One survey of nearly 30 research papers found preferred prey weights of 10 to 40 kg, with 25 kg most preferred. Along with impala and chital, a preference for bushbuck and common duiker was found. Other prey selection factors include a preference for prey in small herds, in dense habitat, and those that afford the predator a low risk of injury.


Leopard resting on a tree


A male may follow a female who catches his attention. Eventually fighting for reproductive rights can take place. Depending on the region, leopards may mate all year round (Asia and Africa) or seasonally during January to February (Manchuria and Siberia). The estrous cycle lasts about 46 days and the female usually is in heat for 6â7 days.


Cubs are usually born in a litter of 2â3, but infant mortality is high and mothers are not commonly seen with more than 1â2 cubs. The pregnant females find a cave, crevice among boulders, hollow tree, or thicket to give birth and make a den. Cubs open their eyes after a period of 10 days. The fur of the young tends to be longer and thicker than that of adults. Their pelage is also more gray in color with less defined spots. Around three months the infants begin to follow the mother out on hunts. At one year of age leopard young can probably fend for themselves but they remain with the mother for 18â24 months.


Studies of leopard home range size have tended to focus on protected areas, which may have led to skewed data; as of the mid-1980s, only 13% of the leopard range actually fell within a protected area.    In their IUCN survey of the literature, Nowell and Jackson suggest male home territories vary between 30-78 square kilometers, but just 15-16 kmÂ² for females.  Research in a conservation area in Kenya shows similar territory sizes and sex differential: 32.8 kmÂ² ranges for males, on average, and 14 kmÂ² for females.    In Nepal, somewhat larger male ranges have been found at about 48 kmÂ², while female ranges are in-keeping with other research, at 17 kmÂ²; female home territories were seen to decrease to just five to seven kmÂ² when young cubs were present, while the sexual difference in range size seemed to be in positive proportion to overall increase.     However, significant variati


cubs were present, while the sexual difference in range size seemed to be in positive proportion to overall increase.     However, significant variations in size of home territories have been suggested across the leopard's range. In Namibia, for instance, research that focussed on spatial ecology in farmlands outside of protected areas found ranges that were consistently above 100 kmÂ², with some more than 300 kmÂ²; admitting that their data were at odds with others', the researchers also suggested little or no sexual variation in the size of territories.  Virtually all sources suggest that males do have larger ranges. There seems to be little or no overlap in territory amongst males, although overlap exists between the sexes; one radio-collar analysis in the Ivory Coast found a female home range completely enclosed within a male's.


lar analysis in the Ivory Coast found a female home range completely enclosed within a male's.


The leopard is solitary and, aside from mating, interactions between individuals appear to be infrequent.  Aggressive enounters have been observed, however. Two of five males studied over a period of a year at a game reserve in South Africa died, both violently. One was initially wounded in a male-male territorial battle over a carcass; taken in by researchers, it was released after a successful convalescence only to be killed by a different male a few months later. A second was killed by another predator, possibly a spotted hyena. A third of the five was badly wounded in intraspecific fighting, but recovered.


Indian Leopard


It has been suggested that there may be as many as 30 extant subspecies of the Leopard.


However, modern taxonomic analyses have demonstrated that only 8/9 subspecies are valid.  Olga Uphyrkina et al. (November 2001). Phylogenetics, genome diversity and origin of modern leopard, Panthera pardus. Molecular Ecology, Volume 10, Issue 11, Page 2617.  Abstract   Sriyanie Miththapala. (August 1996). Phylogeographic Subspecies Recognition in Leopards (Panthera pardus): Molecular Genetic Variation. Conservation Biology,


Volume 10, Issue 4, Page 1115.  Abstract


Sri Lankan Leopard


Female leopard in the Sabi Sands area of South Africa.  Note the white spot on the tail used for communicating with cubs while hunting or in long grass


Other subspecies under the old taxonomic division:


Today usually included in the African Leopard (Panthera pardus pardus):


Today usually included in The Persian Leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor):


Today usually included in The Indian Leopard (Panthera pardus fusca)


A pseudo-melanistic leopard has a normal background colour, but its excessive markings have coalesced so that its back seems to be an unbroken expanse of black. In some specimens, the area of solid black extends down the flanks and limbs; only a few lateral streaks of golden-brown indicate the presence of normal background colour. Any spots on the flanks and limbs that have not merged into the mass of swirls and stripes are unusually small and discrete, rather than forming rosettes. The face and underparts are paler and dappled like those of ordinary spotted leopards.


In a paper about panthers and ounces of Asia, Reginald Innes Pocock used a photo of a leopard skin from southern India; it had large black-rimmed blotches, each containing a number of dots and it resembled the pattern of a jaguar or clouded leopard. Another of Pocock's leopard skins from southern India had the normal rosettes broken up and fused and so much additional pigment that the animal looked like a black leopard streaked and speckled with yellow.


