Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .


This was done by MERT optimization ( Och , 2003 ) towards post-edits under the TER target metric .


She evaluates 3,000 German verbs with a token frequency between 10 and 2,000 against the Duden ( Dudenredaktion 2001 ) .


The following four components have been identified as the key elements of a question related to patient care ( Richardson et al. 1995 ) :


Briscoe and Carroll ( 1997 ) report on manually analyzing an open-class vocabulary of 35,000 head words for predicate subcategorization information and comparing the results against the subcategorization details in COMLEX .


This is roughly an 11 % relative reduction in error rate over Charniak ( 2000 ) and Bods PCFG-reduction reported in Table 1 .


Finally , feedback expressions ( head nods and shakes ) are successfully predicted from speech , prosody and eye gaze in interaction with Embodied Communication Agents as well as human communication ( Fujie et al. , 2004 ; Morency et al. , 2005 ; Morency et al. , 2007 ; Morency et al. , 2009 ) .


We use the agreement checker code developed by Alkuhlani and Habash ( 2011 ) and evaluate our baseline ( MaltParser using only CORE12 ) , best performing model ( Easy-First Parser using CORE12 + DET+LMM+PERSON+FN * NGR g + p ) , and the gold reference .


The diagnoser , based on Dzikovska et al. ( 2008b ) , outputs a diagnosis which consists of lists of correct , contradictory and non-mentioned objects and relations from the student 's answer .


The formalization of DLRs provided by Meurers ( 1995 ) defines a formal lexical rule specification language and provides a semantics for that language in two steps : A rewrite system enriches the lexical rule specification into a fully explicit description of the kind shown in Figure 1 .


Similar to our previous work ( Chan and Ng , 2005b ) , we used the supervised WSD approach described in ( Lee and Ng , 2002 ) for our experiments , using the naive Bayes algorithm as our classifier .


Similar to ( Li et al. , 2013a ) , our summarization system is , which consists of three key components : an initial sentence pre-selection module to select some important sentence candidates ; the above compression model to generate n-best compressions for each sentence ; and then an ILP summarization method to select the best summary sentences from the multiple compressed sentences .


The extraction procedure consists of three steps : First , the bracketing of the trees in the Penn Treebank is corrected and extended based on the approaches of Magerman ( 1994 ) and Collins ( 1997 ) .


transition-based dependency parsing framework ( Nivre , 2008 ) using an arc-eager transition strategy and are trained using the perceptron algorithm as in Zhang and Clark ( 2008 ) with a beam size of 8 .


But their importance has grown far beyond machine translation : for instance , transferring annotations between languages ( Yarowsky and Ngai 2001 ; Hwa et al. 2005 ; Ganchev , Gillenwater , and Taskar 2009 ) ; discovery of paraphrases ( Bannard and Callison-Burch 2005 ) ; and joint unsupervised POS and parser induction across languages ( Snyder and Barzilay 2008 ) .


each relevant document is retrieved ( Baeza-Yates and Ribeiro-Neto 1999 ) .


McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) have previously examined the task of categorizing sentences in medical abstracts using supervised discriminative machine learning techniques .


This recognizer incrementally outputs word hypotheses as soon as they are found in the best-scored path in the forward search ( Hirasawa et al. , 1998 ) using the ISTAR ( Incremental Structure Transmitter And Receiver ) protocol , which conveys word graph information as well as word hypotheses .


The recent great advances in speech and language technologies have made it possible to build fully implemented spoken dialogue systems ( Aust et al. , 1995 ; Allen et al. , 1996 ; Zue et al. , 2000 ; Walker et al. , 2000 ) .


We posit that this would not have a significant effect on the results , in particular for MML-based classification techniques , such as Decision Graphs ( Oliver 1993 ) .


Collins & Duffy ( 2002 ) showed how the perceptron algorithm can be used to efficiently compute the best parse with DOP1 's subtrees , reporting a 5.1 % relative reduction in error rate over the model in Collins ( 1999 ) on the WSJ .


Tateisi et al. also translated LTAG into HPSG ( Tateisi et al. , 1998 ) .


The system utilizes several large size biological databases including three NCBI databases ( GenPept [ 11 ] , RefSeq [ 12 ] , and Entrez GENE [ 13 ] ) , PSD database from Protein Information Resources ( PIR ) [ 14 ] , and


The LM uses the monolingual data and is trained as a five-gram9 using the SRILM-Toolkit ( Stolcke , 2002 ) .


There has also been work focused upon determining the political leaning ( e.g. , `` liberal '' vs. `` conservative '' ) of a document or author , where most previously-proposed methods make no direct use of relationships between the documents to be classified ( the `` unlabeled '' texts ) ( Laver et al. , 2003 ; Efron , 2004 ; Mullen and Malouf , 2006 ) .


A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) .


Secondly , the cooperative principle of Grice ( 1975 , 1978 ) , under the assumption that referential levels of a writer and a reader are quite similar , implies that the writer should structure the text in a way that makes the construction of his intended model easy for the reader ; and this seems to imply that he should appeal only to the most direct knowledge of the reader .


In modern syntactic theories ( e.g. , lexical-functional grammar [ LFG ] [ Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ] , head-driven phrase structure grammar [ HPSG ] [ Pollard and Sag 1994 ] , tree-adjoining grammar [ TAG ] [ Joshi 1988 ] , and combinatory categorial grammar [ CCG ] [ Ades and Steedman 1982 ] ) , the lexicon is the central repository for much morphological , syntactic , and semantic information .


In this paper , inspired by KNN-SVM ( Zhang et al. , 2006 ) , we propose a local training method , which trains sentence-wise weights instead of a single weight , to address the above two problems .


1990 ) , on linguisitic acquisition ( by the use of Part-of-Speech filters hand-crafted by a linguist ) ( Oueslati , 1999 ) or , more frequently , on a combination of the two ( Smadja , 1993 ; Kilgarriff and Tugwell , 2001 , for example ) .


Samuelsson and Voutilainen ( 1997 ) report excellent part-of-speech tagging results using a handcrafted approach that is close to OT .3 More speculatively , imagine an OT grammar for stylistic revision of parsed sentences .


Thus for instance , ( Copestake and Flickinger , 2000 ; Copestake et al. , 2001 ) describes a Head Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) which supports the parallel construction of a phrase structure ( or derived ) tree and of a semantic representation and ( Dalrymple , 1999 ) show how to equip Lexical Functional grammar ( LFG ) with a glue semantics .


While many linguistic theories state subcategorization requirements in terms of phrase structure ( CFG categories ) , Dalrymple ( 2001 ) questions the viability and universality of such an approach because of the variety of ways in which grammatical functions may be realized at the language-specific constituent structure level .


We are going to make such a comparison with the theories proposed by J. Hobbs ( 1979 , 1982 ) that represent a more computationally oriented approach to coherence , and those of T.A. van Dijk and W. Kintch ( 1983 ) , who are more interested in addressing psychological and cognitive aspects of discourse coherence .


11 From ( Zollmann and Vogel , 2011 ) , we find that the performance of SAMT system is similar with the method of labeling SCFG rules with POS tags .


In this paper we focus on the exploitation of the LDOCE grammar coding system ; Alshawi et al. ( 1985 ) and Alshawi ( 1987 ) describe further research in Cambridge utilising different types of information available in LDOCE .


Gurevych ( 2006 ) observed that some annotators were not familiar with the exact definition of semantic relatedness .


All current approaches to monolingual TE , either syntactically oriented ( Rus et al. , 2005 ) , or applying logical inference ( Tatu and Moldovan , 2005 ) , or adopting transformation-based techniques ( Kouleykov and Magnini , 2005 ; Bar-Haim et al. , 2008 ) , incorporate different types of lexical knowledge to support textual inference .


Although originally developed as a tool to assist in query formulation , Booth ( 2000 ) pointed out that PICO frames can be employed to structure IR results for improving precision .


There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( Harman , 1991 ; Krovetz , 1993 ; Hull , 1996 ) .


in history-based models ( Black et al. , 1993 ) , the probability estimate for each derivation decision di is conditioned on the previous derivation decisions d1 , ... , d , _ 1 , which is called the derivation history at step i .


The reader is referred to Meurers and Minnen ( 1996 ) for a more detailed discussion of our use of constraint propagation .32 We illustrate the result of constraint propagation with our example grammar .


Such tools make it easy to run most current approaches to statistical markup , chunking , normalization , segmentation , alignment , and noisy-channel decoding , ' including classic models for speech recognition ( Pereira and Riley , 1997 ) and machine translation ( Knight and Al-Onaizan , 1998 ) .


Such technologies require significant human input , and are difficult to create and maintain ( Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) .


We can define PCAT using a probabilistic grammar ( Garrette et al. , 2014 ) .


It is these orthographic variations and complex morphological structure that make Arabic language processing challenging ( Xu et al. , 2001 ; Xu et al. , 2002 ) .


The first is the one used in the chunking competition in CoNLL-2000 ( Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .


There have been many studies on parsing techniques ( Poller and Becker , 1998 ; Flickinger et al. , 2000 ) , ones on disambiguation models ( Chiang , 2000 ; Kanayama et al. , 2000 ) , and ones on programming/grammar-development environ -


For example , Gay et al. ( 2005 ) experimented with abstracts and full article texts in the task of automatically generating index term recommendations and discovered that using full article texts yields at most a 7.4 % improvement in F-score .


The ten most specific nouns have been produced by comparing our corpus of computing to the French corpus Le Monde , composed of newspaper articles ( Lemay et al. , 2004 ) .


Secondly , we need to investigate techniques for identifying identical documents , virtually identical documents and highly repetitive documents , such as those pioneered by Fletcher ( 2004b ) and shingling techniques described by Chakrabarti ( 2002 ) .


Following the work of Stymne and Cancedda ( 2011 ) , we implement a linear-chain CRF merging system using the following features : stemmed ( separated ) surface form , part-of-speech14 and frequencies from the training corpus for bigrams/merging of word and word +1 , word as true prefix , word +1 as true suffix , plus frequency comparisons of these .


Manning ( 1993 ) attempts to improve on the approach of Brent ( 1993 ) by passing raw text through a stochastic tagger and a finite-state parser ( which includes a set of simple rules for subcategorization frame recognition ) in order to extract verbs and the constituents with which they co-occur .


From an IR view , a lot of specialized research has already been carried out for medical applications , with emphasis on the lexico-semantic aspects of dederivation and decomposition ( Pacak et al. , 1980 ; Norton and Pacak , 1983 ; Wolff , 1984 ; Wingert , 1985 ; Dujols et al. , 1991 ; Baud et al. , 1998 ) .


Rather than producing a complete analysis of sentences , the alternative is to perform only partial analysis of the syntactic structures in a text ( Harris , 1957 ; Abney , 1991 ; Greffenstette , 1993 ) .


Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .


