* Ryerson, Richard Alan, ed. John Adams and the Founding of the Republic (2001). Essays by scholars:  "John Adams and the Massachusetts Provincial Elite," by William Pencak; "Before Fame: Young John Adams and Thomas Jefferson," by John Ferling; "John Adams and the 'Bolder Plan,'" by Gregg L. Lint; "In the Shadow of Washington: John Adams as Vice President," by Jack D. Warren; "The Presidential Election of 1796," by Joanne B. Freeman; "The Disenchantment of a Radical Whig: John Adams Reckons with Free Speech," by Richard D. Brown; "'Splendid Misery': Abigail Adams as First Lady," by Edith B. Gelles; "John Adams and the Science of Politics," by C. Bradley Thompson; and "Presidents as Historians: John Adams and Thomas Jefferson," by Herbert Sloan.


oan.


* Sharp, James. American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis. (1995), detailed political narrative of 1790s.


* Thompson, C. Bradley. John Adams and the Spirit of Liberty. (1998). Analysis of Adams's political thought; insists Adams was the greatest political thinker among the Founding Generation and anticipated many of the ideas in The Federalist.


* Butterfield, L. H. et al., eds., The Adams Papers (1961- ). Multivolume letterpress edition of all letters to and from major members of the Adams family, plus their diaries; still incomplete .


* Cappon, Lester J. ed. The Adams-Jefferson Letters: The Complete Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson and Abigail and John Adams (1988).


* Carey, George W., ed. The Political Writings of John Adams. (2001). Compilation of extracts from Adams's major political writings.


*Brinkley, Alan, and Davis Dyer. The American Presidency. Boston: Houghton Mifflin company, 2004.


*  Adams Family Papers: An electronic archive Captured December 16, 2004.


* The  John Adams Library, housed at the Boston Public Library, contains Adams's personal collection of more than 3,500 volumes in eight languages, many of which are extensively annotated by Adams.


Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro


Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro, Count of Quaregna and Cerreto (August 9, 1776 July 9, 1856) was an Italian savant.  He is most noted for his contributions to the theory of molarity and molecular weight. As a tribute to him, the number of elementary entities (atoms, molecules, ions or other particles) in one mole of a substance, 6.02214199x10 23 , is known as Avogadro's number.


Amedeo Avogadro was born in Turin August 9th 1776 to a noble ancient family of Piedmont,  Italy.


He graduated in ecclesiastical law at  the early age of 20 and began to practice.


Soon there after he dedicated himself to the study of physics and mathematics (then called positive philosophy), and in 1809 started teaching them at a liceo (high school) in Vercelli (where his family had some properties).


In 1811, he published an article with the title Essai d'une manière de déterminer les masses relatives des molécules élémentaires des corps, et les proportions selon lesquelles elles entrent dans ces combinaisons, which contains the famous Avogadro's hypothesis. The title of this famous 1811 paper can be roughly translated into English as "Essay on Determining the Relative Masses of the Elementary Molecules of Bodies".  (Note: At that time in 1811, northern Italy was actually under French rule during the era of Napoléon Bonaparte. Avogadro submitted his poem to a French journal. This paper was written in French, not in Italian.)


In 1820 he became a professor of physics at the University of Turin. (Note: After the downfall of Napoléon in 1815, northern Italy was under the rule of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia and Turin was the capital of this kingdom.)


He was active in the political revolutionary movements of 1821 against the king of Sardinia, and as a result, was removed from his chair in 1823 (or, as officially declared, the university was "very glad to allow this interesting scientist to take a rest from heavy teaching duties, in order to be able to give a better attention to his researches") .


However over time, Avogadro's political isolation became less, as revolutionary ideas received increasing attention from Savoy kings, until in 1848 when Charles Albert granted a modern Constitution (Statuto Albertino). Well before this, following the increasing attention to his works, Avogadro had been recalled to Turin university in 1833, where he taught for another twenty years.


Very little is known about Avogadro's private life and political activity although he seems to have led a sober and religious life. He married Felicita Mazzé and had six children.


Several historical studies confirm that he sponsored and helped some Sardinian plotters who were organising a revolution in that island, stopped at the very last moment by the concession of Charles Albert's statute. Some doubts however remain, considering the very slight evidence.


Avogadro held public posts in statistics, meteorology, and weights and measures (he introduced decimal metric system in Piedmont) and was a member of the Royal Superior Council on Public Instruction.


In honour of Avogadro's contributions to the theory of molarity and molecular weights, the number of molecules in one mole was renamed Avogadro's number, N A . It is approximately 6.0221415   10 23 .


Loschmidt first calculated the value of Avogadro's number, now called Avogadro's constant, which is still sometimes referred to as the Loschmidt number in German-language countries (Loschmidt constant now has another meaning).  Avogadro's number is commonly used to compute the results of chemical reactions. It allows chemists to determine the exact amounts of substances produced in a given reaction.


During his stay in Vercelli he wrote a concise note (memoria) in which he declared the hypothesis of what we now call Avogadro's law:


This memoria he sent to De Lamétherie's Journal de Physique, de Chimie et d'Histoire naturelle and it was published in the edition of July 14, 1811 with the title Essai d'une manière de déterminer les masses relatives des molecules élémentaires des corps, et les proportions selon lesquelles elles entrent dans ces combinaisons  .


Avogadro's Law implies that the relationship occurring between the weights of same volumes of different gases (at the same temperature and pressure) corresponds to the relationship between respective molecular weights. Hence, relative molecular masses can be calculated from the masses of gas samples.


Avogadro developed this hypothesis after Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac had published in 1808 his law on volumes (and combining gases). The greatest difficulty Avogadro had to resolve was the huge confusion at that time regarding atoms and molecules   one of the most important contributions of Avogadro's work was clearly distinguishing one from the other, admitting that simple particles too could be composed of molecules, and that these are composed of atoms. For instance, John Dalton did not consider this possibility. Avogadro did not actually use the word "atom" as the words "atom" and "molecule" were used almost without difference. He considered that there were three kinds of "molecules," including an "elementary molecule" (our "atom"). Also, a keener attention was given to the definition of mass, as distinguished from weight.


keener attention was given to the definition of mass, as distinguished from weight.


In 1814 he published Mémoire sur les masses relatives des molécules des corps simples, ou densités présumées de leur gaz, et sur la constitution de quelques-uns de leur composés, pour servir de suite à l'Essai sur le même sujet, publié dans le Journal de Physique, juillet 1811 (), about gas densities.


In 1821 he published another memoria, Nouvelles considérations sur la théorie des proportions déterminées dans les combinaisons, et sur la détermination des masses des molécules des corps and little after Mémoire sur la manière de ramener les composès organiques aux lois ordinaires des proportions déterminées.


In 1841 he completed and published his work in Fisica dei corpi ponderabili, ossia Trattato della costituzione materiale de' corpi, 4 volumes.


The scientific community did not reserve great attention to his theory, so Avogadro's hypothesis was not immediately accepted when announced. André-Marie Ampère too was able three years later to achieve the same result by another method (in his Sur la détermination des proportions dans lesquelles les corps se combinent d'après le nombre et la disposition respective des molécules dont leurs particules intégrantes sont composées), but the same indifferent regard was given to his theories as well.


Only with studies by Gerhardt, Laurent and Williamson on organic chemistry, was it possible to demonstrate that Avogadro's law was indispensable to explain why same quantities of molecules, brought to a vapour state, have the same volume.


Unfortunately, in the performance of related experiments, some inorganic substances showed exceptions to the law. The matter was finally concluded by Stanislao Cannizzaro, as announced at Karlsruhe Congress (1860, four years after Avogadro's death), where he explained that these exceptions happened because of molecular dissociations which occurred at certain temperatures, and that Avogadro's law could determine not only molar masses, but as a consequence, atomic masses too.


In 1911, a historic meeting took place in Turin to commemorate the hundredth anniversary of the publication of Avogadro's classic 1811 memoir. King Victor Emmanuel III was there to pay homage to Avogadro. Thus Avogadro's great contribution to chemistry was recognised and he is recognised as a great Italian chemist. (Note: In 1911, Victor Emmanuel III was the King of a unified Italy with Rome instead or Turin as its capital. The unification of Italy did not happen during the life time of Avogadro. In fact, Avogadro's famous 1811 paper was written in French.)


Clausius, by his kinetic theory on gases, was able to give another confirmation of Avogadro's law. Not long after, in his researches regarding dilute solutions (and the consequent discovery of analogies between the behaviour of solutions and gases), J. H. van 't Hoff added his final consensus for the triumph of the Italian scientist, who since then has been considered the founder of the atomic-molecular theory.


* Morselli, Mario. (1984). Amedeo Avogadro, a scientific biography. Kluwer. ISBN 9027716242.


The Republic of Indonesia ( ) ( ), is a nation in Southeast Asia. Comprising 17,508 islands, it is the world's largest archipelagic state. With a population of over 234 million people, it is the world's fourth most populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority nation, although officially it is not an Islamic state. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected parliament and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, the Philippines, Australia, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.


The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the seventh century, when the Srivijaya Kingdom formed trade links with China. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Under Indian influence, Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished from the early centuries CE. Muslim traders brought Islam, and European powers fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Exploration. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change.


iods of rapid economic change.


Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of distinct ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. The Javanese are the largest and politically dominant ethnic group. As a unitary state and a nation, Indonesia has developed a shared identity defined by a national language, a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesia's national motto, "Bhinneka tunggal ika" ("Unity in Diversity" lit. "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that shapes the country. However, sectarian tensions and separatism have led to violent confrontations that have undermined political and economic stability. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the world's second highest level of biodiversity. The country is richly endowed with natural resources, yet poverty is a defining feature of contempor


the world's second highest level of biodiversity. The country is richly endowed with natural resources, yet poverty is a defining feature of contemporary Indonesia.


The name Indonesia derives from the Latin Indus, meaning "India", and the Greek nesos, meaning "island".    The name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia.      In 1850, George Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians and, his preference, Malayunesians for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago".    In the same publication, a student of Earl's, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago.  ;    However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia. Instead, they used the terms Malay Archipelago (Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost IndiÃ«), popularly IndiÃ«; the East (de Oost); and even Insulinde. (This term was introduced in 1860 in the influential novel Max Havelaar (1859), written by Multatuli, cri


iÃ«; the East (de Oost); and even Insulinde. (This term was introduced in 1860 in the influential novel Max Havelaar (1859), written by Multatuli, critical of Dutch colonialism).


From 1900, the name Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and Indonesian nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.    Adolf Bastian, of the University of Berlin, popularized the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayichen Archipels, 1884â1894. The first Indonesian scholar to use the name was Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara), when he established a press bureau in the Netherlands with the name Indonesisch Pers-bureau in 1913.


As early as the first century CE Indonesian vessels made trade voyages as far as Africa. Picture: a ship carved on Borobudur, circa 800 CE.


Fossilized remains of Homo erectus, popularly known as the "Java Man", suggest the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago.


cited in  ;


cited in


Austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and confined the native Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions as they expanded. Taylor (2003), pages 5â7  Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century BCE,


allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. Indonesia's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade. For example, trade links with both Indian kingdoms and China were established several centuries BCE.    Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history. Taylor (2003), pages 3, 9, 10â11, 13, 14â15, 18â20, 22â23; Vickers (2005), pages 18â20, 60, 133â134


The nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's Banda Islands. Once one of the world's most valuable commodities, it drew the first European colonial powers to Indonesia.


From the seventh century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it. Taylor (2003), pages 22â26; Ricklefs (1991), page 3  Between the eighth and 10th centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much of Indonesia; this period is often referred to as a "Golden Age" in Indonesian history.


Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the earliest evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra. Ricklefs (1991), pages 3 to 14  Other Indonesia areas gradually adopted Islam which became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java. Ricklefs (1991), pages 12â14  The first Europeans arrived in Indonesia in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco SerrÃ£o, sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in Maluku.     Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following


Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony. Ricklefs (1991), page 24


For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over these territories was tenuous; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries. Dutch troops were constantly engaged in quelling rebellions both on and off Java. The influence of local leaders such as Prince Diponegoro in central Java, Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra and Pattimura in Maluku, and a bloody thirty-year war in Aceh weakened the Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces.(Schwartz 1999, pages 3â4) Despite major internal political, social and sectarian divisions during the National Revolution, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence.  The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation during WWII ended Dutch rule,  ;    and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan


during WWII ended Dutch rule,  ;    and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed president.  ;  ;  ; Reid (1973), page 30  The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, and a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognized Indonesian independence.  ;


Sukarno, Indonesia's founding president


Sukarno moved from democracy towards authoritarianism, and maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of the Military, Islam, and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI). Ricklefs (1991), pages 237 - 280  An attempted coup on September 30 1965 was countered by the army, who led a  violent anti-communist purge, during which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed. Friend (2003), pages 107â109;  ; Ricklefs (1991), pages 280â283, 284, 287â290  Between 500,000 and one million people were killed.  ;    The head of the military, General Suharto, out-maneuvered the politically weakened Sukarno, and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His New Order administration    was supported by the US government, US National Archives, RG 59 Records of Department of State; cable no. 868, ref: Embtel 852, Oct 5 1965. ; Adrian Vickers, A History of Modern Indo


nt, US National Archives, RG 59 Records of Department of State; cable no. 868, ref: Embtel 852, Oct 5 1965. ; Adrian Vickers, A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press, p. 163; 2005; David Slater, Geopolitics and the Post-Colonial: Rethinking North-South Relations, London: Blackwell, p. 70  and encouraged foreign investment in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth  ;  ;


In 1997 and 1998, however, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian Financial Crisis.    This increased popular discontent with the New Order


and led to popular protests. Suharto resigned on May 21 1998.


In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after a twenty-five-year occupation, which was marked by international condemnation of repression and human rights abuses.  ;


The Reformasi era following Suharto's resignation, has led to a strengthening of democratic processes, including a regional autonomy program, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism have slowed progress. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problems in some areas.    A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005.


Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitary state, power is concentrated in the national government. Following the resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesian political and governmental structures have undergone major reforms. Four amendments to the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia In 1999, 2000, 2001 and 2002  have revamped the executive, judicial, and legislative branches.    The president of Indonesia is the head of state, commander-in-chief of the Indonesian Armed Forces, and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who are not required to be elected members of the legislature. The 2004 presidential election was the first in which the people directly elected the president and vice president.    The president serves a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms. _ (2002), The four


the people directly elected the president and vice president.    The president serves a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms. _ (2002), The fourth Amendment of 1945 Indonesia Constitution, Chapter III â The Executive Power, Art. 7.


A session of the People's Representative Council in Jakarta


The highest representative body at national level is the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating the president, and formalizing broad outlines of state policy. It has the power to impeach the president.      The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council (DPR), with 550 members, and the Regional Representatives Council (DPD), with 168 members. The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch; party-aligned members are elected for five-year terms by proportional representation.  Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased the DPR's role in national governance. Reforms include total control of statutes production without executive branch interventions; all members are now elected (reserved seats for military representatives have now been removed); and the introduction of fundamental ri


interventions; all members are now elected (reserved seats for military representatives have now been removed); and the introduction of fundamental rights exclusive to the DPR. (see Harijanti and Lindsey 2006)  The DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management. Based on the 2001 constitution amendment, the DPD comprises four popularly elected non-partisan members from each of the thirty-three provinces for national political representation.


Most civil disputes appear before a State Court; appeals are heard before the High Court. The Supreme Court is the country's highest court, and hears final cassation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court, which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; a State Administrative Court to hear administrative law cases against the government; a Constitutional Court to hear disputes concerning legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of state institutions; and a Religious Court to deal with specific religious cases.


In contrast to Sukarno's antipathy to western powers and hostility to Malaysia, Indonesia's foreign relations approach since the Suharto "New Order" has been one of international cooperation and accommodation, to gain external support for Indonesia's political stability and economic development.    Indonesia maintains close relationships with its neighbors in Asia, and is a founding member of ASEAN and the East Asia Summit.    The nation restored relations with the People's Republic of China in 1990 following a freeze in place since anti-communist purges early in the Suharto era.  Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia temporarily withdrew from the UN on January 20 1965 in response to the fact that Malaysia was elected as a non-permanent member of the Security Council. It announced its intention to "resume full cooperation with the United Nations and to r


was elected as a non-permanent member of the Security Council. It announced its intention to "resume full cooperation with the United Nations and to resume participation in its activities" on September 19 1966, and was invited to re-join the UN on September 28 1966.  and was a founder of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC).  Indonesia is signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, and a member of OPEC, the Cairns Group and the WTO. Indonesia has received humanitarian and development aid since 1966, in particular from the United States, western Europe, Australia, and Japan.


National flags at the site of the 2002 terrorist bombing in Kuta, Bali


The Indonesian Government has worked with other countries to apprehend and prosecute perpetrators of major bombings linked to militant Islamism and Al-Qaeda.  ;    The deadliest killed 202 people (including 164 international tourists) in the Bali resort town of Kuta in 2002.    The attacks, and subsequent travel warnings issued by other countries, have severely damaged Indonesia's tourism industry and foreign investment prospects.


Indonesia's 300,000-member armed forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI-AD), Navy (TNI-AL, which includes marines), and Air Force (TNI-AU).    The army has about 233,000 active-duty personnel. Defense spending in the national budget was 4% of GDP in 2006, and is controversially supplemented by revenue from military commercial interests and foundations.    In the post-Suharto period since 1998, formal TNI representation in parliament has been removed; though curtailed, its political influence remains extensive. Friend (2003), pages 473â475, 484  Separatist movements in the provinces of Aceh and Papua have led to armed conflict, and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides. Friend (2003), pages 270â273, 477â480;    Following a sporadic thirty year guerrilla war between the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and the Indonesian military, a ceasefire agreement was re


480;    Following a sporadic thirty year guerrilla war between the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and the Indonesian military, a ceasefire agreement was reached in 2005.  ;    In Papua, there has been a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence and human rights abuses, since the presidency of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.  ;


Provinces of Indonesia


Administratively, Indonesia consists of 33 provinces, five of which have special status. Each province has its own political legislature and governor. The provinces are subdivided into regencies (kabupaten) and (kota), which are further subdivided into subdistricts (kecamatan), and again into village groupings (either desa or kelurahan). Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, the regencies and cities have become the key administrative units, responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life, and handles matters of a village or neighborhood through an elected lurah or kepala desa (village chief).


Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, and West Papua provinces have greater legislative privileges and a higher degree of autonomy from the central government than the other provinces. The Acehnese government, for example, has the right to create an independent legal system; in 2003, it instituted a form of Sharia (Islamic law).    Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special Region in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting Indonesian Republicans during the Indonesian Revolution. The positions of governor and its vice governor are prioritized for descendants of the Sultan of Yogyakarta and Paku Alam, respectively, much like a sultanate. (Elucidation on the Indonesia Law No. 22/1999 Regarding Regional Governance. People's Representative Council (1999). Chapter XIV Other Provisions, Art. 122;   (translated version). The President of Republic of Indonesia (1974). Chapter VII Transitional


ouncil (1999). Chapter XIV Other Provisions, Art. 122;   (translated version). The President of Republic of Indonesia (1974). Chapter VII Transitional Provisions, Art. 91  Papua, formerly known as Irian Jaya, was granted special autonomy status in 2001. As part of the autonomy package was the introduction of the Papuan People's Council tasked with arbitration and speaking on behalf of Papuan tribal customs, however, the implementation of the autonomy measures has been criticized as half-hearted and incomplete.  ;    Jakarta is the country's special capital region.


;Indonesian provinces and their capitals


(Indonesian name in brackets where different from English)


â   indicates provinces with Special Status


Sumatra


Java


Lesser Sunda Islands


Kalimantan


Sulawesi


Maluku islands


Papua


Map of Indonesia


Indonesia consists of 17,508 islands, about 6,000 of which are inhabited.  ;    These are scattered over both sides of the equator. The five largest islands are Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan (the Indonesian part of Borneo), New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea), and Sulawesi. Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on the island of Borneo, Sebatik, Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, and East Timor on the island of Timor.  Indonesia also shares borders with Singapore, Malaysia, and the Philippines to the north and Australia to the south across narrow straits of water.  The capital, Jakarta, is on Java and is the nation's largest city, followed by Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, and Semarang.


At 1,919,440 square kilometers (741,050 sq mi), Indonesia is the world's 16th-largest country in terms of land area.    Its average population density is 134 people per square kilometer (347 per sq mi), 79th in the world,    although Java, the world's most populous island,    has a population density of 940 people per square kilometer (2,435 per sq mi). At 4,884 meters (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya in Papua is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra its largest lake, with an area of 1,145 square kilometers (442 sq mi). The country's largest rivers are in Kalimantan, and include the Mahakam and Barito; such rivers are communication and transport links between the island's river settlements.


Mount Semeru and Mount Bromo in East Java. Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is among the world's highest.


Indonesia's location on the edges of the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian tectonic plates, makes it the site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. Indonesia has at least 150 active volcanoes,    including Krakatoa and Tambora, both famous for their devastating eruptions in the 19th century. The eruption of the Toba supervolcano, approximately 70,000 years ago, was one of the largest eruptions ever, and a global catastrophe. Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 tsunami that killed an estimated 167,736 in northern Sumatra,    and the Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006. However, volcanic ash is a major contributor to the high agricultural fertility that has historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali.


and Bali.


Lying along the equator, Indonesia has a tropical climate, with two distinct monsoonal wet and dry seasons. Average annual rainfall in the lowlands varies from 1,780â3,175 millimeters (70â125 in), and up to 6,100 millimeters (240 in) in mountainous regions. Mountainous areas particularly in the west coast of Sumatra, West Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua receive the highest rainfall. Humidity is generally high, averaging about 80%. Temperatures vary little throughout the year; the average daily temperature range of Jakarta is 26â30 Â°C (79â86 Â°F).


The critically endangered Sumatran Orangutan, a great ape endemic to Indonesia


Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography, support the world's second highest level of biodiversity (after Brazil),    and its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian and Australasian species.    Once linked to the Asian mainland, the islands of the Sunda Shelf (Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Borneo, and Bali) have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the tiger, rhinoceros, orangutan, elephant, and leopard, were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically.


Forests cover approximately 60% of the country.    In Sumatra and Kalimantan, these are predominantly of Asian species. However, the forests of the smaller, and more densely populated Java, have largely been removed for human habitation and agriculture. Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku having been long separated from the continental landmasses have developed their own unique flora and fauna.  ;    Papua was part of the Australian landmass, and is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species.


Indonesia's 80,000 kilometers (50,000 mi) of coastline are surrounded by tropical seas that contribute to the country's high level of biodiversity. Indonesia has a range of sea and coastal ecosystems, including beaches, sand dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems.


The British naturalist, Alfred Wallace, described a dividing line between the distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species.    Known as the Wallace Line, it runs roughly north-south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait, between Lombok and Bali. West of the line the flora and fauna are more Asian; moving east from Lombok, they are increasingly Australian. In his 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago, Wallace described numerous species unique to the surrounding area,  ,  which is now termed Wallacea.


Indonesia's high population and rapid industrialization present serious environmental issues, which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.    Issues include large-scale deforestation (much of it illegal) and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanization and economic development, including air pollution, traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.  Habitat destruction threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species of mammals identified by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as threatened, and 15 identified as critically endangered, including the Sumatran Orangutan.


on (IUCN) as threatened, and 15 identified as critically endangered, including the Sumatran Orangutan.


Using water buffalo to plough rice fields in Java. Agriculture has been the country's largest employer for centuries.


Indonesia's estimated Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for 2007 is US$408 billion (US$1,038 bn PPP).    In 2007, estimated nominal per capita GDP is US$1,812, and per capita GDP PPP was US$4,616 (International Dollars).    The services sector is the economy's largest and accounts for 45.3% of GDP (2005). This is followed by industry (40.7%) and agriculture (14.0%).    However, agriculture employs more people than other sectors, accounting for 44.3% of the 95 million-strong workforce. This is followed by the services sector (36.9%) and industry (18.8%).    Major industries include petroleum and natural gas, textiles, apparel, and mining. Major agricultural products include palm oil, rice, tea, coffee, spices, and rubber.


Indonesia's main export markets are Japan (22.3% of Indonesian exports in 2005), the United States (13.9%), China (9.1%), and Singapore (8.9%). The major suppliers of imports to Indonesia are Japan (18.0%), China (16.1%), and Singapore (12.8%). In 2005, Indonesia ran a trade surplus with export revenues of US$83.64 billion and import expenditure of US$62.02 billion. The country has extensive natural resources, including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper, and gold. Indonesia's major imports include machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, and foodstuffs.


Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia and its largest commercial center


In the 1960s, the economy deteriorated drastically as a result of political instability, a young and inexperienced government, and ill-disciplined economic nationalism, which resulted in severe poverty and hunger. By the time of Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the economy was in chaos with 1,000% annual inflation, shrinking export revenues, crumbling infrastructure, factories operating at minimal capacity, and negligible investment. Schwarz (1994), pages 52â57  Following President Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the New Order administration brought a degree of discipline to economic policy that quickly brought inflation down, stabilized the currency, rescheduled foreign debt, and attracted foreign aid and investment. Schwarz (1994), pages 52â57  Indonesia is Southeast Asia's only member of OPEC, and the 1970s oil price raises provided an export revenue windfall that contrib


94), pages 52â57  Indonesia is Southeast Asia's only member of OPEC, and the 1970s oil price raises provided an export revenue windfall that contributed to sustained high economic growth rates. averaging over 7% from 1968 to 1981. Schwarz (1994), pages 52â57  Following further reforms in the late 1980s,


Following a slowing of growth in the 1980s, due to over regulation and dependence on declining oil prices, growth slowed to an average of 4.3% per annum between 1981 and 1988. A range of economic reforms were introduced in the late 1980s. Reforms included a managed devaluation of the rupiah to improve export competitiveness, and de-regulation of the financial sector (Schwarz (1994), pages 52â57).  foreign investment flowed into Indonesia, particularly into the rapidly developing export-orientated manufacturing sector, and from 1989 to 1997, the Indonesian economy grew by an average of over 7%. Schwarz (1994), pages 52â57;


Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian financial crisis of 1997â98. Against the US dollar, the currency dropped from about Rp. 2,000 to Rp. 18,000, and the economy shrunk by 13.7%.    The rupiah has since stabilized at around Rp. 10,000, and there has been a slow but significant economic recovery. Political instability since 1998, slow economic reform, and corruption at all levels of government and business, have contributed to the patchy nature of the recovery.  ; ;  (subsequent correction)   (Transparency International, for example, ranked Indonesia 143rd out of 180 countries in its 2007 Corruption Perceptions Index).    GDP growth, however, exceeded 5% in both 2004 and 2005, and is forecast to increase further.    This growth rate, however, is not enough to make a significant impact on unemployment,    (subsequent correction);    and stagnant wages growth, and incre


growth rate, however, is not enough to make a significant impact on unemployment,    (subsequent correction);    and stagnant wages growth, and increases in fuel and rice prices have worsened poverty levels. In 2005, the Government was forced to reduce its large subsidies on fuel prices drastically as international oil prices climbed, which was a major contributor to inflation and hardship.


As of 2006, an estimated 17.8% of the population live below the poverty line, and 49.0% of the population live on less than US$2 per day.