Most other colour morphs of leopards are known only from paintings or museum specimens. There have been very rare examples where the spots of a normal black leopard have coalesced to give a jet black leopard with no visible markings. Pseudo-melanism (abundism) occurs in leopards. The spots are more densely packed than normal and merge to largely obscure the background colour. They may form swirls and, in some places, solid black areas. Unlike a true black leopard the tawny background colour is visible in places. One pseudo-melanistic leopard had a tawny orange coat with coalescing rosettes and spots, but white belly with normal black spots (like a black-and-tan dog).


A 1910 description of a pseudo-melanistic leopard:


Another pseudo-melanistic leopard skin was described in 1915 by Holdridge Ozro Collins who had purchased it in 1912. It had been killed in Malabar, India that same year.


In May 1936, the British Natural History Museum exhibited the mounted skin of an unusual Somali leopard. The pelt was richly decorated with an intricate pattern of swirling stripes, blotches, curls and fine-line traceries. This is different from a spotted leopard, but similar to a King Cheetah hence the modern cryptozoology term King Leopard. Between 1885 and 1934, six pseudo-melanistic leopards were recorded in the Albany and Grahamstown districts of South Africa. This indicated a mutation in the local leopard population. Other King Leopards have been recorded from Malabar in southwestern India. Shooting for trophies may have wiped out these populations.


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Pumapard, Rothschild Museum, Tring


A pumapard is a hybrid animal resulting from a union between a leopard and a puma. Three sets of these hybrids were bred in the late 1890s and early 1900s by Carl Hagenbeck at his animal park in Hamburg, Germany. Most did not reach adulthood. One of these was purchased in 1898 by Berlin Zoo.  A similar hybrid in Berlin Zoo purchased from Carl Hagenbeck was a cross between a male leopard and a female puma. Hamburg Zoo's specimen was the reverse pairing, the one in the black and white photo, fathered by a puma bred to an Indian leopardess.


Whether born to a female Puma mated to a male Leopard, or to a male Puma mated to a female Leopard, pumapards inherit a form of dwarfism. Those reported grew to only half the size of the parents. They have a Puma-like long body (proportional to the limbs, but nevertheless shorter than either parent), but short legs. The coat is variously described as sandy, tawny or greyish with brown, chestnut or "faded" rosettes.


Dionysus and a panther. Crater. The Louvre c. 370 BC


Leopards have been known to humans since antiquity and have featured in the art, mythology and folklore of many countries where they have occurred historically, such as Ancient Greece, Persia and Rome, as well as some where they haven't such as England. The modern use of the leopard as an emblem for sport or coat of arms is much more restricted to Africa, though numerous products worldwide have used the name.


Leopards were kept in a menagerie established by King John at the Tower of London in the 13th century; around 1235 three animals were given to Henry III by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II.


Despite its size, this largely nocturnal and arboreal predator is difficult to see in the wild. A female leopard in the Sabi Sands of South Africa illustrating just how close tourists can get to these wild cats.The best location to see leopards in Africa is in the Sabi Sand Private Game Reserve in South Africa, where leopards are habituated to safari vehicles and are seen on a daily basis at very close range. In Asia, one can see leopards Yala National Park in Sri Lanka, which has one of the world's highest density of wild leopards, but even here sightings are by no means guaranteed because more than half the park is closed off to the public, allowing the animals to thrive. Another good destination for leopard watching is the recently reopened Wilpattu National Park, also in Sri Lanka. In India the leopards are found all over the country and there is maximum man-animal conflict here only


ned Wilpattu National Park, also in Sri Lanka. In India the leopards are found all over the country and there is maximum man-animal conflict here only as they are spread everywhere.The best places in India can be national parks in Madhya Pradesh and in Uttarakhand.


Coat of arms of the German state of Baden-WÃ¼rttemberg


The lion passant guardant or "leopard" is a frequently used charge in heraldry, most commonly appearing in groups of three. The heraldric leopard lacks spots and sports a mane, making it visually almost identical to the heraldric lion, and the two are often used interchangeably. These traditional lion passant guardants appear in the coat of arms of England and many of its former colonies; more modern naturalistic (leopard-like) depictions appear on the coat of arms of several African nations including Benin, Malawi, Somalia, Democratic Republic of the Congo and  Gabon which uses a black panther. The Leopard is also the unofficial national animal of Germany, replacing the Tiger, which was, along with the eagle, the national animal of Nazi Germany. The leopard tank was a German designed tank which entered service in 1965.


rmany. The leopard tank was a German designed tank which entered service in 1965.


The Leopard men were a West African secret society who practised cannibalism. They were centred in Sierra Leone, Liberia and CÃ´te d'Ivoire.


Members would dress in leopard skins, waylaying travellers with sharp claw-like weapons in the form of leopards' claws and teeth. The victims' flesh would be cut from their bodies and distributed to members of the society. There was a superstitious belief that this ritual cannibalism would strengthen both members of the society as well as their entire tribe.