Problems such as these have motivated research on more abstract , dependencybased parser evaluation ( e.g. , Lin 1995 ; Carroll , Briscoe , and Sanfilippo 1998 ; Carroll et al. 2002 ; Clark and Hockenmaier 2002 ; King et al. 2003 ; Preiss 2003 ; Kaplan et al. 2004 ; Miyao and Tsujii 2004 ) .


They are widely used in MT as a way to figure out how to translate input in one language into output in another language ( Koehn et al. , 2003 ) .


Further details about the properties of entropy can be found in textbooks on information theory ( e.g. , Cover and Thomas 1991 ) .


Dale and Reiter ( 1995 ) , for example , discussed the transcripts of a dialogue between people who assemble a piece of garden furniture ( originally recorded by Candy Sidner ) .


Here , PV ( A ) represents an ascent direction chosen as follows : For inequality constraints , it is the projected gradient ( Bertsekas 1999 ) ; for equality constraints with slack , we use conjugate gradient ( Nocedal and Wright 1999 ) , noting that when A = 0 , the objective is not differentiable .


Some methods are based on likelihood ( Och and Ney , 2002 ; Blunsom et al. , 2008 ) , error rate ( Och , 2003 ; Zhao and Chen , 2009 ; Pauls et al. , 2009 ; Galley and Quirk , 2011 ) , margin ( Watanabe et al. , 2007 ; Chiang et al. , 2008 ) and ranking ( Hopkins and May , 2011 ) , and among which minimum error rate training ( MERT ) ( Och , 2003 ) is the most popular one .


This idea was inspired by Delisle et al. ( 1993 ) , who used a list of arguments surrounding the main verb together with the verb 's subcategorization information and previously processed examples to analyse semantic roles ( case relations ) .


, `` domain circumscription '' ( cfXXX Etherington and Mercer 1987 ) , and their kin .


While these approaches have been reasonably successful ( see Mitkov ( 2002 ) ) , Kehler et al. ( 2004 ) speculate that deeper linguistic knowledge needs to be made available to resolvers in order to reach the next level of performance .


A parsing experiment shows that an efficient HPSG parser with the obtained grammar achieved a significant speed-up against an existing LTAG parser ( Yoshinaga et al. , 2001 ) .


Features were discovered from the actual sentence plan trees that the SPG generated through the feature derivation process described below , in a manner similar to that used by Collins ( 2000 ) .


Such questions are typically answered by designing appropriate priming experiments ( Marslen-Wilson et al. , 1994 ) or other lexical decision tasks .


The system is in the form of an agenda-driven chart-based parser whose foundation is similar to previous formalizations of Chomsky 's Minimalist Program ( Stabler , 1997 ; Harkema , 2000 ; Niyogi , 2001 ) .


Michiels ( 1982 ) and Akkerman et al. ( 1985 ) provide a more detailed analysis of the information encoded by the LDOCE grammar codes and discuss their efficacy as a system of linguistic description .


The research described below is taking place in the context of three collaborative projects ( Boguraev , 1987 ; Russell et al. , 1986 ; Phillips and Thompson , 1986 ) to develop a general-purpose , wide coverage morphological and syntactic analyser for English .


The EDR has close ties to the named entity recognition ( NER ) and coreference resolution tasks , which have been the focus of several recent investigations ( Bikel et al. , 1997 ; Miller et al. , 1998 ; Borthwick , 1999 ; Mikheev et al. , 1999 ; Soon et al. , 2001 ; Ng and Cardie , 2002 ; Florian et al. , 2004 ) , and have been at the center of evaluations such as : MUC-6 , MUC-7 , and the CoNLL '02 and CoNLL '03 shared tasks .


Viewed in this way , gradable adjectives are an extreme example of the `` efficiency of language '' ( Barwise and Perry 1983 ) : Far from meaning something concrete like `` larger than 8 cm '' -- a concept that would have very limited applicability -- or even something more general like `` larger than the average N , '' a word like large is applicable across a wide range of different situations .


However , since work in this direction has started , a significant progress has also been made in the research on statistical learning of full parsers , both in terms of accuracy and processing time ( Charniak , 1997b ; Charniak , 1997a ; Collins , 1997 ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) .


It is defined on different kinds of textual units , e.g. documents , parts of a document ( e.g. words and their surrounding context ) , words or concepts ( Lebart and Rajman , 2000 ) .2 Linguistic distance between words is inverse to their semantic similarity or relatedness .


However , the greatest increase is in the amount of raw text available to be processed , e.g. the English Gigaword Corpus ( Linguistic Data Consortium , 2003 ) .


For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .


Och and Ney ( 2002 ) introduced the log-linear model for statistical machine translation ( SMT ) , in which translation is considered as the following optimization problem :


Representative systems are described in Boisen et al. ( 1989 ) , De Mattia and Giachin ( 1989 ) , Niedermair ( 1989 ) , Niemann ( 1990 ) , and Young ( 1989 ) .


For compound splitting , we follow Fritzinger and Fraser ( 2010 ) , using linguistic knowledge encoded in a rule-based morphological analyser and then selecting the best analysis based on the geometric mean of word part frequencies .


Koehn and Hoang ( 2007 ) showed that the use of a POS factor only results in negligible BLEU improvements , but we need access to the POS in our inflection prediction models .


Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) .


We first identified the most informative unigrams and bigrams using the information gain measure ( Yang and Pedersen 1997 ) , and then selected only the positive outcome predictors using odds ratio ( Mladenic and Grobelnik 1999 ) .


Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) .


It compares favorably to other stemming or root extraction algorithms ( Yates and Neto , 1999 ; Al-Shalabi and Evens , 1998 ; and Houmame , 1999 ) , with a performance of over 97 % for extracting the correct root in web documents , and it addresses the challenge of the Arabic broken plural and hollow verbs .


We perceive that these results can be extended to other language models that properly embed bilexical context-free grammars , as for instance the more general history-based models used in ( Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) and ( Chelba and Jelinek , 1998 ) .


Clearly , what it takes for the adjective to be applicable has not been cast in stone , but is open to fiat : the speaker may decide that 8 cm is enough , or the speaker may set the standards higher ( cfXXX , Kennedy 1999 ) .


Many investigators ( e.g. Allen 1976 ; Elowitz et al. 1976 ; Luce et al. 1983 ; Cahn 1988 ) have suggested that the poor prosody of synthetic speech , in comparison with natural speech , is the primary factor leading to difficulties in the comprehension of fluent synthetic speech .


The PERSIVAL project , the most comprehensive study of such techniques applied on medical texts to date , leverages patient records to generate personalized summaries in response to physicians ' queries ( McKeown , Elhadad , and Hatzivassiloglou 2003 ; Elhadad et al. 2005 ) .


See Lopez and Resnik ( 2006 ) for further discussion .


We gather similar words using Lin ( 1998a ) , mining similar verbs from a comparable-sized parsed corpus , and collecting similar nouns from a broader 10 GB corpus of English text .4 We also use Keller and Lapata ( 2003 ) 's approach to obtaining web-counts .


Thus , for example , it can acquire a `` script '' such as the one for going to a restaurant as defined in Schank and Abelson ( 1977 ) .


ones , DIRT ( Lin and Pantel , 2001 ) , VerbOcean ( Chklovski and Pantel , 2004 ) , FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) , and Wikipedia ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ; Kouylekov et al. , 2009 ) .


There is some literature on procedure acquisition such as the LISP synthesis work described in Biermann et al. ( 1984 ) and the PROLOG synthesis method of Shapiro ( 1982 ) .


The system uses a domain-specific content planner to produce input to the surface realizer based on the strategy decision , and a FUF/SURGE ( Elhadad and Robin , 1992 ) generation system to produce the appropriate text .


However , each of these fields requires further decoding and restructuring to provide client programs with easy access to the information they require ( see Calzolari ( 1984 ) for further discussion ) .


Our results also confirm the insights gained by Blitzer et al. ( 2007 ) , who observed that in crossdomain polarity analysis adding more training data is not always beneficial .


We consider the Creative Commons model as the most suitable one to let each author choose the rights to reserve ( Lessig , 2004 ) .


In a similar vein , Steyvers ( 2010 ) showed that a different feature-topic model improved predictions on a fill-in-the-blank task .


As ( Daelemans et al. , 1999 ) show , lexical information improves on NP and VP chunking as well .


But while Bod 's estimator obtains state-of-the-art results on the WSJ , comparable to Charniak ( 2000 ) and Collins ( 2000 ) , Bonnema et al. 's estimator performs worse and is comparable to Collins ( 1996 ) .


In multi-party discussion people usually mention each other 's name for the purpose of disentanglement ( Elsner and Charniak , 2008 ) .


Fortunately , indirect associations are usually not difficult to identify , because they tend to be weaker than the direct associations on which they are based ( Melamed , 1996c ) .


The work of Sarkar ( 2001 ) and Steedman , Osborne , et al. ( 2003 ) suggests that co-training can be helpful for statistical parsing .


TNT refers to the HPSG parser ( Torisawa et al. , 2000 ) , C++ implementation of the two-phase parsing algorithm that performs filtering with a compiled CFG ( phase 1 ) and then executes feature unification ( phase 2 ) .


1 Â° The body of a plan can be an action or sequence of actions , a goal or sequence 9 Moore and Paris also note that `` a generation system must maintain the kinds of information outlined by Grosz and Sidner '' ( Moore and Paris 1989 , 203 ) .


Surveys and articles on the topic include Lamarche and Retord ( 1996 ) , de Groote and Retord ( 1996 ) , and Morrill ( 1999 ) .


Another line of research that is correlated with ours is recognition of agreement/disagreement ( Misra and Walker , 2013 ; Yin et al. , 2012 ; Abbott et al. , 2011 ; Andreas et al. , 2012 ; Galley et al. , 2004 ; Hillard et al. , 2003 ) and classification of stances ( Walker et al. , 2012 ; Somasundaran and Wiebe , 2010 ) in online forums .


The standard way to handle this problem is to handcraft a finite set of features which provides a sufficient summary of the unbounded history ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; Charniak , 2000 ) .


Since the arguments can provide useful semantic information , the SRL is crucial to many natural language processing tasks , such as Question and Answering ( Narayanan and Harabagiu 2004 ) , Information Extraction ( Surdeanu et al. 2003 ) , and Machine Translation ( Boas 2002 ) .


Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; Shi and Mihalcea , 2005 ) .


In previous work ( Bachenko et al. 1986 ) , we described an experimental text-to-speech system that determined prosodic phrasing for the Olive -- Liberman synthesizer ( Olive and Liberman 1985 ) .


Note that this ensures that greater importance is attributed to longer chunks , as is usual in most EBMT systems ( cfXXX Sato and Nagao 1990 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Carl 1999 ) .7 As an example , consider the translation into French of the house collapsed .


This approach is taken , for example , in LKB ( Copestake 1992 ) where lexical rules are introduced on a par with phrase structure rules and the parser makes no distinction between lexical and nonlexical rules ( Copestake 1993 , 31 ) .


