \boldsymbol { e } _ { k ^ { * } }$ where $K$ is the dot product between the $k ^ { * }$ -th column of $Z _ { t }$ and $\nabla _ { y } L$ . By assumptions on the data, $x ^ { T } x ^ { \prime }$ is positive (resp. negative) if $x ^ { \prime }$ is in $D _ { k ^ { * } }$ (resp. otherwise), so the update keeps the $k ^ { * }$ -th neuron active (resp. inactive). □ + +The proof can be extended to any number of hidden layers $h \geq C$ by modifying assumptions (H5-6) using a partition $\{ \mathcal { T } _ { 1 } , \ldots , \mathcal { T } _ { C } \}$ of $\{ 1 , \ldots , h \}$ similar to the binary classification case. Each set $\mathcal { T } _ { i }$ in the partition describes the neurons active at the initialization of the network for an element $x \in D _ { i }$ . The modified assumptions are: + +(H5’) For any $i \in \mathcal { Z } _ { k }$ , $x \in D _ { k }$ and $x ^ { \prime } \in D \backslash D _ { k }$ , $w _ { 0 } ^ { i } x > 0$ and $w _ { 0 } ^ { i } x ^ { \prime } \leq 0$ . +(H6’) For any $i \in \mathcal { T } _ { k } , j \notin \mathcal { T } _ { k } , ( Z _ { 0 } ) _ { k i } > 0$ and $( Z _ { 0 } ) _ { k j } \le 0$ . + +The lemma then translates to those inequalities remaining true at any time $t \geq 0$ . + +# A.3 Proofs for Theorem 3.2 + +In this section we develop the proof of Theorem 3.2 of the main text. + +Proof. We consider an update made using $x \in D _ { 1 }$ . Writing $y _ { t } = w _ { t } x$ , our system follows the system of ordinary differential equations + +$$ +y _ { t } ^ { \prime } = { \frac { x ^ { T } x z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { y _ { t } z _ { t } } } } , \qquad z _ { t } ^ { \prime } = { \frac { y _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { y _ { t } z _ { t } } } } . +$$ + +Writing $x ^ { T } x = \| x \| ^ { 2 }$ , we see that $y _ { t } y _ { t } ^ { \prime } = \| x \| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } z _ { t } ^ { \prime }$ . The quantity $y _ { t } ^ { 2 } - \| x \| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } ^ { 2 }$ is thus an invariant of the problem. With $c : = | y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } - \| \dot { x } \| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } |$ , the solutions of Eq. 11 live on hyperbolas of equation + +$$ +\left\{ \begin{array} { l l } { y ^ { 2 } - \| x \| ^ { 2 } z ^ { 2 } = \begin{array} { l l l l l } { c } & { \quad } & { \mathrm { i f } \ y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } - \| x \| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } > 0 , } \\ { y ^ { 2 } - \| x \| ^ { 2 } z ^ { 2 } = - c \quad } & { \quad } & { \mathrm { i f } \ y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } - \| x \| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } < 0 , } \end{array} } \\ y ^ { 2 } - \| x \| ^ { 2 } z ^ { 2 } = \begin{array} { l l l l l } { \ } & { 0 } & { \quad } & { \mathrm { i f } \ y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } - \| x \| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } = 0 . } \end{array} \right. \end{array} +$$ + +We start by treating the case of a degenerate hyperbola $c = 0$ . We have $\forall t$ , $y _ { t } = \| x \| z _ { t }$ (those quantities are both positive as $x \in D _ { 1 }$ and (H2-3)). We let $u ( t ) : = z _ { t } w _ { t } x = z _ { t } y _ { t }$ and see by combining the two equations in Eq. 11 that + +$$ +u ^ { \prime } ( t ) = { \frac { 2 \| x \| u ( t ) } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } } . +$$ + +For any $u _ { f } \geq u _ { 0 }$ , let $t = u ^ { < - 1 > } ( u _ { f } )$ ( $u$ is a bijection from $\mathbb { R } ^ { + } \to [ u _ { 0 } , + \infty [$ [ since its derivative is strictly positive). We have + +$$ +t = \frac { 1 } { 2 \| x \| } \int _ { u _ { 0 } } ^ { u _ { f } } \frac { 1 + e ^ { y } } { y } d y = \frac { 1 } { 2 \| x \| } ( \log ( \frac { u _ { f } } { u _ { 0 } } ) + E i ( u _ { f } ) - E i ( u _ { 0 } ) ) , +$$ + +where $\begin{array} { r } { E i ( x ) = - \int _ { - x } ^ { \infty } \frac { e ^ { - u } } { u } d u } \end{array}$ is the exponential integral. In the end, with the superscript ${ < - 1 > }$ denoting the inverse function + +$$ +u _ { f } = u ( t ) = ( \log + E i ) ^ { < - 1 > } ( 2 \| x \| t + \log ( u _ { 0 } ) + E i ( u _ { 0 } ) ) . +$$ + +We let $\bar { u }$ denote the function $u ( t )$ above for $\| { \boldsymbol x } \| = 1$ , the solution for $\| { \boldsymbol x } \| \neq 1$ can easily be inferred by a rescaling of $t$ in $\bar { u }$ . For $x \in D _ { 2 }$ , the system of ODEs is + +$$ +y _ { t } ^ { \prime } = - { \frac { \| x \| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { - y _ { t } z _ { t } } } } , \qquad z _ { t } ^ { \prime } = - { \frac { y _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { - y _ { t } z _ { t } } } } , +$$ + +the degeneracy assumption becomes $y _ { 0 } = - \| x \| z _ { 0 }$ (we know from (H2) that $y _ { 0 } > 0$ and from (H3) that $z _ { \mathrm { 0 } } ~ < ~ 0 )$ . It can be shown similarly that $v ( t ) : = z _ { t } y _ { t }$ verifies the equation $v ^ { \prime } ( t ) =$ $2 \| x \| v ( t ) \sigma ( v ( t ) )$ with a negative initial condition. In other words, $u$ and $v$ follow symmetric trajectories on the positive/negative real line. Below, $\bar { u }$ and $\bar { v }$ denote those two trajectories for $\| { \boldsymbol x } \| = 1$ and initial conditions $u _ { 0 } > 0$ and $v _ { 0 } < 0$ . + +Let us now write $p _ { 1 } = | D _ { 1 } | / | D |$ the fraction of points in the dataset belonging to $D _ { 1 }$ . Because we sample randomly from the dataset, this amounts to sampling $p _ { 1 }$ (resp. $1 - p _ { 1 } )$ points from $D _ { 1 }$ (resp. $D _ { 2 }$ ) for each time unit during training, ie to rescaling the time axis by $p _ { 1 }$ for $D _ { 1 }$ and $1 - p _ { 1 }$ for $D _ { 2 }$ . Formally, this allows us to quantify the performance of the network at any time $t$ + +$$ +\left\{ \begin{array} { l l } { P _ { t } ( x \in D _ { 1 } ) = \sigma ( \bar { u } ( \| x \| p _ { 1 } t ) ) \qquad } & { \mathrm { ~ i f ~ } x \in D _ { 1 } , } \\ { P _ { t } ( x \in D _ { 2 } ) = \sigma ( - \bar { v } ( \| x \| ( 1 - p _ { 1 } ) t ) ) \qquad } & { \mathrm { ~ i f ~ } x \in D _ { 2 } , } \end{array} \right. +$$ + +which concludes the proof for $c = 0$ . + +From Eq. 14, we also see that + +$$ +t = \frac { 1 } { 2 \| x \| } \int _ { u _ { 0 } } ^ { u _ { f } } \frac { 1 + e ^ { y } } { y } d y \ge \frac { 1 } { 2 \| x \| } \int _ { u _ { 0 } } ^ { u _ { f } } e ^ { \frac { y } { 2 } } d y = \frac { 1 } { \| x \| } \big ( e ^ { \frac { u _ { f } } { 2 } } - e ^ { \frac { u _ { 0 } } { 2 } } \big ) , +$$ + +where we used the inequality $\forall y \geq 0 , e ^ { \frac { y } { 2 } } > y$ . It eventually gives us + +$$ +u ( t ) \leq 2 \log ( \| x \| t + e ^ { \frac { u _ { 0 } } { 2 } } ) , +$$ + +a result in line with convergence rates obtained in Soudry et al. (2017). + +Let us now study the non-degenerate case. We apply the classic change of coordinates + +$$ +\begin{array} { r l r l r l } & { y _ { t } = \sqrt { c } \cosh ( \frac { \theta } { 2 } ) , } & & { z _ { t } = \frac { \sqrt { c } } { \| x \| } \sinh ( \frac { \theta } { 2 } ) } & & { \mathrm { i f ~ } y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } > \| x \| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } , } \\ & { y _ { t } = \sqrt { c } \sinh ( \frac { \theta } { 2 } ) , } & & { z _ { t } = \frac { \sqrt { c } } { \| x \| } \cosh ( \frac { \theta } { 2 } ) } & & { \mathrm { i f ~ } y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } < \| x \| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } . } \end{array} +$$ + +Since $y _ { t } ^ { 2 } + \| x \| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } ^ { 2 } = c \cosh ( \theta )$ and $\begin{array} { r } { y _ { t } z _ { t } = \frac { c } { 2 \| x \| } \sinh ( \theta ) } \end{array}$ , we see that + +$$ +( y _ { t } z _ { t } ) ^ { \prime } = \frac { y _ { t } ^ { 2 } + \vert \vert x \vert \vert ^ { 2 } z _ { t } ^ { 2 } } { 1 + e ^ { y _ { t } z _ { t } } } = \frac { c } { 2 \vert \vert x \vert \vert } \cosh ( \theta ) \theta ^ { \prime } = \frac { c \cosh ( \theta ) } { 1 + e ^ { c \sinh ( \theta ) / 2 \vert \vert x \vert \vert } } , +$$ + +where the first equality used the system of equations Eq. 11. This gives us the dynamics of $\theta$ as + +$$ +\theta ^ { \prime } = \frac { 2 \| x \| } { 1 + e ^ { c \sinh ( \theta ) / 2 \| x \| } } , +$$ + +with an initial condition $\theta _ { 0 } = \cosh ^ { - 1 } \bigl ( \frac { y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } + \| x \| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } } { c } \bigr )$ . For any $\theta _ { f } \geq \theta _ { 0 }$ , we see that $t = \theta ^ { < - 1 > } ( \theta _ { f } )$ verifies + +$$ +t = \int _ { \theta _ { 0 } } ^ { \theta _ { f } } \frac { 1 + e ^ { c \sinh ( \theta ) / 2 \| x \| } } { 2 \| x \| } d \theta . +$$ + +There is no closed-form solution for that integral (that we know of). It can however be computed numerically. On Fig. 2 Right of the main text, we plot the curves for $y _ { t }$ and $\sigma ( z _ { t } y _ { t } )$ for different values of $c$ and $\lVert x \rVert$ . We obtain a sigmoidal shape similar to previously made empirical observations. We notice in particular that for larger values of $\lVert x \rVert$ the function converges faster. □ + +# A.4 Extension to h hidden neurons + +We now extend the result from Theorem 3.2 to the case with $h$ hidden neurons. Let us still consider an update made on $x \in D _ { 1 }$ . We know from assumptions and by Lemma 3.1 that the only active neurons in the network are indexed by $\mathcal { T } _ { 1 }$ . The network weights follow the evolution equations: + +$$ +( w _ { t } ^ { i } ) ^ { \prime } = \frac { x ^ { T } z _ { t } ^ { i } } { 1 + e ^ { \sum _ { j \in \cal { Z } _ { 1 } } z _ { t } ^ { j } w _ { t } ^ { j } x } } , \qquad ( z _ { t } ^ { i } ) ^ { \prime } = \frac { w _ { t } ^ { i } x } { e ^ { \sum _ { j \in \cal { Z } _ { 1 } } z _ { t } ^ { j } w _ { t } ^ { j } x } } . +$$ + +We similarly define $y _ { t } ^ { i } = w _ { t } ^ { i } x$ which brings + +$$ +( y _ { t } ^ { i } ) ^ { \prime } = \frac { x ^ { T } x z _ { t } ^ { i } } { 1 + e ^ { \sum _ { j \in \mathcal { Z } _ { 1 } } z _ { t } ^ { j } y _ { t } ^ { j } } } , \qquad ( z _ { t } ^ { i } ) ^ { \prime } = \frac { y _ { t } ^ { i } } { e ^ { \sum _ { j \in \mathcal { Z } _ { 1 } } z _ { t } ^ { j } y _ { t } ^ { j } } } . +$$ + +The couple $( y _ { t } ^ { i } , z _ { t } ^ { i } )$ follows the same hyperbolic invariance, defined by a constant $c _ { i }$ . In the case where $\forall i \in \mathcal { I } _ { 1 }$ , $c _ { i } = 0$ , we see that $u _ { t } ^ { i } : = z _ { t } ^ { i } y _ { t } ^ { i }$ verifies + +$$ +( u _ { t } ^ { i } ) ^ { \prime } = \frac { 2 \| x \| u _ { t } ^ { i } } { 1 + e ^ { \sum _ { j \in \mathcal { T } _ { 1 } } u _ { t } ^ { j } } } , +$$ + +and a simple summation on $i$ shows that $\begin{array} { r } { u _ { t } : = \sum _ { i \in \mathcal { I } _ { 1 } } u _ { t } ^ { i } } \end{array}$ follows Eq. 13. The dynamics of the logit in this case are identical to the single active neuron case, the only difference is potentially its initial value. + +# A.5 Proof of Corollary 3.3 + +Corollary 3.3 Let $\delta$ be the required accuracy on the classification task (i.e. $P _ { t } ( x \in D _ { 1 } ) \geq 1 - \delta$ for $x \in D _ { 1 }$ ). Under certain assumptions, the times $t _ { 1 } ^ { * }$ and $t _ { 2 } ^ { * }$ required to reach that accuracy for each classifier verify $\begin{array} { r } { \frac { t _ { 2 } ^ { * } } { t _ { 1 } ^ { * } } \approx \frac { \| x _ { 1 } \| } { \| x _ { 2 } \| } \frac { p } { 1 - p } } \end{array}$ where $\| x _ { k } \|$ is the norm of vector $\| x _ { k } \|$ from class $k$ . + +Proof. We consider the case $c = 0$ . The classification error drops at a rate proportional to $\| { x _ { 1 } } \| p$ for $D _ { 1 }$ and to $\| { \boldsymbol { x } } _ { 2 } \| ( 1 - p )$ for $D _ { 2 }$ . More precisely, let us assume that $u _ { 0 } \leq | v _ { 0 } |$ and look for a classification confidence of $1 - \delta$ . We write $\dot { u } _ { f } = \sigma ^ { \dot { < } - 1 > } ( 1 - \delta ) = \log ( 1 / \delta - 1 )$ , $t _ { v } = \bar { u } ^ { < - 1 > } ( | v _ { 0 } | )$ and + +$$ +t ^ { * } = \bar { u } ^ { < - 1 > } ( u _ { f } ) = \frac { 1 } { 2 } ( \log ( \frac { \log ( 1 / \delta - 1 ) } { u _ { 0 } } ) + E i ( \log ( 1 / \delta - 1 ) ) - E i ( u _ { 0 } ) ) , +$$ + +$t ^ { * }$ represents the time taken to reach confidence $\delta$ with an initialization $u _ { 0 }$ , and $t _ { v }$ the time to reach $v _ { 0 }$ starting in $u _ { 0 }$ . We see that + +$$ +\begin{array} { l } { P ( x \in D _ { 1 } ) \geq 1 - \delta \iff t \geq t _ { 1 } ^ { * } = \frac { t ^ { * } } { \| x _ { 1 } \| p } } \\ { P ( x \in D _ { 2 } ) \geq 1 - \delta \iff t \geq t _ { 2 } ^ { * } = \frac { t ^ { * } - t _ { v } } { \| x _ { 2 } \| \left( 1 - p \right) } } \end{array} +$$ + +$$ +\begin{array} { l } { \operatorname { i f } x \in D _ { 1 } , } \\ { \quad } \\ { \operatorname { i f } x \in D _ { 2 } . } \end{array} +$$ + +The ratio between the convergence times reads $\begin{array} { r } { \frac { t _ { 2 } ^ { * } } { t _ { 1 } ^ { * } } = \frac { \| x _ { 1 } \| } { \| x _ { 2 } \| } \frac { p } { 1 - p } ( 1 - \frac { t _ { v } } { t ^ { * } } ) } \end{array}$ . One sees that if the weight initializations $u _ { 0 }$ and $v _ { 0 }$ are close (i.e. $t _ { v }$ is small) and the confidence requirement large (i.e. $t ^ { * }$ is large), the ratio is approximately $\frac { \| x _ { 1 } \| } { \| x _ { 2 } \| } \frac { p } { 1 - p }$ . □ + +# A.6 Top-left quadrant initialization + +When the initial conditions of the network verify $y _ { 0 } = - \| x \| z _ { 0 }$ , then at all time $t$ , $y _ { t } = - \| x \| z _ { t }$ . Plugging that equality in Eq. 11 results in + +$$ +u ^ { \prime } ( t ) = \frac { - 2 \| x \| u ( t ) } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } +$$ + +where again $u ( t ) = z _ { t } y _ { t }$ . This means that the logit is negative and increasing. Let $u _ { 0 } < u _ { f } < 0$ , we see that the time at which $u$ reaches $u _ { f }$ verifies + +$$ +t = - \frac { 1 } { 2 \| x \| } \int _ { u _ { 0 } } ^ { u _ { f } } \frac { 1 + e ^ { y } } { y } d y = \frac { 1 } { 2 \| x \| } \int _ { - u _ { f } } ^ { - u _ { 0 } } \frac { 1 + e ^ { - y } } { y } d y \ge \log ( - u _ { 0 } ) - \log ( - u _ { f } ) . +$$ + +$t$ diverges to $+ \infty$ as $\boldsymbol { u } _ { f }$ tends to 0 from below. The logit converges to 0 without ever reaching it. + +One of the major assumptions made in the main text is the fact that each class contains a single element. In this section, we slightly relax it to the case where the points $( \{ x _ { i } \} _ { 1 \leq i \leq m } \subset \mathbb { R } ^ { d } )$ in a class are all orthogonal to one another1 (while still verifying Assumption (H1)). In that case, each presentation of a training vector will only affect $w _ { t }$ in the direction of that specific vector. Let $y _ { t } ^ { i }$ denote $w _ { t } x _ { i }$ , the unnormalized component of $w _ { t }$ along $x _ { i }$ . We consider a batch update on the weights of the neural network. In that case: + +$$ +( y _ { t } ^ { i } ) ^ { \prime } = \frac { \| x _ { i } \| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } y _ { t } ^ { i } } } , \ ~ ( z _ { t } ) ^ { \prime } = \sum _ { i = 1 } ^ { m } \frac { y _ { t } ^ { i } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } y _ { t } ^ { i } } } . +$$ + +Assuming that the vectors all have the same norm (denoted $\lVert x \rVert$ below) and that the $y _ { 0 } ^ { i }$ are all equal, then that equality remains true at all time (they follow the same update equation). We let $y _ { t }$ denote that value: + +$$ +( y _ { t } ) ^ { \prime } = \frac { \| x \| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } y _ { t } } } , \qquad ( z _ { t } ) ^ { \prime } = \frac { m y _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } y _ { t } } } . +$$ + +A new invariant appears in those equations: $c : = | m y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } - \| x \| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } |$ . In the case $c = 0$ (the other case can be treated as above), we obtain the following evolution equation for the logit of any point in the class: + +$$ +u ^ { \prime } ( t ) = \frac { 2 \sqrt { m } \lVert x \rVert u ( t ) } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } . +$$ + +We end up with a similar equation than before except for the $\sqrt { m }$ factor, which boosts the convergence speed. However, one should not forget that we are now training on a full batch (i.e. on $m$ points) during each unit of time. Performing the same number of updates for the single point class would√ generate a $m$ factor in the convergence speed of $u$ (one $\sqrt { m }$ factor for each $y$ and $z$ functions). The slower convergence for the more general case can be explained by the fact that each point is making an update on $w _ { t }$ in its own direction. That direction being orthogonal to all others points makes it useless for their classification. + +# A.8 Relaxing assumption (H2) + +Let us first recall that the assumption states: + +We now assume that $h = 2$ and study the evolution of the first row $w _ { t } ^ { 1 }$ of matrix $W _ { t }$ , written $w _ { t }$ in the following. We relax assumption $( \mathrm { H } 2 )$ by assuming that there is a point $x _ { 2 }$ in $D _ { 2 }$ such that $w _ { 0 } x > 0$ . And we consider updates to $w _ { t }$ coming from sampling equally $x _ { 1 }$ from $D _ { 1 }$ and $x _ { 2 }$ from $D _ { 2 }$ . The evolution equations can be written as + +$$ +w _ { t } ^ { \prime } = \frac { x _ { 1 } ^ { T } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } w _ { t } x _ { 1 } } } - \frac { x _ { 2 } ^ { T } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { - z _ { t } w _ { t } x _ { 2 } } } , \qquad z _ { t } ^ { \prime } = \frac { w _ { t } x _ { 1 } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } w _ { t } x _ { 1 } } } - \frac { w _ { t } x _ { 2 } } { 1 + e ^ { - z _ { t } w _ { t } x _ { 2 } } } . +$$ + +In order to make the analysis simpler, we assume that $x _ { 1 } ^ { T } x _ { 2 } = 0$ . We write $\alpha _ { t } ~ = ~ w _ { t } x _ { 1 }$ and $\beta _ { t } = w _ { t } x _ { 2 }$ . Any component of $w _ { 0 }$ orthogonal to both $x _ { 1 }$ and $x _ { 2 }$ will be untouched by the updates, and does not affect the classification performance of the network. This gives us + +$$ +\alpha _ { t } ^ { \prime } = \frac { \| x _ { 1 } \| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } \alpha _ { t } } } , \qquad \beta _ { t } ^ { \prime } = - \frac { \| x _ { 2 } \| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { - z _ { t } \beta _ { t } } } , \qquad z _ { t } ^ { \prime } = \frac { \alpha _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } \alpha _ { t } } } - \frac { \beta _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { - z _ { t } \beta _ { t } } } . +$$ + +By assumption, we know that $\alpha _ { 0 } , \beta _ { 0 } \ > \ 0$ . The system of ODEs (23) is invariant through the transformation $( \alpha _ { t } , \beta _ { t } , z _ { t } ) ( \beta _ { t } , \alpha _ { t } , - z _ { t } )$ so it is sufficient to study the case $z _ { 0 } \geq 0$ . Let us now state the theorem from the main text. + +Theorem 3.4. Letting $c : = \alpha _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } / \| x _ { 1 } \| ^ { 2 } + \beta _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } / \| x _ { 2 } \| ^ { 2 } - z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 }$ , the solutions of (23) verify for all $t \geq 0$ , $\alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \lVert x _ { 1 } \rVert ^ { 2 } + \beta _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \lVert x _ { 2 } \rVert ^ { 2 } - z _ { t } ^ { 2 } = c$ . In other terms, they live on hyperboloids (see Fig. 3 from the main text and Fig. 6). + +![](images/85075fed02f7104e2e1e5dacff6afb0c13c8754e89745ac3c6b72e0917c8ef6c.jpg) +Figure 6: Solutions of the ODE system for different initializations and $c = - 1$ . Trajectories live on a hyperboloid of two sheets. Any initialization on that surface will result in $\beta _ { t }$ reaching 0, or in other terms in class $D _ { 1 }$ prevailing. This curve and Fig. 3 from the main text are plotted with $\| x _ { 1 } \| = \| x _ { 2 } \| = 1$ . + +If $c \leq 0$ , $\beta _ { t }$ reaches 0 at some point during training (see Fig. 6). If $c > 0$ , there exists a curve $\mathcal { C } _ { c }$ on the hyperboloid such that as $t \to + \infty$ , for any initialization $( \alpha _ { 0 } , \beta _ { 0 } , z _ { 0 } ) \in \mathcal { C } _ { c }$ : + +$$ +\alpha _ { t } \to ( \frac { 1 } { \| x _ { 1 } \| ^ { 2 } } + \frac { 1 } { \| x _ { 2 } \| ^ { 2 } } ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \sqrt { c } , \qquad \beta _ { t } \to ( \frac { 1 } { \| x _ { 1 } \| ^ { 2 } } + \frac { 1 } { \| x _ { 2 } \| ^ { 2 } } ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \sqrt { c } , \qquad z _ { t } \to 0 . +$$ + +That curve defines two regions of the initialization space. In one (colored yellow on Fig. 3 Left), trajectories verify $\alpha _ { t } = 0$ for some $t$ , in the other (colored green) $\beta _ { t }$ reaches 0 at some point. + +Proof. It is easy to see from the system of ODEs (23) that $( \alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } ) ^ { \prime } / \| x _ { 1 } \| ^ { 2 } + ( \beta _ { t } ^ { 2 } ) ^ { \prime } / \| x _ { 2 } \| ^ { 2 } - ( z _ { t } ^ { 2 } ) ^ { \prime } = 0 ,$ which directly gives the invariance of $\alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \lVert x _ { 1 } \rVert ^ { 2 } + \beta _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \lVert x _ { 2 } \rVert ^ { 2 } - z _ { t } ^ { 2 }$ . This implies that the trajectories $( \alpha _ { t } , \beta _ { t } , z _ { t } )$ live on hyperboloids. + +If $c < 0$ , the hyperboloid has two sheets (see Fig. 6). In particular, the trajectories verify: $z _ { t } ^ { 2 } =$ $\alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \lVert x _ { 1 } \rVert ^ { 2 } + \beta _ { t } ^ { 2 } \hat { / } \lVert x _ { 2 } \rVert ^ { 2 } - c \geq - c$ which means that $z _ { t }$ is bounded away from 0. As long as $\beta _ { t } \geq 0$ , we have $\begin{array} { r } { \beta _ { t } ^ { \prime } = - \frac { \| x _ { 2 } \| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { - z _ { t } \beta _ { t } } } \leq \frac { \| x _ { 2 } \| ^ { 2 } c } { 2 } } \end{array}$ . This implies that $\beta _ { t }$ will reach 0 in a finite time since it decreases at a rate larger than a strictly positive number. At that point, the ReLU ensures that $\beta _ { t }$ does not evolve anymore, and that $\beta _ { t }$ ’s contribution to $z _ { t }$ disappears. The evolution equations turn into the ones studied in the previous paragraphs, plotted as the green hyperbola in the plane $\beta = 0$ in Fig. 6. + +If $c = 0$ , we know that $z _ { t } ^ { 2 } = \alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \| x _ { 1 } \| ^ { 2 } + \beta _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \| x _ { 2 } \| ^ { 2 } \geq \alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \| x _ { 1 } \| ^ { 2 } \geq \alpha _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } / \| x _ { 1 } \| ^ { 2 }$ $\scriptstyle ( \alpha _ { t }$ increases as long as $z _ { t }$ is positive), so the same argument about $\beta _ { t }$ holds. + +If $c > 0$ , let us first note that the point $\begin{array} { r } { \big ( \big ( \frac { 1 } { \| x _ { 1 } \| ^ { 2 } } + \frac { 1 } { \| x _ { 2 } \| ^ { 2 } } \big ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \sqrt { c } , \big ( \frac { 1 } { \| x _ { 1 } \| ^ { 2 } } + \frac { 1 } { \| x _ { 2 } \| ^ { 2 } } \big ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \sqrt { c } , 0 \big ) } \end{array}$ belongs to the hyperboloid and is stationary (the three derivatives are 0). Classic results on ordinary differential equations (Tenenbaum & Pollard, 1985) then give the result. Finding a closed-form solution to the shape of $\mathcal { C } _ { c }$ is to the best of our knowledge impossible. One can however obtain an approximation by considering a point $\begin{array} { r } { \big ( \big ( \frac { 1 } { \| x _ { 1 } \| ^ { 2 } } + \frac { 1 } { \| x _ { 2 } \| ^ { 2 } } \big ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \sqrt { c - \epsilon } , \big ( \frac { 1 } { \| x _ { 1 } \| ^ { 2 } } + \frac { 1 } { \| x _ { 2 } \| ^ { 2 } } \big ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \sqrt { c + \epsilon } , 0 \big ) } \end{array}$ for a small $\epsilon$ and applying finite difference methods to the evolution equations (23) to build the trajectory. + +# Appendix B: Deeper Neural Networks + +In this section we study the case of a deeper network with $N - 1$ hidden layers. Similarly to above, we can prove the existence of independent modes of learning. To that end, neurons need to be activated in a disjoint manner from one class to the other. Due to the growing complexity of the interactions between the parameters of the network, this requires very strong assumptions on the initialization of the network and on the shape of the network. Assuming that the network is written as + +$$ +P _ { t } ( x ) : = \sigma ( Z _ { t } ^ { T } ( Z _ { t } ^ { N - 2 } \cdot \cdot \cdot ( Z _ { t } ^ { 1 } ( W _ { t } x ) _ { + } ) _ { + } \cdot \cdot \cdot ) _ { + } ) , +$$ + +with $W _ { t }$ an $h \times d$ matrix and for all $1 \leq i \leq N - 2$ , $Z _ { t } ^ { i }$ an $h \times h$ matrix. We maintain assumption (H2) from the main text, and extend (H3) to all $Z _ { t } ^ { i }$ by assuming that they are diagonal, and that the $j$ -th element of their diagonal is positive if $j \in \mathcal { I } _ { 1 }$ , negative otherwise. To simplify notations, we go back to assuming $h = 2$ and take an update on $x \in D _ { 1 }$ . Only the first elements of every matrix are modified, we write them $z _ { t } ^ { i }$ and keep the notations $z _ { t }$ , $w _ { t }$ and $y _ { t }$ . We can then write the evolution equations: + +$$ +z _ { t } ^ { \prime } = \frac { z _ { t } ^ { N - 2 } \cdot \cdot \cdot z _ { t } ^ { 1 } y _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } , \qquad ( z _ { t } ^ { i } ) ^ { \prime } = \frac { z _ { t } z _ { t } ^ { N - 2 } \cdot \cdot \cdot z _ { t } ^ { i + 1 } z _ { t } ^ { i - 1 } \cdot \cdot \cdot y _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } , \qquad y _ { t } ^ { \prime } = \frac { \| x \| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } z _ { t } ^ { N - 2 } \cdot \cdot \cdot z _ { t } ^ { 1 } } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } , +$$ + +with $u ( t ) = z _ { t } \ \Pi z _ { t } ^ { i } \ y _ { t }$ . Assuming that $\begin{array} { r } { z _ { 0 } = z _ { 0 } ^ { 1 } = \ldots = z _ { 0 } ^ { N - 1 } = \frac { y _ { 0 } } { \| x \| } } \end{array}$ y0kxk , we see that those equals remain true throughout training. This gives us + +$$ +z _ { t } ^ { \prime } = \frac { ( z _ { t } ) ^ { N - 1 } \| x \| } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } , \qquad u ( t ) = ( z _ { t } ) ^ { N } \| x \| , \qquad u ^ { \prime } ( t ) = N ( z _ { t } ) ^ { N - 1 } z _ { t } ^ { \prime } \| x \| . +$$ + +Combining those equations gives us the ODE verified by the logit of our system + +$$ +u ^ { \prime } ( t ) = \frac { N \| x \| ^ { 2 / N } u ^ { 2 - 2 / N } ( t ) } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } . +$$ + +The solution of that equation for $N = 4$ and $N = 8$ can be found on Fig. 7. Here too, a sigmoidal shape appears during the learning process. The effect of $\lVert x \rVert$ reduces as $N$ grows due to the power $2 / N$ , however, larger values still converge faster (e.g. the blue and yellow curves). Additionally, as noted in Saxe et al. (2013b) for linear networks: the deeper the network, the faster the learning. This fact is studied in more details in Arora et al. (2018) where depth is shown to accelerate convergence in some cases. + +![](images/fb577d3b6f9d1e78972298ee90f4eded6aeedee5ebfbf014a9c64222401a398d.jpg) +Figure 7: Logit $u ( t )$ and confidence $P _ { t }$ for different number of layers and values of $\lVert x \rVert$ . + +# Appendix C: Hinge Loss + +# C.1 Proof of Theorem 4.1 + +In this section we prove Theorem 4.1 from the main text on the dynamics of learning in the case of the Hinge loss: + +$$ +L _ { H } ( W _ { t } , Z _ { t } ; x ) = \operatorname* { m a x } ( 0 , 1 - Z _ { t } ^ { T } ( W _ { t } x ) _ { + } \cdot ( \mathbb { 1 } _ { x \in D _ { 1 } } - \mathbb { 1 } _ { x \in D _ { 2 } } ) ) . +$$ + +Let us consider updates made after observing a point $x \in D _ { 1 }$ , the converse can be treated similarly with a simple change of sign. The system of ordinary differential equations verified by the parameters of our network is: + +$$ +y _ { t } ^ { \prime } = \| x \| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } , \qquad z _ { t } ^ { \prime } = y _ { t } . +$$ + +The same relation between $y _ { t }$ and $z _ { t }$ appears in those equations than in the cross-entropy case. Defining $c$ similarly, we have $u ^ { \prime } ( t ) = 2 \| x \| u ( t )$ in the case where $c = 0$ , leading to $u ( t ) = \bar { u _ { 0 } } e ^ { 2 \| x \| t }$ . When $c \neq 0$ , the same change of variables can be applied and leads to + +$$ +y _ { t } = \sqrt { c } \cosh ( \frac { \theta _ { 0 } } { 2 } + \Vert x \Vert { t } ) , z _ { t } = \frac { \sqrt { c } } { \Vert x \Vert } \sinh ( \frac { \theta _ { 0 } } { 2 } + \Vert x \Vert { t } ) , u _ { t } = \frac { c } { 2 \Vert x \Vert } \sinh ( \theta _ { 0 } + 2 \Vert x \Vert { t } ) , +$$ + +with $\begin{array} { r } { \theta _ { 0 } = \cosh ^ { - 1 } \bigl ( \frac { y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } + \| x \| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } } { c _ { \star } } \bigr ) } \end{array}$ . Those equations are only valid until $u _ { t }$ reaches 12. At that point learning stops, the network has converged. If the initialization is such that that condition is already verified, then the weights will not change as they already solve the task. The learning curves along with the initialization diagram can be found in Fig. 8. We notice a hard sigmoidal shape, corresponding to learning stopping when $u _ { t }$ reaches 1. + +# C.2 General treatment + +Let us now consider the general case of a class containing an arbitrary number of points $D _ { 1 } =$ $\{ x _ { i } \} _ { 1 \leq i \leq m } \subset \mathbb { R } ^ { d }$ . We consider the case of updates done in full batches (standard gradient descent in other words). In that case, we see that the network obeys the following dynamics: + +$$ +w _ { t } ^ { \prime } = z _ { t } \sum _ { i = 1 } ^ { m } x _ { i } ^ { T } , \qquad z _ { t } ^ { \prime } = w _ { t } \sum _ { i = 1 } ^ { m } x _ { i } ^ { T } . +$$ + +Letting $X = \sum _ { i = 1 } ^ { m } x _ { i }$ denote the sum of all the datapoints in that class, we see that those dynamics boil down to our previous treatment for a single point. The same cases appear, depending on the value of $c : = | ( w _ { 0 } \dot { X } ) ^ { 2 } - \| X \| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } |$ . We explicitly treat the $c > 0$ case. Following the methods above, we see that: $\begin{array} { r } { w _ { t } = y _ { t } \frac { X ^ { T } } { \lVert X \rVert ^ { 2 } } + w _ { 0 } ^ { \perp } } \end{array}$ where $y _ { t } = \sqrt { c } \cosh ( \frac { \theta _ { 0 } } { 2 } + \| X \| t )$ and $w _ { 0 } ^ { T }$ is the component of $w _ { 0 }$ orthogonal to $X$ (and thus unchanged during training). With $z _ { t }$ and $u _ { t }$ defined as above (with $X$ instead of $x$ ), an arbitrary example $x$ is then classified as + +$$ +P ( x \in D _ { 1 } ) = z _ { t } y _ { t } { \frac { X ^ { T } x } { \| X \| ^ { 2 } } } + z _ { t } w _ { 0 } ^ { \perp } x = u _ { t } { \frac { X ^ { T } x } { \| X \| ^ { 2 } } } + z _ { t } w _ { 0 } ^ { \perp } x . +$$ + +# Appendix D: Gradient Starvation + +In this section, we prove a relaxed version of Theorem 5.1 from the main text: + +Theorem D.2. Let $\delta$ be our confidence requirement on class $D _ { 1 }$ i.e. the training stops as soon as $\forall x \in D _ { 1 }$ , $P _ { t } ( x \in D _ { 1 } ) \geq 1 - \delta$ . Let $t ^ { * }$ denote that instant i.e. $\begin{array} { r } { z _ { t ^ { * } } \alpha _ { t ^ { * } } = \log ( \frac { 1 - \stackrel { \smile } { \delta } } { \delta } ) } \end{array}$ . If $\beta _ { 0 } < 0$ , the inequality (9) from the main text is valid. Otherwise, with $w _ { 0 } = \left( \alpha _ { 0 } x _ { 1 } , \beta _ { 0 } x _ { 2 } \right) + \left( x _ { 1 } ^ { \perp } , x _ { 2 } ^ { \perp } \right)$ , we have + +$$ +P _ { t ^ { * } } ( ( 0 , x _ { 2 } ) \in D _ { 1 } ) \leq \frac { 1 } { 1 + e ^ { - \lambda \log ( \frac { 1 - \delta } { \delta } ) - z _ { t ^ { * } } ( \beta _ { 0 } - \alpha \alpha _ { 0 } ) } } . +$$ + +Proof. We start with the $\beta _ { 0 } < 0$ case. If $\beta _ { t ^ { * } }$ is negative, the result from the main text clearly holds. Otherwise, there exists $\tilde { t } < t ^ { * }$ such that $\beta _ { \tilde { t } } = 0$ ( $\beta _ { t }$ is increasing). The proof of Theorem 5.1 from the main text can then directly be applied to $[ \tilde { t } , t ^ { * } ]$ . If $\beta _ { 0 } > 0$ , the inequality on $\alpha _ { t } ^ { \prime }$ and $\beta _ { t } ^ { \prime }$ holds and gives $\beta _ { t } \le \beta _ { 0 } + ( \alpha _ { t } - \alpha _ { 0 } ) \lambda$ . Plugging it into $P _ { t ^ { * } } ( ( 0 , x _ { 2 } ) \in D _ { 1 } )$ ) concludes our proof. □ + +In the main text, we assume that $\beta _ { 0 } - \alpha \alpha _ { 0 } < 0$ and obtain a bound on the confidence which is independent from $\alpha _ { 0 }$ and $\beta _ { 0 }$ . Using that bound allows to obtain Fig. 9, but is partly unfair as the initialization of the network is already favoring the strong feature. + +However, we note that under small random initialization $z _ { t ^ { * } }$ and $\alpha _ { t ^ { * } }$ are of the same order of magnitude and $\left( \beta _ { 0 } - \alpha \alpha _ { 0 } \right)$ is very small compared to $\log ( \frac { 1 - \delta } { \delta } )$ . The additional term in the denominator thus has a limited effect on the exponential, gradient starvation is still happening (a fact confirmed by the experiment on the cats and dogs dataset). In the main text, Fig. 5 plots the upper bound for a fair initialization $\alpha _ { 0 } = \beta _ { 0 } = 0 . 1$ (in that case, we need to assume that $z _ { t ^ { * } } = \alpha _ { t ^ { * } }$ ). + +![](images/e933f4b848f9f5a236a4b05e1b089628a912b3c278feb6f479d8434ce078cc0a.jpg) +Figure 8: Solution of Eq.26. + +![](images/9c77039d1d135875bd3fb0e0e5b2c9f96e71bfbceefac3e7fd5ee6a1be5bdaad.jpg) +Figure 9: Upper bound on $P _ { t ^ { * } } ( ( 0 , x _ { 2 } ) \in D _ { 1 } )$ as a function of $1 - \delta$ for different values of $\lambda$ . + +Appendix E: Experimental Details + +# E.1 Mixture of Gaussian experiment + +In this experiment, the data is constructed using eight independent Gaussian distributions around a unit circle. The variance of each Gaussian is chosen such that all eight modes of the data are separated by regions of low data probability, but still contain a reasonable amount of variance. This simple experiment resembles multi-modal datasets. Although this task might seem simple, in practice many generative adversarial networks fail to capture all the modes. This problem is generally known as mode collapse. + +As shown in the main text, using the hinge loss instead of the common binary cross-entropy loss alleviates the problem significantly. The architectures used for the generator and discriminator both consist of four hidden layers where each layer has 256 hidden units. As a common choice, a ReLU is used as the non-linearity function for hidden units. The length of the noise input vector is 128. The Adam optimizer (Kingma & Ba, 2014) was applied during training with $\alpha \stackrel { - } { = } 1 0 ^ { - 4 }$ , $\beta _ { 1 } = 0 . 5$ and $\beta _ { 2 } = 0 . 9$ . The PyTorch framework (Paszke et al., 2017) was used to conduct the experiment. + +# E.2 Dogs vs. Cats classification with light effect + +For the purpose of highlighting the fact that the most frequent feature starved all the others, we conducted an experiment on a classification task. We modified the cats and dogs dataset (Kaggle, 2018) by setting the cats images to be lighter than the dogs images. To do so, each pixel in a cat image is scaled to be between 0 and 127 while each pixel in a dog image is scaled to be between 128 and 255. The dataset consists of 12500 images of each class. The classifier has an architecture similar to VGG16 (Simonyan & Zisserman, 2014). In order to isolate the effect of the induced bias, no regularization was applied. The Adam optimizer was applied here as well during training with $\alpha = \bar { 1 } 0 ^ { - 4 }$ , $\beta _ { 1 } = 0 . 9$ and $\beta _ { 2 } = 0 . 9 9$ . 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What principles govern the evolution of the neural network weights? Why", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 462, + 505, + 473 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 462, + 505, + 473 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "does the training error evolve as it does? How do data and optimization techniques like stochastic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 472, + 506, + 485 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 472, + 506, + 485 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "gradient descent interact? Where does the implicit regularization of deep neural networks trained", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 483, + 506, + 496 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 483, + 506, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with stochastic gradient descent come from? 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Theoretic explanations of that phenomenon exist in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 544, + 506, + 557 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 544, + 506, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "case of regression on linear neural networks (Saxe, 2015) but extensions to the nonlinear case (Heskes", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 555, + 471, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 555, + 471, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "& Kappen, 1993; Raghu et al., 2017; Arora et al., 2018) fail to provide analytical solutions.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 572, + 505, + 671 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 572, + 505, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 572, + 505, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "It has been observed in countless experiments that deep networks present strong generalization", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 505, + 595 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 505, + 595 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "abilities. 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(2018) also offer some explanations of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 374, + 673 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 374, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "phenomenon but understanding its roots remains an open problem.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 677, + 504, + 731 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this work, we study the learning dynamics of a deep nonlinear neural network – i.e. how its", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 506, + 702 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 506, + 702 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "weights and outputs evolve throughout learning – trained on a standard classification task using two", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "different losses: the cross-entropy and the hinge loss. We mainly focus on binary classification,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "some of the results and properties can however be extended to the multi-class case. The questions", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 416, + 732 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 416, + 732 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we address in Sections 3, 4 and 5 respectively can be summarized as follows:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "index": 45 + } + ], + "page_idx": 0, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 307, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 25, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 25, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 303, + 752, + 308, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 762 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 762 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 79, + 415, + 116 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 76, + 418, + 99 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 76, + 418, + 99 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Convergence Properties of Deep Neural", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 96, + 334, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 96, + 334, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Networks on Separable Data", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + } + ], + "index": 0.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 112, + 136, + 244, + 157 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 113, + 136, + 201, + 147 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 113, + 136, + 201, + 147 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Anonymous authors", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 111, + 146, + 245, + 158 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 111, + 146, + 245, + 158 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Paper under double-blind review", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + } + ], + "index": 2.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 111, + 136, + 245, + 158 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 281, + 186, + 330, + 199 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 279, + 186, + 332, + 200 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 279, + 186, + 332, + 200 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Abstract", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 143, + 210, + 468, + 385 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 208, + 470, + 224 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 208, + 470, + 224 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "While a lot of progress has been made in recent years, the dynamics of learning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 221, + 469, + 233 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 221, + 469, + 233 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in deep nonlinear neural networks remain to this day largely misunderstood. In", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 231, + 469, + 245 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 231, + 469, + 245 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "this work, we study the case of binary classification and prove various properties", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 243, + 469, + 255 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 243, + 469, + 255 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of learning in such networks under strong assumptions such as linear separability", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 254, + 469, + 266 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 254, + 469, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the data. Extending existing results from the linear case, we confirm empirical", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 264, + 470, + 277 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 264, + 470, + 277 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "observations by proving that the classification error also follows a sigmoidal shape", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 275, + 470, + 289 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 275, + 470, + 289 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in nonlinear architectures. We show that given proper initialization, learning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 287, + 469, + 299 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 287, + 469, + 299 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "expounds parallel independent modes and that certain regions of parameter space", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 298, + 469, + 309 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 298, + 469, + 309 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "might lead to failed training. We also demonstrate that input norm and features’", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 308, + 470, + 321 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 308, + 470, + 321 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "frequency in the dataset lead to distinct convergence speeds which might shed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 320, + 470, + 332 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 320, + 470, + 332 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "some light on the generalization capabilities of deep neural networks. We provide", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 330, + 470, + 344 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 330, + 470, + 344 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a comparison between the dynamics of learning with cross-entropy and hinge", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 341, + 470, + 355 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 341, + 470, + 355 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "losses, which could prove useful to understand recent progress in the training", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 353, + 469, + 364 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 353, + 469, + 364 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of generative adversarial networks. Finally, we identify a phenomenon that we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 363, + 470, + 376 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 363, + 470, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "baptize gradient starvation where the most frequent features in a dataset prevent", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 375, + 410, + 386 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 375, + 410, + 386 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the learning of other less frequent but equally informative features.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 12.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 140, + 208, + 470, + 386 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 404, + 195, + 417 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 402, + 198, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 402, + 198, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1 Introduction", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 429, + 504, + 506 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 429, + 506, + 441 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 429, + 506, + 441 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Due to extremely complex interactions between millions of parameters, nonlinear activation functions", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 440, + 506, + 452 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 440, + 506, + 452 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and optimization techniques, the dynamics of learning observed in deep neural networks remain much", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 505, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 505, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of a mystery to this day. What principles govern the evolution of the neural network weights? Why", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 462, + 505, + 473 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 462, + 505, + 473 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "does the training error evolve as it does? How do data and optimization techniques like stochastic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 472, + 506, + 485 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 472, + 506, + 485 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "gradient descent interact? Where does the implicit regularization of deep neural networks trained", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 483, + 506, + 496 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 483, + 506, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with stochastic gradient descent come from? Shedding some light on those questions would make", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 492, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 492, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training neural networks more understandable, and potentially pave the way to better techniques.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 25, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 429, + 506, + 507 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 511, + 504, + 566 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 506, + 524 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 506, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "It is commonly accepted that learning is composed of alternating phases: plateaus where the error", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 523, + 505, + 535 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 523, + 505, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "remains fairly constant and periods of fast improvement where a lot of progress is made over the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 506, + 546 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 506, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "course of few epochs (Saxe et al., 2013a). Theoretic explanations of that phenomenon exist in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 544, + 506, + 557 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 544, + 506, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "case of regression on linear neural networks (Saxe, 2015) but extensions to the nonlinear case (Heskes", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 555, + 471, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 555, + 471, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "& Kappen, 1993; Raghu et al., 2017; Arora et al., 2018) fail to provide analytical solutions.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 31, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 511, + 506, + 567 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 572, + 505, + 671 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 572, + 505, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 572, + 505, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "It has been observed in countless experiments that deep networks present strong generalization", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 505, + 595 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 505, + 595 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "abilities. Those abilities are however difficult to ground in solid theoretical foundations. The fact", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 506, + 607 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 506, + 607 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that deep network have millions of parameters – a number sometimes orders of magnitude larger", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 505, + 618 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 505, + 618 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "than the dataset size – contradicts the expectations set by classic statistical learning theory on the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 505, + 629 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 505, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "necessity of regularizers (Vapnik, 1998; Poggio et al., 2004). This observation drove Zhang et al.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 625, + 506, + 641 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 625, + 506, + 641 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(2016) to suggest the existence of an implicit regularization happening during the training of deep", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 639, + 505, + 650 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 639, + 505, + 650 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "neural networks. Advani & Saxe (2017) show that the dynamics of gradient descent can protect", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 505, + 662 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 505, + 662 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "against overfitting in large networks. Kleinberg et al. (2018) also offer some explanations of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 374, + 673 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 374, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "phenomenon but understanding its roots remains an open problem.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + } + ], + "index": 38, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 572, + 506, + 673 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 677, + 504, + 731 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this work, we study the learning dynamics of a deep nonlinear neural network – i.e. how its", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 506, + 702 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 506, + 702 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "weights and outputs evolve throughout learning – trained on a standard classification task using two", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "different losses: the cross-entropy and the hinge loss. We mainly focus on binary classification,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "some of the results and properties can however be extended to the multi-class case. The questions", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 416, + 732 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 416, + 732 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we address in Sections 3, 4 and 5 respectively can be summarized as follows:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "index": 45, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 732 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 146, + 82, + 463, + 116 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 82, + 443, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 82, + 443, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "How does the confidence of a classifier evolve throughout learning?", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 182, + 93, + 429, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 182, + 93, + 429, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "How does the loss used during training impact its dynamics?", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 146, + 104, + 465, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 146, + 104, + 465, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Which properties of the features present in a dataset impact learning, and how?", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 132, + 505, + 165 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 132, + 505, + 144 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 132, + 505, + 144 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Independent mode learning We show that, similarly to the case of linear networks and under certain", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 142, + 506, + 156 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 142, + 506, + 156 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "initial conditions, learning happens independently between different classes, i.e. classes induce a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 443, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 154, + 443, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "partition of the network activations, corresponding to orthogonal modes of the data.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 171, + 505, + 216 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 505, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 505, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Learning dynamics We prove that in accordance to experimental findings, the hidden activations", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 181, + 505, + 196 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 181, + 505, + 196 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the classification error of the network show a sigmoidal shape with slow learning at the beginning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 193, + 505, + 206 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 193, + 505, + 206 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "followed by fast saturation of the curve. We also characterize a region in the initialization space", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 205, + 296, + 216 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 205, + 296, + 216 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where learning is frozen or eventually dies out.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 7.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 221, + 504, + 254 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 221, + 505, + 234 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 221, + 505, + 234 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Hinge loss We study how using the hinge loss impacts learning and quantitatively compare it to the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 232, + 505, + 244 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 232, + 505, + 244 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "classic cross-entropy loss. We show that the hinge loss allows one to solve a classification task much", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 243, + 486, + 256 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 243, + 486, + 256 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "faster, by providing strong gradients no matter how close to convergence the neural network is.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 259, + 505, + 326 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 259, + 505, + 272 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 259, + 505, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Gradient starvation Finally, we identify a phenomenon that we call gradient starvation where the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 271, + 505, + 283 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 271, + 505, + 283 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "most frequent features present in the dataset starve the learning of other very informative but less", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 282, + 505, + 294 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 282, + 505, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "frequent features. Gradient starvation occurs naturally when training a neural network with gradient", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 291, + 505, + 306 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 291, + 505, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "descent and might be part of the explanation as to why neural networks generalize so well. They", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 303, + 505, + 316 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 303, + 505, + 316 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "intrinsically implement a variant of Occam’s razor (Ariew, 1976): the simplest explanation is the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 315, + 211, + 327 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 315, + 211, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "one they converge to first.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + } + ], + "index": 15.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 351, + 233, + 363 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 349, + 235, + 367 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 349, + 235, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 Setup and notations", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 381, + 505, + 449 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 381, + 505, + 394 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 381, + 505, + 394 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We are interested in a simple binary classification task, solved by training a deep neural network", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 393, + 504, + 404 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 393, + 504, + 404 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with gradient descent. 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The signs of the coordinates of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 340, + 333, + 351, + 344 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "Z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 352, + 331, + 504, + 347 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "remain the same throughout training.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 15.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 353, + 505, + 410 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 354, + 505, + 366 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 354, + 505, + 366 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This lemma proves that updates to the parameters of our network are fully decoupled from one class", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 364, + 505, + 378 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 364, + 274, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to the other. An update for a data point in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 274, + 365, + 288, + 376 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 289, + 364, + 505, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "will only influence the corresponding active rows and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 375, + 505, + 389 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 375, + 156, + 389 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "elements of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 376, + 170, + 387 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "W _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 171, + 375, + 189, + 389 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 190, + 376, + 201, + 387 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "Z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 375, + 505, + 389 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". This \"independent mode learning\" is an equivalent of the results by Saxe", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 386, + 506, + 400 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 386, + 506, + 400 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. (2013b) in a non-linear network trained on the cross entropy loss. The proof of the lemma and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 397, + 488, + 410 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 397, + 169, + 410 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "its extension to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 398, + 196, + 408 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "N - 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 197, + 397, + 488, + 410 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "hidden layers and multi-class classification can be found in Appendix A.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 423, + 214, + 434 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 422, + 216, + 435 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 422, + 216, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.2 Learning dynamics", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 443, + 505, + 488 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 443, + 505, + 456 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 443, + 505, + 456 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We are now interested in the actual dynamics of learning, and move from discrete updates to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 505, + 466 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 352, + 466 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "continuous ones by considering an infinitesimal learning rate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 353, + 456, + 361, + 465 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "\\alpha", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 361, + 455, + 505, + 466 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Heskes & Kappen, 1993). Lemma", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 466, + 506, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 466, + 380, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.1 can easily be extended to this setting. For simplicity we assume", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 380, + 466, + 406, + 476 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "h = 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 407, + 466, + 506, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", but similar results hold", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 467, + 489 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 157, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for arbitrary", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 478, + 164, + 487 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "h", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 164, + 477, + 467, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(see Appendix A.4). For the moment, we maintain the assumptions (H1-3).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 24.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 492, + 506, + 515 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 491, + 505, + 504 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 491, + 268, + 504 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Theorem 3.2. Assuming that each class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 492, + 275, + 502 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "k", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 275, + 491, + 375, + 504 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "contains the same vector", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 375, + 494, + 387, + 503 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "x _ { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 491, + 425, + 504 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "repeated", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 425, + 492, + 444, + 504 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "| D _ { k } |", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 445, + 491, + 505, + 504 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "times, then the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 502, + 487, + 516 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 502, + 210, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "output of the classifier on", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 210, + 504, + 224, + 514 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "D _ { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 225, + 502, + 279, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "verifies (with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 503, + 342, + 515 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "p _ { k } = | D _ { k } | / | D |", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 502, + 402, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the fraction of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 402, + 504, + 411, + 513 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "D", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 412, + 502, + 465, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "belonging to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 465, + 504, + 479, + 514 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "D _ { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 480, + 502, + 487, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "):", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 27.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 230, + 520, + 380, + 535 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 520, + 380, + 535 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 520, + 380, + 535 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r l r } { P _ { t } ( x _ { k } \\in D _ { k } ) } & { { } = } & { \\sigma ( u ( \\| x _ { k } \\| p _ { k } t ) ) , } \\end{array}", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "ef14602d7b687dff05e5ba67e8ed5014797307e4671d67f4d72120770ad2f482.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 29, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 520, + 380, + 535 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 29 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 539, + 503, + 551 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 538, + 504, + 552 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 538, + 504, + 552 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where u is defined below. The classification curves are sigmoidal and can be found on Fig. 2 Right.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 564, + 505, + 632 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 504, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 357, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. To simplify the notations, we arbitrarily assume that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 358, + 564, + 401, + 577 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "{ { \\cal T } _ { 1 } } ~ = ~ \\{ 1 \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 401, + 563, + 461, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and we write", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 462, + 567, + 473, + 576 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "w _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 474, + 563, + 494, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 495, + 567, + 504, + 576 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 576, + 505, + 588 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 576, + 340, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the row and element modified by an update made using", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 340, + 576, + 375, + 587 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 375, + 576, + 429, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(the case of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 429, + 576, + 443, + 587 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 443, + 576, + 505, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be treated", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 586, + 506, + 600 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 586, + 347, + 600 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "symmetrically). By the independence above, we know that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 588, + 359, + 597 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "w _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 359, + 586, + 378, + 600 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 379, + 588, + 388, + 597 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 586, + 506, + 600 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are only affected by updates", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 504, + 611 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 128, + 611 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 598, + 142, + 608 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 596, + 349, + 611 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". This greatly simplifies our evolution equations to:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 350, + 596, + 420, + 610 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\bar { w _ { t } ^ { \\prime } } = \\delta _ { f } \\bar { ( x ) } z _ { t } x ^ { T }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 421, + 596, + 439, + 611 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 439, + 597, + 504, + 610 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = \\delta _ { f } ( x ) \\ w _ { t } x", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 608, + 505, + 622 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 608, + 133, + 622 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 609, + 158, + 620 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\delta _ { f } ( x )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 608, + 477, + 622 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the gradient of the loss with respect to the pre-sigmoid output of the network", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 478, + 609, + 501, + 621 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "u _ { t } ( x )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 501, + 608, + 505, + 622 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ":", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 619, + 505, + 633 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 619, + 219, + 632 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\delta _ { f } ( x ) \\stackrel { } { = } 1 _ { \\{ k = 1 \\} } - \\sigma ( u _ { t } ( x ) )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 619, + 412, + 633 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the prime indicates a time derivative. 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An update for a data point in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 274, + 365, + 288, + 376 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 289, + 364, + 505, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "will only influence the corresponding active rows and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 375, + 505, + 389 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 375, + 156, + 389 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "elements of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 376, + 170, + 387 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "W _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 171, + 375, + 189, + 389 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 190, + 376, + 201, + 387 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "Z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 375, + 505, + 389 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". This \"independent mode learning\" is an equivalent of the results by Saxe", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 386, + 506, + 400 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 386, + 506, + 400 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. (2013b) in a non-linear network trained on the cross entropy loss. The proof of the lemma and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 397, + 488, + 410 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 397, + 169, + 410 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "its extension to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 398, + 196, + 408 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "N - 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 197, + 397, + 488, + 410 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "hidden layers and multi-class classification can be found in Appendix A.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 19, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 354, + 506, + 410 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 423, + 214, + 434 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 422, + 216, + 435 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 422, + 216, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.2 Learning dynamics", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 443, + 505, + 488 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 443, + 505, + 456 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 443, + 505, + 456 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We are now interested in the actual dynamics of learning, and move from discrete updates to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 505, + 466 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 352, + 466 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "continuous ones by considering an infinitesimal learning rate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 353, + 456, + 361, + 465 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "\\alpha", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 361, + 455, + 505, + 466 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Heskes & Kappen, 1993). Lemma", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 466, + 506, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 466, + 380, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.1 can easily be extended to this setting. For simplicity we assume", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 380, + 466, + 406, + 476 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "h = 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 407, + 466, + 506, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", but similar results hold", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 467, + 489 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 157, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for arbitrary", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 478, + 164, + 487 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "h", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 164, + 477, + 467, + 489 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(see Appendix A.4). For the moment, we maintain the assumptions (H1-3).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 24.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 443, + 506, + 489 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 492, + 506, + 515 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 491, + 505, + 504 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 491, + 268, + 504 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Theorem 3.2. Assuming that each class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 492, + 275, + 502 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "k", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 275, + 491, + 375, + 504 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "contains the same vector", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 375, + 494, + 387, + 503 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "x _ { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 491, + 425, + 504 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "repeated", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 425, + 492, + 444, + 504 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "| D _ { k } |", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 445, + 491, + 505, + 504 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "times, then the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 502, + 487, + 516 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 502, + 210, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "output of the classifier on", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 210, + 504, + 224, + 514 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "D _ { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 225, + 502, + 279, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "verifies (with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 503, + 342, + 515 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "p _ { k } = | D _ { k } | / | D |", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 502, + 402, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the fraction of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 402, + 504, + 411, + 513 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "D", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 412, + 502, + 465, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "belonging to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 465, + 504, + 479, + 514 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "D _ { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 480, + 502, + 487, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "):", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 27.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 491, + 505, + 516 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 230, + 520, + 380, + 535 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 520, + 380, + 535 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 520, + 380, + 535 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r l r } { P _ { t } ( x _ { k } \\in D _ { k } ) } & { { } = } & { \\sigma ( u ( \\| x _ { k } \\| p _ { k } t ) ) , } \\end{array}", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "ef14602d7b687dff05e5ba67e8ed5014797307e4671d67f4d72120770ad2f482.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 29, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 520, + 380, + 535 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 29 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 539, + 503, + 551 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 538, + 504, + 552 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 538, + 504, + 552 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where u is defined below. The classification curves are sigmoidal and can be found on Fig. 2 Right.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + } + ], + "index": 30, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 538, + 504, + 552 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 564, + 505, + 632 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 504, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 357, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. To simplify the notations, we arbitrarily assume that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 358, + 564, + 401, + 577 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "{ { \\cal T } _ { 1 } } ~ = ~ \\{ 1 \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 401, + 563, + 461, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and we write", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 462, + 567, + 473, + 576 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "w _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 474, + 563, + 494, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 495, + 567, + 504, + 576 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 576, + 505, + 588 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 576, + 340, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the row and element modified by an update made using", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 340, + 576, + 375, + 587 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 375, + 576, + 429, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(the case of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 429, + 576, + 443, + 587 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 443, + 576, + 505, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be treated", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 586, + 506, + 600 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 586, + 347, + 600 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "symmetrically). By the independence above, we know that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 588, + 359, + 597 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "w _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 359, + 586, + 378, + 600 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 379, + 588, + 388, + 597 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 586, + 506, + 600 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are only affected by updates", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 504, + 611 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 128, + 611 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 598, + 142, + 608 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 596, + 349, + 611 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". This greatly simplifies our evolution equations to:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 350, + 596, + 420, + 610 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\bar { w _ { t } ^ { \\prime } } = \\delta _ { f } \\bar { ( x ) } z _ { t } x ^ { T }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 421, + 596, + 439, + 611 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 439, + 597, + 504, + 610 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = \\delta _ { f } ( x ) \\ w _ { t } x", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 608, + 505, + 622 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 608, + 133, + 622 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 609, + 158, + 620 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\delta _ { f } ( x )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 608, + 477, + 622 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the gradient of the loss with respect to the pre-sigmoid output of the network", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 478, + 609, + 501, + 621 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "u _ { t } ( x )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 501, + 608, + 505, + 622 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ":", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 619, + 505, + 633 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 619, + 219, + 632 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\delta _ { f } ( x ) \\stackrel { } { = } 1 _ { \\{ k = 1 \\} } - \\sigma ( u _ { t } ( x ) )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 619, + 412, + 633 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the prime indicates a time derivative. We let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 413, + 621, + 452, + 631 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "y _ { t } = w _ { t } x", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 452, + 619, + 505, + 633 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", which gives", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 33.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 563, + 506, + 633 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 210, + 637, + 401, + 664 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 210, + 637, + 401, + 664 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 210, + 637, + 401, + 664 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "y _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = { \\frac { x ^ { T } x z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { y _ { t } z _ { t } } } } , \\qquad z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = { \\frac { y _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { y _ { t } z _ { t } } } } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "684fbd472f000bba933d9e42aa5b518a3bde6e809f607d936f74afd218808ee6.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 37.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 210, + 637, + 401, + 650.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 210, + 650.5, + 401, + 664.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 38 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 669, + 504, + 694 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 669, + 506, + 685 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 669, + 141, + 685 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Writing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 669, + 195, + 683 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\| x \\| ^ { 2 } = x ^ { T } x", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 195, + 669, + 299, + 685 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we see that the quantity", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 669, + 352, + 682 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "y _ { t _ { - } } ^ { 2 } - \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 353, + 669, + 506, + 685 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is an invariant of the problem, so its", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 679, + 451, + 695 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 679, + 268, + 695 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "solutions live on hyperbolas of equation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 682, + 346, + 694 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "y ^ { 2 } - \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z ^ { 2 } = \\pm c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 346, + 679, + 367, + 695 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 368, + 681, + 446, + 694 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "c : = | y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } - \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } |", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 447, + 679, + 451, + 695 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 39.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 669, + 506, + 695 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 698, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 306, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We only treat the case of a degenerate hyperbola", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 307, + 699, + 331, + 709 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "c = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 332, + 698, + 350, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "i.e.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 351, + 698, + 406, + 711 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } = \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 406, + 698, + 506, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and refer the interested", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 346, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reader to Appendix A.3 for the full derivation. In the case", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 711, + 371, + 720 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "c = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 372, + 709, + 411, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we have", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 411, + 710, + 422, + 720 + ], + "score": 0.48, + "content": "\\forall t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 423, + 709, + 428, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 428, + 709, + 476, + 722 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "y _ { t } = \\| x \\| z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 477, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(those", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 227, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "quantities are both positive as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 227, + 722, + 258, + 732 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 720, + 313, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and (H2-3)).", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 314, + 721, + 402, + 732 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "u ( t ) : = z _ { t } w _ { t } x = z _ { t } y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 402, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "thus follows the equation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + } + ], + "index": 42, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 698, + 506, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 132, + 96, + 468, + 216 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 132, + 96, + 468, + 216 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 96, + 468, + 216 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 96, + 468, + 216 + ], + "score": 0.97, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "245d3d29eedaecb147295f8011901366ab5610b50699954194a3e1f07d7ddebb.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 96, + 468, + 136.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 136.0, + 468, + 176.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 176.0, + 468, + 216.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 224, + 505, + 303 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 224, + 506, + 238 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 224, + 431, + 238 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 2: Left. Phase diagram representing the dynamics of learning for the couple", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 431, + 225, + 460, + 237 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\left( z _ { t } , y _ { t } \\right)", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 461, + 224, + 506, + 238 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "depending", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 235, + 506, + 249 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 235, + 190, + 249 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on its initialization.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 237, + 200, + 248 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 235, + 506, + 249 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the value for the class considered, in which all examples have lined up.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 246, + 505, + 259 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 246, + 406, + 259 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Each couple lives on a hyperbola. 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The green region represents the initializations of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 258, + 370, + 269 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( y , z )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 257, + 506, + 271 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where the classification task will", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 268, + 506, + 282 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 268, + 506, + 282 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be solved by the network. 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The", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 430, + 281, + 439, + 291 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "c _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 439, + 279, + 505, + 292 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "points show the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 289, + 505, + 304 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 289, + 252, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "three cases from Section 3.3. Right.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 252, + 292, + 261, + 302 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 262, + 289, + 279, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 290, + 372, + 303 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "P _ { t } ( x \\in D _ { 1 } ) = \\sigma ( z _ { t } y _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 373, + 289, + 461, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for different values of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 461, + 293, + 467, + 300 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 467, + 289, + 484, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 485, + 291, + 501, + 303 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\lVert x \\rVert", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 501, + 289, + 505, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 3.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 323, + 504, + 346 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 322, + 506, + 337 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 324, + 221, + 336 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "u ^ { \\prime } ( t ) = 2 \\| x \\| u ( t ) \\sigma ( - u ( t ) )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 221, + 322, + 506, + 337 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". One can see the equivalence between our evolution equation and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 334, + 414, + 347 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 334, + 414, + 347 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Eq. (10) in Saxe et al. (2013b). 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For", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 298, + 387, + 330, + 398 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 330, + 385, + 482, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the degeneracy assumption becomes", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 483, + 388, + 506, + 398 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "y _ { 0 } =", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 398, + 504, + 411 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 398, + 140, + 410 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "- \\| x \\| z _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 398, + 266, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". It can be shown similarly that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 267, + 398, + 317, + 410 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "v ( t ) : = z _ { t } y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 317, + 398, + 402, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "verifies the equation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 402, + 398, + 504, + 410 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "v ^ { \\prime } ( t ) = 2 \\| x \\| v ( t ) \\sigma ( v ( t ) )", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 409, + 505, + 421 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 409, + 328, + 421 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a negative initial condition (H2-3). 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Below,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 246, + 421, + 254, + 430 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "\\bar { u }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 420, + 281, + 433 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(resp.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 282, + 421, + 288, + 430 + ], + "score": 0.67, + "content": "\\bar { v }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 289, + 420, + 425, + 433 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") denote those two trajectories for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 425, + 420, + 461, + 432 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\| x \\| = 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 461, + 420, + 506, + 433 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and initial", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 430, + 506, + 444 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 430, + 150, + 444 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "conditions", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 150, + 432, + 180, + 442 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "u _ { 0 } > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 181, + 430, + 207, + 444 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(resp.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 207, + 432, + 237, + 442 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "v _ { 0 } < 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 237, + 430, + 314, + 444 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "). 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This allows us to quantify the network’s performance at any time", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 461, + 466, + 466, + 474 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 466, + 463, + 471, + 477 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ":", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 17.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 156, + 480, + 450, + 508 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 480, + 450, + 508 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 480, + 450, + 508 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\left\\{ \\begin{array} { r c l l } { \\mathrm { ~ } \\begin{array} { r c l } { P _ { t } ( x \\in D _ { 1 } ) } & { = } & { \\sigma ( \\bar { u } ( \\| x \\| p _ { 1 } t ) ) } & { \\qquad \\quad } & { \\mathrm { i f ~ } x \\in D _ { 1 } } \\\\ { P _ { t } ( x \\in D _ { 2 } ) } & { = } & { \\sigma ( - \\bar { v } ( \\| x \\| ( 1 - p _ { 1 } ) t ) ) } & { \\qquad \\mathrm { i f ~ } x \\in D _ { 2 } } \\end{array} } \\end{array} \\right.", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "cb30950b464780291c0ae4fca9a2710ef48c4e25e4ba1f98f4576f8f10b0a766.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 23, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 480, + 450, + 489.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 489.3333333333333, + 450, + 498.66666666666663 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 498.66666666666663, + 450, + 507.99999999999994 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 24 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 513, + 506, + 536 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 512, + 506, + 526 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 512, + 235, + 526 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In particular, the convergence of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 236, + 513, + 253, + 525 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "u ( t )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 512, + 264, + 526 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 264, + 514, + 283, + 524 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "+ \\infty", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 284, + 512, + 506, + 526 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be bounded using our results: convergence happens", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 524, + 504, + 536 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 524, + 188, + 536 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "at a rate slower than", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 189, + 524, + 214, + 536 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\log ( t )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 214, + 524, + 479, + 536 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Appendix A.3), a fact proved on its own by Soudry et al. (2017).", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 494, + 525, + 504, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "□", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 25.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 547, + 505, + 636 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 548, + 505, + 560 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 548, + 438, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Interpretation Fig. 2 Right. shows the learning dynamics for different values of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 438, + 548, + 454, + 560 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\| x \\|", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 455, + 548, + 474, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 474, + 550, + 479, + 558 + ], + "score": 0.69, + "content": "c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 480, + 548, + 505, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". One", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 560, + 505, + 570 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 560, + 505, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "common characteristic between all the curves is their sigmoidal shape. Learning is slow at first, then", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 569, + 505, + 582 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 569, + 505, + 582 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "accelerates before saturating. This is aligned with empirical results from the literature. We also", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 580, + 505, + 594 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 580, + 321, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "see on e.g. the blue and yellow curves that a larger", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 321, + 581, + 337, + 593 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\| x \\|", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 338, + 580, + 426, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(or similarly a larger", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 426, + 582, + 433, + 592 + ], + "score": 0.69, + "content": "p", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 433, + 580, + 505, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") converges much", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 592, + 505, + 604 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 592, + 186, + 604 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "faster. The effect of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 594, + 192, + 602 + ], + "score": 0.69, + "content": "c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 592, + 505, + 604 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the dynamics can mostly been seen at the beginning of training (for instance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 603, + 506, + 616 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 603, + 506, + 616 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the green and yellow curves). It fades as convergence happens, corresponding to points of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 613, + 506, + 627 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 613, + 280, + 627 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "hyperbolas getting closer to the asymptote", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 614, + 322, + 626 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "y = \\| x \\| z", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 322, + 613, + 506, + 627 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", see Fig. 2 Left. and below for more details.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 623, + 480, + 638 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 623, + 480, + 638 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We can characterize the convergence speeds more quantitatively with the following corollary.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 30.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 639, + 505, + 680 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 639, + 504, + 652 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 639, + 186, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Corollary 3.3. Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 640, + 192, + 650 + ], + "score": 0.46, + "content": "\\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 639, + 417, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be the required accuracy on the classification task (i.e.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 417, + 639, + 504, + 652 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "P _ { t } ( x \\in D _ { 1 } ) \\geq 1 - \\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 651, + 505, + 663 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 651, + 120, + 663 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 121, + 651, + 155, + 662 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 1 } ", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 155, + 651, + 319, + 663 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "). 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Phase diagram representing the dynamics of learning for the couple", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 431, + 225, + 460, + 237 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\left( z _ { t } , y _ { t } \\right)", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 461, + 224, + 506, + 238 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "depending", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 235, + 506, + 249 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 235, + 190, + 249 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on its initialization.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 237, + 200, + 248 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 235, + 506, + 249 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the value for the class considered, in which all examples have lined up.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 246, + 505, + 259 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 246, + 406, + 259 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Each couple lives on a hyperbola. 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The", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 430, + 281, + 439, + 291 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "c _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 439, + 279, + 505, + 292 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "points show the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 289, + 505, + 304 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 289, + 252, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "three cases from Section 3.3. Right.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 252, + 292, + 261, + 302 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 262, + 289, + 279, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 290, + 372, + 303 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "P _ { t } ( x \\in D _ { 1 } ) = \\sigma ( z _ { t } y _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 373, + 289, + 461, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for different values of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 461, + 293, + 467, + 300 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 467, + 289, + 484, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 485, + 291, + 501, + 303 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\lVert x \\rVert", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 501, + 289, + 505, + 304 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 3.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 323, + 504, + 346 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 322, + 506, + 337 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 324, + 221, + 336 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "u ^ { \\prime } ( t ) = 2 \\| x \\| u ( t ) \\sigma ( - u ( t ) )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 221, + 322, + 506, + 337 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". One can see the equivalence between our evolution equation and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 334, + 414, + 347 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 334, + 414, + 347 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Eq. (10) in Saxe et al. (2013b). Its analytical solution is (see Appendix A.3):", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 10.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 322, + 506, + 347 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 196, + 350, + 414, + 365 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 196, + 350, + 414, + 365 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 196, + 350, + 414, + 365 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "u ( t ) = ( \\log + E i ) ^ { < - 1 > } ( 2 \\| x \\| t + \\log ( u _ { 0 } ) + E i ( u _ { 0 } ) ) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "172eba4410b4305eb3274d6f3f6ca0b5a46381163926478e078dfe1e1dcdedc9.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 12, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 196, + 350, + 414, + 365 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 12 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 370, + 465, + 382 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 370, + 466, + 383 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 370, + 133, + 383 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 371, + 146, + 380 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "E i", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 146, + 370, + 326, + 383 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the exponential integral (Wiki., 2018) and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 326, + 371, + 349, + 380 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "{ < - 1 > }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 349, + 370, + 466, + 383 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denotes the inverse function.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 13, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 370, + 466, + 383 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 386, + 505, + 476 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 506, + 401 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 135, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 135, + 388, + 142, + 397 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "\\bar { u }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 385, + 240, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote that function for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 241, + 387, + 276, + 399 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\| { \\boldsymbol x } \\| = 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 276, + 385, + 297, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". For", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 298, + 387, + 330, + 398 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 330, + 385, + 482, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the degeneracy assumption becomes", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 483, + 388, + 506, + 398 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "y _ { 0 } =", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 398, + 504, + 411 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 398, + 140, + 410 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "- \\| x \\| z _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 398, + 266, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". It can be shown similarly that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 267, + 398, + 317, + 410 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "v ( t ) : = z _ { t } y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 317, + 398, + 402, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "verifies the equation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 402, + 398, + 504, + 410 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "v ^ { \\prime } ( t ) = 2 \\| x \\| v ( t ) \\sigma ( v ( t ) )", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 409, + 505, + 421 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 409, + 328, + 421 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a negative initial condition (H2-3). In other words,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 329, + 411, + 335, + 419 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "u", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 336, + 409, + 353, + 421 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 353, + 411, + 359, + 419 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "v", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 360, + 409, + 505, + 421 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "follow symmetric trajectories on the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 420, + 506, + 433 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 420, + 246, + 433 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "positive/negative real line. Below,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 246, + 421, + 254, + 430 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "\\bar { u }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 420, + 281, + 433 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(resp.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 282, + 421, + 288, + 430 + ], + "score": 0.67, + "content": "\\bar { v }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 289, + 420, + 425, + 433 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") denote those two trajectories for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 425, + 420, + 461, + 432 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\| x \\| = 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 461, + 420, + 506, + 433 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and initial", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 430, + 506, + 444 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 430, + 150, + 444 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "conditions", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 150, + 432, + 180, + 442 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "u _ { 0 } > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 181, + 430, + 207, + 444 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(resp.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 207, + 432, + 237, + 442 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "v _ { 0 } < 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 237, + 430, + 314, + 444 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "). Let us now write", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 315, + 431, + 375, + 443 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "p _ { 1 } = | D _ { 1 } | / | D |", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 376, + 430, + 506, + 444 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the fraction of points belonging", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 441, + 503, + 455 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 441, + 117, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 117, + 442, + 131, + 453 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 441, + 432, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Because we sample randomly from the dataset, this amounts to sampling", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 433, + 443, + 444, + 453 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "p _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 444, + 441, + 472, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(resp.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 472, + 443, + 503, + 453 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "1 - p _ { 1 } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 453, + 505, + 465 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 453, + 155, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "points from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 155, + 453, + 169, + 464 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 453, + 195, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(resp.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 196, + 453, + 210, + 464 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 210, + 453, + 479, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") for each time unit during training, i.e. to rescaling the time axis by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 480, + 455, + 490, + 464 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "p _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 490, + 453, + 505, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 463, + 471, + 477 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 464, + 120, + 475 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 463, + 138, + 477 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 139, + 464, + 166, + 475 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "1 - p _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 167, + 463, + 181, + 477 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 182, + 464, + 195, + 475 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 195, + 463, + 461, + 477 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". This allows us to quantify the network’s performance at any time", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 461, + 466, + 466, + 474 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 466, + 463, + 471, + 477 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ":", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 17.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 385, + 506, + 477 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 156, + 480, + 450, + 508 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 480, + 450, + 508 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 480, + 450, + 508 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\left\\{ \\begin{array} { r c l l } { \\mathrm { ~ } \\begin{array} { r c l } { P _ { t } ( x \\in D _ { 1 } ) } & { = } & { \\sigma ( \\bar { u } ( \\| x \\| p _ { 1 } t ) ) } & { \\qquad \\quad } & { \\mathrm { i f ~ } x \\in D _ { 1 } } \\\\ { P _ { t } ( x \\in D _ { 2 } ) } & { = } & { \\sigma ( - \\bar { v } ( \\| x \\| ( 1 - p _ { 1 } ) t ) ) } & { \\qquad \\mathrm { i f ~ } x \\in D _ { 2 } } \\end{array} } \\end{array} \\right.", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "cb30950b464780291c0ae4fca9a2710ef48c4e25e4ba1f98f4576f8f10b0a766.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 23, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 480, + 450, + 489.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 489.3333333333333, + 450, + 498.66666666666663 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 498.66666666666663, + 450, + 507.99999999999994 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 24 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 513, + 506, + 536 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 512, + 506, + 526 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 512, + 235, + 526 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In particular, the convergence of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 236, + 513, + 253, + 525 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "u ( t )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 512, + 264, + 526 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 264, + 514, + 283, + 524 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "+ \\infty", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 284, + 512, + 506, + 526 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be bounded using our results: convergence happens", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 524, + 504, + 536 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 524, + 188, + 536 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "at a rate slower than", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 189, + 524, + 214, + 536 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\log ( t )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 214, + 524, + 479, + 536 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Appendix A.3), a fact proved on its own by Soudry et al. (2017).", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 494, + 525, + 504, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "□", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 25.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 512, + 506, + 536 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 547, + 505, + 636 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 548, + 505, + 560 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 548, + 438, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Interpretation Fig. 2 Right. shows the learning dynamics for different values of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 438, + 548, + 454, + 560 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\| x \\|", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 455, + 548, + 474, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 474, + 550, + 479, + 558 + ], + "score": 0.69, + "content": "c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 480, + 548, + 505, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". One", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 560, + 505, + 570 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 560, + 505, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "common characteristic between all the curves is their sigmoidal shape. Learning is slow at first, then", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 569, + 505, + 582 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 569, + 505, + 582 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "accelerates before saturating. This is aligned with empirical results from the literature. We also", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 580, + 505, + 594 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 580, + 321, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "see on e.g. the blue and yellow curves that a larger", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 321, + 581, + 337, + 593 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\| x \\|", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 338, + 580, + 426, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(or similarly a larger", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 426, + 582, + 433, + 592 + ], + "score": 0.69, + "content": "p", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 433, + 580, + 505, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") converges much", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 592, + 505, + 604 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 592, + 186, + 604 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "faster. The effect of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 594, + 192, + 602 + ], + "score": 0.69, + "content": "c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 592, + 505, + 604 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the dynamics can mostly been seen at the beginning of training (for instance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 603, + 506, + 616 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 603, + 506, + 616 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the green and yellow curves). It fades as convergence happens, corresponding to points of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 613, + 506, + 627 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 613, + 280, + 627 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "hyperbolas getting closer to the asymptote", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 614, + 322, + 626 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "y = \\| x \\| z", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 322, + 613, + 506, + 627 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", see Fig. 2 Left. and below for more details.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 623, + 480, + 638 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 623, + 480, + 638 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We can characterize the convergence speeds more quantitatively with the following corollary.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 30.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 548, + 506, + 638 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 639, + 505, + 680 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 639, + 504, + 652 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 639, + 186, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Corollary 3.3. Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 640, + 192, + 650 + ], + "score": 0.46, + "content": "\\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 639, + 417, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be the required accuracy on the classification task (i.e.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 417, + 639, + 504, + 652 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "P _ { t } ( x \\in D _ { 1 } ) \\geq 1 - \\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 651, + 505, + 663 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 651, + 120, + 663 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 121, + 651, + 155, + 662 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 1 } ", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 155, + 651, + 319, + 663 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "). Under certain assumptions, the times", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 319, + 651, + 329, + 663 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "t _ { 1 } ^ { * }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 329, + 651, + 348, + 663 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 349, + 651, + 358, + 663 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "t _ { 2 } ^ { * }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 359, + 651, + 505, + 663 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "required to reach that accuracy for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 659, + 468, + 682 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 659, + 191, + 682 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "each classifier verify", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 662, + 254, + 680 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\frac { t _ { 2 } ^ { * } } { t _ { 1 } ^ { * } } \\approx \\frac { \\| x _ { 1 } \\| } { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| } \\frac { p _ { 1 } } { 1 - p _ { 1 } } } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 659, + 282, + 682 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 283, + 664, + 304, + 677 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\| x _ { k } \\|", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 304, + 659, + 390, + 682 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the norm of vector", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 390, + 664, + 411, + 676 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\| x _ { k } \\|", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 412, + 659, + 456, + 682 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 457, + 664, + 463, + 674 + ], + "score": 0.71, + "content": "k", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 463, + 659, + 468, + 682 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "index": 36, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 639, + 505, + 682 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 687, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 506, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 506, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The proof can be found in Appendix A.5. More frequent classes and larger inputs will be classified", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 506, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 506, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "at a given level of confidence faster. The class frequency observation is fairly straightforward as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 710, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "updates on a more frequent class occur at a higher rate. As far as input sizes are considered, this can", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be seen as an analogous to the results from Saxe et al. (2013b) stating that input-output correlations", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 504, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 504, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "drive the speed of learning. Because a sigmoid is applied on the network output, its (pre-sigmoid)", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 93, + 477, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 93, + 178, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "targets are sent to", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 95, + 198, + 104 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\pm \\infty", + "type": "inline_equation", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 93, + 477, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". A larger input is more correlated with its target and converges faster.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 1 + } + ], + "index": 39.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 687, + 506, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 504, + 105 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 504, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 504, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "drive the speed of learning. Because a sigmoid is applied on the network output, its (pre-sigmoid)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 93, + 477, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 93, + 178, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "targets are sent to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 95, + 198, + 104 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\pm \\infty", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 93, + 477, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". A larger input is more correlated with its target and converges faster.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + } + ], + "index": 0.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 110, + 505, + 199 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 109, + 505, + 123 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 109, + 505, + 123 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "On the assumptions The assumption that each class only contains one vector allows us to obtain the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 122, + 505, + 134 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 122, + 505, + 134 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "first closed-form solutions of the learning dynamics for the binary cross-entropy. It can be relaxed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 145 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 145 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to classes containing orthogonal datapoints (see Appendix A.7) which still remains restrictive. A", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 144, + 506, + 155 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 144, + 506, + 155 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "possible interpretation is the following: if one were to consider a deep neural network that has learnt", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 155, + 506, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 155, + 506, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "two discriminative features for the two classes, applying classic SGD on those features would result", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 505, + 177 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 505, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in a learning rate proportional to the prominence of those two features in the original dataset, and to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 505, + 188 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 505, + 188 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning curves of that exact shape. It is worth noting that such shapes are regularly observed by ML", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 495, + 199 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 495, + 199 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "practitioners (Saxe et al., 2013b), our results reveal insights - otherwise unobtainable - into them.