Although most leopards will tend to avoid humans, people are occasionally targeted as prey. Most healthy leopards prefer wild prey to humans, but cats who are injured, sickly or struggling with a shortage of regular prey often turn to hunting people and may become habituated to it. In the most extreme cases, both in India, a leopard dubbed "the Leopard of Rudraprayag" is claimed to have killed over 125 people and the infamous leopardess called "Panar Leopard" killed over 400 after being injured by a poacher and thus being made unable to hunt normal prey. The "Leopard of Rudraprayag" and the "Panar Leopard" were both killed by the famed hunter Jim Corbett. Man-eating leopards are considered bold by feline standards and commonly enter human settlements for prey, more so than their lion and tiger counterparts. Kenneth Anderson, who had first hand experience with many man-eating leopards, de


ettlements for prey, more so than their lion and tiger counterparts. Kenneth Anderson, who had first hand experience with many man-eating leopards, described them as far more threatening than tigers;


However because they can subsist on small prey and are less dependent on large prey, leopards are less likely to turn to man-eating than either lions or tigers.


Possibly the most famous cinematic leopard is the pet in the film Bringing Up Baby (1938) where its misadventures create madcap comedy for stars Cary Grant and Katharine Hepburn; the movie is one of the American Film Institute's "100 Greatest (American) Films".


* In the 1999 Tarzan movie by Disney, a vicious leopard, Sabor, was Tarzan's natural and mortal enemy, although the Mangani name for leopards established in the books is "Sheeta".


* In Passion in the Desert (1997), a French soldier (played by British actor Ben Daniels) while lost in Egypt during Napoleon's Egyptian campaign stumbles upon a leopard and develops a strange relationship with the animal.


Traditionally, the leopard is an uncommon name or mascot for sporting teams, though it has been used in several African soccer teams: the AFC Leopards, formed in 1964, are a soccer club based in Nairobi, Kenya, while the Black Leopards play in South Africa's Premier Soccer League, the Royal Leopards in Swaziland's Premier League, and the Golf Leopards in the Sierra Leone National Premier League. More recently, the leopard emblem has been a part of the English Basketball League since the 1990s with the Essex Leopards and later London Leopards. The New Zealand Rugby League has featured the Otahuhu Leopards and then the Tamaki Leopards.


The use of Leopards by companies is uncommon, though Nissan Leopard was a luxury sports car produced by Nissan in the 1980s and Apple Inc. released Mac OS X version 10.5, nicknamed "Leopard" on October 26th, 2007.


In The Chronicles of Narnia; The Lion, The Witch, and the Wardrobe, leopards are seen fighting alongside Peter Pevensie.


* Khalaf-von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2005).  The Arabian Leopard (Panthera pardus nimr). Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 42, June 2005. pp. 1-8. (in German).


* Khalaf-Sakerfalke von Jaffa, Norman Ali Bassam Ali Taher (2006).  The Chinese Leopard (Panthera pardus japonensis, Gray 1862) in Neunkirchen Zoo, Neunkirchen, Saarland, Germany. Gazelle: The Palestinian Biological Bulletin. Number 60, December 2006. pp. 1-10.


* DeRuiter, D.J. and Berger, L.R. (2000) Leopards as Taphonomic Agents in dolomitic Caves - Implications for bone Accumulations in the Hominid-bearing Deposits of South Africa. J. Arch. Sci. 27, 665-684.


James Monroe (April 28, 1758 â July 4, 1831) was the fifth President of the United States (1817-1825). His administration was marked by the acquisition of Florida (1819); the Missouri Compromise (1820), in which Missouri was declared a slave state; and the profession of the Monroe Doctrine (1823), declaring U.S. opposition to European interference in the Americas.


The Presidentâs parents, father Spence Monroe (ca. 1727 1774), a woodworker and tobacco farmer, and mother Elizabeth Jones Monroe had significant land holdings but little money. Like his parents, he was a slaveholder. Born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, Monroe went to school at Campbelltown Academy and then the College of William and Mary, both in Virginia.  After graduating from William and Mary in 1776, Monroe fought in the Continental Army, serving with distinction at the Battle of Trenton, where he was shot in his left shoulder. He is depicted holding the flag in the famous painting of Washington Crossing the Delaware. Following his military service, he practiced law in Fredericksburg, Virginia. James Monroe married Elizabeth Kortright on February 16, 1786 at the Trinity Church in New York.


ight on February 16, 1786 at the Trinity Church in New York.


Monroe was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates in 1782 and served in the Continental Congress from 1783 to 1786. As a youthful politician, he joined the anti-Federalists in the Virginia Convention which ratified the Constitution, and in 1790, was elected United States Senator.


After his term in the Senate, Monroe was appointed Minister to France from 1794 to 1796. His appointment there was made difficult as he had strong sympathies for the French Revolution, but dutifully maintained President Washington's strict policy of neutrality between Britiain and France.