27 Briscoe and Copestake ( 1996 ) argue that semi-productivity of lexical rules , which can be understood as a generalization of exceptions to lexical rules , can be integrated with our approach by assigning probabilities to the automaton associated with a particular lexical entry .


Results from other systems show that measures of semantic coherence between a student and a system were positively associated with higher learning gain ( Ward and Litman , 2006 ) .


These automatic transformations are based on linguistic rules ( Bohmova , 2001 ) .


â¢ Only an automatic evaluation was performed , which relied on having model responses ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; Berger et al. 2000 ) .


In comparison , the tag set of the Buckwalter Morphological Analyzer ( Buckwalter 2004 ) used in the PATB has a core POS set of 44 tags ( CORE44 ) before morphological extension .8 Cross-linguistically , a core set containing around 12 tags is often


â¢ use of low level knowledge from the speech recognition phase , â¢ use of high level knowledge about the domain in particular and the dialogue task in general , â¢ a `` continue '' facility and an `` auto-loop '' facility as described by Biermann and Krishnaswamy ( 1976 ) , â¢ a `` conditioning '' facility as described by Fink et al. ( 1985 ) , â¢ implementation of new types of paraphrasing , â¢ checking a larger environment in the expectation acquisition algorithm when deciding if an incoming sentence is the same or similar to one already seen , and â¢ examining inter-speaker dialogue patterns .


Ratinov and Roth ( 2009 ) present detailed studies on the task of named entity recognition , which discusses and compares different methods on multiple aspects including chunk representation , inference method , utility of non-local features , and integration of external knowledge .


mers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) demonstrably improve retrieval performance .


Cases like this would be covered if the decision-theoretic property of Pareto optimality ( e.g. , Feldman 1980 ) was used as the sole criterion : Formally , an object r E C has a Pareto-optimal combination of Values V iff there is no other x E C such that


A formula for the test set perplexity ( Lee 1989 ) is :13


This method follows a traditional Information Retrieval paradigm ( Salton and McGill 1983 ) , where a query is represented by the content terms it contains , and the system retrieves from the corpus a set of documents that best match this query .


Table 1 gives the interpretations of eight adjective-noun combinations discussed in Pustejovsky ( 1995 ) and Vendler ( 1968 ) .


The Penn Treebank results reported here for the Markov model approach are at least equivalent to those reported for the Maximum Entropy approach in ( Ratnaparkhi , 1996 ) .


Briscoe and Carroll ( 1997 ) , by comparison , employ 163 distinct predefined frames .


Brockmann and Lapata ( 2003 ) have showed that WordNet-based approaches do not always outperform simple frequency-based models , and a number of techniques have been recently proposed which may offer ideas for refining our current unsupervised approach ( Erk , 2007 ; Bergsma et al. , 2008 ) .


fÎ¸ on demand ( Mohri et al. , 1998 ) can pay off here , since only part of fÎ¸ may be needed subsequently . )


An approach ( also based on regulation of the succession of rule application ) to the associated problem of spurious ambiguity is given in Hepple and Morrill ( 1989 ) but again , to our knowledge , there is no predictive relation between incremental combinatory processing and the kind of processing phenomena cited in the introduction .


This equivalence is doing essentially the same job as Pereira 's pronoun abstraction schema in Pereira ( 1990 ) .


Finally , we experiment with a method for combining phrase tables proposed in ( Nakov and Ng , 2009 ; Nakov and Ng , 2012 ) .


Our work is more similar to NLG work that concentrates on structural constraints such as generative poetry ( Greene et al. , 2010 ) ( Colton et al. , 2012 ) ( Jiang and Zhou , 2008 ) or song lyrics ( Wu et al. , 2013 ) ( Ramakrishnan A et al. , 2009 ) , where specified meter or rhyme schemes are enforced .


For the cases where retrieval took place , we used F-score ( van Rijsbergen 1979 ; Salton and McGill 1983 ) to determine the similarity between the response from the top-ranked document and the real response ( the formulas for F-score and its contributing factors , recall and precision , appear in Section 4.2 ) .


These translations gave rise to a number of automatically constructed linguistic resources : ( 1 ) the original ( source , target ) phrasal translation pairs , ( 2 ) the marker lexicon , ( 3 ) the gen11 Thanks are due to one of the anonymous reviewers for pointing out that our wEBMT system , seeded with input from multiple translation systems , with a postvalidation process via the Web ( amounting to an n-gram target language model ) , in effect forms a multiengine MT system as described by Frederking and Nirenburg ( 1994 ) , Frederking et al. ( 1994 ) , and Hogan and Frederking ( 1998 ) .


This includes work on generalized expectation ( Mann and McCallum , 2010 ) , posterior regularization ( Ganchev et al. , 2010 ) and constraint driven learning ( Chang et al. , 2007 ; Chang et al. , 2010 ) .


The list , a synthesis of a number of relation lists cited in the literature , has been designed to be general , domainindependent ( Barker et al. , 1997a ) .


Unlike our approach , those of Xia ( 1999 ) and Hockenmaier , Bierner , and Baldridge ( 2004 ) include a substantial initial correction and clean-up of the Penn-II trees .


2The algorithm was implemented by the the authors , following the description in Hepple ( 2000 ) .


Our motivation for generation of material for language education exists in work such as Sumita et al. ( 2005 ) and Mostow and Jang ( 2012 ) , which deal with automatic generation of classic fill in the blank questions .


In most recent research , NEs ( person , location and organisations ) are extracted from the text and used as a source of evidence to calculate the similarity between documents - see for instance ( Blume , 2005 ; Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ; Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) .


Many researchers use the GIZA + + software package ( Och and Ney 2003 ) as a black box , selecting IBM Model 4 as a compromise between alignment quality and efficiency .


Some works abstract perception via the usage of symbolic logic representations ( Chen et al. , 2010 ; Chen and Mooney , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ; Artzi and Zettlemoyer , 2013 ) , while others choose to employ concepts elicited from psycholinguistic and cognition studies .


Over the past decade , researchers at IBM have developed a series of increasingly sophisticated statistical models for machine translation ( Brown et al. , 1988 ; Brown et al. , 1990 ; Brown et al. , 1993a ) .


One area of current interest concerns the left-to-right arrangement of premodifying adjectives within an NP ( e.g. , Shaw and Hatzivassiloglou 1999 ; Malouf 2000 ) .


Models of translational equivalence that are ignorant of indirect associations have `` a tendency ... to be confused by collocates '' ( Dagan et al. , 1993 ) .


Note that although our feature set was drawn primarily from our prior uncertainty detection experiments ( Forbes-Riley and Litman , 2011a ; Drummond and Litman , 2011 ) , we have also experimented with other features , including state-of-theart acoustic-prosodic features used in the last Interspeech Challenges ( Schuller et al. , 2010 ; Schuller et al. , 2009b ) and made freely available in the openSMILE Toolkit ( Florian et al. , 2010 ) .


For this mention-pair coreference model Ï ( u , v ) , we use the same set of features used in Bengtson and Roth ( 2008 ) .


Compared to the reranking technique in Collins ( 2000 ) , who obtained an LP of 89.9 % and an LR of 89.6 % , our results show a 9 % relative error rate reduction .


The paper compares and contrasts the training time needed and performance achieved by our modified learner with two other systems : a standard transformation-based learner , and the ICA system ( Hepple , 2000 ) .


There has also been work focused upon determining the political leaning ( e.g. , `` liberal '' vs. `` conservative '' ) of a document or author , where most previously-proposed methods make no direct use of relationships between the documents to be classified ( the `` unlabeled '' texts ) ( Laver et al. , 2003 ; Efron , 2004 ; Mullen and Malouf , 2006 ) .


It projects a functional head , voice ( Kratzer , 1994 ) , whose specifier is the external argument .


Finite state transducers , which can be learned from bilingual corpora , have been proposed for automatic translation ( Amengual et al. , 2000 ) , as have been bilingual stochastic grammars ( Wu , 1996 ) .


This is noticeable for German ( Brants et al. , 2002 ) and Portuguese ( Afonso et al. , 2002 ) , which still have high overall accuracy thanks to very high attachment scores , but much more conspicuous for Czech ( B Â¨ ohmov Â´ a et al. , 2003 ) , Dutch ( van der Beek et al. , 2002 ) and Slovene ( DËzeroski et al. , 2006 ) , where root precision drops more drastically to about 69 % , 71 % and 41 % , respectively , and root recall is also affected negatively .


3 The degree of precision of the measurement ( James et al. 1996 , Section 1.5 ) determines which objects can be described by the GRE algorithm , since it determines which objects count as having the same size .


There have already been several attempts to develop distributed NLP systems for dialogue systems ( Bayer et al. , 2001 ) and speech recognition ( Hacioglu and Pellom , 2003 ) .


Table look-up using an explicit translation lexicon is sufficient and preferable for many multilingual NLP applications , including `` crummy '' MT on the World Wide Web ( Church & Hovy , 1993 ) , certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. ( Macklovitch , 1994 ; Melamed , 1996b ) ) , concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( Catizone et al. , 1993 ; Gale & Church , 1991 ) , computerassisted language learning , corpus linguistics ( Melby .


SWIZZLE is a multilingual enhancement of COCKTAIL ( Harabagiu and Maiorano , 1999 ) , a coreference resolution system that operates on a mixture of heuristics that combine semantic and textual cohesive information ' .


( Davis and Ogden , 1997 ; Ballesteros and Croft , 1997 ; Hull and ( 3refenstette , 1996 ) .


de URL : http://www.sfs.nphil.uni-tuebingen.de/sfb / b4home.html 1 This is , for example , the case for all proposals working with verbal lexical entries that raise the arguments of a verbal complement ( Hinrichs and Nakazawa 1989 ) that also use lexical rules such as the Complement Extraction Lexical Rule ( Pollard and Sag 1994 ) or the Complement Cliticization Lexical Rule ( Miller and Sag 1993 ) to operate on those raised elements .


Fung and McKeown ( 1997 ) attempt to translate technical terms using word relation matrices , although the resource from which such relations are derived is a pair of nonparallel corpora .


The system is in the form of an agenda-driven chart-based parser whose foundation is similar to previous formalizations of Chomsky 's Minimalist Program ( Stabler , 1997 ; Harkema , 2000 ; Niyogi , 2001 ) .


Each component will return a confidence measure of the reliability of its prediction , c.f. ( Elworthy , 1998 ) .


In fact , most of the features3 implemented in existing coreference resolution systems rely solely on mention heads ( Bengtson and Roth , 2008 ) .


The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by Carbonell and Hayes ( 1983 ) , Granger ( 1983 ) , Jensen et al. ( 1983 ) , Kwasny and Sondheimer ( 1981 ) , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , Thompson ( 1980 ) , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) .


In most recent research , NEs ( person , location and organisations ) are extracted from the text and used as a source of evidence to calculate the similarity between documents - see for instance ( Blume , 2005 ; Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ; Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) .