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 5.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 212, + 195, + 223 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 211, + 197, + 225 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 211, + 197, + 225 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.3 Phase diagram", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 233, + 505, + 311 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 232, + 506, + 246 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 232, + 506, + 246 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we build the phase diagram of Fig. 2 Left. The notations follow Theorem 3.2, in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 245, + 505, + 257 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 245, + 147, + 257 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "particular", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 246, + 187, + 255 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "y _ { t } = w _ { t } x", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 245, + 505, + 257 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". So far, we have considered points in the top-right quadrant. In that region, the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 254, + 505, + 268 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 254, + 136, + 268 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "couple", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 137, + 256, + 166, + 267 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\left( z _ { t } , y _ { t } \\right)", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 166, + 254, + 301, + 268 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "lives on a hyperbola of equation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 254, + 381, + 267 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\dot { y } ^ { 2 } - \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z ^ { 2 } = \\pm c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 381, + 254, + 410, + 268 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 410, + 255, + 435, + 266 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "c \\geq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 435, + 254, + 505, + 268 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The sign in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 266, + 506, + 280 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 266, + 260, + 280 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "equation is defined by the position of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 260, + 266, + 291, + 278 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( z _ { 0 } , y _ { 0 } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 291, + 266, + 387, + 280 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "relative to the function", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 387, + 267, + 429, + 278 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "y = \\| x \\| z", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 429, + 266, + 506, + 280 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(positive if above,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 277, + 505, + 290 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 277, + 199, + 290 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "negative otherwise). If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 199, + 277, + 230, + 289 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\left( z _ { 0 } , y _ { 0 } \\right)", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 231, + 277, + 505, + 290 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is originally on that line, it will remain there throughout training. We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 288, + 505, + 300 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 288, + 505, + 300 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "now explore the rest of the parameter space by relaxing some of our assumptions. We still consider", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 299, + 412, + 312 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 299, + 136, + 312 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a point", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 137, + 299, + 168, + 310 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 299, + 235, + 312 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the diagram for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 236, + 299, + 249, + 310 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 250, + 299, + 383, + 312 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be obtained by mirroring the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 384, + 301, + 390, + 309 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "z", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 390, + 299, + 412, + 312 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "axis.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 316, + 505, + 349 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 315, + 505, + 329 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 315, + 156, + 329 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Assumption", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 316, + 175, + 327 + ], + "score": 0.57, + "content": "( H 2 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 176, + 315, + 343, + 329 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Let us first consider the simple case of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 316, + 406, + 327 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "w _ { 0 } x = y _ { 0 } < 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 406, + 315, + 505, + 329 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The neuron is initially", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 327, + 505, + 339 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 327, + 356, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "inactive because of the ReLU. No updates will ever be made to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 356, + 329, + 367, + 338 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "w _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 368, + 327, + 505, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "during training. This corresponds", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 338, + 505, + 350 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 338, + 505, + 350 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to the bottom half of the phase diagram, the parameters are frozen (also see Advani & Saxe (2017)).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 354, + 505, + 410 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 354, + 506, + 368 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 354, + 155, + 368 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Assumption", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 155, + 355, + 174, + 366 + ], + "score": 0.62, + "content": "( H 3 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 354, + 262, + 368 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We now assume that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 355, + 291, + 366 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "z _ { 0 } \\le 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 291, + 354, + 506, + 368 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". In that case, a simple extension of Lemma 3.1 shows", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 366, + 504, + 378 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 366, + 331, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that learning still happens independently on each row of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 332, + 367, + 343, + 377 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "w _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 366, + 504, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The outcome from Theorem 3.2 is still", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 376, + 505, + 389 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 376, + 178, + 389 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "valid: the couple", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 179, + 377, + 208, + 389 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( z _ { t } , y _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 208, + 376, + 472, + 389 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "lives on a hyperbola. It is however not guaranteed anymore that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 472, + 378, + 482, + 388 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 482, + 376, + 505, + 389 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "shall", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 388, + 505, + 400 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 388, + 505, + 400 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "remain positive throughout training. There are three possible situations (numbered 1 to 3), each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 398, + 329, + 412 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 398, + 329, + 412 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "represented by the corresponding point on the diagram.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 415, + 504, + 439 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 414, + 506, + 429 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 414, + 145, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1) If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 146, + 415, + 203, + 428 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "y _ { 0 } = - \\| x \\| z _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 203, + 414, + 271, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", then the points", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 415, + 301, + 427 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\left( z _ { t } , y _ { t } \\right)", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 414, + 506, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are stuck in the top-left quadrant and converge to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 426, + 497, + 440 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 426, + 264, + 440 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "zero. The equation verified by the logit", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 265, + 427, + 283, + 439 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "u ( t )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 283, + 426, + 293, + 440 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 294, + 426, + 411, + 439 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\dot { u } ^ { \\prime } ( t ) = - 2 \\| x \\| u ( t ) \\sigma ( - u ( t ) )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 412, + 426, + 497, + 440 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(see Appendix A.6).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + } + ], + "index": 26.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 443, + 503, + 466 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 112, + 442, + 506, + 457 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 112, + 442, + 143, + 457 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2) If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 443, + 199, + 456 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "y _ { 0 } > - \\| x \\| z _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 442, + 245, + 457 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the points", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 246, + 443, + 275, + 456 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( z _ { t } , y _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 275, + 442, + 506, + 457 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "move on the hyperbola towards the top-right quadrant, at", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 454, + 359, + 467 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 454, + 156, + 467 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which point", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 456, + 165, + 465 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 166, + 454, + 254, + 467 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "becomes positive and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 255, + 457, + 264, + 466 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 264, + 454, + 359, + 467 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "starts increasing again.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 28.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 471, + 503, + 494 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 113, + 470, + 505, + 485 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 113, + 470, + 143, + 485 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3) If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 471, + 199, + 483 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "y _ { 0 } < - \\| x \\| z _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 470, + 245, + 485 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the points", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 245, + 471, + 275, + 483 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( z _ { t } , y _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 275, + 470, + 505, + 485 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "move on the hyperbola towards the bottom-left quadrant,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 477, + 496 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 165, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "at which point", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 166, + 484, + 175, + 494 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 176, + 481, + 477, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "becomes negative. When that happens, the neuron dies out, learning stops.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 30.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 499, + 504, + 533 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 499, + 505, + 511 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 499, + 505, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Only in the second case will the classifier end up solving the task: random initialization only functions", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 506, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 198, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in certain parts of the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 510, + 227, + 522 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "( y _ { t } , z _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 228, + 510, + 506, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "space. Those findings are summarized in the phase diagram Fig. 2", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 521, + 505, + 533 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 521, + 505, + 533 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Left. The red region represents the initialization where the network will not be able to solve the task.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 538, + 505, + 583 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 537, + 505, + 551 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 537, + 505, + 551 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Failure modes Assumption (H2) essentially means that the network’s first layer is able to separate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 549, + 505, + 561 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 549, + 150, + 561 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the data at", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 150, + 550, + 173, + 559 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "t = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 549, + 505, + 561 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 505, + 642 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 255, + 642 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "now relax it by assuming that a point", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 256, + 630, + 267, + 639 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "x _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 627, + 279, + 642 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 279, + 629, + 293, + 639 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 293, + 627, + 326, + 642 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "verifies", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 326, + 628, + 367, + 640 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "w _ { 0 } ^ { 1 } x _ { 2 } > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 368, + 627, + 488, + 642 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and we study the evolution of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 489, + 628, + 501, + 640 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "w _ { t } ^ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 501, + 627, + 505, + 642 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 638, + 505, + 652 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 638, + 318, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We consider updates coming from sampling equally", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 318, + 641, + 329, + 650 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "x _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 330, + 638, + 353, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 354, + 640, + 367, + 650 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 368, + 638, + 386, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 386, + 640, + 398, + 650 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "x _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 398, + 638, + 421, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 421, + 640, + 435, + 650 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 435, + 638, + 505, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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It can be relaxed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 145 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 132, + 505, + 145 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to classes containing orthogonal datapoints (see Appendix A.7) which still remains restrictive. A", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 144, + 506, + 155 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 144, + 506, + 155 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "possible interpretation is the following: if one were to consider a deep neural network that has learnt", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 155, + 506, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 155, + 506, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "two discriminative features for the two classes, applying classic SGD on those features would result", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 505, + 177 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 505, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in a learning rate proportional to the prominence of those two features in the original dataset, and to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 505, + 188 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 505, + 188 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning curves of that exact shape. It is worth noting that such shapes are regularly observed by ML", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 495, + 199 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 495, + 199 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "practitioners (Saxe et al., 2013b), our results reveal insights - otherwise unobtainable - into them.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 5.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 109, + 506, + 199 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 212, + 195, + 223 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 211, + 197, + 225 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 211, + 197, + 225 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.3 Phase diagram", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 233, + 505, + 311 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 232, + 506, + 246 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 232, + 506, + 246 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we build the phase diagram of Fig. 2 Left. The notations follow Theorem 3.2, in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 245, + 505, + 257 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 245, + 147, + 257 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "particular", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 246, + 187, + 255 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "y _ { t } = w _ { t } x", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 245, + 505, + 257 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". So far, we have considered points in the top-right quadrant. In that region, the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 254, + 505, + 268 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 254, + 136, + 268 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "couple", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 137, + 256, + 166, + 267 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\left( z _ { t } , y _ { t } \\right)", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 166, + 254, + 301, + 268 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "lives on a hyperbola of equation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 254, + 381, + 267 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\dot { y } ^ { 2 } - \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z ^ { 2 } = \\pm c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 381, + 254, + 410, + 268 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 410, + 255, + 435, + 266 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "c \\geq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 435, + 254, + 505, + 268 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The sign in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 266, + 506, + 280 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 266, + 260, + 280 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "equation is defined by the position of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 260, + 266, + 291, + 278 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( z _ { 0 } , y _ { 0 } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 291, + 266, + 387, + 280 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "relative to the function", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 387, + 267, + 429, + 278 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "y = \\| x \\| z", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 429, + 266, + 506, + 280 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(positive if above,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 277, + 505, + 290 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 277, + 199, + 290 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "negative otherwise). If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 199, + 277, + 230, + 289 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\left( z _ { 0 } , y _ { 0 } \\right)", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 231, + 277, + 505, + 290 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is originally on that line, it will remain there throughout training. We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 288, + 505, + 300 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 288, + 505, + 300 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "now explore the rest of the parameter space by relaxing some of our assumptions. We still consider", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 299, + 412, + 312 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 299, + 136, + 312 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a point", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 137, + 299, + 168, + 310 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 299, + 235, + 312 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the diagram for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 236, + 299, + 249, + 310 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 250, + 299, + 383, + 312 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be obtained by mirroring the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 384, + 301, + 390, + 309 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "z", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 390, + 299, + 412, + 312 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "axis.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 14, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 232, + 506, + 312 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 316, + 505, + 349 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 315, + 505, + 329 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 315, + 156, + 329 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Assumption", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 316, + 175, + 327 + ], + "score": 0.57, + "content": "( H 2 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 176, + 315, + 343, + 329 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Let us first consider the simple case of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 316, + 406, + 327 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "w _ { 0 } x = y _ { 0 } < 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 406, + 315, + 505, + 329 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The neuron is initially", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 327, + 505, + 339 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 327, + 356, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "inactive because of the ReLU. No updates will ever be made to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 356, + 329, + 367, + 338 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "w _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 368, + 327, + 505, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "during training. This corresponds", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 338, + 505, + 350 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 338, + 505, + 350 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to the bottom half of the phase diagram, the parameters are frozen (also see Advani & Saxe (2017)).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 19, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 315, + 505, + 350 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 354, + 505, + 410 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 354, + 506, + 368 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 354, + 155, + 368 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Assumption", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 155, + 355, + 174, + 366 + ], + "score": 0.62, + "content": "( H 3 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 354, + 262, + 368 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We now assume that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 355, + 291, + 366 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "z _ { 0 } \\le 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 291, + 354, + 506, + 368 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". In that case, a simple extension of Lemma 3.1 shows", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 366, + 504, + 378 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 366, + 331, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that learning still happens independently on each row of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 332, + 367, + 343, + 377 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "w _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 366, + 504, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The outcome from Theorem 3.2 is still", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 376, + 505, + 389 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 376, + 178, + 389 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "valid: the couple", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 179, + 377, + 208, + 389 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( z _ { t } , y _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 208, + 376, + 472, + 389 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "lives on a hyperbola. It is however not guaranteed anymore that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 472, + 378, + 482, + 388 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 482, + 376, + 505, + 389 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "shall", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 388, + 505, + 400 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 388, + 505, + 400 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "remain positive throughout training. There are three possible situations (numbered 1 to 3), each", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 398, + 329, + 412 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 398, + 329, + 412 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "represented by the corresponding point on the diagram.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 23, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 354, + 506, + 412 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 415, + 504, + 439 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 414, + 506, + 429 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 414, + 145, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1) If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 146, + 415, + 203, + 428 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "y _ { 0 } = - \\| x \\| z _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 203, + 414, + 271, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", then the points", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 415, + 301, + 427 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\left( z _ { t } , y _ { t } \\right)", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 414, + 506, + 429 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are stuck in the top-left quadrant and converge to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 426, + 497, + 440 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 426, + 264, + 440 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "zero. The equation verified by the logit", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 265, + 427, + 283, + 439 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "u ( t )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 283, + 426, + 293, + 440 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 294, + 426, + 411, + 439 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\dot { u } ^ { \\prime } ( t ) = - 2 \\| x \\| u ( t ) \\sigma ( - u ( t ) )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 412, + 426, + 497, + 440 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(see Appendix A.6).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + } + ], + "index": 26.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 414, + 506, + 440 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 443, + 503, + 466 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 112, + 442, + 506, + 457 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 112, + 442, + 143, + 457 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2) If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 443, + 199, + 456 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "y _ { 0 } > - \\| x \\| z _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 442, + 245, + 457 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the points", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 246, + 443, + 275, + 456 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( z _ { t } , y _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 275, + 442, + 506, + 457 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "move on the hyperbola towards the top-right quadrant, at", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 454, + 359, + 467 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 454, + 156, + 467 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which point", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 156, + 456, + 165, + 465 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 166, + 454, + 254, + 467 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "becomes positive and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 255, + 457, + 264, + 466 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 264, + 454, + 359, + 467 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "starts increasing again.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 28.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 442, + 506, + 467 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 471, + 503, + 494 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 113, + 470, + 505, + 485 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 113, + 470, + 143, + 485 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3) If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 471, + 199, + 483 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "y _ { 0 } < - \\| x \\| z _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 470, + 245, + 485 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the points", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 245, + 471, + 275, + 483 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( z _ { t } , y _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 275, + 470, + 505, + 485 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "move on the hyperbola towards the bottom-left quadrant,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 477, + 496 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 165, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "at which point", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 166, + 484, + 175, + 494 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 176, + 481, + 477, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "becomes negative. When that happens, the neuron dies out, learning stops.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 30.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 470, + 505, + 496 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 499, + 504, + 533 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 499, + 505, + 511 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 499, + 505, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Only in the second case will the classifier end up solving the task: random initialization only functions", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 506, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 198, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in certain parts of the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 510, + 227, + 522 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "( y _ { t } , z _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 228, + 510, + 506, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "space. Those findings are summarized in the phase diagram Fig. 2", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 521, + 505, + 533 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 521, + 505, + 533 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Left. 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If", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 356, + 505, + 370 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 117, + 368 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 117, + 356, + 144, + 370 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(resp.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 358, + 156, + 368 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 356, + 260, + 370 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") reaches 0 at some point,", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 261, + 357, + 274, + 368 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 275, + 356, + 302, + 370 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(resp.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 357, + 316, + 368 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 317, + 356, + 505, + 370 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") becomes the only class activating the neuron.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 366, + 493, + 381 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 366, + 493, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Let us now characterize how the initialization of the network influences the outcome of learning.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 46.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 708, + 505, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 120, + 86, + 479, + 196 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 120, + 86, + 479, + 196 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 86, + 479, + 196 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 86, + 479, + 196 + ], + "score": 0.968, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "bc93abd14e3afec4cdf8beb267423044a26778d151f37049af617db99630b3d6.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 86, + 479, + 122.66666666666666 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 122.66666666666666, + 479, + 159.33333333333331 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 159.33333333333331, + 479, + 195.99999999999997 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 204, + 506, + 304 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 204, + 505, + 216 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 204, + 361, + 216 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 3: Left. 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Values of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 461, + 205, + 471, + 215 + ], + "score": 0.68, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 472, + 204, + 476, + 216 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 476, + 204, + 487, + 216 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 487, + 204, + 505, + 216 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 216, + 505, + 227 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 216, + 118, + 226 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "P _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 216, + 355, + 227 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the confidence of the classifier on an example from class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 355, + 216, + 369, + 226 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 216, + 505, + 227 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for three different initializations.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 225, + 506, + 240 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 225, + 239, + 240 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The “full” curves correspond to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 239, + 226, + 356, + 238 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "( \\alpha _ { 0 } , \\beta _ { 0 } , z _ { 0 } ) \\stackrel { - } { = } ( 0 . 1 , 0 . 1 , 0 . 1 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 356, + 225, + 506, + 240 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "i.e. a trajectory in the green region", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 236, + 506, + 250 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 236, + 134, + 250 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 134, + 237, + 145, + 248 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 236, + 361, + 250 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches 0 (orange curve). 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The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 247, + 506, + 262 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 247, + 234, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "“dashed” curves correspond to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 248, + 351, + 260 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "( \\alpha _ { 0 } , \\beta _ { 0 } , z _ { 0 } ) = ( 0 . 2 , 0 . 9 , 0 . 2 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 351, + 247, + 506, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "i.e. a trajectory in the yellow region,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 259, + 505, + 272 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 259, + 177, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "corresponding to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 177, + 261, + 188, + 270 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 189, + 259, + 363, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaching 0 (red curve). The confidence on", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 363, + 259, + 377, + 270 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 377, + 259, + 505, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goes to 0.5 in that case (brown", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 270, + 505, + 282 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 270, + 248, + 282 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "curve), and the confidence on class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 248, + 271, + 262, + 281 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 262, + 270, + 505, + 282 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goes to 1 (not shown). The “dash-dotted\" curves correspond", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 280, + 506, + 294 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 280, + 119, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 281, + 231, + 293 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( \\alpha _ { 0 } , \\beta _ { 0 } , z _ { 0 } ) \\ = \\ ( 1 , 0 , - 1 . 1 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 232, + 280, + 476, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and are an instance of the aforementioned failure mode:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 477, + 282, + 488, + 292 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 488, + 280, + 506, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(or", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 291, + 503, + 306 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 291, + 157, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "equivalently", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 294, + 167, + 304 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 291, + 266, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") tends to 0 (pink curve),", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 267, + 292, + 277, + 304 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 277, + 291, + 387, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(not shown) remains 0 and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 387, + 293, + 398, + 303 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "P _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 398, + 291, + 503, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tends to 0.5 (grey curve).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 4.0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 324, + 505, + 379 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 322, + 504, + 338 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 322, + 216, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the network, whenever", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 326, + 227, + 335 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 228, + 322, + 242, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "or", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 242, + 325, + 253, + 335 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 253, + 322, + 494, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches zero, it becomes constant and its contribution to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 494, + 326, + 504, + 335 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 335, + 505, + 347 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 335, + 505, + 347 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "disappears: the model reaches the independent modes of learning regime from Section 3.1 and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 505, + 359 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 403, + 359 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "evolves according to the results above (e.g. green hyperbolas in the plane", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 346, + 430, + 357 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\beta = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 430, + 346, + 505, + 359 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on Fig. 3 Left). If", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 356, + 505, + 370 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 357, + 117, + 368 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 117, + 356, + 144, + 370 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(resp.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 358, + 156, + 368 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 356, + 260, + 370 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") reaches 0 at some point,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 261, + 357, + 274, + 368 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 275, + 356, + 302, + 370 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(resp.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 357, + 316, + 368 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 317, + 356, + 505, + 370 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") becomes the only class activating the neuron.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 366, + 493, + 381 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 366, + 493, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Let us now characterize how the initialization of the network influences the outcome of learning.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 381, + 502, + 406 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 501, + 396 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 199, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Theorem 3.4. Letting", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 381, + 339, + 394 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "c : = \\alpha _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } / \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } + \\beta _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } / \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } - z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 339, + 380, + 476, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the solutions of (4) verify for all", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 477, + 383, + 501, + 393 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "t \\geq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 390, + 478, + 407 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 393, + 240, + 406 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\lVert x _ { 1 } \\rVert ^ { 2 } + \\beta _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\lVert x _ { 2 } \\rVert ^ { 2 } - z _ { t } ^ { 2 } = c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 390, + 478, + 407 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". In other terms, they live on hyperboloids (see Fig. 3 Left).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + } + ], + "index": 17.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 410, + 504, + 433 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 410, + 504, + 423 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 410, + 115, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 410, + 138, + 421 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "c \\leq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 139, + 410, + 142, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 410, + 153, + 421 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 410, + 423, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches 0 at some point during training (Fig. 6 of the Appendix). If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 423, + 411, + 447, + 421 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "c > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 447, + 410, + 497, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", there exists", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 498, + 412, + 504, + 420 + ], + "score": 0.47, + "content": "a", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 420, + 503, + 434 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 420, + 130, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "curve", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 422, + 141, + 432 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\mathcal { C } _ { c }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 420, + 310, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(shown in black on Fig. 3 Left) such that as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 310, + 422, + 348, + 432 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "t \\to + \\infty", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 420, + 434, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", for any initialization", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 434, + 421, + 503, + 433 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( \\alpha _ { 0 } , \\beta _ { 0 } , z _ { 0 } ) \\in \\mathcal { C } _ { c }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 19.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 125, + 437, + 486, + 463 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 437, + 486, + 463 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 437, + 486, + 463 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } \\to ( \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } } + \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } } ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \\sqrt { c } , \\qquad \\beta _ { t } \\to ( \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } } + \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } } ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \\sqrt { c } , \\qquad z _ { t } \\to 0 .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "7e958d1c54a17d28b1fbecbeda0c00d77449405ee0346eca5e875b99184704aa.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 21, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 437, + 486, + 463 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 21 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 466, + 504, + 489 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 505, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 505, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "That curve defines two regions of the initialization space. In one, colored yellow on Fig. 3 Left, the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 477, + 490 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 179, + 490 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trajectories verify", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 179, + 478, + 208, + 488 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 209, + 477, + 366, + 490 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for some t. In the other, colored green,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 478, + 377, + 488 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 377, + 477, + 477, + 490 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches 0 at some point.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 22.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 497, + 506, + 630 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 497, + 506, + 511 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 497, + 506, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Interpretation The proof of the theorem can be found in Appendix A.8. Fig. 3 Left shows some", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 509, + 506, + 521 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 509, + 385, + 521 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "solutions of (4). Concretely, we see from the equations that the sign of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 385, + 510, + 395, + 519 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 395, + 509, + 476, + 521 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "determines whether", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 476, + 510, + 487, + 519 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 487, + 509, + 506, + 521 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 519, + 505, + 532 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 520, + 117, + 531 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 117, + 519, + 306, + 532 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "increase or decrease, and how fast they do so.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 307, + 520, + 316, + 531 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 316, + 519, + 505, + 532 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "’s evolution on the other hand is the result of a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 529, + 506, + 543 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 529, + 192, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "competition between", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 532, + 203, + 541 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 203, + 529, + 221, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 221, + 531, + 231, + 542 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 232, + 529, + 246, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 246, + 532, + 256, + 542 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "z _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 529, + 285, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and/or", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 532, + 298, + 541 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\alpha _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 298, + 529, + 384, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are sufficiently large,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 385, + 531, + 395, + 542 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 396, + 529, + 506, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "will decrease fast and long", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 541, + 506, + 555 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 541, + 400, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "enough to reach 0 at some point (green curves). Conversely, for a large", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 401, + 542, + 412, + 552 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "\\beta _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 412, + 541, + 416, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 416, + 542, + 426, + 552 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 426, + 541, + 506, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can reach 0 before", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 552, + 505, + 565 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 552, + 117, + 564 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 117, + 552, + 216, + 565 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". When that is the case,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 554, + 227, + 563 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 227, + 552, + 505, + 565 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "then decreases until it reaches 0 (yellow curves). We plot examples", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 561, + 505, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 561, + 505, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of those behaviors in Fig. 3 Right. We notice in particular the classic sigmoidal shape appearing,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 505, + 586 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 505, + 586 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "even when Assumption (H2) is violated. This can be explained as follows. In the regime of small", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 506, + 598 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 381, + 598 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "initializations (customary in deep learning), the competition between", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 382, + 586, + 393, + 596 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 393, + 585, + 396, + 598 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 397, + 586, + 407, + 596 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 407, + 585, + 424, + 598 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 424, + 586, + 434, + 596 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 434, + 585, + 506, + 598 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "happens in a part", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 505, + 609 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 505, + 609 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of parameter space where all the weights are small (i.e. where the confidence of the network is close", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 607, + 505, + 620 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 607, + 343, + 620 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to 0.5). When one class finally prevails over the other, e.g.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 608, + 353, + 618 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 354, + 607, + 505, + 620 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaching 0 (orange curve in the plot),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 445, + 630 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 445, + 630 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the analytical solutions from previous sections apply and the sigmoidal shape arises.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 29.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 645, + 219, + 658 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 221, + 660 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 221, + 660 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4 On the hinge loss", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 669, + 505, + 714 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 669, + 505, + 682 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 669, + 505, + 682 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Recent results in the field of generative adversarial networks have resurrected the hinge loss (Miyato", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 681, + 505, + 693 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 681, + 505, + 693 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2018). While its exact impact on performance is unclear, we run a small experiment to show", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 692, + 505, + 705 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 692, + 505, + 705 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "its ability to generate better samples than the customary cross-entropy (see Fig. 4 and Appendix E).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 703, + 491, + 715 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 703, + 491, + 715 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In order to perhaps uncover reasons behind its efficiency, we extend our results to the hinge loss:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 38.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 175, + 718, + 435, + 733 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 718, + 435, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 718, + 435, + 733 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "L _ { H } ( W _ { t } , Z _ { t } ; x ) = \\operatorname* { m a x } ( 0 , 1 - Z _ { t } ^ { T } ( W _ { t } x ) _ { + } \\cdot ( \\mathbb { 1 } _ { x \\in D _ { 1 } } - \\mathbb { 1 } _ { x \\in D _ { 2 } } ) ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "6be2345aad510adf61ac9296d98c86d4cf477193bfb2c643f46a10808e9552e0.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 41, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 718, + 435, + 733 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 41 + } + ] + } + ], + "page_idx": 5, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 27, + 307, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 752, + 309, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 310, + 762 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 310, + 762 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 120, + 86, + 479, + 196 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 120, + 86, + 479, + 196 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 86, + 479, + 196 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 86, + 479, + 196 + ], + "score": 0.968, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "bc93abd14e3afec4cdf8beb267423044a26778d151f37049af617db99630b3d6.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 86, + 479, + 122.66666666666666 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 122.66666666666666, + 479, + 159.33333333333331 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 159.33333333333331, + 479, + 195.99999999999997 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 204, + 506, + 304 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 204, + 505, + 216 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 204, + 361, + 216 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 3: Left. 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The confidence on class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 361, + 237, + 375, + 248 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 376, + 236, + 506, + 250 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tends to 1 (green curve). The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 247, + 506, + 262 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 247, + 234, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "“dashed” curves correspond to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 248, + 351, + 260 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "( \\alpha _ { 0 } , \\beta _ { 0 } , z _ { 0 } ) = ( 0 . 2 , 0 . 9 , 0 . 2 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 351, + 247, + 506, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "i.e. a trajectory in the yellow region,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 259, + 505, + 272 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 259, + 177, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "corresponding to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 177, + 261, + 188, + 270 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 189, + 259, + 363, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaching 0 (red curve). The confidence on", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 363, + 259, + 377, + 270 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 377, + 259, + 505, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goes to 0.5 in that case (brown", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 270, + 505, + 282 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 270, + 248, + 282 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "curve), and the confidence on class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 248, + 271, + 262, + 281 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 262, + 270, + 505, + 282 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "goes to 1 (not shown). The “dash-dotted\" curves correspond", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 280, + 506, + 294 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 280, + 119, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 281, + 231, + 293 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( \\alpha _ { 0 } , \\beta _ { 0 } , z _ { 0 } ) \\ = \\ ( 1 , 0 , - 1 . 1 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 232, + 280, + 476, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and are an instance of the aforementioned failure mode:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 477, + 282, + 488, + 292 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 488, + 280, + 506, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(or", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 291, + 503, + 306 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 291, + 157, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "equivalently", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 294, + 167, + 304 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 291, + 266, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") tends to 0 (pink curve),", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 267, + 292, + 277, + 304 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 277, + 291, + 387, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(not shown) remains 0 and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 387, + 293, + 398, + 303 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "P _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 398, + 291, + 503, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tends to 0.5 (grey curve).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 4.0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 324, + 505, + 379 + ], + "lines": [], + "index": 14, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 322, + 505, + 381 + ], + "lines_deleted": true + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 381, + 502, + 406 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 501, + 396 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 199, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Theorem 3.4. Letting", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 381, + 339, + 394 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "c : = \\alpha _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } / \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } + \\beta _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } / \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } - z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 339, + 380, + 476, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the solutions of (4) verify for all", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 477, + 383, + 501, + 393 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "t \\geq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 390, + 478, + 407 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 393, + 240, + 406 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\lVert x _ { 1 } \\rVert ^ { 2 } + \\beta _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\lVert x _ { 2 } \\rVert ^ { 2 } - z _ { t } ^ { 2 } = c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 390, + 478, + 407 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". In other terms, they live on hyperboloids (see Fig. 3 Left).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + } + ], + "index": 17.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 380, + 501, + 407 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 410, + 504, + 433 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 410, + 504, + 423 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 410, + 115, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 410, + 138, + 421 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "c \\leq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 139, + 410, + 142, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 410, + 153, + 421 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 410, + 423, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches 0 at some point during training (Fig. 6 of the Appendix). If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 423, + 411, + 447, + 421 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "c > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 447, + 410, + 497, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", there exists", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 498, + 412, + 504, + 420 + ], + "score": 0.47, + "content": "a", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 420, + 503, + 434 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 420, + 130, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "curve", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 422, + 141, + 432 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\mathcal { C } _ { c }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 420, + 310, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(shown in black on Fig. 3 Left) such that as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 310, + 422, + 348, + 432 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "t \\to + \\infty", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 420, + 434, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", for any initialization", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 434, + 421, + 503, + 433 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( \\alpha _ { 0 } , \\beta _ { 0 } , z _ { 0 } ) \\in \\mathcal { C } _ { c }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 19.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 410, + 504, + 434 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 125, + 437, + 486, + 463 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 437, + 486, + 463 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 437, + 486, + 463 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } \\to ( \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } } + \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } } ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \\sqrt { c } , \\qquad \\beta _ { t } \\to ( \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } } + \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } } ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \\sqrt { c } , \\qquad z _ { t } \\to 0 .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "7e958d1c54a17d28b1fbecbeda0c00d77449405ee0346eca5e875b99184704aa.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 21, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 437, + 486, + 463 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 21 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 466, + 504, + 489 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 505, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 505, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "That curve defines two regions of the initialization space. In one, colored yellow on Fig. 3 Left, the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 477, + 490 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 179, + 490 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trajectories verify", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 179, + 478, + 208, + 488 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 209, + 477, + 366, + 490 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for some t. In the other, colored green,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 478, + 377, + 488 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 377, + 477, + 477, + 490 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches 0 at some point.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 22.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 466, + 505, + 490 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 497, + 506, + 630 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 497, + 506, + 511 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 497, + 506, + 511 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Interpretation The proof of the theorem can be found in Appendix A.8. Fig. 3 Left shows some", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 509, + 506, + 521 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 509, + 385, + 521 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "solutions of (4). Concretely, we see from the equations that the sign of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 385, + 510, + 395, + 519 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 395, + 509, + 476, + 521 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "determines whether", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 476, + 510, + 487, + 519 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 487, + 509, + 506, + 521 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 519, + 505, + 532 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 520, + 117, + 531 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 117, + 519, + 306, + 532 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "increase or decrease, and how fast they do so.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 307, + 520, + 316, + 531 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 316, + 519, + 505, + 532 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "’s evolution on the other hand is the result of a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 529, + 506, + 543 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 529, + 192, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "competition between", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 532, + 203, + 541 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 203, + 529, + 221, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 221, + 531, + 231, + 542 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 232, + 529, + 246, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 246, + 532, + 256, + 542 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "z _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 529, + 285, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and/or", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 532, + 298, + 541 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\alpha _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 298, + 529, + 384, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are sufficiently large,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 385, + 531, + 395, + 542 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 396, + 529, + 506, + 543 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "will decrease fast and long", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 541, + 506, + 555 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 541, + 400, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "enough to reach 0 at some point (green curves). Conversely, for a large", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 401, + 542, + 412, + 552 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "\\beta _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 412, + 541, + 416, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 416, + 542, + 426, + 552 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 426, + 541, + 506, + 555 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can reach 0 before", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 552, + 505, + 565 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 552, + 117, + 564 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 117, + 552, + 216, + 565 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". When that is the case,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 554, + 227, + 563 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 227, + 552, + 505, + 565 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "then decreases until it reaches 0 (yellow curves). We plot examples", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 561, + 505, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 561, + 505, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of those behaviors in Fig. 3 Right. We notice in particular the classic sigmoidal shape appearing,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 505, + 586 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 505, + 586 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "even when Assumption (H2) is violated. This can be explained as follows. In the regime of small", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 506, + 598 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 585, + 381, + 598 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "initializations (customary in deep learning), the competition between", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 382, + 586, + 393, + 596 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 393, + 585, + 396, + 598 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 397, + 586, + 407, + 596 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 407, + 585, + 424, + 598 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 424, + 586, + 434, + 596 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 434, + 585, + 506, + 598 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "happens in a part", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 505, + 609 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 505, + 609 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of parameter space where all the weights are small (i.e. where the confidence of the network is close", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 607, + 505, + 620 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 607, + 343, + 620 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to 0.5). When one class finally prevails over the other, e.g.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 608, + 353, + 618 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 354, + 607, + 505, + 620 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaching 0 (orange curve in the plot),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 445, + 630 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 445, + 630 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the analytical solutions from previous sections apply and the sigmoidal shape arises.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 29.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 497, + 506, + 630 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 645, + 219, + 658 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 221, + 660 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 644, + 221, + 660 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4 On the hinge loss", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 669, + 505, + 714 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 669, + 505, + 682 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 669, + 505, + 682 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Recent results in the field of generative adversarial networks have resurrected the hinge loss (Miyato", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 681, + 505, + 693 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 681, + 505, + 693 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2018). While its exact impact on performance is unclear, we run a small experiment to show", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 692, + 505, + 705 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 692, + 505, + 705 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "its ability to generate better samples than the customary cross-entropy (see Fig. 4 and Appendix E).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 703, + 491, + 715 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 703, + 491, + 715 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In order to perhaps uncover reasons behind its efficiency, we extend our results to the hinge loss:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 38.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 669, + 505, + 715 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 175, + 718, + 435, + 733 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 718, + 435, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 718, + 435, + 733 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "L _ { H } ( W _ { t } , Z _ { t } ; x ) = \\operatorname* { m a x } ( 0 , 1 - Z _ { t } ^ { T } ( W _ { t } x ) _ { + } \\cdot ( \\mathbb { 1 } _ { x \\in D _ { 1 } } - \\mathbb { 1 } _ { x \\in D _ { 2 } } ) ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "6be2345aad510adf61ac9296d98c86d4cf477193bfb2c643f46a10808e9552e0.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 41, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 718, + 435, + 733 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 41 + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 493, + 171 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 493, + 171 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 493, + 171 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 493, + 171 + ], + "score": 0.97, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "d6b56cf465cea6ff97ef9fdc7ee945eacc0ffc5742f04e6b8cebb0a61d9518cb.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 493, + 109.66666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 109.66666666666667, + 493, + 140.33333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 140.33333333333334, + 493, + 171.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 178, + 505, + 223 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 179, + 505, + 190 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 179, + 505, + 190 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 4: Left. The three figures on the left are the result of training a generative adversarial network", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 189, + 506, + 202 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 189, + 506, + 202 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on 8 Gaussians (see Appendix E for details on the experiment). The samples from the hinge loss are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 201, + 505, + 213 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 201, + 505, + 213 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "incomparably better. Right. Comparison between hinge loss and binary cross-entropy: training time", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 212, + 500, + 224 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 212, + 228, + 224 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "required to reach a confidence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 229, + 212, + 235, + 221 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "\\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 235, + 212, + 500, + 224 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the classification problem. Subplot: Solutions of Eqs. 3 and 5.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 4.5 + } + ], + "index": 2.75 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 241, + 503, + 275 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 505, + 254 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 505, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The hinge loss is non differentiable, but one can simply consider that learning stops as soon as the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 253, + 505, + 266 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 254, + 307, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "output of the network reaches 1 (resp. -1) for class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 307, + 254, + 321, + 264 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 321, + 254, + 348, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(resp.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 253, + 362, + 264 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 362, + 254, + 505, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "). Under the same assumptions than", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 263, + 485, + 276 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 263, + 485, + 276 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Theorem 3.2 (some of which can be relaxed, see Appendix C), we have the following result:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 277, + 503, + 290 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 276, + 504, + 292 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 276, + 184, + 292 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Theorem 4.1. For", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 184, + 278, + 216, + 289 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 276, + 234, + 292 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 278, + 248, + 289 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 249, + 276, + 394, + 292 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "it is simply the opposite), the output", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 394, + 278, + 412, + 290 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "u ( t )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 412, + 276, + 504, + 292 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the network verifies", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 141, + 292, + 468, + 316 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 292, + 468, + 316 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 292, + 468, + 316 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "u ( t ) = \\operatorname* { m i n } ( 1 , \\mathrm { ~ } u _ { 0 } \\ : e ^ { 2 p \\| x \\| t ) } ) , \\qquad u ( t ) = \\operatorname* { m i n } ( 1 , \\mathrm { ~ } \\frac { c } { 2 \\| x \\| } \\sinh ( \\theta _ { 0 } + 2 p \\| x \\| t ) ) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "b0191ccff9be0d9dc1a759cd80f1ba16c3863e947cfb6259cf6e3ded4834677c.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 11, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 292, + 468, + 316 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 11 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 318, + 491, + 335 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 102, + 313, + 488, + 338 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 102, + 313, + 133, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 318, + 235, + 335 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\theta _ { 0 } = \\cosh ^ { - 1 } \\bigl ( \\frac { y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } + \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } } { c } \\bigr )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 235, + 313, + 422, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the left and right equations correspond to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 422, + 322, + 446, + 332 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "c = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 446, + 313, + 465, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 465, + 322, + 488, + 334 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "c \\neq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 347, + 505, + 392 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 504, + 361 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 450, + 361 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. Simple computations show that the dynamics of the system are governed by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 450, + 347, + 504, + 360 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "y _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = x ^ { T } x \\ z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 506, + 371 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 123, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 123, + 359, + 154, + 370 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 154, + 358, + 360, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Following the method from Section 3, we see that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 361, + 358, + 432, + 371 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "u ^ { \\prime } ( t ) = 2 \\| x \\| u ( t )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 432, + 358, + 506, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the case where", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 370, + 505, + 381 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 370, + 131, + 380 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "c = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 370, + 258, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", leading to to the result. When", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 258, + 370, + 282, + 381 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "c \\neq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 283, + 370, + 505, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", a classic hyperbolic change of variables allows to find", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 505, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 344, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the solution. Its full derivation is presented in Appendix C.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 494, + 381, + 505, + 391 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "□", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 14.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 403, + 505, + 492 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 403, + 505, + 417 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 403, + 505, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The learning curves are plotted in Fig. 4 Right. We notice a hard sigmoidal shape corresponding", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 505, + 428 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 214, + 428 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to learning stopping when", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 214, + 417, + 225, + 426 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "u _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 225, + 416, + 426, + 428 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches 1. Confidence increases exponentially in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 427, + 416, + 431, + 425 + ], + "score": 0.67, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 432, + 416, + 505, + 428 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", much faster than", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 425, + 505, + 439 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 425, + 364, + 439 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for binary cross-entropy (all other parameters kept equal) where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 365, + 426, + 420, + 438 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\bar { u ( t ) } \\sim \\log \\bar { ( t ) }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 420, + 425, + 447, + 439 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". With", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 447, + 426, + 453, + 436 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "\\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 454, + 425, + 505, + 439 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the required", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 437, + 505, + 449 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 437, + 259, + 449 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "confidence for our classifier, the time", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 437, + 269, + 447 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "t ^ { * }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 269, + 437, + 342, + 449 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "required to reach", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 437, + 348, + 447 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "\\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 349, + 437, + 505, + 449 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can easily be computed. We plot it in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 448, + 505, + 460 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 448, + 505, + 460 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Fig. 4 Right which confirms visually that the hinge loss converges much faster. We also notice the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 459, + 506, + 472 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 459, + 202, + 472 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "expected divergence of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 202, + 459, + 212, + 469 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "t ^ { * }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 212, + 459, + 340, + 472 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for the binary cross entropy as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 341, + 459, + 347, + 469 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "\\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 459, + 506, + 472 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches 1 (training never converges in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 505, + 483 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 505, + 483 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that case). We refer the interested reader to Appendix C for a more general treatment of the Hinge", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 423, + 493 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 423, + 493 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "loss, which fully relaxes the assumption on the number of points in the classes.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 20.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 507, + 236, + 520 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 506, + 238, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 506, + 238, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5 Gradient Starvation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 531, + 506, + 621 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 531, + 506, + 546 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 531, + 506, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we attempt to quantify the impact of feature frequency inside a given class. We keep", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 542, + 506, + 556 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 542, + 314, + 556 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "our simplified framework and consider that the input", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 315, + 546, + 321, + 553 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "x", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 322, + 542, + 506, + 556 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to our network is composed of two underlying", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 506, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 140, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "features", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 554, + 179, + 565 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "x _ { 1 } \\in \\mathbb { R } ^ { d _ { 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 179, + 553, + 198, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 554, + 237, + 565 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "x _ { 2 } \\in \\mathbb { R } ^ { d _ { 2 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 237, + 553, + 259, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 554, + 310, + 565 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "d = d _ { 1 } + d _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 311, + 553, + 344, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 345, + 554, + 402, + 566 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "( x _ { 1 } , x _ { 2 } ) \\in \\mathbb { R } ^ { d }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 402, + 553, + 506, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote the concatenation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 565, + 506, + 578 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 565, + 162, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the vectors", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 163, + 567, + 174, + 576 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "x _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 174, + 565, + 192, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 567, + 203, + 576 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "x _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 204, + 565, + 359, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We assume that all the points in class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 359, + 566, + 373, + 576 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 373, + 565, + 450, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "contain the feature", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 450, + 567, + 462, + 576 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "x _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 462, + 565, + 506, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "but only a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 576, + 505, + 588 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 576, + 140, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fraction", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 577, + 147, + 586 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "\\lambda", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 576, + 260, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of them contains the feature", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 260, + 578, + 271, + 587 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "x _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 576, + 505, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". This is equivalent to making continuous gradient updates", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 587, + 505, + 599 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 587, + 172, + 599 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using the vector", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 587, + 206, + 599 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "( x _ { 1 } , x _ { 2 } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 587, + 252, + 599 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a rate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 252, + 587, + 259, + 597 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "\\lambda", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 587, + 319, + 599 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the vector", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 319, + 587, + 347, + 599 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( x _ { 1 } , 0 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 587, + 393, + 599 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a rate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 393, + 587, + 417, + 597 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "1 - \\lambda", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 417, + 587, + 505, + 599 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We also assume that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 506, + 612 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 262, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "those features are fully informative for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 262, + 599, + 295, + 609 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "D _ { 1 } - i . e", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 296, + 596, + 387, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". are absent from class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 387, + 599, + 401, + 609 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 401, + 596, + 506, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". A network trained using", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 608, + 410, + 622 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 608, + 410, + 622 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "gradient descent on the dataset we just described has the following property", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 29.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 115, + 628, + 495, + 651 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 628, + 496, + 641 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 628, + 273, + 641 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Even though the feature represented by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 274, + 630, + 286, + 640 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "x _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 628, + 496, + 641 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is fully informative of the class, the network will not", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 640, + 423, + 653 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 640, + 323, + 653 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "classify a sample containing only", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 323, + 641, + 335, + 651 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "x _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 335, + 640, + 423, + 653 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with high confidence.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 34.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 659, + 503, + 682 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 658, + 505, + 673 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 658, + 505, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "It is the result of a phenomenon we coin gradient starvation where the most frequent features starve", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 670, + 420, + 683 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 670, + 420, + 683 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the gradient for the least frequent ones, resulting in a slower learning of those:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "index": 36.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 684, + 502, + 707 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 683, + 505, + 697 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 683, + 186, + 697 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Theorem 5.1. Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 684, + 193, + 694 + ], + "score": 0.42, + "content": "\\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 193, + 683, + 362, + 697 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be our confidence requirement on class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 362, + 684, + 376, + 695 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 376, + 683, + 505, + 697 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "i.e. training stops as soon as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 694, + 504, + 708 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 695, + 144, + 707 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\forall x \\in D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 694, + 149, + 708 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 149, + 695, + 233, + 707 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "P _ { t } ( x \\in D _ { 1 } ) \\geq 1 - \\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 694, + 266, + 708 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 267, + 696, + 276, + 705 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "t ^ { * }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 276, + 694, + 504, + 708 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote that instant. Then, under some mild assumptions,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 38.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 223, + 709, + 387, + 736 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 709, + 387, + 736 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 709, + 387, + 736 + ], + "score": 0.95, + "content": "P _ { t ^ { * } } ( ( 0 , x _ { 2 } ) \\in D _ { 1 } ) \\le \\frac { 1 } { 1 + e ^ { - \\lambda \\log ( \\frac { 1 - \\delta } { \\delta } ) } } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "5d350bcc687a0a1ad9729354e7b715d0778a9058eb3960b7a2c461235516ce1a.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 40.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 709, + 387, + 722.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 722.5, + 387, + 736.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 41 + } + ] + } + ], + "page_idx": 6, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 27, + 307, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 759 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 750, + 309, + 762 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 750, + 309, + 762 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "7", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 493, + 171 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 493, + 171 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 493, + 171 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 493, + 171 + ], + "score": 0.97, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "d6b56cf465cea6ff97ef9fdc7ee945eacc0ffc5742f04e6b8cebb0a61d9518cb.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 79, + 493, + 109.66666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 109.66666666666667, + 493, + 140.33333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 140.33333333333334, + 493, + 171.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 178, + 505, + 223 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 179, + 505, + 190 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 179, + 505, + 190 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 4: Left. The three figures on the left are the result of training a generative adversarial network", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 189, + 506, + 202 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 189, + 506, + 202 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on 8 Gaussians (see Appendix E for details on the experiment). The samples from the hinge loss are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 201, + 505, + 213 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 201, + 505, + 213 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "incomparably better. Right. Comparison between hinge loss and binary cross-entropy: training time", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 212, + 500, + 224 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 212, + 228, + 224 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "required to reach a confidence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 229, + 212, + 235, + 221 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "\\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 235, + 212, + 500, + 224 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the classification problem. Subplot: Solutions of Eqs. 3 and 5.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 4.5 + } + ], + "index": 2.75 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 241, + 503, + 275 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 505, + 254 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 505, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The hinge loss is non differentiable, but one can simply consider that learning stops as soon as the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 253, + 505, + 266 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 254, + 307, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "output of the network reaches 1 (resp. -1) for class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 307, + 254, + 321, + 264 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 321, + 254, + 348, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(resp.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 253, + 362, + 264 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 362, + 254, + 505, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "). Under the same assumptions than", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 263, + 485, + 276 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 263, + 485, + 276 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Theorem 3.2 (some of which can be relaxed, see Appendix C), we have the following result:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 8, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 241, + 505, + 276 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 277, + 503, + 290 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 276, + 504, + 292 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 276, + 184, + 292 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Theorem 4.1. For", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 184, + 278, + 216, + 289 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 276, + 234, + 292 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 278, + 248, + 289 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 249, + 276, + 394, + 292 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "it is simply the opposite), the output", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 394, + 278, + 412, + 290 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "u ( t )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 412, + 276, + 504, + 292 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the network verifies", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 10, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 276, + 504, + 292 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 141, + 292, + 468, + 316 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 292, + 468, + 316 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 292, + 468, + 316 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "u ( t ) = \\operatorname* { m i n } ( 1 , \\mathrm { ~ } u _ { 0 } \\ : e ^ { 2 p \\| x \\| t ) } ) , \\qquad u ( t ) = \\operatorname* { m i n } ( 1 , \\mathrm { ~ } \\frac { c } { 2 \\| x \\| } \\sinh ( \\theta _ { 0 } + 2 p \\| x \\| t ) ) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "b0191ccff9be0d9dc1a759cd80f1ba16c3863e947cfb6259cf6e3ded4834677c.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 11, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 292, + 468, + 316 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 11 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 318, + 491, + 335 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 102, + 313, + 488, + 338 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 102, + 313, + 133, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 318, + 235, + 335 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\theta _ { 0 } = \\cosh ^ { - 1 } \\bigl ( \\frac { y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } + \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } } { c } \\bigr )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 235, + 313, + 422, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the left and right equations correspond to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 422, + 322, + 446, + 332 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "c = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 446, + 313, + 465, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 465, + 322, + 488, + 334 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "c \\neq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 12, + "bbox_fs": [ + 102, + 313, + 488, + 338 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 347, + 505, + 392 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 504, + 361 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 346, + 450, + 361 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. Simple computations show that the dynamics of the system are governed by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 450, + 347, + 504, + 360 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "y _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = x ^ { T } x \\ z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 506, + 371 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 123, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 123, + 359, + 154, + 370 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 154, + 358, + 360, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Following the method from Section 3, we see that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 361, + 358, + 432, + 371 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "u ^ { \\prime } ( t ) = 2 \\| x \\| u ( t )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 432, + 358, + 506, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the case where", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 370, + 505, + 381 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 370, + 131, + 380 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "c = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 370, + 258, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", leading to to the result. When", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 258, + 370, + 282, + 381 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "c \\neq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 283, + 370, + 505, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", a classic hyperbolic change of variables allows to find", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 505, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 344, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the solution. Its full derivation is presented in Appendix C.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 494, + 381, + 505, + 391 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "□", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 14.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 346, + 506, + 393 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 403, + 505, + 492 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 403, + 505, + 417 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 403, + 505, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The learning curves are plotted in Fig. 4 Right. We notice a hard sigmoidal shape corresponding", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 505, + 428 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 416, + 214, + 428 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to learning stopping when", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 214, + 417, + 225, + 426 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "u _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 225, + 416, + 426, + 428 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches 1. Confidence increases exponentially in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 427, + 416, + 431, + 425 + ], + "score": 0.67, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 432, + 416, + 505, + 428 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", much faster than", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 425, + 505, + 439 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 425, + 364, + 439 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for binary cross-entropy (all other parameters kept equal) where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 365, + 426, + 420, + 438 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\bar { u ( t ) } \\sim \\log \\bar { ( t ) }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 420, + 425, + 447, + 439 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". With", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 447, + 426, + 453, + 436 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "\\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 454, + 425, + 505, + 439 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the required", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 437, + 505, + 449 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 437, + 259, + 449 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "confidence for our classifier, the time", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 437, + 269, + 447 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "t ^ { * }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 269, + 437, + 342, + 449 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "required to reach", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 437, + 348, + 447 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "\\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 349, + 437, + 505, + 449 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can easily be computed. We plot it in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 448, + 505, + 460 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 448, + 505, + 460 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Fig. 4 Right which confirms visually that the hinge loss converges much faster. We also notice the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 459, + 506, + 472 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 459, + 202, + 472 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "expected divergence of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 202, + 459, + 212, + 469 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "t ^ { * }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 212, + 459, + 340, + 472 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for the binary cross entropy as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 341, + 459, + 347, + 469 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "\\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 459, + 506, + 472 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches 1 (training never converges in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 505, + 483 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 469, + 505, + 483 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that case). We refer the interested reader to Appendix C for a more general treatment of the Hinge", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 423, + 493 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 481, + 423, + 493 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "loss, which fully relaxes the assumption on the number of points in the classes.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 20.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 403, + 506, + 493 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 507, + 236, + 520 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 506, + 238, + 523 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 506, + 238, + 523 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5 Gradient Starvation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 531, + 506, + 621 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 531, + 506, + 546 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 531, + 506, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we attempt to quantify the impact of feature frequency inside a given class. We keep", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 542, + 506, + 556 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 542, + 314, + 556 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "our simplified framework and consider that the input", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 315, + 546, + 321, + 553 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "x", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 322, + 542, + 506, + 556 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to our network is composed of two underlying", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 506, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 140, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "features", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 554, + 179, + 565 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "x _ { 1 } \\in \\mathbb { R } ^ { d _ { 1 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 179, + 553, + 198, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 554, + 237, + 565 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "x _ { 2 } \\in \\mathbb { R } ^ { d _ { 2 } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 237, + 553, + 259, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 554, + 310, + 565 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "d = d _ { 1 } + d _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 311, + 553, + 344, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 345, + 554, + 402, + 566 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "( x _ { 1 } , x _ { 2 } ) \\in \\mathbb { R } ^ { d }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 402, + 553, + 506, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote the concatenation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 565, + 506, + 578 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 565, + 162, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the vectors", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 163, + 567, + 174, + 576 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "x _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 174, + 565, + 192, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 567, + 203, + 576 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "x _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 204, + 565, + 359, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We assume that all the points in class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 359, + 566, + 373, + 576 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 373, + 565, + 450, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "contain the feature", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 450, + 567, + 462, + 576 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "x _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 462, + 565, + 506, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "but only a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 576, + 505, + 588 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 576, + 140, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fraction", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 577, + 147, + 586 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "\\lambda", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 576, + 260, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of them contains the feature", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 260, + 578, + 271, + 587 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "x _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 576, + 505, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". This is equivalent to making continuous gradient updates", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 587, + 505, + 599 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 587, + 172, + 599 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using the vector", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 587, + 206, + 599 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "( x _ { 1 } , x _ { 2 } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 206, + 587, + 252, + 599 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a rate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 252, + 587, + 259, + 597 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "\\lambda", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 587, + 319, + 599 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the vector", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 319, + 587, + 347, + 599 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( x _ { 1 } , 0 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 587, + 393, + 599 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a rate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 393, + 587, + 417, + 597 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "1 - \\lambda", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 417, + 587, + 505, + 599 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We also assume that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 506, + 612 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 596, + 262, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "those features are fully informative for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 262, + 599, + 295, + 609 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "D _ { 1 } - i . e", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 296, + 596, + 387, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". are absent from class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 387, + 599, + 401, + 609 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 401, + 596, + 506, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". A network trained using", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 608, + 410, + 622 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 608, + 410, + 622 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "gradient descent on the dataset we just described has the following property", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 29.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 531, + 506, + 622 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 115, + 628, + 495, + 651 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 628, + 496, + 641 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 628, + 273, + 641 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Even though the feature represented by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 274, + 630, + 286, + 640 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "x _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 628, + 496, + 641 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is fully informative of the class, the network will not", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 640, + 423, + 653 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 640, + 323, + 653 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "classify a sample containing only", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 323, + 641, + 335, + 651 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "x _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 335, + 640, + 423, + 653 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with high confidence.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 34.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 116, + 628, + 496, + 653 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 659, + 503, + 682 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 658, + 505, + 673 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 658, + 505, + 673 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "It is the result of a phenomenon we coin gradient starvation where the most frequent features starve", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 670, + 420, + 683 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 670, + 420, + 683 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the gradient for the least frequent ones, resulting in a slower learning of those:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "index": 36.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 658, + 505, + 683 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 684, + 502, + 707 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 683, + 505, + 697 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 683, + 186, + 697 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Theorem 5.1. Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 684, + 193, + 694 + ], + "score": 0.42, + "content": "\\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 193, + 683, + 362, + 697 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be our confidence requirement on class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 362, + 684, + 376, + 695 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 376, + 683, + 505, + 697 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "i.e. training stops as soon as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 694, + 504, + 708 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 695, + 144, + 707 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\forall x \\in D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 694, + 149, + 708 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 149, + 695, + 233, + 707 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "P _ { t } ( x \\in D _ { 1 } ) \\geq 1 - \\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 694, + 266, + 708 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 267, + 696, + 276, + 705 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "t ^ { * }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 276, + 694, + 504, + 708 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote that instant. Then, under some mild assumptions,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 38.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 683, + 505, + 708 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 223, + 709, + 387, + 736 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 709, + 387, + 736 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 709, + 387, + 736 + ], + "score": 0.95, + "content": "P _ { t ^ { * } } ( ( 0 , x _ { 2 } ) \\in D _ { 1 } ) \\le \\frac { 1 } { 1 + e ^ { - \\lambda \\log ( \\frac { 1 - \\delta } { \\delta } ) } } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "5d350bcc687a0a1ad9729354e7b715d0778a9058eb3960b7a2c461235516ce1a.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 40.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 709, + 387, + 722.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 722.5, + 387, + 736.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 41 + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 505, + 140 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 505, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 505, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. From Lemma 3.1, assumptions (H2-3) are sufficient to guarantee independent mode learning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 91, + 505, + 108 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 91, + 205, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as well as positiveness of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 205, + 95, + 214, + 105 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 215, + 91, + 280, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We decompose", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 281, + 93, + 403, + 106 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "w _ { t } = ( \\alpha _ { t } x _ { 1 } , \\beta _ { t } x _ { 2 } ) \\overset { \\vartriangle } { + } ( x _ { 1 } ^ { \\perp } , x _ { 2 } ^ { \\perp } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 91, + 430, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 430, + 93, + 505, + 105 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "x _ { 1 } ^ { T } x _ { 1 } ^ { \\perp } = x _ { 2 } ^ { T } x _ { 2 } ^ { \\perp } =", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 506, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 184, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "0, and assume that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 185, + 105, + 250, + 116 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\alpha _ { 0 } \\geq \\beta _ { 0 } / \\lambda > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 251, + 104, + 506, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(in App. D, we relax some of those assumptions and prove an", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 114, + 505, + 130 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 114, + 288, + 130 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "equivalent result). 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We create a very strong, perfectly discriminative feature by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 505, + 587 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 505, + 587 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "making the dog pictures brighter, and the cat pictures darker. We then train a standard deep neural", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 586, + 500, + 598 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 586, + 500, + 598 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "network to classify the modified images and measure its performance on the untouched testing set.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + } + ], + "index": 42.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 602, + 505, + 669 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 602, + 506, + 615 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 602, + 506, + 615 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Results The results can be seen in Table 2. The network perfectly learns to classify both the train and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 613, + 506, + 626 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 613, + 506, + 626 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "test modified set, but utterly fails on the real test data. This proves that the handcrafted light feature", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 624, + 506, + 637 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 624, + 506, + 637 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "was learnt by the network, and is used exclusively to classify images. 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The most frequent feature starved all the others.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + } + ], + "index": 47.