Out of office, Monroe returned to practicing law in Virginia until elected governor there, serving from 1799 to 1802.


Under the first Jefferson administration, Monroe was dispatched to France to assist Robert R. Livingston negotiate the Louisiana Purchase. Monroe was then appointed Minister to the Court of St. James (Britain) from 1803 to 1807. In 1806 he negotiated a treaty with Britain to replace the Jay Treaty of 1794, but Jefferson rejected it as unsatisfactory, as the treaty contained no ban on the British practice of impressment of American sailors. As a result, the two nations moved closer toward the War of 1812.


Monroe returned to the Virginia House of Delegates and was elected to another term as governor of Virginia in 1811, but he resigned a few months into the term. He then served as Secretary of State from 1811 to 1814.  When he was appointed to Secretary of War in 1814, he stayed on as the Secretary of State ad interim.  At the war's end in 1815, he was again commissioned as the permanent Secretary of State, and left his position as Secretary of War.  Thus from October 1, 1814 to February 28, 1815, Monroe effectively held the two cabinet posts.  Monroe stayed on as Secretary of State until the end of the James Madison Presidency, and the following day Monroe began his term as the new President of the United States.


Following the War of 1812, Monroe was elected president in the election of 1816, and re-elected in 1820. In both those elections Monroe ran nearly uncontested.  To detail, well prepared on most issues, non-partisan in spirit, and above all pragmatic, Monroe managed his presidential duties well.  He made strong Cabinet choices, naming a southerner, John C. Calhoun, as Secretary of War, and a northerner, John Quincy Adams, as Secretary of State. Only Henry Clay's refusal kept Monroe from adding an outstanding westerner.  Most appointments went to deserving Democratic-Republicans, but he did not try to use them to build the party's base.  Indeed, he allowed the base to decay, which reduced tensions and led to the naming of his era as the "Era of Good Feelings". To build good will, he made two long tours in 1817. Frequent stops allowed innumerable ceremonies of welcome and good will. The Fed


of Good Feelings". To build good will, he made two long tours in 1817. Frequent stops allowed innumerable ceremonies of welcome and good will. The Federalist Party dwindled and eventually died out, starting with the Hartford Convention. Practically every politician belonged to the Democratic-Republican Party, but the party lost its vitality and organizational integrity. The party's Congressional caucus stopped meeting, and there were no national conventions.


These "good feelings" endured until 1824, when he executed the controversial Monroe Transfer. Monroe, with his popularity undiminished, followed nationalist policies. Across the commitment to nationalism, sectional cracks appeared. The Panic of 1819 caused a painful economic depression. The application for statehood by the Missouri Territory, in 1819, as a slave state failed. An amended bill for gradually eliminating slavery in Missouri precipitated two years of bitter debate in Congress. The Missouri Compromise bill resolved the struggle, pairing Missouri as a slave state with Maine, a free state, and barring slavery north and west of Missouri forever.


Monroe began to formally recognize the young sister republics (the former Spanish colonies) in 1822. He and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams wished to avoid trouble with Spain until it had ceded the Floridas to the U.S., which was done in 1821.


Monroe is probably best known for the Monroe Doctrine, which he delivered in his message to Congress on December 2, 1823. In it, he proclaimed the Americas should be free from future European colonization and free from European interference in sovereign countries' affairs. It further stated the United States' intention to stay neutral in European wars and wars between European powers and their colonies, but to consider any new colonies or interference with independent countries in the Americas as hostile acts toward the United States.


Britain, with its powerful navy, also opposed re-conquest of Latin America and suggested that the United States join in proclaiming "hands off." Ex-Presidents Jefferson and Madison counseled Monroe to accept the offer, but Secretary Adams advised, "It would be more candid ... to avow our principles explicitly to Russia and France, than to come in as a cock-boat in the wake of the British man-of-war." Monroe accepted Adams' advice. Not only must Latin America be left alone, he warned, but also Russia must not encroach southward on the Pacific coast. "... the American continents," he stated, "by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European Power." Some 20 years after Monroe died in 1831 this became known as the Monroe Doctrine.


ny European Power." Some 20 years after Monroe died in 1831 this became known as the Monroe Doctrine.


Official White House portrait of James Monroe


Monroe appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:


When his presidency expired on March 4, 1825, James Monroe lived at Monroe Hill on the grounds of the University of Virginia.  This university's modern campus was Monroe's family farm from 1788 to 1817, but he had sold it in the first year of his presidency to the new college.  He served on the college's Board of Visitors under Jefferson and then under the second rector and another former President James Madison, until his death.


Monroe had racked up many debts during his years of public life. As a result, he was forced to sell off his Highland Plantation (now called Ash Lawn-Highland; it is owned by his alma mater, the College of William and Mary, which has opened it to the public). Throughout his life, he was not financially solvent, and his wife's poor health made matters worse.  For these reasons, he and his wife lived in Oak Hill until Elizabeth's death on September 23, 1830.