This conception of lexical rules thus can be understood as underlying the computational approach that treats lexical rules as unary phrase structure rules as , for example , adopted in the LKB system ( Copestake 1992 ) .


Typical letter-to-sound rule sets are those described by Ainsworth ( 1973 ) , McIlroy ( 1973 ) , Elovitz et al. ( 1976 ) , Hurmicutt ( 1976 ) , and Divay and Vitale ( 1997 ) .


Venables and Ripley ( 1994 ) describe an efficient algorithm ( of linear complexity in the number of training sentences ) for computing the LDA transform matrix , which entails computing the withinand between-covariance matrices of the classes , and using Singular Value Decomposition ( SVD ) to compute the eigenvectors of the new space .


For better comparison with work of others , we adopt the suggestion made by Green and Manning ( 2010 ) to evaluate the parsing quality on sentences up to 70 tokens long .


Some examples include text categorization ( Lewis and Catlett 1994 ) , base noun phrase chunking ( Ngai and Yarowsky 2000 ) , part-of-speech tagging ( Engelson Dagan 1996 ) , spelling confusion set disambiguation ( Banko and Brill 2001 ) , and word sense disambiguation ( Fujii et al. 1998 ) .


Differently , Cohn and Blunsom ( 2009 ) designed a sampler to infer an STSG by fixing the tree structure and exploring the space of alignment .


They use a Bag of Visual Words ( BoVW ) model ( Lowe , 2004 ) to create a bimodal vocabulary describing documents .


W. Labov ( 1973 ) discussed sentences of the form * This is a chair but you can sit on it .


This imbalance foils thresholding strategies , clever as they might be ( Gale & Church , 1991 ; Wu & Xia , 1994 ; Chen , 1996 ) .


Prototypes of Internet search engines for linguists , corpus linguists and lexicographers have been proposed : WebCorp ( Kehoe and Renouf , 2002 ) , KWiCFinder ( Fletcher , 2004a ) and the Linguist 's Search Engine ( Kilgarriff , 2003 ; Resnik and Elkiss , 2003 ) .


More recently , Silberer et al. ( 2013 ) show that visual attribute classifiers , which have been immensely successful in object recognition ( Farhadi et al. , 2009 ) , act as excellent substitutes for feature


In other methods , lexical resources are specifically tailored to meet the requirements of the domain ( Rosario and Hearst , 2001 ) or the system ( Gomez , 1998 ) .


Such systems extract information from some types of syntactic units ( clauses in ( Fillmore and Atkins , 1998 ; Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Hull and Gomez , 1996 ) ; noun phrases in ( Hull and Gomez , 1996 ; Rosario et al. , 2002 ) ) .


The third version ( VOYAGER ) serves as an interface both with a recognizer and with a functioning database back-end ( Zue et al. 1990 ) .


We use the non-projective k-best MST algorithm to generate k-best lists ( Hall , 2007 ) , where k = 8 for the experiments in this paper .


As for work on Arabic ( MSA ) , results have been reported on the PATB ( Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus 2006 ; Diab 2007 ; Green and Manning 2010 ) , the Prague Dependency Treebank ( PADT ) ( Buchholz and Marsi 2006 ; Nivre 2008 ) and the CATiB ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) .


For example , McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) describe a machine learning approach to automatically label sentences as belonging to introduction , methods , results , or conclusion using structured abstracts as training data ( see also Lin et al. 2006 ) .


â¢ Graph transformations for recovering nonprojective structures ( Nivre and Nilsson , 2005 ) .


Klein and Manning ( 2002 ) 's CCM is an unlabeled bracketing model that generates the span of part-of-speech tags that make up each constituent and the pair of tags surrounding each constituent span ( as well as the spans and contexts of each non-constituent ) .


This process produces a hierarchical clustering of the word types in the corpus , and these clusterings have been found useful in many applications ( Ratinov and Roth , 2009 ; Koo et al. , 2008 ; Miller et al. , 2004 ) .


Opposition ( called `` adversative '' or `` contrary-to-expectation '' by Halliday and Hasan 1976 ; cfXXX also Quirk et al. 1972 , p. 672 ) .


Aside from the extraction of theory-neutral subcategorization lexicons , there has also been work in the automatic construction of lexical resources which comply with the principles of particular linguistic theories such as LTAG , CCG , and HPSG ( Chen and Vijay-Shanker 2000 ; Xia 1999 ; Hockenmaier , Bierner , and Baldridge 2004 ; Nakanishi , Miyao , and Tsujii 2004 ) .


1 The representation in Mohri and Pereira ( 1998 ) is even more compact than ours for grammars that are not self-embedding .


29 This improvement of the covariation encoding can also be viewed as an instance of the program transformation technique referred to as deletion of clauses with a finitely failed body ( Pettorossi and Proietti 1994 ) .


The reordering models we describe follow our previous work using function word models for translation ( Setiawan et al. , 2007 ; Setiawan et al. , 2009 ) .


Although there are other discussions of the paragraph as a central element of discourse ( e.g. Chafe 1979 , Halliday and Hasan 1976 , Longacre 1979 , Haberlandt et al. 1980 ) , all of them share a certain limitation in their formal techniques for analyzing paragraph structure .


For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .


In corpus linguistics building such megacorpora is beyond the scope of individual researchers , and they are not easily accessible ( Kennedy , 1998 : 56 ) unless the web is used as a corpus ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .


Here 11 is an optimization precision , oc is a step size chosen with the strong Wolfe 's rule ( Nocedal and Wright 1999 ) .


See ( Gomez , 1998 ) for a discussion .


Figure 2 ( a ) shows the frame-based semantic representation for the utterance `` What time is Analyze This playing 2 See ( Nakatani and Chu-Carroll , 2000 ) for how MIMIC 's dialoguelevel knowledge is used to override default prosodic assignments for concept-to-speech generation .


For Berkeley system , we use the reported results from Durrett and Klein ( 2014 ) .


Instead , we will adopt the nomenclature of the Automatic Content Extraction program ( NIST , 2004 ) : we will call the instances of textual references to objects/abstractions mentions , which can be either named ( e.g. John Mayor ) , nominal ( the president ) or pronominal ( she , it ) .


Such a component would serve as the first stage of a clinical question answering system ( Demner-Fushman and Lin , 2005 ) or summarization system ( McKeown et al. , 2003 ) .


In the areas of Natural Language Processing ( NLP ) and computational linguistics , proposals have been made for using the computational Grid for data-intensive NLP and text-mining for eScience ( Carroll et al. , 2005 ; Hughes et al , 2004 ) .


Ingria ( 1984 ) comprehensively compares different approaches to complementation within grammatical theory providing a touchstone against which the LDOCE scheme can be evaluated .


To prove that our method is effective , we also make a comparison between the performances of our system and Xue and Palmer ( 2005 ) , Xue ( 2008 ) .


The obtained SCFG is further used in a phrase-based and hierarchical phrase-based system ( Chiang , 2007 ) .


32 In certain cases an extension of the constraint language with named disjunctions or contexted constraints ( Maxwell and Kaplan 1989 ; Eisele and Dorre 1990 ; Griffith 1996 ) can be used to circumvent constraint propagation .


Blunsom et al. ( 2008 , 2009 , 2010 ) utilized Bayesian methods to learn synchronous context free grammars ( SCFG ) from a parallel corpus .


Since the arguments can provide useful semantic information , the SRL is crucial to many natural language processing tasks , such as Question and Answering ( Narayanan and Harabagiu 2004 ) , Information Extraction ( Surdeanu et al. 2003 ) , and Machine Translation ( Boas 2002 ) .


In addition to the model based upon a dictionary of stems and words , we also experimented with models based upon character n-grams , similar to those used for Chinese segmentation ( Sproat et al. , 1996 ) .


Notable early papers on graph-based semisupervised learning include Blum and Chawla ( 2001 ) , Bansal et al. ( 2002 ) , Kondor and Lafferty ( 2002 ) , and Joachims ( 2003 ) .


Due to using a global model like CRFs , our previous work in ( Zhao et al. , 2006 ; Zhao and Kit , 2008c ) reported the best results over the evaluated corpora of Bakeoff-2 until now7 .


As already mentioned in the literature , see for example ( Lapata and Lascarides , 2003 ) , knowledge about implicit predicates could be potentially useful for a variety of NLP tasks such as language generation , information extraction , question answering or machine translation .


We use the Columbia Arabic Treebank ( CATiB ) ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) .


This problem may be similar to the situation in which current formal grammars allow nonsensical but parsable collections of words ( e.g. , `` colorless green ideas ... '' ) , while before the advent of Chomskyan formalisms , a sentence was defined as the smallest meaningful collection of words ; Fowler ( 1965 , p. 546 ) gives 10 definitions of a sentence .


Another technique for making better use of unlabeled data is cotraining ( Blum and Mitchell 1998 ) , in which two sufficiently different learners help each other learn by labeling training data for one another .


For example , modeling CASE in Czech improves Czech parsing ( Collins et al. 1999 ) : CASE is relevant , not redundant , and can be predicted with sufficient accuracy .


Table look-up using an explicit translation lexicon is sufficient and preferable for many multilingual NLP applications , including `` crummy '' MT on the World Wide Web ( Church & Hovy , 1993 ) , certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. ( Macklovitch , 1994 ; Melamed , 1996b ) ) , concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( Catizone et al. , 1993 ; Gale & Church , 1991 ) , computerassisted language learning , corpus linguistics ( Melby .


Following our previous work ( Karamanis and Manurung 2002 ; Althaus , Karamanis , and Koller 2004 ) , the input to information ordering is an unordered set of informationbearing items represented as CF lists .


There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( Harman , 1991 ; Krovetz , 1993 ; Hull , 1996 ) .


This situation suggests a response-automation approach that follows the document retrieval paradigm ( Salton and McGill 1983 ) , where a new request is matched with existing response documents ( e-mails ) .


All current approaches to monolingual TE , either syntactically oriented ( Rus et al. , 2005 ) , or applying logical inference ( Tatu and Moldovan , 2005 ) , or adopting transformation-based techniques ( Kouleykov and Magnini , 2005 ; Bar-Haim et al. , 2008 ) , incorporate different types of lexical knowledge to support textual inference .


This is the approach taken by IBM Models 4 + ( Brown et al. 1993b ; Och and Ney 2003 ) , and more recently by the LEAF model ( Fraser and Marcu 2007 ) .


We have noted that many of these desiderata make complex question answering quite similar to multi-document summarization ( Lin and Demner-Fushman 2005b ) , but these features are also beyond the capabilities of current summarization systems .


Perlmutter and Soames , 1979:472 ) , but these are the only ones which are explicit in the LDOCE coding system .


This paper describes an approach for sharing resources in various grammar formalisms such as Feature-Based Lexicalized Tree Adjoining Grammar ( FB-LTAG1 ) ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) and Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) ( Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) by a method of grammar conversion .