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 685, + 200, + 697 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 684, + 202, + 699 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 684, + 202, + 699 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6 Related work", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 709, + 504, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The learning dynamics of neural networks have been explored for decades. 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The gap between the two is very", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 524, + 504, + 538 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 524, + 192, + 538 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "significant: with e.g.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 525, + 226, + 536 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\lambda = 0 . 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 226, + 524, + 244, + 538 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 244, + 524, + 284, + 535 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\delta = 1 0 ^ { - 4 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 285, + 524, + 326, + 538 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Table 1),", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 327, + 525, + 436, + 537 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "P _ { t ^ { * } } ( ( 0 , x _ { 2 } ) \\in D _ { 1 } ) \\leq 7 2 \\% !", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 436, + 524, + 492, + 538 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Even though", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 492, + 527, + 504, + 536 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "x _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 536, + 500, + 548 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 536, + 204, + 548 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is exclusively present in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 204, + 536, + 217, + 547 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 536, + 500, + 548 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and is thus extremely informative, the network is unable to classify it.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 38.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 502, + 506, + 548 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 552, + 505, + 597 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 552, + 505, + 565 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 552, + 505, + 565 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Experiment To validate those findings empirically, we design an artificial experiment based on the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 505, + 577 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 564, + 505, + 577 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "cats and dogs dataset (Kaggle, 2018). We create a very strong, perfectly discriminative feature by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 505, + 587 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 574, + 505, + 587 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "making the dog pictures brighter, and the cat pictures darker. We then train a standard deep neural", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 586, + 500, + 598 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 586, + 500, + 598 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "network to classify the modified images and measure its performance on the untouched testing set.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + } + ], + "index": 42.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 552, + 505, + 598 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 602, + 505, + 669 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 602, + 506, + 615 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 602, + 506, + 615 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Results The results can be seen in Table 2. The network perfectly learns to classify both the train and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 613, + 506, + 626 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 613, + 506, + 626 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "test modified set, but utterly fails on the real test data. This proves that the handcrafted light feature", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 624, + 506, + 637 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 624, + 506, + 637 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "was learnt by the network, and is used exclusively to classify images. All the features allowing to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 636, + 505, + 648 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 636, + 505, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "recognize a cat from a dog are still present in the data, but the low level features (e.g. the presence of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 647, + 505, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 647, + 505, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "whiskers, how edges combine to form the shape of the animals and so on) are far less frequent than", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 657, + 475, + 670 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 657, + 475, + 670 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the light intensity, and thus were not learnt. The most frequent feature starved all the others.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + } + ], + "index": 47.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 602, + 506, + 670 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 685, + 200, + 697 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 684, + 202, + 699 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 684, + 202, + 699 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6 Related work", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 709, + 504, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The learning dynamics of neural networks have been explored for decades. Baldi & Hornik (1989)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 506, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 506, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "studied the energy landscape of linear networks and the fixed point structure of gradient descent", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning in that context. Heskes & Kappen (1993) developed a theory encompassing stochastic", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 505, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 505, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "gradient descent and parameter dynamics and wrote down their evolution equations in on-line", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 505, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 505, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning. However, those equations are heavily nonlinear and do not have closed-form solutions in", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the general case. Saxe et al. (2013b) study the case of deep linear networks trained with regression.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 126, + 506, + 139 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 126, + 506, + 139 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "They prove the existence of nonlinear learning phenomena similar to those seen in simulations of", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 505, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 505, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "nonlinear networks and provide exact solutions to the dynamics of learning in the linear case. Some", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 505, + 161 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 505, + 161 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of our results are an extension of theirs to nonlinear networks. Choromanska et al. (2014); Raghu", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 505, + 171 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 505, + 171 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. (2017); Saxe (2015); Yosinski et al. (2014) also focus on neural network dynamics, while", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 169, + 505, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 169, + 505, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Nacson et al. (2018); Xu et al. (2018); Soudry et al. (2017) study the convergence rate of learning on", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 181, + 500, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 181, + 500, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "separable data. Arora et al. (2018) prove that overparameterization can lead to faster optimization.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 52.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 505, + 192 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 83, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning in that context. Heskes & Kappen (1993) developed a theory encompassing stochastic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 505, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 505, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "gradient descent and parameter dynamics and wrote down their evolution equations in on-line", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 505, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 505, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning. However, those equations are heavily nonlinear and do not have closed-form solutions in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 506, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the general case. Saxe et al. (2013b) study the case of deep linear networks trained with regression.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 126, + 506, + 139 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 126, + 506, + 139 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "They prove the existence of nonlinear learning phenomena similar to those seen in simulations of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 505, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 505, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "nonlinear networks and provide exact solutions to the dynamics of learning in the linear case. Some", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 505, + 161 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 505, + 161 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of our results are an extension of theirs to nonlinear networks. Choromanska et al. (2014); Raghu", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 505, + 171 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 505, + 171 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. (2017); Saxe (2015); Yosinski et al. (2014) also focus on neural network dynamics, while", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 169, + 505, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 169, + 505, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Nacson et al. (2018); Xu et al. (2018); Soudry et al. (2017) study the convergence rate of learning on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 181, + 500, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 181, + 500, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "separable data. Arora et al. (2018) prove that overparameterization can lead to faster optimization.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 4.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 198, + 505, + 275 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 198, + 505, + 210 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 198, + 505, + 210 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Recent work in the domain of generative adversarial networks (Goodfellow et al., 2014) has shown the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 209, + 504, + 221 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 209, + 504, + 221 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "resurgence of the hinge loss (Rosasco et al., 2004). In particular, part of the success encountered by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 220, + 506, + 232 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 220, + 506, + 232 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Miyato et al. (2018) is due to their use of that specific loss function. Their main contribution however", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 231, + 505, + 243 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 231, + 505, + 243 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is a spectral normalization technique that produces state-of-the-art results on image generation. Their", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 242, + 506, + 255 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 242, + 506, + 255 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "paper is part of a larger trend focusing on the spectra of neural network weight matrices and their", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 253, + 505, + 265 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 253, + 505, + 265 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "evolution during learning (Vorontsov et al., 2017; Odena et al., 2018; Pennington et al., 2017). It,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 264, + 309, + 277 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 264, + 309, + 277 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "nevertheless, remains a poorly understood subject.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 281, + 505, + 380 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 281, + 505, + 293 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 281, + 505, + 293 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Zhang et al. (2016) performed some experiments proving that deep neural networks expound a so-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 291, + 505, + 305 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 291, + 505, + 305 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "called implicit regularization. Even though they have the ability to entirely memorize the dataset, they", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 303, + 505, + 315 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 303, + 505, + 315 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "still converge to solutions that generalize well. A variety of explanations for that phenomenon have", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 313, + 505, + 326 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 313, + 505, + 326 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "been advanced: correlation between flatness of minima and generalization (Hochreiter & Schmid-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 324, + 505, + 338 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 324, + 505, + 338 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "huber, 1997), natural convergence of stochastic gradient descent towards such minima (Kleinberg", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 335, + 505, + 348 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 335, + 505, + 348 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2018), built-in hierarchical representations (LeCun et al., 2015), gradient descent naturally", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 345, + 506, + 361 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 345, + 506, + 361 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "protecting against overfitting (Advani & Saxe, 2017), and structure of deep networks biasing learning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 505, + 370 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 358, + 505, + 370 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "towards simpler functions (Neyshabur et al., 2014; Perez et al., 2018). Our results from Section 5", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 368, + 489, + 381 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 368, + 489, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "suggest that gradient descent indeed has a beneficial effect, but can also hurt in some situations.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 397, + 182, + 409 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 394, + 185, + 413 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 394, + 185, + 413 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "7 Discussion", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 422, + 504, + 466 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 421, + 506, + 435 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 421, + 506, + 435 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In order to obtain closed form solutions for the learning dynamics, we made the extremely simplifying", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 434, + 506, + 446 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 434, + 506, + 446 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "assumption that each class only contains one point. We leave overcoming that limitation to future", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 445, + 506, + 456 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 445, + 506, + 456 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "work. In the spirit of the proof in Section 5 where we considered two datapoints, we might be able", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 456, + 347, + 468 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 456, + 347, + 468 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to obtain upper and lower bounds on the learning dynamics.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + } + ], + "index": 28.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 472, + 505, + 527 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 473, + 505, + 484 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 473, + 505, + 484 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our comparison between the cross-entropy and the hinge losses reveals fundamental differences.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 483, + 505, + 495 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 483, + 505, + 495 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "It is noteworthy that the hinge loss is an important ingredient of the recently introduced spectral", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 494, + 505, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 494, + 505, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "normalization (Miyato et al., 2018). 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The signs of the coordinates of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 158, + 353, + 168 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "Z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 353, + 156, + 504, + 171 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "remain the same throughout training.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 3.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 180, + 505, + 225 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 181, + 505, + 193 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 181, + 374, + 193 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. We prove this with a simple induction. 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For any", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 635, + 226, + 646 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "k \\in C", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 226, + 635, + 229, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 635, + 263, + 646 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "x \\in D _ { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 635, + 282, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 282, + 635, + 306, + 646 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "t \\geq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 306, + 635, + 443, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the only non-negative element of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 443, + 636, + 463, + 646 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "W _ { t } x", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 464, + 635, + 486, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is its", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 486, + 636, + 493, + 645 + ], + "score": 0.62, + "content": "k", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 493, + 635, + 505, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-th", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 646, + 470, + 659 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 646, + 342, + 659 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "element and all diagonal (resp. non-diagonal) elements of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 646, + 353, + 657 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "Z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 353, + 646, + 470, + 659 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are positive (resp. negative).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 38.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 669, + 505, + 714 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 670, + 505, + 681 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 670, + 374, + 681 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. 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The subscript", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 470, + 504, + 482 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 471, + 116, + 480 + ], + "score": 0.63, + "content": "^ +", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 117, + 470, + 287, + 482 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denotes the positive part of a real number.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 287, + 470, + 311, + 482 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "P _ { t } ( x )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 312, + 470, + 329, + 482 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is a", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 329, + 470, + 338, + 480 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "C", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 338, + 470, + 497, + 482 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-vector representing the probability that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 497, + 473, + 504, + 479 + ], + "score": 0.7, + "content": "x", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 480, + 488, + 495 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 480, + 253, + 495 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "belongs to each class. 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For any", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 635, + 226, + 646 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "k \\in C", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 226, + 635, + 229, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 635, + 263, + 646 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "x \\in D _ { k }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 635, + 282, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 282, + 635, + 306, + 646 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "t \\geq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 306, + 635, + 443, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the only non-negative element of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 443, + 636, + 463, + 646 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "W _ { t } x", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 464, + 635, + 486, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is its", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 486, + 636, + 493, + 645 + ], + "score": 0.62, + "content": "k", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 493, + 635, + 505, + 648 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-th", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 646, + 470, + 659 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 646, + 342, + 659 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "element and all diagonal (resp. non-diagonal) elements of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 646, + 353, + 657 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "Z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 353, + 646, + 470, + 659 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are positive (resp. negative).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 38.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 635, + 505, + 659 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 669, + 505, + 714 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 670, + 505, + 681 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 670, + 374, + 681 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. We prove this with a simple induction. The claim is true at", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 375, + 671, + 398, + 680 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "t = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 398, + 670, + 505, + 681 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from assumptions (H4-6).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 681, + 505, + 693 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 681, + 233, + 693 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Let us assume that at time set", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 682, + 239, + 691 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 239, + 681, + 505, + 693 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the different parts of the lemma are true. 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We consider an update made using", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 274, + 356, + 306, + 367 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 306, + 354, + 343, + 369 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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With", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 194, + 424, + 272, + 437 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "c : = | y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } - \\| \\dot { x } \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } |", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 423, + 492, + 438 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the solutions of Eq. 11 live on hyperbolas of equation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 21.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 439, + 436, + 488 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 176, + 439, + 436, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 176, + 439, + 436, + 488 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\left\\{ \\begin{array} { l l } { y ^ { 2 } - \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z ^ { 2 } = \\begin{array} { l l l l l } { c } & { \\quad } & { \\mathrm { i f } \\ y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } - \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } > 0 , } \\\\ { y ^ { 2 } - \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z ^ { 2 } = - c \\quad } & { \\quad } & { \\mathrm { i f } \\ y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } - \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } < 0 , } \\end{array} } \\\\ y ^ { 2 } - \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z ^ { 2 } = \\begin{array} { l l l l l } { \\ } & { 0 } & { \\quad } & { \\mathrm { i f } \\ y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } - \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } = 0 . } \\end{array} \\right. \\end{array}", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "71a6df39d2943cb3096677f75f4397f24fd8bfc974d23a3ea1190555b0f80329.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 24, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 176, + 439, + 436, + 455.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 176, + 455.3333333333333, + 436, + 471.66666666666663 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 176, + 471.66666666666663, + 436, + 487.99999999999994 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 25 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 497, + 504, + 531 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 506, + 510 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 337, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We start by treating the case of a degenerate hyperbola", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 337, + 498, + 364, + 507 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "c = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 364, + 495, + 410, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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We let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 360, + 509, + 455, + 520 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "u ( t ) : = z _ { t } w _ { t } x = z _ { t } y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 456, + 507, + 506, + 522 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and see by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 280, + 531 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 519, + 280, + 531 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "combining the two equations in Eq. 11 that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 265, + 534, + 346, + 560 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 265, + 534, + 346, + 560 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 265, + 534, + 346, + 560 + ], + "score": 0.95, + "content": "u ^ { \\prime } ( t ) = { \\frac { 2 \\| x \\| u ( t ) } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "cdb93f9f812877826b42bd685ad0f0680135b21ab8711a26eaecabb90ff95174.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 29, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 265, + 534, + 346, + 560 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 29 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 570, + 506, + 593 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 568, + 507, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 568, + 140, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For any", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 140, + 572, + 176, + 583 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "u _ { f } \\geq u _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 176, + 568, + 192, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 193, + 570, + 259, + 583 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "t = u ^ { < - 1 > } ( u _ { f } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 568, + 264, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 264, + 573, + 271, + 581 + ], + "score": 0.68, + "content": "u", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 271, + 568, + 348, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is a bijection from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 570, + 417, + 583 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\mathbb { R } ^ { + } \\to [ u _ { 0 } , + \\infty [", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 417, + 568, + 507, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "[ since its derivative is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 581, + 214, + 595 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 581, + 214, + 595 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "strictly positive). 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With", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 194, + 424, + 272, + 437 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "c : = | y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } - \\| \\dot { x } \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } |", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 423, + 492, + 438 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the solutions of Eq. 11 live on hyperbolas of equation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 21.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 411, + 506, + 438 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 439, + 436, + 488 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 176, + 439, + 436, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 176, + 439, + 436, + 488 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\left\\{ \\begin{array} { l l } { y ^ { 2 } - \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z ^ { 2 } = \\begin{array} { l l l l l } { c } & { \\quad } & { \\mathrm { i f } \\ y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } - \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } > 0 , } \\\\ { y ^ { 2 } - \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z ^ { 2 } = - c \\quad } & { \\quad } & { \\mathrm { i f } \\ y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } - \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } < 0 , } \\end{array} } \\\\ y ^ { 2 } - \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z ^ { 2 } = \\begin{array} { l l l l l } { \\ } & { 0 } & { \\quad } & { \\mathrm { i f } \\ y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } - \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } = 0 . } \\end{array} \\right. \\end{array}", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "71a6df39d2943cb3096677f75f4397f24fd8bfc974d23a3ea1190555b0f80329.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 24, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 176, + 439, + 436, + 455.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 176, + 455.3333333333333, + 436, + 471.66666666666663 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 176, + 471.66666666666663, + 436, + 487.99999999999994 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 25 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 497, + 504, + 531 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 506, + 510 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 495, + 337, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We start by treating the case of a degenerate hyperbola", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 337, + 498, + 364, + 507 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "c = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 364, + 495, + 410, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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For", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 696, + 250, + 705 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 251, + 693, + 347, + 707 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the system of ODEs is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "index": 36.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 682, + 505, + 707 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 197, + 709, + 414, + 736 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 197, + 709, + 414, + 736 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 197, + 709, + 414, + 736 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "y _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = - { \\frac { \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { - y _ { t } z _ { t } } } } , \\qquad z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = - { \\frac { y _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { - y _ { t } z _ { t } } } } ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "19eef1e9c1aa03b8809636a08530898d169f5b8ae63b17455525f8fe7a965b44.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 38, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 197, + 709, + 414, + 736 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 38 + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 505, + 138 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 259, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the degeneracy assumption becomes", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 82, + 319, + 95 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "y _ { 0 } = - \\| x \\| z _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 319, + 82, + 429, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(we know from (H2) that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 430, + 83, + 462, + 94 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "y _ { 0 } > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 463, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 93, + 148, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(H3) that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 149, + 94, + 184, + 105 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "z _ { \\mathrm { 0 } } ~ < ~ 0 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 184, + 93, + 325, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". It can be shown similarly that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 325, + 93, + 379, + 105 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "v ( t ) : = z _ { t } y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 380, + 93, + 470, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "verifies the equation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 470, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "v ^ { \\prime } ( t ) =", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 104, + 505, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 105, + 175, + 117 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "2 \\| x \\| v ( t ) \\sigma ( v ( t ) )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 104, + 392, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a negative initial condition. 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Below,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 332, + 117, + 339, + 125 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "\\bar { u }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 339, + 115, + 360, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 360, + 117, + 367, + 125 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "\\bar { v }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 115, + 505, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote those two trajectories for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 126, + 310, + 140 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 126, + 142, + 139 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\| { \\boldsymbol x } \\| = 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 126, + 229, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and initial conditions", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 127, + 259, + 138 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "u _ { 0 } > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 260, + 126, + 277, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 277, + 127, + 306, + 138 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "v _ { 0 } < 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 306, + 126, + 310, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 142, + 504, + 188 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 143, + 506, + 157 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 143, + 177, + 157 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Let us now write", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 177, + 143, + 239, + 155 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "p _ { 1 } = | D _ { 1 } | / | D |", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 239, + 143, + 435, + 157 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the fraction of points in the dataset belonging to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 436, + 144, + 449, + 154 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 450, + 143, + 506, + 157 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Because we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 153, + 505, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 153, + 347, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sample randomly from the dataset, this amounts to sampling", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 156, + 358, + 166 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "p _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 358, + 153, + 385, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(resp.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 385, + 155, + 415, + 165 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "1 - p _ { 1 } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 416, + 153, + 465, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "points from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 465, + 155, + 479, + 165 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 479, + 153, + 505, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(resp.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 505, + 178 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 121, + 177 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 121, + 165, + 386, + 178 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") for each time unit during training, ie to rescaling the time axis by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 387, + 167, + 397, + 177 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "p _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 397, + 165, + 412, + 178 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 412, + 166, + 426, + 176 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 426, + 165, + 444, + 178 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 444, + 166, + 472, + 177 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "1 - 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\\bar { v } ( \\| x \\| ( 1 - p _ { 1 } ) t ) ) \\qquad } & { \\mathrm { ~ i f ~ } x \\in D _ { 2 } , } \\end{array} \\right.", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "f9a3122f3e64a4abe14331a28b68f7cd0a7924b8dd4df4c317805ea59642abd7.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 10, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 192, + 439, + 202.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 202.0, + 439, + 212.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 212.0, + 439, + 222.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 11 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 227, + 254, + 239 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 225, + 255, + 240 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 225, + 228, + 240 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which concludes the proof for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 228, + 227, + 252, + 237 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "c = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 252, + 225, + 255, + 240 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 244, + 227, + 255 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 243, + 228, + 256 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 243, + 228, + 256 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "From Eq. 14, we also see that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 169, + 261, + 442, + 289 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 261, + 442, + 289 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 261, + 442, + 289 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "t = \\frac { 1 } { 2 \\| x \\| } \\int _ { u _ { 0 } } ^ { u _ { f } } \\frac { 1 + e ^ { y } } { y } d y \\ge \\frac { 1 } { 2 \\| x \\| } \\int _ { u _ { 0 } } ^ { u _ { f } } e ^ { \\frac { y } { 2 } } d y = \\frac { 1 } { \\| x \\| } \\big ( e ^ { \\frac { u _ { f } } { 2 } } - e ^ { \\frac { u _ { 0 } } { 2 } } \\big ) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "5df43a555faf250faac3387ff24f61625097cc1d56548c9d07a300a18b7c6487.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 15, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 261, + 442, + 270.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 270.3333333333333, + 442, + 279.66666666666663 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 279.66666666666663, + 442, + 288.99999999999994 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 16 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 295, + 380, + 308 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 294, + 381, + 310 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 294, + 225, + 310 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where we used the inequality", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 225, + 294, + 289, + 308 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\forall y \\geq 0 , e ^ { \\frac { y } { 2 } } > y", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 290, + 294, + 381, + 310 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". It eventually gives us", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 250, + 313, + 361, + 329 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 250, + 313, + 361, + 329 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 250, + 313, + 361, + 329 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "u ( t ) \\leq 2 \\log ( \\| x \\| t + e ^ { \\frac { u _ { 0 } } { 2 } } ) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "16c29009ac5e3a972124f947792cce46d2cec0881be5288e91c2020a5303e5f5.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 18, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 250, + 313, + 361, + 329 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 18 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 335, + 390, + 347 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 333, + 390, + 348 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 333, + 390, + 348 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a result in line with convergence rates obtained in Soudry et al. (2017).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 351, + 450, + 364 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 451, + 366 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 451, + 366 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Let us now study the non-degenerate case. We apply the classic change of coordinates", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 157, + 368, + 434, + 426 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 368, + 434, + 426 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 368, + 434, + 426 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r l r l r l } & { y _ { t } = \\sqrt { c } \\cosh ( \\frac { \\theta } { 2 } ) , } & & { z _ { t } = \\frac { \\sqrt { c } } { \\| x \\| } \\sinh ( \\frac { \\theta } { 2 } ) } & & { \\mathrm { i f ~ } y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } > \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } , } \\\\ & { y _ { t } = \\sqrt { c } \\sinh ( \\frac { \\theta } { 2 } ) , } & & { z _ { t } = \\frac { \\sqrt { c } } { \\| x \\| } \\cosh ( \\frac { \\theta } { 2 } ) } & & { \\mathrm { i f ~ } y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } < \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } . } \\end{array}", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "b49a62bc169750d5602060fd6d09ffe7f60bbee2bfc4bcd062346615400bcf0a.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 22, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 368, + 434, + 387.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 387.3333333333333, + 434, + 406.66666666666663 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 406.66666666666663, + 434, + 425.99999999999994 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 23 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 430, + 385, + 445 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 426, + 388, + 449 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 426, + 131, + 449 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Since", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 430, + 235, + 443 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "y _ { t } ^ { 2 } + \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } ^ { 2 } = c \\cosh ( \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 235, + 426, + 253, + 449 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 253, + 431, + 335, + 446 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { y _ { t } z _ { t } = \\frac { c } { 2 \\| x \\| } \\sinh ( \\theta ) } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 336, + 426, + 388, + 449 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we see that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 172, + 450, + 438, + 479 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 172, + 450, + 438, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 172, + 450, + 438, + 479 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "( y _ { t } z _ { t } ) ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { y _ { t } ^ { 2 } + \\vert \\vert x \\vert \\vert ^ { 2 } z _ { t } ^ { 2 } } { 1 + e ^ { y _ { t } z _ { t } } } = \\frac { c } { 2 \\vert \\vert x \\vert \\vert } \\cosh ( \\theta ) \\theta ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { c \\cosh ( \\theta ) } { 1 + e ^ { c \\sinh ( \\theta ) / 2 \\vert \\vert x \\vert \\vert } } ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "500c075d90558316d5382673a4a73a38282e3ce5b1edee369eb149d54b5a678b.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 26, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 172, + 450, + 438, + 459.6666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 172, + 459.6666666666667, + 438, + 469.33333333333337 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 172, + 469.33333333333337, + 438, + 479.00000000000006 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 27 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 483, + 487, + 496 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 483, + 488, + 497 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 483, + 470, + 497 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where the first equality used the system of equations Eq. 11. This gives us the dynamics of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 470, + 485, + 476, + 494 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\theta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 477, + 483, + 488, + 497 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 254, + 501, + 356, + 527 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 501, + 356, + 527 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 501, + 356, + 527 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "\\theta ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { 2 \\| x \\| } { 1 + e ^ { c \\sinh ( \\theta ) / 2 \\| x \\| } } ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "13eb422b1447a927b0c88f0a4061fa7566dae26f5099d19437bcea4ed33b7374.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 29, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 501, + 356, + 527 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 29 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 532, + 505, + 558 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 102, + 528, + 504, + 553 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 102, + 528, + 207, + 553 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with an initial condition", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 207, + 532, + 309, + 550 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\theta _ { 0 } = \\cosh ^ { - 1 } \\bigl ( \\frac { y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } + \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } } { c } \\bigr )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 310, + 528, + 351, + 553 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". For any", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 351, + 537, + 386, + 549 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\theta _ { f } \\geq \\theta _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 386, + 528, + 438, + 553 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we see that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 439, + 536, + 504, + 549 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "t = \\theta ^ { < - 1 > } ( \\theta _ { f } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 547, + 139, + 559 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 547, + 139, + 559 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "verifies", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 30.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 241, + 555, + 370, + 585 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 241, + 555, + 370, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 241, + 555, + 370, + 585 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "t = \\int _ { \\theta _ { 0 } } ^ { \\theta _ { f } } \\frac { 1 + e ^ { c \\sinh ( \\theta ) / 2 \\| x \\| } } { 2 \\| x \\| } d \\theta .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "4611bda35cce91ad17a93901ed57ac5489bd0a0b7073aa8c2cb822bc1cf21a04.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 32.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 241, + 555, + 370, + 570.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 241, + 570.0, + 370, + 585.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 33 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 587, + 505, + 632 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 587, + 505, + 599 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 587, + 505, + 599 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "There is no closed-form solution for that integral (that we know of). It can however be computed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 598, + 506, + 611 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 598, + 391, + 611 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "numerically. On Fig. 2 Right of the main text, we plot the curves for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 392, + 600, + 401, + 610 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 402, + 598, + 421, + 611 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 421, + 598, + 452, + 610 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\sigma ( z _ { t } y _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 453, + 598, + 506, + 611 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for different", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 609, + 505, + 623 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 609, + 144, + 623 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "values of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 611, + 150, + 619 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 150, + 609, + 167, + 623 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 610, + 183, + 622 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\lVert x \\rVert", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 184, + 609, + 505, + 623 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We obtain a sigmoidal shape similar to previously made empirical observations.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 620, + 505, + 633 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 620, + 295, + 633 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We notice in particular that for larger values of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 296, + 621, + 312, + 632 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\lVert x \\rVert", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 312, + 620, + 432, + 633 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the function converges faster.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 494, + 621, + 505, + 631 + ], + "score": 0.998, + "content": "□", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "index": 35.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 646, + 269, + 657 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 646, + 270, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 646, + 270, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.4 Extension to h hidden neurons", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 506, + 701 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 667, + 505, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 667, + 349, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We now extend the result from Theorem 3.2 to the case with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 349, + 668, + 356, + 677 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "h", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 356, + 667, + 505, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "hidden neurons. Let us still consider", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 505, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 187, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "an update made on", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 678, + 221, + 689 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 221, + 677, + 505, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We know from assumptions and by Lemma 3.1 that the only active", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 689, + 487, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 689, + 260, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "neurons in the network are indexed by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 261, + 691, + 271, + 700 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\mathcal { T } _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 689, + 487, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The network weights follow the evolution equations:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 705, + 438, + 736 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 705, + 438, + 736 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 705, + 438, + 736 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "( w _ { t } ^ { i } ) ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { x ^ { T } z _ { t } ^ { i } } { 1 + e ^ { \\sum _ { j \\in \\cal { Z } _ { 1 } } z _ { t } ^ { j } w _ { t } ^ { j } x } } , \\qquad ( z _ { t } ^ { i } ) ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { w _ { t } ^ { i } x } { e ^ { \\sum _ { j \\in \\cal { Z } _ { 1 } } z _ { t } ^ { j } w _ { t } ^ { j } x } } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "c73fb821fb2dc390bd6e709078f100de4cc951de17e61fc3e182b418ac8eee63.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 43, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 705, + 438, + 715.3333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 715.3333333333334, + 438, + 725.6666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 725.6666666666667, + 438, + 736.0000000000001 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 44 + } + ] + } + ], + "page_idx": 13, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 300, + 751, + 311, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 313, + 764 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 313, + 764 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "14", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 307, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 25, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 25, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 505, + 138 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 259, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the degeneracy assumption becomes", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 82, + 319, + 95 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "y _ { 0 } = - \\| x \\| z _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 319, + 82, + 429, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(we know from (H2) that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 430, + 83, + 462, + 94 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "y _ { 0 } > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 463, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 93, + 148, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(H3) that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 149, + 94, + 184, + 105 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "z _ { \\mathrm { 0 } } ~ < ~ 0 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 184, + 93, + 325, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". It can be shown similarly that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 325, + 93, + 379, + 105 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "v ( t ) : = z _ { t } y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 380, + 93, + 470, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "verifies the equation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 470, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "v ^ { \\prime } ( t ) =", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 104, + 505, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 105, + 175, + 117 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "2 \\| x \\| v ( t ) \\sigma ( v ( t ) )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 104, + 392, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a negative initial condition. In other words,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 392, + 107, + 400, + 115 + ], + "score": 0.72, + "content": "u", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 400, + 104, + 421, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 421, + 106, + 428, + 114 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "v", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 428, + 104, + 505, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "follow symmetric", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 505, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 331, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trajectories on the positive/negative real line. Below,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 332, + 117, + 339, + 125 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "\\bar { u }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 339, + 115, + 360, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 360, + 117, + 367, + 125 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "\\bar { v }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 115, + 505, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote those two trajectories for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 126, + 310, + 140 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 126, + 142, + 139 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\| { \\boldsymbol x } \\| = 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 126, + 229, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and initial conditions", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 127, + 259, + 138 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "u _ { 0 } > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 260, + 126, + 277, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 277, + 127, + 306, + 138 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "v _ { 0 } < 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 306, + 126, + 310, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 2, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 140 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 142, + 504, + 188 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 143, + 506, + 157 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 143, + 177, + 157 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Let us now write", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 177, + 143, + 239, + 155 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "p _ { 1 } = | D _ { 1 } | / | D |", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 239, + 143, + 435, + 157 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the fraction of points in the dataset belonging to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 436, + 144, + 449, + 154 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 450, + 143, + 506, + 157 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Because we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 153, + 505, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 153, + 347, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sample randomly from the dataset, this amounts to sampling", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 156, + 358, + 166 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "p _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 358, + 153, + 385, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(resp.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 385, + 155, + 415, + 165 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "1 - p _ { 1 } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 416, + 153, + 465, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "points from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 465, + 155, + 479, + 165 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 479, + 153, + 505, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(resp.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 505, + 178 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 165, + 121, + 177 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 121, + 165, + 386, + 178 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") for each time unit during training, ie to rescaling the time axis by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 387, + 167, + 397, + 177 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "p _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 397, + 165, + 412, + 178 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 412, + 166, + 426, + 176 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 426, + 165, + 444, + 178 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 444, + 166, + 472, + 177 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "1 - 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\\bar { v } ( \\| x \\| ( 1 - p _ { 1 } ) t ) ) \\qquad } & { \\mathrm { ~ i f ~ } x \\in D _ { 2 } , } \\end{array} \\right.", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "f9a3122f3e64a4abe14331a28b68f7cd0a7924b8dd4df4c317805ea59642abd7.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 10, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 192, + 439, + 202.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 202.0, + 439, + 212.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 212.0, + 439, + 222.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 11 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 227, + 254, + 239 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 225, + 255, + 240 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 225, + 228, + 240 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which concludes the proof for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 228, + 227, + 252, + 237 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "c = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 252, + 225, + 255, + 240 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 12, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 225, + 255, + 240 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 244, + 227, + 255 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 243, + 228, + 256 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 243, + 228, + 256 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "From Eq. 14, we also see that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 13, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 243, + 228, + 256 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 169, + 261, + 442, + 289 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 261, + 442, + 289 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 261, + 442, + 289 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "t = \\frac { 1 } { 2 \\| x \\| } \\int _ { u _ { 0 } } ^ { u _ { f } } \\frac { 1 + e ^ { y } } { y } d y \\ge \\frac { 1 } { 2 \\| x \\| } \\int _ { u _ { 0 } } ^ { u _ { f } } e ^ { \\frac { y } { 2 } } d y = \\frac { 1 } { \\| x \\| } \\big ( e ^ { \\frac { u _ { f } } { 2 } } - e ^ { \\frac { u _ { 0 } } { 2 } } \\big ) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "5df43a555faf250faac3387ff24f61625097cc1d56548c9d07a300a18b7c6487.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 15, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 261, + 442, + 270.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 270.3333333333333, + 442, + 279.66666666666663 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 279.66666666666663, + 442, + 288.99999999999994 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 16 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 295, + 380, + 308 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 294, + 381, + 310 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 294, + 225, + 310 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where we used the inequality", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 225, + 294, + 289, + 308 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\forall y \\geq 0 , e ^ { \\frac { y } { 2 } } > y", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 290, + 294, + 381, + 310 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". It eventually gives us", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 17, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 294, + 381, + 310 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 250, + 313, + 361, + 329 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 250, + 313, + 361, + 329 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 250, + 313, + 361, + 329 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "u ( t ) \\leq 2 \\log ( \\| x \\| t + e ^ { \\frac { u _ { 0 } } { 2 } } ) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "16c29009ac5e3a972124f947792cce46d2cec0881be5288e91c2020a5303e5f5.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 18, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 250, + 313, + 361, + 329 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 18 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 335, + 390, + 347 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 333, + 390, + 348 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 333, + 390, + 348 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a result in line with convergence rates obtained in Soudry et al. (2017).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 19, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 333, + 390, + 348 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 351, + 450, + 364 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 451, + 366 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 351, + 451, + 366 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Let us now study the non-degenerate case. 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This gives us the dynamics of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 470, + 485, + 476, + 494 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\theta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 477, + 483, + 488, + 497 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 28, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 483, + 488, + 497 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 254, + 501, + 356, + 527 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 501, + 356, + 527 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 501, + 356, + 527 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "\\theta ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { 2 \\| x \\| } { 1 + e ^ { c \\sinh ( \\theta ) / 2 \\| x \\| } } ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "13eb422b1447a927b0c88f0a4061fa7566dae26f5099d19437bcea4ed33b7374.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 29, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 501, + 356, + 527 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 29 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 532, + 505, + 558 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 102, + 528, + 504, + 553 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 102, + 528, + 207, + 553 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with an initial condition", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 207, + 532, + 309, + 550 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\theta _ { 0 } = \\cosh ^ { - 1 } \\bigl ( \\frac { y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } + \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } } { c } \\bigr )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 310, + 528, + 351, + 553 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". For any", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 351, + 537, + 386, + 549 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\theta _ { f } \\geq \\theta _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 386, + 528, + 438, + 553 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we see that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 439, + 536, + 504, + 549 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "t = \\theta ^ { < - 1 > } ( \\theta _ { f } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 547, + 139, + 559 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 547, + 139, + 559 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "verifies", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 30.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 102, + 528, + 504, + 559 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 241, + 555, + 370, + 585 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 241, + 555, + 370, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 241, + 555, + 370, + 585 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "t = \\int _ { \\theta _ { 0 } } ^ { \\theta _ { f } } \\frac { 1 + e ^ { c \\sinh ( \\theta ) / 2 \\| x \\| } } { 2 \\| x \\| } d \\theta .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "4611bda35cce91ad17a93901ed57ac5489bd0a0b7073aa8c2cb822bc1cf21a04.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 32.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 241, + 555, + 370, + 570.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 241, + 570.0, + 370, + 585.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 33 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 587, + 505, + 632 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 587, + 505, + 599 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 587, + 505, + 599 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "There is no closed-form solution for that integral (that we know of). It can however be computed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 598, + 506, + 611 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 598, + 391, + 611 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "numerically. On Fig. 2 Right of the main text, we plot the curves for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 392, + 600, + 401, + 610 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 402, + 598, + 421, + 611 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 421, + 598, + 452, + 610 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\sigma ( z _ { t } y _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 453, + 598, + 506, + 611 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for different", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 609, + 505, + 623 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 609, + 144, + 623 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "values of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 611, + 150, + 619 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 150, + 609, + 167, + 623 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 610, + 183, + 622 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\lVert x \\rVert", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 184, + 609, + 505, + 623 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We obtain a sigmoidal shape similar to previously made empirical observations.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 620, + 505, + 633 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 620, + 295, + 633 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We notice in particular that for larger values of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 296, + 621, + 312, + 632 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\lVert x \\rVert", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 312, + 620, + 432, + 633 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the function converges faster.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 494, + 621, + 505, + 631 + ], + "score": 0.998, + "content": "□", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "index": 35.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 587, + 506, + 633 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 646, + 269, + 657 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 646, + 270, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 646, + 270, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.4 Extension to h hidden neurons", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 666, + 506, + 701 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 667, + 505, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 667, + 349, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We now extend the result from Theorem 3.2 to the case with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 349, + 668, + 356, + 677 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "h", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 356, + 667, + 505, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "hidden neurons. Let us still consider", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 505, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 677, + 187, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "an update made on", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 678, + 221, + 689 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 221, + 677, + 505, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We know from assumptions and by Lemma 3.1 that the only active", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 689, + 487, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 689, + 260, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "neurons in the network are indexed by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 261, + 691, + 271, + 700 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\mathcal { T } _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 689, + 487, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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The dynamics of the logit", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 218, + 505, + 231 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 218, + 505, + 231 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in this case are identical to the single active neuron case, the only difference is potentially its initial", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 229, + 134, + 242 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 229, + 134, + 242 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "value.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 257, + 236, + 268 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 255, + 237, + 270 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 255, + 237, + 270 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.5 Proof of Corollary 3.3", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 278, + 505, + 318 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 278, + 504, + 291 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 278, + 187, + 291 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Corollary 3.3 Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 187, + 280, + 194, + 289 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "\\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 194, + 278, + 417, + 291 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be the required accuracy on the classification task (i.e.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 417, + 279, + 504, + 291 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "P _ { t } ( x \\in D _ { 1 } ) \\geq 1 - \\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 289, + 505, + 303 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 289, + 120, + 303 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 290, + 152, + 301 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 289, + 309, + 303 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "). 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More precisely, let us assume that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 400, + 349, + 442, + 361 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "u _ { 0 } \\leq | v _ { 0 } |", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 443, + 348, + 506, + 362 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and look for a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 357, + 504, + 374 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 357, + 216, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "classification confidence of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 217, + 360, + 237, + 370 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "1 - \\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 237, + 357, + 280, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We write", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 359, + 426, + 372 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\dot { u } _ { f } = \\sigma ^ { \\dot { < } - 1 > } ( 1 - \\delta ) = \\log ( 1 / \\delta - 1 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 426, + 357, + 429, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 430, + 359, + 504, + 372 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "t _ { v } = \\bar { u } ^ { < - 1 > } ( | v _ { 0 } | )", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 371, + 124, + 382 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 371, + 124, + 382 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + } + ], + "index": 16.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 153, + 381, + 457, + 408 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 381, + 457, + 408 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 381, + 457, + 408 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "t ^ { * } = \\bar { u } ^ { < - 1 > } ( u _ { f } ) = \\frac { 1 } { 2 } ( \\log ( \\frac { \\log ( 1 / \\delta - 1 ) } { u _ { 0 } } ) + E i ( \\log ( 1 / \\delta - 1 ) ) - E i ( u _ { 0 } ) ) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "28409040e8cbe5aff0f39b4853754259e5de4d2dd8b313161d7b9c7cf953acbd.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 19, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 381, + 457, + 408 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 19 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 412, + 505, + 435 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 412, + 504, + 424 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 414, + 115, + 423 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "t ^ { * }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 412, + 299, + 424 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "represents the time taken to reach confidence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 300, + 414, + 306, + 423 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 306, + 412, + 392, + 424 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with an initialization", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 392, + 415, + 403, + 424 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "u _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 404, + 412, + 424, + 424 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 425, + 414, + 434, + 424 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "t _ { v }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 434, + 412, + 504, + 424 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the time to reach", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 424, + 227, + 436 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 426, + 117, + 435 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "v _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 117, + 424, + 161, + 436 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "starting in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 161, + 425, + 172, + 435 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "u _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 172, + 424, + 227, + 436 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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We consider a batch update on the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 158, + 282, + 171 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 158, + 282, + 171 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "weights of the neural network. In that case:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 2.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 192, + 174, + 418, + 207 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 174, + 418, + 207 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 174, + 418, + 207 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( y _ { t } ^ { i } ) ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { \\| x _ { i } \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } y _ { t } ^ { i } } } , \\ ~ ( z _ { t } ) ^ { \\prime } = \\sum _ { i = 1 } ^ { m } \\frac { y _ { t } ^ { i } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } y _ { t } ^ { i } } } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "5f02f81eb7f6584d0f11d9c2c29b9b6da50a2c9bd00a05471b3f39cccaed9a5e.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 6.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 174, + 418, + 190.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 190.5, + 418, + 207.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 7 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 213, + 504, + 245 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 212, + 505, + 226 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 212, + 343, + 226 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Assuming that the vectors all have the same norm (denoted", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 213, + 360, + 225 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\lVert x \\rVert", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 360, + 212, + 439, + 226 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "below) and that the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 440, + 213, + 450, + 225 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "y _ { 0 } ^ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 451, + 212, + 505, + 226 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are all equal,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 224, + 506, + 236 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 224, + 464, + 236 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "then that equality remains true at all time (they follow the same update equation). We let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 465, + 226, + 474, + 235 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 475, + 224, + 506, + 236 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 234, + 151, + 248 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 234, + 151, + 248 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that value:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 200, + 242, + 411, + 269 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 242, + 411, + 269 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 242, + 411, + 269 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( y _ { t } ) ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } y _ { t } } } , \\qquad ( z _ { t } ) ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { m y _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } y _ { t } } } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "59a6cfa5e0d333b307b2940859377b3a5d0c9b96e2e4f1517c3e5ab5175befa6.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 11, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 242, + 411, + 269 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 11 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 271, + 506, + 303 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 506, + 285 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 283, + 285 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A new invariant appears in those equations:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 284, + 271, + 370, + 284 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "c : = | m y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } - \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } |", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 270, + 419, + 285 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". In the case", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 420, + 272, + 443, + 282 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "c = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 444, + 270, + 506, + 285 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(the other case", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 282, + 505, + 295 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 282, + 505, + 295 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be treated as above), we obtain the following evolution equation for the logit of any point in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 292, + 133, + 306 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 292, + 133, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "class:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 257, + 301, + 354, + 327 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 301, + 354, + 327 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 301, + 354, + 327 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "u ^ { \\prime } ( t ) = \\frac { 2 \\sqrt { m } \\lVert x \\rVert u ( t ) } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "f3669bfe1e3864575e0d1ca9d73ce3aeef0caa9bc9cf8a063f9bac77a4ca0f62.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 15, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 301, + 354, + 327 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 15 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 330, + 506, + 407 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 329, + 505, + 343 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 329, + 340, + 343 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We end up with a similar equation than before except for the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 341, + 330, + 359, + 342 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\sqrt { m }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 359, + 329, + 505, + 343 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "factor, which boosts the convergence", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 505, + 354 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 342, + 463, + 354 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "speed. However, one should not forget that we are now training on a full batch (i.e. on", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 463, + 343, + 473, + 351 + ], + "score": 0.68, + "content": "m", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 474, + 342, + 505, + 354 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "points)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 506, + 365 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 506, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "during each unit of time. Performing the same number of updates for the single point class would√", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 505, + 375 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 149, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "generate a", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 150, + 365, + 160, + 373 + ], + "score": 0.72, + "content": "m", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 160, + 363, + 299, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "factor in the convergence speed of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 300, + 365, + 307, + 373 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "u", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 307, + 363, + 328, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(one", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 329, + 363, + 347, + 375 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\sqrt { m }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 363, + 407, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "factor for each", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 408, + 365, + 415, + 375 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "y", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 415, + 363, + 432, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 433, + 365, + 439, + 373 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "z", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 439, + 363, + 505, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "functions). The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 373, + 506, + 388 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 373, + 506, + 388 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "slower convergence for the more general case can be explained by the fact that each point is making", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 506, + 397 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 161, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "an update on", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 161, + 387, + 173, + 396 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "w _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 385, + 506, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in its own direction. That direction being orthogonal to all others points makes it", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 228, + 407 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 228, + 407 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "useless for their classification.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 421, + 247, + 432 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 419, + 248, + 434 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 419, + 248, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.8 Relaxing assumption (H2)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 441, + 282, + 453 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 284, + 455 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 284, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Let us first recall that the assumption states:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 475, + 505, + 519 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 474, + 504, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 474, + 194, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We now assume that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 194, + 475, + 221, + 485 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "h = 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 474, + 385, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and study the evolution of the first row", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 385, + 474, + 398, + 487 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "w _ { t } ^ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 398, + 474, + 441, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of matrix", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 442, + 476, + 455, + 486 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "W _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 455, + 474, + 492, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", written", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 492, + 478, + 504, + 486 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "w _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 506, + 499 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 268, + 499 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the following. We relax assumption", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 487, + 287, + 497 + ], + "score": 0.32, + "content": "( \\mathrm { H } 2 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 287, + 486, + 425, + 499 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by assuming that there is a point", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 426, + 488, + 437, + 497 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "x _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 438, + 486, + 450, + 499 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 450, + 487, + 464, + 497 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 465, + 486, + 506, + 499 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "such that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 497, + 505, + 510 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 498, + 144, + 508 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "w _ { 0 } x > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 497, + 263, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". And we consider updates to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 264, + 499, + 275, + 508 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "w _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 276, + 497, + 402, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "coming from sampling equally", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 498, + 414, + 508 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "x _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 414, + 497, + 438, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 438, + 498, + 451, + 508 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 452, + 497, + 470, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 470, + 498, + 482, + 508 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "x _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 482, + 497, + 505, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 509, + 294, + 520 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 509, + 120, + 519 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 509, + 294, + 520 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The evolution equations can be written as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 26.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 132, + 524, + 479, + 551 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 524, + 479, + 551 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 524, + 479, + 551 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "w _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { x _ { 1 } ^ { T } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } w _ { t } x _ { 1 } } } - \\frac { x _ { 2 } ^ { T } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { - z _ { t } w _ { t } x _ { 2 } } } , \\qquad z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { w _ { t } x _ { 1 } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } w _ { t } x _ { 1 } } } - \\frac { w _ { t } x _ { 2 } } { 1 + e ^ { - z _ { t } w _ { t } x _ { 2 } } } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "4df96ec0298a36fd55bc6593391bc4edc4d99743678895506be9e57a73c4fab4.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 29, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 524, + 479, + 551 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 29 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 556, + 507, + 591 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 556, + 506, + 570 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 556, + 338, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In order to make the analysis simpler, we assume that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 338, + 556, + 384, + 569 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "x _ { 1 } ^ { T } x _ { 2 } = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 384, + 556, + 435, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We write", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 436, + 559, + 485, + 568 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } ~ = ~ w _ { t } x _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 486, + 556, + 506, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 567, + 506, + 581 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 568, + 151, + 579 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\beta _ { t } = w _ { t } x _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 152, + 567, + 234, + 581 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Any component of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 569, + 247, + 579 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "w _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 248, + 567, + 325, + 581 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "orthogonal to both", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 325, + 570, + 336, + 579 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "x _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 337, + 567, + 355, + 581 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 355, + 570, + 367, + 579 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "x _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 567, + 506, + 581 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "will be untouched by the updates,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 578, + 425, + 591 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 578, + 425, + 591 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and does not affect the classification performance of the network. This gives us", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 139, + 595, + 471, + 622 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 139, + 595, + 471, + 622 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 139, + 595, + 471, + 622 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } \\alpha _ { t } } } , \\qquad \\beta _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = - \\frac { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { - z _ { t } \\beta _ { t } } } , \\qquad z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { \\alpha _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } \\alpha _ { t } } } - \\frac { \\beta _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { - z _ { t } \\beta _ { t } } } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "7016df6bea7feefcceee7f7f981914ff2c496a97e0d3d7a1cf8686c7a0fa90d5.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 33, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 139, + 595, + 471, + 622 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 33 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 631, + 505, + 666 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 631, + 505, + 645 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 631, + 234, + 645 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "By assumption, we know that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 235, + 632, + 284, + 644 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\alpha _ { 0 } , \\beta _ { 0 } \\ > \\ 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 284, + 631, + 505, + 645 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The system of ODEs (23) is invariant through the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 643, + 505, + 655 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 643, + 168, + 655 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "transformation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 643, + 281, + 655 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( \\alpha _ { t } , \\beta _ { t } , z _ { t } ) ( \\beta _ { t } , \\alpha _ { t } , - z _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 281, + 643, + 421, + 655 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "so it is sufficient to study the case", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 422, + 644, + 452, + 654 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "z _ { 0 } \\geq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 452, + 643, + 505, + 655 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Let us now", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 256, + 666 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 256, + 666 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state the theorem from the main text.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 669, + 505, + 715 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 669, + 505, + 685 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 669, + 199, + 685 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Theorem 3.4. Letting", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 199, + 670, + 336, + 684 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "c : = \\alpha _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } / \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } + \\beta _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } / \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } - z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 337, + 669, + 477, + 685 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the solutions of (23) verify for all", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 477, + 671, + 501, + 682 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "t \\geq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 501, + 669, + 505, + 685 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 690, + 506, + 706 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 691, + 238, + 704 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\lVert x _ { 1 } \\rVert ^ { 2 } + \\beta _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\lVert x _ { 2 } \\rVert ^ { 2 } - z _ { t } ^ { 2 } = c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 238, + 690, + 506, + 706 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". In other terms, they live on hyperboloids (see Fig. 3 from the main", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 702, + 173, + 716 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 702, + 173, + 716 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "text and Fig. 6).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "page_idx": 15, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 120, + 721, + 245, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 720, + 245, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 720, + 215, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1This implies in particular", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 722, + 242, + 731 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "m \\leq d", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 242, + 720, + 245, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 300, + 751, + 311, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 313, + 764 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 313, + 764 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "16", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 83, + 317, + 93 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 319, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 319, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.7 Relaxing the single datapoint assumption", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 307, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 25, + 307, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 25, + 307, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 102, + 505, + 169 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 103, + 505, + 115 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 103, + 505, + 115 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "One of the major assumptions made in the main text is the fact that each class contains a single", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 113, + 506, + 127 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 113, + 410, + 127 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "element. In this section, we slightly relax it to the case where the points", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 411, + 113, + 492, + 126 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "( \\{ x _ { i } \\} _ { 1 \\leq i \\leq m } \\subset \\mathbb { R } ^ { d } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 492, + 113, + 506, + 127 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 123, + 506, + 138 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 123, + 506, + 138 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a class are all orthogonal to one another1 (while still verifying Assumption (H1)). In that case,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 135, + 506, + 148 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 135, + 320, + 148 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "each presentation of a training vector will only affect", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 320, + 137, + 332, + 147 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "w _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 333, + 135, + 506, + 148 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the direction of that specific vector. Let", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 146, + 506, + 160 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 146, + 117, + 159 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "y _ { t } ^ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 117, + 146, + 147, + 160 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 148, + 148, + 169, + 158 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "w _ { t } x _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 146, + 306, + 160 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the unnormalized component of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 306, + 149, + 318, + 158 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "w _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 318, + 146, + 344, + 160 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "along", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 345, + 149, + 355, + 158 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "x _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 355, + 146, + 506, + 160 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We consider a batch update on the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 158, + 282, + 171 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 158, + 282, + 171 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "weights of the neural network. In that case:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 2.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 103, + 506, + 171 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 192, + 174, + 418, + 207 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 174, + 418, + 207 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 174, + 418, + 207 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( y _ { t } ^ { i } ) ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { \\| x _ { i } \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } y _ { t } ^ { i } } } , \\ ~ ( z _ { t } ) ^ { \\prime } = \\sum _ { i = 1 } ^ { m } \\frac { y _ { t } ^ { i } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } y _ { t } ^ { i } } } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "5f02f81eb7f6584d0f11d9c2c29b9b6da50a2c9bd00a05471b3f39cccaed9a5e.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 6.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 174, + 418, + 190.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 190.5, + 418, + 207.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 7 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 213, + 504, + 245 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 212, + 505, + 226 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 212, + 343, + 226 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Assuming that the vectors all have the same norm (denoted", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 213, + 360, + 225 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\lVert x \\rVert", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 360, + 212, + 439, + 226 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "below) and that the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 440, + 213, + 450, + 225 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "y _ { 0 } ^ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 451, + 212, + 505, + 226 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are all equal,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 224, + 506, + 236 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 224, + 464, + 236 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "then that equality remains true at all time (they follow the same update equation). We let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 465, + 226, + 474, + 235 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 475, + 224, + 506, + 236 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 234, + 151, + 248 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 234, + 151, + 248 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that value:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 9, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 212, + 506, + 248 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 200, + 242, + 411, + 269 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 242, + 411, + 269 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 242, + 411, + 269 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( y _ { t } ) ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } y _ { t } } } , \\qquad ( z _ { t } ) ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { m y _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } y _ { t } } } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "59a6cfa5e0d333b307b2940859377b3a5d0c9b96e2e4f1517c3e5ab5175befa6.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 11, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 242, + 411, + 269 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 11 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 271, + 506, + 303 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 506, + 285 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 283, + 285 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A new invariant appears in those equations:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 284, + 271, + 370, + 284 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "c : = | m y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } - \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } |", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 270, + 419, + 285 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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However, one should not forget that we are now training on a full batch (i.e. on", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 463, + 343, + 473, + 351 + ], + "score": 0.68, + "content": "m", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 474, + 342, + 505, + 354 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "points)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 506, + 365 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 352, + 506, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "during each unit of time. Performing the same number of updates for the single point class would√", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 505, + 375 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 149, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "generate a", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 150, + 365, + 160, + 373 + ], + "score": 0.72, + "content": "m", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 160, + 363, + 299, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "factor in the convergence speed of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 300, + 365, + 307, + 373 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "u", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 307, + 363, + 328, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(one", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 329, + 363, + 347, + 375 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\sqrt { m }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 347, + 363, + 407, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "factor for each", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 408, + 365, + 415, + 375 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "y", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 415, + 363, + 432, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 433, + 365, + 439, + 373 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "z", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 439, + 363, + 505, + 375 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "functions). The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 373, + 506, + 388 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 373, + 506, + 388 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "slower convergence for the more general case can be explained by the fact that each point is making", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 506, + 397 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 161, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "an update on", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 161, + 387, + 173, + 396 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "w _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 385, + 506, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in its own direction. That direction being orthogonal to all others points makes it", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 228, + 407 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 228, + 407 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "useless for their classification.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 19, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 329, + 506, + 407 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 421, + 247, + 432 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 419, + 248, + 434 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 419, + 248, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A.8 Relaxing assumption (H2)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 441, + 282, + 453 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 284, + 455 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 284, + 455 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Let us first recall that the assumption states:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 24, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 439, + 284, + 455 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 475, + 505, + 519 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 474, + 504, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 474, + 194, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We now assume that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 194, + 475, + 221, + 485 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "h = 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 474, + 385, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and study the evolution of the first row", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 385, + 474, + 398, + 487 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "w _ { t } ^ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 398, + 474, + 441, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of matrix", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 442, + 476, + 455, + 486 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "W _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 455, + 474, + 492, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", written", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 492, + 478, + 504, + 486 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "w _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 506, + 499 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 268, + 499 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the following. We relax assumption", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 487, + 287, + 497 + ], + "score": 0.32, + "content": "( \\mathrm { H } 2 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 287, + 486, + 425, + 499 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by assuming that there is a point", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 426, + 488, + 437, + 497 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "x _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 438, + 486, + 450, + 499 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 450, + 487, + 464, + 497 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 465, + 486, + 506, + 499 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "such that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 497, + 505, + 510 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 498, + 144, + 508 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "w _ { 0 } x > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 497, + 263, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". And we consider updates to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 264, + 499, + 275, + 508 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "w _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 276, + 497, + 402, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "coming from sampling equally", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 498, + 414, + 508 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "x _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 414, + 497, + 438, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 438, + 498, + 451, + 508 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 452, + 497, + 470, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 470, + 498, + 482, + 508 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "x _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 482, + 497, + 505, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 509, + 294, + 520 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 509, + 120, + 519 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "D _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 120, + 509, + 294, + 520 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The evolution equations can be written as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 26.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 474, + 506, + 520 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 132, + 524, + 479, + 551 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 524, + 479, + 551 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 524, + 479, + 551 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "w _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { x _ { 1 } ^ { T } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } w _ { t } x _ { 1 } } } - \\frac { x _ { 2 } ^ { T } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { - z _ { t } w _ { t } x _ { 2 } } } , \\qquad z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { w _ { t } x _ { 1 } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } w _ { t } x _ { 1 } } } - \\frac { w _ { t } x _ { 2 } } { 1 + e ^ { - z _ { t } w _ { t } x _ { 2 } } } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "4df96ec0298a36fd55bc6593391bc4edc4d99743678895506be9e57a73c4fab4.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 29, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 524, + 479, + 551 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 29 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 556, + 507, + 591 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 556, + 506, + 570 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 556, + 338, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In order to make the analysis simpler, we assume that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 338, + 556, + 384, + 569 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "x _ { 1 } ^ { T } x _ { 2 } = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 384, + 556, + 435, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We write", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 436, + 559, + 485, + 568 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } ~ = ~ w _ { t } x _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 486, + 556, + 506, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 567, + 506, + 581 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 568, + 151, + 579 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\beta _ { t } = w _ { t } x _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 152, + 567, + 234, + 581 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Any component of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 234, + 569, + 247, + 579 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "w _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 248, + 567, + 325, + 581 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "orthogonal to both", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 325, + 570, + 336, + 579 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "x _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 337, + 567, + 355, + 581 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 355, + 570, + 367, + 579 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "x _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 567, + 506, + 581 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "will be untouched by the updates,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 578, + 425, + 591 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 578, + 425, + 591 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and does not affect the classification performance of the network. This gives us", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 31, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 556, + 506, + 591 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 139, + 595, + 471, + 622 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 139, + 595, + 471, + 622 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 139, + 595, + 471, + 622 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } \\alpha _ { t } } } , \\qquad \\beta _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = - \\frac { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { - z _ { t } \\beta _ { t } } } , \\qquad z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { \\alpha _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { z _ { t } \\alpha _ { t } } } - \\frac { \\beta _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { - z _ { t } \\beta _ { t } } } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "7016df6bea7feefcceee7f7f981914ff2c496a97e0d3d7a1cf8686c7a0fa90d5.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 33, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 139, + 595, + 471, + 622 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 33 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 631, + 505, + 666 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 631, + 505, + 645 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 631, + 234, + 645 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "By assumption, we know that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 235, + 632, + 284, + 644 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\alpha _ { 0 } , \\beta _ { 0 } \\ > \\ 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 284, + 631, + 505, + 645 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The system of ODEs (23) is invariant through the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 643, + 505, + 655 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 643, + 168, + 655 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "transformation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 643, + 281, + 655 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( \\alpha _ { t } , \\beta _ { t } , z _ { t } ) ( \\beta _ { t } , \\alpha _ { t } , - z _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 281, + 643, + 421, + 655 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "so it is sufficient to study the case", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 422, + 644, + 452, + 654 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "z _ { 0 } \\geq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 452, + 643, + 505, + 655 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Let us now", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 256, + 666 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 256, + 666 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state the theorem from the main text.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 35, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 631, + 505, + 666 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 669, + 505, + 715 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 669, + 505, + 685 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 669, + 199, + 685 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Theorem 3.4. Letting", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 199, + 670, + 336, + 684 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "c : = \\alpha _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } / \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } + \\beta _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } / \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } - z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 337, + 669, + 477, + 685 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the solutions of (23) verify for all", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 477, + 671, + 501, + 682 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "t \\geq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 501, + 669, + 505, + 685 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 690, + 506, + 706 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 691, + 238, + 704 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\lVert x _ { 1 } \\rVert ^ { 2 } + \\beta _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\lVert x _ { 2 } \\rVert ^ { 2 } - z _ { t } ^ { 2 } = c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 238, + 690, + 506, + 706 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". In other terms, they live on hyperboloids (see Fig. 3 from the main", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 702, + 173, + 716 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 702, + 173, + 716 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "text and Fig. 6).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 38, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 669, + 506, + 716 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 223, + 106, + 419, + 223 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 223, + 106, + 419, + 223 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 106, + 419, + 223 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 106, + 419, + 223 + ], + "score": 0.946, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "85075fed02f7104e2e1e5dacff6afb0c13c8754e89745ac3c6b72e0917c8ef6c.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 3.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 106, + 419, + 120.625 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 120.625, + 419, + 135.25 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 135.25, + 419, + 149.875 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 149.875, + 419, + 164.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 164.5, + 419, + 179.125 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 179.125, + 419, + 193.75 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 193.75, + 419, + 208.375 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 208.375, + 419, + 223.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 7 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 245, + 506, + 291 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 246, + 505, + 258 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 246, + 397, + 258 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 6: Solutions of the ODE system for different initializations and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 397, + 247, + 430, + 257 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "c = - 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 431, + 246, + 505, + 258 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Trajectories live", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 257, + 506, + 269 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 257, + 433, + 269 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on a hyperboloid of two sheets. Any initialization on that surface will result in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 433, + 258, + 444, + 268 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 444, + 257, + 506, + 269 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaching 0, or", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 267, + 506, + 281 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 267, + 201, + 281 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in other terms in class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 268, + 216, + 279 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 267, + 506, + 281 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prevailing. This curve and Fig. 3 from the main text are plotted with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 279, + 185, + 292 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 279, + 180, + 291 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\| x _ { 1 } \\| = \\| x _ { 2 } \\| = 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 279, + 185, + 292 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 9.5 + } + ], + "index": 6.