Upon Elizabeth's death in 1830, Monroe moved to New York City to live with his daughter Maria Hester Monroe Gouverneur who had married Samuel L. Gouverneur in the first White House wedding.  Monroe died there from heart failure and tuberculosis on July 4, 1831, becoming the third president to die on the 4th of July. His death came 55 years after the U.S. Declaration of Independence was proclaimed and 5 years after the death of Presidents John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. He was originally buried in New York at the Gouverneur family vault in the New York City Marble Cemetery.  Twenty-seven years later in 1858 he was re-interred to the President's Circle at Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond, Virginia.


Statue of Monroe at Ash Lawn-Highland


When it comes to Monroe's ...thoughts on religion, Bliss Isely comments in his The Presidents: Men of Faith, "less is known than that of any other President." He burned much of his correspondence with his wife, and no letters survive in which he might have discussed his religious beliefs. Nor did his friends, family or associates write about his beliefs. Letters that do survive, such as ones written on the occasion of the death of his son, contain no discussion of religion.


Monroe was raised in a family that belonged to the Church of England when it was the state church in Virginia, and as an adult frequently attended Episcopalian churches, though there is no record he ever took communion. He has been classified by some historians as a Deist, and he did use deistic language to refer to God. Jefferson had been attacked as an atheist and infidel for his deistic views, but never Monroe.  Unlike Jefferson, Monroe was not anticlerical. [Holmes 2003]


* Apart from George Washington's Washington D.C., James Monroe is the only U.S. President to have had a country's capital city named after him  that of Monrovia in Liberia which was founded by the American Colonization Society, in 1822, as a haven for freed slaves.


* Monroe was (arguably) the last president to have fought in the Revolutionary War, although Andrew Jackson served as a 13-year-old courier in the Continental Army and was taken as a prisoner of war by the British.


* Monroe is considered to be the president who was in the most paintings; throughout the 1800s he was in over 350.


* Samuel Flagg Bemis, John Quincy Adams and the Foundations of American Foreign Policy (1949), is a standard study of Monroe's foreign policy.


* George Dangerfield. The Era of Good Feelings (1952).


* Heidler, David S. "The Politics of National Aggression: Congress and the First Seminole War." Journal of the Early Republic 1993 13(4): 501-530. ISSN 0275-1275 Fulltext: in Jstor. Abstract: Monroe sparked a constitutional controversy when, in 1817, he sent General Andrew Jackson to move against Spanish Florida in order to pursue hostile Seminoles and punish the Spanish for aiding them. News of Jackson's exploits ignited a congressional investigation of the 1st Seminole War. Dominated by Democratic-Republicans, the 15th Congress was generally expansionist and more likely to support the popular Jackson. Ulterior political agendas of many congressmen dismantled partisan and sectional coalitions, so that Jackson's opponents argued weakly and became easily discredited. After much debate, the House of Representatives voted down all resolutions that condemned Jackson in any way, thus implicit


became easily discredited. After much debate, the House of Representatives voted down all resolutions that condemned Jackson in any way, thus implicitly endorsing Monroe's actions and leaving the issue surrounding the role of the executive with respect to war powers unanswered.


* Ernest R. May, The Making of the Monroe Doctrine (1975), argues it was issued to influence the outcome of the presidential election of 1824.


* Dexter Perkins, The Monroe Doctrine, 1823-1826 (1927), the standard monograph about the origins of the doctrine.


* Scherr, Arthur. "James Monroe on the Presidency and 'Foreign Influence;: from the Virginia Ratifying Convention (1788) to Jefferson's Election (1801)." Mid-America  2002 84(1-3): 145-206. ISSN 0026-2927. Abstract: Analyzes Monroe's concern over untoward foreign influence on the presidency. He was alarmed at Spanish diplomat Diego MarÃa de Gardoqui, involving a US attempt to secure the opening of the Mississippi River to American commerce. Here Monroe saw Spain overinfluencing the republic, which could have risked the loss of the Southwest or dominance of the Northeast. Monroe placed faith in a strong presidency and the system of checks and balances. In the 1790s he fretted over an aging George Washington being too heavily influenced by close advisers like Hamilton who was too close to Britain. Monroe opposed the Jay Treaty and was humiliated when Washington criticized for his support


lose advisers like Hamilton who was too close to Britain. Monroe opposed the Jay Treaty and was humiliated when Washington criticized for his support of revolutionary France while he was minister to France. He saw foreign and Federalist elements in the genesis of the Quasi War of 1798-1800 and in efforts to keep Thomas Jefferson away from the presidency in 1801. As governor he considered using the Virginia militia to force the outcome in favor of Jefferson. Federalists responded in kind, some seeing Monroe as at best a French dupe and at worst a traitor. Monroe thus contributed to a paranoid style of politics.