The national population from the 2000 national census is 206 million,    and the Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau and Statistics Indonesia estimate a population of 222 million for 2006.    130 million people live on the island of Java, the world's most populous island.    Despite a fairly effective family planning program, which has been in place since the 1960s, the population is expected to grow to around 315 million in 2035, based on the current estimated annual growth rate of 1.25%.


A Minangkabau woman in traditional dress


Most Indonesians are descendant from Austronesian-speaking peoples, who originated from Taiwan. The other major grouping are Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia. Taylor (2003), pages 5â7,  ;    There are around 300 distinct native ethnicities in Indonesia, and 742 different languages and dialects.  ;    The largest is the Javanese, who comprise 42% of the population, and are politically and culturally dominant.    The Sundanese, ethnic Malays, and Madurese are the largest non-Javanese groups. Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians, Europeans and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas.  A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strongly maintained regional identities. Ricklefs (1991), page 256  Society is largely harmonious, although social, religious and ethnic tensions have triggered horrendous violence.  Domestic migration (including the off


ciety is largely harmonious, although social, religious and ethnic tensions have triggered horrendous violence.  Domestic migration (including the official Transmigrasi program) are a cause of violence such as the massacre of hundreds of Madurese by a local Dayak community in West Kalimantan, and conflicts in Maluku, Central Sulawesi, and parts of Papua and West Papua  ;  ;  ; Kyoto University: Sulawesi Kaken Team & Center for Southeast Asian Studies    Chinese Indonesians are an influential ethnic minority comprising less than 2% of the population. Much of the country's privately-owned commerce and wealth is Chinese-controlled, Schwarz (1994), pages 53, 80â81; Friend (2003), pages 85â87, 164â165, 233â237  which has contributed to considerable resentment, and even anti-Chinese violence.  ;   The riots in Jakarta in 1998 much of which were aimed at the Chinese were, in part, expre


onsiderable resentment, and even anti-Chinese violence.  ;   The riots in Jakarta in 1998 much of which were aimed at the Chinese were, in part, expressions of this resentment. ;


The official national language, Indonesian, is universally taught in schools, and is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. It is the language of business, politics, national media, education, and academia. It was originally a lingua franca for most of the region, including present-day Malaysia, and is thus closely related to Malay. Indonesian was first promoted by nationalists in the 1920s, and declared the official language on independence in 1945. Most Indonesians speak at least one of the several hundred local languages (bahasa daerah), often as their first language. Of these, Javanese is the most widely-spoken, the language of the largest ethnic group.  - The World Factbook. Retrieved on August 14, 2007.   On the other hand, Papua has 500 or more indigenous Papuan and Austronesian languages, in a region of just 2.7 million people.


or more indigenous Papuan and Austronesian languages, in a region of just 2.7 million people.


Medan's Masjid Raya ('Great Mosque'). Indonesia has the world's largest Muslim population.


Although religious freedom is stipulated in the Indonesian constitution,    the government officially recognizes only six religions: Islam; Protestantism; Roman Catholicism; Hinduism; Buddhism; and Confucianism.    Although it is not an Islamic state, Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority nation, with almost 86% of Indonesians declared Muslim according to the 2000 census.    11% of the population is Christian, of which roughly two-thirds are Protestant  2% are Hindu, and 1% Buddhist. Most Indonesian Hindus are Balinese,    and most Buddhists in modern-day Indonesia are ethnic Chinese.    Though now minority religions, Hinduism and Buddhism remain defining influences in Indonesian culture. Islam was first adopted by Indonesians in northern Sumatra in the 13th century, through the influence of traders, and became the country's dominant religion by the 16th century.    Roma


ans in northern Sumatra in the 13th century, through the influence of traders, and became the country's dominant religion by the 16th century.    Roman Catholicism was brought to Indonesia by early Portuguese colonialists and missionaries, Ricklefs (1991), pp. 25, 26, 28 ;    and the Protestant denominations are largely a result of Dutch Calvinist and Lutheran missionary efforts during the country's colonial period. Ricklefs (1991), pp.28, 62; Vickers (2005), p.22;    A large proportion of Indonesians such as the Javanese abangan, Balinese Hindus, and Dayak Christians practice a less orthodox, syncretic form of their religion, which draws on local customs and beliefs. Magnis-Suseno, F. 1981, Javanese Ethics and World-View: The Javanese Idea of the Good Life, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 1997, pp.15-18, ISBN 979-605-406-X;


of the Good Life, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 1997, pp.15-18, ISBN 979-605-406-X;


A Wayang kulit shadow puppet performance as seen by the audience


Indonesia has around 300 ethnic groups, each with cultural differences developed over centuries, and influenced by Arabic, Chinese, Malay, and European sources. Traditional Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and mythology, as do wayang kulit (shadow puppet) performances. Textiles such as batik, ikat and songket are created across Indonesia in styles that vary by region. The most dominant influences on Indonesian architecture have traditionally been Indian; however, Chinese, Arab, and European architectural influences have been significant. The most popular sports in Indonesia are badminton and football; Liga Indonesia is the country's premier football club league. Traditional sports include sepak takraw, and bull racing in Madura. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as, caci in Flores, and pasola in Sum


raw, and bull racing in Madura. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as, caci in Flores, and pasola in Sumba. Pencak Silat is an Indonesian martial art. Sports in Indonesia are generally male-orientated and spectator sports are often associated with illegal gambling.


A selection of Indonesian food, including Soto Ayam (chicken noodle soup), sate kerang (shellfish kebabs), telor pindang (preserved eggs), perkedel (fritter), and es teh manis (sweet iced tea)


Indonesian cuisine varies by region and is based on Chinese, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents.    Rice is the main staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chili), coconut milk, fish and chicken are fundamental ingredients. Compared to the infused flavors of Vietnamese and Thai food, flavors in Indonesia are kept relatively separate, simple and substantial.   Indonesian traditional music includes gamelan and keroncong. Dangdut is a popular contemporary genre of pop music that draws influence from Arabic, Indian, and Malay folk music. The Indonesian film industry's popularity peaked in the 1980s and dominated cinemas in Indonesia,    although it declined significantly in the early 1990s.      Between 2000 and 2005, the number of Indonesian films released each year has steadily increased.


s.      Between 2000 and 2005, the number of Indonesian films released each year has steadily increased.


The oldest evidence of writing in Indonesia is a series of Sanskrit inscriptions dated to the 5th century CE. Important figures in modern Indonesian literature include: Dutch author Multatuli, who criticized treatment of the Indonesians under Dutch colonial rule; Sumatrans Muhammad Yamin and Hamka, who were influential pre-independence nationalist writers and politicians; Taylor (2003), pages 299â301  and proletarian writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesia's most famous novelist. Vickers (2005) pages 3 to 7; Friend (2003), pages 74, 180  Many of Indonesia's peoples have strongly-rooted oral traditions, which help to define and preserve their cultural identities.    Media freedom in Indonesia increased considerably after the end of President Suharto's rule, during which the now-defunct Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media, and restricted foreign media.    The


nt Suharto's rule, during which the now-defunct Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media, and restricted foreign media.    The TV market includes ten national commercial networks, and provincial networks that compete with public TVRI. Private radio stations carry their own news bulletins and foreign broadcasters supply programs. At a reported 18 million users in 2005,    Internet usage is limited to a minority of the population.


; Government


; Other


Antoine Henri Becquerel (December 15, 1852 ; August 25, 1908) was a French physicist, Nobel laureate, and one of the discoverers of radioactivity. He won the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering radioactivity.


Becquerel was born in Paris into a family which, including he and his son Jean, produced four generations of scientists. He studied science at the Ãcole Polytechnique and engineering at the Ãcole des Ponts et ChaussÃ©es. In 1890 he married Louise DÃ©sirÃ©e Lorieux.


In 1892, he became the third in his family to occupy the physics chair at the MusÃ©um National d'Histoire Naturelle. In 1894, he became chief engineer in the Department of Bridges and Highways.


In 1896, while investigating phosphorescence in uranium salts, Becquerel accidentally discovered radioactivity. Investigating the work of Wilhelm Conrad RÃ¶ntgen, Becquerel wrapped a fluorescent substance, potassium uranyl sulfate, in photographic plates and black material in preparation for an experiment requiring bright sunlight. However, prior to actually performing the experiment, Becquerel found that the photographic plates were fully exposed. This discovery led Becquerel to investigate the spontaneous emission of nuclear radiation.


Describing his method to the French Academy of Sciences on January 24, 1896, he said,


One wraps a LumiÃ¨re photographic plate with a bromide emulsion in two sheets of very thick black paper, such that the plate does not become clouded upon being exposed to the sun for a day. One places on the sheet of paper, on the outside, a slab of the phosphorescent substance, and one exposes the whole to the sun for several hours. When one then develops the photographic plate, one recognizes that the silhouette of the phosphorescent substance appears in black on the negative. If one places between the phosphorescent substance and the paper a piece of money or a metal screen pierced with a cut-out design, one sees the image of these objects appear on the negative. â¦ One must conclude from these experiments that the phosphorescent substance in question emits rays which pass through the  opaque paper and reduces silver salts.    Comptes Rendus 122, 420 (1896),  translated by Carmen Giu


nce in question emits rays which pass through the  opaque paper and reduces silver salts.    Comptes Rendus 122, 420 (1896),  translated by Carmen Giunta. Accessed September 10, 2006.