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 312, + 504, + 336 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 312, + 505, + 325 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 312, + 115, + 325 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 313, + 139, + 324 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "c \\leq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 139, + 312, + 142, + 325 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 313, + 153, + 324 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 312, + 374, + 325 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches 0 at some point during training (see Fig. 6). If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 374, + 314, + 398, + 324 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "c > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 398, + 312, + 480, + 325 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", there exists a curve", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 481, + 314, + 491, + 324 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\mathcal { C } _ { c }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 492, + 312, + 505, + 325 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 323, + 421, + 337 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 323, + 221, + 337 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the hyperboloid such that as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 325, + 259, + 334 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "t \\to + \\infty", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 260, + 323, + 348, + 337 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", for any initialization", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 324, + 416, + 336 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( \\alpha _ { 0 } , \\beta _ { 0 } , z _ { 0 } ) \\in \\mathcal { C } _ { c }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 417, + 323, + 421, + 337 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ":", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 12.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 125, + 341, + 486, + 368 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 341, + 486, + 368 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 341, + 486, + 368 + ], + "score": 0.95, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } \\to ( \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } } + \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } } ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \\sqrt { c } , \\qquad \\beta _ { t } \\to ( \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } } + \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } } ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \\sqrt { c } , \\qquad z _ { t } \\to 0 .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "3d581d6389afc156a7f2ef1731bb6fefd0a56c644d8cdeb934e75d953cdecbab.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 14, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 341, + 486, + 368 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 14 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 372, + 503, + 396 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 372, + 504, + 385 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 372, + 504, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "That curve defines two regions of the initialization space. In one (colored yellow on Fig. 3 Left),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 477, + 396 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 179, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trajectories verify", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 179, + 384, + 209, + 395 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 209, + 383, + 246, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for some", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 247, + 385, + 252, + 394 + ], + "score": 0.64, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 252, + 383, + 367, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", in the other (colored green)", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 384, + 378, + 395 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 378, + 383, + 477, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches 0 at some point.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 15.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 408, + 504, + 443 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 408, + 502, + 423 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 408, + 338, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. It is easy to see from the system of ODEs (23) that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 338, + 409, + 502, + 422 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( \\alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } ) ^ { \\prime } / \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } + ( \\beta _ { t } ^ { 2 } ) ^ { \\prime } / \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } - ( z _ { t } ^ { 2 } ) ^ { \\prime } = 0 ,", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 418, + 506, + 434 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 418, + 257, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which directly gives the invariance of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 420, + 370, + 433 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\lVert x _ { 1 } \\rVert ^ { 2 } + \\beta _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\lVert x _ { 2 } \\rVert ^ { 2 } - z _ { t } ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 418, + 506, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". This implies that the trajectories", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 432, + 239, + 444 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 432, + 151, + 444 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( \\alpha _ { t } , \\beta _ { t } , z _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 152, + 432, + 239, + 444 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "live on hyperboloids.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 448, + 506, + 531 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 447, + 505, + 462 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 447, + 116, + 462 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 117, + 449, + 142, + 459 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "c < 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 143, + 447, + 481, + 462 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the hyperboloid has two sheets (see Fig. 6). In particular, the trajectories verify:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 482, + 448, + 505, + 460 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "z _ { t } ^ { 2 } =", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 457, + 506, + 473 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 459, + 242, + 471 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\lVert x _ { 1 } \\rVert ^ { 2 } + \\beta _ { t } ^ { 2 } \\hat { / } \\lVert x _ { 2 } \\rVert ^ { 2 } - c \\geq - c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 457, + 316, + 473 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which means that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 317, + 461, + 326, + 470 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 327, + 457, + 472, + 473 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is bounded away from 0. As long as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 473, + 460, + 501, + 471 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\beta _ { t } \\geq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 501, + 457, + 506, + 473 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 470, + 506, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 474, + 144, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we have", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 471, + 258, + 488 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\beta _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = - \\frac { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { - z _ { t } \\beta _ { t } } } \\leq \\frac { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } c } { 2 } } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 258, + 470, + 261, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 264, + 471, + 340, + 487 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This implies that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 340, + 474, + 351, + 486 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 352, + 471, + 506, + 487 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "will reach 0 in a finite time since it", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 504, + 499 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 493, + 499 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "decreases at a rate larger than a strictly positive number. At that point, the ReLU ensures that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 493, + 487, + 504, + 498 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 497, + 506, + 510 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 497, + 246, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "does not evolve anymore, and that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 246, + 498, + 256, + 509 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 497, + 326, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "’s contribution to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 327, + 499, + 337, + 509 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 337, + 497, + 506, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "disappears. The evolution equations turn", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 507, + 504, + 521 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 507, + 477, + 521 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "into the ones studied in the previous paragraphs, plotted as the green hyperbola in the plane", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 477, + 509, + 504, + 520 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\beta = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 518, + 146, + 533 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 518, + 146, + 533 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Fig. 6.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 534, + 504, + 559 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 534, + 506, + 550 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 534, + 116, + 550 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 117, + 537, + 142, + 546 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "c = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 534, + 204, + 550 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we know that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 205, + 535, + 436, + 549 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "z _ { t } ^ { 2 } = \\alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } + \\beta _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } \\geq \\alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } \\geq \\alpha _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } / \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 437, + 534, + 441, + 550 + ], + "score": 0.0, + "content": "", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 442, + 537, + 452, + 547 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "\\scriptstyle ( \\alpha _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 453, + 534, + 506, + 550 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "increases as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 546, + 348, + 560 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 546, + 137, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "long as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 137, + 549, + 147, + 558 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 546, + 310, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is positive), so the same argument about", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 311, + 548, + 320, + 559 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 321, + 546, + 348, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "holds.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 27.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 563, + 505, + 637 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 101, + 561, + 509, + 584 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 101, + 561, + 115, + 584 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 566, + 138, + 576 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "c > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 138, + 561, + 253, + 584 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", let us first note that the point", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 253, + 564, + 462, + 580 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\big ( \\big ( \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } } + \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } } \\big ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \\sqrt { c } , \\big ( \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } } + \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } } \\big ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \\sqrt { c } , 0 \\big ) } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 462, + 561, + 509, + 584 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "belongs to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 578, + 505, + 590 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 578, + 505, + 590 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the hyperboloid and is stationary (the three derivatives are 0). Classic results on ordinary differential", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 588, + 506, + 601 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 588, + 506, + 601 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "equations (Tenenbaum & Pollard, 1985) then give the result. Finding a closed-form solution to the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 599, + 505, + 613 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 599, + 143, + 613 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "shape of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 143, + 601, + 154, + 611 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\mathcal { C } _ { c }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 154, + 599, + 505, + 613 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is to the best of our knowledge impossible. One can however obtain an approximation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 608, + 504, + 629 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 608, + 201, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by considering a point", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 611, + 451, + 627 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\big ( \\big ( \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } } + \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } } \\big ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \\sqrt { c - \\epsilon } , \\big ( \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } } + \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } } \\big ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \\sqrt { c + \\epsilon } , 0 \\big ) } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 451, + 610, + 498, + 625 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for a small", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 498, + 614, + 504, + 622 + ], + "score": 0.65, + "content": "\\epsilon", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 623, + 502, + 639 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 623, + 477, + 639 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and applying finite difference methods to the evolution equations (23) to build the trajectory.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 497, + 628, + 502, + 632 + ], + "score": 0.0, + "content": "", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 31.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 662, + 309, + 675 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 660, + 310, + 677 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 660, + 310, + 677 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Appendix B: Deeper Neural Networks", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 687, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 331, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section we study the case of a deeper network with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 332, + 689, + 356, + 698 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "N - 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 357, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "hidden layers. Similarly to above, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can prove the existence of independent modes of learning. To that end, neurons need to be activated", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in a disjoint manner from one class to the other. 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Trajectories live", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 257, + 506, + 269 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 257, + 433, + 269 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on a hyperboloid of two sheets. Any initialization on that surface will result in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 433, + 258, + 444, + 268 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 444, + 257, + 506, + 269 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaching 0, or", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 267, + 506, + 281 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 267, + 201, + 281 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in other terms in class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 268, + 216, + 279 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 267, + 506, + 281 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prevailing. 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If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 374, + 314, + 398, + 324 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "c > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 398, + 312, + 480, + 325 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", there exists a curve", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 481, + 314, + 491, + 324 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\mathcal { C } _ { c }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 492, + 312, + 505, + 325 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 323, + 421, + 337 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 323, + 221, + 337 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the hyperboloid such that as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 325, + 259, + 334 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "t \\to + \\infty", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 260, + 323, + 348, + 337 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", for any initialization", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 324, + 416, + 336 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( \\alpha _ { 0 } , \\beta _ { 0 } , z _ { 0 } ) \\in \\mathcal { C } _ { c }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 417, + 323, + 421, + 337 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ":", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 12.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 312, + 505, + 337 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 125, + 341, + 486, + 368 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 341, + 486, + 368 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 341, + 486, + 368 + ], + "score": 0.95, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } \\to ( \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } } + \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } } ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \\sqrt { c } , \\qquad \\beta _ { t } \\to ( \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } } + \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } } ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \\sqrt { c } , \\qquad z _ { t } \\to 0 .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "3d581d6389afc156a7f2ef1731bb6fefd0a56c644d8cdeb934e75d953cdecbab.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 14, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 341, + 486, + 368 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 14 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 372, + 503, + 396 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 372, + 504, + 385 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 372, + 504, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "That curve defines two regions of the initialization space. In one (colored yellow on Fig. 3 Left),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 477, + 396 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 383, + 179, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trajectories verify", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 179, + 384, + 209, + 395 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 209, + 383, + 246, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for some", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 247, + 385, + 252, + 394 + ], + "score": 0.64, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 252, + 383, + 367, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", in the other (colored green)", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 384, + 378, + 395 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 378, + 383, + 477, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches 0 at some point.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 15.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 372, + 504, + 396 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 408, + 504, + 443 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 408, + 502, + 423 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 408, + 338, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. It is easy to see from the system of ODEs (23) that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 338, + 409, + 502, + 422 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( \\alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } ) ^ { \\prime } / \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } + ( \\beta _ { t } ^ { 2 } ) ^ { \\prime } / \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } - ( z _ { t } ^ { 2 } ) ^ { \\prime } = 0 ,", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 418, + 506, + 434 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 418, + 257, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which directly gives the invariance of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 420, + 370, + 433 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\lVert x _ { 1 } \\rVert ^ { 2 } + \\beta _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\lVert x _ { 2 } \\rVert ^ { 2 } - z _ { t } ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 418, + 506, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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In particular, the trajectories verify:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 482, + 448, + 505, + 460 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "z _ { t } ^ { 2 } =", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 457, + 506, + 473 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 459, + 242, + 471 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\lVert x _ { 1 } \\rVert ^ { 2 } + \\beta _ { t } ^ { 2 } \\hat { / } \\lVert x _ { 2 } \\rVert ^ { 2 } - c \\geq - c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 457, + 316, + 473 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which means that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 317, + 461, + 326, + 470 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 327, + 457, + 472, + 473 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is bounded away from 0. As long as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 473, + 460, + 501, + 471 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\beta _ { t } \\geq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 501, + 457, + 506, + 473 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 470, + 506, + 488 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 474, + 144, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we have", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 471, + 258, + 488 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\beta _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = - \\frac { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { - z _ { t } \\beta _ { t } } } \\leq \\frac { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } c } { 2 } } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 258, + 470, + 261, + 488 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 264, + 471, + 340, + 487 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This implies that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 340, + 474, + 351, + 486 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 352, + 471, + 506, + 487 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "will reach 0 in a finite time since it", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 504, + 499 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 486, + 493, + 499 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "decreases at a rate larger than a strictly positive number. At that point, the ReLU ensures that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 493, + 487, + 504, + 498 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 497, + 506, + 510 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 497, + 246, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "does not evolve anymore, and that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 246, + 498, + 256, + 509 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 257, + 497, + 326, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "’s contribution to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 327, + 499, + 337, + 509 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 337, + 497, + 506, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "disappears. The evolution equations turn", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 507, + 504, + 521 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 507, + 477, + 521 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "into the ones studied in the previous paragraphs, plotted as the green hyperbola in the plane", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 477, + 509, + 504, + 520 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\beta = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 518, + 146, + 533 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 518, + 146, + 533 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Fig. 6.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 23, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 447, + 506, + 533 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 534, + 504, + 559 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 534, + 506, + 550 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 534, + 116, + 550 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 117, + 537, + 142, + 546 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "c = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 534, + 204, + 550 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we know that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 205, + 535, + 436, + 549 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "z _ { t } ^ { 2 } = \\alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } + \\beta _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } \\geq \\alpha _ { t } ^ { 2 } / \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } \\geq \\alpha _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } / \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 437, + 534, + 441, + 550 + ], + "score": 0.0, + "content": "", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 442, + 537, + 452, + 547 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "\\scriptstyle ( \\alpha _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 453, + 534, + 506, + 550 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "increases as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 546, + 348, + 560 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 546, + 137, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "long as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 137, + 549, + 147, + 558 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 546, + 310, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is positive), so the same argument about", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 311, + 548, + 320, + 559 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 321, + 546, + 348, + 560 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "holds.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 27.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 534, + 506, + 560 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 563, + 505, + 637 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 101, + 561, + 509, + 584 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 101, + 561, + 115, + 584 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 566, + 138, + 576 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "c > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 138, + 561, + 253, + 584 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", let us first note that the point", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 253, + 564, + 462, + 580 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\big ( \\big ( \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } } + \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } } \\big ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \\sqrt { c } , \\big ( \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } } + \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } } \\big ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \\sqrt { c } , 0 \\big ) } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 462, + 561, + 509, + 584 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "belongs to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 578, + 505, + 590 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 578, + 505, + 590 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the hyperboloid and is stationary (the three derivatives are 0). Classic results on ordinary differential", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 588, + 506, + 601 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 588, + 506, + 601 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "equations (Tenenbaum & Pollard, 1985) then give the result. Finding a closed-form solution to the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 599, + 505, + 613 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 599, + 143, + 613 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "shape of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 143, + 601, + 154, + 611 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\mathcal { C } _ { c }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 154, + 599, + 505, + 613 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is to the best of our knowledge impossible. One can however obtain an approximation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 608, + 504, + 629 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 608, + 201, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by considering a point", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 611, + 451, + 627 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\big ( \\big ( \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } } + \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } } \\big ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \\sqrt { c - \\epsilon } , \\big ( \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 1 } \\| ^ { 2 } } + \\frac { 1 } { \\| x _ { 2 } \\| ^ { 2 } } \\big ) ^ { - 1 / 2 } \\sqrt { c + \\epsilon } , 0 \\big ) } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 451, + 610, + 498, + 625 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for a small", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 498, + 614, + 504, + 622 + ], + "score": 0.65, + "content": "\\epsilon", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 623, + 502, + 639 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 623, + 477, + 639 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and applying finite difference methods to the evolution equations (23) to build the trajectory.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 497, + 628, + 502, + 632 + ], + "score": 0.0, + "content": "", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 31.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 101, + 561, + 509, + 639 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 662, + 309, + 675 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 660, + 310, + 677 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 660, + 310, + 677 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Appendix B: Deeper Neural Networks", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 687, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 331, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section we study the case of a deeper network with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 332, + 689, + 356, + 698 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "N - 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 357, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "hidden layers. Similarly to above, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can prove the existence of independent modes of learning. To that end, neurons need to be activated", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in a disjoint manner from one class to the other. Due to the growing complexity of the interactions", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 506, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 506, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "between the parameters of the network, this requires very strong assumptions on the initialization of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 451, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 451, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the network and on the shape of the network. Assuming that the network is written as", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 37.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 687, + 506, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 450, + 94 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 451, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 451, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the network and on the shape of the network. Assuming that the network is written as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 205, + 99, + 406, + 115 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 205, + 99, + 406, + 115 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 205, + 99, + 406, + 115 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "P _ { t } ( x ) : = \\sigma ( Z _ { t } ^ { T } ( Z _ { t } ^ { N - 2 } \\cdot \\cdot \\cdot ( Z _ { t } ^ { 1 } ( W _ { t } x ) _ { + } ) _ { + } \\cdot \\cdot \\cdot ) _ { + } ) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "e7d2c6f94e76a0d03a84e18da6f2a2520f87008859cbca568e9e14799c99322f.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 205, + 99, + 406, + 115 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 119, + 505, + 187 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 119, + 505, + 132 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 119, + 127, + 132 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 127, + 120, + 141, + 131 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "W _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 119, + 154, + 132 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "an", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 154, + 120, + 179, + 131 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "h \\times d", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 119, + 253, + 132 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "matrix and for all", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 253, + 119, + 316, + 131 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "1 \\leq i \\leq N - 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 316, + 119, + 319, + 132 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 320, + 120, + 331, + 132 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "Z _ { t } ^ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 332, + 119, + 344, + 132 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "an", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 345, + 120, + 370, + 131 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "h \\times h", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 119, + 505, + 132 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "matrix. We maintain assumption", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 131, + 505, + 144 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 131, + 298, + 144 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(H2) from the main text, and extend (H3) to all", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 298, + 131, + 309, + 143 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "Z _ { t } ^ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 310, + 131, + 505, + 144 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by assuming that they are diagonal, and that the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 141, + 505, + 156 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 144, + 112, + 154 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "j", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 113, + 141, + 277, + 156 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-th element of their diagonal is positive if", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 278, + 143, + 305, + 154 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "j \\in \\mathcal { I } _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 305, + 141, + 505, + 156 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", negative otherwise. To simplify notations, we go", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 153, + 504, + 165 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 153, + 178, + 165 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "back to assuming", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 179, + 154, + 204, + 163 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "h = 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 204, + 153, + 295, + 165 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and take an update on", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 296, + 154, + 327, + 164 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 327, + 153, + 504, + 165 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Only the first elements of every matrix are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 164, + 505, + 177 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 164, + 208, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "modified, we write them", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 208, + 164, + 218, + 176 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "z _ { t } ^ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 164, + 313, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and keep the notations", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 313, + 167, + 322, + 175 + ], + "score": 0.68, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 322, + 164, + 327, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 327, + 166, + 339, + 175 + ], + "score": 0.73, + "content": "w _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 339, + 164, + 358, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 358, + 166, + 367, + 176 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 164, + 505, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We can then write the evolution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 175, + 150, + 187 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 175, + 150, + 187 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "equations:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 4.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 191, + 500, + 219 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 191, + 500, + 219 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 191, + 500, + 219 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { z _ { t } ^ { N - 2 } \\cdot \\cdot \\cdot z _ { t } ^ { 1 } y _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } , \\qquad ( z _ { t } ^ { i } ) ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { z _ { t } z _ { t } ^ { N - 2 } \\cdot \\cdot \\cdot z _ { t } ^ { i + 1 } z _ { t } ^ { i - 1 } \\cdot \\cdot \\cdot y _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } , \\qquad y _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } z _ { t } ^ { N - 2 } \\cdot \\cdot \\cdot z _ { t } ^ { 1 } } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "711eacd201e398aee968b6440052ff3a8147e1b1e895fc0a9e66a9fcda53e977.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 9, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 191, + 500, + 200.33333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 200.33333333333334, + 500, + 209.66666666666669 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 209.66666666666669, + 500, + 219.00000000000003 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 10 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 225, + 504, + 251 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 221, + 507, + 243 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 221, + 127, + 243 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 226, + 200, + 239 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "u ( t ) = z _ { t } \\ \\Pi z _ { t } ^ { i } \\ y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 221, + 269, + 243 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Assuming that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 269, + 225, + 399, + 241 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { z _ { 0 } = z _ { 0 } ^ { 1 } = \\ldots = z _ { 0 } ^ { N - 1 } = \\frac { y _ { 0 } } { \\| x \\| } } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 380, + 222, + 507, + 243 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "y0kxk , we see that those equals", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 239, + 293, + 252 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 239, + 293, + 252 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "remain true throughout training. This gives us", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 11.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 134, + 256, + 478, + 283 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 134, + 256, + 478, + 283 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 134, + 256, + 478, + 283 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { ( z _ { t } ) ^ { N - 1 } \\| x \\| } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } , \\qquad u ( t ) = ( z _ { t } ) ^ { N } \\| x \\| , \\qquad u ^ { \\prime } ( t ) = N ( z _ { t } ) ^ { N - 1 } z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } \\| x \\| .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "344b1e53257736e047ec01e5c6ee78b07cb086a35ad3b7b39ea3aef3703ece73.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 14, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 134, + 256, + 478, + 265.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 134, + 265.0, + 478, + 274.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 134, + 274.0, + 478, + 283.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 15 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 287, + 427, + 299 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 286, + 427, + 302 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 286, + 427, + 302 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Combining those equations gives us the ODE verified by the logit of our system", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 243, + 304, + 369, + 332 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 304, + 369, + 332 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 304, + 369, + 332 + ], + "score": 0.95, + "content": "u ^ { \\prime } ( t ) = \\frac { N \\| x \\| ^ { 2 / N } u ^ { 2 - 2 / N } ( t ) } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "2699d8951b7558c92c6ac2f89cd3a1a001183725187f16215c7d76d9fd42e607.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 17.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 304, + 369, + 318.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 318.0, + 369, + 332.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 18 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 336, + 506, + 403 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 337, + 505, + 348 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 337, + 239, + 348 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The solution of that equation for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 337, + 269, + 347 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "N = 4", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 270, + 337, + 288, + 348 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 288, + 337, + 317, + 347 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "N = 8", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 317, + 337, + 505, + 348 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be found on Fig. 7. Here too, a sigmoidal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 347, + 505, + 360 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 347, + 335, + 360 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "shape appears during the learning process. The effect of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 335, + 348, + 352, + 360 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\lVert x \\rVert", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 352, + 347, + 397, + 360 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reduces as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 398, + 348, + 408, + 357 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "N", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 408, + 347, + 505, + 360 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "grows due to the power", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 358, + 505, + 371 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 358, + 126, + 370 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "2 / N", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 126, + 358, + 505, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", however, larger values still converge faster (e.g. the blue and yellow curves). Additionally, as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 369, + 505, + 382 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 369, + 505, + 382 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "noted in Saxe et al. (2013b) for linear networks: the deeper the network, the faster the learning. This", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 506, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 506, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fact is studied in more details in Arora et al. (2018) where depth is shown to accelerate convergence", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 392, + 166, + 403 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 392, + 166, + 403 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in some cases.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 21.5 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 222, + 426, + 381, + 546 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 222, + 426, + 381, + 546 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 426, + 381, + 546 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 426, + 381, + 546 + ], + "score": 0.97, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "fb577d3b6f9d1e78972298ee90f4eded6aeedee5ebfbf014a9c64222401a398d.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 29, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 426, + 381, + 439.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 439.3333333333333, + 381, + 452.66666666666663 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 452.66666666666663, + 381, + 465.99999999999994 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 465.99999999999994, + 381, + 479.33333333333326 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 479.33333333333326, + 381, + 492.6666666666666 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 492.6666666666666, + 381, + 505.9999999999999 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 505.9999999999999, + 381, + 519.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 519.3333333333333, + 381, + 532.6666666666666 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 532.6666666666666, + 381, + 546.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 33 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 129, + 555, + 482, + 568 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 127, + 554, + 483, + 570 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 127, + 554, + 192, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 7: Logit", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 193, + 555, + 211, + 568 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "u ( t )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 212, + 554, + 275, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and confidence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 275, + 556, + 286, + 567 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "P _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 554, + 462, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for different number of layers and values of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 462, + 555, + 478, + 568 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\lVert x \\rVert", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 479, + 554, + 483, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 31.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 592, + 232, + 605 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 591, + 232, + 608 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 591, + 232, + 608 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Appendix C: Hinge Loss", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 618, + 226, + 629 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 227, + 631 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 227, + 631 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "C.1 Proof of Theorem 4.1", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 505, + 661 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 637, + 506, + 651 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 637, + 506, + 651 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section we prove Theorem 4.1 from the main text on the dynamics of learning in the case of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 169, + 663 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 169, + 663 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the Hinge loss:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 37.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 175, + 666, + 435, + 682 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 666, + 435, + 682 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 666, + 435, + 682 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "L _ { H } ( W _ { t } , Z _ { t } ; x ) = \\operatorname* { m a x } ( 0 , 1 - Z _ { t } ^ { T } ( W _ { t } x ) _ { + } \\cdot ( \\mathbb { 1 } _ { x \\in D _ { 1 } } - \\mathbb { 1 } _ { x \\in D _ { 2 } } ) ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "3971ea19213188fd46e9e084c14c5451441cb6346865c919825a93f2481e81c4.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 39, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 666, + 435, + 682 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 39 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 687, + 505, + 719 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 321, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Let us consider updates made after observing a point", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 321, + 687, + 353, + 698 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 353, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the converse can be treated similarly", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 698, + 505, + 710 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 698, + 505, + 710 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a simple change of sign. The system of ordinary differential equations verified by the parameters", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 708, + 180, + 721 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 708, + 180, + 721 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of our network is:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 230, + 718, + 381, + 733 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 718, + 381, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 718, + 381, + 733 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "y _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } , \\qquad z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = y _ { t } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "1f35b715124a7b213eb10ed54b6edf8e0cca28fa58a04cb1631f70b4cbcf20fa.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 43, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 718, + 381, + 733 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 43 + } + ] + } + ], + "page_idx": 17, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 25, + 308, + 39 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 25, + 308, + 39 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 300, + 751, + 311, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 313, + 764 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 313, + 764 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "18", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 450, + 94 + ], + "lines": [], + "index": 0, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 82, + 451, + 96 + ], + "lines_deleted": true + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 205, + 99, + 406, + 115 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 205, + 99, + 406, + 115 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 205, + 99, + 406, + 115 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "P _ { t } ( x ) : = \\sigma ( Z _ { t } ^ { T } ( Z _ { t } ^ { N - 2 } \\cdot \\cdot \\cdot ( Z _ { t } ^ { 1 } ( W _ { t } x ) _ { + } ) _ { + } \\cdot \\cdot \\cdot ) _ { + } ) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "e7d2c6f94e76a0d03a84e18da6f2a2520f87008859cbca568e9e14799c99322f.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 205, + 99, + 406, + 115 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 119, + 505, + 187 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 119, + 505, + 132 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 119, + 127, + 132 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 127, + 120, + 141, + 131 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "W _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 119, + 154, + 132 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "an", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 154, + 120, + 179, + 131 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "h \\times d", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 119, + 253, + 132 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "matrix and for all", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 253, + 119, + 316, + 131 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "1 \\leq i \\leq N - 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 316, + 119, + 319, + 132 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 320, + 120, + 331, + 132 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "Z _ { t } ^ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 332, + 119, + 344, + 132 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "an", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 345, + 120, + 370, + 131 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "h \\times h", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 119, + 505, + 132 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "matrix. 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To simplify notations, we go", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 153, + 504, + 165 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 153, + 178, + 165 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "back to assuming", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 179, + 154, + 204, + 163 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "h = 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 204, + 153, + 295, + 165 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and take an update on", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 296, + 154, + 327, + 164 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 327, + 153, + 504, + 165 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Only the first elements of every matrix are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 164, + 505, + 177 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 164, + 208, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "modified, we write them", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 208, + 164, + 218, + 176 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "z _ { t } ^ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 218, + 164, + 313, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and keep the notations", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 313, + 167, + 322, + 175 + ], + "score": 0.68, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 322, + 164, + 327, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 327, + 166, + 339, + 175 + ], + "score": 0.73, + "content": "w _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 339, + 164, + 358, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 358, + 166, + 367, + 176 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 164, + 505, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We can then write the evolution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 175, + 150, + 187 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 175, + 150, + 187 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "equations:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 4.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 119, + 505, + 187 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 191, + 500, + 219 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 191, + 500, + 219 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 191, + 500, + 219 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { z _ { t } ^ { N - 2 } \\cdot \\cdot \\cdot z _ { t } ^ { 1 } y _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } , \\qquad ( z _ { t } ^ { i } ) ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { z _ { t } z _ { t } ^ { N - 2 } \\cdot \\cdot \\cdot z _ { t } ^ { i + 1 } z _ { t } ^ { i - 1 } \\cdot \\cdot \\cdot y _ { t } } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } , \\qquad y _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } z _ { t } ^ { N - 2 } \\cdot \\cdot \\cdot z _ { t } ^ { 1 } } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "711eacd201e398aee968b6440052ff3a8147e1b1e895fc0a9e66a9fcda53e977.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 9, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 191, + 500, + 200.33333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 200.33333333333334, + 500, + 209.66666666666669 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 108, + 209.66666666666669, + 500, + 219.00000000000003 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 10 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 225, + 504, + 251 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 221, + 507, + 243 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 221, + 127, + 243 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 226, + 200, + 239 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "u ( t ) = z _ { t } \\ \\Pi z _ { t } ^ { i } \\ y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 221, + 269, + 243 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Assuming that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 269, + 225, + 399, + 241 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { z _ { 0 } = z _ { 0 } ^ { 1 } = \\ldots = z _ { 0 } ^ { N - 1 } = \\frac { y _ { 0 } } { \\| x \\| } } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 380, + 222, + 507, + 243 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "y0kxk , we see that those equals", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 239, + 293, + 252 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 239, + 293, + 252 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "remain true throughout training. This gives us", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 11.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 221, + 507, + 252 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 134, + 256, + 478, + 283 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 134, + 256, + 478, + 283 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 134, + 256, + 478, + 283 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = \\frac { ( z _ { t } ) ^ { N - 1 } \\| x \\| } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } , \\qquad u ( t ) = ( z _ { t } ) ^ { N } \\| x \\| , \\qquad u ^ { \\prime } ( t ) = N ( z _ { t } ) ^ { N - 1 } z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } \\| x \\| .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "344b1e53257736e047ec01e5c6ee78b07cb086a35ad3b7b39ea3aef3703ece73.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 14, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 134, + 256, + 478, + 265.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 134, + 265.0, + 478, + 274.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 134, + 274.0, + 478, + 283.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 15 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 287, + 427, + 299 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 286, + 427, + 302 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 286, + 427, + 302 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Combining those equations gives us the ODE verified by the logit of our system", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 286, + 427, + 302 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 243, + 304, + 369, + 332 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 304, + 369, + 332 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 304, + 369, + 332 + ], + "score": 0.95, + "content": "u ^ { \\prime } ( t ) = \\frac { N \\| x \\| ^ { 2 / N } u ^ { 2 - 2 / N } ( t ) } { 1 + e ^ { u ( t ) } } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "2699d8951b7558c92c6ac2f89cd3a1a001183725187f16215c7d76d9fd42e607.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 17.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 304, + 369, + 318.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 318.0, + 369, + 332.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 18 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 336, + 506, + 403 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 337, + 505, + 348 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 337, + 239, + 348 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The solution of that equation for", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 240, + 337, + 269, + 347 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "N = 4", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 270, + 337, + 288, + 348 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 288, + 337, + 317, + 347 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "N = 8", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 317, + 337, + 505, + 348 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can be found on Fig. 7. Here too, a sigmoidal", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 347, + 505, + 360 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 347, + 335, + 360 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "shape appears during the learning process. The effect of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 335, + 348, + 352, + 360 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\lVert x \\rVert", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 352, + 347, + 397, + 360 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reduces as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 398, + 348, + 408, + 357 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "N", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 408, + 347, + 505, + 360 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "grows due to the power", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 358, + 505, + 371 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 358, + 126, + 370 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "2 / N", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 126, + 358, + 505, + 371 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", however, larger values still converge faster (e.g. the blue and yellow curves). Additionally, as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 369, + 505, + 382 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 369, + 505, + 382 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "noted in Saxe et al. (2013b) for linear networks: the deeper the network, the faster the learning. This", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 506, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 380, + 506, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "fact is studied in more details in Arora et al. (2018) where depth is shown to accelerate convergence", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 392, + 166, + 403 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 392, + 166, + 403 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in some cases.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 21.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 337, + 506, + 403 + ] + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 222, + 426, + 381, + 546 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 222, + 426, + 381, + 546 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 426, + 381, + 546 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 426, + 381, + 546 + ], + "score": 0.97, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "fb577d3b6f9d1e78972298ee90f4eded6aeedee5ebfbf014a9c64222401a398d.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 29, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 426, + 381, + 439.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 439.3333333333333, + 381, + 452.66666666666663 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 452.66666666666663, + 381, + 465.99999999999994 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 465.99999999999994, + 381, + 479.33333333333326 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 479.33333333333326, + 381, + 492.6666666666666 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 492.6666666666666, + 381, + 505.9999999999999 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 505.9999999999999, + 381, + 519.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 519.3333333333333, + 381, + 532.6666666666666 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 532.6666666666666, + 381, + 546.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 33 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 129, + 555, + 482, + 568 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 127, + 554, + 483, + 570 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 127, + 554, + 192, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 7: Logit", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 193, + 555, + 211, + 568 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "u ( t )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 212, + 554, + 275, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and confidence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 275, + 556, + 286, + 567 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "P _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 554, + 462, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for different number of layers and values of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 462, + 555, + 478, + 568 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\lVert x \\rVert", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 479, + 554, + 483, + 570 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 31.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 592, + 232, + 605 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 591, + 232, + 608 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 591, + 232, + 608 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Appendix C: Hinge Loss", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 618, + 226, + 629 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 227, + 631 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 617, + 227, + 631 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "C.1 Proof of Theorem 4.1", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 505, + 661 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 637, + 506, + 651 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 637, + 506, + 651 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section we prove Theorem 4.1 from the main text on the dynamics of learning in the case of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 169, + 663 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 169, + 663 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the Hinge loss:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 37.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 637, + 506, + 663 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 175, + 666, + 435, + 682 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 666, + 435, + 682 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 666, + 435, + 682 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "L _ { H } ( W _ { t } , Z _ { t } ; x ) = \\operatorname* { m a x } ( 0 , 1 - Z _ { t } ^ { T } ( W _ { t } x ) _ { + } \\cdot ( \\mathbb { 1 } _ { x \\in D _ { 1 } } - \\mathbb { 1 } _ { x \\in D _ { 2 } } ) ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "3971ea19213188fd46e9e084c14c5451441cb6346865c919825a93f2481e81c4.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 39, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 666, + 435, + 682 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 39 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 687, + 505, + 719 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 321, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Let us consider updates made after observing a point", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 321, + 687, + 353, + 698 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "x \\in D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 353, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the converse can be treated similarly", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 698, + 505, + 710 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 698, + 505, + 710 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with a simple change of sign. The system of ordinary differential equations verified by the parameters", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 708, + 180, + 721 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 708, + 180, + 721 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of our network is:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + } + ], + "index": 41, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 721 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 230, + 718, + 381, + 733 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 718, + 381, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 718, + 381, + 733 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "y _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { t } , \\qquad z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = y _ { t } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "1f35b715124a7b213eb10ed54b6edf8e0cca28fa58a04cb1631f70b4cbcf20fa.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 43, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 230, + 718, + 381, + 733 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 43 + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 505, + 117 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 81, + 504, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 81, + 221, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The same relation between", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 221, + 85, + 231, + 94 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 231, + 81, + 251, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 252, + 85, + 261, + 93 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 262, + 81, + 504, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "appears in those equations than in the cross-entropy case.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 92, + 506, + 108 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 92, + 143, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Defining", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 96, + 149, + 104 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 150, + 92, + 223, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "similarly, we have", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 94, + 295, + 106 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "u ^ { \\prime } ( t ) = 2 \\| x \\| u ( t )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 295, + 92, + 366, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the case where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 366, + 95, + 390, + 105 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "c = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 390, + 92, + 435, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", leading to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 435, + 93, + 501, + 106 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "u ( t ) = \\bar { u _ { 0 } } e ^ { 2 \\| x \\| t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 501, + 92, + 506, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 388, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 133, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "When", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 106, + 156, + 117 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "c \\neq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 105, + 388, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the same change of variables can be applied and leads to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 110, + 122, + 483, + 150 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 122, + 483, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 122, + 483, + 150 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "y _ { t } = \\sqrt { c } \\cosh ( \\frac { \\theta _ { 0 } } { 2 } + \\Vert x \\Vert { t } ) , z _ { t } = \\frac { \\sqrt { c } } { \\Vert x \\Vert } \\sinh ( \\frac { \\theta _ { 0 } } { 2 } + \\Vert x \\Vert { t } ) , u _ { t } = \\frac { c } { 2 \\Vert x \\Vert } \\sinh ( \\theta _ { 0 } + 2 \\Vert x \\Vert { t } ) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "0255cb31d5b10b7356274c40c564cf18f30636ae086855a3f1bbfd5ba95e918b.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 3, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 122, + 483, + 150 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 3 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 155, + 505, + 216 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 153, + 509, + 174 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 153, + 127, + 174 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 127, + 155, + 231, + 173 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\theta _ { 0 } = \\cosh ^ { - 1 } \\bigl ( \\frac { y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } + \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } } { c _ { \\star } } \\bigr ) } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 231, + 153, + 388, + 174 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Those equations are only valid until", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 161, + 398, + 171 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "u _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 153, + 509, + 174 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches 12. At that point", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 169, + 505, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 169, + 505, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning stops, the network has converged. If the initialization is such that that condition is already", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 181, + 505, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 181, + 505, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "verified, then the weights will not change as they already solve the task. The learning curves", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 506, + 205 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 506, + 205 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "along with the initialization diagram can be found in Fig. 8. We notice a hard sigmoidal shape,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 204, + 327, + 216 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 204, + 272, + 216 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "corresponding to learning stopping when", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 205, + 283, + 214 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "u _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 283, + 204, + 327, + 216 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches 1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 228, + 218, + 240 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 227, + 220, + 241 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 227, + 220, + 241 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "C.2 General treatment", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 249, + 505, + 282 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 249, + 505, + 261 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 249, + 477, + 261 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Let us now consider the general case of a class containing an arbitrary number of points", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 478, + 250, + 505, + 261 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "D _ { 1 } =", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 259, + 506, + 273 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 260, + 179, + 273 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\{ x _ { i } \\} _ { 1 \\leq i \\leq m } \\subset \\mathbb { R } ^ { d }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 259, + 506, + 273 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We consider the case of updates done in full batches (standard gradient descent", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 271, + 443, + 284 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 271, + 443, + 284 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in other words). In that case, we see that the network obeys the following dynamics:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 213, + 288, + 399, + 321 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 288, + 399, + 321 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 288, + 399, + 321 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "w _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = z _ { t } \\sum _ { i = 1 } ^ { m } x _ { i } ^ { T } , \\qquad z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = w _ { t } \\sum _ { i = 1 } ^ { m } x _ { i } ^ { T } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "a62783e703c0baa71166a851f96c9e77df274e87f56093ec9fd18caa9987bbfc.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 13.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 288, + 399, + 304.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 304.5, + 399, + 321.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 14 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 328, + 506, + 416 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 326, + 506, + 358 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 334, + 137, + 349 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Letting", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 137, + 326, + 184, + 358 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "X = \\sum _ { i = 1 } ^ { m } x _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 185, + 334, + 506, + 349 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote the sum of all the datapoints in that class, we see that those dynamics boil", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 354, + 506, + 369 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 354, + 506, + 369 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "down to our previous treatment for a single point. The same cases appear, depending on the value", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 365, + 507, + 381 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 365, + 118, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 366, + 223, + 379 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "c : = | ( w _ { 0 } \\dot { X } ) ^ { 2 } - \\| X \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } |", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 365, + 319, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We explicitly treat the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 319, + 368, + 344, + 378 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "c > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 365, + 507, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "case. Following the methods above, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 378, + 504, + 397 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 378, + 145, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "see that:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 379, + 229, + 395 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { w _ { t } = y _ { t } \\frac { X ^ { T } } { \\lVert X \\rVert ^ { 2 } } + w _ { 0 } ^ { \\perp } } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 229, + 378, + 259, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 380, + 370, + 394 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "y _ { t } = \\sqrt { c } \\cosh ( \\frac { \\theta _ { 0 } } { 2 } + \\| X \\| t )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 378, + 389, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 390, + 380, + 405, + 393 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "w _ { 0 } ^ { T }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 405, + 378, + 491, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the component of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 491, + 383, + 504, + 392 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "w _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 394, + 504, + 406 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 394, + 164, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "orthogonal to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 164, + 395, + 174, + 404 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "X", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 174, + 394, + 357, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(and thus unchanged during training). With", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 357, + 396, + 367, + 405 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 394, + 387, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 387, + 396, + 397, + 405 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "u _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 397, + 394, + 493, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "defined as above (with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 494, + 394, + 504, + 404 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "X", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 406, + 334, + 416 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 406, + 148, + 416 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "instead of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 148, + 407, + 155, + 415 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "x", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 155, + 406, + 246, + 416 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "), an arbitrary example", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 246, + 407, + 253, + 415 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "x", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 406, + 334, + 416 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is then classified as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 17.5 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 186, + 421, + 424, + 450 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 421, + 424, + 450 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 421, + 424, + 450 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "P ( x \\in D _ { 1 } ) = z _ { t } y _ { t } { \\frac { X ^ { T } x } { \\| X \\| ^ { 2 } } } + z _ { t } w _ { 0 } ^ { \\perp } x = u _ { t } { \\frac { X ^ { T } x } { \\| X \\| ^ { 2 } } } + z _ { t } w _ { 0 } ^ { \\perp } x .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "52e6ed72e952476ed62d8b121ccaaa3bed61f3fbff03aab159a312f936ca96c5.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 21.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 421, + 424, + 435.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 435.5, + 424, + 450.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 22 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 462, + 285, + 475 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 461, + 286, + 478 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 461, + 286, + 478 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Appendix D: Gradient Starvation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 487, + 418, + 500 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 487, + 419, + 500 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 487, + 419, + 500 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we prove a relaxed version of Theorem 5.1 from the main text:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 505, + 540 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 505, + 515 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 186, + 515 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Theorem D.2. Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 503, + 192, + 513 + ], + "score": 0.55, + "content": "\\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 502, + 354, + 515 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be our confidence requirement on class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 355, + 504, + 369, + 514 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 502, + 505, + 515 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "i.e. the training stops as soon as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 513, + 505, + 527 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 514, + 145, + 525 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\forall x \\in D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 513, + 150, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 150, + 514, + 236, + 526 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "P _ { t } ( x \\in D _ { 1 } ) \\geq 1 - \\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 236, + 513, + 257, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 258, + 515, + 267, + 524 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "t ^ { * }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 267, + 513, + 362, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote that instant i.e.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 363, + 513, + 441, + 527 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { z _ { t ^ { * } } \\alpha _ { t ^ { * } } = \\log ( \\frac { 1 - \\stackrel { \\smile } { \\delta } } { \\delta } ) } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 441, + 513, + 456, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 456, + 514, + 486, + 525 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\beta _ { 0 } < 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 487, + 513, + 505, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 526, + 505, + 540 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 526, + 338, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "inequality (9) from the main text is valid. Otherwise, with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 339, + 527, + 467, + 539 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "w _ { 0 } = \\left( \\alpha _ { 0 } x _ { 1 } , \\beta _ { 0 } x _ { 2 } \\right) + \\left( x _ { 1 } ^ { \\perp } , x _ { 2 } ^ { \\perp } \\right)", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 467, + 526, + 505, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we have", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 198, + 544, + 412, + 571 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 544, + 412, + 571 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 544, + 412, + 571 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "P _ { t ^ { * } } ( ( 0 , x _ { 2 } ) \\in D _ { 1 } ) \\leq \\frac { 1 } { 1 + e ^ { - \\lambda \\log ( \\frac { 1 - \\delta } { \\delta } ) - z _ { t ^ { * } } ( \\beta _ { 0 } - \\alpha \\alpha _ { 0 } ) } } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "b7aed8a2780311afdb20d6c9cc5ada3437d94806d1c16f8429d4defd9e871798.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 28, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 544, + 412, + 571 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 28 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 582, + 505, + 629 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 582, + 504, + 594 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 582, + 207, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. We start with the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 207, + 583, + 237, + 594 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\beta _ { 0 } < 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 237, + 582, + 270, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "case. If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 271, + 583, + 284, + 594 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\beta _ { t ^ { * } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 285, + 582, + 504, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is negative, the result from the main text clearly holds.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 592, + 506, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 592, + 200, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Otherwise, there exists", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 594, + 228, + 604 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\tilde { t } < t ^ { * }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 228, + 592, + 268, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "such that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 594, + 298, + 605 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\beta _ { \\tilde { t } } = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 298, + 592, + 303, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 303, + 594, + 313, + 605 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 313, + 592, + 506, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is increasing). The proof of Theorem 5.1 from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 506, + 619 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 283, + 619 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the main text can then directly be applied to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 284, + 605, + 306, + 617 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "[ \\tilde { t } , t ^ { * } ]", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 307, + 605, + 320, + 619 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 321, + 605, + 350, + 617 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\beta _ { 0 } > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 351, + 605, + 423, + 619 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the inequality on", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 423, + 605, + 434, + 618 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } ^ { \\prime }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 434, + 605, + 452, + 619 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 452, + 606, + 463, + 618 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\beta _ { t } ^ { \\prime }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 463, + 605, + 506, + 619 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "holds and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 505, + 630 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 130, + 630 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "gives", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 130, + 616, + 222, + 628 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\beta _ { t } \\le \\beta _ { 0 } + ( \\alpha _ { t } - \\alpha _ { 0 } ) \\lambda", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 616, + 292, + 630 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Plugging it into", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 292, + 617, + 365, + 628 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "P _ { t ^ { * } } ( ( 0 , x _ { 2 } ) \\in D _ { 1 } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 365, + 616, + 453, + 630 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") concludes our proof.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 494, + 617, + 505, + 628 + ], + "score": 0.999, + "content": "□", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 30.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 641, + 505, + 675 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 641, + 505, + 653 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 641, + 244, + 653 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In the main text, we assume that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 245, + 641, + 308, + 653 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\beta _ { 0 } - \\alpha \\alpha _ { 0 } < 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 308, + 641, + 505, + 653 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and obtain a bound on the confidence which is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 651, + 505, + 664 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 651, + 181, + 664 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "independent from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 181, + 654, + 193, + 664 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\alpha _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 193, + 651, + 212, + 664 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 212, + 653, + 223, + 664 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\beta _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 651, + 505, + 664 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Using that bound allows to obtain Fig. 9, but is partly unfair as the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 663, + 370, + 676 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 663, + 370, + 676 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "initialization of the network is already favoring the strong feature.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 680, + 505, + 714 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 678, + 505, + 693 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 678, + 334, + 693 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "However, we note that under small random initialization", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 334, + 682, + 347, + 691 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "z _ { t ^ { * } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 678, + 366, + 693 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 682, + 381, + 691 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t ^ { * } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 381, + 678, + 505, + 693 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are of the same order of mag-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 689, + 506, + 704 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 689, + 151, + 704 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "nitude and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 151, + 691, + 198, + 703 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\left( \\beta _ { 0 } - \\alpha \\alpha _ { 0 } \\right)", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 689, + 303, + 704 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is very small compared to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 304, + 691, + 342, + 704 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\log ( \\frac { 1 - \\delta } { \\delta } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 689, + 506, + 704 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The additional term in the denominator", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 701, + 505, + 714 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 701, + 505, + 714 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "thus has a limited effect on the exponential, gradient starvation is still happening (a fact confirmed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "page_idx": 18, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 118, + 721, + 425, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 719, + 425, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 719, + 214, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2We are considering class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 214, + 722, + 229, + 732 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "\\{ 1 \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 229, + 719, + 400, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "here, but the equivalent can be proven for class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 400, + 721, + 422, + 732 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\{ - 1 \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 422, + 719, + 425, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 300, + 751, + 311, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 313, + 764 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 313, + 764 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "19", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 25, + 308, + 39 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 25, + 308, + 39 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 505, + 117 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 81, + 504, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 81, + 221, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The same relation between", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 221, + 85, + 231, + 94 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "y _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 231, + 81, + 251, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 252, + 85, + 261, + 93 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 262, + 81, + 504, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "appears in those equations than in the cross-entropy case.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 92, + 506, + 108 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 92, + 143, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Defining", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 96, + 149, + 104 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 150, + 92, + 223, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "similarly, we have", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 94, + 295, + 106 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "u ^ { \\prime } ( t ) = 2 \\| x \\| u ( t )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 295, + 92, + 366, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the case where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 366, + 95, + 390, + 105 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "c = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 390, + 92, + 435, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", leading to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 435, + 93, + 501, + 106 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "u ( t ) = \\bar { u _ { 0 } } e ^ { 2 \\| x \\| t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 501, + 92, + 506, + 108 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 388, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 133, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "When", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 106, + 156, + 117 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "c \\neq 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 105, + 388, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the same change of variables can be applied and leads to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + } + ], + "index": 1, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 81, + 506, + 118 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 110, + 122, + 483, + 150 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 122, + 483, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 122, + 483, + 150 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "y _ { t } = \\sqrt { c } \\cosh ( \\frac { \\theta _ { 0 } } { 2 } + \\Vert x \\Vert { t } ) , z _ { t } = \\frac { \\sqrt { c } } { \\Vert x \\Vert } \\sinh ( \\frac { \\theta _ { 0 } } { 2 } + \\Vert x \\Vert { t } ) , u _ { t } = \\frac { c } { 2 \\Vert x \\Vert } \\sinh ( \\theta _ { 0 } + 2 \\Vert x \\Vert { t } ) ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "0255cb31d5b10b7356274c40c564cf18f30636ae086855a3f1bbfd5ba95e918b.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 3, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 110, + 122, + 483, + 150 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 3 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 155, + 505, + 216 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 153, + 509, + 174 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 153, + 127, + 174 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 127, + 155, + 231, + 173 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { \\theta _ { 0 } = \\cosh ^ { - 1 } \\bigl ( \\frac { y _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } + \\| x \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } } { c _ { \\star } } \\bigr ) } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 231, + 153, + 388, + 174 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Those equations are only valid until", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 161, + 398, + 171 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "u _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 153, + 509, + 174 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches 12. At that point", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 169, + 505, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 169, + 505, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning stops, the network has converged. If the initialization is such that that condition is already", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 181, + 505, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 181, + 505, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "verified, then the weights will not change as they already solve the task. The learning curves", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 506, + 205 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 506, + 205 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "along with the initialization diagram can be found in Fig. 8. We notice a hard sigmoidal shape,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 204, + 327, + 216 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 204, + 272, + 216 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "corresponding to learning stopping when", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 272, + 205, + 283, + 214 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "u _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 283, + 204, + 327, + 216 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reaches 1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 6, + "bbox_fs": [ + 103, + 153, + 509, + 216 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 228, + 218, + 240 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 227, + 220, + 241 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 227, + 220, + 241 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "C.2 General treatment", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 249, + 505, + 282 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 249, + 505, + 261 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 249, + 477, + 261 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Let us now consider the general case of a class containing an arbitrary number of points", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 478, + 250, + 505, + 261 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "D _ { 1 } =", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 259, + 506, + 273 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 260, + 179, + 273 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\{ x _ { i } \\} _ { 1 \\leq i \\leq m } \\subset \\mathbb { R } ^ { d }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 259, + 506, + 273 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We consider the case of updates done in full batches (standard gradient descent", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 271, + 443, + 284 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 271, + 443, + 284 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in other words). In that case, we see that the network obeys the following dynamics:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 11, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 249, + 506, + 284 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 213, + 288, + 399, + 321 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 288, + 399, + 321 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 288, + 399, + 321 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "w _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = z _ { t } \\sum _ { i = 1 } ^ { m } x _ { i } ^ { T } , \\qquad z _ { t } ^ { \\prime } = w _ { t } \\sum _ { i = 1 } ^ { m } x _ { i } ^ { T } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "a62783e703c0baa71166a851f96c9e77df274e87f56093ec9fd18caa9987bbfc.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 13.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 288, + 399, + 304.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 304.5, + 399, + 321.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 14 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 328, + 506, + 416 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 326, + 506, + 358 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 334, + 137, + 349 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Letting", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 137, + 326, + 184, + 358 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "X = \\sum _ { i = 1 } ^ { m } x _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 185, + 334, + 506, + 349 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote the sum of all the datapoints in that class, we see that those dynamics boil", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 354, + 506, + 369 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 354, + 506, + 369 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "down to our previous treatment for a single point. The same cases appear, depending on the value", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 365, + 507, + 381 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 365, + 118, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 366, + 223, + 379 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "c : = | ( w _ { 0 } \\dot { X } ) ^ { 2 } - \\| X \\| ^ { 2 } z _ { 0 } ^ { 2 } |", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 365, + 319, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We explicitly treat the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 319, + 368, + 344, + 378 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "c > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 344, + 365, + 507, + 381 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "case. Following the methods above, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 378, + 504, + 397 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 103, + 378, + 145, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "see that:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 379, + 229, + 395 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { w _ { t } = y _ { t } \\frac { X ^ { T } } { \\lVert X \\rVert ^ { 2 } } + w _ { 0 } ^ { \\perp } } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 229, + 378, + 259, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 380, + 370, + 394 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "y _ { t } = \\sqrt { c } \\cosh ( \\frac { \\theta _ { 0 } } { 2 } + \\| X \\| t )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 378, + 389, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 390, + 380, + 405, + 393 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "w _ { 0 } ^ { T }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 405, + 378, + 491, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the component of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 491, + 383, + 504, + 392 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "w _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 394, + 504, + 406 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 394, + 164, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "orthogonal to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 164, + 395, + 174, + 404 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "X", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 174, + 394, + 357, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(and thus unchanged during training). With", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 357, + 396, + 367, + 405 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 394, + 387, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 387, + 396, + 397, + 405 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "u _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 397, + 394, + 493, + 406 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "defined as above (with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 494, + 394, + 504, + 404 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "X", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 406, + 334, + 416 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 406, + 148, + 416 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "instead of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 148, + 407, + 155, + 415 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "x", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 155, + 406, + 246, + 416 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "), an arbitrary example", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 246, + 407, + 253, + 415 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "x", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 406, + 334, + 416 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is then classified as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 17.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 103, + 326, + 507, + 416 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 186, + 421, + 424, + 450 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 421, + 424, + 450 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 421, + 424, + 450 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "P ( x \\in D _ { 1 } ) = z _ { t } y _ { t } { \\frac { X ^ { T } x } { \\| X \\| ^ { 2 } } } + z _ { t } w _ { 0 } ^ { \\perp } x = u _ { t } { \\frac { X ^ { T } x } { \\| X \\| ^ { 2 } } } + z _ { t } w _ { 0 } ^ { \\perp } x .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "52e6ed72e952476ed62d8b121ccaaa3bed61f3fbff03aab159a312f936ca96c5.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 21.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 421, + 424, + 435.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 435.5, + 424, + 450.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 22 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 462, + 285, + 475 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 461, + 286, + 478 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 461, + 286, + 478 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Appendix D: Gradient Starvation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 487, + 418, + 500 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 487, + 419, + 500 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 487, + 419, + 500 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section, we prove a relaxed version of Theorem 5.1 from the main text:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 24, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 487, + 419, + 500 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 505, + 540 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 505, + 515 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 502, + 186, + 515 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Theorem D.2. Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 503, + 192, + 513 + ], + "score": 0.55, + "content": "\\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 502, + 354, + 515 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be our confidence requirement on class", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 355, + 504, + 369, + 514 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 502, + 505, + 515 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "i.e. the training stops as soon as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 513, + 505, + 527 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 514, + 145, + 525 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\forall x \\in D _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 513, + 150, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 150, + 514, + 236, + 526 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "P _ { t } ( x \\in D _ { 1 } ) \\geq 1 - \\delta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 236, + 513, + 257, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 258, + 515, + 267, + 524 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "t ^ { * }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 267, + 513, + 362, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denote that instant i.e.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 363, + 513, + 441, + 527 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\begin{array} { r } { z _ { t ^ { * } } \\alpha _ { t ^ { * } } = \\log ( \\frac { 1 - \\stackrel { \\smile } { \\delta } } { \\delta } ) } \\end{array}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 441, + 513, + 456, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 456, + 514, + 486, + 525 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\beta _ { 0 } < 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 487, + 513, + 505, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 526, + 505, + 540 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 526, + 338, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "inequality (9) from the main text is valid. Otherwise, with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 339, + 527, + 467, + 539 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "w _ { 0 } = \\left( \\alpha _ { 0 } x _ { 1 } , \\beta _ { 0 } x _ { 2 } \\right) + \\left( x _ { 1 } ^ { \\perp } , x _ { 2 } ^ { \\perp } \\right)", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 467, + 526, + 505, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we have", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + } + ], + "index": 26, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 502, + 505, + 540 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 198, + 544, + 412, + 571 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 544, + 412, + 571 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 544, + 412, + 571 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "P _ { t ^ { * } } ( ( 0 , x _ { 2 } ) \\in D _ { 1 } ) \\leq \\frac { 1 } { 1 + e ^ { - \\lambda \\log ( \\frac { 1 - \\delta } { \\delta } ) - z _ { t ^ { * } } ( \\beta _ { 0 } - \\alpha \\alpha _ { 0 } ) } } .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "b7aed8a2780311afdb20d6c9cc5ada3437d94806d1c16f8429d4defd9e871798.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 28, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 544, + 412, + 571 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 28 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 582, + 505, + 629 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 582, + 504, + 594 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 582, + 207, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proof. We start with the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 207, + 583, + 237, + 594 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\beta _ { 0 } < 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 237, + 582, + 270, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "case. If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 271, + 583, + 284, + 594 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\beta _ { t ^ { * } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 285, + 582, + 504, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is negative, the result from the main text clearly holds.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 592, + 506, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 592, + 200, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Otherwise, there exists", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 594, + 228, + 604 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\tilde { t } < t ^ { * }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 228, + 592, + 268, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "such that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 594, + 298, + 605 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\beta _ { \\tilde { t } } = 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 298, + 592, + 303, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 303, + 594, + 313, + 605 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\beta _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 313, + 592, + 506, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is increasing). The proof of Theorem 5.1 from", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 506, + 619 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 283, + 619 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the main text can then directly be applied to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 284, + 605, + 306, + 617 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "[ \\tilde { t } , t ^ { * } ]", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 307, + 605, + 320, + 619 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". If", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 321, + 605, + 350, + 617 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\beta _ { 0 } > 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 351, + 605, + 423, + 619 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the inequality on", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 423, + 605, + 434, + 618 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t } ^ { \\prime }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 434, + 605, + 452, + 619 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 452, + 606, + 463, + 618 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\beta _ { t } ^ { \\prime }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 463, + 605, + 506, + 619 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "holds and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 505, + 630 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 130, + 630 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "gives", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 130, + 616, + 222, + 628 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\beta _ { t } \\le \\beta _ { 0 } + ( \\alpha _ { t } - \\alpha _ { 0 } ) \\lambda", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 616, + 292, + 630 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Plugging it into", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 292, + 617, + 365, + 628 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "P _ { t ^ { * } } ( ( 0 , x _ { 2 } ) \\in D _ { 1 } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 365, + 616, + 453, + 630 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") concludes our proof.", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 494, + 617, + 505, + 628 + ], + "score": 0.999, + "content": "□", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 30.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 582, + 506, + 630 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 641, + 505, + 675 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 641, + 505, + 653 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 641, + 244, + 653 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In the main text, we assume that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 245, + 641, + 308, + 653 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\beta _ { 0 } - \\alpha \\alpha _ { 0 } < 0", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 308, + 641, + 505, + 653 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and obtain a bound on the confidence which is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 651, + 505, + 664 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 651, + 181, + 664 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "independent from", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 181, + 654, + 193, + 664 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\alpha _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 193, + 651, + 212, + 664 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 212, + 653, + 223, + 664 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\beta _ { 0 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 651, + 505, + 664 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Using that bound allows to obtain Fig. 9, but is partly unfair as the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 663, + 370, + 676 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 663, + 370, + 676 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "initialization of the network is already favoring the strong feature.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 34, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 641, + 505, + 676 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 680, + 505, + 714 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 678, + 505, + 693 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 678, + 334, + 693 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "However, we note that under small random initialization", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 334, + 682, + 347, + 691 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "z _ { t ^ { * } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 678, + 366, + 693 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 367, + 682, + 381, + 691 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\alpha _ { t ^ { * } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 381, + 678, + 505, + 693 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are of the same order of mag-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 689, + 506, + 704 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 689, + 151, + 704 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "nitude and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 151, + 691, + 198, + 703 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\left( \\beta _ { 0 } - \\alpha \\alpha _ { 0 } \\right)", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 689, + 303, + 704 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is very small compared to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 304, + 691, + 342, + 704 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\log ( \\frac { 1 - \\delta } { \\delta } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 689, + 506, + 704 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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The variance of each Gaussian is chosen such that all eight modes of the data are separated", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 386, + 504, + 398 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 386, + 504, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by regions of low data probability, but still contain a reasonable amount of variance. This simple", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 505, + 410 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 396, + 505, + 410 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "experiment resembles multi-modal datasets. Although this task might seem simple, in practice many", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 506, + 421 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 506, + 421 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "generative adversarial networks fail to capture all the modes. This problem is generally known as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 419, + 169, + 431 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 419, + 169, + 431 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "mode collapse.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 30.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 363, + 506, + 431 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 435, + 505, + 502 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 434, + 505, + 448 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 434, + 505, + 448 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "As shown in the main text, using the hinge loss instead of the common binary cross-entropy loss", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 446, + 505, + 458 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 446, + 505, + 458 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "alleviates the problem significantly. The architectures used for the generator and discriminator both", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 456, + 505, + 469 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 456, + 505, + 469 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "consist of four hidden layers where each layer has 256 hidden units. As a common choice, a ReLU is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 468, + 505, + 480 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 468, + 505, + 480 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used as the non-linearity function for hidden units. The length of the noise input vector is 128. The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 478, + 506, + 492 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 478, + 400, + 492 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Adam optimizer (Kingma & Ba, 2014) was applied during training with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 401, + 479, + 443, + 490 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\alpha \\stackrel { - } { = } 1 0 ^ { - 4 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 443, + 478, + 447, + 492 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 448, + 479, + 487, + 491 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\beta _ { 1 } = 0 . 5", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 487, + 478, + 506, + 492 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 490, + 478, + 503 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 490, + 144, + 502 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\beta _ { 2 } = 0 . 9", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 490, + 478, + 503 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The PyTorch framework (Paszke et al., 2017) was used to conduct the experiment.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 36.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 434, + 506, + 503 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 515, + 335, + 526 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 514, + 337, + 527 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 514, + 337, + 527 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "E.2 Dogs vs. Cats classification with light effect", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 536, + 505, + 624 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 536, + 505, + 548 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 536, + 505, + 548 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For the purpose of highlighting the fact that the most frequent feature starved all the others, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 546, + 505, + 559 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 546, + 505, + 559 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "conducted an experiment on a classification task. 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The classifier has an architecture", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 591, + 504, + 602 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 591, + 504, + 602 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "similar to VGG16 (Simonyan & Zisserman, 2014). In order to isolate the effect of the induced bias,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 601, + 505, + 614 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 601, + 505, + 614 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "no regularization was applied. 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0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..5274ade6ff6680eaa9589be54d0c4503fd1a85f7 --- /dev/null +++ b/parse/train/Syx79eBKwr/Syx79eBKwr.md @@ -0,0 +1,292 @@ +# A MUTUAL INFORMATION MAXIMIZATION PERSPECTIVE OF LANGUAGE REPRESENTATION LEARNING + +Lingpeng $\mathbf { K o n g } ^ { \alpha }$ , Cyprien de Masson d’Autume♠, Wang Ling♠, Lei $\mathbf { V } \mathbf { u } ^ { \pmb { \alpha } }$ , Zihang Dai♥♣ +Dani Yogatama♠ +DeepMind♠, Carnegie Mellon University♥, Google Brain♣ +London, United Kingdom +{lingpenk,cyprien,lingwang,leiyu,zihangd,dyogatama}@google.com + +# ABSTRACT + +We show state-of-the-art word representation learning methods maximize an objective function that is a lower bound on the mutual information between different parts of a word sequence (i.e., a sentence). Our formulation provides an alternative perspective that unifies classical word embedding models (e.g., Skip-gram) and modern contextual embeddings (e.g., BERT, XLNet). In addition to enhancing our theoretical understanding of these methods, our derivation leads to a principled framework that can be used to construct new self-supervised tasks. We provide an example by drawing inspirations from related methods based on mutual information maximization that have been successful in computer vision, and introduce a simple self-supervised objective that maximizes the mutual information between a global sentence representation and $n$ -grams in the sentence. Our analysis offers a holistic view of representation learning methods to transfer knowledge and translate progress across multiple domains (e.g., natural language processing, computer vision, audio processing). + +# 1 INTRODUCTION + +Advances in representation learning have driven progress in natural language processing. Performance on many downstream tasks have improved considerably, achieving parity with human baselines in benchmark leaderboards such as SQuAD (Rajpurkar et al., 2016; 2018) and GLUE (Wang et al., 2019). The main ingredient is the “pretrain and fine-tune” approach, where a large text encoder is trained on an unlabeled corpus with self-supervised training objectives and used to initialize a task-specific model. Such an approach has also been shown to reduce the number of training examples that is needed to achieve good performance on the task of interest (Yogatama et al., 2019). + +In contrast to first-generation models that learn word type embeddings (Mikolov et al., 2013; Pennington et al., 2014), recent methods have focused on contextual token representations—i.e., learning an encoder to represent words in context. Many of these encoders are trained with a language modeling objective, where the representation of a context is trained to be predictive of a target token by maximizing the log likelihood of predicting this token (Dai & Le, 2015; Howard & Ruder, 2018; Radford et al., 2018; 2019). In a vanilla language modeling objective, the target token is always the next token that follows the context. Peters et al. (2018) propose an improvement by adding a reverse objective that also predicts the word token that precedes the context. Following this trend, current state-of-the-art encoders such as BERT (Devlin et al., 2018) and XLNet (Yang et al., 2019) are also trained with variants of the language modeling objective: masked language modeling and permutation language modeling. + +In this paper, we provide an alternative view and show that these methods also maximize a lower bound on the mutual information between different parts of a word sequence. Such a framework is inspired by the InfoMax principle (Linsker, 1988) and has been the main driver of progress in self-supervised representation learning in other domains such as computer vision, audio processing, and reinforcement learning (Belghazi et al., 2018; van den Oord et al., 2019; Hjelm et al., 2019; + +Bachman et al., 2019; O’Connor & Veeling, 2019). Many of these methods are trained to maximize a particular lower bound called InfoNCE (van den Oord et al., 2019)—also known as contrastive learning (Arora et al., 2019). The main idea behind contrastive learning is to divide an input data into multiple (possibly overlapping) views and maximize the mutual information between encoded representations of these views, using views derived from other inputs as negative samples. In $\ S 2$ , we provide an overview of representation learning with mutual information maximization. We then show how the skip-gram objective (§3.1; Mikolov et al. 2013), masked language modeling (§3.2; Devlin et al. 2018), and permutation language modeling (§3.3; Yang et al. 2019), fit in this framework. + +In addition to providing a principled theoretical understanding that bridges progress in multiple areas, our proposed framework also gives rise to a general class of word representation learning models which serves as a basis for designing and combining self-supervised training objectives to create better language representations. As an example, we show how to use this framework to construct a simple self-supervised objective that maximizes the mutual information between a sentence and $n$ -grams in the sentence (§4). We combine it with a variant of the masked language modeling objective and show that the resulting representation performs better, particularly on tasks such as question answering and linguistics acceptability (§5). + +# 2 MUTUAL INFORMATION MAXIMIZATION + +Mutual information measures dependencies between random variables. Given two random variables $A$ and $B$ , it can be understood as how much knowing $A$ reduces the uncertainty in $B$ or vice versa. Formally, the mutual information between $A$ and $B$ is: + +$$ +I ( A , B ) = H ( A ) - H ( A \mid B ) = H ( B ) - H ( B \mid A ) . +$$ + +Consider $A$ and $B$ to be different views of an input data (e.g., a word and its context, two different partitions of a sentence). Consider a function $f$ that takes $A = a$ and $B = b$ as its input. The goal of training is to learn parameters of the function $f$ that maximizes $I ( A , B )$ . + +Maximizing mutual information directly is generally intractable when the function $f$ consists of modern encoders such as neural networks (Paninski, 2003), so we need to resort to a lower bound on $I ( A , B )$ . One particular lower bound that has been shown to work well in practice is InfoNCE (Logeswaran $\&$ Lee, 2018; van den Oord et al., 2019),1 which is based on Noise Contrastive Estimation (NCE; Gutmann & Hyvarinen, 2012).2 InfoNCE is defined as: + +$$ +I ( A , B ) \geq \mathbb { E } _ { p ( A , B ) } \left[ f _ { \pmb { \theta } } ( a , b ) - \mathbb { E } _ { \pmb { q } ( \tilde { \mathfrak { B } } ) } \left[ \log \sum _ { \tilde { b } \in \tilde { \mathfrak { B } } } \exp f _ { \pmb { \theta } } ( a , \tilde { b } ) \right] \right] + \log | \tilde { \mathfrak { B } } | , +$$ + +where $a$ and $b$ are different views of an input sequence, $f _ { \pmb { \theta } } \in \mathbb { R }$ is a function parameterized by $\pmb \theta$ (e.g., a dot product between encoded representations of a word and its context, a dot product between encoded representations of two partitions of a sentence), and $\tilde { \mathcal { B } }$ is a set of samples drawn from a proposal distribution $q ( \tilde { \mathcal { B } } )$ . The set $\tilde { \mathcal { B } }$ contains the positive sample $b$ and $| \tilde { \mathcal { B } } | - 1$ negative samples. + +Learning representations based on this objective is also known as contrastive learning. Arora et al. (2019) show representations learned by such a method have provable performance guarantees and reduce sample complexity on downstream tasks. + +We note that InfoNCE is related to cross-entropy. When $\tilde { \mathcal { B } }$ always includes all possible values of the random variable $B$ (i.e., ${ \tilde { \mathcal { B } } } = { \mathcal { B } }$ ) and they are uniformly distributed, maximizing InfoNCE is analogous to maximizing the standard cross-entropy loss: + +$$ +\mathbb { E } _ { p ( A , B ) } \left[ f _ { \pmb { \theta } } ( a , b ) - \log \sum _ { \tilde { b } \in \mathcal { B } } \exp f _ { \pmb { \theta } } ( a , \tilde { b } ) \right] . +$$ + +Eq. 2 above shows that InfoNCE is related to maximizing $p _ { \theta } ( b \ | \ a )$ , and it approximates the summation over elements in $\mathcal { B }$ (i.e., the partition function) by negative sampling. As a function of the negative samples, the InfoNCE bound is tighter when $\tilde { \mathcal { B } }$ contains more samples (as can be seen in Eq. 1 above by inspecting the $\log | \tilde { \mathcal { B } } |$ term). Approximating a softmax over a large vocabulary with negative samples is a popular technique that has been widely used in natural language processing in the past. We discuss it here to make the connection under this framework clear. + +# 3 MODELS + +We describe how Skip-gram, BERT, and XLNet fit into the mutual information maximization framework as instances of InfoNCE. In the following, we assume that $f _ { \pmb { \theta } } ( a , b ) = g _ { \psi } ( b ) ^ { \top } g _ { \pmb { \omega } } ( a )$ , where $\pmb \theta = \{ \omega , \psi \}$ . Denote the vocabulary set by $\mathcal { V }$ and the size of the vocabulary by $V$ . For word representation learning, we seek to learn an encoder parameterized by $\omega$ to represent each word in a sequence $\pmb { x } = \{ x _ { 1 } , x _ { 1 } , \dots , x _ { T } \}$ in $d$ dimensions. For each of the models we consider in this paper, $a$ and $b$ are formed by taking different parts of $_ { \textbf { \em x } }$ (e.g., $a : = x _ { 0 }$ and $b : = x _ { T }$ ). + +# 3.1 SKIP-GRAM + +We first start with a simple word representation learning model Skip-gram (Mikolov et al., 2013). Skip-gram is a method for learning word representations that relies on the assumption that a good representation of a word should be predictive of its context. The objective function that is maximized in Skip-gram is: $\mathbb { E } _ { p ( x _ { i } , x _ { j } ^ { i } ) } \left[ p ( x _ { j } ^ { i } \mid \bar { x } _ { i } ) \right]$ , where $x _ { i }$ is a word token and $\boldsymbol { x } _ { j } ^ { i }$ is a context word of $x _ { i }$ . + +Let $b$ be the context word to be predicted $x _ { j } ^ { i }$ and $a$ be the input word $x _ { i }$ . Recall that $f _ { \theta } ( a , b )$ is $g _ { \psi } ( b ) ^ { \top } g _ { \omega } ( a )$ . The skip-gram objective function can be written as an instance of InfoNCE (Eq. 1) where $g _ { \psi } ( b )$ and $g _ { \omega } ( a )$ are embedding lookup functions that map each word type to $\mathbb { R } ^ { d }$ . (i.e., $g _ { \psi } ( b ) , g _ { \omega } ( a ) : \mathcal { V } \to \mathbb { R } ^ { d } )$ . + +$p ( x _ { j } ^ { i } \mid x _ { i } )$ can either be computed using a standard softmax over the entire vocabulary or with negative sampling (when the vocabulary is very large). These two approaches correspond to different choices of $\bar { \mathcal { B } }$ . In the softmax approach, $\tilde { \mathcal { B } }$ is the full vocabulary set $\mathcal { V }$ and each word in $\mathcal { V }$ is uniformly distributed. In negative sampling, $\tilde { \mathcal { B } }$ is a set of negative samples drawn from e.g., a unigram distribution. + +While Skip-gram has been widely accepted as an instance contrastive learning (Mikolov et al., 2013; Mnih & Kavukcuoglu, 2013), we include it here to illustrate its connection with modern approaches such as BERT and XLNet described subsequently. We can see that the two views of an input sentence that are considered in Skip-gram are two words that appear in the same sentence, and they are encoded using simple lookup functions. + +# 3.2 BERT + +Devlin et al. (2018) introduce two self-supervised tasks for learning contextual word representations: masked language modeling and next sentence prediction. Previous work suggests that the next sentence prediction objective is not necessary to train a high quality BERT encoder and the masked language modeling appears to be the key to learn good representations (Liu et al., 2019; Joshi et al., 2019; Lample & Conneau, 2019), so we focus on masked language modeling here. However, we also show how next sentence prediction fits into our framework in Appendix A. + +In masked language modeling, given a sequence of word tokens of length $T$ , $\pmb { x } = \{ x _ { 1 } , \dots , x _ { T } \}$ , BERT replaces $15 \%$ of the tokens in the sequence with (i) a mask symbol $80 \%$ of the time, (ii) a random word $10 \%$ of the time, or (iii) its original word. For each replaced token, it introduces a term in the masked language modeling training objective to predict the original word given the perturbed sequence $\pmb { \hat { x } } _ { i } = \{ x _ { 1 } , \ldots , x _ { i } , \ldots , x _ { T } \}$ (i.e., the sequence $_ { \textbf { \em x } }$ masked at $x _ { i }$ ). This training objective can be written as: $\mathbb { E } _ { p ( x _ { i } , \hat { { \pmb x } } _ { i } ) } [ p ( x _ { i } \mid \hat { { \pmb x } } _ { i } ) ]$ . + +Following our notation in $\ S 2$ , we have $f _ { \pmb { \theta } } ( a , b ) = g _ { \psi } ( b ) ^ { \top } g _ { \pmb { \omega } } ( a )$ . Let $b$ be a masked word $x _ { i }$ and $a$ be the masked sequence $\hat { \mathbf { x } } _ { i }$ . Consider a Transformer encoder parameterized by $\omega$ and denote $g _ { \omega } ( \hat { x } _ { i } ) \in \mathbb R ^ { d }$ as a function that returns the final hidden state corresponding to the $i$ -th token (i.e., the masked token) after running $\hat { \mathbf { x } } _ { i }$ through the Transformer. Let $g _ { \psi } : \bar { \mathcal { V } } \to \mathbb { R } ^ { \bar { d } }$ be a lookup function that maps each word type into a vector and ${ \tilde { \mathcal { B } } } = { \mathcal { B } }$ be the full vocabulary set $\mathcal { V }$ . Under this formulation, the masked language modeling objective maximizes Eq. 1 and different choices of masking probabilities can be understood as manipulating the joint distributions $\textstyle p ( a , b )$ . In BERT, the two views of a sentence correspond to a masked word in the sentence and its masked context. + +Contextual vs. non-contextual. It is generally understood that the main difference between Skipgram and BERT is that Skip-gram learns representations of word types (i.e., the representation for a word is always the same regardless of the context it appears in) and BERT learns representations of word tokens. We note that under our formulation for either Skip-gram or BERT, the encoder that we want to learn appears in $g _ { \omega }$ , and $g _ { \psi }$ is not used after training. We show that Skip-gram and BERT maximizes a similar objective, and the main difference is in the choice of the encoder that forms $g _ { \omega }$ —a context dependent Transformer encoder that takes a sequence as its input for BERT and a simple word embedding lookup for Skip-gram. + +# 3.3 XLNET + +Yang et al. (2019) propose a permutation language modeling objective to learn contextual word representations. This objective considers all possible factorization permutations of a joint distribution of a sentence. Given a sentence $\pmb { x } = \{ x _ { 1 } , \dots , x _ { T } \}$ , there are $T !$ ways to factorize its joint distribution.3 Given a sentence $_ { \textbf { \em x } }$ , denote a permutation by $z \in { \mathcal { Z } }$ . XLNet optimizes the objective function: + +$$ +\mathbb { E } _ { p ( \pmb { x } ) } \left[ \mathbb { E } _ { p ( \pmb { z } ) } \left[ \sum _ { t = 1 } ^ { T } \log p ( x _ { t } ^ { z } \mid \pmb { x } _ { < t } ^ { z } ) \right] \right] . +$$ + +As a running example, consider a permutation order $3 , 1 , 5 , 2 , 4$ for a sentence $x _ { 1 } , x _ { 2 } , x _ { 3 } , x _ { 4 } , x _ { 5 }$ . Given the order, XLNet is only trained to predict the last $S$ tokens in practice. For $S = 1$ , the context sequence used for training is $x _ { 1 } , x _ { 2 } , x _ { 3 } , _ { - } , x _ { 5 }$ , with $x _ { 4 }$ being the target word. + +In addition to replacing the Transformer encoder with Transformer XL (Dai et al., 2019), a key architectural innovation of XLNet is the two-stream self-attention. In two-stream self attention, a shared encoder is used to compute two sets of hidden representations from one original sequence. They are called the query stream and the content stream. In the query stream, the input sequence is masked at the target position, whereas the content stream sees the word at the target position. Words at future positions for the permutation order under consideration are also masked in both streams. These masks are implemented as two attention mask matrices. During training, the final hidden representation for a target position from the query stream is used to predict the target word. + +Since there is only one set of encoder parameters for both streams, we show that we can arrive at the permutation language modeling objective from the masked language modeling objective with an architectural change in the encoder. Denote a hidden representation by $\mathbf { h } _ { t } ^ { k }$ , where $t$ indexes the position and $k$ indexes the layer, and consider the training sequence $x _ { 1 } , x _ { 2 } , x _ { 3 } , _ { - } , x _ { 5 }$ and the permutation order 3,1,5,2,4. In BERT, we compute attention scores to obtain $\mathbf { h } _ { t } ^ { k }$ from $\mathbf { h } _ { t } ^ { k - 1 }$ for every $t$ (i.e., $t = 1 , \dots , T )$ , where ${ \bf h } _ { 4 } ^ { 0 }$ is the embedding for the mask symbol. In XLNet, the attention scores for future words in the permutation order are masked to 0. For example, when we compute $\mathbf { h } _ { 1 } ^ { k }$ , only the attention score from $\mathbf { h } _ { 3 } ^ { k - 1 }$ is considered (since the permutation order is 3,1,5,2,4). For $\mathbf { h } _ { 5 } ^ { k }$ , we use $\mathbf { h } _ { 1 } ^ { k - 1 }$ and $\mathbf { h } _ { 3 } ^ { k - 1 }$ . XLNet does not require a mask symbol embedding since the attention score from a masked token is always zeroed out with an attention mask (implemented as a matrix). As a result, we can consider XLNet training as masked language modeling with stochastic attention masks in the encoder. + +It is now straightforward to see that the permutation language modeling objective is an instance of Eq.1, where $b$ is a target token $x _ { i }$ and $a$ is a masked sequence $\pmb { \hat { x } } _ { i } = \{ x _ { 1 } , \ldots , \hat { x } _ { i } , \ldots , x _ { T } \}$ . Similar to + +Table 1: Summary of methods as instances of contrastive learning. See text for details. + +