* Scherr, Arthur. "Governor James Monroe and the Southampton Slave Resistance of 1799." Historian 1999 61(3): 557-578. ISSN 0018-2370 Fulltext online in SwetsWise and Ebsco. Abstract: Assesses Monroe's views on slavery as governor of Virginia from 1799 to 1802, emphasizing Monroe's moderate view of slaveholding during a slave uprising in Southampton County in October 1799. Monroe took pains to see that the charged rebels received proper legal treatment, demonstrating a marked concern for their civil rights. He conducted an exhaustive investigation into the incident and saw to it the slaves involved received a fair trial. Although he opposed abolition, Monroe supported African colonization proposals and gradual, compensated emancipation. When the occasion warranted, as in Gabriel Prosser's rebellion of 1800, Monroe took an unpopular position in supporting fair trials and attempting to exp


n the occasion warranted, as in Gabriel Prosser's rebellion of 1800, Monroe took an unpopular position in supporting fair trials and attempting to explain and justify slave actions. In the final analysis, Monroe believed in the eventual demise of slavery.


* Monroe, James. The Political Writings of James Monroe. James P. Lucier, ed. Regnery, 2002. 863 pp.


Qatar ( ;   The pronunciation of Qatar in English varies; see List of words of disputed pronunciation for details.


In terms of English phonemics, the vowels sound halfway between short u   and broad a  . The q and the t have no direct counterparts, but are closest to the unaspirated allophones of English k and t. However, since these allophones cannot occur in these positions in English, in this context they will sound more like English g and d. So the closest pronunciation, according to English phonemics, to the original Arabic might be   or  . ), officially the State of Qatar (Arabic:  Ø¯ÙÙØ© ÙØ·Ø±   transliterated as Dawlat Qatar), is an Arab emirate in Southwest Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the larger Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south; otherwise the Persian Gulf surrounds the state.


state.


The name "Qatar" may derive from the same Arabic root as qatura which means "to exude."  The word Qatura traces to the Arabic qatran meaning "tar" or "resin", which relates to the country's rich resources in petroleum and natural gas.  Adrian Room, Placenames of the World (1997) McFarland and Company.


Other sources say the name may derive from "Qatara", believed to refer to the Qatari town of Zubara, an important trading port and town in the region in ancient times. The word "Qatara" first appeared on Ptolemy's map of the Arabian Peninsula. An approximation of the native pronunciation falls between the English words 'cutter' and 'gutter', but not like 'guitar'.


After domination by the Ottoman and British empires for centuries, Qatar became an independent state on September 3, 1971.


Although the peninsular land mass that makes up Qatar has sustained humans for thousands of years, for the bulk of its history the arid climate fostered only short-term settlements by nomadic tribes. Clans such as the Al Khalifa and the Al Saud (which would later ascend thrones of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia respectively) swept through the Arabian peninsula and camped on the coasts within small fishing and pearling villages.


Desert in Qatar


The British initially sought out Qatar and the Persian Gulf as an intermediary vantage point en route to their colonial interests in India, although the discovery of oil and other hydrocarbons in the early twentieth century would re-invigorate their interest. During the nineteenth century, the time of Britainâs formative ventures into the region, the Al Khalifa clan reigned over the Northern Qatari peninsula from the nearby island of Bahrain to the west.


Although Qatar had the legal status of a dependency, resentment festered against the Bahraini Al Khalifas along the eastern seaboard of the Qatari peninsula. In 1867, the Al Khalifas launched a successful effort to quash the Qatari rebels sending a massive naval force to Wakrah. However, the Bahraini aggression was in violation on the 1820 Anglo-Bahraini Treaty. The diplomatic response of the British  to this violation set into motion the political forces that would eventuate in the founding of the state of Qatar. In addition to censuring Bahrain for its breach of agreement, the British Protectorate (per Colonel Lewis Pelly) asked to negotiate with a representative from Qatar. The request carried with it a tacit recognition of Qatarâs status as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His


tus as distinct from Bahrain. The Qataris chose as their negotiator the respected entrepreneur and long-time resident of Doha, Muhammed bin Thani. His clan, the Al Thanis, had taken relatively little part in Gulf politics, but the diplomatic foray ensured their participation in the movement towards independence and their dominion as the future ruling family, a dynasty that continues to this day. The results of the negotiations left Qatar with a new-found sense of political selfhood, although it did not gain official standing as a British protectorate until 1916.


The Emiri Diwan.


The reach of the British Empire diminished after the Second World War, especially following Indian independence in 1947. Pressure for a British withdrawal from the Arab emirates in the Gulf increased during the 1950s, and the British welcomed Kuwait's declaration of independence in 1961.  When Britain officially announced in 1968 that it would disengage politically, though not economically, from the Gulf in three years' time, Qatar joined Bahrain and seven other Trucial States in a federation. Regional disputes however, quickly compelled Qatar to resign and declare independence from the coalition that would evolve into the seven-emirate United Arab Emirates. On September 3, 1971, Qatar became an independent sovereign state.