In 1903, he shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Pierre and Marie Curie "in recognition of the extraordinary services he has rendered by his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity".


In 1908, the year of his death, Becquerel was elected Permanent Secretary of the AcadÃ©mie des Sciences. He died at the age of 55 in Le Croisic.


The SI unit for radioactivity, the becquerel (Bq), is named after him, and there is a Becquerel crater on the Moon and a Becquerel crater on Mars.


Egypt (Egyptian: Kemet; Coptic:   KÄ«mi;     ; Egyptian Arabic:  ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country in North Africa that includes the Sinai Peninsula, a land bridge to Asia. Covering an area of about  , Egypt borders Libya to the west, Sudan to the south, and the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. The northern coast borders the Mediterranean Sea and the island of Cyprus; the eastern coast borders the Red Sea.


Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa. The great majority of its estimated 78 million people (2007) live near the banks of the Nile River in an area of about   where the only arable agricultural land is found. The large areas of the Sahara Desert are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with the majority spread across the densely populated centers of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.


Egypt is famous for its ancient civilization and some of the world's most famous monuments, including the Giza pyramid complex and the Great Sphinx.  The southern city of Luxor contains numerous ancient artifacts, such as the Karnak Temple and the Valley of the Kings. Egypt is widely regarded as an important political and cultural nation of the Middle East.


One of the ancient Egyptian names of the country, Kemet ( ), or "black land" (from kem "black"), is derived from the fertile black soils deposited by the Nile floods, distinct from the deshret, or "red land" ( ), of the desert. The name is realized as   and   in the Coptic stage of the Egyptian language, and appeared in early Greek as   ( ). Another name was   "land of the riverbank". The names of Upper and Lower Egypt were Ta-Sheme'aw  ( ) "sedgeland" and Ta-Mehew ( ) "northland", respectively.


, the Arabic and modern official name of Egypt (Egyptian Arabic:  ), is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew   ( ), literally meaning "the two straits" (a reference to the dynastic separation of upper and lower Egypt).  Biblical Hebrew E-Magazine. January, 2005  The word originally connoted "metropolis" or "civilization" and also means "country", or "frontier-land".


The English name "Egypt" came via the Latin word   derived from the ancient Greek word AÃgyptos ( ). The adjective aigÃ½pti, aigÃ½ptios was borrowed into Coptic as gyptios, kyptios, and from there into Arabic as  , back formed into  , whence English Copt. The term is derived from Late Egyptian Hikuptah "Memphis", a corruption of the earlier Egyptian name Hat-ka-Ptah ( ), meaning "home of the ka (soul) of Ptah", the name of a temple to the god Ptah at Memphis.  Strabo provided a folk etymology according to which AÃgyptos ( ) had evolved as a compound from   ( ), meaning "below the Aegean".


The Nile River in Egypt


The Nile has been a site of continuous human habitation since at least the Paleolithic era. Evidence of this appears in the form of artifacts and rock carvings along the Nile terraces and in the desert oases. In the 10th millennium BC, a culture of hunter-gatherers and fishers replaced a grain-grinding culture. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 8000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt,  forming the Sahara. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society. Midant-Reynes, BÃ©atrix. The Prehistory of Egypt: From the First Egyptians to the First Kings. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.


By about 6000 BC, organized agriculture and large building construction had appeared in the Nile Valley. During the Neolithic era, several predynastic cultures developed independently in Upper and Lower Egypt. The Badarian culture and the successor Naqada series are generally regarded as precursors to Dynastic Egyptian civilization. The earliest known Lower Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the Badarian by about seven hundred years. Contemporaneous Lower Egyptian communities coexisted with their southern counterparts for more than two thousand years, remaining somewhat culturally separate, but maintaining frequent contact through trade. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions appeared during the predynastic period on Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BC. Bard, Kathryn A. Ian Shaw, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford U


n Naqada III pottery vessels, dated to about 3200 BC. Bard, Kathryn A. Ian Shaw, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. p. 69.


A unified kingdom was founded circa 3150 BC by King Menes, giving rise to a series of dynasties that ruled Egypt for the next three millennia. Egyptians subsequently referred to their unified country as tawy, meaning "two lands",  and later kemet (Coptic: kÄ«mi), the "black land", a reference to the fertile black soil deposited by the Nile river. Egyptian culture flourished during this long period and remained distinctively Egyptian in its religion, arts, language and customs. The first two ruling dynasties of a unified Egypt set the stage for the Old Kingdom period, c.2700â2200 BC., famous for its many pyramids, most notably the Third Dynasty pyramid of Djoser and the Fourth Dynasty Giza Pyramids.


The Great Sphinx and the Pyramids of Giza, built during the Old Kingdom, are modern national icons that are  at the heart of Egypt's thriving tourism industry.


The First Intermediate Period ushered in a time of political upheaval for about 150 years. Stronger Nile floods and stabilization of government, however, brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the Middle Kingdom c. 2040 BC, reaching a peak during the reign of Pharaoh Amenemhat III. A second period of disunity heralded the arrival of the first foreign ruling dynasty in Egypt, that of the Semitic Hyksos. The Hyksos invaders took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BC and founded a new capital at Avaris. They were driven out by an Upper Egyptian force led by Ahmose I, who founded the Eighteenth Dynasty and relocated the capital from Memphis to Thebes.


The New Kingdom (c.1550â1070 BC) began with the Eighteenth Dynasty, marking the rise of Egypt as an international power that expanded during its greatest extension to an empire as far south as Jebel Barkal in Nubia, and included parts of the Levant in the east. This period is noted for some of the most well-known Pharaohs, including Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti, Tutankhamun and Ramesses II. The first known self-conscious expression of monotheism came during this period in the form of Atenism. Frequent contacts with other nations brought new ideas to the New Kingdom. The country was later invaded by Libyans, Nubians and Assyrians, but native Egyptians drove them out and regained control of their country.


First built in the third or fourth century AD, the Hanging Church is Cairo's most famous Coptic church.


The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native ruling dynasty during the Pharaonic epoch. It fell to the Persians in 343 BC after the last native Pharaoh, King Nectanebo II, was defeated in battle. Later, Egypt fell to the Greeks and Romans, beginning over two thousand years of foreign rule.


Before Egypt became part of the Byzantine realm, Christianity had been brought by Saint Mark the Evangelist in the AD first century. Diocletian's reign marked the transition from the Roman to the Byzantine era in Egypt, when a great number of Egyptian Christians were persecuted. The New Testament had by then been translated into Egyptian.  After the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, a distinct Egyptian Coptic Church was firmly established. Kamil, Jill. Coptic Egypt: History and Guide. Cairo: American University in Cairo, 1997. p. 39


The Byzantines were able to regain control of the country after a brief Persian invasion early in the seventh century, until in AD 639, Egypt was invaded by the Muslim Arabs. The form of Islam the Arabs brought to Egypt was Sunni.  Early in this period, Egyptians began to blend their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices that had survived through Coptic Christianity, giving rise to various Sufi orders that have flourished to this day. El-Daly, Okasha. Egyptology: The Missing Millennium. London: UCL Press, 2005. p. 140  Muslim rulers nominated by the Islamic Caliphate remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries, including a period for which it was the seat of the Caliphate under the Fatimids. With the end of the Ayyubid dynasty, the Mamluks, a Turco-Circassian military caste, took control about AD 1250.  They continued to govern even after the conquest of Egypt by th


dynasty, the Mamluks, a Turco-Circassian military caste, took control about AD 1250.  They continued to govern even after the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517.


Mosque of Mohamed Ali built in the early nineteenth century within the Cairo Citadel.


The brief French Invasion of Egypt led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798 had a great social impact on the country and its culture. Native Egyptians became exposed to the principles of the French Revolution and had a chance to exercise self-governance. Vatikiotis, P.J. The History of Modern Egypt. 4th edition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1992, p. 39  A series of civil wars took place between the Ottoman Turks, the Mamluks, and Albanian mercenaries following the evacuation of French troops, resulting in the Albanian Muhammad Ali (Kavalali Mehmed Ali Pasha) taking control of Egypt.  He was appointed as the Ottoman viceroy in 1805. He led a modernization campaign of public works, including irrigation projects, agricultural reforms and increased industrialization, which were then taken up and further expanded by his grandson and successor Isma'il Pasha.


eased industrialization, which were then taken up and further expanded by his grandson and successor Isma'il Pasha.


Following the completion of the Suez Canal by Ismail in 1869, Egypt became an important world transportation and trading hub. In 1866, the Assembly of Delegates was founded to serve as an advisory body for the government. Its members were elected from across Egypt.  They came to have an important influence on governmental affairs. Jankowski, James. Egypt: A Short History. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2000. p. 83  The country fell heavily into debt to European powers. Ostensibly to protect its investments, the United Kingdom seized control of Egypt's government in 1882.  Egypt gave nominal allegiance to the Ottoman Empire until 1914. As a result of the declaration of war with the Ottoman Empire, Britain declared a protectorate over Egypt and deposed the Khedive Abbas II, replacing him with his uncle, Husayn Kamil, who was appointed Sultan.


nd deposed the Khedive Abbas II, replacing him with his uncle, Husayn Kamil, who was appointed Sultan.