Objectiveabp(a,b)gg
Skip-gramwordwordword and its contextlookuplookup
MLMcontextmasked wordmasked tokens probabilityTransformerlookup
NSPsentencesentence(non-)consecutive sentencesTransformerlookup
XLNetcontextmasked wordfactorization permutationTXL++lookup
DIMcontextmasked n-gramssentence and its n-gramsTransformernot used
+ +BERT, we have a Transformer encoder parameterized by $\omega$ and denote $g _ { \omega } ( \hat { x } _ { i } ) \in \mathbb R ^ { d }$ as a function that returns the final hidden state corresponding to the $i$ -th token (i.e., the masked token) after running $\hat { \mathbf { x } } _ { i }$ through the Transformer. Let $g _ { \psi } : \bar { \mathcal { V } } \to \bar { \mathbb { R } ^ { d } }$ be a lookup function that maps each word type into a vector and ${ \tilde { \mathcal { B } } } = { \mathcal { B } }$ be the full vocabulary set $\mathcal { V }$ . The main difference between BERT and XLNet is that the encoder that forms $g _ { \omega }$ used in XLNet implements attention masking based on a sampled permutation order when building its representations. In addition, XLNet and BERT also differ in the choice of $\textstyle p ( a , b )$ since each of them has its own masking procedure. However, we can see that both XLNet and BERT maximize the same objective. + +# 4 INFOWORD + +Our analysis on Skip-Gram, BERT, and XLNet shows that their objective functions are different instances of InfoNCE in Eq.1, although they are typically trained using the entire vocabulary set for $\tilde { \mathcal { B } }$ instead of negative sampling. These methods differ in how they choose which views of a sentence they use as $a$ and $b$ , the data distribution $\textstyle p ( a , b )$ , and the architecture of the encoder for computing $g _ { \omega }$ which we summarize in Table 1. Seen under this unifying framework, we can observe that progress in the field has largely been driven by using a more powerful encoder to represent $g _ { \omega }$ . While we only provide derivations for Skip-gram, BERT, and XLNet, it is straightforward to show that other language-modeling-based pretraining-objectives such as those used in ELMo (Peters et al., 2018) and GPT-2 (Radford et al., 2019) can be formulated under this framework. + +Our framework also allows us to draw connections to other mutual information maximization representation learning methods that have been successful in other domains (e.g., computer vision, audio processing, reinforcement learning). In this section, we discuss an example derive insights to design a simple self-supervised objective for learning better language representations. + +Deep InfoMax (DIM; Hjelm et al., 2019) is a mutual information maximization based representation learning method for images. DIM shows that maximizing the mutual information between an image representation and local regions of the image improves the quality of the representation. The complete objective function that DIM maximizes consists of multiple terms. Here, we focus on a term in the objective that maximizes the mutual information between local features and global features. We describe the main idea of this objective for learning representations from a one-dimensional sequence, although it is originally proposed to learn from a two-dimensional object. + +Given a sequence $\pmb { x } = \{ x _ { 1 } , x _ { 2 } , \dots , x _ { T } \}$ , we consider the “global” representation of the sequence to be the hidden state of the first token (assumed to be a special start of sentence symbol) after contextually encoding the sequence $g _ { \omega } ( { \pmb x } )$ ,4 and the local representations to be the encoded representations of each word in the sequence $g _ { \psi } ( x _ { t } )$ . We can use the contrastive learning framework to design a task that maximizes the mutual information between this global representation vector and its corresponding “local” representations using local representations from other sequences $g _ { \psi } ( \hat { x } _ { t } )$ as negative samples. This is analogous to training the global representation vector of a sentence to choose which words appear in the sentence and which words are from other sentences.5 However, if we feed the original sequence $_ { \textbf { \em x } }$ to the encoder and take the hidden state of the first token as the global representation, the task becomes trivial since the global representation is built using all the words in the sequence. We instead use a masked sequence $\boldsymbol { a } : = \hat { \mathbf { x } } _ { t } = \{ x _ { 1 } , \ldots , \hat { x } _ { t } , \ldots , x _ { T } \}$ and $b : = x _ { t }$ . + +State-of-the-art methods based on language modeling objectives consider all negative samples since the second view of the input data (i.e., the part denoted by $b$ in Eq. 1) that are used is simple and it consists of only a target word—hence the size of the negative set is still manageable. A major benefit of the contrastive learning framework is that we only need to be able to take negative samples for training. Instead of individual words, we can use $n$ -grams as the local representations.6 Denote an $n$ -gram by $\boldsymbol { x } _ { i : j }$ and a masked sequence masked at position $i$ to $j$ by $\hat { \mathbf { \mathscr { x } } } _ { i : j }$ We define $\mathcal { I } _ { \mathrm { D I M } }$ as: + +$$ +\mathfrak { I } _ { \mathrm { D I M } } = \mathbb { E } _ { p ( \hat { \pmb { x } } _ { i : j } , \pmb { x } _ { i : j } ) } \left[ g _ { \omega } ( \hat { \pmb { x } } _ { i : j } ) ^ { \top } g _ { \omega } ( \pmb { x } _ { i : j } ) - \log \sum _ { \tilde { \pmb { x } } _ { i : j } \in \tilde { \pmb { \mathscr { S } } } } \exp ( g _ { \omega } ( \hat { \pmb { x } } _ { i : j } ) ^ { \top } g _ { \omega } ( \tilde { \pmb { x } } _ { i : j } ) ) \right] , +$$ + +where $\hat { \mathbf { \mathscr { x } } } _ { i : j }$ is a sentence masked at position $i$ to $j$ , $\boldsymbol { x } _ { i : j }$ is an $n$ -gram spanning from $i$ to $j$ , and $\tilde { \mathbf { \ b { x } } } _ { i : j }$ is an $n$ -gram from a set ˜S that consists of the positive sample $\scriptstyle { \pmb { x } } _ { i : j }$ and negative $n$ -grams from other sentences in the corpus. We use one Transformer to encode both views, so we do not need $g _ { \psi }$ here. + +Since the main goal of representation learning is to train an encoder parameterized by $\omega$ , it is possible to combine multiple self-supervised tasks into an objective function in the contrastive learning framework. Our model, which we denote INFOWORD, combines the above objective—which is designed to improve sentence and span representations—with a masked language modeling objective $\mathcal { I } _ { \mathrm { M L M } }$ for learning word representations. The only difference between our masked language modeling objective and the standard masked language modeling objective is that we use negative sampling to construct $\tilde { \mathcal { V } }$ by sampling from the unigram distribution. We have: + +$$ +\mathcal { I } _ { \mathrm { M L M } } = \mathbb { E } _ { p ( \hat { \pmb { x } } _ { i } , { \pmb { x } } _ { i } ) } \left[ g _ { \omega } ( \hat { \pmb { x } } _ { i } ) ^ { \top } g _ { \psi } ( \pmb { x } _ { i } ) - \log \sum _ { \tilde { \pmb { x } } _ { i } \in \tilde { \mathcal { V } } } \exp ( g _ { \omega } ( \hat { \pmb { x } } _ { i } ) ^ { \top } g _ { \psi } ( \tilde { \pmb { x } } _ { i } ) ) \right] , +$$ + +where $\hat { \mathbf { x } } _ { i }$ a sentence masked at position $i$ and $x _ { i }$ is the $i$ -th token in the sentence. + +Our overall objective function is a weighted combination of the two terms above: + +$$ +\mathrm { \mathcal { I } _ { I N F O W o R D } } = \lambda _ { \mathrm { M L M } } \mathrm { \mathcal { I } _ { M L M } } + \lambda _ { \mathrm { D I M } } \mathrm { \mathcal { I } _ { D I M } } , +$$ + +where $\lambda _ { \mathrm { M L M } }$ and $\lambda _ { \mathrm { D I M } }$ are hyperparameters that balance the contribution of each term. + +# 5 EXPERIMENTS + +In this section, we evaluate the effects of training masked language modeling with negative sampling and adding $\mathcal { I } _ { \mathrm { D I M } }$ to the quality of learned representations. + +# 5.1 SETUP + +We largely follow the same experimental setup as the original BERT model (Devlin et al., 2018). We have two Transformer architectures similar to $\mathbf { B E R T _ { B A S E } }$ and BERTLARGE. BERTBASE has 12 hidden layers, 768 hidden dimensions, and 12 attention heads (110 million parameters); whereas BERTLARGE has 24 hidden layers, 1024 hidden dimensions, and 16 attention heads (340 million parameters). + +For each of the Transformer variant above, we compare three models in our experiments: + +• BERT: The original BERT model publicly available in https://github.com/ google-research/bert. +• BERT-NCE: Our reimplementation of BERT. It differs from the original implementation in several ways: (1) we only use the masked language modeling objective and remove next sentence prediction, (2) we use negative sampling instead of softmax, and (3) we only use one sentence for each training example in a batch. + +• INFOWORD: Our model described in $\ S 4$ . The main difference between INFOWORD and BERT-NCE is the addition of $\mathcal { I } _ { \mathrm { D I M } }$ to the objective function. We discuss how we mask the data for $\mathcal { I } _ { \mathrm { D I M } }$ in $\ S 5 . 2$ . + +# 5.2 PRETRAINING + +We use the same training corpora and apply the same preprocessing and tokenization as BERT. We create masked sequences for training with $\mathcal { I } _ { \mathrm { D I M } }$ as follows. We iteratively sample $n$ -grams from a sequence until the masking budget ( $15 \%$ of the sequence length) has been spent. At each sampling iteration, we first sample the length of the $n$ -gram (i.e., $n$ in $n$ -grams) from a Gaussian distribution $\Re ( 5 , 1 )$ clipped at 1 (minimum length) and 10 (maximum length). Since BERT tokenizes words into subwords, we measure the $n$ -gram length at the word level and compute the masking budget at the subword level. This procedure is inspired by the masking approach in Joshi et al. (2019). + +For negative sampling, we use words and $n$ -grams from other sequences in the same batch as negative samples (for MLM and DIM respectively). There are approximately 70,000 subwords and 10,000 $n$ -grams (words and phrases) in a batch. We discuss hyperparameter details in Appendix B. + +# 5.3 FINE-TUNING + +We evaluate on two benchmarks: GLUE (Wang et al., 2019) and SQuAD(Rajpurkar et al., 2016). We train a task-specific decoder and fine-tune pretrained models for each dataset that we consider. We describe hyperparameter details in Appendix B. + +GLUE is a set of natural language understanding tasks that includes sentiment analysis, linguistic acceptability, paraphrasing, and natural language inference. Each task is formulated as a classification task. The tasks in GLUE are either a single-sentence classification task or a sentence pair classification task. We follow the same setup as the original BERT model and add a start of sentence symbol (i.e., the CLS symbol) to every example and use a separator symbol (i.e., the SEP symbol) to separate two concatenated sentences (for sentence pair classification tasks). We add a linear transformation and a softmax layer to predict the correct label (class) from the representation of the first token of the sequence. + +SQuAD is a reading comprehension dataset constructed from Wikipedia articles. We report results on SQuAD 1.1. Here, we also follow the same setup as the original BERT model and predict an answer span—the start and end indices of the correct answer in the context. We use a standard span predictor as the decoder, which we describe in details in Appendix C. + +# 5.4 RESULTS + +We show our main results in Table 2 and Table 3. Our BERT reimplementation with negative sampling underperforms the original BERT model on GLUE but is significantly better on SQuAD. However, we think that the main reasons for this performance discrepancy are the different masking procedures (we use span-based masking instead of whole-word masking) and the different ways training examples are presented to the model (we use one consecutive sequence instead of two sequences separated by the separator symbol). Comparing BERT-NCE and INFOWORD, we observe the benefit of the new self-supervised objective $\mathcal { I } _ { \mathrm { D I M } }$ (better overall GLUE and SQuAD results), particularly on tasks such as question answering and linguistics acceptability that seem to require understanding of longer phrases. In order to better understand our model, we investigate its performance with varying numbers of training examples and different values of $\lambda _ { \mathrm { D I M } }$ on the SQuAD development set and show the results in Figure 1 (for models with the BASE configuration). We can see that INFOWORD consistently outperforms BERT-NCE and the performance gap is biggest when the dataset is smallest, suggesting the benefit of having better pretrained representations when there are fewer training examples. + +Table 2: Summary of results on GLUE. + +
ModelCoLASST-2MRPCQQPMNLI (M/MM)QNLIRTEGLUE AVG
BAAEBERT52.193.588.971.284.6/83.490.566.478.8
BERT-NCE50.893.088.670.583.2/83.090.965.978.2
INFOWORD53.392.588.771.083.7/82.491.468.378.9
JAREEBERT60.594.989.372.186.7/85.992.770.181.5
BERT-NCE54.793.189.571.285.8/85.092.772.580.6
INFOWORD57.594.290.271.385.8/84.892.672.081.1
+ +Table 3: Summary of results on SQuAD 1.1. + +
ModelDEVTEST
F1EMF1EM
JAACBERT BERT-NCE88.5 90.280.8 83.3=1 84.4
INFOWORD90.784.090.9 91.484.7
JAEEEBERT BERT-NCE INFOWORD90.9 92.0 92.684.1 85.9 86.691.3 92.7 93.184.3 86.6 87.3
+ +# 5.5 DISCUSSION + +Span-based models. We show how to design a simple self-supervised task in the InfoNCE framework that improves downstream performance on several datasets. Learning language representations to predict contiguous masked tokens has been explored in other context, and the objective introduced in $\mathcal { I } _ { \mathrm { D I M } }$ is related to these span-based models such as SpanBERT (Joshi et al., 2019) and MASS (Song et al., 2019). While our experimental goal is to demonstrate the benefit of contrastive learning for constructing self-supervised tasks, we note that INFOWORD is simpler to train and exhibits similar trends to SpanBERT that outperforms baseline models. We leave exhaustive comparisons to these methods to future work. + +Mutual information maximization. A recent study has questioned whether the success of InfoNCE as an objective function is due to its property as a lower bound on mutual information and provides an alternative hypothesis based on metric learning (Tschannen et al., 2019). Regardless of the prevailing perspective, InfoNCE is widely accepted as a good representation learning objective, and formulating state-of-the-art language representation learning methods under this framework offers valuable insights that unifies many popular representation learning methods. + +Regularization. Image representation learning methods often incorporate a regularization term in its objective function to encourage learned representations to look like a prior distribution (Hjelm et al., 2019; Bachman et al., 2019). This is useful for incorporating prior knowledge into a representation learning model. For example, the DeepInfoMax model has a term in its objective that encourages the learned representation from the encoder to match a uniform prior. Regularization is not commonly used when learning language representations. Our analysis and the connection we draw to representation learning methods used in other domains provide an insight into possible ways to incorporate prior knowledge into language representation learning models. + +Future directions. The InfoNCE framework provides a holistic way to view progress in language representation learning. The framework is very flexible and suggests several directions that can be explored to improve existing methods. We show that progress in the field has been largely driven by innovations in the encoder which forms $g _ { \omega }$ . InfoNCE is based on maximizing the mutual information between different views of an input data, and it facilitates training on structured views as long as we can perform negative sampling (van den Oord et al., 2019; Bachman et al., 2019). Our analysis demonstrates that existing methods based on language modeling objectives only consider a single target word as one of the views. We think that incorporating more complex views (e.g., higher-order or skip $n$ -grams, syntactic and semantic parses, etc.) and designing appropriate self-supervised tasks is a promising future direction. A related area that is also underexplored is designing methods to obtain better negative samples. + +![](images/72ec514322e1e2b86a4c954ec3bc132ad81ebcabab62e8d81b0d098a9abafaf5.jpg) +Figure 1: The left plot shows $F _ { 1 }$ scores of BERT-NCE and INFOWORD as we increase the percentage of training examples on SQuAD (dev). The right plot shows $F _ { 1 }$ scores of INFOWORD on SQuAD (dev) as a function of $\lambda _ { \mathrm { D I M } }$ . + +# 6 CONCLUSION + +We analyzed state-of-the-art language representation learning methods from the perspective of mutual information maximization. We provided a unifying view of classical and modern word embedding models and showed how they relate to popular representation learning methods used in other domains. We used this framework to construct a new self-supervised task based on maximizing the mutual information between the global representation and local representations of a sentence. We demonstrated the benefit of this new task via experiments on GLUE and SQuAD. + +# REFERENCES + +Sanjeev Arora, Hrishikesh Khandeparkar, Mikhail Khodak, Orestis Plevrakis, and Nikunj Saunshi. A theoretical analysis of contrastive unsupervised representation learning. In Proc. of ICML, 2019. + +Philip Bachman, R Devon Hjelm, and William Buchwalter. Learning representations by maximizing mutual information across views. arXiv preprint 1906.00910, 2019. + +Mohamed Ishmael Belghazi, Aristide Baratin, Sai Rajeswar, Sherjil Ozair, Yoshua Bengio, Aaron Courville, and R Devon Hjelm. Mine: Mutual information neural estimation. In Proc. of ICML, 2018. + +Andrew M. Dai and Quoc V. Le. Semi-supervised sequence learning. In Proc. of NIPS, 2015. + +Zihang Dai, Zhilin Yang, Yiming Yang, Jaime Carbonell, Quoc V. Le, and Ruslan Salakhutdinov. Transformer-XL: Attentive language models beyond a fixed-length context. In Proc. of ACL, 2019. + +Jacob Devlin, Ming-Wei Chang, Kenton Lee, and Kristina Toutanova. BERT: Pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. In Proc. of NAACL, 2018. + +M. D. Donsker and S. R. S. Varadhan. Asymptotic evaluation of certain markov process expectations for large time. iv. Communications on Pure and Applied Mathematics, 36(2):183––212, 1983. + +Michael U. Gutmann and Aapo Hyvarinen. Noise-contrastive estimation of unnormalized statistical models, with applications to natural image statistics. Journal of Machine Learning Research, 13: 307––361, 2012. + +R Devon Hjelm, Alex Fedorov, Samuel Lavoie-Marchildon, Karan Grewal, Phil Bachman, Adam Trischler, and Yoshua Bengio. Learning deep representations by mutual information estimation and maximization. In Proc. of ICLR, 2019. + +Jeremy Howard and Sebastian Ruder. Universal language model fine-tuning for text classification. In Proc. of ACL, 2018. + +Mandar Joshi, Danqi Chen, Yinhan Liu, Daniel S. Weld, Luke Zettlemoyer, and Omer Levy. SpanBERT: Improving pre-training by representing and predicting spans. arXiv preprint 1907.10529, 2019. + +Diederik P. Kingma and Jimmy Lei Ba. Adam: a method for stochastic optimization. In Proc. of ICLR, 2015. + +Guillaume Lample and Alexis Conneau. Cross-lingual language model pretraining. arXiv preprint 1901.07291, 2019. + +Ralph Linsker. Self-organization in a perceptual network. Computer, 21(3):105–117, 1988. + +Yinhan Liu, Myle Ott, Naman Goyal, Jingfei Du, Mandar Joshi, Danqi Chen, Omer Levy, Mike Lewis, Luke Zettlemoyer, and Veselin Stoyanov. RoBERTa: A robustly optimized bert pretraining approach. arXiv preprint 1907.11692, 2019. + +Lajanugen Logeswaran and Honglak Lee. An efficient framework for learning sentence representations. In Proc. of ICLR, 2018. + +Tomas Mikolov, Ilya Sutskever, Kai Chen, Greg Corrado, and Jeffrey Dean. Distributed representations of words and phrases and their compositionality. In Proc. of NIPS, 2013. + +Andriy Mnih and Koray Kavukcuoglu. Learning word embeddings efficiently with noise-contrastive estimation. In Proc. of NIPS, 2013. + +Sebastian Nowozin, Botond Cseke, , and Ryota Tomioka. f-gan: Training generative neural samplers using variational divergence minimization. In Proc. of NIPS, 2016. + +Sindy Lowe Peter O’Connor and Bastiaan S. Veeling. Greedy infomax for biologically plausible self-supervised representation learning. In Proc. of NeurIPS, 2019. + +Liam Paninski. Estimation of entropy and mutual information. Neural computation, 15(6):1191—- 1253, 2003. + +Jeffrey Pennington, Richard Socher, and Christopher D. Manning. Glove: Global vectors for word representation. In Proc. of EMNLP, 2014. + +Matthew E. Peters, Mark Neumann, Mohit Iyyer, Matt Gardner, Christopher Clark, Kenton Lee, and Luke Zettlemoyer. Deep contextualized word representations. In Proc. of NAACL, 2018. + +Ben Poole, Sherjil Ozair, Aaron van den Oord, Alexander A. Alemi, and George Tucker. On variational lower bounds of mutual information. In Proc. of ICML, 2019. + +Alec Radford, Karthik Narasimhan, Tim Salimans, and Ilya Sutskever. Improving language understanding by generative pre-training. Technical report, OpenAI, 2018. + +Alec Radford, Jeffrey Wu, Rewon Child, David Luan, Dario Amodei, and Ilya Sutskever. Language models are unsupervised multitask learners. Technical report, OpenAI, 2019. + +Pranav Rajpurkar, Jian Zhang, Konstantin Lopyrev, and Percy Liang. SQuAD: $^ { 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 + }$ questions for machine comprehension of text. In Proc. of EMNLP, 2016. + +Pranav Rajpurkar, Robin Jia, and Percy Liang. Know what you don’t know: Unanswerable questions for squad. In Proc. of ACL, 2018. + +Kaitao Song, Xu Tan, Tao Qin, Jianfeng Lu, and Tie-Yan Liu. MASS: Masked sequence to sequence pre-training for language generation. In Proc. of ICML, 2019. + +Michael Tschannen, Josip Djolonga, Paul K. Rubenstein, and Sylvain Gelly. On mutual information maximization for representation learning. arXiv preprint 1907.13625, 2019. + +Aaron van den Oord, Yazhe Li, and Oriol Vinyals. Representation learning with contrastive predictive coding. arXiv preprint 1807.03748, 2019. + +Alex Wang, Amanpreet Singh, Julian Michael, Felix Hill, Omer Levy, and Samuel R. Bowman. GLUE: A multi-task benchmark and analysis platform for natural language understainding. In Proc. of ICLR, 2019. + +Zhilin Yang, Zihang Dai, Yiming Yang, Jaime Carbonell, Ruslan Salakhutdinov, and Quoc V. Le. XLNet: Generalized autoregressive pretraining for language understanding. arXiv preprint 1906.08237, 2019. + +Dani Yogatama, Cyprien de Masson d’Autume, Jerome Connor, Tomas Kocisky, Mike Chrzanowski, Lingpeng Kong, Angeliki Lazaridou, Wang Ling, Lei Yu, Chris Dyer, and Phil Blunsom. Learning and evaluating general linguistic intelligence. arXiv preprint 1901.11373, 2019. + +# A NEXT SENTENCE PREDICTION + +We show that the next sentence prediction objective used in BERT is an instance of contrastive learning in this section. In next sentence prediction, given two sentences $\mathbf { x } ^ { 1 }$ and $\scriptstyle { \pmb x } ^ { 2 }$ , the task is to predict whether these are two consecutive sentences or not. Training data for this task is created by sampling a random second sentence $\hat { \pmb x } ^ { 2 }$ from the corpus to be used as a negative example $50 \%$ of the time. + +Consider a discriminator (i.e., a classifier with parameters $\phi$ ) that takes encoded representations of concatenated $\scriptstyle { \mathbf { { x } } } ^ { 1 }$ and $\scriptstyle { \boldsymbol { x } } ^ { 2 }$ and returns a score. We denote this discriminator by $d _ { \phi } ( \pmb { x } ^ { 1 } , \pmb { x } ^ { 2 } )$ . The next sentence prediction objective function is: + +$$ +\mathbb { E } _ { p ( { \pmb x } ^ { 1 } , { \pmb x } ^ { 2 } ) } \left[ \log d _ { \phi } ( g _ { \omega } ( [ { \pmb x } ^ { 1 } , { \pmb x } ^ { 2 } ) ] ) + \log ( 1 - d _ { \phi } ( g _ { \omega } ( [ { \pmb x } ^ { 1 } , \tilde { { \pmb x } } ^ { 2 } ] ) ) ) \right] . +$$ + +This objective function—which is used for training BERT—is known in the literature as “local” Noise Contrastive Estimation (Gutmann & Hyvarinen, 2012). Since summing over all possible negative sentences is intractable, BERT approximates this by using a binary classifier to distinguish real samples and noisy samples. + +An alternative approximation to using a binary classifier is to use “global NCE”, which is what InfoNCE is based on. Here, we have: + +$$ +\mathbb { E } _ { p ( { \pmb x } ^ { 1 } , { \pmb x } ^ { 2 } ) } \left[ \psi ^ { \top } g _ { \omega } ( [ { \pmb x } ^ { 1 } , { \pmb x } ^ { 2 } ) ] ) - \log \sum _ { \tilde { { \pmb x } } ^ { 2 } \in \tilde { \mathcal { X } } ^ { 2 } } \exp ( \psi ^ { \top } ( g _ { \omega } ( [ { \pmb x } ^ { 1 } , \tilde { { \pmb x } } ^ { 2 } ] ) ) ) \right] , +$$ + +where we sample negative sentences from the corpus and combine it with the positive sentence to construct ${ \tilde { \mathcal { X } } } ^ { 2 }$ . To make the connection of this objective function with InfoNCE in Eq. 1 explicit, let $a$ and $b$ be two consecutive sentences $\scriptstyle { \mathbf { \mathscr { x } } } _ { 1 }$ and $\mathbf { x } _ { 2 }$ . Let $f _ { \theta } ( a , b )$ be $\psi ^ { \top } g _ { \omega } ( [ a , b ] )$ , where $\boldsymbol { \psi } \in \mathbb { R } ^ { d }$ is a trainable parameter, $[ a , b ]$ denotes a concatenation of $a$ and $b$ . Consider a Transformer encoder parameterized by $\omega$ , and let $g _ { \omega } ( [ a , b ] ) \in \mathbb { R } ^ { d }$ be a function that returns the final hidden state of the first token after running the concatenated sequence to the Transformer. Note that the encoder that we want to learn only depends on $g _ { \omega }$ , so both of these approximations can be used for training next sentence prediction. + +# B HYPERPARAMETERS + +Pretraining. We use Adam (Kingma & Ba, 2015) with $\beta _ { 1 } = 0 . 9$ , $\beta _ { 2 } = 0 . 9 8$ and $\epsilon = 1 e - 6$ . The batch size for training is 1024 with a maximum sequence length of 512. We train for 400,000 steps (including 18,000 warmup steps) with a weight decay rate of 0.01. We set the learning rate to $4 e ^ { - 4 }$ for all variants of the BASE models and $1 e ^ { - \overline { { 4 } } }$ for the LARGE models. We set $\lambda _ { \mathrm { M L M } }$ to 1.0 and tune $\lambda _ { \mathrm { D I M } } \in \{ 0 . 4 , 0 . 6 , 0 . 8 , 1 . 0 \}$ . + +GLUE. We set the maximum sequence length to 128. For each GLUE task, we use the respective development set to choose the learning rate from $\{ 5 e ^ { - 6 } , 1 e ^ { - 5 } , 2 e ^ { - 5 } , 3 e ^ { - 5 } , 5 e ^ { - 5 } \}$ , and the batch size from $\{ 1 6 , 3 2 \}$ . The number of training epochs is set to 4 for CoLA and 10 for other tasks, following Joshi et al. (2019). We run each hyperparameter configuration 5 times and evaluate the best model on the test set (once). + +SQuAD. We set the maximum sequence length to 512 and train for 4 epochs. We use the development set to choose the learning rate from $\{ 5 e ^ { - 6 } , 1 e ^ { - 5 } , 2 e ^ { - 5 } , 3 e ^ { - 5 } , 5 e ^ { - 5 } \}$ and the batch size from $\{ 1 6 , 3 2 \}$ . + +# C QUESTION ANSWERING DECODER + +We use a standard span predictor as follows. Denote the length of the context paragraph by $M$ , and $\pmb { x } ^ { \mathrm { c o n t e x t } } = \{ x _ { 1 } ^ { \mathrm { c o n t e x t } } , \allowbreak . \cdot . . , x _ { M } ^ { \mathrm { c o n t e x t } } \}$ . Denote the encoded representation of the $m$ -th token in the and xt by . Th $\mathbf { x } _ { t , m } ^ { \mathrm { c o n t e x t } }$ . The question answering decoder introduces two sets of parameters: bility of each context token being the start of the answer is comput $\mathbf { w } _ { \mathrm { s t a r t } }$ $\mathbf { w } _ { \mathrm { e n d } }$ +$\begin{array} { r } { p ( \mathsf { s t a r t } = x _ { t , m } ^ { \mathrm { c o n t e x t } } \mid x _ { t } ) = \frac { \exp ( \mathbf { w } _ { \mathrm { s t a r t } } ^ { \top } \mathbf { x } _ { t , m } ^ { \mathrm { c o n t e x t } } ) } { \sum _ { n = 0 } ^ { M } \exp ( \mathbf { w } _ { \mathrm { s t a r t } } ^ { \top } \mathbf { x } _ { t , n } ^ { \mathrm { c o n t e x t } } ) } . } \end{array}$ The probability of the end index of the answer is computed analogously using $\mathbf { w } _ { \mathrm { e n d } }$ . The predicted answer is the span with the highest probability after multiplying the start and end probabilities. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/parse/train/Syx79eBKwr/Syx79eBKwr_content_list.json b/parse/train/Syx79eBKwr/Syx79eBKwr_content_list.json new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..f6b0a5a75241728bb24fc7354a270197fc519081 --- /dev/null +++ b/parse/train/Syx79eBKwr/Syx79eBKwr_content_list.json @@ -0,0 +1,1522 @@ +[ + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A MUTUAL INFORMATION MAXIMIZATION PERSPECTIVE OF LANGUAGE REPRESENTATION LEARNING ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 98, + 826, + 148 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Lingpeng $\\mathbf { K o n g } ^ { \\alpha }$ , Cyprien de Masson d’Autume♠, Wang Ling♠, Lei $\\mathbf { V } \\mathbf { u } ^ { \\pmb { \\alpha } }$ , Zihang Dai♥♣ \nDani Yogatama♠ \nDeepMind♠, Carnegie Mellon University♥, Google Brain♣ \nLondon, United Kingdom \n{lingpenk,cyprien,lingwang,leiyu,zihangd,dyogatama}@google.com ", + "bbox": [ + 181, + 169, + 799, + 246 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "ABSTRACT ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 454, + 282, + 544, + 297 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We show state-of-the-art word representation learning methods maximize an objective function that is a lower bound on the mutual information between different parts of a word sequence (i.e., a sentence). Our formulation provides an alternative perspective that unifies classical word embedding models (e.g., Skip-gram) and modern contextual embeddings (e.g., BERT, XLNet). In addition to enhancing our theoretical understanding of these methods, our derivation leads to a principled framework that can be used to construct new self-supervised tasks. We provide an example by drawing inspirations from related methods based on mutual information maximization that have been successful in computer vision, and introduce a simple self-supervised objective that maximizes the mutual information between a global sentence representation and $n$ -grams in the sentence. Our analysis offers a holistic view of representation learning methods to transfer knowledge and translate progress across multiple domains (e.g., natural language processing, computer vision, audio processing). ", + "bbox": [ + 233, + 314, + 766, + 517 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "1 INTRODUCTION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 542, + 336, + 559 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Advances in representation learning have driven progress in natural language processing. Performance on many downstream tasks have improved considerably, achieving parity with human baselines in benchmark leaderboards such as SQuAD (Rajpurkar et al., 2016; 2018) and GLUE (Wang et al., 2019). The main ingredient is the “pretrain and fine-tune” approach, where a large text encoder is trained on an unlabeled corpus with self-supervised training objectives and used to initialize a task-specific model. Such an approach has also been shown to reduce the number of training examples that is needed to achieve good performance on the task of interest (Yogatama et al., 2019). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 574, + 825, + 676 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In contrast to first-generation models that learn word type embeddings (Mikolov et al., 2013; Pennington et al., 2014), recent methods have focused on contextual token representations—i.e., learning an encoder to represent words in context. Many of these encoders are trained with a language modeling objective, where the representation of a context is trained to be predictive of a target token by maximizing the log likelihood of predicting this token (Dai & Le, 2015; Howard & Ruder, 2018; Radford et al., 2018; 2019). In a vanilla language modeling objective, the target token is always the next token that follows the context. Peters et al. (2018) propose an improvement by adding a reverse objective that also predicts the word token that precedes the context. Following this trend, current state-of-the-art encoders such as BERT (Devlin et al., 2018) and XLNet (Yang et al., 2019) are also trained with variants of the language modeling objective: masked language modeling and permutation language modeling. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 684, + 825, + 843 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this paper, we provide an alternative view and show that these methods also maximize a lower bound on the mutual information between different parts of a word sequence. Such a framework is inspired by the InfoMax principle (Linsker, 1988) and has been the main driver of progress in self-supervised representation learning in other domains such as computer vision, audio processing, and reinforcement learning (Belghazi et al., 2018; van den Oord et al., 2019; Hjelm et al., 2019; ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 851, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Bachman et al., 2019; O’Connor & Veeling, 2019). Many of these methods are trained to maximize a particular lower bound called InfoNCE (van den Oord et al., 2019)—also known as contrastive learning (Arora et al., 2019). The main idea behind contrastive learning is to divide an input data into multiple (possibly overlapping) views and maximize the mutual information between encoded representations of these views, using views derived from other inputs as negative samples. In $\\ S 2$ , we provide an overview of representation learning with mutual information maximization. We then show how the skip-gram objective (§3.1; Mikolov et al. 2013), masked language modeling (§3.2; Devlin et al. 2018), and permutation language modeling (§3.3; Yang et al. 2019), fit in this framework. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 102, + 825, + 220 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In addition to providing a principled theoretical understanding that bridges progress in multiple areas, our proposed framework also gives rise to a general class of word representation learning models which serves as a basis for designing and combining self-supervised training objectives to create better language representations. As an example, we show how to use this framework to construct a simple self-supervised objective that maximizes the mutual information between a sentence and $n$ -grams in the sentence (§4). We combine it with a variant of the masked language modeling objective and show that the resulting representation performs better, particularly on tasks such as question answering and linguistics acceptability (§5). ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 227, + 825, + 344 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2 MUTUAL INFORMATION MAXIMIZATION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 363, + 544, + 381 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Mutual information measures dependencies between random variables. Given two random variables $A$ and $B$ , it can be understood as how much knowing $A$ reduces the uncertainty in $B$ or vice versa. Formally, the mutual information between $A$ and $B$ is: ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 395, + 826, + 439 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/19334d059510f9686a9e248e1382a0f03868f9a5869df7795239d8060fb84bf7.jpg", + "text": "$$\nI ( A , B ) = H ( A ) - H ( A \\mid B ) = H ( B ) - H ( B \\mid A ) .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 318, + 441, + 676, + 458 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Consider $A$ and $B$ to be different views of an input data (e.g., a word and its context, two different partitions of a sentence). Consider a function $f$ that takes $A = a$ and $B = b$ as its input. The goal of training is to learn parameters of the function $f$ that maximizes $I ( A , B )$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 462, + 825, + 506 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Maximizing mutual information directly is generally intractable when the function $f$ consists of modern encoders such as neural networks (Paninski, 2003), so we need to resort to a lower bound on $I ( A , B )$ . One particular lower bound that has been shown to work well in practice is InfoNCE (Logeswaran $\\&$ Lee, 2018; van den Oord et al., 2019),1 which is based on Noise Contrastive Estimation (NCE; Gutmann & Hyvarinen, 2012).2 InfoNCE is defined as: ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 512, + 825, + 585 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/798630903cef89d26f9ffc32a897dd0ccbaa6b72ef9d2350df4202a0feffcfaa.jpg", + "text": "$$\nI ( A , B ) \\geq \\mathbb { E } _ { p ( A , B ) } \\left[ f _ { \\pmb { \\theta } } ( a , b ) - \\mathbb { E } _ { \\pmb { q } ( \\tilde { \\mathfrak { B } } ) } \\left[ \\log \\sum _ { \\tilde { b } \\in \\tilde { \\mathfrak { B } } } \\exp f _ { \\pmb { \\theta } } ( a , \\tilde { b } ) \\right] \\right] + \\log | \\tilde { \\mathfrak { B } } | ,\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 246, + 587, + 750, + 637 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where $a$ and $b$ are different views of an input sequence, $f _ { \\pmb { \\theta } } \\in \\mathbb { R }$ is a function parameterized by $\\pmb \\theta$ (e.g., a dot product between encoded representations of a word and its context, a dot product between encoded representations of two partitions of a sentence), and $\\tilde { \\mathcal { B } }$ is a set of samples drawn from a proposal distribution $q ( \\tilde { \\mathcal { B } } )$ . The set $\\tilde { \\mathcal { B } }$ contains the positive sample $b$ and $| \\tilde { \\mathcal { B } } | - 1$ negative samples. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 645, + 825, + 707 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Learning representations based on this objective is also known as contrastive learning. Arora et al. (2019) show representations learned by such a method have provable performance guarantees and reduce sample complexity on downstream tasks. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 713, + 825, + 757 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We note that InfoNCE is related to cross-entropy. When $\\tilde { \\mathcal { B } }$ always includes all possible values of the random variable $B$ (i.e., ${ \\tilde { \\mathcal { B } } } = { \\mathcal { B } }$ ) and they are uniformly distributed, maximizing InfoNCE is analogous to maximizing the standard cross-entropy loss: ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 765, + 825, + 811 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/71ca60ac020ce92b8af6529d98671a79fdd2dc2b4ece2007962a533c87a9b36e.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\mathbb { E } _ { p ( A , B ) } \\left[ f _ { \\pmb { \\theta } } ( a , b ) - \\log \\sum _ { \\tilde { b } \\in \\mathcal { B } } \\exp f _ { \\pmb { \\theta } } ( a , \\tilde { b } ) \\right] .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 352, + 813, + 643, + 863 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Eq. 2 above shows that InfoNCE is related to maximizing $p _ { \\theta } ( b \\ | \\ a )$ , and it approximates the summation over elements in $\\mathcal { B }$ (i.e., the partition function) by negative sampling. As a function of the negative samples, the InfoNCE bound is tighter when $\\tilde { \\mathcal { B } }$ contains more samples (as can be seen in Eq. 1 above by inspecting the $\\log | \\tilde { \\mathcal { B } } |$ term). Approximating a softmax over a large vocabulary with negative samples is a popular technique that has been widely used in natural language processing in the past. We discuss it here to make the connection under this framework clear. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 102, + 825, + 193 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3 MODELS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 219, + 279, + 236 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We describe how Skip-gram, BERT, and XLNet fit into the mutual information maximization framework as instances of InfoNCE. In the following, we assume that $f _ { \\pmb { \\theta } } ( a , b ) = g _ { \\psi } ( b ) ^ { \\top } g _ { \\pmb { \\omega } } ( a )$ , where $\\pmb \\theta = \\{ \\omega , \\psi \\}$ . Denote the vocabulary set by $\\mathcal { V }$ and the size of the vocabulary by $V$ . For word representation learning, we seek to learn an encoder parameterized by $\\omega$ to represent each word in a sequence $\\pmb { x } = \\{ x _ { 1 } , x _ { 1 } , \\dots , x _ { T } \\}$ in $d$ dimensions. For each of the models we consider in this paper, $a$ and $b$ are formed by taking different parts of $_ { \\textbf { \\em x } }$ (e.g., $a : = x _ { 0 }$ and $b : = x _ { T }$ ). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 255, + 826, + 344 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.1 SKIP-GRAM", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 367, + 297, + 382 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We first start with a simple word representation learning model Skip-gram (Mikolov et al., 2013). Skip-gram is a method for learning word representations that relies on the assumption that a good representation of a word should be predictive of its context. The objective function that is maximized in Skip-gram is: $\\mathbb { E } _ { p ( x _ { i } , x _ { j } ^ { i } ) } \\left[ p ( x _ { j } ^ { i } \\mid \\bar { x } _ { i } ) \\right]$ , where $x _ { i }$ is a word token and $\\boldsymbol { x } _ { j } ^ { i }$ is a context word of $x _ { i }$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 395, + 825, + 457 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Let $b$ be the context word to be predicted $x _ { j } ^ { i }$ and $a$ be the input word $x _ { i }$ . Recall that $f _ { \\theta } ( a , b )$ is $g _ { \\psi } ( b ) ^ { \\top } g _ { \\omega } ( a )$ . The skip-gram objective function can be written as an instance of InfoNCE (Eq. 1) where $g _ { \\psi } ( b )$ and $g _ { \\omega } ( a )$ are embedding lookup functions that map each word type to $\\mathbb { R } ^ { d }$ . (i.e., $g _ { \\psi } ( b ) , g _ { \\omega } ( a ) : \\mathcal { V } \\to \\mathbb { R } ^ { d } )$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 465, + 825, + 526 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "$p ( x _ { j } ^ { i } \\mid x _ { i } )$ can either be computed using a standard softmax over the entire vocabulary or with negative sampling (when the vocabulary is very large). These two approaches correspond to different choices of $\\bar { \\mathcal { B } }$ . In the softmax approach, $\\tilde { \\mathcal { B } }$ is the full vocabulary set $\\mathcal { V }$ and each word in $\\mathcal { V }$ is uniformly distributed. In negative sampling, $\\tilde { \\mathcal { B } }$ is a set of negative samples drawn from e.g., a unigram distribution. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 534, + 825, + 609 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "While Skip-gram has been widely accepted as an instance contrastive learning (Mikolov et al., 2013; Mnih & Kavukcuoglu, 2013), we include it here to illustrate its connection with modern approaches such as BERT and XLNet described subsequently. We can see that the two views of an input sentence that are considered in Skip-gram are two words that appear in the same sentence, and they are encoded using simple lookup functions. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 616, + 825, + 689 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.2 BERT ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 712, + 259, + 727 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Devlin et al. (2018) introduce two self-supervised tasks for learning contextual word representations: masked language modeling and next sentence prediction. Previous work suggests that the next sentence prediction objective is not necessary to train a high quality BERT encoder and the masked language modeling appears to be the key to learn good representations (Liu et al., 2019; Joshi et al., 2019; Lample & Conneau, 2019), so we focus on masked language modeling here. However, we also show how next sentence prediction fits into our framework in Appendix A. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 741, + 826, + 829 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In masked language modeling, given a sequence of word tokens of length $T$ , $\\pmb { x } = \\{ x _ { 1 } , \\dots , x _ { T } \\}$ , BERT replaces $15 \\%$ of the tokens in the sequence with (i) a mask symbol $80 \\%$ of the time, (ii) a random word $10 \\%$ of the time, or (iii) its original word. For each replaced token, it introduces a term in the masked language modeling training objective to predict the original word given the perturbed sequence $\\pmb { \\hat { x } } _ { i } = \\{ x _ { 1 } , \\ldots , x _ { i } , \\ldots , x _ { T } \\}$ (i.e., the sequence $_ { \\textbf { \\em x } }$ masked at $x _ { i }$ ). This training objective can be written as: $\\mathbb { E } _ { p ( x _ { i } , \\hat { { \\pmb x } } _ { i } ) } [ p ( x _ { i } \\mid \\hat { { \\pmb x } } _ { i } ) ]$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 837, + 825, + 925 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Following our notation in $\\ S 2$ , we have $f _ { \\pmb { \\theta } } ( a , b ) = g _ { \\psi } ( b ) ^ { \\top } g _ { \\pmb { \\omega } } ( a )$ . Let $b$ be a masked word $x _ { i }$ and $a$ be the masked sequence $\\hat { \\mathbf { x } } _ { i }$ . Consider a Transformer encoder parameterized by $\\omega$ and denote $g _ { \\omega } ( \\hat { x } _ { i } ) \\in \\mathbb R ^ { d }$ as a function that returns the final hidden state corresponding to the $i$ -th token (i.e., the masked token) after running $\\hat { \\mathbf { x } } _ { i }$ through the Transformer. Let $g _ { \\psi } : \\bar { \\mathcal { V } } \\to \\mathbb { R } ^ { \\bar { d } }$ be a lookup function that maps each word type into a vector and ${ \\tilde { \\mathcal { B } } } = { \\mathcal { B } }$ be the full vocabulary set $\\mathcal { V }$ . Under this formulation, the masked language modeling objective maximizes Eq. 1 and different choices of masking probabilities can be understood as manipulating the joint distributions $\\textstyle p ( a , b )$ . In BERT, the two views of a sentence correspond to a masked word in the sentence and its masked context. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 102, + 825, + 223 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Contextual vs. non-contextual. It is generally understood that the main difference between Skipgram and BERT is that Skip-gram learns representations of word types (i.e., the representation for a word is always the same regardless of the context it appears in) and BERT learns representations of word tokens. We note that under our formulation for either Skip-gram or BERT, the encoder that we want to learn appears in $g _ { \\omega }$ , and $g _ { \\psi }$ is not used after training. We show that Skip-gram and BERT maximizes a similar objective, and the main difference is in the choice of the encoder that forms $g _ { \\omega }$ —a context dependent Transformer encoder that takes a sequence as its input for BERT and a simple word embedding lookup for Skip-gram. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 236, + 826, + 354 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3.3 XLNET ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 369, + 269, + 383 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Yang et al. (2019) propose a permutation language modeling objective to learn contextual word representations. This objective considers all possible factorization permutations of a joint distribution of a sentence. Given a sentence $\\pmb { x } = \\{ x _ { 1 } , \\dots , x _ { T } \\}$ , there are $T !$ ways to factorize its joint distribution.3 Given a sentence $_ { \\textbf { \\em x } }$ , denote a permutation by $z \\in { \\mathcal { Z } }$ . XLNet optimizes the objective function: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 396, + 825, + 455 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/56f070a0149a871bd62f7318124c7dad4289ef7625b6fe0471676e2064ad1681.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\mathbb { E } _ { p ( \\pmb { x } ) } \\left[ \\mathbb { E } _ { p ( \\pmb { z } ) } \\left[ \\sum _ { t = 1 } ^ { T } \\log p ( x _ { t } ^ { z } \\mid \\pmb { x } _ { < t } ^ { z } ) \\right] \\right] .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 369, + 454, + 625, + 497 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "As a running example, consider a permutation order $3 , 1 , 5 , 2 , 4$ for a sentence $x _ { 1 } , x _ { 2 } , x _ { 3 } , x _ { 4 } , x _ { 5 }$ . Given the order, XLNet is only trained to predict the last $S$ tokens in practice. For $S = 1$ , the context sequence used for training is $x _ { 1 } , x _ { 2 } , x _ { 3 } , _ { - } , x _ { 5 }$ , with $x _ { 4 }$ being the target word. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 500, + 826, + 544 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In addition to replacing the Transformer encoder with Transformer XL (Dai et al., 2019), a key architectural innovation of XLNet is the two-stream self-attention. In two-stream self attention, a shared encoder is used to compute two sets of hidden representations from one original sequence. They are called the query stream and the content stream. In the query stream, the input sequence is masked at the target position, whereas the content stream sees the word at the target position. Words at future positions for the permutation order under consideration are also masked in both streams. These masks are implemented as two attention mask matrices. During training, the final hidden representation for a target position from the query stream is used to predict the target word. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 549, + 826, + 667 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Since there is only one set of encoder parameters for both streams, we show that we can arrive at the permutation language modeling objective from the masked language modeling objective with an architectural change in the encoder. Denote a hidden representation by $\\mathbf { h } _ { t } ^ { k }$ , where $t$ indexes the position and $k$ indexes the layer, and consider the training sequence $x _ { 1 } , x _ { 2 } , x _ { 3 } , _ { - } , x _ { 5 }$ and the permutation order 3,1,5,2,4. In BERT, we compute attention scores to obtain $\\mathbf { h } _ { t } ^ { k }$ from $\\mathbf { h } _ { t } ^ { k - 1 }$ for every $t$ (i.e., $t = 1 , \\dots , T )$ , where ${ \\bf h } _ { 4 } ^ { 0 }$ is the embedding for the mask symbol. In XLNet, the attention scores for future words in the permutation order are masked to 0. For example, when we compute $\\mathbf { h } _ { 1 } ^ { k }$ , only the attention score from $\\mathbf { h } _ { 3 } ^ { k - 1 }$ is considered (since the permutation order is 3,1,5,2,4). For $\\mathbf { h } _ { 5 } ^ { k }$ , we use $\\mathbf { h } _ { 1 } ^ { k - 1 }$ and $\\mathbf { h } _ { 3 } ^ { k - 1 }$ . XLNet does not require a mask symbol embedding since the attention score from a masked token is always zeroed out with an attention mask (implemented as a matrix). As a result, we can consider XLNet training as masked language modeling with stochastic attention masks in the encoder. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 674, + 826, + 852 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "It is now straightforward to see that the permutation language modeling objective is an instance of Eq.1, where $b$ is a target token $x _ { i }$ and $a$ is a masked sequence $\\pmb { \\hat { x } } _ { i } = \\{ x _ { 1 } , \\ldots , \\hat { x } _ { i } , \\ldots , x _ { T } \\}$ . Similar to ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 858, + 821, + 888 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/a0d3762d65a863ee43c4350452491756079b9fe8677c289f5a70f199218ef53b.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 1: Summary of methods as instances of contrastive learning. See text for details. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
Objectiveabp(a,b)gg
Skip-gramwordwordword and its contextlookuplookup
MLMcontextmasked wordmasked tokens probabilityTransformerlookup
NSPsentencesentence(non-)consecutive sentencesTransformerlookup
XLNetcontextmasked wordfactorization permutationTXL++lookup
DIMcontextmasked n-gramssentence and its n-gramsTransformernot used
", + "bbox": [ + 189, + 127, + 808, + 222 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "BERT, we have a Transformer encoder parameterized by $\\omega$ and denote $g _ { \\omega } ( \\hat { x } _ { i } ) \\in \\mathbb R ^ { d }$ as a function that returns the final hidden state corresponding to the $i$ -th token (i.e., the masked token) after running $\\hat { \\mathbf { x } } _ { i }$ through the Transformer. Let $g _ { \\psi } : \\bar { \\mathcal { V } } \\to \\bar { \\mathbb { R } ^ { d } }$ be a lookup function that maps each word type into a vector and ${ \\tilde { \\mathcal { B } } } = { \\mathcal { B } }$ be the full vocabulary set $\\mathcal { V }$ . The main difference between BERT and XLNet is that the encoder that forms $g _ { \\omega }$ used in XLNet implements attention masking based on a sampled permutation order when building its representations. In addition, XLNet and BERT also differ in the choice of $\\textstyle p ( a , b )$ since each of them has its own masking procedure. However, we can see that both XLNet and BERT maximize the same objective. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 244, + 825, + 363 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "4 INFOWORD ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 383, + 302, + 400 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Our analysis on Skip-Gram, BERT, and XLNet shows that their objective functions are different instances of InfoNCE in Eq.1, although they are typically trained using the entire vocabulary set for $\\tilde { \\mathcal { B } }$ instead of negative sampling. These methods differ in how they choose which views of a sentence they use as $a$ and $b$ , the data distribution $\\textstyle p ( a , b )$ , and the architecture of the encoder for computing $g _ { \\omega }$ which we summarize in Table 1. Seen under this unifying framework, we can observe that progress in the field has largely been driven by using a more powerful encoder to represent $g _ { \\omega }$ . While we only provide derivations for Skip-gram, BERT, and XLNet, it is straightforward to show that other language-modeling-based pretraining-objectives such as those used in ELMo (Peters et al., 2018) and GPT-2 (Radford et al., 2019) can be formulated under this framework. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 415, + 825, + 547 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Our framework also allows us to draw connections to other mutual information maximization representation learning methods that have been successful in other domains (e.g., computer vision, audio processing, reinforcement learning). In this section, we discuss an example derive insights to design a simple self-supervised objective for learning better language representations. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 555, + 825, + 613 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Deep InfoMax (DIM; Hjelm et al., 2019) is a mutual information maximization based representation learning method for images. DIM shows that maximizing the mutual information between an image representation and local regions of the image improves the quality of the representation. The complete objective function that DIM maximizes consists of multiple terms. Here, we focus on a term in the objective that maximizes the mutual information between local features and global features. We describe the main idea of this objective for learning representations from a one-dimensional sequence, although it is originally proposed to learn from a two-dimensional object. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 621, + 825, + 723 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Given a sequence $\\pmb { x } = \\{ x _ { 1 } , x _ { 2 } , \\dots , x _ { T } \\}$ , we consider the “global” representation of the sequence to be the hidden state of the first token (assumed to be a special start of sentence symbol) after contextually encoding the sequence $g _ { \\omega } ( { \\pmb x } )$ ,4 and the local representations to be the encoded representations of each word in the sequence $g _ { \\psi } ( x _ { t } )$ . We can use the contrastive learning framework to design a task that maximizes the mutual information between this global representation vector and its corresponding “local” representations using local representations from other sequences $g _ { \\psi } ( \\hat { x } _ { t } )$ as negative samples. This is analogous to training the global representation vector of a sentence to choose which words appear in the sentence and which words are from other sentences.5 However, if we feed the original sequence $_ { \\textbf { \\em x } }$ to the encoder and take the hidden state of the first token as the global representation, the task becomes trivial since the global representation is built using all the words in the sequence. We instead use a masked sequence $\\boldsymbol { a } : = \\hat { \\mathbf { x } } _ { t } = \\{ x _ { 1 } , \\ldots , \\hat { x } _ { t } , \\ldots , x _ { T } \\}$ and $b : = x _ { t }$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 729, + 825, + 861 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 103, + 825, + 133 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "State-of-the-art methods based on language modeling objectives consider all negative samples since the second view of the input data (i.e., the part denoted by $b$ in Eq. 1) that are used is simple and it consists of only a target word—hence the size of the negative set is still manageable. A major benefit of the contrastive learning framework is that we only need to be able to take negative samples for training. Instead of individual words, we can use $n$ -grams as the local representations.6 Denote an $n$ -gram by $\\boldsymbol { x } _ { i : j }$ and a masked sequence masked at position $i$ to $j$ by $\\hat { \\mathbf { \\mathscr { x } } } _ { i : j }$ We define $\\mathcal { I } _ { \\mathrm { D I M } }$ as: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 140, + 825, + 228 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/a88bf5218bcd9b625c52bf3ccb952e336a4d857215dca10eac01814ce7c397d1.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\mathfrak { I } _ { \\mathrm { D I M } } = \\mathbb { E } _ { p ( \\hat { \\pmb { x } } _ { i : j } , \\pmb { x } _ { i : j } ) } \\left[ g _ { \\omega } ( \\hat { \\pmb { x } } _ { i : j } ) ^ { \\top } g _ { \\omega } ( \\pmb { x } _ { i : j } ) - \\log \\sum _ { \\tilde { \\pmb { x } } _ { i : j } \\in \\tilde { \\pmb { \\mathscr { S } } } } \\exp ( g _ { \\omega } ( \\hat { \\pmb { x } } _ { i : j } ) ^ { \\top } g _ { \\omega } ( \\tilde { \\pmb { x } } _ { i : j } ) ) \\right] ,\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 230, + 231, + 766, + 282 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where $\\hat { \\mathbf { \\mathscr { x } } } _ { i : j }$ is a sentence masked at position $i$ to $j$ , $\\boldsymbol { x } _ { i : j }$ is an $n$ -gram spanning from $i$ to $j$ , and $\\tilde { \\mathbf { \\ b { x } } } _ { i : j }$ is an $n$ -gram from a set ˜S that consists of the positive sample $\\scriptstyle { \\pmb { x } } _ { i : j }$ and negative $n$ -grams from other sentences in the corpus. We use one Transformer to encode both views, so we do not need $g _ { \\psi }$ here. ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 285, + 821, + 332 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Since the main goal of representation learning is to train an encoder parameterized by $\\omega$ , it is possible to combine multiple self-supervised tasks into an objective function in the contrastive learning framework. Our model, which we denote INFOWORD, combines the above objective—which is designed to improve sentence and span representations—with a masked language modeling objective $\\mathcal { I } _ { \\mathrm { M L M } }$ for learning word representations. The only difference between our masked language modeling objective and the standard masked language modeling objective is that we use negative sampling to construct $\\tilde { \\mathcal { V } }$ by sampling from the unigram distribution. We have: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 338, + 825, + 441 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/0e8ca4704e5f03321f843dd134ec577ba92a36657dffb16f3cfe21b937dd2675.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\mathcal { I } _ { \\mathrm { M L M } } = \\mathbb { E } _ { p ( \\hat { \\pmb { x } } _ { i } , { \\pmb { x } } _ { i } ) } \\left[ g _ { \\omega } ( \\hat { \\pmb { x } } _ { i } ) ^ { \\top } g _ { \\psi } ( \\pmb { x } _ { i } ) - \\log \\sum _ { \\tilde { \\pmb { x } } _ { i } \\in \\tilde { \\mathcal { V } } } \\exp ( g _ { \\omega } ( \\hat { \\pmb { x } } _ { i } ) ^ { \\top } g _ { \\psi } ( \\tilde { \\pmb { x } } _ { i } ) ) \\right] ,\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 259, + 439, + 735, + 488 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where $\\hat { \\mathbf { x } } _ { i }$ a sentence masked at position $i$ and $x _ { i }$ is the $i$ -th token in the sentence. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 491, + 700, + 506 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Our overall objective function is a weighted combination of the two terms above: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 512, + 704, + 527 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/5d00287e9688f3d1f3a9b713a7e1f574d9a777f1ee08c6e6b35df6cd372a5c41.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\mathrm { \\mathcal { I } _ { I N F O W o R D } } = \\lambda _ { \\mathrm { M L M } } \\mathrm { \\mathcal { I } _ { M L M } } + \\lambda _ { \\mathrm { D I M } } \\mathrm { \\mathcal { I } _ { D I M } } ,\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 374, + 532, + 620, + 549 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where $\\lambda _ { \\mathrm { M L M } }$ and $\\lambda _ { \\mathrm { D I M } }$ are hyperparameters that balance the contribution of each term. ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 553, + 738, + 568 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5 EXPERIMENTS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 588, + 326, + 604 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section, we evaluate the effects of training masked language modeling with negative sampling and adding $\\mathcal { I } _ { \\mathrm { D I M } }$ to the quality of learned representations. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 619, + 823, + 650 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5.1 SETUP ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 665, + 261, + 680 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We largely follow the same experimental setup as the original BERT model (Devlin et al., 2018). We have two Transformer architectures similar to $\\mathbf { B E R T _ { B A S E } }$ and BERTLARGE. BERTBASE has 12 hidden layers, 768 hidden dimensions, and 12 attention heads (110 million parameters); whereas BERTLARGE has 24 hidden layers, 1024 hidden dimensions, and 16 attention heads (340 million parameters). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 693, + 825, + 751 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "For each of the Transformer variant above, we compare three models in our experiments: ", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 758, + 756, + 772 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "• BERT: The original BERT model publicly available in https://github.com/ google-research/bert. \n• BERT-NCE: Our reimplementation of BERT. It differs from the original implementation in several ways: (1) we only use the masked language modeling objective and remove next sentence prediction, (2) we use negative sampling instead of softmax, and (3) we only use one sentence for each training example in a batch. ", + "bbox": [ + 215, + 784, + 825, + 876 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "• INFOWORD: Our model described in $\\ S 4$ . The main difference between INFOWORD and BERT-NCE is the addition of $\\mathcal { I } _ { \\mathrm { D I M } }$ to the objective function. We discuss how we mask the data for $\\mathcal { I } _ { \\mathrm { D I M } }$ in $\\ S 5 . 2$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 217, + 103, + 823, + 147 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5.2 PRETRAINING ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 181, + 312, + 195 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We use the same training corpora and apply the same preprocessing and tokenization as BERT. We create masked sequences for training with $\\mathcal { I } _ { \\mathrm { D I M } }$ as follows. We iteratively sample $n$ -grams from a sequence until the masking budget ( $15 \\%$ of the sequence length) has been spent. At each sampling iteration, we first sample the length of the $n$ -gram (i.e., $n$ in $n$ -grams) from a Gaussian distribution $\\Re ( 5 , 1 )$ clipped at 1 (minimum length) and 10 (maximum length). Since BERT tokenizes words into subwords, we measure the $n$ -gram length at the word level and compute the masking budget at the subword level. This procedure is inspired by the masking approach in Joshi et al. (2019). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 214, + 825, + 316 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "For negative sampling, we use words and $n$ -grams from other sequences in the same batch as negative samples (for MLM and DIM respectively). There are approximately 70,000 subwords and 10,000 $n$ -grams (words and phrases) in a batch. We discuss hyperparameter details in Appendix B. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 324, + 825, + 367 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5.3 FINE-TUNING ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 401, + 310, + 415 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We evaluate on two benchmarks: GLUE (Wang et al., 2019) and SQuAD(Rajpurkar et al., 2016). We train a task-specific decoder and fine-tune pretrained models for each dataset that we consider. We describe hyperparameter details in Appendix B. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 434, + 825, + 478 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "GLUE is a set of natural language understanding tasks that includes sentiment analysis, linguistic acceptability, paraphrasing, and natural language inference. Each task is formulated as a classification task. The tasks in GLUE are either a single-sentence classification task or a sentence pair classification task. We follow the same setup as the original BERT model and add a start of sentence symbol (i.e., the CLS symbol) to every example and use a separator symbol (i.e., the SEP symbol) to separate two concatenated sentences (for sentence pair classification tasks). We add a linear transformation and a softmax layer to predict the correct label (class) from the representation of the first token of the sequence. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 486, + 825, + 602 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "SQuAD is a reading comprehension dataset constructed from Wikipedia articles. We report results on SQuAD 1.1. Here, we also follow the same setup as the original BERT model and predict an answer span—the start and end indices of the correct answer in the context. We use a standard span predictor as the decoder, which we describe in details in Appendix C. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 609, + 825, + 667 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5.4 RESULTS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 702, + 277, + 715 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We show our main results in Table 2 and Table 3. Our BERT reimplementation with negative sampling underperforms the original BERT model on GLUE but is significantly better on SQuAD. However, we think that the main reasons for this performance discrepancy are the different masking procedures (we use span-based masking instead of whole-word masking) and the different ways training examples are presented to the model (we use one consecutive sequence instead of two sequences separated by the separator symbol). Comparing BERT-NCE and INFOWORD, we observe the benefit of the new self-supervised objective $\\mathcal { I } _ { \\mathrm { D I M } }$ (better overall GLUE and SQuAD results), particularly on tasks such as question answering and linguistics acceptability that seem to require understanding of longer phrases. In order to better understand our model, we investigate its performance with varying numbers of training examples and different values of $\\lambda _ { \\mathrm { D I M } }$ on the SQuAD development set and show the results in Figure 1 (for models with the BASE configuration). We can see that INFOWORD consistently outperforms BERT-NCE and the performance gap is biggest when the dataset is smallest, suggesting the benefit of having better pretrained representations when there are fewer training examples. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 734, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/f852b6b577b110ff17ca48f005dda4301aa55aca70011f41296157cf2ae1094f.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 2: Summary of results on GLUE. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
ModelCoLASST-2MRPCQQPMNLI (M/MM)QNLIRTEGLUE AVG
BAAEBERT52.193.588.971.284.6/83.490.566.478.8
BERT-NCE50.893.088.670.583.2/83.090.965.978.2
INFOWORD53.392.588.771.083.7/82.491.468.378.9
JAREEBERT60.594.989.372.186.7/85.992.770.181.5
BERT-NCE54.793.189.571.285.8/85.092.772.580.6
INFOWORD57.594.290.271.385.8/84.892.672.081.1
", + "bbox": [ + 214, + 127, + 781, + 253 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/a6391a1dc60ef88e93fd7fc9858f94cbc57013ccd7bf2d7119b8680c2c669b6e.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 3: Summary of results on SQuAD 1.1. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
ModelDEVTEST
F1EMF1EM
JAACBERT BERT-NCE88.5 90.280.8 83.3=1 84.4
INFOWORD90.784.090.9 91.484.7
JAEEEBERT BERT-NCE INFOWORD90.9 92.0 92.684.1 85.9 86.691.3 92.7 93.184.3 86.6 87.3
", + "bbox": [ + 357, + 277, + 637, + 404 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5.5 DISCUSSION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 412, + 302, + 428 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Span-based models. We show how to design a simple self-supervised task in the InfoNCE framework that improves downstream performance on several datasets. Learning language representations to predict contiguous masked tokens has been explored in other context, and the objective introduced in $\\mathcal { I } _ { \\mathrm { D I M } }$ is related to these span-based models such as SpanBERT (Joshi et al., 2019) and MASS (Song et al., 2019). While our experimental goal is to demonstrate the benefit of contrastive learning for constructing self-supervised tasks, we note that INFOWORD is simpler to train and exhibits similar trends to SpanBERT that outperforms baseline models. We leave exhaustive comparisons to these methods to future work. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 440, + 825, + 558 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Mutual information maximization. A recent study has questioned whether the success of InfoNCE as an objective function is due to its property as a lower bound on mutual information and provides an alternative hypothesis based on metric learning (Tschannen et al., 2019). Regardless of the prevailing perspective, InfoNCE is widely accepted as a good representation learning objective, and formulating state-of-the-art language representation learning methods under this framework offers valuable insights that unifies many popular representation learning methods. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 568, + 826, + 655 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Regularization. Image representation learning methods often incorporate a regularization term in its objective function to encourage learned representations to look like a prior distribution (Hjelm et al., 2019; Bachman et al., 2019). This is useful for incorporating prior knowledge into a representation learning model. For example, the DeepInfoMax model has a term in its objective that encourages the learned representation from the encoder to match a uniform prior. Regularization is not commonly used when learning language representations. Our analysis and the connection we draw to representation learning methods used in other domains provide an insight into possible ways to incorporate prior knowledge into language representation learning models. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 665, + 825, + 782 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Future directions. The InfoNCE framework provides a holistic way to view progress in language representation learning. The framework is very flexible and suggests several directions that can be explored to improve existing methods. We show that progress in the field has been largely driven by innovations in the encoder which forms $g _ { \\omega }$ . InfoNCE is based on maximizing the mutual information between different views of an input data, and it facilitates training on structured views as long as we can perform negative sampling (van den Oord et al., 2019; Bachman et al., 2019). Our analysis demonstrates that existing methods based on language modeling objectives only consider a single target word as one of the views. We think that incorporating more complex views (e.g., higher-order or skip $n$ -grams, syntactic and semantic parses, etc.) and designing appropriate self-supervised tasks is a promising future direction. A related area that is also underexplored is designing methods to obtain better negative samples. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 792, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/72ec514322e1e2b86a4c954ec3bc132ad81ebcabab62e8d81b0d098a9abafaf5.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 1: The left plot shows $F _ { 1 }$ scores of BERT-NCE and INFOWORD as we increase the percentage of training examples on SQuAD (dev). The right plot shows $F _ { 1 }$ scores of INFOWORD on SQuAD (dev) as a function of $\\lambda _ { \\mathrm { D I M } }$ . " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 183, + 102, + 807, + 228 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 300, + 823, + 329 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "6 CONCLUSION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 349, + 318, + 367 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We analyzed state-of-the-art language representation learning methods from the perspective of mutual information maximization. We provided a unifying view of classical and modern word embedding models and showed how they relate to popular representation learning methods used in other domains. We used this framework to construct a new self-supervised task based on maximizing the mutual information between the global representation and local representations of a sentence. We demonstrated the benefit of this new task via experiments on GLUE and SQuAD. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 382, + 825, + 469 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "REFERENCES ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 491, + 285, + 507 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Sanjeev Arora, Hrishikesh Khandeparkar, Mikhail Khodak, Orestis Plevrakis, and Nikunj Saunshi. A theoretical analysis of contrastive unsupervised representation learning. In Proc. of ICML, 2019. 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Representation learning with contrastive predictive coding. arXiv preprint 1807.03748, 2019. ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 893, + 820, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Alex Wang, Amanpreet Singh, Julian Michael, Felix Hill, Omer Levy, and Samuel R. Bowman. GLUE: A multi-task benchmark and analysis platform for natural language understainding. In Proc. of ICLR, 2019. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 825, + 147 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Zhilin Yang, Zihang Dai, Yiming Yang, Jaime Carbonell, Ruslan Salakhutdinov, and Quoc V. Le. XLNet: Generalized autoregressive pretraining for language understanding. arXiv preprint 1906.08237, 2019. ", + "bbox": [ + 178, + 154, + 825, + 198 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Dani Yogatama, Cyprien de Masson d’Autume, Jerome Connor, Tomas Kocisky, Mike Chrzanowski, Lingpeng Kong, Angeliki Lazaridou, Wang Ling, Lei Yu, Chris Dyer, and Phil Blunsom. Learning and evaluating general linguistic intelligence. arXiv preprint 1901.11373, 2019. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 205, + 825, + 251 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A NEXT SENTENCE PREDICTION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 178, + 273, + 462, + 290 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We show that the next sentence prediction objective used in BERT is an instance of contrastive learning in this section. In next sentence prediction, given two sentences $\\mathbf { x } ^ { 1 }$ and $\\scriptstyle { \\pmb x } ^ { 2 }$ , the task is to predict whether these are two consecutive sentences or not. Training data for this task is created by sampling a random second sentence $\\hat { \\pmb x } ^ { 2 }$ from the corpus to be used as a negative example $50 \\%$ of the time. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 304, + 825, + 378 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Consider a discriminator (i.e., a classifier with parameters $\\phi$ ) that takes encoded representations of concatenated $\\scriptstyle { \\mathbf { { x } } } ^ { 1 }$ and $\\scriptstyle { \\boldsymbol { x } } ^ { 2 }$ and returns a score. We denote this discriminator by $d _ { \\phi } ( \\pmb { x } ^ { 1 } , \\pmb { x } ^ { 2 } )$ . The next sentence prediction objective function is: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 385, + 825, + 429 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/a1b1338751cdeefc6ab251a6f2e0d6a2827d0338b8674e226e41a7b13abbdb51.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\mathbb { E } _ { p ( { \\pmb x } ^ { 1 } , { \\pmb x } ^ { 2 } ) } \\left[ \\log d _ { \\phi } ( g _ { \\omega } ( [ { \\pmb x } ^ { 1 } , { \\pmb x } ^ { 2 } ) ] ) + \\log ( 1 - d _ { \\phi } ( g _ { \\omega } ( [ { \\pmb x } ^ { 1 } , \\tilde { { \\pmb x } } ^ { 2 } ] ) ) ) \\right] .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 285, + 429, + 710, + 449 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "This objective function—which is used for training BERT—is known in the literature as “local” Noise Contrastive Estimation (Gutmann & Hyvarinen, 2012). Since summing over all possible negative sentences is intractable, BERT approximates this by using a binary classifier to distinguish real samples and noisy samples. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 449, + 825, + 508 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "An alternative approximation to using a binary classifier is to use “global NCE”, which is what InfoNCE is based on. Here, we have: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 515, + 823, + 544 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/4c4e80c595524e212495c414f73203c01facce09faa64de28f444ec8240cf9e9.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\mathbb { E } _ { p ( { \\pmb x } ^ { 1 } , { \\pmb x } ^ { 2 } ) } \\left[ \\psi ^ { \\top } g _ { \\omega } ( [ { \\pmb x } ^ { 1 } , { \\pmb x } ^ { 2 } ) ] ) - \\log \\sum _ { \\tilde { { \\pmb x } } ^ { 2 } \\in \\tilde { \\mathcal { X } } ^ { 2 } } \\exp ( \\psi ^ { \\top } ( g _ { \\omega } ( [ { \\pmb x } ^ { 1 } , \\tilde { { \\pmb x } } ^ { 2 } ] ) ) ) \\right] ,\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 272, + 545, + 722, + 594 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where we sample negative sentences from the corpus and combine it with the positive sentence to construct ${ \\tilde { \\mathcal { X } } } ^ { 2 }$ . To make the connection of this objective function with InfoNCE in Eq. 1 explicit, let $a$ and $b$ be two consecutive sentences $\\scriptstyle { \\mathbf { \\mathscr { x } } } _ { 1 }$ and $\\mathbf { x } _ { 2 }$ . Let $f _ { \\theta } ( a , b )$ be $\\psi ^ { \\top } g _ { \\omega } ( [ a , b ] )$ , where $\\boldsymbol { \\psi } \\in \\mathbb { R } ^ { d }$ is a trainable parameter, $[ a , b ]$ denotes a concatenation of $a$ and $b$ . Consider a Transformer encoder parameterized by $\\omega$ , and let $g _ { \\omega } ( [ a , b ] ) \\in \\mathbb { R } ^ { d }$ be a function that returns the final hidden state of the first token after running the concatenated sequence to the Transformer. Note that the encoder that we want to learn only depends on $g _ { \\omega }$ , so both of these approximations can be used for training next sentence prediction. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 594, + 825, + 713 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "B HYPERPARAMETERS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 732, + 380, + 748 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Pretraining. We use Adam (Kingma & Ba, 2015) with $\\beta _ { 1 } = 0 . 9$ , $\\beta _ { 2 } = 0 . 9 8$ and $\\epsilon = 1 e - 6$ . The batch size for training is 1024 with a maximum sequence length of 512. We train for 400,000 steps (including 18,000 warmup steps) with a weight decay rate of 0.01. We set the learning rate to $4 e ^ { - 4 }$ for all variants of the BASE models and $1 e ^ { - \\overline { { 4 } } }$ for the LARGE models. We set $\\lambda _ { \\mathrm { M L M } }$ to 1.0 and tune $\\lambda _ { \\mathrm { D I M } } \\in \\{ 0 . 4 , 0 . 6 , 0 . 8 , 1 . 0 \\}$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 762, + 825, + 837 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "GLUE. We set the maximum sequence length to 128. For each GLUE task, we use the respective development set to choose the learning rate from $\\{ 5 e ^ { - 6 } , 1 e ^ { - 5 } , 2 e ^ { - 5 } , 3 e ^ { - 5 } , 5 e ^ { - 5 } \\}$ , and the batch size from $\\{ 1 6 , 3 2 \\}$ . The number of training epochs is set to 4 for CoLA and 10 for other tasks, following Joshi et al. (2019). We run each hyperparameter configuration 5 times and evaluate the best model on the test set (once). ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 851, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 10 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "SQuAD. We set the maximum sequence length to 512 and train for 4 epochs. We use the development set to choose the learning rate from $\\{ 5 e ^ { - 6 } , 1 e ^ { - 5 } , 2 e ^ { - 5 } , 3 e ^ { - 5 } , 5 e ^ { - 5 } \\}$ and the batch size from $\\{ 1 6 , 3 2 \\}$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 826, + 147 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "C QUESTION ANSWERING DECODER ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 173, + 167, + 496, + 184 + ], + "page_idx": 11 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We use a standard span predictor as follows. Denote the length of the context paragraph by $M$ , and $\\pmb { x } ^ { \\mathrm { c o n t e x t } } = \\{ x _ { 1 } ^ { \\mathrm { c o n t e x t } } , \\allowbreak . \\cdot . . , x _ { M } ^ { \\mathrm { c o n t e x t } } \\}$ . Denote the encoded representation of the $m$ -th token in the and xt by . Th $\\mathbf { x } _ { t , m } ^ { \\mathrm { c o n t e x t } }$ . The question answering decoder introduces two sets of parameters: bility of each context token being the start of the answer is comput $\\mathbf { w } _ { \\mathrm { s t a r t } }$ $\\mathbf { w } _ { \\mathrm { e n d } }$ \n$\\begin{array} { r } { p ( \\mathsf { s t a r t } = x _ { t , m } ^ { \\mathrm { c o n t e x t } } \\mid x _ { t } ) = \\frac { \\exp ( \\mathbf { w } _ { \\mathrm { s t a r t } } ^ { \\top } \\mathbf { x } _ { t , m } ^ { \\mathrm { c o n t e x t } } ) } { \\sum _ { n = 0 } ^ { M } \\exp ( \\mathbf { w } _ { \\mathrm { s t a r t } } ^ { \\top } \\mathbf { x } _ { t , n } ^ { \\mathrm { c o n t e x t } } ) } . } \\end{array}$ The probability of the end index of the answer is computed analogously using $\\mathbf { w } _ { \\mathrm { e n d } }$ . The predicted answer is the span with the highest probability after multiplying the start and end probabilities. 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In addition to enhancing our", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 306, + 469, + 318 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 306, + 469, + 318 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "theoretical understanding of these methods, our derivation leads to a principled", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 318, + 469, + 330 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 318, + 469, + 330 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "framework that can be used to construct new self-supervised tasks. We provide an", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 330, + 470, + 341 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 330, + 470, + 341 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "example by drawing inspirations from related methods based on mutual informa-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 341, + 470, + 353 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 341, + 470, + 353 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "tion maximization that have been successful in computer vision, and introduce a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 353, + 470, + 365 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 353, + 470, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "simple self-supervised objective that maximizes the mutual information between a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 364, + 470, + 376 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 364, + 282, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "global sentence representation and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 283, + 366, + 290, + 374 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "n", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 290, + 364, + 470, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-grams in the sentence. Our analysis offers a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 375, + 470, + 388 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 375, + 470, + 388 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "holistic view of representation learning methods to transfer knowledge and trans-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 387, + 470, + 400 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 387, + 470, + 400 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "late progress across multiple domains (e.g., natural language processing, computer", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 398, + 247, + 411 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 398, + 247, + 411 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "vision, audio processing).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 14.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 141, + 248, + 470, + 411 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 430, + 206, + 443 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 429, + 208, + 446 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 429, + 208, + 446 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1 INTRODUCTION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 455, + 505, + 536 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 456, + 505, + 468 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 456, + 505, + 468 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Advances in representation learning have driven progress in natural language processing. Performance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 467, + 505, + 480 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 467, + 505, + 480 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on many downstream tasks have improved considerably, achieving parity with human baselines in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 478, + 506, + 491 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 478, + 506, + 491 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "benchmark leaderboards such as SQuAD (Rajpurkar et al., 2016; 2018) and GLUE (Wang et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 489, + 506, + 503 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 489, + 506, + 503 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2019). The main ingredient is the “pretrain and fine-tune” approach, where a large text encoder", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 501, + 506, + 514 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 501, + 506, + 514 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is trained on an unlabeled corpus with self-supervised training objectives and used to initialize a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 513, + 505, + 526 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 513, + 505, + 526 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "task-specific model. Such an approach has also been shown to reduce the number of training examples", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 525, + 468, + 537 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 525, + 468, + 537 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that is needed to achieve good performance on the task of interest (Yogatama et al., 2019).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 26, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 456, + 506, + 537 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 542, + 505, + 668 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 542, + 506, + 554 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 542, + 506, + 554 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In contrast to first-generation models that learn word type embeddings (Mikolov et al., 2013; Pen-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 505, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 553, + 505, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "nington et al., 2014), recent methods have focused on contextual token representations—i.e., learning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 506, + 579 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 506, + 579 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "an encoder to represent words in context. Many of these encoders are trained with a language", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 577, + 505, + 588 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 577, + 505, + 588 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "modeling objective, where the representation of a context is trained to be predictive of a target token", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 587, + 506, + 600 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 587, + 506, + 600 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "by maximizing the log likelihood of predicting this token (Dai & Le, 2015; Howard & Ruder, 2018;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 599, + 506, + 613 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 599, + 506, + 613 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Radford et al., 2018; 2019). In a vanilla language modeling objective, the target token is always", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 610, + 506, + 624 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 610, + 506, + 624 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the next token that follows the context. Peters et al. (2018) propose an improvement by adding a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 623, + 506, + 635 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 623, + 506, + 635 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reverse objective that also predicts the word token that precedes the context. Following this trend,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 635, + 506, + 646 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 635, + 506, + 646 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "current state-of-the-art encoders such as BERT (Devlin et al., 2018) and XLNet (Yang et al., 2019)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 646, + 506, + 659 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 646, + 506, + 659 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are also trained with variants of the language modeling objective: masked language modeling and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 657, + 238, + 670 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 657, + 238, + 670 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "permutation language modeling.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + } + ], + "index": 35, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 542, + 506, + 670 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 674, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 675, + 505, + 687 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 675, + 505, + 687 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this paper, we provide an alternative view and show that these methods also maximize a lower", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 686, + 505, + 699 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 686, + 505, + 699 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "bound on the mutual information between different parts of a word sequence. Such a framework", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 696, + 505, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 696, + 505, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is inspired by the InfoMax principle (Linsker, 1988) and has been the main driver of progress in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 707, + 507, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 707, + 507, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "self-supervised representation learning in other domains such as computer vision, audio processing,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 506, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 506, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and reinforcement learning (Belghazi et al., 2018; van den Oord et al., 2019; Hjelm et al., 2019;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + } + ], + "index": 43, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 675, + 507, + 734 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 81, + 505, + 175 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Bachman et al., 2019; O’Connor & Veeling, 2019). Many of these methods are trained to maximize", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 506, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 506, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a particular lower bound called InfoNCE (van den Oord et al., 2019)—also known as contrastive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 106, + 504, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 106, + 504, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning (Arora et al., 2019). The main idea behind contrastive learning is to divide an input data", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 118, + 505, + 129 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 118, + 505, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "into multiple (possibly overlapping) views and maximize the mutual information between encoded", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 129, + 505, + 141 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 129, + 476, + 141 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "representations of these views, using views derived from other inputs as negative samples. In", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 476, + 129, + 487, + 140 + ], + "score": 0.63, + "content": "\\ S 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 488, + 129, + 505, + 141 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 140, + 505, + 153 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 140, + 505, + 153 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "provide an overview of representation learning with mutual information maximization. We then show", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 152, + 505, + 164 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 152, + 505, + 164 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "how the skip-gram objective (§3.1; Mikolov et al. 2013), masked language modeling (§3.2; Devlin", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 163, + 488, + 175 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 163, + 488, + 175 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. 2018), and permutation language modeling (§3.3; Yang et al. 2019), fit in this framework.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 3.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 180, + 505, + 273 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 180, + 506, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 180, + 506, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In addition to providing a principled theoretical understanding that bridges progress in multiple areas,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 505, + 205 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 505, + 205 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "our proposed framework also gives rise to a general class of word representation learning models", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 506, + 217 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 506, + 217 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which serves as a basis for designing and combining self-supervised training objectives to create better", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 215, + 505, + 227 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 215, + 505, + 227 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "language representations. As an example, we show how to use this framework to construct a simple", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 227, + 505, + 239 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 227, + 459, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "self-supervised objective that maximizes the mutual information between a sentence and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 459, + 228, + 466, + 236 + ], + "score": 0.73, + "content": "n", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 466, + 227, + 505, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-grams in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 238, + 505, + 251 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 238, + 505, + 251 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the sentence (§4). We combine it with a variant of the masked language modeling objective and show", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 250, + 505, + 262 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 250, + 505, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that the resulting representation performs better, particularly on tasks such as question answering and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 260, + 225, + 274 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 260, + 225, + 274 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "linguistics acceptability (§5).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 11.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 288, + 333, + 302 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 288, + 334, + 303 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 288, + 334, + 303 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 MUTUAL INFORMATION MAXIMIZATION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 313, + 506, + 348 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 313, + 505, + 326 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 313, + 505, + 326 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Mutual information measures dependencies between random variables. Given two random variables", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 324, + 507, + 339 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 326, + 115, + 335 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "A", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 324, + 133, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 134, + 326, + 142, + 335 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "B", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 143, + 324, + 324, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", it can be understood as how much knowing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 324, + 326, + 333, + 335 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "A", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 333, + 324, + 440, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reduces the uncertainty in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 440, + 326, + 449, + 335 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "B", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 450, + 324, + 507, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "or vice versa.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 336, + 327, + 349 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 336, + 277, + 349 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Formally, the mutual information between", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 277, + 337, + 286, + 347 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "A", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 336, + 304, + 349 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 304, + 337, + 313, + 347 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "B", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 314, + 336, + 327, + 349 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 195, + 350, + 414, + 363 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 195, + 350, + 414, + 363 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 195, + 350, + 414, + 363 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "I ( A , B ) = H ( A ) - H ( A \\mid B ) = H ( B ) - H ( B \\mid A ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "19334d059510f9686a9e248e1382a0f03868f9a5869df7795239d8060fb84bf7.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 20, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 195, + 350, + 414, + 363 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 20 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 366, + 505, + 401 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 365, + 505, + 378 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 365, + 145, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Consider", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 146, + 366, + 154, + 376 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "A", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 155, + 365, + 172, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 366, + 182, + 376 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "B", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 182, + 365, + 505, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to be different views of an input data (e.g., a word and its context, two different", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 377, + 506, + 390 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 377, + 287, + 390 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "partitions of a sentence). Consider a function", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 287, + 378, + 294, + 389 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "f", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 295, + 377, + 335, + 390 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that takes", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 335, + 378, + 363, + 388 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "A = a", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 363, + 377, + 380, + 390 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 381, + 378, + 408, + 387 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "B = b", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 408, + 377, + 506, + 390 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as its input. 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Many of these methods are trained to maximize", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 506, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 506, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a particular lower bound called InfoNCE (van den Oord et al., 2019)—also known as contrastive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 106, + 504, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 106, + 504, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning (Arora et al., 2019). The main idea behind contrastive learning is to divide an input data", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 118, + 505, + 129 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 118, + 505, + 129 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "into multiple (possibly overlapping) views and maximize the mutual information between encoded", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 129, + 505, + 141 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 129, + 476, + 141 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "representations of these views, using views derived from other inputs as negative samples. In", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 476, + 129, + 487, + 140 + ], + "score": 0.63, + "content": "\\ S 2", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 488, + 129, + 505, + 141 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 140, + 505, + 153 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 140, + 505, + 153 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "provide an overview of representation learning with mutual information maximization. We then show", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 152, + 505, + 164 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 152, + 505, + 164 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "how the skip-gram objective (§3.1; Mikolov et al. 2013), masked language modeling (§3.2; Devlin", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 163, + 488, + 175 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 163, + 488, + 175 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al. 2018), and permutation language modeling (§3.3; Yang et al. 2019), fit in this framework.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 3.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 175 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 180, + 505, + 273 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 180, + 506, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 180, + 506, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In addition to providing a principled theoretical understanding that bridges progress in multiple areas,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 505, + 205 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 192, + 505, + 205 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "our proposed framework also gives rise to a general class of word representation learning models", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 506, + 217 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 506, + 217 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which serves as a basis for designing and combining self-supervised training objectives to create better", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 215, + 505, + 227 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 215, + 505, + 227 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "language representations. As an example, we show how to use this framework to construct a simple", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 227, + 505, + 239 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 227, + 459, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "self-supervised objective that maximizes the mutual information between a sentence and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 459, + 228, + 466, + 236 + ], + "score": 0.73, + "content": "n", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 466, + 227, + 505, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-grams in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 238, + 505, + 251 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 238, + 505, + 251 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the sentence (§4). We combine it with a variant of the masked language modeling objective and show", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 250, + 505, + 262 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 250, + 505, + 262 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that the resulting representation performs better, particularly on tasks such as question answering and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 260, + 225, + 274 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 260, + 225, + 274 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "linguistics acceptability (§5).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 11.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 180, + 506, + 274 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 288, + 333, + 302 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 288, + 334, + 303 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 288, + 334, + 303 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 MUTUAL INFORMATION MAXIMIZATION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 313, + 506, + 348 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 313, + 505, + 326 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 313, + 505, + 326 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Mutual information measures dependencies between random variables. Given two random variables", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 324, + 507, + 339 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 326, + 115, + 335 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "A", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 324, + 133, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 134, + 326, + 142, + 335 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "B", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 143, + 324, + 324, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", it can be understood as how much knowing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 324, + 326, + 333, + 335 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "A", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 333, + 324, + 440, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reduces the uncertainty in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 440, + 326, + 449, + 335 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "B", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 450, + 324, + 507, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "or vice versa.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 336, + 327, + 349 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 336, + 277, + 349 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Formally, the mutual information between", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 277, + 337, + 286, + 347 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "A", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 336, + 304, + 349 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 304, + 337, + 313, + 347 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "B", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 314, + 336, + 327, + 349 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + } + ], + "index": 18, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 313, + 507, + 349 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 195, + 350, + 414, + 363 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 195, + 350, + 414, + 363 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 195, + 350, + 414, + 363 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "I ( A , B ) = H ( A ) - H ( A \\mid B ) = H ( B ) - H ( B \\mid A ) .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "19334d059510f9686a9e248e1382a0f03868f9a5869df7795239d8060fb84bf7.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 20, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 195, + 350, + 414, + 363 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 20 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 366, + 505, + 401 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 365, + 505, + 378 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 365, + 145, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Consider", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 146, + 366, + 154, + 376 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "A", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 155, + 365, + 172, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 366, + 182, + 376 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "B", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 182, + 365, + 505, + 378 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to be different views of an input data (e.g., a word and its context, two different", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 377, + 506, + 390 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 377, + 287, + 390 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "partitions of a sentence). Consider a function", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 287, + 378, + 294, + 389 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "f", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 295, + 377, + 335, + 390 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that takes", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 335, + 378, + 363, + 388 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "A = a", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 363, + 377, + 380, + 390 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 381, + 378, + 408, + 387 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "B = b", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 408, + 377, + 506, + 390 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as its input. The goal of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 389, + 398, + 401 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 389, + 289, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training is to learn parameters of the function", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 289, + 389, + 297, + 400 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "f", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 297, + 389, + 360, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that maximizes", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 361, + 389, + 394, + 401 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "I ( A , B )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 395, + 389, + 398, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 22, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 365, + 506, + 401 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 406, + 505, + 464 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 406, + 505, + 419 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 406, + 450, + 419 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Maximizing mutual information directly is generally intractable when the function", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 450, + 407, + 457, + 418 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "f", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 457, + 406, + 505, + 419 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "consists of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 418, + 505, + 430 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 418, + 505, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "modern encoders such as neural networks (Paninski, 2003), so we need to resort to a lower bound", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 429, + 505, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 430, + 119, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 429, + 153, + 442 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "I ( A , B )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 430, + 505, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". One particular lower bound that has been shown to work well in practice is InfoNCE", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 441, + 505, + 454 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 441, + 163, + 454 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Logeswaran", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 163, + 442, + 172, + 451 + ], + "score": 0.38, + "content": "\\&", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 173, + 441, + 505, + 454 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Lee, 2018; van den Oord et al., 2019),1 which is based on Noise Contrastive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 403, + 465 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 403, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Estimation (NCE; Gutmann & Hyvarinen, 2012).2 InfoNCE is defined as:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 26, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 406, + 505, + 465 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 151, + 465, + 459, + 505 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 151, + 465, + 459, + 505 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 151, + 465, + 459, + 505 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "I ( A , B ) \\geq \\mathbb { E } _ { p ( A , B ) } \\left[ f _ { \\pmb { \\theta } } ( a , b ) - \\mathbb { E } _ { \\pmb { q } ( \\tilde { \\mathfrak { B } } ) } \\left[ \\log \\sum _ { \\tilde { b } \\in \\tilde { \\mathfrak { B } } } \\exp f _ { \\pmb { \\theta } } ( a , \\tilde { b } ) \\right] \\right] + \\log | \\tilde { \\mathfrak { B } } | ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "798630903cef89d26f9ffc32a897dd0ccbaa6b72ef9d2350df4202a0feffcfaa.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 30, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 151, + 465, + 459, + 478.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 151, + 478.3333333333333, + 459, + 491.66666666666663 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 151, + 491.66666666666663, + 459, + 504.99999999999994 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 31 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 511, + 505, + 560 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 511, + 504, + 524 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 511, + 133, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 134, + 514, + 140, + 522 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "a", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 511, + 159, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 160, + 512, + 165, + 522 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "b", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 165, + 511, + 336, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are different views of an input sequence,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 336, + 512, + 368, + 523 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "f _ { \\pmb { \\theta } } \\in \\mathbb { R }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 368, + 511, + 497, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is a function parameterized by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 497, + 513, + 504, + 522 + ], + "score": 0.69, + "content": "\\pmb \\theta", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 523, + 505, + 536 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 523, + 505, + 536 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(e.g., a dot product between encoded representations of a word and its context, a dot product between", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 534, + 506, + 548 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 536, + 358, + 548 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "encoded representations of two partitions of a sentence), and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 359, + 534, + 367, + 546 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\tilde { \\mathcal { B } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 368, + 536, + 506, + 548 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is a set of samples drawn from a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 546, + 503, + 561 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 547, + 191, + 561 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "proposal distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 192, + 546, + 213, + 560 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "q ( \\tilde { \\mathcal { B } } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 213, + 547, + 249, + 561 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The set", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 249, + 546, + 258, + 558 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "\\tilde { \\mathcal { B } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 258, + 547, + 373, + 561 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "contains the positive sample", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 374, + 548, + 379, + 558 + ], + "score": 0.73, + "content": "b", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 380, + 547, + 397, + 561 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 397, + 546, + 429, + 560 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "| \\tilde { \\mathcal { B } } | - 1", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 429, + 547, + 503, + 561 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "negative samples.