These constructs correspond as directly as possible to properties of the linguistic structure that express them and are , to as small an extent as possible , dependent on the requirements of contextual resolution ( unlike , say , the metavariables of standard QLFs [ Alshawi and Crouch 1992 ] , or the labels of UDRS [ Reyle 1996 ] , which are motivated entirely by the mechanisms that operate on them after grammatical processing ) .


Prototypes of Internet search engines for linguists , corpus linguists and lexicographers have been proposed : WebCorp ( Kehoe and Renouf , 2002 ) , KWiCFinder ( Fletcher , 2004a ) and the Linguist 's Search Engine ( Kilgarriff , 2003 ; Resnik and Elkiss , 2003 ) .


An off-the-shelf speech recognition device , a Nippon Electric Corporation DP-200 , was added to an existing natural language processing system , the Natural Language Computer ( NLC ) ( Ballard 1979 , Biermann and Ballard 1980 ) .


Some efforts have tackled tasks such as automatic image caption generation ( Feng and Lapata , 2010a ; Ordonez et al. , 2011 ) , text illustration ( Joshi et al. , 2006 ) , or automatic location identification of Twitter users ( Eisenstein et al. , 2010 ; Wing and Baldridge , 2011 ; Roller et al. , 2012 ) .


The system was trained on the Penn Treebank ( Marcus et al. , 1993 ) WSJ Sections 221 and tested on Section 23 ( Table 1 ) , same as used by Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , and Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and became a common testbed .


Briscoe and Carroll ( 1997 ) predefine 163 verbal subcategorization frames , obtained by manually merging the classes exemplified in the COMLEX ( MacLeod , Grishman , and Meyers 1994 ) and ANLT ( Boguraev et al. 1987 ) dictionaries and adding around 30 frames found by manual inspection .


Recently , several alternative , often quite sophisticated approaches to collective classification have been proposed ( Neville and Jensen , 2000 ; Lafferty et al. , 2001 ; Getoor et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2002 ; Taskar et al. , 2003 ; Taskar et al. , 2004 ; McCallum and Wellner , 2004 ) .


Berstel and Reutenauer ( 1988 ) give a sufficiently general finite-state framework to allow this : weights may fall in any set K ( instead of R ) .


FBLTAG ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) is an extension of the LTAG formalism .


There are several variations of such a method ( Ballesteros and Croft , 1998 ; Pirkola , 1998 ; Hull 1997 ) .


12 In order to focus on the computational aspects of the covariation approach , in this paper we will not go into a discussion of the full lexical rule specification language introduced in Meurers ( 1995 ) .


Many investigators ( e.g. Allen 1976 ; Elowitz et al. 1976 ; Luce et al. 1983 ; Cahn 1988 ) have suggested that the poor prosody of synthetic speech , in comparison with natural speech , is the primary factor leading to difficulties in the comprehension of fluent synthetic speech .


This Principle of Finitism is also assumed by Johnson-Laird ( 1983 ) , Jackendoff ( 1983 ) , Kamp ( 1981 ) , and implicitly or explicitly by almost all researchers in computational linguistics .


We performed translation experiments with an implementation of the IBM-4 translation model ( Brown et al. , 1993 ) .


In this paper , a flexible annotation schema called Structured String-Tree Correspondence ( SSTC ) ( Boitet & Zaharin , 1988 ) will be introduced to capture a natural language text , its corresponding abstract linguistic representation and the mapping ( correspondence ) between these two .


For the development of these lists we used a collection of texts of about 300,000 words derived from the New York Times ( NYT ) corpus that was supplied as training data for the 7th Message Understanding Conference ( MUC-7 ) ( Chinchor 1998 ) .


For the full parser , we use the one developed by Michael Collins ( Collins , 1996 ; Collins , 1997 ) -- one of the most accurate full parsers around .


More sophisticated approaches have been proposed ( Hillard et al. , 2003 ) , including an extension that , in an interesting reversal of our problem , makes use of sentimentpolarity indicators within speech segments ( Galley et al. , 2004 ) .


Tbahriti et al. ( 2006 ) have demonstrated that differential weighting of automatically labeled sections can lead to improved retrieval performance .


The one-sided t-test ( Hull , 1993 ) at significance level 0.05 indicated that the improvement on Trec5C is not statistically significant .


mers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) demonstrably improve retrieval performance .


It is therefore no surprise that early attempts at response automation were knowledge-driven ( Barr and Tessler 1995 ; Watson 1997 ; Delic and Lahaix 1998 ) .


The framework was originally developed for the realization of deep-syntactic structures in NLG ( Lavoie and Rambow , 1997 ) .


These features are very much desired in the design of an annotation scheme , in particular for the treatment of linguistic phenomena , which are non-standard , e.g. crossed dependencies ( Tang & Zaharin , 1995 ) .


Few approaches to parsing have tried to handle disfluent utterances ( notable exceptions are Core & Schubert , 1999 ; Hindle , 1983 ; Nakatani & Hirschberg , 1994 ; Shriberg , Bear , & Dowding , 1992 ) .


5 The open source Moses ( Hoang et al. 2007 ) toolkit from www.statmt.org/moses/ .


There have been several efforts aimed at developing a domain-independent method for generating responses from a frame representation of user requests ( Bobrow et al. , 1977 ; Chu-Carroll , 1999 ) .


The maximum entropy approach ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) presents a powerful framework for the combination of several knowledge sources .


Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .


We then use the program Snob ( Wallace and Boulton 1968 ; Wallace 2005 ) to cluster these experiences .


However , studies have shown that existing systems for searching MEDLINE ( such as PubMed , the search service provided by the National Library of Medicine ) are often inadequate and unable to supply clinically relevant answers in a timely manner ( Gorman , Ash , and Wykoff 1994 ; Chambliss and Conley 1996 ) .


Our implementation of the NP-based QA system uses the Empire noun phrase finder , which is described in detail in Cardie and Pierce ( 1998 ) .


For all the experiments reported in this article , we used the training portion of PATB Part 3 v3 .1 ( Maamouri et al. 2004 ) , converted to the CATiB Treebank format , as mentioned in Section 2.5 .


In addition , we consider several types of lexical features ( LexF ) inspired by previous work on agreement and disagreement ( Galley et al. , 2004 ; Misra and Walker , 2013 ) .


All communicative head gestures in the videos were found and annotated with ANVIL using a subset of the attributes defined in the MUMIN annotation scheme ( Allwood et al. , 2007 ) .


Specifically , we examine the strength of association between the verb and the noun constituent of a combination ( the target expression or its lexical variants ) as an indirect cue to its idiomaticity , an approach inspired by Lin ( 1999 ) .


The current system learns finite state flowcharts whereas typical learning systems usually acquire coefficient values as in Minsky and Papert ( 1969 ) , assertional statements as in Michalski ( 1980 ) , or semantic nets as in Winston ( 1975 ) .


More recently , an alignment selection approach was proposed in ( Huang , 2009 ) , which computes confidence scores for each link and prunes the links from multiple sets of alignments using a hand-picked threshold .


Lin ( 1998 ) for example discusses a method where a syntactic parse of the text is performed and the context of a word is modeled using dependency triples .


A variety of statistical methods were proposed over the recent years for learning to produce a full parse of free-text sentences ( e.g. , Bod ( 1992 ) , Magerman ( 1995 ) , Collins ( 1997 ) , Ratnaparkhi ( 1997 ) , and Sekine ( 1998 ) ) .


The strategies employed when MIMIC has only dialogue initiative are similar to the mixed initiative dialogue strategies employed by many existing spoken dialogue systems ( e.g. , ( Bennacef et at. , 1996 ; Stent et al. , 1999 ) ) .


7A11 our results are computed with the evalb program following the now-standard criteria in ( Collins , 1999 ) .


We see no good reason , however , why such text spans should necessarily be sentences , since the majority of tagging paradigms ( e.g. , Hidden Markov Model [ HMM ] [ Kupiec 1992 ] , Brill 's [ Brill 1995a ] , and MaxEnt [ Ratnaparkhi 1996 ] ) do not attempt to parse an entire sentence and operate only in the local window of two to three tokens .


results are based on a corpus of movie subtitles ( Tiedemann 2007 ) , and are consequently shorter sentences , whereas the En â Es results are based on a corpus of parliamentary proceedings ( Koehn 2005 ) .


The system is implemented based on ( Galley et al. , 2006 ) and ( Marcu et al. 2006 ) .


Also relevant is work on the general problems of dialog-act tagging ( Stolcke et al. , 2000 ) , citation analysis ( Lehnert et al. , 1990 ) , and computational rhetorical analysis ( Marcu , 2000 ; Teufel and Moens , 2002 ) .


For projective parsing , it is significantly faster than exact dynamic programming , at the cost of small amounts of search error , We are interested in extending these ideas to phrase-structure and lattice parsing , and in trying other higher-order features , such as those used in parse reranking ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ; Huang , 2008 ) and history-based parsing ( Nivre and McDonald , 2008 ) .


Word alignments are used primarily for extracting minimal translation units for machine translation ( MT ) ( e.g. , phrases [ Koehn , Och , and Marcu 2003 ] and rules [ Galley et al. 2004 ; Chiang et al. 2005 ] ) as well as for


Sridhar et al. ( 2009 ) obtain promising results in dialogue act tagging of the Switchboard-DAMSL corpus using lexical , syntactic and prosodic cues , while Gravano and Hirschberg ( 2009 ) examine the relation between particular acoustic and prosodic turn-yielding cues and turn taking in a large corpus of task-oriented dialogues .


We have also applied our more general unification grammar acquisition methodology to the TIGER Treebank ( Brants et al. 2002 ) and Penn Chinese Treebank ( Xue , Chiou , and Palmer 2002 ) , extracting wide-coverage , probabilistic LFG grammar


We use the structures previously used by Nguyen et al. ( 2009 ) , and propose one new structure .


Two exceptions to this generalisation are the Linguistic String Project ( Sager , 1981 ) and the IBM CRITIQUE ( formerly EPISTLE ) Project ( Heidorn et al. , 1982 ; Byrd , 1983 ) ; the former employs a dictionary of approximately 10,000 words , most of which are specialist medical terms , the latter has well over 100,000 entries , gathered from machine readable sources .


A number of proposals in the 1990s deliberately limited the extent to which they relied on domain and/or linguistic knowledge and reported promising results in knowledge-poor operational environments ( Dagan and Itai 1990 , 1991 ; Lappin and Leass 1994 ; Nasukawa 1994 ; Kennedy and Boguraev 1996 ; Williams , Harvey , and Preston 1996 ; Baldwin 1997 ; Mitkov 1996 , 1998b ) .


Towards this aim , a flexible annotation structure called Structured String-Tree Correspondence ( SSTC ) was introduced in Boitet & Zaharin ( 1988 ) to record the string of terms , its associated representation structure and the mapping between the two , which is expressed by the sub-correspondences recorded as part of a SSTC .