Public riot during the 1919 Revolution sparked by the British exile of nationalist leader Saad Zaghlul.Between 1882 and 1906, a local nationalist movement for independence was taking shape. The Dinshaway Incident prompted Egyptian opposition to take a stronger stand against British occupation.  The first political parties were founded. After the First World War, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led the Egyptian nationalist movement, gaining a majority at the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to Malta on March 8, 1919, the country arose in its first modern revolution. Constant revolting by the Egyptian people throughout the country led Great Britain to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence on February 22, 1922. Jankowski, op cit., p. 112


pendence on February 22, 1922. Jankowski, op cit., p. 112


The new Egyptian government drafted and implemented a new constitution in 1923 based on a parliamentary representative system. Saad Zaghlul was popularly-elected as Prime Minister of Egypt in 1924.  In 1936 the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was concluded.


Continued instability in the government due to remaining British control and increasing political involvement by the king led to the ouster of the monarchy and the dissolution of the parliament in a military coup d'Ã©tat known as the 1952 Revolution. The officers, known as the Free Officers Movement, forced King Farouk  to abdicate in support of his son Fuad.


View of Cairo, the largest city in Africa and the Middle East. The Cairo Opera House (bottom-right) is the main performing arts venue in the Egyptian capital.


On June 18 1953, the Egyptian Republic was declared,  with General Muhammad Naguib as the first President of the Republic. Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by Gamal Abdel Nasser   the real architect of the 1952 movement   and was later put under house arrest. Nasser assumed power as President and declared the full independence of Egypt from the United Kingdom on June 18 1956. His nationalization of the Suez Canal on July 26 1956 prompted the 1956 Suez Crisis.


Three years after the 1967 Six Day War, during which Israel had invaded and occupied Sinai, Nasser died and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. Sadat switched Egypt's Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972.  He launched the Infitah economic reform policy, while violently clamping down on religious and secular opposition alike.


In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the October War, a surprise attack against the Israeli forces occupying the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights.  It was an attempt to liberate the territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. Both the US and the USSR intervened and a cease-fire was reached. Despite not being a complete military success, most historians agree that the October War presented Sadat with a political victory that later allowed him to pursue peace with Israel.


In 1977, Sadat made a historic visit to Israel, which led to the 1979 peace treaty in exchange for the complete Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt's expulsion from the Arab League, but it was supported by the vast majority of Egyptians. Vatikiotis, p. 443  A fundamentalist military soldier assassinated Sadat in Cairo in 1981.  He was succeeded by the incumbent Hosni Mubarak. In 2003, the Egyptian Movement for Change, popularly known as Kifaya, was launched to seek a return to democracy and greater civil liberties.


Mahmoud Mokhtar's Egypt's Renaissance 1919-1928, Cairo University.


The Egyptian Nile Valley was home to one of the oldest cultures in the world, spanning three thousand years of continuous history. When Egypt fell under a series of foreign occupations after 343 BC, each left an indelible mark on the country's cultural landscape. Egyptian identity evolved in the span of this long period of occupation to accommodate, in principle, two new religions, Christianity and Islam; and a new language, Arabic, and its spoken descendant, Egyptian Arabic. The degree to which different groups in Egypt identify with these factors in articulating a sense of collective identity can vary.


Questions of identity came to fore in the last century as Egypt sought to free itself from foreign occupation for the first time in two thousand years. Three chief ideologies came to head: ethno-territorial Egyptian nationalism and by extension Pharaonism, secular Arab nationalism and pan-Arabism, and Islamism. Egyptian nationalism predates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the nineteenth century and becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists of the pre- and inter-war periods. It was nearly always articulated in exclusively Egyptian terms:


In 1931, following a visit to Egypt, Syrian Arab nationalist Sati' al-Husri remarked that "[Egyptians] did not possess an Arab nationalist sentiment; did not accept that Egypt was a part of the Arab lands, and would not acknowledge that the Egyptian people were part of the Arab nation." qtd in Dawisha, Adeed. Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century. Princeton University Press. 2003, p. 99  The later 1930s would become a formative period for Arab nationalism in Egypt, in large part due to efforts by Syrian/Palestinian/Lebanese intellectuals. Jankowski, "Egypt and Early Arab Nationalism," p. 246  Nevertheless, a year after the establishment of the League of Arab States in 1945, to be headquartered in Cairo, Oxford University historian H. S. Deighton was still writing:


Deighton was still writing:


It was not until the Nasser era more than a decade later that Arab nationalism became a state policy and a means with which to define Egypt's position in the Middle East and the world. "Before Nasser, Egypt, which had been ruled by Britain since 1882, was more in favor of territorial, Egyptian nationalism and distant from the pan-Arab ideology. Egyptians generally did not identify themselves as Arabs, and it is revealing that when the Egyptian nationalist leader [Saad Zaghlul] met the Arab delegates at Versailles in 1918, he insisted that their struggles for statehood were not connected, claiming that the problem of Egypt was an Egyptian problem and not an Arab one." Makropoulou, Ifigenia.  Pan - Arabism: What Destroyed the Ideology of Arab Nationalism?. Hellenic Center for European Studies. January 15, 2007.  usually articulated vis-Ã -vis Zionism in the neighboring Jewish state.


Nationalism?. Hellenic Center for European Studies. January 15, 2007.  usually articulated vis-Ã -vis Zionism in the neighboring Jewish state.


For a while Egypt and Syria formed the United Arab Republic.  When the union was dissolved, the current official name of Egypt was adopted, the Arab Republic of Egypt. Egypt's attachment to Arabism, however, was particularly questioned after its defeat in the 1967 Six-Day War.  Thousands of Egyptians had lost their lives and the country become disillusioned with Arab politics. Dawisha, p. 237  Nasser's successor Sadat, both by policy and through his peace initiative with Israel, revived an uncontested Egyptian orientation, unequivocally asserting that only Egypt was his responsibility.  The terms "Arab", "Arabism" and "Arab unity", save for the new official name, became conspicuously absent. Dawisha, pp. 264-65, 267  Indeed, as professor of Egyptian history P. J. Vatikiotis explains:


Egyptian history P. J. Vatikiotis explains:


Egyptian Flag Until 1958.


The question of identity continues to be debated today.  Many Egyptians feel that Egyptian and Arab identities are linked and not necessarily incompatible.  Many others continue to believe that Egypt and Egyptians are simply not Arab.  They emphasize indigenous Egyptian heritage, culture and independent polity; point to the failures of Arab nationalist policies; and publicly voice  objection to the present official name of the country.  Ordinary Egyptians frequently express this sentiment.  For example, a foreign tourist said after visiting Egypt,"Although an avowedly Islamic country and now part and parcel of the Arab world, Egyptians are very proud of their distinctiveness and their glorious Pharaonic past dating back to 3500 BC... 'We are not Arabs, we are Egyptians,' said tour guide Shayma, who is a devout Muslim."   In Egypt, India is Big B!. Hindustan Times. December 25, 2006.


e not Arabs, we are Egyptians,' said tour guide Shayma, who is a devout Muslim."   In Egypt, India is Big B!. Hindustan Times. December 25, 2006.


In late 2007, el-Masri el-Yom daily newspaper conducted an interview at a bus stop in the working-class district of Imbaba to ask citizens what Arab nationalism (el-qawmeyya el-'arabeyya) represented for them. One Egyptian Muslim youth responded, "Arab nationalism means that the Egyptian Foreign Minister in Jerusalem gets humiliated by the Palestinians, that Arab leaders dance upon hearing of Sadat's death, that Egyptians get humiliated in the Arab Gulf States, and of course that Arab countries get to fight Israel until the last Egyptian soldier." Ragab, Ahmed. El-Masry el-Yom Newspaper.  "What is the definition of 'Arab Nationalism': Question at a bus stop in Imbaba". May 21, 2007.  Another felt that,"Arab countries hate Egyptians," and that unity with Israel may even be more of a possibility than Arab nationalism, because he believes that Israelis would at least respect Egyptians.


at unity with Israel may even be more of a possibility than Arab nationalism, because he believes that Israelis would at least respect Egyptians.


Some contemporary prominent Egyptians who oppose Arab nationalism or the idea that Egyptians are Arabs include Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities Zahi Hawass. In an  audio interview on Egypt's links with Sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab world, Hawass believes that "even today Egyptians are Egyptians. It really doesn't mean that because we speak Arabic that we can be Arabs. We are...really, I feel personally that we are related even today to the Pharaohs." , popular writer Osama Anwar Okasha, Egyptian-born Harvard University Professor Leila Ahmed, Member of Parliament Suzie Greiss  An Interculturalist in Cairo. InterCultures Magazine. January 2007. , in addition to different local groups and intellectuals.  Kimit Sagi      We are Egyptians, not Arabs. ArabicNews.com. 11/06.2003.  Ghobrial, Kamal.  Egypt, the Arabs and Arabism. el-Ahali. August 31-September 6, 2005.


We are Egyptians, not Arabs. ArabicNews.com. 11/06.2003.  Ghobrial, Kamal.  Egypt, the Arabs and Arabism. el-Ahali. August 31-September 6, 2005.      Said Habeeb's Masreyat.     Egyptian national group    This understanding is also expressed in other contexts,  Egyptian people section from Arab.Net   Princeton Alumni Weekly  such as Neil DeRosa's novel Joseph's Seed in his depiction of an Egyptian character "who declares that Egyptians are not Arabs and never will be."  Review by Michelle Fram Cohen. The Atlasphere. Jan. 17, 2005.