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 33.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 511, + 506, + 561 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 565, + 505, + 600 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 566, + 506, + 578 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 566, + 506, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Learning representations based on this objective is also known as contrastive learning. 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When", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 339, + 605, + 348, + 617 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "\\tilde { \\mathcal { B } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 606, + 505, + 619 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "always includes all possible values of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 618, + 505, + 632 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 619, + 191, + 632 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the random variable", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 620, + 200, + 630 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "B", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 619, + 222, + 632 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(i.e.,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 618, + 254, + 630 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "{ \\tilde { \\mathcal { B } } } = { \\mathcal { B } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 254, + 619, + 505, + 632 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ") and they are uniformly distributed, maximizing InfoNCE is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 631, + 338, + 644 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 631, + 338, + 644 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "analogous to maximizing the standard cross-entropy loss:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + } + ], + "index": 40, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 605, + 505, + 644 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 216, + 644, + 394, + 684 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 644, + 394, + 684 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 644, + 394, + 684 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\mathbb { E } _ { p ( A , B ) } \\left[ f _ { \\pmb { \\theta } } ( a , b ) - \\log \\sum _ { \\tilde { b } \\in \\mathcal { B } } \\exp f _ { \\pmb { \\theta } } ( a , \\tilde { b } ) \\right] .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "71ca60ac020ce92b8af6529d98671a79fdd2dc2b4ece2007962a533c87a9b36e.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 43, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 644, + 394, + 657.3333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 657.3333333333334, + 394, + 670.6666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 670.6666666666667, + 394, + 684.0000000000001 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 44 + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 81, + 505, + 153 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 504, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 356, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Eq. 2 above shows that InfoNCE is related to maximizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 356, + 82, + 398, + 95 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "p _ { \\theta } ( b \\ | \\ a )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 398, + 82, + 504, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and it approximates the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 219, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "summation over elements in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 94, + 228, + 104 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "\\mathcal { B }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 228, + 93, + 505, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(i.e., the partition function) by negative sampling. 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Approximating a softmax over a large vocabulary with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 130, + 505, + 144 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 130, + 505, + 144 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "negative samples is a popular technique that has been widely used in natural language processing in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 142, + 424, + 154 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 142, + 424, + 154 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the past. We discuss it here to make the connection under this framework clear.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 2.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 174, + 171, + 187 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 172, + 173, + 191 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 172, + 173, + 191 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 MODELS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 202, + 506, + 273 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 203, + 505, + 215 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 203, + 505, + 215 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We describe how Skip-gram, BERT, and XLNet fit into the mutual information maximization", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 214, + 506, + 228 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 214, + 399, + 228 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "framework as instances of InfoNCE. In the following, we assume that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 214, + 502, + 227 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "f _ { \\pmb { \\theta } } ( a , b ) = g _ { \\psi } ( b ) ^ { \\top } g _ { \\pmb { \\omega } } ( a )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 503, + 214, + 506, + 228 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 226, + 505, + 239 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 227, + 133, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 226, + 183, + 239 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\pmb \\theta = \\{ \\omega , \\psi \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 184, + 227, + 307, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Denote the vocabulary set by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 308, + 227, + 316, + 236 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "\\mathcal { V }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 316, + 227, + 452, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the size of the vocabulary by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 452, + 227, + 461, + 236 + ], + "score": 0.72, + "content": "V", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 461, + 227, + 505, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". For word", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 238, + 506, + 251 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 238, + 385, + 251 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "representation learning, we seek to learn an encoder parameterized by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 385, + 240, + 394, + 248 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "\\omega", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 395, + 238, + 506, + 251 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to represent each word in a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 248, + 504, + 263 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 248, + 145, + 263 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 145, + 250, + 235, + 262 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\pmb { x } = \\{ x _ { 1 } , x _ { 1 } , \\dots , x _ { T } \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 235, + 248, + 245, + 263 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 246, + 250, + 253, + 259 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "d", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 253, + 248, + 497, + 263 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dimensions. 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The objective function that is maximized", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 347, + 493, + 365 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 347, + 174, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Skip-gram is:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 174, + 348, + 261, + 364 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\mathbb { E } _ { p ( x _ { i } , x _ { j } ^ { i } ) } \\left[ p ( x _ { j } ^ { i } \\mid \\bar { x } _ { i } ) \\right]", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 261, + 347, + 291, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 291, + 350, + 302, + 360 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "x _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 347, + 383, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is a word token and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 383, + 348, + 394, + 362 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\boldsymbol { x } _ { j } ^ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 394, + 347, + 477, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is a context word of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 477, + 350, + 487, + 360 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "x _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 487, + 347, + 493, + 365 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 15.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 369, + 505, + 417 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 368, + 506, + 383 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 368, + 123, + 382 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 123, + 370, + 129, + 379 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "b", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 129, + 368, + 280, + 382 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be the context word to be predicted", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 281, + 369, + 292, + 383 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "x _ { j } ^ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 292, + 368, + 311, + 382 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 312, + 371, + 318, + 379 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "a", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 319, + 368, + 396, + 382 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be the input word", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 397, + 371, + 407, + 380 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "x _ { i }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 407, + 368, + 461, + 382 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Recall that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 461, + 369, + 493, + 381 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "f _ { \\theta } ( a , b )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 494, + 368, + 506, + 382 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 381, + 507, + 396 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 381, + 162, + 395 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "g _ { \\psi } ( b ) ^ { \\top } g _ { \\omega } ( a )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 162, + 381, + 507, + 396 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The skip-gram objective function can be written as an instance of InfoNCE (Eq. 1)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 393, + 507, + 408 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 393, + 134, + 408 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 135, + 395, + 159, + 406 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "g _ { \\psi } ( b )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 159, + 393, + 180, + 408 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 394, + 205, + 406 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "g _ { \\omega } ( a )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 205, + 393, + 464, + 408 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are embedding lookup functions that map each word type to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 465, + 394, + 478, + 404 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\mathbb { R } ^ { d }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 478, + 393, + 507, + 408 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". (i.e.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 405, + 209, + 418 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 406, + 205, + 418 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "g _ { \\psi } ( b ) , g _ { \\omega } ( a ) : \\mathcal { V } \\to \\mathbb { R } ^ { d } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 205, + 405, + 209, + 417 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 19.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 423, + 505, + 483 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 423, + 506, + 437 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 423, + 151, + 437 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "p ( x _ { j } ^ { i } \\mid x _ { i } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 151, + 423, + 506, + 437 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can either be computed using a standard softmax over the entire vocabulary or with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 434, + 506, + 448 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 434, + 506, + 448 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "negative sampling (when the vocabulary is very large). These two approaches correspond to different", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 446, + 505, + 459 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 447, + 153, + 459 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "choices of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 446, + 162, + 457 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "\\bar { \\mathcal { B } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 162, + 447, + 278, + 459 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". In the softmax approach,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 279, + 446, + 288, + 457 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\tilde { \\mathcal { B } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 288, + 447, + 398, + 459 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the full vocabulary set", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 398, + 447, + 406, + 457 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "\\mathcal { V }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 407, + 447, + 485, + 459 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and each word in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 485, + 447, + 494, + 457 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "\\mathcal { V }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 494, + 447, + 505, + 459 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 458, + 505, + 473 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 459, + 280, + 473 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "uniformly distributed. In negative sampling,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 458, + 289, + 470 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\tilde { \\mathcal { B } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 289, + 459, + 505, + 473 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is a set of negative samples drawn from e.g., a unigram", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 471, + 157, + 483 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 471, + 157, + 483 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "distribution.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 488, + 505, + 546 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 489, + 506, + 501 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 489, + 506, + 501 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "While Skip-gram has been widely accepted as an instance contrastive learning (Mikolov et al., 2013;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 500, + 505, + 513 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 500, + 505, + 513 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Mnih & Kavukcuoglu, 2013), we include it here to illustrate its connection with modern approaches", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 505, + 525 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 505, + 525 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "such as BERT and XLNet described subsequently. We can see that the two views of an input sentence", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 523, + 506, + 537 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 523, + 506, + 537 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that are considered in Skip-gram are two words that appear in the same sentence, and they are encoded", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 534, + 231, + 548 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 534, + 231, + 548 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using simple lookup functions.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 564, + 159, + 576 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 160, + 578 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 563, + 160, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3.2 BERT", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 587, + 506, + 657 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 587, + 506, + 600 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 587, + 506, + 600 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Devlin et al. (2018) introduce two self-supervised tasks for learning contextual word representations:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 599, + 506, + 612 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 599, + 506, + 612 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "masked language modeling and next sentence prediction. Previous work suggests that the next", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 611, + 506, + 624 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 611, + 506, + 624 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sentence prediction objective is not necessary to train a high quality BERT encoder and the masked", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 623, + 506, + 635 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 623, + 506, + 635 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "language modeling appears to be the key to learn good representations (Liu et al., 2019; Joshi et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 647 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 633, + 506, + 647 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2019; Lample & Conneau, 2019), so we focus on masked language modeling here. However, we also", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 645, + 407, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 645, + 407, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "show how next sentence prediction fits into our framework in Appendix A.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 35.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 663, + 505, + 733 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 663, + 506, + 676 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 663, + 412, + 676 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In masked language modeling, given a sequence of word tokens of length", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 412, + 663, + 421, + 673 + ], + "score": 0.62, + "content": "T", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 421, + 663, + 425, + 676 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 425, + 663, + 503, + 675 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\pmb { x } = \\{ x _ { 1 } , \\dots , x _ { T } \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 503, + 663, + 506, + 676 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 673, + 506, + 687 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 673, + 171, + 687 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "BERT replaces", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 171, + 675, + 191, + 685 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "15 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 673, + 411, + 687 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the tokens in the sequence with (i) a mask symbol", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 411, + 675, + 432, + 685 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "80 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 432, + 673, + 506, + 687 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the time, (ii) a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 505, + 698 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 162, + 698 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "random word", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 162, + 686, + 181, + 697 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "10 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 181, + 686, + 505, + 698 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the time, or (iii) its original word. 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This training objective can", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 719, + 250, + 735 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 719, + 163, + 735 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be written as:", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 164, + 721, + 245, + 733 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "\\mathbb { E } _ { p ( x _ { i } , \\hat { { \\pmb x } } _ { i } ) } [ p ( x _ { i } \\mid \\hat { { \\pmb x } } _ { i } ) ]", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 245, + 719, + 250, + 735 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + } + ], + "index": 41.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 2, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 293, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Published as a conference paper at ICLR 2020", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 762 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 762 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 81, + 505, + 153 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 504, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 356, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Eq. 2 above shows that InfoNCE is related to maximizing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 356, + 82, + 398, + 95 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "p _ { \\theta } ( b \\ | \\ a )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 398, + 82, + 504, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and it approximates the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 219, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "summation over elements in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 94, + 228, + 104 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "\\mathcal { B }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 228, + 93, + 505, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(i.e., the partition function) by negative sampling. 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Approximating a softmax over a large vocabulary with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 130, + 505, + 144 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 130, + 505, + 144 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "negative samples is a popular technique that has been widely used in natural language processing in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 142, + 424, + 154 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 142, + 424, + 154 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the past. We discuss it here to make the connection under this framework clear.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 2.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 154 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 174, + 171, + 187 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 172, + 173, + 191 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 172, + 173, + 191 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3 MODELS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 202, + 506, + 273 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 203, + 505, + 215 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 203, + 505, + 215 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We describe how Skip-gram, BERT, and XLNet fit into the mutual information maximization", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 214, + 506, + 228 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 214, + 399, + 228 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "framework as instances of InfoNCE. In the following, we assume that", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 399, + 214, + 502, + 227 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "f _ { \\pmb { \\theta } } ( a , b ) = g _ { \\psi } ( b ) ^ { \\top } g _ { \\pmb { \\omega } } ( a )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 503, + 214, + 506, + 228 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 226, + 505, + 239 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 227, + 133, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 133, + 226, + 183, + 239 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\pmb \\theta = \\{ \\omega , \\psi \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 184, + 227, + 307, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Denote the vocabulary set by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 308, + 227, + 316, + 236 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "\\mathcal { V }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 316, + 227, + 452, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and the size of the vocabulary by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 452, + 227, + 461, + 236 + ], + "score": 0.72, + "content": "V", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 461, + 227, + 505, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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Objectiveabp(a,b)gg
Skip-gramwordwordword and its contextlookuplookup
MLMcontextmasked wordmasked tokens probabilityTransformerlookup
NSPsentencesentence(non-)consecutive sentencesTransformerlookup
XLNetcontextmasked wordfactorization permutationTXL++lookup
DIMcontextmasked n-gramssentence and its n-gramsTransformernot used
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Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 239, + 216, + 294, + 230 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "g _ { \\psi } : \\bar { \\mathcal { V } } \\to \\bar { \\mathbb { R } ^ { d } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 294, + 216, + 506, + 230 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be a lookup function that maps each word type into", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 228, + 506, + 243 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 230, + 158, + 243 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a vector and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 159, + 228, + 189, + 241 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "{ \\tilde { \\mathcal { B } } } = { \\mathcal { B } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 189, + 230, + 295, + 243 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be the full vocabulary set", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 295, + 231, + 303, + 240 + ], + "score": 0.63, + "content": "\\mathcal { V }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 303, + 230, + 506, + 243 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The main difference between BERT and XLNet", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 505, + 254 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 225, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is that the encoder that forms", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 225, + 243, + 238, + 254 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "g _ { \\omega }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 238, + 241, + 505, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used in XLNet implements attention masking based on a sampled", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 254, + 505, + 266 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 254, + 505, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "permutation order when building its representations. 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Seen under this unifying framework, we can observe that progress", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 387, + 506, + 401 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 387, + 444, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the field has largely been driven by using a more powerful encoder to represent", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 445, + 389, + 457, + 400 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "g _ { \\omega }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 457, + 387, + 506, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". While we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 399, + 506, + 412 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 399, + 506, + 412 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "only provide derivations for Skip-gram, BERT, and XLNet, it is straightforward to show that other", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 505, + 423 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 505, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "language-modeling-based pretraining-objectives such as those used in ELMo (Peters et al., 2018) and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 423, + 388, + 434 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 423, + 388, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "GPT-2 (Radford et al., 2019) can be formulated under this framework.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 440, + 505, + 486 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 505, + 452 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 505, + 452 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our framework also allows us to draw connections to other mutual information maximization", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 506, + 465 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 506, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "representation learning methods that have been successful in other domains (e.g., computer vision,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 463, + 505, + 476 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 463, + 505, + 476 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "audio processing, reinforcement learning). In this section, we discuss an example derive insights to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 474, + 450, + 486 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 474, + 450, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "design a simple self-supervised objective for learning better language representations.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 23.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 492, + 505, + 573 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 505, + 505 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 505, + 505 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Deep InfoMax (DIM; Hjelm et al., 2019) is a mutual information maximization based representation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 504, + 505, + 516 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 504, + 505, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning method for images. 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We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 549, + 506, + 563 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 549, + 506, + 563 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "describe the main idea of this objective for learning representations from a one-dimensional sequence,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 560, + 401, + 574 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 560, + 401, + 574 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "although it is originally proposed to learn from a two-dimensional object.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 578, + 505, + 682 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 578, + 505, + 592 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 578, + 181, + 592 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Given a sequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 181, + 578, + 271, + 591 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\pmb { x } = \\{ x _ { 1 } , x _ { 2 } , \\dots , x _ { T } \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 271, + 578, + 505, + 592 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we consider the “global” representation of the sequence", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 589, + 505, + 603 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 589, + 505, + 603 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to be the hidden state of the first token (assumed to be a special start of sentence symbol) after", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 601, + 506, + 615 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 601, + 253, + 615 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "contextually encoding the sequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 253, + 601, + 280, + 613 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "g _ { \\omega } ( { \\pmb x } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 601, + 506, + 615 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",4 and the local representations to be the encoded repre-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 613, + 505, + 626 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 613, + 269, + 626 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sentations of each word in the sequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 269, + 613, + 298, + 626 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "g _ { \\psi } ( x _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 613, + 505, + 626 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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See text for details.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 116, + 101, + 495, + 176 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 101, + 495, + 176 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 101, + 495, + 176 + ], + "score": 0.98, + "html": "
Objectiveabp(a,b)gg
Skip-gramwordwordword and its contextlookuplookup
MLMcontextmasked wordmasked tokens probabilityTransformerlookup
NSPsentencesentence(non-)consecutive sentencesTransformerlookup
XLNetcontextmasked wordfactorization permutationTXL++lookup
DIMcontextmasked n-gramssentence and its n-gramsTransformernot used
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Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 239, + 216, + 294, + 230 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "g _ { \\psi } : \\bar { \\mathcal { V } } \\to \\bar { \\mathbb { R } ^ { d } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 294, + 216, + 506, + 230 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be a lookup function that maps each word type into", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 228, + 506, + 243 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 230, + 158, + 243 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a vector and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 159, + 228, + 189, + 241 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "{ \\tilde { \\mathcal { B } } } = { \\mathcal { B } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 189, + 230, + 295, + 243 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be the full vocabulary set", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 295, + 231, + 303, + 240 + ], + "score": 0.63, + "content": "\\mathcal { V }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 303, + 230, + 506, + 243 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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However, we can see that both", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 276, + 300, + 289 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 276, + 300, + 289 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "XLNet and BERT maximize the same objective.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 7.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 193, + 506, + 289 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 304, + 185, + 317 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 302, + 187, + 319 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 302, + 187, + 319 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4 INFOWORD", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 329, + 505, + 434 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 329, + 505, + 342 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 329, + 505, + 342 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our analysis on Skip-Gram, BERT, and XLNet shows that their objective functions are different", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 340, + 506, + 354 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 340, + 506, + 354 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "instances of InfoNCE in Eq.1, although they are typically trained using the entire vocabulary set for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 352, + 506, + 367 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 352, + 115, + 363 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\tilde { \\mathcal { B } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 352, + 506, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "instead of negative sampling. These methods differ in how they choose which views of a sentence", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 502, + 380 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 363, + 151, + 380 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "they use as", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 151, + 367, + 158, + 375 + ], + "score": 0.68, + "content": "a", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 158, + 363, + 175, + 380 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 366, + 181, + 375 + ], + "score": 0.67, + "content": "b", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 181, + 363, + 264, + 380 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the data distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 264, + 365, + 292, + 377 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "\\textstyle p ( a , b )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 292, + 363, + 489, + 380 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and the architecture of the encoder for computing", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 490, + 367, + 502, + 377 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "g _ { \\omega }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 376, + 505, + 389 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 376, + 505, + 389 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which we summarize in Table 1. Seen under this unifying framework, we can observe that progress", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 387, + 506, + 401 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 387, + 444, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the field has largely been driven by using a more powerful encoder to represent", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 445, + 389, + 457, + 400 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "g _ { \\omega }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 457, + 387, + 506, + 401 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". While we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 399, + 506, + 412 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 399, + 506, + 412 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "only provide derivations for Skip-gram, BERT, and XLNet, it is straightforward to show that other", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 505, + 423 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 412, + 505, + 423 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "language-modeling-based pretraining-objectives such as those used in ELMo (Peters et al., 2018) and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 423, + 388, + 434 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 423, + 388, + 434 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "GPT-2 (Radford et al., 2019) can be formulated under this framework.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 17, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 329, + 506, + 434 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 440, + 505, + 486 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 505, + 452 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 439, + 505, + 452 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our framework also allows us to draw connections to other mutual information maximization", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 506, + 465 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 506, + 465 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "representation learning methods that have been successful in other domains (e.g., computer vision,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 463, + 505, + 476 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 463, + 505, + 476 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "audio processing, reinforcement learning). In this section, we discuss an example derive insights to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 474, + 450, + 486 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 474, + 450, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "design a simple self-supervised objective for learning better language representations.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 23.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 439, + 506, + 486 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 492, + 505, + 573 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 505, + 505 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 492, + 505, + 505 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Deep InfoMax (DIM; Hjelm et al., 2019) is a mutual information maximization based representation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 504, + 505, + 516 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 504, + 505, + 516 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning method for images. DIM shows that maximizing the mutual information between an image", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 515, + 505, + 528 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 515, + 505, + 528 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "representation and local regions of the image improves the quality of the representation. The complete", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 527, + 505, + 538 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 527, + 505, + 538 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "objective function that DIM maximizes consists of multiple terms. Here, we focus on a term in the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 538, + 505, + 550 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 538, + 505, + 550 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "objective that maximizes the mutual information between local features and global features. We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 549, + 506, + 563 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 549, + 506, + 563 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "describe the main idea of this objective for learning representations from a one-dimensional sequence,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 560, + 401, + 574 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 560, + 401, + 574 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "although it is originally proposed to learn from a two-dimensional object.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 29, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 492, + 506, + 574 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 578, + 505, + 682 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 578, + 505, + 592 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 578, + 181, + 592 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Given a sequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 181, + 578, + 271, + 591 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\pmb { x } = \\{ x _ { 1 } , x _ { 2 } , \\dots , x _ { T } \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 271, + 578, + 505, + 592 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we consider the “global” representation of the sequence", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 589, + 505, + 603 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 589, + 505, + 603 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to be the hidden state of the first token (assumed to be a special start of sentence symbol) after", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 601, + 506, + 615 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 601, + 253, + 615 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "contextually encoding the sequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 253, + 601, + 280, + 613 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "g _ { \\omega } ( { \\pmb x } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 280, + 601, + 506, + 615 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",4 and the local representations to be the encoded repre-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 613, + 505, + 626 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 613, + 269, + 626 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sentations of each word in the sequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 269, + 613, + 298, + 626 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "g _ { \\psi } ( x _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 613, + 505, + 626 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We can use the contrastive learning framework to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 625, + 506, + 637 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 625, + 506, + 637 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "design a task that maximizes the mutual information between this global representation vector and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 635, + 505, + 650 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 635, + 475, + 650 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "its corresponding “local” representations using local representations from other sequences", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 475, + 636, + 505, + 649 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "g _ { \\psi } ( \\hat { x } _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 648, + 506, + 660 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 648, + 506, + 660 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as negative samples. This is analogous to training the global representation vector of a sentence to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 659, + 506, + 671 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 659, + 506, + 671 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "choose which words appear in the sentence and which words are from other sentences.5 However, if", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 671, + 505, + 683 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 671, + 223, + 683 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we feed the original sequence", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 224, + 673, + 231, + 681 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "_ { \\textbf { \\em x } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 232, + 671, + 505, + 683 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to the encoder and take the hidden state of the first token as the global", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "representation, the task becomes trivial since the global representation is built using all the words in", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 94, + 487, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 94, + 304, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the sequence. We instead use a masked sequence", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 304, + 94, + 435, + 106 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\boldsymbol { a } : = \\hat { \\mathbf { x } } _ { t } = \\{ x _ { 1 } , \\ldots , \\hat { x } _ { t } , \\ldots , x _ { T } \\}", + "type": "inline_equation", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 435, + 94, + 453, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 453, + 94, + 483, + 105 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "b : = x _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 483, + 94, + 487, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 1 + } + ], + "index": 37, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 578, + 506, + 683 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 106 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "representation, the task becomes trivial since the global representation is built using all the words in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 94, + 487, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 94, + 304, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the sequence. 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(2019).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 257, + 505, + 291 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 256, + 505, + 270 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 256, + 269, + 270 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For negative sampling, we use words and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 269, + 259, + 276, + 267 + ], + "score": 0.73, + "content": "n", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 276, + 256, + 505, + 270 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-grams from other sequences in the same batch as negative", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 268, + 505, + 281 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 268, + 505, + 281 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "samples (for MLM and DIM respectively). 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Our BERT reimplementation with negative sampling", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 594, + 506, + 607 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 594, + 506, + 607 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "underperforms the original BERT model on GLUE but is significantly better on SQuAD. 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We can see that INFOWORD consistently", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "outperforms BERT-NCE and the performance gap is biggest when the dataset is smallest, suggesting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 483, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 483, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the benefit of having better pretrained representations when there are fewer training examples.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "page_idx": 6, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 27, + 293, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Published as a conference paper at ICLR 2020", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 308, + 759 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 750, + 309, + 762 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 750, + 309, + 762 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "7", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 133, + 82, + 504, + 117 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 82, + 297, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "• INFOWORD: Our model described in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 297, + 83, + 309, + 93 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "\\ S 4", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 309, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The main difference between INFOWORD and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 93, + 505, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 93, + 262, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "BERT-NCE is the addition of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 262, + 94, + 282, + 105 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\mathcal { I } _ { \\mathrm { D I M } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 282, + 93, + 505, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to the objective function. 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We iteratively sample", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 439, + 183, + 446, + 192 + ], + "score": 0.73, + "content": "n", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 446, + 182, + 506, + 195 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-grams from a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 505, + 207 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 252, + 207 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sequence until the masking budget (", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 252, + 194, + 271, + 204 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "15 \\%", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 271, + 192, + 505, + 207 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the sequence length) has been spent. At each sampling", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 205, + 505, + 218 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 205, + 276, + 218 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "iteration, we first sample the length of the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 276, + 207, + 284, + 215 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "n", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 284, + 205, + 329, + 218 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-gram (i.e.,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 329, + 207, + 337, + 215 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "n", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 337, + 205, + 348, + 218 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 348, + 207, + 355, + 215 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "n", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 356, + 205, + 505, + 218 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-grams) from a Gaussian distribution", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 216, + 505, + 229 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 216, + 137, + 228 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\Re ( 5 , 1 )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 138, + 216, + 505, + 229 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "clipped at 1 (minimum length) and 10 (maximum length). Since BERT tokenizes words into", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 228, + 505, + 241 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 228, + 215, + 241 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "subwords, we measure the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 215, + 230, + 222, + 238 + ], + "score": 0.74, + "content": "n", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 223, + 228, + 505, + 241 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-gram length at the word level and compute the masking budget at the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 239, + 463, + 252 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 239, + 463, + 252 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "subword level. This procedure is inspired by the masking approach in Joshi et al. (2019).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 7, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 170, + 506, + 252 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 257, + 505, + 291 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 256, + 505, + 270 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 256, + 269, + 270 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For negative sampling, we use words and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 269, + 259, + 276, + 267 + ], + "score": 0.73, + "content": "n", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 276, + 256, + 505, + 270 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-grams from other sequences in the same batch as negative", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 268, + 505, + 281 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 268, + 505, + 281 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "samples (for MLM and DIM respectively). There are approximately 70,000 subwords and 10,000", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 280, + 474, + 293 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 282, + 114, + 290 + ], + "score": 0.71, + "content": "n", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 280, + 474, + 293 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-grams (words and phrases) in a batch. We discuss hyperparameter details in Appendix B.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 12, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 256, + 505, + 293 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 318, + 190, + 329 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 317, + 191, + 331 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 317, + 191, + 331 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5.3 FINE-TUNING", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 344, + 505, + 379 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 505, + 357 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 344, + 505, + 357 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We evaluate on two benchmarks: GLUE (Wang et al., 2019) and SQuAD(Rajpurkar et al., 2016). We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 356, + 505, + 368 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 356, + 505, + 368 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "train a task-specific decoder and fine-tune pretrained models for each dataset that we consider. We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 367, + 299, + 380 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 367, + 299, + 380 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "describe hyperparameter details in Appendix B.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 16, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 344, + 505, + 380 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 385, + 505, + 477 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 384, + 505, + 398 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 384, + 505, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "GLUE is a set of natural language understanding tasks that includes sentiment analysis, linguistic", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 397, + 505, + 409 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 397, + 505, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "acceptability, paraphrasing, and natural language inference. Each task is formulated as a classification", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 408, + 505, + 421 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 408, + 505, + 421 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "task. The tasks in GLUE are either a single-sentence classification task or a sentence pair classification", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 418, + 507, + 433 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 418, + 507, + 433 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "task. We follow the same setup as the original BERT model and add a start of sentence symbol (i.e.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 432, + 506, + 444 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 432, + 506, + 444 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the CLS symbol) to every example and use a separator symbol (i.e., the SEP symbol) to separate two", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 443, + 505, + 454 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 443, + 505, + 454 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "concatenated sentences (for sentence pair classification tasks). We add a linear transformation and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 454, + 505, + 466 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 454, + 505, + 466 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a softmax layer to predict the correct label (class) from the representation of the first token of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 466, + 149, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 466, + 149, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sequence.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 21.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 384, + 507, + 479 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 483, + 505, + 529 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 483, + 505, + 495 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 483, + 505, + 495 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "SQuAD is a reading comprehension dataset constructed from Wikipedia articles. We report results", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 495, + 505, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 495, + 505, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on SQuAD 1.1. Here, we also follow the same setup as the original BERT model and predict an", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 506, + 505, + 518 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 506, + 505, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "answer span—the start and end indices of the correct answer in the context. We use a standard span", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 518, + 385, + 529 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 518, + 385, + 529 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictor as the decoder, which we describe in details in Appendix C.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + } + ], + "index": 27.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 483, + 505, + 529 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 556, + 170, + 567 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 171, + 569 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 171, + 569 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5.4 RESULTS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 582, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 581, + 506, + 596 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 581, + 506, + 596 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We show our main results in Table 2 and Table 3. Our BERT reimplementation with negative sampling", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 594, + 506, + 607 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 594, + 506, + 607 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "underperforms the original BERT model on GLUE but is significantly better on SQuAD. However, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 605, + 505, + 618 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 605, + 505, + 618 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "think that the main reasons for this performance discrepancy are the different masking procedures (we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 617, + 506, + 631 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 617, + 506, + 631 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "use span-based masking instead of whole-word masking) and the different ways training examples", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 629, + 505, + 641 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 629, + 505, + 641 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are presented to the model (we use one consecutive sequence instead of two sequences separated by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 640, + 505, + 653 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 640, + 505, + 653 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the separator symbol). Comparing BERT-NCE and INFOWORD, we observe the benefit of the new", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 652, + 505, + 664 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 652, + 205, + 664 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "self-supervised objective", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 205, + 652, + 225, + 663 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "\\mathcal { I } _ { \\mathrm { D I M } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 226, + 652, + 505, + 664 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(better overall GLUE and SQuAD results), particularly on tasks such as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 664, + 506, + 676 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 664, + 506, + 676 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "question answering and linguistics acceptability that seem to require understanding of longer phrases.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 675, + 505, + 687 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 675, + 505, + 687 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In order to better understand our model, we investigate its performance with varying numbers of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 505, + 698 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 271, + 698 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training examples and different values of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 271, + 686, + 293, + 698 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\lambda _ { \\mathrm { D I M } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 293, + 686, + 505, + 698 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the SQuAD development set and show the results", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 697, + 504, + 709 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 697, + 504, + 709 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in Figure 1 (for models with the BASE configuration). We can see that INFOWORD consistently", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "outperforms BERT-NCE and the performance gap is biggest when the dataset is smallest, suggesting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 483, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 483, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the benefit of having better pretrained representations when there are fewer training examples.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + } + ], + "index": 37, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 581, + 506, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 131, + 101, + 478, + 201 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_caption", + "bbox": [ + 226, + 90, + 384, + 100 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 226, + 89, + 385, + 102 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 226, + 89, + 385, + 102 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Table 2: Summary of results on GLUE.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 131, + 101, + 478, + 201 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 101, + 478, + 201 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 101, + 478, + 201 + ], + "score": 0.984, + "html": "
ModelCoLASST-2MRPCQQPMNLI (M/MM)QNLIRTEGLUE AVG
BAAEBERT52.193.588.971.284.6/83.490.566.478.8
BERT-NCE50.893.088.670.583.2/83.090.965.978.2
INFOWORD53.392.588.771.083.7/82.491.468.378.9
JAREEBERT60.594.989.372.186.7/85.992.770.181.5
BERT-NCE54.793.189.571.285.8/85.092.772.580.6
INFOWORD57.594.290.271.385.8/84.892.672.081.1
", + "type": "table", + "image_path": "f852b6b577b110ff17ca48f005dda4301aa55aca70011f41296157cf2ae1094f.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 2, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 101, + 478, + 134.33333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 134.33333333333334, + 478, + 167.66666666666669 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 167.66666666666669, + 478, + 201.00000000000003 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 3 + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1.0 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 219, + 220, + 390, + 320 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_caption", + "bbox": [ + 216, + 208, + 394, + 219 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 215, + 207, + 396, + 221 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 215, + 207, + 396, + 221 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Table 3: Summary of results on SQuAD 1.1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 219, + 220, + 390, + 320 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 220, + 390, + 320 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 220, + 390, + 320 + ], + "score": 0.979, + "html": "
ModelDEVTEST
F1EMF1EM
JAACBERT BERT-NCE88.5 90.280.8 83.3=1 84.4
INFOWORD90.784.090.9 91.484.7
JAEEEBERT BERT-NCE INFOWORD90.9 92.0 92.684.1 85.9 86.691.3 92.7 93.184.3 86.6 87.3
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We show how to design a simple self-supervised task in the InfoNCE frame-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 361, + 505, + 374 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 361, + 505, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "work that improves downstream performance on several datasets. Learning language representations", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 373, + 505, + 385 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 373, + 505, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to predict contiguous masked tokens has been explored in other context, and the objective introduced", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 384, + 506, + 398 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 384, + 116, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 384, + 136, + 396 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\mathcal { I } _ { \\mathrm { D I M } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 137, + 384, + 506, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is related to these span-based models such as SpanBERT (Joshi et al., 2019) and MASS (Song", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 505, + 408 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 505, + 408 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2019). While our experimental goal is to demonstrate the benefit of contrastive learning for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 506, + 419 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 506, + 419 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "constructing self-supervised tasks, we note that INFOWORD is simpler to train and exhibits similar", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 419, + 505, + 432 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 419, + 505, + 432 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trends to SpanBERT that outperforms baseline models. We leave exhaustive comparisons to these", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 430, + 205, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 430, + 205, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods to future work.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 16.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 450, + 506, + 519 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 450, + 507, + 463 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 450, + 507, + 463 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Mutual information maximization. A recent study has questioned whether the success of In-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 462, + 506, + 475 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 462, + 506, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "foNCE as an objective function is due to its property as a lower bound on mutual information and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 474, + 506, + 486 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 474, + 506, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "provides an alternative hypothesis based on metric learning (Tschannen et al., 2019). Regardless of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 485, + 506, + 498 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 485, + 506, + 498 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the prevailing perspective, InfoNCE is widely accepted as a good representation learning objective,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 497, + 506, + 510 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 497, + 506, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and formulating state-of-the-art language representation learning methods under this framework", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 508, + 438, + 521 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 508, + 438, + 521 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "offers valuable insights that unifies many popular representation learning methods.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 23.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 527, + 505, + 620 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 527, + 505, + 541 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 527, + 505, + 541 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Regularization. Image representation learning methods often incorporate a regularization term in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 539, + 505, + 552 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 539, + 505, + 552 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "its objective function to encourage learned representations to look like a prior distribution (Hjelm", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 550, + 506, + 564 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 550, + 506, + 564 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2019; Bachman et al., 2019). This is useful for incorporating prior knowledge into a repre-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 563, + 505, + 575 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 563, + 505, + 575 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sentation learning model. For example, the DeepInfoMax model has a term in its objective that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 574, + 505, + 587 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 574, + 505, + 587 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "encourages the learned representation from the encoder to match a uniform prior. Regularization is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 586, + 505, + 598 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 586, + 505, + 598 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "not commonly used when learning language representations. Our analysis and the connection we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 597, + 504, + 610 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 597, + 504, + 610 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "draw to representation learning methods used in other domains provide an insight into possible ways", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 609, + 416, + 621 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 609, + 416, + 621 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to incorporate prior knowledge into language representation learning models.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 30.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 628, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 505, + 642 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 505, + 642 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Future directions. The InfoNCE framework provides a holistic way to view progress in language", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 641, + 505, + 652 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 641, + 505, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "representation learning. The framework is very flexible and suggests several directions that can be", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 652, + 505, + 664 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 652, + 505, + 664 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "explored to improve existing methods. We show that progress in the field has been largely driven by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 663, + 505, + 676 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 663, + 263, + 676 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "innovations in the encoder which forms", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 263, + 664, + 275, + 675 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "g _ { \\omega }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 275, + 663, + 505, + 676 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". InfoNCE is based on maximizing the mutual information", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 675, + 506, + 687 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 675, + 506, + 687 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "between different views of an input data, and it facilitates training on structured views as long as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 505, + 699 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 505, + 699 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we can perform negative sampling (van den Oord et al., 2019; Bachman et al., 2019). Our analysis", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 697, + 505, + 710 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 697, + 505, + 710 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "demonstrates that existing methods based on language modeling objectives only consider a single", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 506, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 506, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "target word as one of the views. We think that incorporating more complex views (e.g., higher-order", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 136, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "or skip", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 136, + 722, + 143, + 730 + ], + "score": 0.73, + "content": "n", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 721, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-grams, syntactic and semantic parses, etc.) and designing appropriate self-supervised tasks", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "page_idx": 7, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 293, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 26, + 294, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Published as a conference paper at ICLR 2020", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 308, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 300, + 750, + 309, + 761 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 300, + 750, + 309, + 761 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "8", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 131, + 101, + 478, + 201 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_caption", + "bbox": [ + 226, + 90, + 384, + 100 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 226, + 89, + 385, + 102 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 226, + 89, + 385, + 102 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Table 2: Summary of results on GLUE.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 131, + 101, + 478, + 201 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 101, + 478, + 201 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 101, + 478, + 201 + ], + "score": 0.984, + "html": "
ModelCoLASST-2MRPCQQPMNLI (M/MM)QNLIRTEGLUE AVG
BAAEBERT52.193.588.971.284.6/83.490.566.478.8
BERT-NCE50.893.088.670.583.2/83.090.965.978.2
INFOWORD53.392.588.771.083.7/82.491.468.378.9
JAREEBERT60.594.989.372.186.7/85.992.770.181.5
BERT-NCE54.793.189.571.285.8/85.092.772.580.6
INFOWORD57.594.290.271.385.8/84.892.672.081.1
", + "type": "table", + "image_path": "f852b6b577b110ff17ca48f005dda4301aa55aca70011f41296157cf2ae1094f.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 2, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 101, + 478, + 134.33333333333334 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 134.33333333333334, + 478, + 167.66666666666669 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 131, + 167.66666666666669, + 478, + 201.00000000000003 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 3 + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 1.0 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 219, + 220, + 390, + 320 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_caption", + "bbox": [ + 216, + 208, + 394, + 219 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 215, + 207, + 396, + 221 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 215, + 207, + 396, + 221 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Table 3: Summary of results on SQuAD 1.1.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 219, + 220, + 390, + 320 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 220, + 390, + 320 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 220, + 390, + 320 + ], + "score": 0.979, + "html": "
ModelDEVTEST
F1EMF1EM
JAACBERT BERT-NCE88.5 90.280.8 83.3=1 84.4
INFOWORD90.784.090.9 91.484.7
JAEEEBERT BERT-NCE INFOWORD90.9 92.0 92.684.1 85.9 86.691.3 92.7 93.184.3 86.6 87.3
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We show how to design a simple self-supervised task in the InfoNCE frame-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 361, + 505, + 374 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 361, + 505, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "work that improves downstream performance on several datasets. Learning language representations", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 373, + 505, + 385 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 373, + 505, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to predict contiguous masked tokens has been explored in other context, and the objective introduced", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 384, + 506, + 398 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 384, + 116, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 384, + 136, + 396 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\mathcal { I } _ { \\mathrm { D I M } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 137, + 384, + 506, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is related to these span-based models such as SpanBERT (Joshi et al., 2019) and MASS (Song", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 505, + 408 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 505, + 408 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2019). While our experimental goal is to demonstrate the benefit of contrastive learning for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 506, + 419 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 506, + 419 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "constructing self-supervised tasks, we note that INFOWORD is simpler to train and exhibits similar", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 419, + 505, + 432 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 419, + 505, + 432 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trends to SpanBERT that outperforms baseline models. We leave exhaustive comparisons to these", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 430, + 205, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 430, + 205, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods to future work.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 16.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 349, + 506, + 442 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 450, + 506, + 519 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 450, + 507, + 463 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 450, + 507, + 463 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Mutual information maximization. A recent study has questioned whether the success of In-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 462, + 506, + 475 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 462, + 506, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "foNCE as an objective function is due to its property as a lower bound on mutual information and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 474, + 506, + 486 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 474, + 506, + 486 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "provides an alternative hypothesis based on metric learning (Tschannen et al., 2019). Regardless of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 485, + 506, + 498 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 485, + 506, + 498 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the prevailing perspective, InfoNCE is widely accepted as a good representation learning objective,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 497, + 506, + 510 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 497, + 506, + 510 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and formulating state-of-the-art language representation learning methods under this framework", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 508, + 438, + 521 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 508, + 438, + 521 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "offers valuable insights that unifies many popular representation learning methods.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + } + ], + "index": 23.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 450, + 507, + 521 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 527, + 505, + 620 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 527, + 505, + 541 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 527, + 505, + 541 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Regularization. Image representation learning methods often incorporate a regularization term in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 539, + 505, + 552 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 539, + 505, + 552 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "its objective function to encourage learned representations to look like a prior distribution (Hjelm", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 550, + 506, + 564 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 550, + 506, + 564 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2019; Bachman et al., 2019). This is useful for incorporating prior knowledge into a repre-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 563, + 505, + 575 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 563, + 505, + 575 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sentation learning model. For example, the DeepInfoMax model has a term in its objective that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 574, + 505, + 587 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 574, + 505, + 587 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "encourages the learned representation from the encoder to match a uniform prior. Regularization is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 586, + 505, + 598 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 586, + 505, + 598 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "not commonly used when learning language representations. Our analysis and the connection we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 597, + 504, + 610 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 597, + 504, + 610 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "draw to representation learning methods used in other domains provide an insight into possible ways", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 609, + 416, + 621 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 609, + 416, + 621 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to incorporate prior knowledge into language representation learning models.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 30.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 527, + 506, + 621 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 628, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 505, + 642 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 627, + 505, + 642 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Future directions. The InfoNCE framework provides a holistic way to view progress in language", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 641, + 505, + 652 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 641, + 505, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "representation learning. The framework is very flexible and suggests several directions that can be", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 652, + 505, + 664 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 652, + 505, + 664 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "explored to improve existing methods. 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The right plot shows", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 353, + 199, + 365, + 209 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "F _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 365, + 198, + 505, + 211 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "scores of INFOWORD on SQuAD", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 208, + 219, + 224 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 208, + 194, + 224 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(dev) as a function of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 194, + 210, + 214, + 221 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\lambda _ { \\mathrm { D I M } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 215, + 208, + 219, + 224 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 2.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 238, + 504, + 261 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 237, + 505, + 252 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 237, + 505, + 252 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is a promising future direction. A related area that is also underexplored is designing methods to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 249, + 231, + 263 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 249, + 231, + 263 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "obtain better negative samples.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 6.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 277, + 195, + 291 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 276, + 198, + 294 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 276, + 198, + 294 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6 CONCLUSION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 303, + 505, + 372 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 302, + 506, + 316 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 302, + 506, + 316 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We analyzed state-of-the-art language representation learning methods from the perspective of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 315, + 506, + 328 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 315, + 506, + 328 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "mutual information maximization. We provided a unifying view of classical and modern word", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 327, + 504, + 339 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 327, + 504, + 339 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "embedding models and showed how they relate to popular representation learning methods used in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 337, + 505, + 351 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 337, + 505, + 351 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "other domains. We used this framework to construct a new self-supervised task based on maximizing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 350, + 505, + 362 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 350, + 505, + 362 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the mutual information between the global representation and local representations of a sentence. We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 361, + 433, + 374 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 361, + 433, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "demonstrated the benefit of this new task via experiments on GLUE and SQuAD.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 11.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 389, + 175, + 402 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 390, + 176, + 402 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 390, + 176, + 402 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "REFERENCES", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 408, + 505, + 432 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 409, + 505, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 409, + 505, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Sanjeev Arora, Hrishikesh Khandeparkar, Mikhail Khodak, Orestis Plevrakis, and Nikunj Saunshi. 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In", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 105, + 202, + 118 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 105, + 202, + 118 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Proc. of ICLR, 2019.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + } + ], + "index": 1, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 81, + 506, + 118 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 109, + 122, + 505, + 157 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 123, + 506, + 135 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 123, + 506, + 135 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Zhilin Yang, Zihang Dai, Yiming Yang, Jaime Carbonell, Ruslan Salakhutdinov, and Quoc V.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 133, + 505, + 148 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 114, + 133, + 505, + 148 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Le. 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Learning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 187, + 438, + 200 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 115, + 187, + 438, + 200 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and evaluating general linguistic intelligence. arXiv preprint 1901.11373, 2019.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + } + ], + "index": 7, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 163, + 506, + 200 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 109, + 217, + 283, + 230 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 217, + 285, + 231 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 217, + 285, + 231 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "A NEXT SENTENCE PREDICTION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 241, + 505, + 300 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 505, + 254 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 241, + 505, + 254 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We show that the next sentence prediction objective used in BERT is an instance of contrastive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 253, + 506, + 266 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 253, + 404, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learning in this section. In next sentence prediction, given two sentences", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 404, + 253, + 416, + 264 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\mathbf { x } ^ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 417, + 253, + 435, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 435, + 253, + 447, + 264 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "\\scriptstyle { \\pmb x } ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 447, + 253, + 506, + 266 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the task is to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 265, + 505, + 277 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 265, + 505, + 277 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predict whether these are two consecutive sentences or not. 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We denote this discriminator by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 416, + 316, + 463, + 329 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "d _ { \\phi } ( \\pmb { x } ^ { 1 } , \\pmb { x } ^ { 2 } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 463, + 316, + 505, + 329 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The next", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 329, + 272, + 340 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 329, + 272, + 340 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sentence prediction objective function is:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 16, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 304, + 506, + 340 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 175, + 340, + 435, + 356 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 340, + 435, + 356 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 340, + 435, + 356 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "\\mathbb { E } _ { p ( { \\pmb x } ^ { 1 } , { \\pmb x } ^ { 2 } ) } \\left[ \\log d _ { \\phi } ( g _ { \\omega } ( [ { \\pmb x } ^ { 1 } , { \\pmb x } ^ { 2 } ) ] ) + \\log ( 1 - d _ { \\phi } ( g _ { \\omega } ( [ { \\pmb x } ^ { 1 } , \\tilde { { \\pmb x } } ^ { 2 } ] ) ) ) \\right] .", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "a1b1338751cdeefc6ab251a6f2e0d6a2827d0338b8674e226e41a7b13abbdb51.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 18, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 175, + 340, + 435, + 356 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 18 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 356, + 505, + 403 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 356, + 505, + 368 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 356, + 505, + 368 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This objective function—which is used for training BERT—is known in the literature as “local” Noise", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 367, + 505, + 380 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 367, + 505, + 380 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Contrastive Estimation (Gutmann & Hyvarinen, 2012). Since summing over all possible negative", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 505, + 393 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 505, + 393 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sentences is intractable, BERT approximates this by using a binary classifier to distinguish real", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 392, + 219, + 403 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 392, + 219, + 403 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "samples and noisy samples.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 20.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 356, + 505, + 403 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 408, + 504, + 431 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 506, + 421 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 407, + 506, + 421 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "An alternative approximation to using a binary classifier is to use “global NCE”, which is what", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 419, + 257, + 432 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 419, + 257, + 432 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "InfoNCE is based on. Here, we have:", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + } + ], + "index": 23.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 407, + 506, + 432 + ] + }, + { + "type": "interline_equation", + "bbox": [ + 167, + 432, + 442, + 471 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 167, + 432, + 442, + 471 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 167, + 432, + 442, + 471 + ], + "score": 0.94, + "content": "\\mathbb { E } _ { p ( { \\pmb x } ^ { 1 } , { \\pmb x } ^ { 2 } ) } \\left[ \\psi ^ { \\top } g _ { \\omega } ( [ { \\pmb x } ^ { 1 } , { \\pmb x } ^ { 2 } ) ] ) - \\log \\sum _ { \\tilde { { \\pmb x } } ^ { 2 } \\in \\tilde { \\mathcal { X } } ^ { 2 } } \\exp ( \\psi ^ { \\top } ( g _ { \\omega } ( [ { \\pmb x } ^ { 1 } , \\tilde { { \\pmb x } } ^ { 2 } ] ) ) ) \\right] ,", + "type": "interline_equation", + "image_path": "4c4e80c595524e212495c414f73203c01facce09faa64de28f444ec8240cf9e9.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 26, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 167, + 432, + 442, + 445.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 167, + 445.0, + 442, + 458.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 167, + 458.0, + 442, + 471.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 27 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 471, + 505, + 565 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 471, + 505, + 484 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 471, + 505, + 484 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where we sample negative sentences from the corpus and combine it with the positive sentence to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 482, + 506, + 496 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 482, + 146, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "construct", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 146, + 482, + 158, + 494 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "{ \\tilde { \\mathcal { X } } } ^ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 159, + 482, + 506, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". To make the connection of this objective function with InfoNCE in Eq. 1 explicit, let", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 494, + 506, + 509 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 498, + 113, + 505 + ], + "score": 0.66, + "content": "a", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 113, + 494, + 132, + 509 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 132, + 496, + 138, + 505 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "b", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 138, + 494, + 261, + 509 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be two consecutive sentences", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 262, + 497, + 274, + 506 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\scriptstyle { \\mathbf { \\mathscr { x } } } _ { 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 274, + 494, + 292, + 509 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 293, + 497, + 305, + 507 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "\\mathbf { x } _ { 2 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 305, + 494, + 326, + 509 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 327, + 495, + 360, + 507 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "f _ { \\theta } ( a , b )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 360, + 494, + 374, + 509 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 374, + 495, + 428, + 507 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\psi ^ { \\top } g _ { \\omega } ( [ a , b ] )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 428, + 494, + 460, + 509 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 460, + 495, + 494, + 507 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\boldsymbol { \\psi } \\in \\mathbb { R } ^ { d }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 495, + 494, + 506, + 509 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 507, + 505, + 519 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 507, + 198, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a trainable parameter,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 199, + 507, + 219, + 519 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "[ a , b ]", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 219, + 507, + 333, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "denotes a concatenation of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 333, + 509, + 340, + 517 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "a", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 340, + 507, + 358, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 359, + 507, + 364, + 517 + ], + "score": 0.7, + "content": "b", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 365, + 507, + 505, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Consider a Transformer encoder", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 518, + 506, + 531 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 518, + 179, + 531 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parameterized by", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 520, + 188, + 529 + ], + "score": 0.73, + "content": "\\omega", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 189, + 518, + 222, + 531 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and let", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 518, + 286, + 531 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "g _ { \\omega } ( [ a , b ] ) \\in \\mathbb { R } ^ { d }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 286, + 518, + 506, + 531 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "be a function that returns the final hidden state of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 531, + 505, + 542 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 531, + 505, + 542 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "first token after running the concatenated sequence to the Transformer. Note that the encoder that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 542, + 506, + 554 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 542, + 242, + 554 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we want to learn only depends on", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 243, + 543, + 255, + 553 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "g _ { \\omega }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 255, + 542, + 506, + 554 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", so both of these approximations can be used for training next", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 554, + 188, + 565 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 554, + 188, + 565 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sentence prediction.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + } + ], + "index": 31.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 471, + 506, + 565 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 580, + 233, + 593 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 580, + 234, + 594 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 580, + 234, + 594 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "B HYPERPARAMETERS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 604, + 505, + 663 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 604, + 505, + 618 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 604, + 335, + 618 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Pretraining. We use Adam (Kingma & Ba, 2015) with", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 336, + 605, + 373, + 617 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\beta _ { 1 } = 0 . 9", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 374, + 604, + 376, + 618 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 377, + 605, + 420, + 617 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\beta _ { 2 } = 0 . 9 8", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 420, + 604, + 437, + 618 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 437, + 606, + 483, + 616 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "\\epsilon = 1 e - 6", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 483, + 604, + 505, + 618 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 506, + 630 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 506, + 630 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "batch size for training is 1024 with a maximum sequence length of 512. We train for 400,000 steps", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 627, + 504, + 640 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 627, + 482, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(including 18,000 warmup steps) with a weight decay rate of 0.01. We set the learning rate to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 483, + 628, + 504, + 639 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "4 e ^ { - 4 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 505, + 652 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 268, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for all variants of the BASE models and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 639, + 289, + 650 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "1 e ^ { - \\overline { { 4 } } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 290, + 638, + 417, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for the LARGE models. We set", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 417, + 640, + 441, + 651 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "\\lambda _ { \\mathrm { M L M } }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 442, + 638, + 505, + 652 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to 1.0 and tune", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 650, + 218, + 664 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 651, + 214, + 663 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "\\lambda _ { \\mathrm { D I M } } \\in \\{ 0 . 4 , 0 . 6 , 0 . 8 , 1 . 0 \\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 214, + 650, + 218, + 664 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + } + ], + "index": 39, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 604, + 506, + 664 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 674, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 675, + 505, + 687 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 675, + 505, + 687 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "GLUE. We set the maximum sequence length to 128. 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The number of training epochs is set to 4 for CoLA and 10 for other tasks, following", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 707, + 506, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 707, + 506, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Joshi et al. (2019). We run each hyperparameter configuration 5 times and evaluate the best model on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 719, + 181, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 719, + 181, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the test set (once).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + } + ], + "index": 44, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 675, + 507, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 506, + 117 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 507, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 81, + 507, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "SQuAD. 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Objectiveabp(a,b)gg
Skip-gramwordwordword and its contextlookuplookup
MLMcontextmasked wordmasked tokens probabilityTransformerlookup
NSPsentencesentence(non-)consecutive sentencesTransformerlookup
XLNetcontextmasked wordfactorization permutationTXL++lookup
DIMcontextmasked n-gramssentence and its n-gramsTransformernot used
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Task NameBCSACREMCQL (Paper)CQL (Reproduced)SAC-N (Ours)EDAC (Ours)
halfcheetah-random2.2±0.029.7±1.4-0.8±1.135.431.3±3.528.0±0.928.4±1.0
halfcheetah-medium43.2±0.655.2±27.8-0.8±1.344.446.9±0.467.5±1.265.9±0.6
halfcheetah-expert91.8±1.5-0.8±1.84.1±5.7104.897.3±1.1105.2±2.6106.8±3.4
halfcheetah-medium-expert44.0±1.628.4±19.40.7±3.762.495.0±1.4107.1±2.0106.3±1.9
halfcheetah-medium-replay37.6±2.10.8±1.06.6±11.046.245.3±0.363.9±0.861.3±1.9
halfcheetah-full-replay62.9±0.886.8±1.027.8±35.4-76.9±0.984.5±1.284.6±0.9
hopper-random3.7±0.69.9±1.53.4±2.210.85.3±0.631.3±0.025.3±10.4
hopper-medium54.1±3.80.8±0.00.7±0.086.661.9±6.4100.3±0.3101.6±0.6
hopper-expert107.7±9.70.7±0.00.8±0.0109.9106.5±9.1110.3±0.3110.1±0.1
hopper-medium-expert53.9±4.70.7±0.00.8±0.0111.096.9±15.1110.1±0.3110.7±0.1
hopper-medium-replay16.6±4.87.4±0.527.5±15.248.686.3±7.3101.8±0.5101.0±0.5
hopper-full-replay19.9±12.941.1±17.919.7±24.6-101.9±0.6102.9±0.3105.4±0.7
walker2d-random1.3±0.10.9±0.86.9±8.37.05.4±1.721.7±0.016.6±7.0
walker2d-medium70.9±11.0-0.3±0.20.2±0.774.579.5±3.287.9±0.292.5±0.8
walker2d-expert108.7±0.20.7±0.31.0±2.3121.6109.3±0.1107.4±2.4115.1±1.9
walker2d-medium-expert90.1±13.21.9±3.9-0.1±0.098.7109.1±0.2116.7±0.4114.7±0.9
walker2d-medium-replay20.3±9.8-0.4±0.312.5±6.232.676.8±10.078.7±0.787.1±2.3
walker2d-full-replay68.8±17.727.9±47.3-0.2±0.3-94.2±1.994.6±0.599.8±0.7
Average49.916.26.2-73.784.585.2
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Task NameBCSACREMCQL (Paper)CQL (Reproduced)SAC-N (Ours)EDAC (Ours)
pen-human25.8±8.84.3±3.85.4±4.355.835.2±6.69.5±1.152.1±8.6
hammer-human3.1±3.20.2±0.00.3±0.02.10.6±0.50.3±0.00.8±0.4
door-human2.8±0.7-0.3±0.0-0.3±0.09.11.2±1.8-0.3±0.010.7±6.8
relocate-human0.0±0.0-0.3±0.0-0.3±0.00.350.0±0.0-0.1±0.10.1±0.1
pen-cloned38.3±11.9-0.8±3.2-1.0±0.140.327.2±11.364.1±8.768.2±7.3
hammer-cloned0.7±0.30.1±0.1-0.3±0.05.71.4±2.10.2±0.20.3±0.0
door-cloned0.0±0.0-0.3±0.1-0.3±0.03.52.4±2.4-0.3±0.09.6±8.3
relocate-cloned0.1±0.0-0.1±0.1-0.2±0.2-0.10.0±0.00.0±0.00.0±0.0
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Runtime (s/epoch)GPU Mem. (GB)
SAC21.41.3
CQL38.21.4
SAC-50044.15.1
EDAC30.81.8
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sha256:705622fddc3bd2281762db25fb51cc05160dc28584e6bb8f2ad57728e737eaea +size 3279 diff --git a/parse/train/ryfz73C9KQ/ryfz73C9KQ.md b/parse/train/ryfz73C9KQ/ryfz73C9KQ.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..126b06ac938ef92cdf64400db0dfa621a62731e0 --- /dev/null +++ b/parse/train/ryfz73C9KQ/ryfz73C9KQ.md @@ -0,0 +1,332 @@ +# NEURAL PREDICTIVE BELIEF REPRESENTATIONS + +Anonymous authors Paper under double-blind review + +# ABSTRACT + +Unsupervised representation learning has succeeded with excellent results in many applications. It is an especially powerful tool to learn a good representation of environments with partial or noisy observations. In partially observable domains it is important for the representation to encode a belief state—a sufficient statistic of the observations seen so far. In this paper, we investigate whether it is possible to learn such a belief representation using modern neural architectures. Specifically, we focus on one-step frame prediction and two variants of contrastive predictive coding (CPC) as the objective functions to learn the representations. To evaluate these learned representations, we test how well they can predict various pieces of information about the underlying state of the environment, e.g., position of the agent in a 3D maze. We show that all three methods are able to learn belief representations of the environment—they encode not only the state information, but also its uncertainty, a crucial aspect of belief states. We also find that for CPC multi-step predictions and action-conditioning are critical for accurate belief representations in visually complex environments. The ability of neural representations to capture the belief information has the potential to spur new advances for learning and planning in partially observable domains, where leveraging uncertainty is essential for optimal decision making. + +# 1 INTRODUCTION + +Modern supervised learning (Hastie et al., 2009a) and reinforcement learning (RL Sutton & Barto, 1998) methods have been applied successfully to many challenging applications (He et al., 2016; Sutskever et al., 2014; Mnih et al., 2015; Silver et al., 2016). On the other hand, in most domains there exists a great wealth of information in the raw data alone. Unsupervised learning provides a generic framework allowing machines to learn independently of supervision (Hastie et al., 2009b). + +Unsupervised learning encompasses a wide range of learning problems (Rezende et al., 2014; Goodfellow et al., 2014; Erhan et al., 2010). Among them representation learning has drawn significant attraction in recent years (Bengio et al., 2013). In representation learning the goal of the learner is to learn a representation that encodes useful information required to solve a variety of tasks. + +Representation learning is especially important in partially observable dynamical environments, such as navigation tasks with a first-person view, where each observation only provides a partial and possibly noisy view of the environment. In these settings it is critical for the agent to build a belief state representation which encodes its uncertainty about the underlying state of the environment. This is due to the fact that the belief state is a sufficient statistic for predicting future observations and future states, as well as the optimal policy in the RL setting (Rabiner, 1989; Jaakkola et al., 1995). Representation learning has been proven useful to enhance the performance of agents in various partially observable dynamical domains (Jaderberg et al., 2016; Oord et al., 2018; Eslami et al., 2018). + +Despite these successes, prior work mostly evaluate the quality of the learned state representation indirectly through the performance in some supervised or RL task (Jaderberg et al., 2016). This black-box approach is effective for evaluating the usefulness of the learned representation for a particular task. However, it provides no answer to the question of whether the state representation encodes a belief embedding, nor whether the representation learns more general concepts that can be used across tasks. + +In this paper, as an alternative to the current black-box approach, we adopt a glass-box approach to the problem of evaluating the representation learning methods. More specifically we directly use the learned representation to predict the ground-truth state of the environment. This information is only used for evaluating the representation, while the representation itself is learned in a fully unsupervised fashion. + +For our experiments, we use a set of simulated tasks in the DeepMind Lab suite (Beattie et al., 2016). We compare three different representation learning methods: One-step frame prediction, contrastive predictive coding (CPC) (Oord et al., 2018), and CPC|Action, a new action-dependent variant of CPC. CPC and CPC|Action are both able to represent distributions of future observations, whereas one-step frame prediction can only represent the mean; however, frame prediction is better at paying attention to details in the observations. + +Our main finding is that all three methods are able to learn a representation of the belief state of the environment. We observe that the learned representations encode important pieces of information about the environment including the agent’s current position and orientation, its past trajectory, and even the position of objects in the environment. In fact, our results show that the belief representations not only encode these pieces of information, they also encode the agent’s uncertainty over them—a crucial aspect of a belief state. However, we find that not all objects can be captured equally well by the learned representations, and that the representations are able to better capture those objects that have higher impact on the agent’s future observations. Finally, we observe that for CPC, predicting further into the future and conditioning on actions (CPC|Action) results in the best learned belief on visually complex environments, while being more computationally efficient than the one-step frame predictor. + +# 2 BACKGROUND AND NOTATION + +# 2.1 PARTIALLY OBSERVABLE MARKOV DECISION PROCESSES + +We consider Partially Observable Markov Decision Processes (POMDPs; Lovejoy, 1991; Cassandra, 1998) as a general framework to deal with partially-observable and stochastic environments with actions. Formally, a POMDP is a tuple $M = ( \mathcal { X } , \mathcal { A } , \mathcal { O } , P , O )$ where $\mathcal { X }$ is the state space, $\mathcal { A }$ is the action space, $\mathcal { O }$ the observation space, $P$ models the dynamics and maps to each state-action couple $( x , a )$ a probability $P ( \boldsymbol { y } | \boldsymbol { x } , \boldsymbol { a } )$ over the next state $y$ and $O$ is the observation distribution that maps to each state $x$ a probability $O ( \cdot | x )$ over possible observations. Typically, POMDPs also include a reward observation; however, as we are not considering the control problem here, there is no need to distinguish between the reward and the observations, so we omit the reward. + +At any given time $t$ , the agent acting in a POMDP has only access to some observation $o _ { t } \in \mathcal { O }$ that gives incomplete information about the real state $x _ { t } \in \mathcal X$ . Thus, it has an uncertainty on the real state $x _ { t }$ as well as on the next state $x _ { t + 1 }$ as the dynamics depends on the state-action pair $\left( { { x } _ { t } } , { { a } _ { t } } \right)$ . Therefore a key aspect in POMDPs is to be able to compute a belief state $b _ { t }$ , which is a probability distribution over possible states, from the current history $h _ { t }$ . More formally, at a given time $t$ , the current history $h _ { t }$ is the set of past actions and observations $h _ { t } = \left\{ o _ { 0 } , a _ { 0 } , o _ { 1 } , a _ { 1 } , \ldots , a _ { t - 1 } , o _ { t } \right\}$ , and a belief distribution $P _ { b } ( \cdot | h _ { t } )$ over the possible states conditioned on the history of past actions and observations. Ideally, we would like to compute the belief distribution $P _ { b }$ or a surrogate representation $b _ { t } \in \mathbb { R } ^ { d }$ that encodes the information with regard to $P _ { b }$ , thus capturing the uncertainty on the underlying state $x _ { t }$ . + +# 2.2 CONTRASTIVE PREDICTIVE CODING + +Contrastive Predictive Coding (Oord et al., 2018) (CPC) is an unsupervised representaion learning which relies on noise contrastive estimation (Gutmann & Hyvärinen, 2010; 2012) as the statistical method for learning distributions. We provide a brief overview of noise contrastive estimation approach and based on this we describe the CPC approach. Discriminating between samples coming from the data distribution (positive examples) and samples coming from another distribution (negative examples), is known as learning from comparison. A simple way to implement this general principle is via binary classification where samples coming from the data distribution will be labelled as positive examples and samples coming from another distribution will be labelled as negative examples. Then, training such a binary classifier can be a good way to learn features that encode information on the data distribution. More precisely, assume that we have $N ^ { + }$ samples $( o _ { i } ^ { + } ) _ { i = 1 } ^ { N ^ { + } }$ coming from our data distribution with probability density $\rho ^ { + }$ and $N ^ { - }$ samples $( o _ { i } ^ { - } ) _ { i = 1 } ^ { N ^ { - } }$ coming from our data distribution with probability density $\rho ^ { - }$ . Training a binary classifier $f$ with logistic regression consists in finding $f$ that maximises $\hat { J } ( f )$ : + +$$ +\hat { J } ( f ) = \frac { 1 } { N ^ { + } } \sum _ { i = 1 } ^ { N ^ { + } } \log ( f ( o ^ { + } ) ) + \frac { 1 } { N ^ { - } } \sum _ { i = 1 } ^ { N ^ { - } } \log ( 1 - f ( o ^ { - } ) ) . +$$ + +The quantity $\hat { J } ( f )$ is the empirical version of $J ( f )$ + +$$ +J ( f ) = \mathbb { E } _ { o ^ { + } \sim \rho ^ { + } } \left[ \log ( f ( o ^ { + } ) ) \right] + \mathbb { E } _ { o ^ { - } \sim \rho ^ { - } } \left[ \log ( 1 - f ( o ^ { - } ) ) \right] . +$$ + +As it is shown in Goodfellow et al. (2014) the quantity $\operatorname* { m a x } _ { f } J ( f )$ is simply the Jensen-Shannon divergence $D _ { J S } ( \rho ^ { + } | \rho ^ { - } )$ between the data distribution and the other distribution: + +$$ +\operatorname* { m a x } _ { f } J ( f ) = 2 D _ { J S } ( \rho ^ { + } | \rho ^ { - } ) - \log ( 4 ) . +$$ + +In other words, by estimating this divergence, we learn how different the positive examples are from the negative examples and hope that the learned representation encodes that information. + +CPC makes use of a noise contrastive estimation model to discriminate observations $o _ { t + k } ^ { + }$ at a “future” time step $t { + } k$ from negative observations $o _ { t + k } ^ { - }$ , which is randomly chosen from the dataset (see Sec. 4 for details). CPC bases this estimation on a state representation $b _ { t }$ that depends on the history up to time step $t$ and embeddings of positive and negative observations at time $t + k$ . The CPC architecture takes into account the belief state representation $b _ { t }$ by using modern memory architecture such as LSTM (Hochreiter & Schmidhuber, 1997; Xingjian et al., 2015) and GRU (Chung et al., 2014). Different possible losses based on this description can be formulated as shown in the appendix. + +# 3 RELATED WORK + +In this work, we are interested in learning representations that can compactly encode the belief state in partially observable problems. We also want these representations to capture information about different attributes of the state such as agent and object positions in navigation tasks. It is to be expected that compact representations of POMDPs make it easier to learn and represent models (Boutilier et al., 1999). Indeed, representations that encode important parts of the state have led to improved performance in RL tasks, both with model-based and value-based methods (Guestrin et al., 2003; Diuk et al., 2008; Boots et al., 2011; Levine et al., 2016; Higgins et al., 2017; Karkus et al., 2018). + +Predictive State Representations (PSRs; Littman & Sutton, 2002) are one such expressive and compact representation, in terms of tests on the POMDP (Rivest & Schapire, 1993). A test is the indicator of a specific sequence of future observations given a specific sequence of actions. With an appropriate collection of tests (and their conditional distributions given histories), one can encode belief states (Rivest & Schapire, 1993; Littman & Sutton, 2002). A PSR is a collection of tests that is expressive enough to effectively encode the conditional distribution of any other test, and as a consequence any belief state in the POMDP. Recently Hefny et al. (2018) have implemented a deep variant of PSR architecture with recurrent neural networking, proving the compatibility of this idea with modern deep architectures. Our work is inspired by the idea that predicting future observations conditioned on future actions can give us an expressive state representation, and this principle guided the design of our representation learning architecture. + +Sutton et al. (2011); Li et al. (2015); Jaderberg et al. (2016); Dosovitskiy & Koltun (2017); Higgins et al. (2017); Wayne et al. (2018); Igl et al. (2018) used auxiliary tasks to improve agent performance, but only partially investigated what information the learned representations encode. Dosovitskiy & Koltun (2017) uses supervised learning to learn representations that capture state information, and showed that this leads to improved performance in different ViZDoom tasks. Higgins et al. (2017) used methods that learn factored state representations (Burgess et al., 2018) and showed improved performance and effective transfer in 3D RL tasks where the agent must identify and collect good objects, while avoiding bad ones. Wayne et al. (2018) showed that the representation of their proposed agent architecture is able to capture the absolute position of the goal in a large-maze navigation task. + +Schmidhuber (1991); Diuk et al. (2008); Kolter & $\mathrm { N g }$ (2009); Sorg et al. (2010); Anandkumar et al. (2014) and many others prescribed or tried to estimate the state transition model of the POMDP explicitly. Although our approach learns about the dynamics of the environment, we do not directly evaluate the quality of the learned dynamics model. Instead, we focus on evaluating the quality of the learned representation, which implicitly captures the quality of the learned dynamics as well. In Section 5 we investigate the accuracy of these representations across different domains when trained with different approaches. + +# 4 ARCHITECTURE AND ALGORITHM + +Inspired by the PSR literature, our approach relies on predictions of future observations conditioned on future actions as a way to predict the belief state. In particular, we base our architecture on CPC, using a variant of this model to learn rich representations in virtual environments. + +We now describe the architectures we use in our experiments. Figure 1 outlines the CPC|Action architecture which is a variant of CPC architecture (see Sec. 2.2). We use a GRU network (blue) to take in the history of embedded observations $z _ { t }$ and actions $a _ { t }$ and output the representation $b _ { t }$ for the current time step $t$ . In addition to standard CPC our architecture uses the $b _ { t }$ to initialise an action-GRU (red) which is then fed by the future actions $\{ a _ { t + k } \} _ { k = 0 } ^ { T - 1 }$ . Finally, for each time step $t + k$ , a multi-layer perceptron (MLP) (grey) is fed both by the output of this GRU and the positive example order to $z _ { t + k } ^ { + }$ in order to predict 1 or by the output of the GRU and the negative example t 0 (for a more detailed description of the architecture i.e. ConvNet and fully-co $z _ { t + k } ^ { - }$ inted layer please see the Architecture Details section in the appendix.). We also implement the CPC without actions as exactly the same architecture as CPC|Action except that the action-GRU (red) is not fed by the future actions {at+k}T −1k=0 but by a dummy input $\{ c _ { t + k } \} _ { k = 0 } ^ { T - 1 }$ where $c _ { t + k } = c$ is a constant null vector. Finally we implement one-step frame prediction (FP; Bengio et al., 2007). This architecture learns a belief state $b _ { t }$ for the task of predicting the next observation $o _ { t + 1 }$ given the action $a _ { t }$ via a transposed convolutional network (orange). Common to all 3 architectures is a convolutional neural network (CNN; LeCun et al., 1998) (yellow) that transforms the raw observation $o _ { t }$ to a vector $z _ { t }$ . For evaluation, the belief state $b _ { t }$ is then used by an MLP (green) in order to estimate the position, orientation or other features of the environments. It is important to note that we do not back-propagate the gradient from this MLP (green) that predicts the ground truth to the rest of the architecture. Algorithm 1 outlines how we train the CPC|action architecture. We sample mini-batches of sub-trajectories from our dataset, and unroll the belief GRU $f$ to compute the beliefs $b _ { t }$ for every time step. Then, for every $b _ { t }$ , we sample how far we want to predict into the future up to a maximum of $F$ . We compute the forwarded belief from the Action GRU, and then feed it to the CPC classifier with both the true future observation as the positive example, and a randomly picked observation from the mini-batch as a negative example. We average the classification losses across all time steps of the mini-batch and take a gradient step. For the frame predictor, the training procedure is similar, except we compute the prediction loss of the next future observation instead of the CPC loss for each time step. The distribution of negative examples, and the ratio of the number of positive + +![](images/664edaa8df98195ee9ae69d01cc9adc89b7f6871ae189c58e38685bdaff5d6cf.jpg) +Figure 1: Different architectures used in our experiments. + +# Algorithm 1: CPC|Action + +Data: Belief GRU $f$ , Future Prediction Length $F$ , Action GRU $g$ , CPC Classifier h for $i \gets 0$ to $\infty$ do + +2 Initialise loss $\ell \gets 0$ ; +3 Sample mini-batch $B$ of size $N$ from replay; +4 Compute beliefs $b _ { t } = f ( b _ { 0 } , z _ { 1 : t } , a _ { 1 : t - 1 } )$ ; +5 for sub-trajectory $j 0$ to $N$ do +6 for step $t \gets 0$ to $T$ do +7 Sample $f$ uniformly from $[ 1 , \ldots , F ]$ ; +8 Let $a _ { t : t + f - 1 }$ be the future actions starting from the current step ; +9 Let $z _ { t + f }$ be the future observation $f$ steps in the future ; +10 Let $b _ { t }$ be the belief state at current step ; +11 Sample negative example $z ^ { - }$ uniformly from $B$ ; +12 $\begin{array} { r l } & { b ^ { a } \stackrel { } { = } g ( b _ { t } , \stackrel { \smile } { a } _ { t : t + f - 1 } ) ~ ; } \\ & { \ell ^ { + } = \mathrm { s i g m o i d \_ c r o s s \_ e n t r o p y } ( h ( b ^ { a } , z _ { t + f } ) , 1 ) ~ ; } \\ & { \ell ^ { - } = \mathrm { s i g m o i d \_ c r o s s \_ e n t r o p y } ( h ( b ^ { a } , z ^ { - } ) , 0 ) ~ ; } \\ & { \ell \ell + \ell ^ { + } + \ell ^ { - } ~ ; } \end{array}$ +13 +14 +15 +16 end +17 end +18 $\ell \gets \frac { \ell } { | B | }$ ; +19 Take gradient step to minimise $\ell$ ; +20 end + +and negative examples can be an important choice for CPC and CPC|Action. We found that taking one negative observation uniformly from the rest of the mini-batch performed very well. We also found that the distribution and ratio became significantly less important when we predict further into the future. + +# 5 EXPERIMENTS + +In this section we describe our experimental setup and discuss the results. We would like to evaluate whether our learned representations can encode information about the underlying state of the environment from just partial observations. After motivating our results with experiments in a toy domain (Section 5.1), we present two sets of experiments in a visually rich partially observable 3D environment. In the first set of experiments (Section 5.2), we compare the three different approaches, and look into their capacity to encode the agent’s position and orientation. In the second set of experiments, we delve deeper into the subject of encoding beliefs about objects’ positions (Section 5.3), and the uncertainty on agent’s position and orientation (Section 5.4). Additional details about the experimental setups can be found in Appendix A. + +# 5.1 TOY GRIDWORLD + +To give a sense of the belief representations being learned, we first present qualitative results in a toy domain, where we can see how the learned belief changes (in particular reduction in uncertainty) as the agent interacts with the environment. To evaluate the learned belief, we train a separate classifier to predict the true position and orientation of the agent from the learned belief, without letting the gradient flow back into the representation. + +The toy domain is a square gridworld room. At each step the agent moves (forward or backwards) or rotates (a quarter of a circle to the left or right) at random, and it is only able to observe a square of length 5 centred on it. Fig. 2 shows screenshots from an episode with an agent trained with CPC|Action and predicting 30 steps into the future. We observe that the agent’s representation encodes a belief that reflects the inherent uncertainty on the agent’s position and orientation. This uncertainty is a result of partial observability and, as the agent moves around the room and observes more of the environment, it is progressively reduced, until eventually there is no more uncertainty on the agent’s position and orientation for the rest of the episode. More specifically we observe that throughout the early stage of episode, Figs. 2(a) to 2(d), when the agent’s observation are not informative, the agent is able to refine his belief only by ruling out the states which are not feasible under the past actions. When the agent observes the top wall at time step 32 (Fig. 2(e)) it immediately narrows down its belief to only 3 neighboring states. After that it takes the agent another 20 time steps to completely resolve the uncertainty again by using the past actions. + +![](images/bcf09265b013349a245b0e05194e9466671b4163c8a2fc6fe72ab0bf5f2cd1e0.jpg) +Figure 2: Frames from the agent moving at random in a gridworld (outermost cells are walls, see Fig. 2(e)). In each image, the agent’s partial observation is on the left (agent and walls in black, empty spaces in white), the agent’s position and orientation are on the centre, and the predicted position and orientation are on the right. The diamond-looking shapes result from flattening the beliefs for each of the four possible orientations in the same cell. + +# 5.2 ALGORITHM COMPARISON + +In this section we are interested in a variety of visually rich, partially observable environments, so we used four different environments of the DeepMind Lab platform (Beattie et al., 2016). + +We tested whether the representations encoded the following: 1) agent’s relative $( x , y )$ -position and orientation $\theta$ at each time step, given the agent’s initial position and orientation, 2) the agent’s past relative positions and orientations up to each time step, and 3) the relative position of uncollected objects in the environment at each time step. The reason we test for the agent’s past positions and orientations is because the history is necessary for the agent to remember collected objects. + +We trained separate networks to estimate the learned representation and initial position and orientation and predict the associated piece of information at every time step. These networks were used only for inspection, that is, gradients did not flow through them into the representation. The positions and orientations are discretised for easier evaluation. To generate data, we used a random policy that repeats a randomly chosen action a random number of times between 1 and 5. + +The four environments used in our experiment span different kinds of layouts from rooms to mazes to natural terrain, and different object positioning—fixed positions or per-episode randomised positions. Objects are collectable in all four environments. fixed is a single room with objects in fixed locations, room is a single room with objects in randomised locations, $\mathtt { m a z e }$ is a fixed maze with objects in randomised locations, and terrain is a naturalistic, hilly, terrain with desert and forest features, and objects. In terrain, the map (including object positions) is randomly selected in every episode from a fixed, finite set. Fig. 3 gives examples of agent observations from each of these environments (the specific DeepMind Lab environment names are given in Appendix A). + +![](images/d5aa60db9408853d5aa40811e3c49a49658d8f08e2119ebfe5717975f9b65749.jpg) +Figure 3: Examples of agent observations for different environments. + +We compared CPC|Action to CPC (Oord et al., 2018), as well as frame prediction (FP), which predicts the next frame given the current representation and action. For both CPC|Action and CPC approaches, we test the architectures trained from predicting 1 and 30 steps into the future. Table 1 summarises the prediction losses across all algorithms and environments1, and we can make several observations. + +