Since 1995, Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani has ruled Qatar, seizing control of the country from his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani while the latter vacationed in Switzerland. Under Emir Hamad, Qatar has experienced a notable amount of sociopolitical liberalization, including the enfranchisement of women, a new constitution, and the launch of Al Jazeera, a leading English and Arabic news source, which operates a website and satellite television news channel. Qatar ranks as the ninth richest country in the world per capita .


Qatar served as the headquarters and one of the main launching sites of the US invasion of Iraq  in 2003.


In 2005, a suicide-bombing killed a British teacher at the Doha Players Theatre, shocking a country that had not previously experienced acts of terrorism. It is not clear if the bombing was committed by an organized terrorist group, and although the investigation is ongoing there are indications that the attack was the work of an individual, not a group.


Qatar is divided into ten municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah), also occasionally translated as governorates or provinces:


#Ad Dawhah


#Al Ghuwariyah


#Al Jumaliyah


#Al Khawr


#Al Wakrah


#Ar Rayyan


#Jariyan al Batnah


#Ash Shamal


#Umm Salal


#Mesaieed


Qatar's great wealth is most visible in its capital, Doha.


Before the discovery of oil the economy of the Qatari region focused on fishing and pearling. After the introduction of the Japanese cultured pearl onto the world market in the 1920s and 1930s, Qatar's pearling industry faltered. However, the discovery of oil reserves, beginning in the 1940s, completely transformed the state's economy. Now the country has a high standard of living, with many social services offered to its citizens and all the amenities of any modern state.


Qatar's national income primarily derives from oil and natural gas exports. The country has oil estimated at 15 billion barrels (2.4 kmÂ³), while gas reserves in the giant north field (South Pars for Iran) which straddles the border with Iran and are almost as large as the peninsula itself are estimated to be between 800â900tcf (Trillion Cubic Feet - 1tcf is equal to around 80 million barrels of oil equivalent). Qataris' wealth and standard of living compare well with those of Western European states; Qatar has one of the highest GDP per capita in the Arab World.  With no income tax, Qatar is also one of the two least-taxed sovereign states in the world (the other is Bahrain).


The Aspire Tower, built for the Asian Games, is visible across Doha, and is now a hotel. While oil and gas will probably remain the backbone of Qatar's economy for some time to come, the country seeks to stimulate the private sector and develop a "knowledge economy". In 2004, it established the Qatar Science & Technology Park to attract and serve technology-based companies and entrepreneurs, from overseas and within Qatar. Qatar also established Education City, which consists of international colleges. For the 15th Asian Games in Doha, it established Sports City, consisting of Khalifa stadium, the Aspire Sports Academy, aquatic centres, exhibition centres and many other sports related buildings and centres. Following the success of the Asian Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007.  Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change  Qatar also plans


n Games, Doha kicked off its official bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics in October of 2007.  Doha 2016 bid brings wind of change  Qatar also plans to build an "entertainment city" in the future.


Qatar is aiming to become a role model for economic and social transformation in the region. Large scale investment in all social and economic sectors will also lead to the development of a strong financial market.


The Qatar Financial Centre (QFC) provides financial institutions with a world class financial services platform situated in an economy founded on the development of its hydrocarbons resources. It has been created with a long term perspective to support the development of Qatar and the wider region, develop local and regional markets, and strengthen the links between the energy based economies and global financial markets.


Apart from Qatar itself, which needs to raise the capacity of its financial services to support more than $130 billion worth of projects, the QFC also provides a conduit for financial services providers to access nearly $1 trillion of investment across the GCC as a whole over the next decade.


The largest project ever in Qatar, the new town of Lusail, is under construction.


Map of Qatar


The Qatari peninsula juts 100 miles  (160 km) into the Persian Gulf from Saudi Arabia and is slightly smaller than Connecticut. Much of the country consists of a low, barren plain, covered with sand. To the southeast lies the spectacular Khor al Adaid ("Inland Sea"), an area of rolling sand dunes surrounding an inlet of the Gulf. There are mild winters and very hot, humid summers.


The highest point in Qatar occurs in the Jebel Dukhan to the west, a range of low limestone outcrops running north-south from Zikrit through Umm Bab to the southern border, and reaching about 295 feet (90 m) ASL. This area also contains Qatar's main onshore oil deposits, while the natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.


Nearly all Qataris profess Islam. Besides ethnic Arabs, much of the population migrated from various nations to work in the country's oil industry. Arabic serves as the official language. However English as well as many other languages are spoken in Qatar.


Expatriates form the majority of Qatar's residents. The petrochemical industry has attracted people from all around the world. Most of the expatriates come from South Asia and from non-oil-rich Arab states. Because a large percentage of the expatriates are male, Qatar has the most heavily skewed sex ratio in the world, with 1.88 males per female .