We have built an experimental text-to-speech system that uses our analysis of prosody to generate phrase boundaries for the Olive -- Liberman synthesizer ( Olive and Liberman 1985 ) .


In this paper , I present a computational implementation of Distributed Morphology ( Halle and Marantz , 1993 ) , a non-lexicalist linguistic theory that erases the distinction between syntactic derivation and morphological derivation .


Some recent GRE algorithms have done away with the separation between content determination and linguistic realization , interleaving the two processes instead ( Stone and Webber 1998 ; Krahmer and Theune 2002 ) .


Subsequent processing by the natural language and response generation components was done automatically by the computer ( Zue et al. 1989 ) .


This is implemented as a cascade of simple strategies , which were briefly described in Mikheev ( 1999 ) .


But , obviously , there are other possibilities -- for instance , the discourse representation structures ( DRS 's ) of Kamp ( 1981 ) , which have been used to translate a subset of English into logical formulas , to model text ( identified with a list of sentences ) , to analyze a fragment of English , and to deal with anaphora .


Better results would be expected by combining the PCFG-LA parser with discriminative reranking approaches ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ; Huang , 2008 ) for self training .


Intermedia is no more developed and nobody of us had the opportunity to try it ( Landow , 1994 ) .


Morphological alterations of a search term have a negative impact on the recall performance of an information retrieval ( IR ) system ( Choueka , 1990 ; J Â¨ appinen and Niemist Â¨ o , 1988 ; Kraaij and Pohlmann , 1996 ) , since they preclude a direct match between the search term proper and its morphological variants in the documents to be retrieved .


ment ( Sarkar and Wintner , 1999 ; Doran et al. , 2000 ; Makino et al. , 1998 ) .


Finally , feedback expressions ( head nods and shakes ) are successfully predicted from speech , prosody and eye gaze in interaction with Embodied Communication Agents as well as human communication ( Fujie et al. , 2004 ; Morency et al. , 2005 ; Morency et al. , 2007 ; Morency et al. , 2009 ) .


Another line of research approaches grounded language knowledge by augmenting distributional approaches of word meaning with perceptual information ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Steyvers , 2010 ; Feng and Lapata , 2010b ; Bruni et al. , 2011 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ; Johns and Jones , 2012 ; Bruni et al. , 2012a ; Bruni et al. , 2012b ; Silberer et al. , 2013 ) .


We also made use of the person-name/instance pairs automatically extracted by Fleischman et al. ( 2003 ) .2 This data provides counts for pairs such as `` Edwin Moses , hurdler '' and `` William Farley , industrialist . ''


Al-Adhaileh and Tang ( 2001 ) presented an approach for constructing a BKB based on the S-SSTC .


However , since work in this direction has started , a significant progress has also been made in the research on statistical learning of full parsers , both in terms of accuracy and processing time ( Charniak , 1997b ; Charniak , 1997a ; Collins , 1997 ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) .


Also , advanced methods often require many training iterations , for example active learning ( Dagan and Engelson ,1995 ) and co-training ( Blum and Mitchell , 1998 ) .


Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) furthered this work by showing that a bimodal topic model , consisting of both text and feature norms , outperformed models using only one modality on the prediction of association norms , word substitution errors , and semantic interference tasks .


It can be shown ( Berger et al. , 1996 ) that the use of this model with maximum likelihood parameter estimation is justified on information-theoretic grounds when q represents some prior knowledge about the true distribution and when the expected values of f in the training corpus are identical to their true expected values .3 There is no requirement that the components of f represent disjoint or statistically independent events .


Shortly after the publication of The Sound Pattern of English ( Chomsky and Halle 1968 ) , Kornai points out , `` Johnson ( 1970 ) demonstrated that the context-sensitive machinery of SPE ... [ could ] be replaced by a much simpler one , based on finite-state transducers ( FSTs ) ; the same conclusion was reached independently by Kaplan and Kay , whose work remained an underground classic until it was finally published in Kaplan and Kay ( 1994 ) . ''


18 In this article , we use a newer version of the corpus by Alkuhlani and Habash ( 2011 ) than the one we used in Marton , Habash , and Rambow ( 2011 ) .


Atallah et al. ( 2001b ) and Topkara et al. ( 2006a ) attained the embedding capacity of 0.5 bits per sentence with the syntactic transformation method .


Another possibility that often works better is to use Minimum Bayes-Risk ( MBR ) decoding ( Kumar and Byrne 2002 ; Liang , Taskar , and Klein 2006 ; Ganchev , and Taskar 2007 ) .


The subcategorization requirements expressed by semantic forms are enforced at f-structure level through completeness and coherence well-formedness conditions on f-structure ( Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ) : An f-structure is locally complete iff it contains all the governable grammatical functions that its predicate governs .


This paper describes an approach for sharing resources in various grammar formalisms such as Feature-Based Lexicalized Tree Adjoining Grammar ( FB-LTAG1 ) ( Vijay-Shanker , 1987 ; Vijay-Shanker and Joshi , 1988 ) and Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar ( HPSG ) ( Pollard and Sag , 1994 ) by a method of grammar conversion .


Following the example of Landow ( 1994 ) , we will call the autonomous units of a hypertext lexias ( from ` lexicon ' ) , a word coined by Roland Barthes ( 1970 ) .


( Chomsky 1977 ) .


We use the same set of binary features as in previous work on this dataset ( Pang et al. , 2002 ; Pang and Lee , 2004 ; Zaidan et al. , 2007 ) .


Various feature selection techniques have been used in automatic text categorization ; they include document frequency ( DF ) , information gain ( IG ) ( Tzeras and Hartman , 1993 ) , minimum description length principal ( Lang , 1995 ) , and the X2 statistic .


Politically-oriented text Sentiment analysis has specifically been proposed as a key enabling technology in eRulemaking , allowing the automatic analysis of the opinions that people submit ( Shulman et al. , 2005 ; Cardie et al. , 2006 ; Kwon et al. , 2006 ) .


Petrov et al. ( 2010 ) observed that dependency parsers tend to do quite poorly when parsing questions due to their limited exposure to them in the news corpora from the PennTreebank .


Lin ( 1998a ) 's similar word list for eat misses these but includes sleep ( ranked 6 ) and sit ( ranked 14 ) , because these have similar subjects to eat .


â¢ Learnability ( Zernik and Dyer 1987 ) â¢ Text generation ( Hovy 1988 ; Milosavljevic , Tulloch , and Dale 1996 ) â¢ Speech generation ( Rayner and Carter 1997 ) â¢ Localization ( Sch Â¨ aler 1996 )


For example , a ` web page ' is more similar to an infinite canvas than a written page ( McCloud , 2001 ) .


Other molecular biology databases We also included several model organism databases or nomenclature databases in the construction of the dictionary , i.e. , mouse Mouse Genome Database ( MGD ) [ 18 ] , fly FlyBase [ 19 ] , yeast Saccharomyces Genome Database ( SGD ) [ 20 ] , rat -- Rat Genome Database ( RGD ) [ 21 ] , worm -- WormBase [ 22 ] , Human Nomenclature Database ( HUGO ) [ 23 ] , Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM ) [ 24 ] , and Enzyme Nomenclature Database ( ECNUM ) [ 25 , 26 ] .


2This view of typed feature structures differs from the perspective on typed feature structures as modeling partial information as in ( Carpenter , 1992 ) .


This approach resembles the work by Grishman et al. ( 1986 ) and Hirschman et al. ( 1975 ) on selectional restrictions .


This is noticeable for German ( Brants et al. , 2002 ) and Portuguese ( Afonso et al. , 2002 ) , which still have high overall accuracy thanks to very high attachment scores , but much more conspicuous for Czech ( B Â¨ ohmov Â´ a et al. , 2003 ) , Dutch ( van der Beek et al. , 2002 ) and Slovene ( DËzeroski et al. , 2006 ) , where root precision drops more drastically to about 69 % , 71 % and 41 % , respectively , and root recall is also affected negatively .


LTAG ( Schabes et al. , 1988 ) is a grammar formalism that provides syntactic analyses for a sentence by composing elementary trees with two opera -


Translations have been generated by the CrowdFlower3 channel to Amazon Mechanical Turk4 ( MTurk ) , adopting the methodology proposed by ( Negri and Mehdad , 2010 ) .


This work is a continuation of that initiated in ( Yahyaoui , 2001 ) , which reports an overall NB classification correctness of 75.6 % , in cross validation experiments , on a data set that consists of 100 documents for each of 12 categories ( the data set is collected from different Arabic portals ) .


Our previous work ( Zhai et al. , 2012 ) designed an EMbased method to construct unsupervised trees for tree-based translation models .


Then , we binarize the English parse trees using the head binarization approach ( Wang et al. , 2007 ) and use the resulting binary parse trees to build another s2t system .


This is the strongest version of the sorites paradox ( e.g. , Hyde 2002 ) .


We used a standard implementation of IBM Model 4 ( Och and Ney 2003 ) and because changing the existing code is not trivial , we could not use the same stopping criterion to avoid overfitting and we are not able to produce precision/recall curves .


Cross-lingual Textual Entailment ( CLTE ) has been proposed by ( Mehdad et al. , 2010 ) as an extension of Textual Entailment ( Dagan and Glickman , 2004 ) that consists in deciding , given two texts T and H in different languages , if the meaning of H can be inferred from the meaning of T .


Some approaches apply semantic parsing , where words and sentences are mapped to logical structure meaning ( Kate and Mooney , 2007 ) .


For projective parsing , it is significantly faster than exact dynamic programming , at the cost of small amounts of search error , We are interested in extending these ideas to phrase-structure and lattice parsing , and in trying other higher-order features , such as those used in parse reranking ( Charniak and Johnson , 2005 ; Huang , 2008 ) and history-based parsing ( Nivre and McDonald , 2008 ) .


Prototypes of Internet search engines for linguists , corpus linguists and lexicographers have been proposed : WebCorp ( Kehoe and Renouf , 2002 ) , KWiCFinder ( Fletcher , 2004a ) and the Linguist 's Search Engine ( Kilgarriff , 2003 ; Resnik and Elkiss , 2003 ) .


Other factors , such as the role of focus ( Grosz 1977 , 1978 ; Sidner 1983 ) or quantifier scoping ( Webber 1983 ) must play a role , too .


Since mid-2002 , the Library has been employing software that automatically suggests MeSH headings based on content ( Aronson et al. 2004 ) .


Discriminative approaches ( especially SVMs ) have been shown to be very effective for many supervised classification tasks ; see , for example , ( Joachims , 1998 ; Ng and Jordan , 2001 ) .


Also , the Keller and Lapata ( 2003 ) approach will be undefined if the pair is unobserved on the web .


The automation of help-desk responses has been previously tackled using mainly knowledge-intensive paradigms , such as expert systems ( Barr and Tessler 1995 ) and case-based reasoning ( Watson 1997 ) .