EnvAlgorithm(x,y,0)Past (x,y,0)Objects (x,y)
fixedFP0.118 ± 0.0150.121 ± 0.0070.043 ± 0.006
CPC 10.579 ± 0.0670.132 ± 0.0100.049 ± 0.005
CPC 300.562 ± 0.2040.118 ± 0.0100.045 ± 0.004
CPClAction 10.689 ± 0.0570.137 ± 0.0060.049 ± 0.004
CPCIAction 300.240 ± 0.0300.100 ± 0.0070.040 ± 0.003
roomFP0.517 ± 0.1230.285± 0.0170.484 ± 0.005
CPC 12.010 ±0.1420.311 ± 0.0170.498 ± 0.008
CPC 300.482 ± 0.1570.257 ± 0.0220.481 ± 0.005
CPClAction 12.274±0.1170.308 ± 0.0180.484 ± 0.005
CPCIAction 300.689 ± 0.0660.276 ± 0.0290.484 ± 0.008
mazeFP0.178 ± 0.2070.233 ± 0.0290.322 ± 0.008
CPC 10.622 ± 0.1580.278 ± 0.0550.330 ± 0.009
CPC 300.244 ± 0.0580.213 ± 0.0310.325 ± 0.015
CPClAction 10.638 ± 0.0940.264± 0.0280.323 ± 0.010
CPCIAction 300.182 ± 0.0340.206 ± 0.0290.323 ± 0.010
terrainFP1.831 ± 0.1620.405 ± 0.0770.181 ± 0.084
CPC13.393 ± 0.2520.417 ± 0.0740.307 ± 0.174
CPC 302.280 ± 0.8530.340 ± 0.1040.131 ± 0.185
CPClAction 13.348 ± 0.4820.414 ± 0.0420.312 ± 0.049
CPClAction 301.589±0.3580.344 ± 0.0650.139 ±0.136
+ +Table 1: Evaluation classification losses after $2 \cdot 1 0 ^ { 5 }$ mini-batch updates for the 5 algorithm settings across all 4 environments over 2 seeds. + +First, predicting 30 steps into the future with CPC and CPC|Action significantly outperforms predicting only 1 step in the future. The poor performance of CPC 1 and CPC|Action 1 is evidence that using a contrastive loss allows the representation to ignore more details of observations compared to FP. Predicting 30 steps into the future with the CPC methods allows representations to encode at least as much relevant information as FP, and at a lower computational cost. It is possible to formulate a version of FP that also predicts further into the future at an even greater computational cost, but it is not clear how much that can improve the learned belief since FP cannot represent distributions over observations, only the mean. + +Second, in environments with simple observations (not terrain), all three approaches (FP, CPC 30, CPC|Action 30) are able to accurately encode the agent’s position and orientation, and perform reasonably well encoding the agent’s past position and orientation. FP consistently edges out the others in encoding position and orientation. An inspection of the predictions from videos of the evaluation episodes confirm this result. However in terrain with more complex observations, we see from Table 1 that the prediction task is more challenging for all approaches, and there is a larger gap between the accuracy of the predictions. In Figs. 4(a) to 4(c), we see typical examples where all algorithms can accurately predict the position and orientation of the agent. In Figs. 4(d) to 4(f), we see typical examples of prediction mistakes corresponding to each of the approaches. In particular, mistakes from FP are noticeably worse than CPC and CPC|Action 30, and CPC|Action performs the best. + +Third, for past position and orientation, the general trend is that both CPC approaches are slightly better than FP. This is seen in Table 1 and in evaluation videos. The CPC methods (Figs. 4(b), 4(c), 4(e) and 4(f)) are noticeably better than FP (Figs. 4(a) and 4(d)). + +![](images/efd786f476fd0dd691db9b22d75a0816e304dca2797c99b931dd83c9bb7b4aa4.jpg) +Figure 4: Example predictions for terrain. In each image, ground truths are on the top, predictions on the bottom, $( x , y , \theta )$ (ground truth and predictions) on the left, and past $( x , y , \theta )$ on the right. Figs. 4(a) to 4(c) show examples of accurate $( x , y , \theta )$ predictions, Figs. 4(d) to 4(f) show examples for inaccurate $( x , y , \theta )$ predictions. + +![](images/736c7fa6df9b3b6989949db0024c3b09bd4fcf1cf799c536a13a51724b52c1f2.jpg) +Figure 5: Symmetry of the $( x , y , \theta )$ prediction with the frame predictor in room. Ground truths are on the top, predictions on the bottom, $( x , y , \theta )$ (ground truth and predictions) on the left, and past $( x , y , \theta )$ on the right. + +Fourth, we take a closer look at room as it is an interesting environment because it is almost symmetric in both $x$ and $y$ axes. The room is almost a square, measuring 9 by 10 units. There are faint vertical pulses of light on the walls that move from small to larger $( x , y )$ , and they are the only symmetry-breaking elements. Table 1 and video inspection suggest that the representations trained with the three algorithms do not allow asymmetries to be consistently resolved. Fig. 5 shows an example of the symmetry in position predictions, reflecting uncertainty about the position and orientation. The higher position and orientation prediction errors of FP and CPC|Action 30 in room are mainly due to the ambiguity from symmetry. We are unsure why CPC is slightly better than CPC|Action at paying attention to the moving vertical lines of light on the walls, but we speculate it is because knowledge of actions taken does not help break the symmetry, and because CPC|Action may be encoding the action-dependent dynamics. + +Finally, for object positions, we see varied results in Table 1, depending on the type of environment. For fixed, unsurprisingly, all predictors have similar accuracy, since objects are fixed. It is likely that the information is not encoded in the representation—as our results in Section 5.3 suggest—but in the evaluator which simply memorises the fixed positions. For room and maze, which randomise object locations each episode, the prediction errors indicate that the representation is unable to encode any information object position. Finally, for terrain, which has a finite set of fixed object positions, the three approaches FP, CPC 30 and CPC|Action 30 allow for reasonably accurate predictions. We believe that the representations only encode information about the specific map instance, from which the evaluators can decode object position. In Section 5.3 we discuss the issue of representing objects in more detail. + +# 5.3 INCREASED OBJECT INTERACTION + +Table 1 shows that none of the approaches are able to encode much information about object positions (cf. room and maze). We hypothesise that the objects are not a significant enough part of the observations to warrant the CPC algorithms to pay attention to them, and there is no reason for FP to continue to remember objects once they go out of the agent’s view. + +To test this hypothesis, we constructed two simple DeepMind Lab environments: non teleport, where objects cannot be interacted with, and teleport, where objects, when touched, teleport the agent back to its initial position. Both environments are a small square room with the agent’s initial position in a notch on the wall (to create asymmetry), and two visually different objects are placed in random positions at each episode. + +The teleporting interaction results in a drastic change in the observations of the agent, which should force the representations to encode information about these objects in order to better predict future observations. In contrast, non-interactive objects (in non teleport) are equally visible to the agent, but do not cause drastic changes to observations. + +Table 2 shows the losses for evaluating the prediction of object position for teleport and non teleport. All of the algorithms are significantly better at encoding information about the position of the objects with the teleport interaction, with CPC|Action 30 being slightly better than the others. Fig. 6 shows screenshots of an evaluation video, where we see that in the case of non teleport (Figs. 6(a) and 6(b)) the representation is only able to react to immediately visible objects. As soon as the agent turns away, the representation no longer contains the object information. However, in the case of teleport (Figs. 6(c) and 6(d)), we see that the representations are able to remember information about the objects even after the agent has turned away and moved elsewhere. + +Table 2: Evaluation classification losses on object position. + +
AlgorithmObjects (x,y)
non teleportteleport
FP0.148 ± 0.0030.108 ± 0.014
CPC 300.168 ± 0.0010.137 ± 0.017
CPCIAction 300.164 ± 0.0020.086 ± 0.020
+ +![](images/2d3fc4fd7a4ffd1a5cd1b41faa5c7339a529793b0e849d1a66839721e0b363d5.jpg) +Figure 6: Example predictions for non teleport and teleport. Ground truths are on the top, predictions on the bottom, $( x , y , \theta )$ (ground truth and predictions) on the centre, object $( x , y )$ on the right, and frame seen by the agent on the left. + +Furthermore, in Figs. 6(c) and 6(d) we see that the representation is able to maintain uncertainty over the object positions. When the agent only sees one of the two objects, the position of the second object is still uncertain, but the representation is already able to encode some negative evidence, narrowing down the possible locations of the second object. + +# 5.4 RICHER UNCERTAINTY OVER POSITION + +In the DeepMind Lab environments, there is not an instance of uncertainty over the agent’s position and orientation similar to the toy Gridworld (Section 5.1) due to being able to see far into the distance in a first-person view. Therefore we constructed a simple DeepMind Lab environment with two parallel hallways (see Fig. 7(a)) to demonstrate this kind of uncertainty in a 3D environment. The agent randomly starts in one of the two hallways, and its position can only be resolved near the exit of the hallways (we do not give the agent’s initial position to the evaluator). Fig. 7(b) illustrates (for CPC|Action 30) how, initially, the representation cannot distinguish in which hallway the agent is. Fig. 7(b) illustrates the representation immediately resolving the location when the agent able to peek out. This behaviour is consistent for all three algorithms: FP, CPC 30 and CPC|Action 30. Thus, even in 3D environments, we are able to learn a belief that can encode a richer uncertainty over the agent’s position. + +![](images/c86003dbcff09de13b2565a5e66ead1062dc44df4553db6d4c55c09d5a556d2a.jpg) +Figure 7: Example predictions for two hallways. Ground truths are on the top, predictions on the bottom, $( x , y , \theta )$ (ground truth and predictions) on the centre, past $( x , y , \theta )$ on the right, and frame seen by the agent on the left. + +# 6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK + +Using a glass box approach, we investigated the quality of representations learned by three different methods: FP, CPC, and CPC|Action. Specifically, we considered a variety of first-person 3D navigation environments, and looked at whether the representation can encode a belief on different aspects of the environment. We found that FP, CPC 30 and CPC|Action 30 are all able to learn representations that encode the agent’s position and orientation, the agent’s trajectory (previous positions and orientations)—cf. Table 1. The position of objects can be encoded as well, provided that interacting with the objects strongly impacts the agent’s future observations (Table 2). + +More importantly, the representations also encode the agent’s uncertainty over its position and object positions. We showed that this uncertainty is reduced as the agent obtains more information from the environment, including negative evidence, e.g., when the agent sees where the object is not (Fig. 6). + +In visually simple environments (e.g. fixed), FP was the best at encoding agent position and orientation. In visually complex environment (terrain), CPC 30 and CPC|Action 30 performed best, with multi-step predictions being the key to their success, and action-conditioning providing further improvements. + +There remains much interesting future work to pursue. We believe the ability of these representations to learn various belief concepts can be further explored to improve performance and generalisation in multi-task settings, by transferring concepts across tasks. The capability of encoding uncertainty can also be useful for learning policies that efficiently explore partially observable environments by acting to reduce uncertainty on the agent’s belief (as in Bayes-optimal exploration; Wilson et al., 2007; Kolter & Ng, 2009; Sorg et al., 2010; Asmuth & Littman, 2012; Ghavamzadeh et al., 2015). As another direction, the three methods we considered can go beyond predicting only visual observations to other modalities of sensory inputs, such as proprioception and touch sensors (Amos et al., 2018). 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Multi-Task Reinforcement Learning: A Hierarchical Bayesian Approach. In Proceedings of the $2 4 ^ { t h }$ International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML 2007), pp. 1015–1022. ACM, 2007. + +SHI Xingjian, Zhourong Chen, Hao Wang, Dit-Yan Yeung, Wai-Kin Wong, and Wang-chun Woo. Convolutional LSTM network: A machine learning approach for precipitation nowcasting. In Advances in neural information processing systems, pp. 802–810, 2015. + +# A IMPLEMENTATION DETAILS + +Environments. Table 3 gives the names of the four environments (levels) of the DeepMind Lab platform (Beattie et al., 2016) that we used. The latter three tasks are custom DeepMind Lab environments that we created. + +Table 3: Correspondences of our environments to DeepMind Lab levels. + +
Name in this paperdmlab30name
fixedseekavoid_arena_01
roomrooms_collect_good_objects_train
mazenav_maze_random_goal_01
terrainSmaller variant of natlab_fixed_large_map
teleport
non teleport
two hallways1
+ +Frame Reconstruction Loss. For frame prediction, we normalise the pixel colour values to be between 0 and 1 and use the sigmoid cross-entropy loss. + +CPC Losses. We implement the CPC losses differently from Oord et al. (2018). They score examples for the contrastive loss at $k$ time steps in the future with $f _ { k } ( o ) \dot { = } \exp ( \mathrm { c o n v } ( o ) ^ { \top } \dot { W _ { k } } b _ { t } )$ for a matrix $W _ { k }$ , where $b _ { t }$ is the current belief. The contrastive loss to be minimised at time step $t$ and looking $k$ steps in the future is + +$$ +- \ln { \frac { f _ { k } ( o ^ { + } ) } { f _ { k } ( o ^ { + } ) + \sum _ { j = 1 } ^ { m } f _ { k } ( o _ { j } ^ { - } ) } } , +$$ + +where the positive example is $o ^ { + } = o _ { t + k }$ (the observation at time step $t + k )$ , and the negative examples are $( o _ { 1 } ^ { - } , \ldots , o _ { m } ^ { - } )$ , which can be sampled from a minibatch of data. + +In our case, the score function $f$ is a one-hidden-layer perceptron with ReLU activation in the hidden layers, taking as inputs the concatenation of $\operatorname { c o n v } ( o )$ and $b _ { t }$ . The contrastive loss to be minimised at time step $t$ and looking $k$ steps in the future is the binary classification loss + +$$ +\sigma ( f ( o ^ { + } , b _ { t } ) ) + \sigma ( - f ( o ^ { - } , b _ { t } ) ) , +$$ + +where $\sigma$ is the sigmoid function, the positive example is $o ^ { + } = o _ { t + k }$ (the observation at time step $t + k )$ , and the negative example $o ^ { - }$ is drawn uniformly at random from the minibatch (including different time steps of the trajectory $o _ { t + k }$ belongs to). + +Architecture Details. A diagram of the architecture is in Fig. 1. + +The observations from DeepMind Lab are $8 4 \times 8 4$ pixels, each pixel consisting of three bytes representing RGB values respectively. This observation is passed through our convolutional network, which has three convolutional layers with filter sizes $8 , 4 , 3$ , strides $4 , 2 , 1$ , and number of filters 32, 64, 64 respectively, and a final hidden layer of size 512 with ReLU activations after every layer. + +The belief GRU takes as input the concatenation of $z _ { t }$ and $a _ { t - 1 }$ and outputs $b _ { t }$ , where $z _ { t }$ is the output of size 512 of the conv net after passing in the observation $o _ { t }$ , and $a _ { t - 1 }$ is a one-hot vector of the discrete action. The belief GRU has a hidden size of 512 and thus the output $b _ { t }$ also has a size of 512. + +The action GRU also has a hidden size of 512, and takes $b _ { t }$ as the initial hidden state. It takes one-hot vectors of the discrete actions $a _ { t }$ as input, and outputs a forwarded belief of size 512. + +The forwarded belief is then concatenated with the corresponding positive example $z ^ { + }$ , which is the output of size 512 of the same convnet as before of a positive observation example $o ^ { + }$ . The concatenation is then fed to the contrastive discriminator which is an MLP with a hidden layer of size 512 and ReLU activations, and a linear output of size 1. This output of size 1 is then fed into a sigmoid cross-entropy loss for classifying the positive example as class 1. A similar process is used for classifying a negative example that uses the same forwarded belief and contrastive discriminator. + +For the frame predictor, the deconv network architecture is the transpose of the same convnet we use for observations. + +For evaluating the encoded information the belief $b _ { t }$ of position and orientation, past position and orientation, and object positions, we use a two hidden layer MLP with each hidden layer having size 512 and ReLU activations. The input to the MLP is the concatenation of $b _ { t }$ . In the case of ’fixed’, ’room’ , ’maze’ and ’terrain’ levels, we provide the one-hot of the agent’s initial discretised position and orientation to break the symmetry in these environments. The output is a softmax for predicting position and orientation, a grid of sigmoids for past position and orientation, and again a grid of sigmoids for object positions. We discretised the orientation into the 4 cardinal directions. For position, we did the following discretisations: fixed is $9 \times 1 0$ , room is $9 \times 1 0$ , maze is $1 0 \times 5$ terrain is $1 0 \times 1 0$ , two hallways is $7 \times 7$ , and teleport and non teleport are $6 \times 6$ + +Training Details. To gather data, we used a policy that picks an action at random, and then repeats that action between 1 and 5 times. We trained using a distributed framework, where we used 128 processes to interact with the environment and push trajectories into a FIFO replay buffer. The trajectories are partitioned into 100-step sub-trajectories, and the replay buffer has a max capacity of $5 \cdot 1 0 ^ { 4 }$ sub-trajectories. We have one training process that samples mini-batches of 64 sub-trajectories uniformly from the replay buffer and trains using the Adam optimiser (Kingma & Ba, 2015) in TensorFlow (Abadi et al., 2016) with default hyperparameters with a learning rate of 0.0005. The belief GRU is shared with the 128 interacting processes, as they also push the hidden state of the GRU of the first step of each sub-trajectory into the replay buffer as well. In the training process, after sampling a mini-batch, we use this stored initial hidden state and unroll the belief GRU for the rest of the steps to compute the beliefs. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/parse/train/ryfz73C9KQ/ryfz73C9KQ_content_list.json b/parse/train/ryfz73C9KQ/ryfz73C9KQ_content_list.json new file mode 100644 index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..cfa4018cc2a435bd6d0aef3ea4e3a826f351b716 --- /dev/null +++ b/parse/train/ryfz73C9KQ/ryfz73C9KQ_content_list.json @@ -0,0 +1,1742 @@ +[ + { + "type": "text", + "text": "NEURAL PREDICTIVE BELIEF REPRESENTATIONS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 98, + 764, + 121 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Anonymous authors Paper under double-blind review ", + "bbox": [ + 183, + 145, + 398, + 172 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "ABSTRACT ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 454, + 231, + 544, + 246 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Unsupervised representation learning has succeeded with excellent results in many applications. It is an especially powerful tool to learn a good representation of environments with partial or noisy observations. In partially observable domains it is important for the representation to encode a belief state—a sufficient statistic of the observations seen so far. In this paper, we investigate whether it is possible to learn such a belief representation using modern neural architectures. Specifically, we focus on one-step frame prediction and two variants of contrastive predictive coding (CPC) as the objective functions to learn the representations. To evaluate these learned representations, we test how well they can predict various pieces of information about the underlying state of the environment, e.g., position of the agent in a 3D maze. We show that all three methods are able to learn belief representations of the environment—they encode not only the state information, but also its uncertainty, a crucial aspect of belief states. We also find that for CPC multi-step predictions and action-conditioning are critical for accurate belief representations in visually complex environments. The ability of neural representations to capture the belief information has the potential to spur new advances for learning and planning in partially observable domains, where leveraging uncertainty is essential for optimal decision making. ", + "bbox": [ + 233, + 263, + 766, + 515 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "1 INTRODUCTION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 547, + 336, + 564 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Modern supervised learning (Hastie et al., 2009a) and reinforcement learning (RL Sutton & Barto, 1998) methods have been applied successfully to many challenging applications (He et al., 2016; Sutskever et al., 2014; Mnih et al., 2015; Silver et al., 2016). On the other hand, in most domains there exists a great wealth of information in the raw data alone. Unsupervised learning provides a generic framework allowing machines to learn independently of supervision (Hastie et al., 2009b). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 582, + 825, + 652 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Unsupervised learning encompasses a wide range of learning problems (Rezende et al., 2014; Goodfellow et al., 2014; Erhan et al., 2010). Among them representation learning has drawn significant attraction in recent years (Bengio et al., 2013). In representation learning the goal of the learner is to learn a representation that encodes useful information required to solve a variety of tasks. ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 659, + 825, + 714 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Representation learning is especially important in partially observable dynamical environments, such as navigation tasks with a first-person view, where each observation only provides a partial and possibly noisy view of the environment. In these settings it is critical for the agent to build a belief state representation which encodes its uncertainty about the underlying state of the environment. This is due to the fact that the belief state is a sufficient statistic for predicting future observations and future states, as well as the optimal policy in the RL setting (Rabiner, 1989; Jaakkola et al., 1995). Representation learning has been proven useful to enhance the performance of agents in various partially observable dynamical domains (Jaderberg et al., 2016; Oord et al., 2018; Eslami et al., 2018). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 722, + 825, + 833 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Despite these successes, prior work mostly evaluate the quality of the learned state representation indirectly through the performance in some supervised or RL task (Jaderberg et al., 2016). This black-box approach is effective for evaluating the usefulness of the learned representation for a particular task. However, it provides no answer to the question of whether the state representation encodes a belief embedding, nor whether the representation learns more general concepts that can be used across tasks. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 840, + 825, + 922 + ], + "page_idx": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this paper, as an alternative to the current black-box approach, we adopt a glass-box approach to the problem of evaluating the representation learning methods. More specifically we directly use the learned representation to predict the ground-truth state of the environment. This information is only used for evaluating the representation, while the representation itself is learned in a fully unsupervised fashion. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 825, + 172 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "For our experiments, we use a set of simulated tasks in the DeepMind Lab suite (Beattie et al., 2016). We compare three different representation learning methods: One-step frame prediction, contrastive predictive coding (CPC) (Oord et al., 2018), and CPC|Action, a new action-dependent variant of CPC. CPC and CPC|Action are both able to represent distributions of future observations, whereas one-step frame prediction can only represent the mean; however, frame prediction is better at paying attention to details in the observations. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 180, + 825, + 263 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Our main finding is that all three methods are able to learn a representation of the belief state of the environment. We observe that the learned representations encode important pieces of information about the environment including the agent’s current position and orientation, its past trajectory, and even the position of objects in the environment. In fact, our results show that the belief representations not only encode these pieces of information, they also encode the agent’s uncertainty over them—a crucial aspect of a belief state. However, we find that not all objects can be captured equally well by the learned representations, and that the representations are able to better capture those objects that have higher impact on the agent’s future observations. Finally, we observe that for CPC, predicting further into the future and conditioning on actions (CPC|Action) results in the best learned belief on visually complex environments, while being more computationally efficient than the one-step frame predictor. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 271, + 825, + 424 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2 BACKGROUND AND NOTATION", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 178, + 443, + 460, + 458 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2.1 PARTIALLY OBSERVABLE MARKOV DECISION PROCESSES ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 473, + 616, + 488 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We consider Partially Observable Markov Decision Processes (POMDPs; Lovejoy, 1991; Cassandra, 1998) as a general framework to deal with partially-observable and stochastic environments with actions. Formally, a POMDP is a tuple $M = ( \\mathcal { X } , \\mathcal { A } , \\mathcal { O } , P , O )$ where $\\mathcal { X }$ is the state space, $\\mathcal { A }$ is the action space, $\\mathcal { O }$ the observation space, $P$ models the dynamics and maps to each state-action couple $( x , a )$ a probability $P ( \\boldsymbol { y } | \\boldsymbol { x } , \\boldsymbol { a } )$ over the next state $y$ and $O$ is the observation distribution that maps to each state $x$ a probability $O ( \\cdot | x )$ over possible observations. Typically, POMDPs also include a reward observation; however, as we are not considering the control problem here, there is no need to distinguish between the reward and the observations, so we omit the reward. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 498, + 825, + 611 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "At any given time $t$ , the agent acting in a POMDP has only access to some observation $o _ { t } \\in \\mathcal { O }$ that gives incomplete information about the real state $x _ { t } \\in \\mathcal X$ . Thus, it has an uncertainty on the real state $x _ { t }$ as well as on the next state $x _ { t + 1 }$ as the dynamics depends on the state-action pair $\\left( { { x } _ { t } } , { { a } _ { t } } \\right)$ . Therefore a key aspect in POMDPs is to be able to compute a belief state $b _ { t }$ , which is a probability distribution over possible states, from the current history $h _ { t }$ . More formally, at a given time $t$ , the current history $h _ { t }$ is the set of past actions and observations $h _ { t } = \\left\\{ o _ { 0 } , a _ { 0 } , o _ { 1 } , a _ { 1 } , \\ldots , a _ { t - 1 } , o _ { t } \\right\\}$ , and a belief distribution $P _ { b } ( \\cdot | h _ { t } )$ over the possible states conditioned on the history of past actions and observations. Ideally, we would like to compute the belief distribution $P _ { b }$ or a surrogate representation $b _ { t } \\in \\mathbb { R } ^ { d }$ that encodes the information with regard to $P _ { b }$ , thus capturing the uncertainty on the underlying state $x _ { t }$ . ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 617, + 825, + 757 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2.2 CONTRASTIVE PREDICTIVE CODING ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 772, + 468, + 786 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Contrastive Predictive Coding (Oord et al., 2018) (CPC) is an unsupervised representaion learning which relies on noise contrastive estimation (Gutmann & Hyvärinen, 2010; 2012) as the statistical method for learning distributions. We provide a brief overview of noise contrastive estimation approach and based on this we describe the CPC approach. Discriminating between samples coming from the data distribution (positive examples) and samples coming from another distribution (negative examples), is known as learning from comparison. A simple way to implement this general principle is via binary classification where samples coming from the data distribution will be labelled as positive examples and samples coming from another distribution will be labelled as negative examples. Then, training such a binary classifier can be a good way to learn features that encode information on the data distribution. More precisely, assume that we have $N ^ { + }$ samples $( o _ { i } ^ { + } ) _ { i = 1 } ^ { N ^ { + } }$ coming from our data distribution with probability density $\\rho ^ { + }$ and $N ^ { - }$ samples $( o _ { i } ^ { - } ) _ { i = 1 } ^ { N ^ { - } }$ coming from our data distribution with probability density $\\rho ^ { - }$ . Training a binary classifier $f$ with logistic regression consists in finding $f$ that maximises $\\hat { J } ( f )$ : ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 797, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 1 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 102, + 825, + 166 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/43731730e772e5f2b59cad7b1a177565465c45d646de98cca123e4f4df04b8e6.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\hat { J } ( f ) = \\frac { 1 } { N ^ { + } } \\sum _ { i = 1 } ^ { N ^ { + } } \\log ( f ( o ^ { + } ) ) + \\frac { 1 } { N ^ { - } } \\sum _ { i = 1 } ^ { N ^ { - } } \\log ( 1 - f ( o ^ { - } ) ) .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 310, + 170, + 687, + 215 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The quantity $\\hat { J } ( f )$ is the empirical version of $J ( f )$ ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 220, + 511, + 237 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/881e94f17d6d1c92e6e2dc4148b4f522ee4a83e690f5d5023fe69bbbc0a5ea69.jpg", + "text": "$$\nJ ( f ) = \\mathbb { E } _ { o ^ { + } \\sim \\rho ^ { + } } \\left[ \\log ( f ( o ^ { + } ) ) \\right] + \\mathbb { E } _ { o ^ { - } \\sim \\rho ^ { - } } \\left[ \\log ( 1 - f ( o ^ { - } ) ) \\right] .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 297, + 241, + 700, + 261 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "As it is shown in Goodfellow et al. (2014) the quantity $\\operatorname* { m a x } _ { f } J ( f )$ is simply the Jensen-Shannon divergence $D _ { J S } ( \\rho ^ { + } | \\rho ^ { - } )$ between the data distribution and the other distribution: ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 272, + 823, + 301 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/71bfdb591ec4c4512acab4e69540d7c52a6c76d0e0e3c7d24ba826a957d06db4.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\operatorname* { m a x } _ { f } J ( f ) = 2 D _ { J S } ( \\rho ^ { + } | \\rho ^ { - } ) - \\log ( 4 ) .\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 370, + 304, + 625, + 329 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In other words, by estimating this divergence, we learn how different the positive examples are from the negative examples and hope that the learned representation encodes that information. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 333, + 823, + 363 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "CPC makes use of a noise contrastive estimation model to discriminate observations $o _ { t + k } ^ { + }$ at a “future” time step $t { + } k$ from negative observations $o _ { t + k } ^ { - }$ , which is randomly chosen from the dataset (see Sec. 4 for details). CPC bases this estimation on a state representation $b _ { t }$ that depends on the history up to time step $t$ and embeddings of positive and negative observations at time $t + k$ . The CPC architecture takes into account the belief state representation $b _ { t }$ by using modern memory architecture such as LSTM (Hochreiter & Schmidhuber, 1997; Xingjian et al., 2015) and GRU (Chung et al., 2014). Different possible losses based on this description can be formulated as shown in the appendix. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 368, + 826, + 469 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "3 RELATED WORK ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 489, + 344, + 506 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this work, we are interested in learning representations that can compactly encode the belief state in partially observable problems. We also want these representations to capture information about different attributes of the state such as agent and object positions in navigation tasks. It is to be expected that compact representations of POMDPs make it easier to learn and represent models (Boutilier et al., 1999). Indeed, representations that encode important parts of the state have led to improved performance in RL tasks, both with model-based and value-based methods (Guestrin et al., 2003; Diuk et al., 2008; Boots et al., 2011; Levine et al., 2016; Higgins et al., 2017; Karkus et al., 2018). ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 520, + 825, + 632 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Predictive State Representations (PSRs; Littman & Sutton, 2002) are one such expressive and compact representation, in terms of tests on the POMDP (Rivest & Schapire, 1993). A test is the indicator of a specific sequence of future observations given a specific sequence of actions. With an appropriate collection of tests (and their conditional distributions given histories), one can encode belief states (Rivest & Schapire, 1993; Littman & Sutton, 2002). A PSR is a collection of tests that is expressive enough to effectively encode the conditional distribution of any other test, and as a consequence any belief state in the POMDP. Recently Hefny et al. (2018) have implemented a deep variant of PSR architecture with recurrent neural networking, proving the compatibility of this idea with modern deep architectures. Our work is inspired by the idea that predicting future observations conditioned on future actions can give us an expressive state representation, and this principle guided the design of our representation learning architecture. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 637, + 825, + 791 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Sutton et al. (2011); Li et al. (2015); Jaderberg et al. (2016); Dosovitskiy & Koltun (2017); Higgins et al. (2017); Wayne et al. (2018); Igl et al. (2018) used auxiliary tasks to improve agent performance, but only partially investigated what information the learned representations encode. Dosovitskiy & Koltun (2017) uses supervised learning to learn representations that capture state information, and showed that this leads to improved performance in different ViZDoom tasks. Higgins et al. (2017) used methods that learn factored state representations (Burgess et al., 2018) and showed improved performance and effective transfer in 3D RL tasks where the agent must identify and collect good objects, while avoiding bad ones. Wayne et al. (2018) showed that the representation of their proposed agent architecture is able to capture the absolute position of the goal in a large-maze navigation task. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 797, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Schmidhuber (1991); Diuk et al. (2008); Kolter & $\\mathrm { N g }$ (2009); Sorg et al. (2010); Anandkumar et al. (2014) and many others prescribed or tried to estimate the state transition model of the POMDP explicitly. Although our approach learns about the dynamics of the environment, we do not directly evaluate the quality of the learned dynamics model. Instead, we focus on evaluating the quality of the learned representation, which implicitly captures the quality of the learned dynamics as well. In Section 5 we investigate the accuracy of these representations across different domains when trained with different approaches. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 103, + 825, + 202 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "4 ARCHITECTURE AND ALGORITHM ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 223, + 491, + 238 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Inspired by the PSR literature, our approach relies on predictions of future observations conditioned on future actions as a way to predict the belief state. In particular, we base our architecture on CPC, using a variant of this model to learn rich representations in virtual environments. ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 255, + 823, + 296 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We now describe the architectures we use in our experiments. Figure 1 outlines the CPC|Action architecture which is a variant of CPC architecture (see Sec. 2.2). We use a GRU network (blue) to take in the history of embedded observations $z _ { t }$ and actions $a _ { t }$ and output the representation $b _ { t }$ for the current time step $t$ . In addition to standard CPC our architecture uses the $b _ { t }$ to initialise an action-GRU (red) which is then fed by the future actions $\\{ a _ { t + k } \\} _ { k = 0 } ^ { T - 1 }$ . Finally, for each time step $t + k$ , a multi-layer perceptron (MLP) (grey) is fed both by the output of this GRU and the positive example order to $z _ { t + k } ^ { + }$ in order to predict 1 or by the output of the GRU and the negative example t 0 (for a more detailed description of the architecture i.e. ConvNet and fully-co $z _ { t + k } ^ { - }$ inted layer please see the Architecture Details section in the appendix.). We also implement the CPC without actions as exactly the same architecture as CPC|Action except that the action-GRU (red) is not fed by the future actions {at+k}T −1k=0 but by a dummy input $\\{ c _ { t + k } \\} _ { k = 0 } ^ { T - 1 }$ where $c _ { t + k } = c$ is a constant null vector. Finally we implement one-step frame prediction (FP; Bengio et al., 2007). This architecture learns a belief state $b _ { t }$ for the task of predicting the next observation $o _ { t + 1 }$ given the action $a _ { t }$ via a transposed convolutional network (orange). Common to all 3 architectures is a convolutional neural network (CNN; LeCun et al., 1998) (yellow) that transforms the raw observation $o _ { t }$ to a vector $z _ { t }$ . For evaluation, the belief state $b _ { t }$ is then used by an MLP (green) in order to estimate the position, orientation or other features of the environments. It is important to note that we do not back-propagate the gradient from this MLP (green) that predicts the ground truth to the rest of the architecture. Algorithm 1 outlines how we train the CPC|action architecture. We sample mini-batches of sub-trajectories from our dataset, and unroll the belief GRU $f$ to compute the beliefs $b _ { t }$ for every time step. Then, for every $b _ { t }$ , we sample how far we want to predict into the future up to a maximum of $F$ . We compute the forwarded belief from the Action GRU, and then feed it to the CPC classifier with both the true future observation as the positive example, and a randomly picked observation from the mini-batch as a negative example. We average the classification losses across all time steps of the mini-batch and take a gradient step. For the frame predictor, the training procedure is similar, except we compute the prediction loss of the next future observation instead of the CPC loss for each time step. The distribution of negative examples, and the ratio of the number of positive ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 303, + 825, + 570 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/664edaa8df98195ee9ae69d01cc9adc89b7f6871ae189c58e38685bdaff5d6cf.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 1: Different architectures used in our experiments. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 173, + 588, + 776, + 852 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 895, + 821, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 825, + 188 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Algorithm 1: CPC|Action ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 210, + 348, + 226 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Data: Belief GRU $f$ , Future Prediction Length $F$ , Action GRU $g$ , CPC Classifier h for $i \\gets 0$ to $\\infty$ do ", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 228, + 720, + 256 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "2 Initialise loss $\\ell \\gets 0$ ; \n3 Sample mini-batch $B$ of size $N$ from replay; \n4 Compute beliefs $b _ { t } = f ( b _ { 0 } , z _ { 1 : t } , a _ { 1 : t - 1 } )$ ; \n5 for sub-trajectory $j 0$ to $N$ do \n6 for step $t \\gets 0$ to $T$ do \n7 Sample $f$ uniformly from $[ 1 , \\ldots , F ]$ ; \n8 Let $a _ { t : t + f - 1 }$ be the future actions starting from the current step ; \n9 Let $z _ { t + f }$ be the future observation $f$ steps in the future ; \n10 Let $b _ { t }$ be the belief state at current step ; \n11 Sample negative example $z ^ { - }$ uniformly from $B$ ; \n12 $\\begin{array} { r l } & { b ^ { a } \\stackrel { } { = } g ( b _ { t } , \\stackrel { \\smile } { a } _ { t : t + f - 1 } ) ~ ; } \\\\ & { \\ell ^ { + } = \\mathrm { s i g m o i d \\_ c r o s s \\_ e n t r o p y } ( h ( b ^ { a } , z _ { t + f } ) , 1 ) ~ ; } \\\\ & { \\ell ^ { - } = \\mathrm { s i g m o i d \\_ c r o s s \\_ e n t r o p y } ( h ( b ^ { a } , z ^ { - } ) , 0 ) ~ ; } \\\\ & { \\ell \\ell + \\ell ^ { + } + \\ell ^ { - } ~ ; } \\end{array}$ \n13 \n14 \n15 \n16 end \n17 end \n18 $\\ell \\gets \\frac { \\ell } { | B | }$ ; \n19 Take gradient step to minimise $\\ell$ ; \n20 end ", + "bbox": [ + 156, + 253, + 674, + 536 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "and negative examples can be an important choice for CPC and CPC|Action. We found that taking one negative observation uniformly from the rest of the mini-batch performed very well. We also found that the distribution and ratio became significantly less important when we predict further into the future. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 563, + 825, + 618 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5 EXPERIMENTS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 645, + 326, + 660 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section we describe our experimental setup and discuss the results. We would like to evaluate whether our learned representations can encode information about the underlying state of the environment from just partial observations. After motivating our results with experiments in a toy domain (Section 5.1), we present two sets of experiments in a visually rich partially observable 3D environment. In the first set of experiments (Section 5.2), we compare the three different approaches, and look into their capacity to encode the agent’s position and orientation. In the second set of experiments, we delve deeper into the subject of encoding beliefs about objects’ positions (Section 5.3), and the uncertainty on agent’s position and orientation (Section 5.4). Additional details about the experimental setups can be found in Appendix A. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 679, + 825, + 804 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5.1 TOY GRIDWORLD ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 825, + 338, + 840 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "To give a sense of the belief representations being learned, we first present qualitative results in a toy domain, where we can see how the learned belief changes (in particular reduction in uncertainty) as the agent interacts with the environment. To evaluate the learned belief, we train a separate classifier to predict the true position and orientation of the agent from the learned belief, without letting the gradient flow back into the representation. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 853, + 823, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 4 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The toy domain is a square gridworld room. At each step the agent moves (forward or backwards) or rotates (a quarter of a circle to the left or right) at random, and it is only able to observe a square of length 5 centred on it. Fig. 2 shows screenshots from an episode with an agent trained with CPC|Action and predicting 30 steps into the future. We observe that the agent’s representation encodes a belief that reflects the inherent uncertainty on the agent’s position and orientation. This uncertainty is a result of partial observability and, as the agent moves around the room and observes more of the environment, it is progressively reduced, until eventually there is no more uncertainty on the agent’s position and orientation for the rest of the episode. More specifically we observe that throughout the early stage of episode, Figs. 2(a) to 2(d), when the agent’s observation are not informative, the agent is able to refine his belief only by ruling out the states which are not feasible under the past actions. When the agent observes the top wall at time step 32 (Fig. 2(e)) it immediately narrows down its belief to only 3 neighboring states. After that it takes the agent another 20 time steps to completely resolve the uncertainty again by using the past actions. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 103, + 825, + 285 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/bcf09265b013349a245b0e05194e9466671b4163c8a2fc6fe72ab0bf5f2cd1e0.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 2: Frames from the agent moving at random in a gridworld (outermost cells are walls, see Fig. 2(e)). In each image, the agent’s partial observation is on the left (agent and walls in black, empty spaces in white), the agent’s position and orientation are on the centre, and the predicted position and orientation are on the right. The diamond-looking shapes result from flattening the beliefs for each of the four possible orientations in the same cell. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 192, + 301, + 805, + 530 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5.2 ALGORITHM COMPARISON ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 640, + 401, + 654 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In this section we are interested in a variety of visually rich, partially observable environments, so we used four different environments of the DeepMind Lab platform (Beattie et al., 2016). ", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 665, + 823, + 694 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We tested whether the representations encoded the following: 1) agent’s relative $( x , y )$ -position and orientation $\\theta$ at each time step, given the agent’s initial position and orientation, 2) the agent’s past relative positions and orientations up to each time step, and 3) the relative position of uncollected objects in the environment at each time step. The reason we test for the agent’s past positions and orientations is because the history is necessary for the agent to remember collected objects. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 700, + 825, + 770 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We trained separate networks to estimate the learned representation and initial position and orientation and predict the associated piece of information at every time step. These networks were used only for inspection, that is, gradients did not flow through them into the representation. The positions and orientations are discretised for easier evaluation. To generate data, we used a random policy that repeats a randomly chosen action a random number of times between 1 and 5. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 776, + 825, + 847 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The four environments used in our experiment span different kinds of layouts from rooms to mazes to natural terrain, and different object positioning—fixed positions or per-episode randomised positions. Objects are collectable in all four environments. fixed is a single room with objects in fixed locations, room is a single room with objects in randomised locations, $\\mathtt { m a z e }$ is a fixed maze with objects in randomised locations, and terrain is a naturalistic, hilly, terrain with desert and forest features, and objects. In terrain, the map (including object positions) is randomly selected in every episode from a fixed, finite set. Fig. 3 gives examples of agent observations from each of these environments (the specific DeepMind Lab environment names are given in Appendix A). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 854, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 103, + 823, + 146 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/d5aa60db9408853d5aa40811e3c49a49658d8f08e2119ebfe5717975f9b65749.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 3: Examples of agent observations for different environments. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 194, + 165, + 803, + 295 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "We compared CPC|Action to CPC (Oord et al., 2018), as well as frame prediction (FP), which predicts the next frame given the current representation and action. For both CPC|Action and CPC approaches, we test the architectures trained from predicting 1 and 30 steps into the future. Table 1 summarises the prediction losses across all algorithms and environments1, and we can make several observations. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 339, + 826, + 396 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/2259711f3da619fabb971382ae5e873bfc0b96c08ff1c0c05ef79adb5c57e28a.jpg", + "table_caption": [], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
EnvAlgorithm(x,y,0)Past (x,y,0)Objects (x,y)
fixedFP0.118 ± 0.0150.121 ± 0.0070.043 ± 0.006
CPC 10.579 ± 0.0670.132 ± 0.0100.049 ± 0.005
CPC 300.562 ± 0.2040.118 ± 0.0100.045 ± 0.004
CPClAction 10.689 ± 0.0570.137 ± 0.0060.049 ± 0.004
CPCIAction 300.240 ± 0.0300.100 ± 0.0070.040 ± 0.003
roomFP0.517 ± 0.1230.285± 0.0170.484 ± 0.005
CPC 12.010 ±0.1420.311 ± 0.0170.498 ± 0.008
CPC 300.482 ± 0.1570.257 ± 0.0220.481 ± 0.005
CPClAction 12.274±0.1170.308 ± 0.0180.484 ± 0.005
CPCIAction 300.689 ± 0.0660.276 ± 0.0290.484 ± 0.008
mazeFP0.178 ± 0.2070.233 ± 0.0290.322 ± 0.008
CPC 10.622 ± 0.1580.278 ± 0.0550.330 ± 0.009
CPC 300.244 ± 0.0580.213 ± 0.0310.325 ± 0.015
CPClAction 10.638 ± 0.0940.264± 0.0280.323 ± 0.010
CPCIAction 300.182 ± 0.0340.206 ± 0.0290.323 ± 0.010
terrainFP1.831 ± 0.1620.405 ± 0.0770.181 ± 0.084
CPC13.393 ± 0.2520.417 ± 0.0740.307 ± 0.174
CPC 302.280 ± 0.8530.340 ± 0.1040.131 ± 0.185
CPClAction 13.348 ± 0.4820.414 ± 0.0420.312 ± 0.049
CPClAction 301.589±0.3580.344 ± 0.0650.139 ±0.136
", + "bbox": [ + 202, + 409, + 794, + 734 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Table 1: Evaluation classification losses after $2 \\cdot 1 0 ^ { 5 }$ mini-batch updates for the 5 algorithm settings across all 4 environments over 2 seeds. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 746, + 821, + 775 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "First, predicting 30 steps into the future with CPC and CPC|Action significantly outperforms predicting only 1 step in the future. The poor performance of CPC 1 and CPC|Action 1 is evidence that using a contrastive loss allows the representation to ignore more details of observations compared to FP. Predicting 30 steps into the future with the CPC methods allows representations to encode at least as much relevant information as FP, and at a lower computational cost. It is possible to formulate a version of FP that also predicts further into the future at an even greater computational cost, but it is not clear how much that can improve the learned belief since FP cannot represent distributions over observations, only the mean. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 787, + 825, + 898 + ], + "page_idx": 6 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Second, in environments with simple observations (not terrain), all three approaches (FP, CPC 30, CPC|Action 30) are able to accurately encode the agent’s position and orientation, and perform reasonably well encoding the agent’s past position and orientation. FP consistently edges out the others in encoding position and orientation. An inspection of the predictions from videos of the evaluation episodes confirm this result. However in terrain with more complex observations, we see from Table 1 that the prediction task is more challenging for all approaches, and there is a larger gap between the accuracy of the predictions. In Figs. 4(a) to 4(c), we see typical examples where all algorithms can accurately predict the position and orientation of the agent. In Figs. 4(d) to 4(f), we see typical examples of prediction mistakes corresponding to each of the approaches. In particular, mistakes from FP are noticeably worse than CPC and CPC|Action 30, and CPC|Action performs the best. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 103, + 825, + 256 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Third, for past position and orientation, the general trend is that both CPC approaches are slightly better than FP. This is seen in Table 1 and in evaluation videos. The CPC methods (Figs. 4(b), 4(c), 4(e) and 4(f)) are noticeably better than FP (Figs. 4(a) and 4(d)). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 263, + 825, + 306 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/efd786f476fd0dd691db9b22d75a0816e304dca2797c99b931dd83c9bb7b4aa4.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 4: Example predictions for terrain. In each image, ground truths are on the top, predictions on the bottom, $( x , y , \\theta )$ (ground truth and predictions) on the left, and past $( x , y , \\theta )$ on the right. Figs. 4(a) to 4(c) show examples of accurate $( x , y , \\theta )$ predictions, Figs. 4(d) to 4(f) show examples for inaccurate $( x , y , \\theta )$ predictions. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 204, + 324, + 578, + 579 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/736c7fa6df9b3b6989949db0024c3b09bd4fcf1cf799c536a13a51724b52c1f2.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 5: Symmetry of the $( x , y , \\theta )$ prediction with the frame predictor in room. Ground truths are on the top, predictions on the bottom, $( x , y , \\theta )$ (ground truth and predictions) on the left, and past $( x , y , \\theta )$ on the right. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 633, + 446, + 772, + 554 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Fourth, we take a closer look at room as it is an interesting environment because it is almost symmetric in both $x$ and $y$ axes. The room is almost a square, measuring 9 by 10 units. There are faint vertical pulses of light on the walls that move from small to larger $( x , y )$ , and they are the only symmetry-breaking elements. Table 1 and video inspection suggest that the representations trained with the three algorithms do not allow asymmetries to be consistently resolved. Fig. 5 shows an example of the symmetry in position predictions, reflecting uncertainty about the position and orientation. The higher position and orientation prediction errors of FP and CPC|Action 30 in room are mainly due to the ambiguity from symmetry. We are unsure why CPC is slightly better than CPC|Action at paying attention to the moving vertical lines of light on the walls, but we speculate it is because knowledge of actions taken does not help break the symmetry, and because CPC|Action may be encoding the action-dependent dynamics. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 694, + 825, + 847 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Finally, for object positions, we see varied results in Table 1, depending on the type of environment. For fixed, unsurprisingly, all predictors have similar accuracy, since objects are fixed. It is likely that the information is not encoded in the representation—as our results in Section 5.3 suggest—but in the evaluator which simply memorises the fixed positions. For room and maze, which randomise object locations each episode, the prediction errors indicate that the representation is unable to encode any information object position. Finally, for terrain, which has a finite set of fixed object positions, the three approaches FP, CPC 30 and CPC|Action 30 allow for reasonably accurate predictions. We believe that the representations only encode information about the specific map instance, from which the evaluators can decode object position. In Section 5.3 we discuss the issue of representing objects in more detail. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 854, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 825, + 174 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5.3 INCREASED OBJECT INTERACTION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 191, + 455, + 207 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Table 1 shows that none of the approaches are able to encode much information about object positions (cf. room and maze). We hypothesise that the objects are not a significant enough part of the observations to warrant the CPC algorithms to pay attention to them, and there is no reason for FP to continue to remember objects once they go out of the agent’s view. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 219, + 825, + 275 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "To test this hypothesis, we constructed two simple DeepMind Lab environments: non teleport, where objects cannot be interacted with, and teleport, where objects, when touched, teleport the agent back to its initial position. Both environments are a small square room with the agent’s initial position in a notch on the wall (to create asymmetry), and two visually different objects are placed in random positions at each episode. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 282, + 825, + 352 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The teleporting interaction results in a drastic change in the observations of the agent, which should force the representations to encode information about these objects in order to better predict future observations. In contrast, non-interactive objects (in non teleport) are equally visible to the agent, but do not cause drastic changes to observations. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 358, + 825, + 415 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Table 2 shows the losses for evaluating the prediction of object position for teleport and non teleport. All of the algorithms are significantly better at encoding information about the position of the objects with the teleport interaction, with CPC|Action 30 being slightly better than the others. Fig. 6 shows screenshots of an evaluation video, where we see that in the case of non teleport (Figs. 6(a) and 6(b)) the representation is only able to react to immediately visible objects. As soon as the agent turns away, the representation no longer contains the object information. However, in the case of teleport (Figs. 6(c) and 6(d)), we see that the representations are able to remember information about the objects even after the agent has turned away and moved elsewhere. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 421, + 826, + 534 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/7fdc06faa41691655a642a955ef21fe6b0fc9d14f01fa998467e727332684f72.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 2: Evaluation classification losses on object position. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
AlgorithmObjects (x,y)
non teleportteleport
FP0.148 ± 0.0030.108 ± 0.014
CPC 300.168 ± 0.0010.137 ± 0.017
CPCIAction 300.164 ± 0.0020.086 ± 0.020
", + "bbox": [ + 305, + 547, + 692, + 633 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/2d3fc4fd7a4ffd1a5cd1b41faa5c7339a529793b0e849d1a66839721e0b363d5.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 6: Example predictions for non teleport and teleport. Ground truths are on the top, predictions on the bottom, $( x , y , \\theta )$ (ground truth and predictions) on the centre, object $( x , y )$ on the right, and frame seen by the agent on the left. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 176, + 686, + 820, + 795 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Furthermore, in Figs. 6(c) and 6(d) we see that the representation is able to maintain uncertainty over the object positions. When the agent only sees one of the two objects, the position of the second object is still uncertain, but the representation is already able to encode some negative evidence, narrowing down the possible locations of the second object. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 867, + 825, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 8 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "5.4 RICHER UNCERTAINTY OVER POSITION ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 176, + 103, + 488, + 117 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In the DeepMind Lab environments, there is not an instance of uncertainty over the agent’s position and orientation similar to the toy Gridworld (Section 5.1) due to being able to see far into the distance in a first-person view. Therefore we constructed a simple DeepMind Lab environment with two parallel hallways (see Fig. 7(a)) to demonstrate this kind of uncertainty in a 3D environment. The agent randomly starts in one of the two hallways, and its position can only be resolved near the exit of the hallways (we do not give the agent’s initial position to the evaluator). Fig. 7(b) illustrates (for CPC|Action 30) how, initially, the representation cannot distinguish in which hallway the agent is. Fig. 7(b) illustrates the representation immediately resolving the location when the agent able to peek out. This behaviour is consistent for all three algorithms: FP, CPC 30 and CPC|Action 30. Thus, even in 3D environments, we are able to learn a belief that can encode a richer uncertainty over the agent’s position. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 131, + 825, + 284 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "img_path": "images/c86003dbcff09de13b2565a5e66ead1062dc44df4553db6d4c55c09d5a556d2a.jpg", + "image_caption": [ + "Figure 7: Example predictions for two hallways. Ground truths are on the top, predictions on the bottom, $( x , y , \\theta )$ (ground truth and predictions) on the centre, past $( x , y , \\theta )$ on the right, and frame seen by the agent on the left. " + ], + "image_footnote": [], + "bbox": [ + 256, + 309, + 738, + 440 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 174, + 534, + 495, + 550 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Using a glass box approach, we investigated the quality of representations learned by three different methods: FP, CPC, and CPC|Action. Specifically, we considered a variety of first-person 3D navigation environments, and looked at whether the representation can encode a belief on different aspects of the environment. We found that FP, CPC 30 and CPC|Action 30 are all able to learn representations that encode the agent’s position and orientation, the agent’s trajectory (previous positions and orientations)—cf. Table 1. The position of objects can be encoded as well, provided that interacting with the objects strongly impacts the agent’s future observations (Table 2). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 568, + 825, + 666 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "More importantly, the representations also encode the agent’s uncertainty over its position and object positions. We showed that this uncertainty is reduced as the agent obtains more information from the environment, including negative evidence, e.g., when the agent sees where the object is not (Fig. 6). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 672, + 825, + 715 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In visually simple environments (e.g. fixed), FP was the best at encoding agent position and orientation. In visually complex environment (terrain), CPC 30 and CPC|Action 30 performed best, with multi-step predictions being the key to their success, and action-conditioning providing further improvements. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 722, + 825, + 777 + ], + "page_idx": 9 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "There remains much interesting future work to pursue. We believe the ability of these representations to learn various belief concepts can be further explored to improve performance and generalisation in multi-task settings, by transferring concepts across tasks. The capability of encoding uncertainty can also be useful for learning policies that efficiently explore partially observable environments by acting to reduce uncertainty on the agent’s belief (as in Bayes-optimal exploration; Wilson et al., 2007; Kolter & Ng, 2009; Sorg et al., 2010; Asmuth & Littman, 2012; Ghavamzadeh et al., 2015). As another direction, the three methods we considered can go beyond predicting only visual observations to other modalities of sensory inputs, such as proprioception and touch sensors (Amos et al., 2018). This should lead to belief representations that encode a richer variety of information about the environment and its structure. 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In Advances in neural information processing systems, pp. 802–810, 2015. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 826, + 146 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "A IMPLEMENTATION DETAILS ", + "text_level": 1, + "bbox": [ + 178, + 174, + 439, + 190 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Environments. Table 3 gives the names of the four environments (levels) of the DeepMind Lab platform (Beattie et al., 2016) that we used. The latter three tasks are custom DeepMind Lab environments that we created. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 205, + 825, + 248 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "img_path": "images/1f95d18a4c85acfa0e5802a7e2012c8fb28fc156b4e472771306e75fb201fd28.jpg", + "table_caption": [ + "Table 3: Correspondences of our environments to DeepMind Lab levels. " + ], + "table_footnote": [], + "table_body": "
Name in this paperdmlab30name
fixedseekavoid_arena_01
roomrooms_collect_good_objects_train
mazenav_maze_random_goal_01
terrainSmaller variant of natlab_fixed_large_map
teleport
non teleport
two hallways1
", + "bbox": [ + 246, + 260, + 750, + 387 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Frame Reconstruction Loss. For frame prediction, we normalise the pixel colour values to be between 0 and 1 and use the sigmoid cross-entropy loss. ", + "bbox": [ + 176, + 439, + 823, + 468 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "CPC Losses. We implement the CPC losses differently from Oord et al. (2018). They score examples for the contrastive loss at $k$ time steps in the future with $f _ { k } ( o ) \\dot { = } \\exp ( \\mathrm { c o n v } ( o ) ^ { \\top } \\dot { W _ { k } } b _ { t } )$ for a matrix $W _ { k }$ , where $b _ { t }$ is the current belief. The contrastive loss to be minimised at time step $t$ and looking $k$ steps in the future is ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 483, + 825, + 540 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/53bc4a7da7a36a17d17c311ef3fe9baaf3ddddac24d57c17de54d1d7c29d6452.jpg", + "text": "$$\n- \\ln { \\frac { f _ { k } ( o ^ { + } ) } { f _ { k } ( o ^ { + } ) + \\sum _ { j = 1 } ^ { m } f _ { k } ( o _ { j } ^ { - } ) } } ,\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 393, + 547, + 598, + 585 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where the positive example is $o ^ { + } = o _ { t + k }$ (the observation at time step $t + k )$ , and the negative examples are $( o _ { 1 } ^ { - } , \\ldots , o _ { m } ^ { - } )$ , which can be sampled from a minibatch of data. ", + "bbox": [ + 171, + 593, + 825, + 622 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "In our case, the score function $f$ is a one-hidden-layer perceptron with ReLU activation in the hidden layers, taking as inputs the concatenation of $\\operatorname { c o n v } ( o )$ and $b _ { t }$ . The contrastive loss to be minimised at time step $t$ and looking $k$ steps in the future is the binary classification loss ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 628, + 823, + 671 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "equation", + "img_path": "images/c6dededeeb7b97807ef4d7584806d02551cd2fa7ac98a05da19c8115565cd102.jpg", + "text": "$$\n\\sigma ( f ( o ^ { + } , b _ { t } ) ) + \\sigma ( - f ( o ^ { - } , b _ { t } ) ) ,\n$$", + "text_format": "latex", + "bbox": [ + 393, + 678, + 601, + 696 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "where $\\sigma$ is the sigmoid function, the positive example is $o ^ { + } = o _ { t + k }$ (the observation at time step $t + k )$ , and the negative example $o ^ { - }$ is drawn uniformly at random from the minibatch (including different time steps of the trajectory $o _ { t + k }$ belongs to). ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 703, + 825, + 747 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Architecture Details. A diagram of the architecture is in Fig. 1. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 762, + 606, + 777 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The observations from DeepMind Lab are $8 4 \\times 8 4$ pixels, each pixel consisting of three bytes representing RGB values respectively. This observation is passed through our convolutional network, which has three convolutional layers with filter sizes $8 , 4 , 3$ , strides $4 , 2 , 1$ , and number of filters 32, 64, 64 respectively, and a final hidden layer of size 512 with ReLU activations after every layer. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 784, + 825, + 839 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The belief GRU takes as input the concatenation of $z _ { t }$ and $a _ { t - 1 }$ and outputs $b _ { t }$ , where $z _ { t }$ is the output of size 512 of the conv net after passing in the observation $o _ { t }$ , and $a _ { t - 1 }$ is a one-hot vector of the discrete action. The belief GRU has a hidden size of 512 and thus the output $b _ { t }$ also has a size of 512. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 845, + 825, + 888 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The action GRU also has a hidden size of 512, and takes $b _ { t }$ as the initial hidden state. It takes one-hot vectors of the discrete actions $a _ { t }$ as input, and outputs a forwarded belief of size 512. ", + "bbox": [ + 173, + 895, + 823, + 924 + ], + "page_idx": 13 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "The forwarded belief is then concatenated with the corresponding positive example $z ^ { + }$ , which is the output of size 512 of the same convnet as before of a positive observation example $o ^ { + }$ . The concatenation is then fed to the contrastive discriminator which is an MLP with a hidden layer of size 512 and ReLU activations, and a linear output of size 1. This output of size 1 is then fed into a sigmoid cross-entropy loss for classifying the positive example as class 1. A similar process is used for classifying a negative example that uses the same forwarded belief and contrastive discriminator. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 103, + 825, + 188 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "For the frame predictor, the deconv network architecture is the transpose of the same convnet we use for observations. ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 194, + 823, + 222 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "For evaluating the encoded information the belief $b _ { t }$ of position and orientation, past position and orientation, and object positions, we use a two hidden layer MLP with each hidden layer having size 512 and ReLU activations. The input to the MLP is the concatenation of $b _ { t }$ . In the case of ’fixed’, ’room’ , ’maze’ and ’terrain’ levels, we provide the one-hot of the agent’s initial discretised position and orientation to break the symmetry in these environments. The output is a softmax for predicting position and orientation, a grid of sigmoids for past position and orientation, and again a grid of sigmoids for object positions. We discretised the orientation into the 4 cardinal directions. For position, we did the following discretisations: fixed is $9 \\times 1 0$ , room is $9 \\times 1 0$ , maze is $1 0 \\times 5$ terrain is $1 0 \\times 1 0$ , two hallways is $7 \\times 7$ , and teleport and non teleport are $6 \\times 6$ ", + "bbox": [ + 174, + 229, + 825, + 354 + ], + "page_idx": 14 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "text": "Training Details. To gather data, we used a policy that picks an action at random, and then repeats that action between 1 and 5 times. We trained using a distributed framework, where we used 128 processes to interact with the environment and push trajectories into a FIFO replay buffer. The trajectories are partitioned into 100-step sub-trajectories, and the replay buffer has a max capacity of $5 \\cdot 1 0 ^ { 4 }$ sub-trajectories. We have one training process that samples mini-batches of 64 sub-trajectories uniformly from the replay buffer and trains using the Adam optimiser (Kingma & Ba, 2015) in TensorFlow (Abadi et al., 2016) with default hyperparameters with a learning rate of 0.0005. The belief GRU is shared with the 128 interacting processes, as they also push the hidden state of the GRU of the first step of each sub-trajectory into the replay buffer as well. In the training process, after sampling a mini-batch, we use this stored initial hidden state and unroll the belief GRU for the rest of the steps to compute the beliefs. 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Among them representation learning has drawn", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 545, + 505, + 556 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 545, + 505, + 556 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "significant attraction in recent years (Bengio et al., 2013). In representation learning the goal of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 556, + 506, + 568 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 556, + 506, + 568 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learner is to learn a representation that encodes useful information required to solve a variety of tasks.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 29.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 572, + 505, + 660 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 573, + 505, + 584 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 573, + 505, + 584 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Representation learning is especially important in partially observable dynamical environments, such", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 505, + 595 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 505, + 595 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as navigation tasks with a first-person view, where each observation only provides a partial and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 506, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 506, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "possibly noisy view of the environment. In these settings it is critical for the agent to build a belief", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 506, + 617 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 506, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state representation which encodes its uncertainty about the underlying state of the environment. This", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 506, + 628 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 506, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is due to the fact that the belief state is a sufficient statistic for predicting future observations and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 626, + 507, + 639 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 626, + 507, + 639 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "future states, as well as the optimal policy in the RL setting (Rabiner, 1989; Jaakkola et al., 1995).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 506, + 650 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 506, + 650 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Representation learning has been proven useful to enhance the performance of agents in various", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 649, + 507, + 661 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 649, + 507, + 661 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "partially observable dynamical domains (Jaderberg et al., 2016; Oord et al., 2018; Eslami et al., 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 35.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 666, + 505, + 731 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 505, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 505, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Despite these successes, prior work mostly evaluate the quality of the learned state representation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 505, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 505, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "indirectly through the performance in some supervised or RL task (Jaderberg et al., 2016). This", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 506, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 506, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "black-box approach is effective for evaluating the usefulness of the learned representation for a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "particular task. However, it provides no answer to the question of whether the state representation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "encodes a belief embedding, nor whether the representation learns more general concepts that can be", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 180, + 732 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 180, + 732 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used across tasks.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + } + ], + "index": 42.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 0, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 308, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 308, + 761 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 308, + 761 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 308, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 78, + 468, + 96 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 78, + 471, + 98 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 78, + 471, + 98 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "NEURAL PREDICTIVE BELIEF REPRESENTATIONS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 112, + 115, + 244, + 137 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 113, + 116, + 201, + 127 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 113, + 116, + 201, + 127 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Anonymous authors", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 112, + 126, + 245, + 138 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 112, + 126, + 245, + 138 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Paper under double-blind review", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + } + ], + "index": 1.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 112, + 116, + 245, + 138 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 278, + 183, + 333, + 195 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 277, + 183, + 335, + 196 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 277, + 183, + 335, + 196 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "ABSTRACT", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 143, + 209, + 469, + 408 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 209, + 470, + 225 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 209, + 470, + 225 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Unsupervised representation learning has succeeded with excellent results in many", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 222, + 470, + 234 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 222, + 470, + 234 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "applications. It is an especially powerful tool to learn a good representation of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 233, + 470, + 245 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 233, + 470, + 245 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environments with partial or noisy observations. In partially observable domains it", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 244, + 470, + 255 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 244, + 470, + 255 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is important for the representation to encode a belief state—a sufficient statistic of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 254, + 470, + 267 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 254, + 470, + 267 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the observations seen so far. In this paper, we investigate whether it is possible to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 265, + 470, + 279 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 265, + 470, + 279 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learn such a belief representation using modern neural architectures. Specifically,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 277, + 469, + 288 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 277, + 469, + 288 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "we focus on one-step frame prediction and two variants of contrastive predictive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 288, + 470, + 300 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 288, + 470, + 300 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "coding (CPC) as the objective functions to learn the representations. To evaluate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 298, + 470, + 310 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 298, + 470, + 310 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "these learned representations, we test how well they can predict various pieces of", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 309, + 470, + 322 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 309, + 470, + 322 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "information about the underlying state of the environment, e.g., position of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 320, + 470, + 333 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 320, + 470, + 333 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent in a 3D maze. We show that all three methods are able to learn belief repre-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 331, + 469, + 343 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 331, + 469, + 343 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "sentations of the environment—they encode not only the state information, but also", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 341, + 469, + 356 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 341, + 469, + 356 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "its uncertainty, a crucial aspect of belief states. We also find that for CPC multi-step", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 353, + 469, + 366 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 353, + 469, + 366 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictions and action-conditioning are critical for accurate belief representations", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 364, + 469, + 377 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 364, + 469, + 377 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in visually complex environments. The ability of neural representations to capture", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 375, + 469, + 387 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 142, + 375, + 469, + 387 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the belief information has the potential to spur new advances for learning and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 387, + 469, + 398 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 387, + 469, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "planning in partially observable domains, where leveraging uncertainty is essential", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 396, + 260, + 410 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 141, + 396, + 260, + 410 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for optimal decision making.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 12.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 141, + 209, + 470, + 410 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 434, + 206, + 447 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 433, + 208, + 450 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 433, + 208, + 450 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1 INTRODUCTION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 461, + 505, + 517 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 461, + 507, + 475 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 461, + 507, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Modern supervised learning (Hastie et al., 2009a) and reinforcement learning (RL Sutton & Barto,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 471, + 506, + 485 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 471, + 506, + 485 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1998) methods have been applied successfully to many challenging applications (He et al., 2016;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 482, + 506, + 497 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 482, + 506, + 497 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Sutskever et al., 2014; Mnih et al., 2015; Silver et al., 2016). On the other hand, in most domains", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 495, + 505, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 495, + 505, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "there exists a great wealth of information in the raw data alone. Unsupervised learning provides a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 502, + 518 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 502, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "generic framework allowing machines to learn independently of supervision (Hastie et al., 2009b).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + } + ], + "index": 25, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 461, + 507, + 518 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 522, + 505, + 566 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 522, + 507, + 535 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 522, + 507, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Unsupervised learning encompasses a wide range of learning problems (Rezende et al., 2014;", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 533, + 505, + 546 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 533, + 505, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Goodfellow et al., 2014; Erhan et al., 2010). Among them representation learning has drawn", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 545, + 505, + 556 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 545, + 505, + 556 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "significant attraction in recent years (Bengio et al., 2013). In representation learning the goal of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 556, + 506, + 568 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 556, + 506, + 568 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "learner is to learn a representation that encodes useful information required to solve a variety of tasks.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 29.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 522, + 507, + 568 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 572, + 505, + 660 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 573, + 505, + 584 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 573, + 505, + 584 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Representation learning is especially important in partially observable dynamical environments, such", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 505, + 595 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 583, + 505, + 595 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as navigation tasks with a first-person view, where each observation only provides a partial and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 506, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 506, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "possibly noisy view of the environment. In these settings it is critical for the agent to build a belief", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 506, + 617 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 506, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state representation which encodes its uncertainty about the underlying state of the environment. This", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 506, + 628 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 616, + 506, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is due to the fact that the belief state is a sufficient statistic for predicting future observations and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 626, + 507, + 639 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 626, + 507, + 639 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "future states, as well as the optimal policy in the RL setting (Rabiner, 1989; Jaakkola et al., 1995).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 506, + 650 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 638, + 506, + 650 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Representation learning has been proven useful to enhance the performance of agents in various", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 649, + 507, + 661 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 649, + 507, + 661 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "partially observable dynamical domains (Jaderberg et al., 2016; Oord et al., 2018; Eslami et al., 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 35.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 573, + 507, + 661 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 666, + 505, + 731 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 505, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 505, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Despite these successes, prior work mostly evaluate the quality of the learned state representation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 505, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 505, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "indirectly through the performance in some supervised or RL task (Jaderberg et al., 2016). This", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 506, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 506, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "black-box approach is effective for evaluating the usefulness of the learned representation for a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 506, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 506, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "particular task. However, it provides no answer to the question of whether the state representation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "encodes a belief embedding, nor whether the representation learns more general concepts that can be", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 180, + 732 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 180, + 732 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used across tasks.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + } + ], + "index": 42.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 665, + 506, + 732 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 505, + 137 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this paper, as an alternative to the current black-box approach, we adopt a glass-box approach to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 94, + 505, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 94, + 505, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the problem of evaluating the representation learning methods. More specifically we directly use", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 506, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 506, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the learned representation to predict the ground-truth state of the environment. This information", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 505, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 505, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is only used for evaluating the representation, while the representation itself is learned in a fully", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 196, + 140 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 196, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "unsupervised fashion.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 143, + 505, + 209 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 143, + 506, + 156 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 143, + 506, + 156 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For our experiments, we use a set of simulated tasks in the DeepMind Lab suite (Beattie et al., 2016).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 153, + 506, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 153, + 506, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We compare three different representation learning methods: One-step frame prediction, contrastive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 506, + 177 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 506, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictive coding (CPC) (Oord et al., 2018), and CPC|Action, a new action-dependent variant of CPC.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 175, + 505, + 189 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 175, + 505, + 189 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "CPC and CPC|Action are both able to represent distributions of future observations, whereas one-step", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 506, + 200 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 506, + 200 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "frame prediction can only represent the mean; however, frame prediction is better at paying attention", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 198, + 225, + 209 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 198, + 225, + 209 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to details in the observations.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 7.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 215, + 505, + 336 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 215, + 505, + 227 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 215, + 505, + 227 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our main finding is that all three methods are able to learn a representation of the belief state of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 226, + 505, + 239 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 226, + 505, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment. We observe that the learned representations encode important pieces of information", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 236, + 505, + 250 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 236, + 505, + 250 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "about the environment including the agent’s current position and orientation, its past trajectory, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 247, + 506, + 261 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 247, + 506, + 261 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "even the position of objects in the environment. In fact, our results show that the belief representations", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 506, + 272 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 506, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "not only encode these pieces of information, they also encode the agent’s uncertainty over them—a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 505, + 282 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 505, + 282 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "crucial aspect of a belief state. However, we find that not all objects can be captured equally well by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 281, + 505, + 293 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 281, + 505, + 293 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the learned representations, and that the representations are able to better capture those objects that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 289, + 506, + 306 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 289, + 506, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "have higher impact on the agent’s future observations. Finally, we observe that for CPC, predicting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 303, + 505, + 315 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 303, + 505, + 315 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "further into the future and conditioning on actions (CPC|Action) results in the best learned belief on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 313, + 506, + 327 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 313, + 506, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "visually complex environments, while being more computationally efficient than the one-step frame", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 147, + 337 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 147, + 337 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictor.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 109, + 351, + 282, + 363 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 349, + 284, + 366 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 349, + 284, + 366 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 BACKGROUND AND NOTATION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 375, + 377, + 387 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 379, + 388 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 379, + 388 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.1 PARTIALLY OBSERVABLE MARKOV DECISION PROCESSES", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 395, + 505, + 484 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 506, + 408 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 506, + 408 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We consider Partially Observable Markov Decision Processes (POMDPs; Lovejoy, 1991; Cassandra,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 506, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 506, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1998) as a general framework to deal with partially-observable and stochastic environments with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 418, + 505, + 430 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 418, + 266, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "actions. Formally, a POMDP is a tuple", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 267, + 418, + 357, + 430 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "M = ( \\mathcal { X } , \\mathcal { A } , \\mathcal { O } , P , O )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 357, + 418, + 385, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 386, + 419, + 396, + 428 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "\\mathcal { X }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 396, + 418, + 470, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the state space,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 470, + 418, + 480, + 428 + ], + "score": 0.7, + "content": "\\mathcal { A }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 480, + 418, + 505, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 429, + 504, + 441 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 429, + 160, + 441 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "action space,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 160, + 429, + 170, + 439 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "\\mathcal { O }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 170, + 429, + 261, + 441 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the observation space,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 261, + 429, + 270, + 439 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "P", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 270, + 429, + 504, + 441 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "models the dynamics and maps to each state-action couple", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 439, + 506, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 439, + 129, + 452 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( x , a )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 130, + 439, + 186, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a probability", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 440, + 225, + 451 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "P ( \\boldsymbol { y } | \\boldsymbol { x } , \\boldsymbol { a } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 226, + 439, + 303, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "over the next state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 304, + 442, + 311, + 451 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "y", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 311, + 439, + 329, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 329, + 440, + 338, + 450 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "O", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 339, + 439, + 506, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the observation distribution that maps", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 506, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 159, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to each state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 159, + 453, + 166, + 461 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "x", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 167, + 451, + 221, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a probability", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 451, + 249, + 463 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "O ( \\cdot | x )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 249, + 451, + 506, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "over possible observations. Typically, POMDPs also include a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 462, + 506, + 474 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 462, + 506, + 474 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reward observation; however, as we are not considering the control problem here, there is no need to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 473, + 412, + 485 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 473, + 412, + 485 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "distinguish between the reward and the observations, so we omit the reward.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 27.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 489, + 505, + 600 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 489, + 506, + 502 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 489, + 180, + 502 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "At any given time", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 491, + 185, + 500 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 185, + 489, + 456, + 502 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the agent acting in a POMDP has only access to some observation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 456, + 490, + 486, + 501 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "o _ { t } \\in \\mathcal { O }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 487, + 489, + 506, + 502 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 500, + 506, + 512 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 500, + 309, + 512 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "gives incomplete information about the real state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 309, + 501, + 342, + 511 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "x _ { t } \\in \\mathcal X", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 500, + 506, + 512 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Thus, it has an uncertainty on the real", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 506, + 524 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 512, + 127, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 513, + 138, + 523 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "x _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 138, + 512, + 250, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as well as on the next state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 251, + 513, + 271, + 523 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "x _ { t + 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 271, + 512, + 472, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as the dynamics depends on the state-action pair", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 472, + 511, + 502, + 524 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\left( { { x } _ { t } } , { { a } _ { t } } \\right)", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 503, + 512, + 506, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 521, + 505, + 535 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 521, + 402, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Therefore a key aspect in POMDPs is to be able to compute a belief state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 402, + 523, + 411, + 533 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "b _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 412, + 521, + 505, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", which is a probability", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 506, + 546 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 339, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "distribution over possible states, from the current history", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 339, + 534, + 350, + 545 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "h _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 350, + 533, + 481, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". More formally, at a given time", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 481, + 535, + 486, + 543 + ], + "score": 0.72, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 487, + 533, + 506, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 545, + 505, + 558 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 545, + 170, + 558 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "current history", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 170, + 545, + 181, + 555 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "h _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 181, + 545, + 359, + 558 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the set of past actions and observations", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 360, + 545, + 501, + 556 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "h _ { t } = \\left\\{ o _ { 0 } , a _ { 0 } , o _ { 1 } , a _ { 1 } , \\ldots , a _ { t - 1 } , o _ { t } \\right\\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 502, + 545, + 505, + 558 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 555, + 505, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 555, + 205, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and a belief distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 205, + 555, + 239, + 567 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "P _ { b } ( \\cdot | h _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 239, + 555, + 505, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "over the possible states conditioned on the history of past actions", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 566, + 505, + 578 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 566, + 429, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and observations. Ideally, we would like to compute the belief distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 430, + 567, + 441, + 577 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "P _ { b }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 442, + 566, + 505, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "or a surrogate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 576, + 506, + 591 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 576, + 164, + 591 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "representation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 164, + 577, + 198, + 588 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "b _ { t } \\in \\mathbb { R } ^ { d }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 576, + 370, + 591 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that encodes the information with regard to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 578, + 382, + 588 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "P _ { b }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 382, + 576, + 506, + 591 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", thus capturing the uncertainty", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 215, + 602 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 200, + 602 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the underlying state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 590, + 210, + 599 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "x _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 210, + 587, + 215, + 602 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + } + ], + "index": 36.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 612, + 287, + 623 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 611, + 288, + 625 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 611, + 288, + 625 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.2 CONTRASTIVE PREDICTIVE CODING", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 632, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 631, + 505, + 646 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 631, + 505, + 646 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Contrastive Predictive Coding (Oord et al., 2018) (CPC) is an unsupervised representaion learning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 644, + 505, + 656 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 644, + 505, + 656 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which relies on noise contrastive estimation (Gutmann & Hyvärinen, 2010; 2012) as the statistical", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 655, + 505, + 667 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 655, + 505, + 667 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method for learning distributions. We provide a brief overview of noise contrastive estimation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 506, + 680 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 506, + 680 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "approach and based on this we describe the CPC approach. Discriminating between samples coming", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 505, + 689 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 677, + 505, + 689 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "from the data distribution (positive examples) and samples coming from another distribution (negative", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 688, + 505, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "examples), is known as learning from comparison. A simple way to implement this general principle", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is via binary classification where samples coming from the data distribution will be labelled as positive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "examples and samples coming from another distribution will be labelled as negative examples. Then,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "training such a binary classifier can be a good way to learn features that encode information on the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "page_idx": 1, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 308, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 752, + 309, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 763 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 301, + 750, + 310, + 763 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "", + "type": "text", + "height": 13, + "width": 9 + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 505, + 137 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this paper, as an alternative to the current black-box approach, we adopt a glass-box approach to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 94, + 505, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 94, + 505, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the problem of evaluating the representation learning methods. More specifically we directly use", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 506, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 506, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the learned representation to predict the ground-truth state of the environment. This information", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 505, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 505, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is only used for evaluating the representation, while the representation itself is learned in a fully", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 196, + 140 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 196, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "unsupervised fashion.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 2, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 82, + 506, + 140 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 143, + 505, + 209 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 143, + 506, + 156 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 143, + 506, + 156 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For our experiments, we use a set of simulated tasks in the DeepMind Lab suite (Beattie et al., 2016).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 153, + 506, + 167 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 153, + 506, + 167 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We compare three different representation learning methods: One-step frame prediction, contrastive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 506, + 177 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 165, + 506, + 177 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictive coding (CPC) (Oord et al., 2018), and CPC|Action, a new action-dependent variant of CPC.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 175, + 505, + 189 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 175, + 505, + 189 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "CPC and CPC|Action are both able to represent distributions of future observations, whereas one-step", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 506, + 200 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 187, + 506, + 200 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "frame prediction can only represent the mean; however, frame prediction is better at paying attention", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 198, + 225, + 209 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 198, + 225, + 209 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to details in the observations.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 7.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 143, + 506, + 209 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 215, + 505, + 336 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 215, + 505, + 227 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 215, + 505, + 227 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Our main finding is that all three methods are able to learn a representation of the belief state of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 226, + 505, + 239 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 226, + 505, + 239 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment. We observe that the learned representations encode important pieces of information", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 236, + 505, + 250 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 236, + 505, + 250 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "about the environment including the agent’s current position and orientation, its past trajectory, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 247, + 506, + 261 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 247, + 506, + 261 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "even the position of objects in the environment. In fact, our results show that the belief representations", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 506, + 272 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 258, + 506, + 272 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "not only encode these pieces of information, they also encode the agent’s uncertainty over them—a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 505, + 282 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 270, + 505, + 282 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "crucial aspect of a belief state. However, we find that not all objects can be captured equally well by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 281, + 505, + 293 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 281, + 505, + 293 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the learned representations, and that the representations are able to better capture those objects that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 289, + 506, + 306 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 289, + 506, + 306 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "have higher impact on the agent’s future observations. Finally, we observe that for CPC, predicting", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 303, + 505, + 315 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 303, + 505, + 315 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "further into the future and conditioning on actions (CPC|Action) results in the best learned belief on", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 313, + 506, + 327 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 313, + 506, + 327 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "visually complex environments, while being more computationally efficient than the one-step frame", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 147, + 337 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 325, + 147, + 337 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictor.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 16, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 215, + 506, + 337 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 109, + 351, + 282, + 363 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 349, + 284, + 366 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 349, + 284, + 366 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2 BACKGROUND AND NOTATION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 375, + 377, + 387 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 379, + 388 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 379, + 388 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.1 PARTIALLY OBSERVABLE MARKOV DECISION PROCESSES", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 395, + 505, + 484 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 506, + 408 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 396, + 506, + 408 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We consider Partially Observable Markov Decision Processes (POMDPs; Lovejoy, 1991; Cassandra,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 506, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 406, + 506, + 420 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "1998) as a general framework to deal with partially-observable and stochastic environments with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 418, + 505, + 430 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 418, + 266, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "actions. Formally, a POMDP is a tuple", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 267, + 418, + 357, + 430 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "M = ( \\mathcal { X } , \\mathcal { A } , \\mathcal { O } , P , O )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 357, + 418, + 385, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 386, + 419, + 396, + 428 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "\\mathcal { X }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 396, + 418, + 470, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the state space,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 470, + 418, + 480, + 428 + ], + "score": 0.7, + "content": "\\mathcal { A }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 480, + 418, + 505, + 430 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 429, + 504, + 441 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 429, + 160, + 441 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "action space,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 160, + 429, + 170, + 439 + ], + "score": 0.77, + "content": "\\mathcal { O }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 170, + 429, + 261, + 441 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the observation space,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 261, + 429, + 270, + 439 + ], + "score": 0.8, + "content": "P", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 270, + 429, + 504, + 441 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "models the dynamics and maps to each state-action couple", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 439, + 506, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 439, + 129, + 452 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( x , a )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 130, + 439, + 186, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a probability", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 186, + 440, + 225, + 451 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "P ( \\boldsymbol { y } | \\boldsymbol { x } , \\boldsymbol { a } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 226, + 439, + 303, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "over the next state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 304, + 442, + 311, + 451 + ], + "score": 0.82, + "content": "y", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 311, + 439, + 329, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 329, + 440, + 338, + 450 + ], + "score": 0.81, + "content": "O", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 339, + 439, + 506, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the observation distribution that maps", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 506, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 451, + 159, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to each state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 159, + 453, + 166, + 461 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "x", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 167, + 451, + 221, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a probability", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 222, + 451, + 249, + 463 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "O ( \\cdot | x )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 249, + 451, + 506, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "over possible observations. Typically, POMDPs also include a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 462, + 506, + 474 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 462, + 506, + 474 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reward observation; however, as we are not considering the control problem here, there is no need to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 473, + 412, + 485 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 473, + 412, + 485 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "distinguish between the reward and the observations, so we omit the reward.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 27.