Egyptian critics of Arab nationalism contend that it has worked to erode and/or relegate native Egyptian identity by superimposing only one aspect of Egypt's culture. These views and sources for collective identification in the Egyptian state are captured in the words of a linguistic anthropologist who conducted fieldwork in Cairo:


Egypt has been a republic since June 18 1953. President Mohamed Hosni Mubarak has been the President of the Republic since October 14 1981, following the assassination of former-President Mohammed Anwar El-Sadat. Mubarak is currently serving his fifth term in office. He is the leader of the ruling National Democratic Party. Prime Minister Dr. Ahmed Nazif was sworn in as Prime Minister on 9 July 2004, following the resignation of Dr. Atef Ebeid from his office.


Although power is ostensibly organized under a multi-party semi-presidential system, whereby the executive power is theoretically divided between the President and the Prime Minister, in practice it rests almost solely with the President who traditionally has been elected in single-candidate elections for more than fifty years. Egypt also holds regular multi-party parliamentary elections. The last presidential election, in which Mubarak won a fifth consecutive term, was held in September 2005.


In late February 2005, President Mubarak announced in a surprise television broadcast that he had ordered the reform of the country's presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls in the upcoming presidential election. For the first time since the 1952 movement, the Egyptian people had an apparent chance to elect a leader from a list of various candidates. The President said his initiative came "out of my full conviction of the need to consolidate efforts for more freedom and democracy." Business TodayEGYPT.  Mubarak throws presidential race wide open. March 2005.  However, the new law placed draconian restrictions on the filing for presidential candidacies, designed to prevent well-known candidates such as Ayman Nour from standing against Mubarak, and paved the road for his easy re-election victory. Lavin, Abigail.  Democracy on the Nile: The story of Ayman Nour an


from standing against Mubarak, and paved the road for his easy re-election victory. Lavin, Abigail.  Democracy on the Nile: The story of Ayman Nour and Egypt's problematic attempt at free elections. March 27, 2006.


Concerns were once again expressed after the 2005 presidential elections about government interference in the election process through fraud and vote-rigging, in addition to police brutality and violence by pro-Mubarak supporters against opposition demonstrators. Murphy, Dan.  Egyptian vote marred by violence. Christian Science Monitor. May 26, 2005.  After the election, Egypt imprisoned Nour, and the U.S. Government stated the âconviction of Mr. Nour, the runner-up in Egypt's 2005 presidential elections, calls into question Egypt's commitment to democracy, freedom, and the rule of law.â  United States "Deeply Troubled" by Sentencing of Egypt's Nour. U.S. Department of State, Published December 24, 2005


As a result, most Egyptians are skeptical about the process of democratization and the role of the elections. Less than 25 percent of the country's 32 million registered voters (out of a population of more than 78 million) turned out for the 2005 elections. Gomez, Edward M.  Hosni Mubarak's pretend democratic election. San Francisco Chronicle. September 13, 2005.   A proposed change to the constitution would limit the president to two seven-year terms in office.  Egypt to begin process of lifting emergency laws. December 5, 2006.


Thirty-four constitutional changes voted on by parliament on March 19, 2007 prohibit parties from using religion as a basis for political activity; allow the drafting of a new anti-terrorism law to replace the emergency legislation in place since 1981, giving police wide powers of arrest and surveillance; give the president power to dissolve parliament; and end judicial monitoring of election.   Anger over Egypt vote timetable BBC News.  As opposition members of parliament withdrew from voting on the proposed changes, it was expected that the referendum will be boycotted by a great number of Egyptians in protest of what has been considered  a breach of democratic practices. Eventually it was reported that only 27% of the registered voters went to the polling stations under heavy police presence and tight political control of the ruling National Democratic Party. It was officially announc


ent to the polling stations under heavy police presence and tight political control of the ruling National Democratic Party. It was officially announced on March 27,2007 that 75.9% of those who participated in the referendum approved of the constitutional amendments introduced by President Mubarak and was endorsed by opposition free parliament, thus allowing the introduction of laws that curbs the activity of certain opposition elements particularly Islamists.


[[Image:Kefaya demo.jpg|thumb|Members of the Kifaya democracy movement protesting a fifth term for President Hosni Mubarak. See also  video.]]


Several local and international human rights organizations, including Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, have for many years criticized Egypt's human rights record as poor. In 2005, President Hosni Mubarak faced unprecedented public criticism when he clamped down on democracy activists challenging his rule. Some of the most serious human rights violations according to HRW's 2006 report on Egypt are routine torture, arbitrary detentions and trials before military and state security courts. Human Rights Watch.  Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt. 2005


Discriminatory personal status laws governing marriage, divorce, custody and inheritance which put women at a disadvantage have also been cited. Laws concerning Christians which place restrictions on church building and open worship have been recently eased, but major constructions still require governmental approval and persecution of Christianity by underground radical groups remains a problem.  Church Building Regulations Eased  In addition, intolerance of Baha'is and unorthodox Muslim sects remains a problem.


In 2005, the Freedom House rated political rights in Egypt as "6" (1 representing the most free and 7 the least free rating), civil liberties as "5" and gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free."


See also Freedom in the World 2006, List of indices of freedom  It however noted that "Egypt witnessed its most transparent and competitive presidential and legislative elections in more than half a century and an increasingly unbridled public debate on the country's political future in 2005."  Freedom House. Freedom in the World - Egypt. 2006


In 2007, human rights group Amnesty International released a report criticizing Egypt for torture and illegal detention. The report alleges that Egypt has become an international center for torture, where other nations send suspects for interrogation, often as part of the War on Terror. The report calls on Egypt to bring its anti-terrorism laws into accordance with international human rights statutes and on other nations to stop sending their detainees to Egypt.  Egypt torture centre, report says. bbc.co.uk. Written 2007-4-11. Accessed 2007-4-11.  Egypt's foreign ministry quickly issued a rebuttal to this report, claiming that it was inaccurate and unfair, as well as causing deep offense to the Egyptian government.  Egypt rejects torture criticism. bbc.co.uk. Written 2007-4-13. Accessed 2007-4-13.


iticism. bbc.co.uk. Written 2007-4-13. Accessed 2007-4-13.


The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights (EOHR) is one of the longest-standing bodies for the defence of human rights in Egypt.  Egyptian Organization for Human Rights  In 2003, the government established the National Council for Human Rights, headquartered in Cairo and headed by former UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali who directly reports to the president.  Official page of the Egyptian National Council for Human Rights.  The council has come under heavy criticism by local NGO activists, who contend it undermines human rights work in Egypt by serving as a propaganda tool for the government to excuse its violations  Egyptian National Council for Human Rights Against Human Rights NGOs. EOHR. June 3, 2003.  and to provide legitimacy to repressive laws such as the recently renewed Emergency Law. Qenawy, Ahmed.  The Egyptian Human Rights Council: The Apple Falls Close to the Tree


cy to repressive laws such as the recently renewed Emergency Law. Qenawy, Ahmed.  The Egyptian Human Rights Council: The Apple Falls Close to the Tree. ANHRI. 2004  Egypt has recently announced that it is in the process of abolishing the Emergency Law.  Egypt to begin process of lifting emergency laws. December 5, 2006.  However, in March 2007 President Mubarak approved several constitutional amendments to include "an anti-terrorism clause that appears to enshrine sweeping police powers of arrest and surveillance", suggesting that the Emergency Law is here to stay for the long haul.  Egypt parliament approves changes in constitution. Reuters. March 20, 2007.


The high court of Egypt has outlawed all religions and belief except Islam, Christianity and Judaism. (For more information see Egyptian Identification Card Controversy.)


Egypt's foreign policy operates along moderate lines. Factors such as population size, historical events, military strength, diplomatic expertise and a strategic geographical position give Egypt extensive political influence in Africa and the Middle East. Cairo has been a crossroads of regional commerce and culture for centuries, and its intellectual and Islamic institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural development.


The permanent Headquarters of the Arab League are located in Cairo and the Secretary General of the Arab League has traditionally been an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister Amr Moussa is the current Secretary General. The Arab League briefly moved from Egypt to Tunis in 1978, as a protest to the signing by Egypt of a peace treaty with Israel, but returned in 1989.


Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with Israel, with the signing of the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty in 1979. Egypt has a major influence amongst other Arab states, and has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab states, and in the Israeli-Palestinian dispute. Most Arab states still give credence to Egypt playing that role, though its effects are often limited and recently challenged by Saudi Arabia and oil rich Gulf States. It is also reported that due to Egypt's indulgence in internal problems and its reluctance to play a positive role in regional matters had lost the country great influence in Africa and the neighbouring countries.


Former Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.


Map of Egypt, showing the 26 capitals of governorates, in addition to the self-governing city of Luxor


Egypt is divided into twenty-six governorates (muhafazat, singular muhafazah). The governorates are further divided into regions (markazes).


The Nile River at the ancient city of Aswan, a popular destination for vacationersEgypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, and tourism; there are also more than three million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Saudi Arabia, the Persian Gulf and Europe. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly-growing population, limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy.