We measure this association using pointwise Mutual Information ( MI ) ( Church and Hanks , 1990 ) .


Some methods of semantic relation analysis rely on predefined templates filled with information from processed texts ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) .


There are two corpora normally used for evaluation in a number of text-processing tasks : the Brown corpus ( Francis and Kucera 1982 ) and the Wall Street Journal ( WSJ ) corpus , both part of the Penn Treebank ( Marcus , Marcinkiewicz , and Santorini 1993 ) .


or quotation of messages in emails or postings ( see Mullen and Malouf ( 2006 ) but cfXXX Agrawal et al. ( 2003 ) ) .


Andrews et al. ( 2009 ) extend LDA to allow for the inference of document and topic distributions in a multimodal corpus .


SNoW ( Carleson et al. , 1999 ; Roth , 1998 ) is a multi-class classifier that is specifically tailored for learning in domains in which the potential number of information sources ( features ) taking part in decisions is very large , of which NLP is a principal example .


The search algorithm is the standard Viterbi search ( Viterbi 1967 ) , except that the match involves a network-to-network alignment problem rather than sequence-to-sequence .


Since then this idea has been applied to several tasks , including word sense disambiguation ( Yarowsky 1995 ) and named-entity recognition ( Cucerzan and Yarowsky 1999 ) .


7 We employed the LIBSVM package ( Chang and Lin 2001 ) .


coreference performance on perfect mentions ( e.g. , Incorporate the two knowledge sources in a Luo et al. ( 2004 ) ) ; and for those that do report percoreference resolver .


According to Hobbs ( 1979 , p. 67 ) , these two sentences are incoherent .


Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .


Another dialogue acquisition system has been developed by Ho ( 1984 ) .


Lexical functional grammar ( Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ) is a member of the family of constraint-based grammars .


1Our rules are similar to those from Xu et al. ( 2009 ) .


In psycholinguistics , relatedness of words can also be determined through association tests ( Schulte im Walde and Melinger , 2005 ) .


In this article , we use an in-house system which provides functional gender , number , and rationality features ( Alkuhlani and Habash 2012 ) .


Over the last decade there has been a lot of interest in developing tutorial dialogue systems that understand student explanations ( Jordan et al. , 2006 ; Graesser et al. , 1999 ; Aleven et al. , 2001 ; Buckley and Wolska , 2007 ; Nielsen et al. , 2008 ; VanLehn et al. , 2007 ) , because high percentages of selfexplanation and student contentful talk are known to be correlated with better learning in humanhuman tutoring ( Chi et al. , 1994 ; Litman et al. , 2009 ; Purandare and Litman , 2008 ; Steinhauser et al. , 2007 ) .


The use of the web as a corpus for teaching and research on language has been proposed a number of times ( Kilgarriff , 2001 ; Robb , 2003 ; Rundell , 2000 ; Fletcher , 2001 , 2004b ) and received a special issue of the journal Computational Linguistics ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) .


Several authors in communication studies have pointed out that head movements are relevant to feedback phenomena ( see McClave ( 2000 ) for an overview ) .


Our method resorts to some translation examples , which is similar as example-based translation or translation memory ( Watanabe and Sumita , 2003 ; He et al. , 2010 ; Ma et al. , 2011 ) .


Baseline Systems We choose three publicly available state-of-the-art end-to-end coreference systems as our baselines : Stanford system ( Lee et al. , 2011 ) , Berkeley system ( Durrett and Klein , 2014 ) and HOTCoref system ( Bj Â¨ orkelund and Kuhn , 2014 ) .


A number of speech understanding systems have been developed during the past fifteen years ( Barnett et al. 1980 , Dixon and Martin 1979 , Erman et al. 1980 , Haton and Pierrel 1976 , Lea 1980 , Lowerre and Reddy 1980 , Medress 1980 , Reddy 1976 , Walker 1978 , and Wolf and Woods 1980 ) .


As for work on Arabic ( MSA ) , results have been reported on the PATB ( Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus 2006 ; Diab 2007 ; Green and Manning 2010 ) , the Prague Dependency Treebank ( PADT ) ( Buchholz and Marsi 2006 ; Nivre 2008 ) and the CATiB ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) .


Other representations use the link structure ( Malin , 2005 ) or generate graph representations of the extracted features ( Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) .


From an IR view , a lot of specialized research has already been carried out for medical applications , with emphasis on the lexico-semantic aspects of dederivation and decomposition ( Pacak et al. , 1980 ; Norton and Pacak , 1983 ; Wolff , 1984 ; Wingert , 1985 ; Dujols et al. , 1991 ; Baud et al. , 1998 ) .


There has been some controversy , at least for simple stemmers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) , about the effectiveness of morphological analysis for document retrieval ( Harman , 1991 ; Krovetz , 1993 ; Hull , 1996 ) .


This revalidates the observation of Nguyen et al. ( 2009 ) that phrase structure representations and dependency representations add complimentary value to the learning task .


The parsing algorithm used for all languages is the deterministic algorithm first proposed for unlabeled dependency parsing by Nivre ( 2003 ) and extended to labeled dependency parsing by Nivre et al. ( 2004 ) .


The semantic categories of verbs and other words are extracted from the Semantic Knowledge-base of Contemporary Chinese ( Wang et al. 2003 ) .


Moreover , in order to determine whether the performances of the predictive criteria are consistent across different learning models within the same domain , we have performed the study on two parsing models : one based on a context-free variant of tree-adjoining grammars ( Joshi , Levy , and Takahashi 1975 ) , the Probabilistic Lexicalized Tree Insertion Grammar ( PLTIG ) formalism ( Schabes and Waters 1993 ; Hwa 1998 ) , and Collins 's Model 2 parser ( 1997 ) .


6 The Partial-VP Topicalization Lexical Rule proposed by Hinrichs and Nakazawa ( 1994 , 10 ) is a linguistic example .


We measure the inter annotator agreement using the Fleiss Kappa ( Fleiss et al. , 1981 ) measure ( x ) where the agreement lies around 0.79 .


The task we used to compare different generalisation techniques is similar to that used by Pereira et al. ( 1993 ) and Rooth et al. ( 1999 ) .


Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; Kehler 1997 ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; Strube and Hahn 1996 ; Hahn and Strube 1997 ; Tetreault 1999 ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( Mitkov 1998a , 2001b ) .


It is not aimed at handling dependencies , which require heavy use of lexical information ( Hindle and Rooth , 1993 , for PP attachment ) .


This includes work on question answering ( Wang et al. , 2007 ) , sentiment analysis ( Nakagawa et al. , 2010 ) , MT reordering ( Xu et al. , 2009 ) , and many other tasks .


I A more detailed discussion of various aspects of the proposed parser can be found in ( Minnen , 1998 ) .


Our experimental design with professional bilingual translators follows our previous work Green et al. ( 2013a ) comparing scratch translation to post-edit .


Lexical functional grammar ( Kaplan and Bresnan 1982 ; Bresnan 2001 ; Dalrymple 2001 ) is a member of the family of constraint-based grammars .


Thus , the second class of SBD systems employs machine learning techniques such as decision tree classifiers ( Riley 1989 ) , neural networks ( Palmer and Hearst 1994 ) , and maximum-entropy modeling ( Reynar and Ratnaparkhi 1997 ) .


Previously , a user study ( Lin et al. 2003 ) has shown that people are reluctant to type full natural language questions , even after being told that they were using a questionanswering system and that typing complete questions would result in better performance .


We will examine the worst-case complexity of interpretation as well as generation to shed some light on the hypothesis that vague descriptions are more difficult to process than others because they involve a comparison between objects ( Beun and Cremers 1998 , Krahmer and Theune 2002 ) .


In our case , the clustering is performed by the program Snob , which implements mixture modeling combined with model selection based on the Minimum Message Length ( MML ) criterion ( Wallace and Boulton 1968 ; Wallace 2005 ) .


The third approach to cross-lingual retrieval is to map queries and documents to some intermediate representation , e.g latent semantic indexing ( LSI ) ( Littman et al , 1998 ) , or the General Vector space model ( GVSM ) , ( Carbonell et al , 1997 ) .


Many provide graphical user interfaces ( GUI ) for manual annotation ( e.g. General Architecture for Text Engineering ( GATE ) ( Cunningham et al. , 1997 ) and the Alembic Workbench ( Day et al. , 1997 ) ) as well as NLP tools and resources that can be manipulated from the GUI .


The keypoints are clustered into 5,000 visual codewords ( centroids ) using k-means clustering ( Sculley , 2010 ) , and images are then quantized over the 5,000 codewords .


Another approach for partial parsing was presented by Skut and Brants ( 1998 ) .


In knowledge-lean approaches , coreference resolvers employ only morpho-syntactic cues as knowledge sources in the resolution process ( e.g. , Mitkov ( 1998 ) , Tetreault ( 2001 ) ) .


The application of domain models and deep semantic knowledge to question answering has been explored by a variety of researchers ( e.g. , Jacquemart and Zweigenbaum 2003 , Rinaldi et al. 2004 ) , and was also the focus of recent workshops on question answering in restricted domains at ACL 2004 and AAAI 2005 .


This result is consistent with other works using this model with these features ( Andrews et al. , 2009 ; Silberer and Lapata , 2012 ) .


Cases of intracategorial synonymy are relatively straigthtforward as several electronic synonym dictionnaries for french are available ( Ploux , 1997 ) .


The feature of head word trigger which we apply to the log-linear model is motivated by the trigger-based approach ( Hasan and Ney , 2009 ) .


Other work on modeling the meanings of verbs using video recognition has also begun showing great promise ( Mathe et al. , 2008 ; Regneri et al. , 2013 ) .


based parsing algorithms with an arc-factored parameterization ( McDonald et al. , 2005 ) .


No attempt has been made to map any closed class entries from LDOCE , as a 3,000 word lexicon containing most closed class items has been developed independently by one of the groups collaborating with us to develop the general purpose morphological and syntactic analyser ( see the Introduction and Russell et al. , 1986 ) .


In this paper we focus on the exploitation of the LDOCE grammar coding system ; Alshawi et al. ( 1985 ) and Alshawi ( 1987 ) describe further research in Cambridge utilising different types of information available in LDOCE .


Thus , the second class of SBD systems employs machine learning techniques such as decision tree classifiers ( Riley 1989 ) , neural networks ( Palmer and Hearst 1994 ) , and maximum-entropy modeling ( Reynar and Ratnaparkhi 1997 ) .


We see no good reason , however , why such text spans should necessarily be sentences , since the majority of tagging paradigms ( e.g. , Hidden Markov Model [ HMM ] [ Kupiec 1992 ] , Brill 's [ Brill 1995a ] , and MaxEnt [ Ratnaparkhi 1996 ] ) do not attempt to parse an entire sentence and operate only in the local window of two to three tokens .


Similarly , ( Barzilay and Lee , 2003 ) and ( Shinyanma et al. , 2002 ) learn sentence level paraphrase templates from a corpus of news articles stemming from different news source .