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 396, + 506, + 485 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 489, + 505, + 600 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 489, + 506, + 502 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 489, + 180, + 502 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "At any given time", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 491, + 185, + 500 + ], + "score": 0.75, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 185, + 489, + 456, + 502 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the agent acting in a POMDP has only access to some observation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 456, + 490, + 486, + 501 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "o _ { t } \\in \\mathcal { O }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 487, + 489, + 506, + 502 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 500, + 506, + 512 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 500, + 309, + 512 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "gives incomplete information about the real state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 309, + 501, + 342, + 511 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "x _ { t } \\in \\mathcal X", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 342, + 500, + 506, + 512 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Thus, it has an uncertainty on the real", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 511, + 506, + 524 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 512, + 127, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 128, + 513, + 138, + 523 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "x _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 138, + 512, + 250, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as well as on the next state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 251, + 513, + 271, + 523 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "x _ { t + 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 271, + 512, + 472, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as the dynamics depends on the state-action pair", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 472, + 511, + 502, + 524 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "\\left( { { x } _ { t } } , { { a } _ { t } } \\right)", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 503, + 512, + 506, + 524 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 521, + 505, + 535 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 521, + 402, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Therefore a key aspect in POMDPs is to be able to compute a belief state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 402, + 523, + 411, + 533 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "b _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 412, + 521, + 505, + 535 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", which is a probability", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 506, + 546 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 339, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "distribution over possible states, from the current history", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 339, + 534, + 350, + 545 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "h _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 350, + 533, + 481, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". More formally, at a given time", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 481, + 535, + 486, + 543 + ], + "score": 0.72, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 487, + 533, + 506, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 545, + 505, + 558 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 545, + 170, + 558 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "current history", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 170, + 545, + 181, + 555 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "h _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 181, + 545, + 359, + 558 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is the set of past actions and observations", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 360, + 545, + 501, + 556 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "h _ { t } = \\left\\{ o _ { 0 } , a _ { 0 } , o _ { 1 } , a _ { 1 } , \\ldots , a _ { t - 1 } , o _ { t } \\right\\}", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 502, + 545, + 505, + 558 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ",", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 555, + 505, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 555, + 205, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and a belief distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 205, + 555, + 239, + 567 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "P _ { b } ( \\cdot | h _ { t } )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 239, + 555, + 505, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "over the possible states conditioned on the history of past actions", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 566, + 505, + 578 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 566, + 429, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and observations. Ideally, we would like to compute the belief distribution", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 430, + 567, + 441, + 577 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "P _ { b }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 442, + 566, + 505, + 578 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "or a surrogate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 576, + 506, + 591 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 576, + 164, + 591 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "representation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 164, + 577, + 198, + 588 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "b _ { t } \\in \\mathbb { R } ^ { d }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 198, + 576, + 370, + 591 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that encodes the information with regard to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 371, + 578, + 382, + 588 + ], + "score": 0.89, + "content": "P _ { b }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 382, + 576, + 506, + 591 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", thus capturing the uncertainty", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 215, + 602 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 200, + 602 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the underlying state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 200, + 590, + 210, + 599 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "x _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 210, + 587, + 215, + 602 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ".", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + } + ], + "index": 36.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 489, + 506, + 602 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 612, + 287, + 623 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 611, + 288, + 625 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 611, + 288, + 625 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2.2 CONTRASTIVE PREDICTIVE CODING", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 632, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 631, + 505, + 646 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 631, + 505, + 646 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Contrastive Predictive Coding (Oord et al., 2018) (CPC) is an unsupervised representaion learning", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 644, + 505, + 656 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 644, + 505, + 656 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "which relies on noise contrastive estimation (Gutmann & Hyvärinen, 2010; 2012) as the statistical", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 655, + 505, + 667 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 655, + 505, + 667 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "method for learning distributions. 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A simple way to implement this general principle", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is via binary classification where samples coming from the data distribution will be labelled as positive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "examples and samples coming from another distribution will be labelled as negative examples. 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We also want these representations to capture information", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 434, + 506, + 447 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 434, + 506, + 447 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "about different attributes of the state such as agent and object positions in navigation tasks. It", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 447, + 505, + 457 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 447, + 505, + 457 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is to be expected that compact representations of POMDPs make it easier to learn and represent", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 457, + 505, + 469 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 457, + 505, + 469 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "models (Boutilier et al., 1999). Indeed, representations that encode important parts of the state have", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "led to improved performance in RL tasks, both with model-based and value-based methods (Guestrin", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 478, + 505, + 491 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 478, + 505, + 491 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2003; Diuk et al., 2008; Boots et al., 2011; Levine et al., 2016; Higgins et al., 2017; Karkus", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 489, + 159, + 501 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 489, + 159, + 501 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 24.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 505, + 505, + 627 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 506, + 505, + 519 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 506, + 505, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Predictive State Representations (PSRs; Littman & Sutton, 2002) are one such expressive and compact", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 517, + 506, + 529 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 517, + 506, + 529 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "representation, in terms of tests on the POMDP (Rivest & Schapire, 1993). A test is the indicator of a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 528, + 504, + 541 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 528, + 504, + 541 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "specific sequence of future observations given a specific sequence of actions. With an appropriate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 539, + 505, + 552 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 539, + 505, + 552 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "collection of tests (and their conditional distributions given histories), one can encode belief states", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 550, + 505, + 563 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 550, + 505, + 563 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Rivest & Schapire, 1993; Littman & Sutton, 2002). 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Our work is inspired by the idea that predicting future observations conditioned", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 605, + 505, + 618 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 605, + 505, + 618 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on future actions can give us an expressive state representation, and this principle guided the design", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 616, + 279, + 628 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 616, + 279, + 628 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of our representation learning architecture.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 632, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 632, + 505, + 646 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 632, + 505, + 646 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Sutton et al. (2011); Li et al. (2015); Jaderberg et al. 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Indeed, representations that encode important parts of the state have", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "led to improved performance in RL tasks, both with model-based and value-based methods (Guestrin", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 478, + 505, + 491 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 478, + 505, + 491 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2003; Diuk et al., 2008; Boots et al., 2011; Levine et al., 2016; Higgins et al., 2017; Karkus", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 489, + 159, + 501 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 489, + 159, + 501 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "et al., 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 24.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 413, + 506, + 501 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 505, + 505, + 627 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 506, + 505, + 519 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 506, + 505, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Predictive State Representations (PSRs; Littman & Sutton, 2002) are one such expressive and compact", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 517, + 506, + 529 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 517, + 506, + 529 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "representation, in terms of tests on the POMDP (Rivest & Schapire, 1993). 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In", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 506, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 506, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Section 5 we investigate the accuracy of these representations across different domains when trained", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 213, + 161 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 149, + 213, + 161 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "with different approaches.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + } + ], + "index": 3, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 82, + 507, + 161 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 177, + 301, + 189 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 302, + 191 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 176, + 302, + 191 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4 ARCHITECTURE AND ALGORITHM", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 202, + 504, + 235 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 201, + 506, + 215 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 201, + 506, + 215 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Inspired by the PSR literature, our approach relies on predictions of future observations conditioned", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 213, + 506, + 225 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 213, + 506, + 225 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on future actions as a way to predict the belief state. In particular, we base our architecture on CPC,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 224, + 434, + 236 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 224, + 434, + 236 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "using a variant of this model to learn rich representations in virtual environments.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 9, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 201, + 506, + 236 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 240, + 505, + 452 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 241, + 506, + 253 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 241, + 506, + 253 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We now describe the architectures we use in our experiments. Figure 1 outlines the CPC|Action", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 251, + 506, + 264 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 251, + 506, + 264 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "architecture which is a variant of CPC architecture (see Sec. 2.2). We use a GRU network (blue)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 262, + 504, + 276 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 262, + 302, + 276 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to take in the history of embedded observations", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 264, + 312, + 274 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 312, + 262, + 362, + 276 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and actions", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 362, + 264, + 372, + 274 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "a _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 372, + 262, + 495, + 276 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and output the representation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 495, + 263, + 504, + 274 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "b _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 274, + 505, + 286 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 274, + 207, + 286 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for the current time step", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 207, + 275, + 212, + 284 + ], + "score": 0.5, + "content": "t", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 212, + 274, + 434, + 286 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". In addition to standard CPC our architecture uses the", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 434, + 274, + 443, + 285 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "b _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 444, + 274, + 505, + 286 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to initialise an", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 102, + 283, + 508, + 303 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 102, + 283, + 343, + 303 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "action-GRU (red) which is then fed by the future actions", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 343, + 284, + 389, + 298 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\{ a _ { t + k } \\} _ { k = 0 } ^ { T - 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 389, + 283, + 508, + 303 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". Finally, for each time step", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 297, + 505, + 309 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 297, + 129, + 307 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "t + k", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 129, + 297, + 505, + 309 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", a multi-layer perceptron (MLP) (grey) is fed both by the output of this GRU and the positive", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 101, + 302, + 510, + 331 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 101, + 302, + 143, + 331 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "example order to", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 144, + 307, + 163, + 321 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "z _ { t + k } ^ { + }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 164, + 302, + 473, + 331 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in order to predict 1 or by the output of the GRU and the negative example t 0 (for a more detailed description of the architecture i.e. ConvNet and fully-co", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 473, + 308, + 493, + 321 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "z _ { t + k } ^ { - }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 493, + 302, + 510, + 331 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "inted", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 506, + 342 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 330, + 506, + 342 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "layer please see the Architecture Details section in the appendix.). We also implement the CPC", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 340, + 506, + 354 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 340, + 506, + 354 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "without actions as exactly the same architecture as CPC|Action except that the action-GRU (red)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 349, + 507, + 369 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 351, + 286, + 367 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is not fed by the future actions {at+k}T −1k=0", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 283, + 349, + 379, + 369 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "but by a dummy input", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 380, + 351, + 425, + 365 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "\\{ c _ { t + k } \\} _ { k = 0 } ^ { T - 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 425, + 349, + 454, + 369 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 455, + 354, + 494, + 365 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "c _ { t + k } = c", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 495, + 349, + 507, + 369 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 364, + 506, + 376 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 364, + 506, + 376 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a constant null vector. Finally we implement one-step frame prediction (FP; Bengio et al., 2007).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 506, + 388 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 374, + 259, + 388 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This architecture learns a belief state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 375, + 268, + 386 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "b _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 374, + 459, + 388 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for the task of predicting the next observation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 459, + 376, + 479, + 387 + ], + "score": 0.88, + "content": "o _ { t + 1 }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 479, + 374, + 506, + 388 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "given", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 506, + 398 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 385, + 149, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the action", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 149, + 387, + 159, + 397 + ], + "score": 0.85, + "content": "a _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 159, + 385, + 506, + 398 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "via a transposed convolutional network (orange). Common to all 3 architectures is a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 397, + 505, + 409 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 397, + 505, + 409 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "convolutional neural network (CNN; LeCun et al., 1998) (yellow) that transforms the raw observation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 407, + 506, + 421 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 410, + 116, + 419 + ], + "score": 0.83, + "content": "o _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 407, + 160, + 421 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to a vector", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 160, + 409, + 169, + 419 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "z _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 169, + 407, + 293, + 421 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". For evaluation, the belief state", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 293, + 408, + 302, + 419 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "b _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 407, + 506, + 421 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is then used by an MLP (green) in order to estimate", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 419, + 505, + 431 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 419, + 505, + 431 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the position, orientation or other features of the environments. It is important to note that we do", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 430, + 505, + 442 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 430, + 505, + 442 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "not back-propagate the gradient from this MLP (green) that predicts the ground truth to the rest", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 441, + 504, + 453 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 441, + 504, + 453 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the architecture. Algorithm 1 outlines how we train the CPC|action architecture. We sample", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 407, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "mini-batches of sub-trajectories from our dataset, and unroll the belief GRU", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 407, + 710, + 414, + 721 + ], + "score": 0.84, + "content": "f", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 415, + 709, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to compute the beliefs", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 115, + 732 + ], + "score": 0.86, + "content": "b _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 720, + 259, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for every time step. Then, for every", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 259, + 721, + 268, + 732 + ], + "score": 0.87, + "content": "b _ { t }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 268, + 720, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", we sample how far we want to predict into the future up to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 82, + 168, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a maximum of", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 83, + 177, + 92 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "F", + "type": "inline_equation", + "cross_page": true + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". We compute the forwarded belief from the Action GRU, and then feed it to the", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "CPC classifier with both the true future observation as the positive example, and a randomly picked", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 505, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 104, + 505, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "observation from the mini-batch as a negative example. We average the classification losses across all", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 505, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 505, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "time steps of the mini-batch and take a gradient step. For the frame predictor, the training procedure", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 505, + 138 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 505, + 138 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is similar, except we compute the prediction loss of the next future observation instead of the CPC", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 138, + 505, + 149 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 138, + 505, + 149 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "loss for each time step. The distribution of negative examples, and the ratio of the number of positive", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 19.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 101, + 241, + 510, + 453 + ] + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 475, + 675 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 475, + 675 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 475, + 675 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 475, + 675 + ], + "score": 0.965, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "664edaa8df98195ee9ae69d01cc9adc89b7f6871ae189c58e38685bdaff5d6cf.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 30, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 475, + 535.6666666666666 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 535.6666666666666, + 475, + 605.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 605.3333333333333, + 475, + 674.9999999999999 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 31 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 189, + 686, + 421, + 698 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 189, + 684, + 422, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 189, + 684, + 422, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 1: Different architectures used in our experiments.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 31.0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 709, + 503, + 732 + ], + "lines": [], + "index": 33.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 106, + 709, + 505, + 733 + ], + "lines_deleted": true + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 505, + 149 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 82, + 168, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "a maximum of", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 83, + 177, + 92 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "F", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 82, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ". 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We found that taking", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 458, + 505, + 470 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 458, + 505, + 470 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "one negative observation uniformly from the rest of the mini-batch performed very well. We also", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 481 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 481 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "found that the distribution and ratio became significantly less important when we predict further into", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 478, + 151, + 492 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 478, + 151, + 492 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the future.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 29.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 511, + 200, + 523 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 201, + 525 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 201, + 525 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5 EXPERIMENTS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 538, + 505, + 637 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 539, + 505, + 551 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 539, + 505, + 551 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section we describe our experimental setup and discuss the results. 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We also", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 481 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 468, + 505, + 481 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "found that the distribution and ratio became significantly less important when we predict further into", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 478, + 151, + 492 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 478, + 151, + 492 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the future.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + } + ], + "index": 29.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 446, + 506, + 492 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 511, + 200, + 523 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 201, + 525 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 510, + 201, + 525 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5 EXPERIMENTS", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 538, + 505, + 637 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 539, + 505, + 551 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 539, + 505, + 551 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section we describe our experimental setup and discuss the results. 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After motivating our results with experiments in a", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 571, + 505, + 583 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 571, + 505, + 583 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "toy domain (Section 5.1), we present two sets of experiments in a visually rich partially observable", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 581, + 506, + 595 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 581, + 506, + 595 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "3D environment. In the first set of experiments (Section 5.2), we compare the three different", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 593, + 505, + 605 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 593, + 505, + 605 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "approaches, and look into their capacity to encode the agent’s position and orientation. 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Additional details", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 625, + 346, + 639 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 625, + 346, + 639 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "about the experimental setups can be found in Appendix A.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + } + ], + "index": 37, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 539, + 506, + 639 + ] + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 654, + 207, + 666 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 652, + 209, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 652, + 209, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5.1 TOY GRIDWORLD", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 676, + 504, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To give a sense of the belief representations being learned, we first present qualitative results in a toy", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 506, + 701 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 686, + 506, + 701 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "domain, where we can see how the learned belief changes (in particular reduction in uncertainty) as", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 506, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 506, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the agent interacts with the environment. To evaluate the learned belief, we train a separate classifier", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to predict the true position and orientation of the agent from the learned belief, without letting the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 277, + 734 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 720, + 277, + 734 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "gradient flow back into the representation.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + } + ], + "index": 45, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 734 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 505, + 226 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The toy domain is a square gridworld room. At each step the agent moves (forward or backwards)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 506, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 506, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "or rotates (a quarter of a circle to the left or right) at random, and it is only able to observe a square", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 505, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 505, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of length 5 centred on it. Fig. 2 shows screenshots from an episode with an agent trained with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 505, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 505, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "CPC|Action and predicting 30 steps into the future. We observe that the agent’s representation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 126, + 506, + 140 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 126, + 506, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "encodes a belief that reflects the inherent uncertainty on the agent’s position and orientation. This", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 137, + 505, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 137, + 505, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "uncertainty is a result of partial observability and, as the agent moves around the room and observes", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 147, + 505, + 162 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 147, + 505, + 162 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "more of the environment, it is progressively reduced, until eventually there is no more uncertainty", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 159, + 505, + 172 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 159, + 505, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the agent’s position and orientation for the rest of the episode. More specifically we observe", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 170, + 506, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 170, + 506, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that throughout the early stage of episode, Figs. 2(a) to 2(d), when the agent’s observation are not", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 505, + 193 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 505, + 193 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "informative, the agent is able to refine his belief only by ruling out the states which are not feasible", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 190, + 506, + 206 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 190, + 506, + 206 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "under the past actions. When the agent observes the top wall at time step 32 (Fig. 2(e)) it immediately", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 505, + 216 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 505, + 216 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "narrows down its belief to only 3 neighboring states. After that it takes the agent another 20 time", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 214, + 406, + 227 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 214, + 406, + 227 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "steps to completely resolve the uncertainty again by using the past actions.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 118, + 239, + 493, + 420 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 118, + 239, + 493, + 420 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 239, + 493, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 239, + 493, + 420 + ], + "score": 0.975, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "bcf09265b013349a245b0e05194e9466671b4163c8a2fc6fe72ab0bf5f2cd1e0.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 14, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 239, + 493, + 299.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 299.3333333333333, + 493, + 359.66666666666663 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 359.66666666666663, + 493, + 419.99999999999994 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 15 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 433, + 506, + 488 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 433, + 507, + 446 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 433, + 507, + 446 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 2: Frames from the agent moving at random in a gridworld (outermost cells are walls,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 444, + 507, + 457 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 444, + 507, + 457 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "see Fig. 2(e)). In each image, the agent’s partial observation is on the left (agent and walls in black,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 506, + 467 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 506, + 467 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "empty spaces in white), the agent’s position and orientation are on the centre, and the predicted", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 505, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 505, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "position and orientation are on the right. The diamond-looking shapes result from flattening the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 367, + 490 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 367, + 490 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "beliefs for each of the four possible orientations in the same cell.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 18 + } + ], + "index": 16.0 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 507, + 246, + 518 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 247, + 519 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 247, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5.2 ALGORITHM COMPARISON", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 527, + 504, + 550 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 527, + 505, + 540 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 527, + 505, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section we are interested in a variety of visually rich, partially observable environments, so we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 538, + 451, + 551 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 538, + 451, + 551 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used four different environments of the DeepMind Lab platform (Beattie et al., 2016).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 22.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 555, + 505, + 610 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 555, + 505, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 555, + 428, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We tested whether the representations encoded the following: 1) agent’s relative", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 428, + 555, + 451, + 567 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( x , y )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 452, + 555, + 505, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-position and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 565, + 505, + 579 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 565, + 152, + 579 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "orientation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 567, + 159, + 576 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "\\theta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 159, + 565, + 505, + 579 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "at each time step, given the agent’s initial position and orientation, 2) the agent’s past", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 577, + 505, + 590 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 577, + 505, + 590 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "relative positions and orientations up to each time step, and 3) the relative position of uncollected", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 506, + 601 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 506, + 601 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "objects in the environment at each time step. The reason we test for the agent’s past positions and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 598, + 472, + 613 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 598, + 472, + 613 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "orientations is because the history is necessary for the agent to remember collected objects.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 615, + 505, + 671 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 615, + 505, + 629 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 615, + 505, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We trained separate networks to estimate the learned representation and initial position and orientation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 627, + 505, + 639 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 627, + 505, + 639 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and predict the associated piece of information at every time step. These networks were used only for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 637, + 505, + 650 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 637, + 505, + 650 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "inspection, that is, gradients did not flow through them into the representation. The positions and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 506, + 662 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 506, + 662 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "orientations are discretised for easier evaluation. To generate data, we used a random policy that", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 420, + 672 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 660, + 420, + 672 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "repeats a randomly chosen action a random number of times between 1 and 5.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 677, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The four environments used in our experiment span different kinds of layouts from rooms to mazes to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 506, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 506, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "natural terrain, and different object positioning—fixed positions or per-episode randomised positions.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Objects are collectable in all four environments. fixed is a single room with objects in fixed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 708, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 708, + 394, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "locations, room is a single room with objects in randomised locations,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 395, + 711, + 420, + 720 + ], + "score": 0.39, + "content": "\\mathtt { m a z e }", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 421, + 708, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is a fixed maze with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "objects in randomised locations, and terrain is a naturalistic, hilly, terrain with desert and forest", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 36 + } + ], + "page_idx": 5, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 308, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 752, + 308, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 762 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 751, + 309, + 762 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 505, + 226 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The toy domain is a square gridworld room. At each step the agent moves (forward or backwards)", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 506, + 107 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 94, + 506, + 107 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "or rotates (a quarter of a circle to the left or right) at random, and it is only able to observe a square", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 505, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 505, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of length 5 centred on it. Fig. 2 shows screenshots from an episode with an agent trained with", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 505, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 505, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "CPC|Action and predicting 30 steps into the future. We observe that the agent’s representation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 126, + 506, + 140 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 126, + 506, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "encodes a belief that reflects the inherent uncertainty on the agent’s position and orientation. This", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 137, + 505, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 137, + 505, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "uncertainty is a result of partial observability and, as the agent moves around the room and observes", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 147, + 505, + 162 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 147, + 505, + 162 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "more of the environment, it is progressively reduced, until eventually there is no more uncertainty", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 159, + 505, + 172 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 159, + 505, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the agent’s position and orientation for the rest of the episode. More specifically we observe", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 170, + 506, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 170, + 506, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that throughout the early stage of episode, Figs. 2(a) to 2(d), when the agent’s observation are not", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 505, + 193 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 182, + 505, + 193 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "informative, the agent is able to refine his belief only by ruling out the states which are not feasible", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 190, + 506, + 206 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 190, + 506, + 206 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "under the past actions. When the agent observes the top wall at time step 32 (Fig. 2(e)) it immediately", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 505, + 216 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 505, + 216 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "narrows down its belief to only 3 neighboring states. After that it takes the agent another 20 time", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 214, + 406, + 227 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 214, + 406, + 227 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "steps to completely resolve the uncertainty again by using the past actions.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + } + ], + "index": 6, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 83, + 506, + 227 + ] + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 118, + 239, + 493, + 420 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 118, + 239, + 493, + 420 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 239, + 493, + 420 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 239, + 493, + 420 + ], + "score": 0.975, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "bcf09265b013349a245b0e05194e9466671b4163c8a2fc6fe72ab0bf5f2cd1e0.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 14, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 239, + 493, + 299.3333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 299.3333333333333, + 493, + 359.66666666666663 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 118, + 359.66666666666663, + 493, + 419.99999999999994 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 15 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 433, + 506, + 488 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 433, + 507, + 446 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 433, + 507, + 446 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 2: Frames from the agent moving at random in a gridworld (outermost cells are walls,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 444, + 507, + 457 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 444, + 507, + 457 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "see Fig. 2(e)). In each image, the agent’s partial observation is on the left (agent and walls in black,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 506, + 467 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 455, + 506, + 467 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "empty spaces in white), the agent’s position and orientation are on the centre, and the predicted", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 505, + 479 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 466, + 505, + 479 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "position and orientation are on the right. The diamond-looking shapes result from flattening the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 367, + 490 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 477, + 367, + 490 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "beliefs for each of the four possible orientations in the same cell.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + } + ], + "index": 18 + } + ], + "index": 16.0 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 507, + 246, + 518 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 247, + 519 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 506, + 247, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5.2 ALGORITHM COMPARISON", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 105, + 527, + 504, + 550 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 527, + 505, + 540 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 527, + 505, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In this section we are interested in a variety of visually rich, partially observable environments, so we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 538, + 451, + 551 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 538, + 451, + 551 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "used four different environments of the DeepMind Lab platform (Beattie et al., 2016).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + } + ], + "index": 22.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 527, + 505, + 551 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 555, + 505, + 610 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 555, + 505, + 567 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 555, + 428, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We tested whether the representations encoded the following: 1) agent’s relative", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 428, + 555, + 451, + 567 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( x , y )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 452, + 555, + 505, + 567 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "-position and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 565, + 505, + 579 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 565, + 152, + 579 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "orientation", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 567, + 159, + 576 + ], + "score": 0.78, + "content": "\\theta", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 159, + 565, + 505, + 579 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "at each time step, given the agent’s initial position and orientation, 2) the agent’s past", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 577, + 505, + 590 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 577, + 505, + 590 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "relative positions and orientations up to each time step, and 3) the relative position of uncollected", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 506, + 601 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 587, + 506, + 601 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "objects in the environment at each time step. The reason we test for the agent’s past positions and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 598, + 472, + 613 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 598, + 472, + 613 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "orientations is because the history is necessary for the agent to remember collected objects.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 26, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 555, + 506, + 613 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 615, + 505, + 671 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 615, + 505, + 629 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 615, + 505, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "We trained separate networks to estimate the learned representation and initial position and orientation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 627, + 505, + 639 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 627, + 505, + 639 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and predict the associated piece of information at every time step. These networks were used only for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 637, + 505, + 650 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 637, + 505, + 650 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "inspection, that is, gradients did not flow through them into the representation. The positions and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 506, + 662 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 648, + 506, + 662 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "orientations are discretised for easier evaluation. 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Table 1 summarises", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 302, + 507, + 315 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 302, + 507, + 315 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the prediction losses across all algorithms and environments1, and we can make several observations.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 8.5 + }, + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 124, + 324, + 486, + 582 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 124, + 324, + 486, + 582 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 324, + 486, + 582 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 324, + 486, + 582 + ], + "score": 0.985, + "html": "
EnvAlgorithm(x,y,0)Past (x,y,0)Objects (x,y)
fixedFP0.118 ± 0.0150.121 ± 0.0070.043 ± 0.006
CPC 10.579 ± 0.0670.132 ± 0.0100.049 ± 0.005
CPC 300.562 ± 0.2040.118 ± 0.0100.045 ± 0.004
CPClAction 10.689 ± 0.0570.137 ± 0.0060.049 ± 0.004
CPCIAction 300.240 ± 0.0300.100 ± 0.0070.040 ± 0.003
roomFP0.517 ± 0.1230.285± 0.0170.484 ± 0.005
CPC 12.010 ±0.1420.311 ± 0.0170.498 ± 0.008
CPC 300.482 ± 0.1570.257 ± 0.0220.481 ± 0.005
CPClAction 12.274±0.1170.308 ± 0.0180.484 ± 0.005
CPCIAction 300.689 ± 0.0660.276 ± 0.0290.484 ± 0.008
mazeFP0.178 ± 0.2070.233 ± 0.0290.322 ± 0.008
CPC 10.622 ± 0.1580.278 ± 0.0550.330 ± 0.009
CPC 300.244 ± 0.0580.213 ± 0.0310.325 ± 0.015
CPClAction 10.638 ± 0.0940.264± 0.0280.323 ± 0.010
CPCIAction 300.182 ± 0.0340.206 ± 0.0290.323 ± 0.010
terrainFP1.831 ± 0.1620.405 ± 0.0770.181 ± 0.084
CPC13.393 ± 0.2520.417 ± 0.0740.307 ± 0.174
CPC 302.280 ± 0.8530.340 ± 0.1040.131 ± 0.185
CPClAction 13.348 ± 0.4820.414 ± 0.0420.312 ± 0.049
CPClAction 301.589±0.3580.344 ± 0.0650.139 ±0.136
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Table 1 summarises", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 302, + 507, + 315 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 302, + 507, + 315 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the prediction losses across all algorithms and environments1, and we can make several observations.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 8.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 269, + 507, + 315 + ] + }, + { + "type": "table", + "bbox": [ + 124, + 324, + 486, + 582 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "table_body", + "bbox": [ + 124, + 324, + 486, + 582 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 324, + 486, + 582 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 124, + 324, + 486, + 582 + ], + "score": 0.985, + "html": "
EnvAlgorithm(x,y,0)Past (x,y,0)Objects (x,y)
fixedFP0.118 ± 0.0150.121 ± 0.0070.043 ± 0.006
CPC 10.579 ± 0.0670.132 ± 0.0100.049 ± 0.005
CPC 300.562 ± 0.2040.118 ± 0.0100.045 ± 0.004
CPClAction 10.689 ± 0.0570.137 ± 0.0060.049 ± 0.004
CPCIAction 300.240 ± 0.0300.100 ± 0.0070.040 ± 0.003
roomFP0.517 ± 0.1230.285± 0.0170.484 ± 0.005
CPC 12.010 ±0.1420.311 ± 0.0170.498 ± 0.008
CPC 300.482 ± 0.1570.257 ± 0.0220.481 ± 0.005
CPClAction 12.274±0.1170.308 ± 0.0180.484 ± 0.005
CPCIAction 300.689 ± 0.0660.276 ± 0.0290.484 ± 0.008
mazeFP0.178 ± 0.2070.233 ± 0.0290.322 ± 0.008
CPC 10.622 ± 0.1580.278 ± 0.0550.330 ± 0.009
CPC 300.244 ± 0.0580.213 ± 0.0310.325 ± 0.015
CPClAction 10.638 ± 0.0940.264± 0.0280.323 ± 0.010
CPCIAction 300.182 ± 0.0340.206 ± 0.0290.323 ± 0.010
terrainFP1.831 ± 0.1620.405 ± 0.0770.181 ± 0.084
CPC13.393 ± 0.2520.417 ± 0.0740.307 ± 0.174
CPC 302.280 ± 0.8530.340 ± 0.1040.131 ± 0.185
CPClAction 13.348 ± 0.4820.414 ± 0.0420.312 ± 0.049
CPClAction 301.589±0.3580.344 ± 0.0650.139 ±0.136
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In each im-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 484, + 361, + 495 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 484, + 361, + 495 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "age, ground truths are on the top, predictions on the bottom,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 494, + 361, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 495, + 152, + 506 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "( x , y , \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 494, + 361, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(ground truth and predictions) on the left, and past", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 505, + 362, + 519 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 506, + 152, + 518 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "( x , y , \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 505, + 362, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the right. Figs. 4(a) to 4(c) show examples of ac-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 516, + 360, + 529 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 516, + 147, + 529 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "curate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 516, + 180, + 528 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( x , y , \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 516, + 360, + 529 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictions, Figs. 4(d) to 4(f) show examples", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 527, + 262, + 540 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 527, + 178, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for inaccurate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 528, + 211, + 540 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( x , y , \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 212, + 527, + 262, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictions.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 31.5 + } + ], + "index": 26.25 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 388, + 354, + 473, + 439 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 388, + 354, + 473, + 439 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 354, + 473, + 439 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 354, + 473, + 439 + ], + "score": 0.904, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "736c7fa6df9b3b6989949db0024c3b09bd4fcf1cf799c536a13a51724b52c1f2.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 35.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 354, + 473, + 396.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 396.5, + 473, + 439.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 36 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 369, + 451, + 492, + 538 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 450, + 492, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 450, + 492, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 5: Symmetry of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 461, + 491, + 474 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 462, + 402, + 474 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( x , y , \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 461, + 491, + 473 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prediction with the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 473, + 493, + 484 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 473, + 493, + 484 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "frame predictor in room.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 482, + 493, + 496 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 482, + 493, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Ground truths are on the top,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 495, + 493, + 506 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 495, + 493, + 506 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictions on the bottom,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 505, + 493, + 518 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 506, + 402, + 517 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( x , y , \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 505, + 493, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(ground truth and pre-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 515, + 492, + 528 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 515, + 492, + 528 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dictions) on the left, and past", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 527, + 455, + 540 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 527, + 402, + 540 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( x , y , \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 527, + 455, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the right.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + } + ], + "index": 40.5 + } + ], + "index": 38.0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 550, + 505, + 671 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 550, + 506, + 563 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 550, + 506, + 563 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Fourth, we take a closer look at room as it is an interesting environment because it is almost", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 561, + 505, + 574 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 561, + 183, + 574 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "symmetric in both", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 183, + 563, + 190, + 571 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "x", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 561, + 208, + 574 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 209, + 563, + 216, + 573 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "y", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 561, + 505, + 574 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "axes. The room is almost a square, measuring 9 by 10 units. There are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 572, + 505, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 572, + 407, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "faint vertical pulses of light on the walls that move from small to larger", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 408, + 572, + 431, + 584 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( x , y )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 432, + 572, + 505, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and they are the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 583, + 505, + 596 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 583, + 505, + 596 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "only symmetry-breaking elements. Table 1 and video inspection suggest that the representations", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 594, + 505, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 594, + 505, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trained with the three algorithms do not allow asymmetries to be consistently resolved. Fig. 5 shows", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 606, + 505, + 617 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 606, + 505, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "an example of the symmetry in position predictions, reflecting uncertainty about the position and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 629 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "orientation. The higher position and orientation prediction errors of FP and CPC|Action 30 in room", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 627, + 505, + 640 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 627, + 505, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are mainly due to the ambiguity from symmetry. We are unsure why CPC is slightly better than", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 638, + 506, + 651 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 638, + 506, + 651 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "CPC|Action at paying attention to the moving vertical lines of light on the walls, but we speculate it", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 649, + 506, + 662 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 649, + 506, + 662 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is because knowledge of actions taken does not help break the symmetry, and because CPC|Action", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 54 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 661, + 306, + 672 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 661, + 306, + 672 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "may be encoding the action-dependent dynamics.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 55 + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 677, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 507, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 507, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Finally, for object positions, we see varied results in Table 1, depending on the type of environment.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 56 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For fixed, unsurprisingly, all predictors have similar accuracy, since objects are fixed. It is likely", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 57 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 505, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that the information is not encoded in the representation—as our results in Section 5.3 suggest—but", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 58 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 710, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 710, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the evaluator which simply memorises the fixed positions. For room and maze, which randomise", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 59 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "object locations each episode, the prediction errors indicate that the representation is unable to encode", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 60 + } + ], + "index": 58 + } + ], + "page_idx": 7, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 308, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 302, + 752, + 308, + 759 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 750, + 309, + 761 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 302, + 750, + 309, + 761 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "8", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 505, + 203 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 505, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 83, + 505, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Second, in environments with simple observations (not terrain), all three approaches (FP, CPC", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 93, + 505, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "30, CPC|Action 30) are able to accurately encode the agent’s position and orientation, and perform", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 505, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 505, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "reasonably well encoding the agent’s past position and orientation. FP consistently edges out the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 505, + 127 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 115, + 505, + 127 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "others in encoding position and orientation. An inspection of the predictions from videos of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 506, + 140 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 506, + 140 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "evaluation episodes confirm this result. However in terrain with more complex observations, we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 136, + 506, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 136, + 506, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "see from Table 1 that the prediction task is more challenging for all approaches, and there is a larger", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 506, + 161 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 506, + 161 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "gap between the accuracy of the predictions. In Figs. 4(a) to 4(c), we see typical examples where all", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 158, + 505, + 173 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 158, + 505, + 173 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "algorithms can accurately predict the position and orientation of the agent. In Figs. 4(d) to 4(f), we", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 506, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 171, + 506, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "see typical examples of prediction mistakes corresponding to each of the approaches. In particular,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 181, + 505, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 181, + 505, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "mistakes from FP are noticeably worse than CPC and CPC|Action 30, and CPC|Action performs the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 128, + 204 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 192, + 128, + 204 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "best.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + } + ], + "index": 5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 83, + 506, + 204 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 209, + 505, + 243 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 208, + 505, + 222 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 208, + 505, + 222 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Third, for past position and orientation, the general trend is that both CPC approaches are slightly", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 218, + 507, + 233 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 218, + 507, + 233 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "better than FP. This is seen in Table 1 and in evaluation videos. The CPC methods (Figs. 4(b), 4(c),", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 231, + 365, + 243 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 231, + 365, + 243 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "4(e) and 4(f)) are noticeably better than FP (Figs. 4(a) and 4(d)).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + } + ], + "index": 12, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 208, + 507, + 243 + ] + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 125, + 257, + 354, + 459 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 125, + 257, + 354, + 459 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 257, + 354, + 459 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 257, + 354, + 459 + ], + "score": 0.97, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "efd786f476fd0dd691db9b22d75a0816e304dca2797c99b931dd83c9bb7b4aa4.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 21, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 257, + 354, + 270.46666666666664 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 14 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 270.46666666666664, + 354, + 283.9333333333333 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 283.9333333333333, + 354, + 297.3999999999999 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 297.3999999999999, + 354, + 310.86666666666656 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 310.86666666666656, + 354, + 324.3333333333332 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 324.3333333333332, + 354, + 337.79999999999984 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 337.79999999999984, + 354, + 351.2666666666665 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 351.2666666666665, + 354, + 364.7333333333331 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 364.7333333333331, + 354, + 378.19999999999976 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 378.19999999999976, + 354, + 391.6666666666664 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 391.6666666666664, + 354, + 405.13333333333304 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 405.13333333333304, + 354, + 418.5999999999997 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 25 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 418.5999999999997, + 354, + 432.0666666666663 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 432.0666666666663, + 354, + 445.53333333333296 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 125, + 445.53333333333296, + 354, + 458.9999999999996 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 28 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 120, + 473, + 360, + 539 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 472, + 361, + 484 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 472, + 361, + 484 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 4: Example predictions for terrain. In each im-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 484, + 361, + 495 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 484, + 361, + 495 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "age, ground truths are on the top, predictions on the bottom,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 494, + 361, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 495, + 152, + 506 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "( x , y , \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 494, + 361, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(ground truth and predictions) on the left, and past", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 505, + 362, + 519 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 506, + 152, + 518 + ], + "score": 0.9, + "content": "( x , y , \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 153, + 505, + 362, + 519 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the right. Figs. 4(a) to 4(c) show examples of ac-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 516, + 360, + 529 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 516, + 147, + 529 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "curate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 147, + 516, + 180, + 528 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( x , y , \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 180, + 516, + 360, + 529 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictions, Figs. 4(d) to 4(f) show examples", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 527, + 262, + 540 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 119, + 527, + 178, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "for inaccurate", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 178, + 528, + 211, + 540 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( x , y , \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 212, + 527, + 262, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictions.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + } + ], + "index": 31.5 + } + ], + "index": 26.25 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 388, + 354, + 473, + 439 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 388, + 354, + 473, + 439 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 354, + 473, + 439 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 354, + 473, + 439 + ], + "score": 0.904, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "736c7fa6df9b3b6989949db0024c3b09bd4fcf1cf799c536a13a51724b52c1f2.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 35.5, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 354, + 473, + 396.5 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 388, + 396.5, + 473, + 439.0 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 36 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 369, + 451, + 492, + 538 + ], + "group_id": 1, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 450, + 492, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 450, + 492, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 5: Symmetry of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 461, + 491, + 474 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 462, + 402, + 474 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( x , y , \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 461, + 491, + 473 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "prediction with the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 473, + 493, + 484 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 473, + 493, + 484 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "frame predictor in room.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 482, + 493, + 496 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 482, + 493, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Ground truths are on the top,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 495, + 493, + 506 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 495, + 493, + 506 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictions on the bottom,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 505, + 493, + 518 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 506, + 402, + 517 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( x , y , \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 505, + 493, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(ground truth and pre-", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 515, + 492, + 528 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 369, + 515, + 492, + 528 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "dictions) on the left, and past", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 43 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 527, + 455, + 540 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 370, + 527, + 402, + 540 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( x , y , \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 403, + 527, + 455, + 540 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the right.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 44 + } + ], + "index": 40.5 + } + ], + "index": 38.0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 550, + 505, + 671 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 550, + 506, + 563 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 550, + 506, + 563 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Fourth, we take a closer look at room as it is an interesting environment because it is almost", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 45 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 561, + 505, + 574 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 561, + 183, + 574 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "symmetric in both", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 183, + 563, + 190, + 571 + ], + "score": 0.76, + "content": "x", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 191, + 561, + 208, + 574 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 209, + 563, + 216, + 573 + ], + "score": 0.79, + "content": "y", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 216, + 561, + 505, + 574 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "axes. The room is almost a square, measuring 9 by 10 units. There are", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 46 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 572, + 505, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 572, + 407, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "faint vertical pulses of light on the walls that move from small to larger", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 408, + 572, + 431, + 584 + ], + "score": 0.91, + "content": "( x , y )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 432, + 572, + 505, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": ", and they are the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 47 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 583, + 505, + 596 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 583, + 505, + 596 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "only symmetry-breaking elements. Table 1 and video inspection suggest that the representations", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 48 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 594, + 505, + 606 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 594, + 505, + 606 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "trained with the three algorithms do not allow asymmetries to be consistently resolved. Fig. 5 shows", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 49 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 606, + 505, + 617 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 606, + 505, + 617 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "an example of the symmetry in position predictions, reflecting uncertainty about the position and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 50 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 629 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 615, + 506, + 629 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "orientation. The higher position and orientation prediction errors of FP and CPC|Action 30 in room", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 51 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 627, + 505, + 640 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 627, + 505, + 640 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "are mainly due to the ambiguity from symmetry. We are unsure why CPC is slightly better than", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 52 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 638, + 506, + 651 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 638, + 506, + 651 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "CPC|Action at paying attention to the moving vertical lines of light on the walls, but we speculate it", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 53 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 649, + 506, + 662 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 649, + 506, + 662 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "is because knowledge of actions taken does not help break the symmetry, and because CPC|Action", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 54 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 661, + 306, + 672 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 661, + 306, + 672 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "may be encoding the action-dependent dynamics.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 55 + } + ], + "index": 50, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 550, + 506, + 672 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 677, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 507, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 507, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Finally, for object positions, we see varied results in Table 1, depending on the type of environment.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 56 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 505, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "For fixed, unsurprisingly, all predictors have similar accuracy, since objects are fixed. It is likely", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 57 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 505, + 712 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 698, + 505, + 712 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that the information is not encoded in the representation—as our results in Section 5.3 suggest—but", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 58 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 710, + 505, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 710, + 505, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in the evaluator which simply memorises the fixed positions. For room and maze, which randomise", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 59 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 505, + 733 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 721, + 505, + 733 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "object locations each episode, the prediction errors indicate that the representation is unable to encode", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 60 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 506, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 506, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "any information object position. Finally, for terrain, which has a finite set of fixed object positions,", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 93, + 506, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 93, + 506, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the three approaches FP, CPC 30 and CPC|Action 30 allow for reasonably accurate predictions. We", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 505, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 505, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "believe that the representations only encode information about the specific map instance, from which", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 505, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 505, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the evaluators can decode object position. In Section 5.3 we discuss the issue of representing objects", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 126, + 166, + 138 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 126, + 166, + 138 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in more detail.", + "type": "text", + "cross_page": true + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 58, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 676, + 507, + 733 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 82, + 505, + 138 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 506, + 96 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 506, + 96 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "any information object position. Finally, for terrain, which has a finite set of fixed object positions,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 93, + 506, + 106 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 93, + 506, + 106 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the three approaches FP, CPC 30 and CPC|Action 30 allow for reasonably accurate predictions. We", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 505, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 105, + 505, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "believe that the representations only encode information about the specific map instance, from which", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 505, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 114, + 505, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the evaluators can decode object position. In Section 5.3 we discuss the issue of representing objects", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 126, + 166, + 138 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 126, + 166, + 138 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in more detail.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 152, + 279, + 164 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 152, + 281, + 165 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 152, + 281, + 165 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5.3 INCREASED OBJECT INTERACTION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 174, + 505, + 218 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 173, + 505, + 186 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 173, + 505, + 186 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Table 1 shows that none of the approaches are able to encode much information about object positions", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 185, + 505, + 197 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 185, + 505, + 197 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(cf. room and maze). We hypothesise that the objects are not a significant enough part of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 196, + 506, + 209 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 196, + 506, + 209 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "observations to warrant the CPC algorithms to pay attention to them, and there is no reason for FP to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 207, + 375, + 219 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 207, + 375, + 219 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "continue to remember objects once they go out of the agent’s view.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 7.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 224, + 505, + 279 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 224, + 506, + 236 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 224, + 506, + 236 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To test this hypothesis, we constructed two simple DeepMind Lab environments: non teleport,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 234, + 505, + 247 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 234, + 505, + 247 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where objects cannot be interacted with, and teleport, where objects, when touched, teleport the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 245, + 506, + 258 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 245, + 506, + 258 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent back to its initial position. Both environments are a small square room with the agent’s initial", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 256, + 506, + 270 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 256, + 506, + 270 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "position in a notch on the wall (to create asymmetry), and two visually different objects are placed in", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 267, + 243, + 279 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 267, + 243, + 279 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "random positions at each episode.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 14 + } + ], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 284, + 505, + 329 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 285, + 505, + 297 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 285, + 505, + 297 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "The teleporting interaction results in a drastic change in the observations of the agent, which should", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 296, + 505, + 308 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 296, + 505, + 308 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "force the representations to encode information about these objects in order to better predict future", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 306, + 505, + 320 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 306, + 505, + 320 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "observations. In contrast, non-interactive objects (in non teleport) are equally visible to the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 318, + 329, + 330 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 318, + 329, + 330 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent, but do not cause drastic changes to observations.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + } + ], + "index": 16.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 334, + 506, + 423 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 334, + 505, + 347 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 334, + 505, + 347 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Table 2 shows the losses for evaluating the prediction of object position for teleport and non", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 345, + 506, + 358 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 345, + 506, + 358 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "teleport. All of the algorithms are significantly better at encoding information about the position", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 356, + 506, + 369 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 356, + 506, + 369 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the objects with the teleport interaction, with CPC|Action 30 being slightly better than the others.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 367, + 505, + 380 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 367, + 505, + 380 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Fig. 6 shows screenshots of an evaluation video, where we see that in the case of non teleport", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 505, + 390 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 505, + 390 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Figs. 6(a) and 6(b)) the representation is only able to react to immediately visible objects. As soon", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 390, + 505, + 402 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 390, + 505, + 402 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as the agent turns away, the representation no longer contains the object information. 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AlgorithmObjects (x,y)
non teleportteleport
FP0.148 ± 0.0030.108 ± 0.014
CPC 300.168 ± 0.0010.137 ± 0.017
CPCIAction 300.164 ± 0.0020.086 ± 0.020
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Ground truths are on the top,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 652, + 505, + 665 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 652, + 213, + 665 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "predictions on the bottom,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 214, + 653, + 246, + 664 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "( x , y , \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 247, + 652, + 453, + 665 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(ground truth and predictions) on the centre, object", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 453, + 653, + 477, + 664 + ], + "score": 0.92, + "content": "( x , y )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 477, + 652, + 505, + 665 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 663, + 290, + 676 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 663, + 290, + 676 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "right, and frame seen by the agent on the left.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + } + ], + "index": 37 + } + ], + "index": 35.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 687, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 506, + 700 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 687, + 506, + 700 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Furthermore, in Figs. 6(c) and 6(d) we see that the representation is able to maintain uncertainty over", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 505, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "the object positions. 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We hypothesise that the objects are not a significant enough part of the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 196, + 506, + 209 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 196, + 506, + 209 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "observations to warrant the CPC algorithms to pay attention to them, and there is no reason for FP to", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 207, + 375, + 219 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 207, + 375, + 219 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "continue to remember objects once they go out of the agent’s view.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + } + ], + "index": 7.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 173, + 506, + 219 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 224, + 505, + 279 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 224, + 506, + 236 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 224, + 506, + 236 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "To test this hypothesis, we constructed two simple DeepMind Lab environments: non teleport,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 234, + 505, + 247 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 234, + 505, + 247 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "where objects cannot be interacted with, and teleport, where objects, when touched, teleport the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 245, + 506, + 258 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 245, + 506, + 258 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent back to its initial position. 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All of the algorithms are significantly better at encoding information about the position", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 356, + 506, + 369 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 356, + 506, + 369 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the objects with the teleport interaction, with CPC|Action 30 being slightly better than the others.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 367, + 505, + 380 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 367, + 505, + 380 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Fig. 6 shows screenshots of an evaluation video, where we see that in the case of non teleport", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 505, + 390 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 379, + 505, + 390 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(Figs. 6(a) and 6(b)) the representation is only able to react to immediately visible objects. As soon", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 390, + 505, + 402 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 390, + 505, + 402 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "as the agent turns away, the representation no longer contains the object information. 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AlgorithmObjects (x,y)
non teleportteleport
FP0.148 ± 0.0030.108 ± 0.014
CPC 300.168 ± 0.0010.137 ± 0.017
CPCIAction 300.164 ± 0.0020.086 ± 0.020
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When the agent only sees one of the two objects, the position of the second", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 507, + 723 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 507, + 723 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "object is still uncertain, but the representation is already able to encode some negative evidence,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 347, + 732 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 347, + 732 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "narrowing down the possible locations of the second object.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + } + ], + "index": 40.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 687, + 507, + 732 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 82, + 299, + 93 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 301, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 301, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5.4 RICHER UNCERTAINTY OVER POSITION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 104, + 505, + 225 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 505, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 505, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In the DeepMind Lab environments, there is not an instance of uncertainty over the agent’s position", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 115, + 505, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 115, + 505, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and orientation similar to the toy Gridworld (Section 5.1) due to being able to see far into the distance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 505, + 139 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 505, + 139 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in a first-person view. Therefore we constructed a simple DeepMind Lab environment with two", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 506, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 506, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parallel hallways (see Fig. 7(a)) to demonstrate this kind of uncertainty in a 3D environment. The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 506, + 161 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 506, + 161 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent randomly starts in one of the two hallways, and its position can only be resolved near the exit", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 506, + 172 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 506, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the hallways (we do not give the agent’s initial position to the evaluator). Fig. 7(b) illustrates (for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 169, + 506, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 169, + 506, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "CPC|Action 30) how, initially, the representation cannot distinguish in which hallway the agent is.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 181, + 506, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 181, + 506, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Fig. 7(b) illustrates the representation immediately resolving the location when the agent able to peek", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 191, + 505, + 204 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 191, + 505, + 204 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "out. This behaviour is consistent for all three algorithms: FP, CPC 30 and CPC|Action 30. Thus, even", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 505, + 216 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 505, + 216 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in 3D environments, we are able to learn a belief that can encode a richer uncertainty over the agent’s", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 214, + 144, + 226 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 214, + 144, + 226 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "position.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 157, + 245, + 452, + 349 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 157, + 245, + 452, + 349 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 245, + 452, + 349 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 245, + 452, + 349 + ], + "score": 0.957, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "c86003dbcff09de13b2565a5e66ead1062dc44df4553db6d4c55c09d5a556d2a.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 13, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 245, + 452, + 279.6666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 279.6666666666667, + 452, + 314.33333333333337 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 314.33333333333337, + 452, + 349.00000000000006 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 14 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 362, + 505, + 395 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 361, + 504, + 374 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 361, + 504, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 7: Example predictions for two hallways. Ground truths are on the top, predictions", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 372, + 505, + 385 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 373, + 168, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the bottom,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 373, + 201, + 385 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "( x , y , \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 373, + 402, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(ground truth and predictions) on the centre, past", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 402, + 372, + 435, + 385 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "( x , y , \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 435, + 373, + 505, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the right, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 383, + 249, + 397 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 383, + 249, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "frame seen by the agent on the left.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 14.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 423, + 303, + 436 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 422, + 304, + 438 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 422, + 304, + 438 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 450, + 505, + 528 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 505, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 505, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Using a glass box approach, we investigated the quality of representations learned by three different", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 460, + 505, + 475 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 460, + 505, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods: FP, CPC, and CPC|Action. Specifically, we considered a variety of first-person 3D", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 473, + 506, + 484 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 473, + 506, + 484 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "navigation environments, and looked at whether the representation can encode a belief on different", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 484, + 505, + 496 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 484, + 505, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "aspects of the environment. We found that FP, CPC 30 and CPC|Action 30 are all able to learn", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 494, + 505, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 494, + 505, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "representations that encode the agent’s position and orientation, the agent’s trajectory (previous", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 505, + 505, + 518 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 505, + 505, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "positions and orientations)—cf. Table 1. The position of objects can be encoded as well, provided", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 516, + 468, + 529 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 516, + 468, + 529 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that interacting with the objects strongly impacts the agent’s future observations (Table 2).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 533, + 505, + 567 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 506, + 546 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 506, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "More importantly, the representations also encode the agent’s uncertainty over its position and object", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 544, + 505, + 557 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 544, + 505, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "positions. We showed that this uncertainty is reduced as the agent obtains more information from the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 506, + 568 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 506, + 568 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment, including negative evidence, e.g., when the agent sees where the object is not (Fig. 6).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 572, + 505, + 616 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 572, + 505, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 572, + 505, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In visually simple environments (e.g. fixed), FP was the best at encoding agent position and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 583, + 505, + 595 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 583, + 505, + 595 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "orientation. In visually complex environment (terrain), CPC 30 and CPC|Action 30 performed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 505, + 607 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 505, + 607 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "best, with multi-step predictions being the key to their success, and action-conditioning providing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 198, + 618 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 198, + 618 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "further improvements.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 30.5 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 622, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 621, + 505, + 634 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 621, + 505, + 634 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "There remains much interesting future work to pursue. We believe the ability of these representations", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 632, + 506, + 646 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 632, + 506, + 646 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to learn various belief concepts can be further explored to improve performance and generalisation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 643, + 505, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 643, + 505, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in multi-task settings, by transferring concepts across tasks. The capability of encoding uncertainty", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 505, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 505, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can also be useful for learning policies that efficiently explore partially observable environments by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 506, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 506, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "acting to reduce uncertainty on the agent’s belief (as in Bayes-optimal exploration; Wilson et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2007; Kolter & Ng, 2009; Sorg et al., 2010; Asmuth & Littman, 2012; Ghavamzadeh et al., 2015). As", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 699 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 699 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "another direction, the three methods we considered can go beyond predicting only visual observations", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 506, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 506, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to other modalities of sensory inputs, such as proprioception and touch sensors (Amos et al., 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This should lead to belief representations that encode a richer variety of information about the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 227, + 732 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 227, + 732 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment and its structure.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + } + ], + "index": 37.5 + } + ], + "page_idx": 9, + "page_size": [ + 612, + 792 + ], + "discarded_blocks": [ + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 300, + 751, + 311, + 760 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 312, + 764 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 299, + 750, + 312, + 764 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "10", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "discarded", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 27, + 308, + 37 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 107, + 26, + 308, + 38 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Under review as a conference paper at ICLR 2019", + "type": "text" + } + ] + } + ] + } + ], + "para_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 82, + 299, + 93 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 301, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 82, + 301, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "5.4 RICHER UNCERTAINTY OVER POSITION", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 104, + 505, + 225 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 505, + 117 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 105, + 505, + 117 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In the DeepMind Lab environments, there is not an instance of uncertainty over the agent’s position", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 115, + 505, + 128 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 115, + 505, + 128 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "and orientation similar to the toy Gridworld (Section 5.1) due to being able to see far into the distance", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 2 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 505, + 139 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 126, + 505, + 139 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in a first-person view. Therefore we constructed a simple DeepMind Lab environment with two", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 3 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 506, + 150 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 137, + 506, + 150 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "parallel hallways (see Fig. 7(a)) to demonstrate this kind of uncertainty in a 3D environment. The", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 4 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 506, + 161 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 148, + 506, + 161 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "agent randomly starts in one of the two hallways, and its position can only be resolved near the exit", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 5 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 506, + 172 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 159, + 506, + 172 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "of the hallways (we do not give the agent’s initial position to the evaluator). Fig. 7(b) illustrates (for", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 6 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 169, + 506, + 183 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 169, + 506, + 183 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "CPC|Action 30) how, initially, the representation cannot distinguish in which hallway the agent is.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 7 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 181, + 506, + 194 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 181, + 506, + 194 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Fig. 7(b) illustrates the representation immediately resolving the location when the agent able to peek", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 8 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 191, + 505, + 204 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 191, + 505, + 204 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "out. This behaviour is consistent for all three algorithms: FP, CPC 30 and CPC|Action 30. Thus, even", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 9 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 505, + 216 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 203, + 505, + 216 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in 3D environments, we are able to learn a belief that can encode a richer uncertainty over the agent’s", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 10 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 214, + 144, + 226 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 104, + 214, + 144, + 226 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "position.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 11 + } + ], + "index": 6, + "bbox_fs": [ + 104, + 105, + 506, + 226 + ] + }, + { + "type": "image", + "bbox": [ + 157, + 245, + 452, + 349 + ], + "blocks": [ + { + "type": "image_body", + "bbox": [ + 157, + 245, + 452, + 349 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 245, + 452, + 349 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 245, + 452, + 349 + ], + "score": 0.957, + "type": "image", + "image_path": "c86003dbcff09de13b2565a5e66ead1062dc44df4553db6d4c55c09d5a556d2a.jpg" + } + ] + } + ], + "index": 13, + "virtual_lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 245, + 452, + 279.6666666666667 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 12 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 279.6666666666667, + 452, + 314.33333333333337 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 13 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 157, + 314.33333333333337, + 452, + 349.00000000000006 + ], + "spans": [], + "index": 14 + } + ] + }, + { + "type": "image_caption", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 362, + 505, + 395 + ], + "group_id": 0, + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 361, + 504, + 374 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 361, + 504, + 374 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Figure 7: Example predictions for two hallways. Ground truths are on the top, predictions", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 15 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 372, + 505, + 385 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 373, + 168, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the bottom,", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 168, + 373, + 201, + 385 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "( x , y , \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 201, + 373, + 402, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "(ground truth and predictions) on the centre, past", + "type": "text" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 402, + 372, + 435, + 385 + ], + "score": 0.93, + "content": "( x , y , \\theta )", + "type": "inline_equation" + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 435, + 373, + 505, + 385 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "on the right, and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 16 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 383, + 249, + 397 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 383, + 249, + 397 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "frame seen by the agent on the left.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 17 + } + ], + "index": 16 + } + ], + "index": 14.5 + }, + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 423, + 303, + 436 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 422, + 304, + 438 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 422, + 304, + 438 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 18 + } + ], + "index": 18 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 450, + 505, + 528 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 505, + 464 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 450, + 505, + 464 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Using a glass box approach, we investigated the quality of representations learned by three different", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 19 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 460, + 505, + 475 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 460, + 505, + 475 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "methods: FP, CPC, and CPC|Action. Specifically, we considered a variety of first-person 3D", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 20 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 473, + 506, + 484 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 473, + 506, + 484 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "navigation environments, and looked at whether the representation can encode a belief on different", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 21 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 484, + 505, + 496 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 484, + 505, + 496 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "aspects of the environment. We found that FP, CPC 30 and CPC|Action 30 are all able to learn", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 22 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 494, + 505, + 507 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 494, + 505, + 507 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "representations that encode the agent’s position and orientation, the agent’s trajectory (previous", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 23 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 505, + 505, + 518 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 505, + 505, + 518 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "positions and orientations)—cf. Table 1. The position of objects can be encoded as well, provided", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 24 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 516, + 468, + 529 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 516, + 468, + 529 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "that interacting with the objects strongly impacts the agent’s future observations (Table 2).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 25 + } + ], + "index": 22, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 450, + 506, + 529 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 533, + 505, + 567 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 506, + 546 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 533, + 506, + 546 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "More importantly, the representations also encode the agent’s uncertainty over its position and object", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 26 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 544, + 505, + 557 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 544, + 505, + 557 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "positions. We showed that this uncertainty is reduced as the agent obtains more information from the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 27 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 506, + 568 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 555, + 506, + 568 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment, including negative evidence, e.g., when the agent sees where the object is not (Fig. 6).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 28 + } + ], + "index": 27, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 533, + 506, + 568 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 572, + 505, + 616 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 572, + 505, + 585 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 572, + 505, + 585 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "In visually simple environments (e.g. fixed), FP was the best at encoding agent position and", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 29 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 583, + 505, + 595 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 583, + 505, + 595 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "orientation. In visually complex environment (terrain), CPC 30 and CPC|Action 30 performed", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 30 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 505, + 607 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 594, + 505, + 607 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "best, with multi-step predictions being the key to their success, and action-conditioning providing", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 31 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 198, + 618 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 605, + 198, + 618 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "further improvements.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 32 + } + ], + "index": 30.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 572, + 505, + 618 + ] + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 106, + 622, + 505, + 732 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 621, + 505, + 634 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 621, + 505, + 634 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "There remains much interesting future work to pursue. We believe the ability of these representations", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 33 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 632, + 506, + 646 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 632, + 506, + 646 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to learn various belief concepts can be further explored to improve performance and generalisation", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 34 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 643, + 505, + 658 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 643, + 505, + 658 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "in multi-task settings, by transferring concepts across tasks. The capability of encoding uncertainty", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 35 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 505, + 668 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 654, + 505, + 668 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "can also be useful for learning policies that efficiently explore partially observable environments by", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 36 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 506, + 678 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 665, + 506, + 678 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "acting to reduce uncertainty on the agent’s belief (as in Bayes-optimal exploration; Wilson et al.,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 37 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 676, + 506, + 690 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "2007; Kolter & Ng, 2009; Sorg et al., 2010; Asmuth & Littman, 2012; Ghavamzadeh et al., 2015). As", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 38 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 699 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 688, + 505, + 699 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "another direction, the three methods we considered can go beyond predicting only visual observations", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 39 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 506, + 711 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 699, + 506, + 711 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "to other modalities of sensory inputs, such as proprioception and touch sensors (Amos et al., 2018).", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 40 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 722 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 709, + 506, + 722 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "This should lead to belief representations that encode a richer variety of information about the", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 41 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 227, + 732 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 721, + 227, + 732 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "environment and its structure.", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 42 + } + ], + "index": 37.5, + "bbox_fs": [ + 105, + 621, + 506, + 732 + ] + } + ] + }, + { + "preproc_blocks": [ + { + "type": "title", + "bbox": [ + 108, + 82, + 175, + 93 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 81, + 176, + 95 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 106, + 81, + 176, + 95 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "REFERENCES", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 0 + } + ], + "index": 0 + }, + { + "type": "text", + "bbox": [ + 107, + 100, + 506, + 145 + ], + "lines": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 99, + 506, + 113 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 105, + 99, + 506, + 113 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Martín Abadi, Paul Barham, Jianmin Chen, Zhifeng Chen, Andy Davis, Jeffrey Dean, Matthieu Devin,", + "type": "text" + } + ], + "index": 1 + }, + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 111, + 505, + 123 + ], + "spans": [ + { + "bbox": [ + 116, + 111, + 505, + 123 + ], + "score": 1.0, + "content": "Sanjay Ghemawat, Geoffrey Irving, Michael Isard, et al. 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Name in this paperdmlab30name
fixedseekavoid_arena_01
roomrooms_collect_good_objects_train
mazenav_maze_random_goal_01
terrainSmaller variant of natlab_fixed_large_map
teleport
non teleport
two hallways1
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Name in this paperdmlab30name
fixedseekavoid_arena_01
roomrooms_collect_good_objects_train
mazenav_maze_random_goal_01
terrainSmaller variant of natlab_fixed_large_map
teleport
non teleport
two hallways1
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EnvAlgorithm(x,y,0)Past (x,y,0)Objects (x,y)
fixedFP0.118 ± 0.0150.121 ± 0.0070.043 ± 0.006
CPC 10.579 ± 0.0670.132 ± 0.0100.049 ± 0.005
CPC 300.562 ± 0.2040.118 ± 0.0100.045 ± 0.004
CPClAction 10.689 ± 0.0570.137 ± 0.0060.049 ± 0.004
CPCIAction 300.240 ± 0.0300.100 ± 0.0070.040 ± 0.003
roomFP0.517 ± 0.1230.285± 0.0170.484 ± 0.005
CPC 12.010 ±0.1420.311 ± 0.0170.498 ± 0.008
CPC 300.482 ± 0.1570.257 ± 0.0220.481 ± 0.005
CPClAction 12.274±0.1170.308 ± 0.0180.484 ± 0.005
CPCIAction 300.689 ± 0.0660.276 ± 0.0290.484 ± 0.008
mazeFP0.178 ± 0.2070.233 ± 0.0290.322 ± 0.008
CPC 10.622 ± 0.1580.278 ± 0.0550.330 ± 0.009
CPC 300.244 ± 0.0580.213 ± 0.0310.325 ± 0.015
CPClAction 10.638 ± 0.0940.264± 0.0280.323 ± 0.010
CPCIAction 300.182 ± 0.0340.206 ± 0.0290.323 ± 0.010
terrainFP1.831 ± 0.1620.405 ± 0.0770.181 ± 0.084
CPC13.393 ± 0.2520.417 ± 0.0740.307 ± 0.174
CPC 302.280 ± 0.8530.340 ± 0.1040.131 ± 0.185
CPClAction 13.348 ± 0.4820.414 ± 0.0420.312 ± 0.049
CPClAction 301.589±0.3580.344 ± 0.0650.139 ±0.136
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Name in this paperdmlab30name
fixedseekavoid_arena_01
roomrooms_collect_good_objects_train
mazenav_maze_random_goal_01
terrainSmaller variant of natlab_fixed_large_map
teleport
non teleport
two hallways1
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