The government has struggled to prepare the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investments in communications and physical infrastructure. Egypt has been receiving  U.S. foreign aid (since 1979, an average of $2.2 billion per year) and is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Its main revenues however come from tourism as well as traffic that goes through the Suez Canal.


Egypt has a developed energy market based on coal, oil, natural gas, and hydro power.  Substantial coal deposits are in the north-east Sinai, and are mined at the rate of about   per year.  Oil and gas are produced in the western desert regions, the Gulf of Suez, and the Nile Delta.  Egypt has huge reserves of gas, estimated at over   in the 1990s, and LNG is exported to many countries.


Economic conditions have started to improve considerably after a period of stagnation from the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government, as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stock market. In its annual report, the IMF has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms. Some major economic reforms taken by the new government since 2003 include a dramatic slashing of customs and tariffs. A new taxation law implemented in 2005 decreased corporate taxes from 40% to the current 20%, resulting in a stated 100% increase in tax revenue by the year 2006.


FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) into Egypt has increased considerably in the past few years due to the recent economic liberalization measures taken by minister of investment Mahmoud Mohieddin, exceeding $6 billion in 2006. Egypt is slated to overcome South Africa as the highest earner of FDI on the African continent in 2007.


Although one of the main obstacles still facing the Egyptian economy is the trickle down of the wealth to the average population, many Egyptians criticize their government for higher prices of basic goods while their standards of living or purchasing power remains relatively stagnant. Often corruption is blamed by Egyptians as the main impediment to feeling the benefits of the newly attained wealth. Major reconstruction of the country's infrastructure is promised by the government, with a large portion of the sum paid for the newly acquired 3rd mobile license ($3 billion) by Etisalat. This is slated to be pumped into the country's railroad system, in response to public outrage against the government for disasters in 2006 that claimed more than 100 lives.


han 100 lives.


The best known examples of Egyptian companies that have expanded regionally and globally are the Orascom Group and Raya. The IT sector has been expanding rapidly in the past few years, with many new start-ups conducting outsourcing business to North America and Europe, operating with companies such as Microsoft, Oracle and other major corporations, as well as numerous SME's. Some of these companies are the Xceed Contact Center, Raya Contact Center, E Group Connections and C3 along with other start ups in that country. The sector has been stimulated by new Egyptian entrepreneurs trying to capitalize on their country's huge potential in the sector, as well as constant government encouragement.


Egyptian farm


Egypt is the most populated country in the Middle East and the second-most populous on the African continent, with an estimated 78 million people. Almost all the population is concentrated along the banks of the Nile (notably Cairo and Alexandria), in the Delta and near the Suez Canal. Approximately 80-90% of the population adheres to Islam and most of the remainder to Christianity, primarily the Coptic Orthodox denomination.    Apart from religious affiliation, Egyptians can be divided demographically into those who live in the major urban centers and the fellahin or farmers of rural villages. The last 40 years have seen a rapid increase in population due to medical advances and massive increase in agricultural productivity,  BBC NEWS | The limits of a Green Revolution?  made by the Green Revolution.  Food First/Institute for Food and Development Policy


e limits of a Green Revolution?  made by the Green Revolution.  Food First/Institute for Food and Development Policy


Egyptians are by far the largest ethnic group in Egypt at 94% (about 72.5 million) of the total population.  Ethnic minorities include the Bedouin Arab tribes living in the eastern deserts and the Sinai Peninsula, the Berber-speaking Siwis (Amazigh) of the Siwa Oasis, and the ancient Nubian communities clustered along the Nile. There are also tribal communities of Beja concentrated in the south-eastern-most corner of the country, and a number of Dom clans mostly in the Nile Delta and Faiyum who are progressively becoming assimilated as urbanization increases.


Egypt also hosts an unknown number of refugees and asylum seekers. According to the UNDP's 2004 Human Development Report, there were 89,000 refugees in the country,  UNDP, p. 75.  though this number may be an underestimate. There are some 70,000 Palestinian refugees,  and about 150,000 recently arrived Iraqi refugees,  Iraq: from a Flood to a Trickle: Egypt  but the number of the largest group, the Sudanese, is contested. See  The U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants for a lower estimate. The  The Egyptian Organization for Human Rights states on its web site that in 2000 the World Council of Churches claimed that "between two and five million Sudanese have come to Egypt in recent years". Most Sudanese refugees come to Egypt in the hope of resettling in Europe or the US.  The once-vibrant Jewish community in Egypt has virtually disappeared, with only a small number remaining in the


e of resettling in Europe or the US.  The once-vibrant Jewish community in Egypt has virtually disappeared, with only a small number remaining in the country, but many Egyptian Jews visit on religious occasions and for tourism. Several important Jewish archaeological and historical sites are found in Cairo, Alexandria and other cities.


Cairo's unique cityscape with its ancient mosques


Religion plays a central role in most Egyptians' lives. The rolling calls to prayer that are heard five times a day have the informal effect of regulating the pace of everything from business to entertainment. Cairo is famous for its numerous mosque minarets and church towers. This religious landscape has been marred by a record of religious extremism.    Most recently,  a December 16 2006 judgment of the Supreme Administrative Court of Egypt insisted on a clear demarcation between "recognized religions"âIslam, Christianity and Judaismâand all other religious beliefsâthus effectively delegitimatizing and forbidding practice of all but these aforementioned religions.     This judgment has led to the requirement for communities to either commit perjury or be subjected to denial of identification cards.


r commit perjury or be subjected to denial of identification cards.


Egypt is predominantly Muslim, at 80-90% of the population, with the majority being adherents of the Sunni branch of Islam.  A significant number of Muslim Egyptians also follow native Sufi orders, Hoffman, Valerie J. Sufism, Mystics, and Saints in Modern Egypt. University of South Carolina Press, 1995.  and a minority of Shi'a.


Christians represent 10-20% of the population,  Wahington Institute (Citing pop. estimates)  more than 95% of whom belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, the Coptic Evangelical Church and various Coptic Protestant denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Alexandria and Cairo, and are members of the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Melkite Greek Catholic Church, the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Roman Catholic Church, the Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East, the Maronite Church, the Armenian Catholic Church, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, or the Syriac Orthodox Church.


riac Orthodox Church.


According to the Constitution of Egypt, any new legislation must at least implicitly agree with Islamic laws. The mainstream Hanafi school of Sunni Islam is largely organised by the state, through Wizaret Al-Awkaf (Ministry of Religious Affairs). Al-Awkaf controls all mosques and overviews Muslim clerics. Imams are trained in Imam vocational schools and at Al-Azhar University. The department supports Sunni Islam and has commissions authorised to give Fatwa judgements on Islamic issues.


Egypt hosts two major religious institutions. Al-Azhar University ( ) is the oldest Islamic institution of higher studies (founded around 970 A.D) and considered by many to be the oldest extant university. The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, headed by the Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, attests to Egypt's strong Christian heritage. It has a following of approximately 15 million Christians worldwide; affiliated sister churches are located in Armenia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, India, Lebanon and Syria.


Religious freedom in Egypt is hampered to varying degrees by extremist Islamist groups and by discriminatory and restrictive government policies. Being the largest religious minority in Egypt, Coptic Christians are the most negatively affected community. Copts have faced increasing marginalization after the 1952 coup d'Ã©tat led by Gamal Abdel Nasser. Until recently, Christians were required to obtain presidential approval for even minor repairs in churches. Although the law was eased in 2005 by handing down the authority of approval to the governors, Copts continue to face many obstacles in building new or repairing existing churches. These obstacles are not found in building mosques. WorldWide Religious News.  Church Building Regulations Eased. December 13, 2005.  Compass Direct News.  Church Building Regulations Eased. December 13, 2005.


Eased. December 13, 2005.  Compass Direct News.  Church Building Regulations Eased. December 13, 2005.


In addition, Copts complain of being minimally represented in law enforcement, state security and public office, and of being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion. Human Rights Watch.  Egypt: Overview of human rights issues in Egypt. 2005  The Coptic community, as well as several human rights activists and intellectuals (such as Saad Eddin Ibrahim and Tarek Heggy), maintain that the number of Christians occupying government posts is not proportional to the number of Copts in Egypt, who constitute between 10 and 15% of the population in Egypt. Of the 32 cabinet ministers, two are Copts: Finance Minister Youssef Boutros Ghali and Minister of Environment Magued George; and of the 25 local governors, only one is a Copt (in the Upper Egyptian governorate of Qena). However, Copts have demonstrated great success in Egypt's private business sector; Naguib Sawiris


a Copt (in the Upper Egyptian governorate of Qena). However, Copts have demonstrated great success in Egypt's private business sector; Naguib Sawiris, an extremely successful businessman and one of the world's wealthiest 100 people is a Copt. In 2002, under the Mubarak government, Coptic Christmas (January 7) was recognized as an official holiday. ArabicNews.com.  Copts welcome Presidential announcement on Eastern Christmas Holiday. December 20, 2002.   Nevertheless, the Coptic community has occasionally been the target of hate crimes and physical assaults. The most significant was the 2000-2001 El Kosheh attacks , in which 21 Copts and one Muslim were killed. A 2006 attack on three churches in Alexandria left one dead and 17 injured, although the attacker was not linked to any organisation. BBC.  Egypt church attacks spark anger, April 15 2006.


ough the attacker was not linked to any organisation. BBC.  Egypt church attacks spark anger, April 15 2006.