In future work we plan to experiment with richer representations , e.g. including long-range n-grams ( Rosenfeld , 1996 ) , class n-grams ( Brown et al. , 1992 ) , grammatical features ( Amaya and Benedy , 2001 ) , etc ' .


Furthermore , we demonstrate that our results carry over successfully to another parser , the Easy-First Parser ( Goldberg and Elhadad 2010 ) ( Section 6 ) .


For instance , relating `` they '' to `` apples '' in the sentence ( cfXXX Haugeland 1985 p. 195 ; Zadrozny 1987a ) : We bought the boys apples because they were so cheap


We follow our previous work ( Dickinson et al. , 2010 ) in our feature choices , using a fiveword window that includes the target stem and two words on either side for context ( see also Tetreault and Chodorow , 2008 ) .


Adjectives , more than other categories , are a striking example of regular polysemy since they are able to take on different meanings depending on their context , viz. , the noun or noun class they modify ( see Pustejovsky ( 1995 ) and the references therein ) .


According to Dalrymple ( 2001 ) , LFG assumes the following universally available inventory of grammatical functions : SUBJ ( ect ) , OBJ ( ect ) , OBJe , COMP , XCOMP , OBL ( ique ) e , ADJ ( unct ) , XADJ .


But their importance has grown far beyond machine translation : for instance , transferring annotations between languages ( Yarowsky and Ngai 2001 ; Hwa et al. 2005 ; Ganchev , Gillenwater , and Taskar 2009 ) ; discovery of paraphrases ( Bannard and Callison-Burch 2005 ) ; and joint unsupervised POS and parser induction across languages ( Snyder and Barzilay 2008 ) .


4 This interpretation of the signature is sometimes referred to as closed world ( Gerdemann and King 1994 ; Gerdemann 1995 ) .


Our training examples are similar to the data created for pseudodisambiguation , the usual evaluation task for SP models ( Erk , 2007 ; Keller and Lapata , 2003 ; Rooth et al. , 1999 ) .


There have already been several attempts to develop distributed NLP systems for dialogue systems ( Bayer et al. , 2001 ) and speech recognition ( Hacioglu and Pellom , 2003 ) .


For instance , implementing an efficient version of the MXPOST POS tagger ( Ratnaparkhi , 1996 ) will simply involve composing and configuring the appropriate text file reading component , with the sequential tagging component , the collection of feature extraction components and the maximum entropy model component .


cue word and name the first ( or several ) associated words that come to mind ( e.g. , Nelson et al. ( 2004 ) ) , and feature norms , where subjects are given a cue word and asked to describe typical properties of the cue concept ( e.g. , McRae et al. ( 2005 ) ) .


Hirschberg and Litman ( 1987 ) and Litman and Hirschberg ( 1990 ) also examine the relation between discourse and prosodic phrasing .


Sarkar and Zeman ( 2000 ) evaluate 914 Czech verbs against a custom-made gold standard and record a token recall of 88 % .


We use two measures from Information Retrieval to determine the quality of an automatically generated response : precision and F-score ( van Rijsbergen 1979 ; Salton and McGill 1983 ) .


The automation of help-desk responses has been previously tackled using mainly knowledge-intensive paradigms , such as expert systems ( Barr and Tessler 1995 ) and case-based reasoning ( Watson 1997 ) .


Xue and Palmer ( 2004 ) did very encouraging work on the feature calibration of semantic role labeling .


This approach , which uses words that appear in the context of terms to formulate hypotheses on their semantic relatedness ( Habert et al. , 1996 , for example ) , does not specify the relationship itself .


And ( Glickman and Dagan , 2003 ) use clustering and similarity measures to identify similar contexts in a single corpus and extract verbal paraphrases from these contexts .


Not having to represent the frame explicitly not only enables the linguist to express only the relevant things , but also allows a more compact representation of lexical rules where explicit framing would require the rules to be split up ( Meurers 1994 ) .


There has also been work focused upon determining the political leaning ( e.g. , `` liberal '' vs. `` conservative '' ) of a document or author , where most previously-proposed methods make no direct use of relationships between the documents to be classified ( the `` unlabeled '' texts ) ( Laver et al. , 2003 ; Efron , 2004 ; Mullen and Malouf , 2006 ) .


Other similar approaches include those of Cicekli and G Â¨ uvenir ( 1996 ) , McTait and Trujillo ( 1999 ) , Carl ( 1999 ) , and Brown ( 2000 ) , inter alia .


To sum up , this work has been carried out to automatically classify Arabic documents using the NB algorithm , with the use of a different data set , a different number of categories , and a different root extraction algorithm from those used in ( Yahyaoui , 2001 ) .


Our work builds on earlier research on learning to identify dialogues in which the user experienced poor speech recognizer performance ( Litman et al. , 1999 ) .


CCGBank ( Hockenmaier and Steedman 2007 ) is used to train the model .


More recent work on terminology structuring has focussed on formal similarity to develop hypotheses on the semantic relationships between terms : Daille ( 2003 ) uses derivational morphology ; Grabar and Zweigenbaum ( 2002 ) use , as a starting point , a number of identical characters .


Some researchers ( Cucerzan , 2007 ; Nguyen and Cao , 2008 ) have explored the use of Wikipedia information to improve the disambiguation process .


To address this issue , we use a version of the PATB3 training and dev sets manually annotated with functional gender , number , and rationality ( Alkuhlani and Habash 2011 ) .18 This is the first resource providing all three features ( ElixirFm only provides functional number , and to some extent functional gender ) .


One approach to this problem is that taken by the ASCOT project ( Akkerman et al. , 1985 ; Akkerman , 1986 ) .


Narrative writings or essays are creative works and they generally treat ownership as authorship , even for the most enthusiastic fellows of free culture ( Stallman , 2001 ) .


McDonald has even argued for extending the model to a large number of components ( McDonald 1988 ) , and several systems have indeed added an additional component between the planner and the linguistic component ( Meteer 1994 ; Panaget 1994 ; Wanner 1994 ) .


According to current tagger comparisons ( van Halteren et al. , 1998 ; Zavrel and Daelemans , 1999 ) , and according to a comparsion of the results presented here with those in ( Ratnaparkhi , 1996 ) , the Maximum Entropy framework seems to be the only other approach yielding comparable results to the one presented here .


Similar findings have been proposed by Pandharipande ( 1993 ) that points out V1 and V2 are paired on the basis of their semantic compatibility , which is subject to syntactic constraints .


The first lexical substitution method was proposed by Chapman and Davida ( 1997 ) .


This can be a hazardous affair , since vague expressions tend to be interpreted in different ways by different people ( Toogood 1980 ) , sometimes in stark contrast with the intention of the speaker/writer ( Berry , Knapp , and Raynor 2002 ) .


We see no good reason , however , why such text spans should necessarily be sentences , since the majority of tagging paradigms ( e.g. , Hidden Markov Model [ HMM ] [ Kupiec 1992 ] , Brill 's [ Brill 1995a ] , and MaxEnt [ Ratnaparkhi 1996 ] ) do not attempt to parse an entire sentence and operate only in the local window of two to three tokens .


Hermann and Deutsch ( 1976 ; also reported in Levelt 1989 ) show that greater differences are most likely to be chosen , presumably because they are more striking .


Nevertheless , recent results show that knowledge-poor methods perform with amazing accuracy ( cfXXX ( Mitkov , 1998 ) , ( Kennedy and Boguraev , 1996 ) ( Kameyama , 1997 ) ) .


Notice that it is not possible to use corpus annotation to determine the likelihood of a given property to be chosen , unless we know in advance all of the properties that can be attributed to a given object , as in the case of Jordan 's work on the COCONUT domain ( Jordan , 2000 ) .


Some well-known approaches include rule-based models ( Brill and Resnik 1994 ) , backed-off models ( Collins and Brooks 1995 ) , and a maximumentropy model ( Ratnaparkhi 1998 ) .


Other psycholing-uistic studies that confirm the validity of paragraph units can be found in Black and Bower ( 1979 ) and Haberlandt et al. ( 1980 ) .


Tetreault 's contribution features comparative evaluation involving the author 's own centering-based pronoun resolution algorithm called the Left-Right Centering algorithm ( LRC ) as well as three other pronoun resolution methods : Hobbs 's naive algorithm ( Hobbs 1978 ) , BFP ( Brennan , Friedman , and Pollard 1987 ) , and Strube 's 5list approach ( Strube 1998 ) .


Lapalme and Kosseim ( 2003 ) investigated three approaches to the automatic generation of response e-mails : text classification , case-based reasoning , and question answering .


This contrasts with one of the traditional approaches ( e.g. , Dorr 1994 ; Watanabe 1995 ) to posing the translation problem , i.e. , the approach in which translation problems are seen in terms of bridging the gap between the most natural monolingual representations underlying the sentences of each language .


In practical context , German , English , and Japanese HPSG-based grammars are developed and used in the Verbmobil project ( Kay et al. , 1994 ) .


Thus , over the past few years , along with advances in the use of learning and statistical methods for acquisition of full parsers ( Collins , 1997 ; Charniak , 1997a ; Charniak , 1997b ; Ratnaparkhi , 1997 ) , significant progress has been made on the use of statistical learning methods to recognize shallow parsing patterns syntactic phrases or words that participate in a syntactic relationship ( Church , 1988 ; Ramshaw and Marcus , 1995 ; Argamon et al. , 1998 ; Cardie and Pierce , 1998 ; Munoz et al. , 1999 ; Punyakanok and Roth , 2001 ; Buchholz et al. , 1999 ; Tjong Kim Sang and Buchholz , 2000 ) .


For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) .


While IA is generally thought to be consistent with findings on human language production ( Hermann and Deutsch 1976 ; Levelt 1989 ; Pechmann 1989 ; Sonnenschein 1982 ) , the hypothesis that incrementality is a good model of human GRE seems unfalsifiable until a preference order is specified for the properties on which it operates .


It helps them build complex knowledge bases by combining components : events , entities and modifiers ( Clark and Porter , 1997 ) .


Our group has developed a wide-coverage HPSG grammar for Japanese ( Mitsuishi et al. , 1998 ) , which is used in a high-accuracy Japanese dependency analyzer ( Kanayama et al. , 2000 ) .


Word frequency counts in internet search engines are inconsistent and unreliable ( Veronis , 2005 ) .


Other milestones of recent research include the deployment of probabilistic and machine learning techniques ( Aone and Bennett 1995 ; Kehler 1997 ; Ge , Hale , and Charniak 1998 ; Cardie and Wagstaff 1999 ; the continuing interest in centering , used either in original or in revised form ( Abracos and Lopes 1994 ; Strube and Hahn 1996 ; Hahn and Strube 1997 ; Tetreault 1999 ) ; and proposals related to the evaluation methodology in anaphora resolution ( Mitkov 1998a , 2001b ) .