In 2004, the country had a total population of approximately 1,000,000 (in 2007), of whom approximately 200,000 were believed to be citizens.  Qatar  Of the citizen population, Shi'a Muslims account for approximately 3 percent and Sunni Muslims comprise the remaining 97 percent. The majority of the estimated 800,000 non-citizens are individuals from South and South East Asian and Arab countries working on temporary employment contracts in most cases without their accompanying family members. They are of the following faiths: Sunni Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and BahÃ¡'Ãs. Most foreign workers and their families live near the major employment centers of Doha, Al Khor, Messaeed, and Dukhan.


The Christian community is a diverse mix of Indians, Filipinos, Europeans, Arabs, and Americans. It includes Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations. The Hindu community is almost exclusively Indian, while Buddhists include South and East Asians. Most BahÃ¡'Ãs in Qatar may come from nearby Iran. Religion is not indicated on national identity cards and passports, nor is it a criterion for citizenship in Qatar according to the Nationality Law. However, Qatari citizens are either Sunni or Shi'a Muslims with the exception of a Baha'i and Syrian Christian and their respective families who were granted citizenship. Shi'a, both citizens and foreigners, may attend a small number of Shi'a mosques.


There is some limitation of the religious liberty of Christians.


No foreign missionary groups operate openly in the country.


Qatar explicitly uses Sunni law as the basis of its government, and the vast majority of its citizens follow Hanbali Madhhab. Hanbali (Arabic: ØÙØ¨ÙÙ ) is one of the four schools (Madhhabs) of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (The other three are Hanafi, Maliki and Shafii). Sunni Muslims believe that all four schools have "correct guidance", and the differences between them lie not in the fundamentals of faith, but in finer judgements and jurisprudence, which are a result of the independent reasoning of the imams and the scholars who followed them. Because their individual methodologies of interpretation and extraction from the primary sources (usul) were different, they came to different judgements on particular matters.


Shi'as comprise less than 1% of the muslim population in Qatar, they are foreigners mainly from Iran.


When contrasted with other Arab states such as Saudi Arabia, for instance, Qatar has comparatively liberal laws, but is still not as liberal as some of its neighbours like UAE or Bahrain. Women can legally drive in Qatar, whereas they may not in Saudi Arabia.


The country has undergone a period of liberalization and modernisation after the current Emir of Qatar, Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, came to power after becoming Emir in place of his father. Under his rule, Qatar became the first Arab country in the Persian Gulf where women gained the right to vote   The role of Saudi women  as well as holding senior positions in government.  Also, women can dress mostly as they please in public (although in practice local Qatari women generally don the black abaya). Before the liberalisation, it was taboo for men to wear shorts in public. The laws of Qatar tolerate alcohol to a certain extent. However, public bars and nightclubs in Qatar operate only in expensive hotels and clubs, much like in the UAE and Bahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cauti


ahrain, though the number of establishments has yet to equal that of UAE. Qatar has further been liberalised due to the 15th Asian Games, but is cautious of becoming too liberal in their law making the country a viable weekend immigration from their western neighbour. Overall Qatar has yet to reach the more western laws of UAE or Bahrain, and though plans are being made for more development, the government is cautious.


In recent years Qatar has placed great emphasis on education. Along with the countryâs free healthcare, citizens enjoy free education from kindergarten through to university. Qatar University was founded in 1973.  More recently, with the support of the Qatar Foundation,  some major American universities have opened branch campuses in Education City, Qatar. These include Carnegie Mellon University, Georgetown University School of Foreign Service, Texas A&M University, Virginia Commonwealth University, and Cornell University's Weill Medical College.  In addition, Northwestern University will offer undergraduate programs in communication and journalism starting in fall 2008. In 2004, Qatar established the Qatar Science & Technology Park at Education City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Ac


ducation City to link those universities with industry. Education City is also home to a fully accredited International Baccalaureate school, Qatar Academy. Two Canadian institutions, College of the North Atlantic and the University of Calgary  also operate campuses in Doha.


In November 2002, the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani created the  Supreme Education Council. The Council directs and controls education for all ages from the pre-school level through the university level, including the  "Education for a New Era" reform initiative.


The Emir's second wife, Her Highness Sheikha Mozah Bint Nasser Al-Missned, has been instrumental in new education initiatives in Qatar. She chairs the Qatar Foundation, sits on the board of Qatar's Supreme Education Council, and is a major driving force behind the importation of western expertise into the education system, particularly at the college level.


Qatar has a modern Telecommunication system centered in Doha. Tropospheric scatter to Bahrain; microwave radio relay to Saudi Arabia and UAE; submarine cable to Bahrain and UAE; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. People can call to Qatar using their submarine cable, satellite or using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol); however, Qtel has interfered with VoIP systems in the past, and Skype's website has been blocked before. Following complaints from individuals, the website has been unblocked; and Paltalk has been permanently blocked.


Qtel's ISP branch, Internet Qatar, uses SmartFilter to block websites they deem inappropriate to Qatari interests and morality.


Al Jazeera (Arabic: Ø§ÙØ¬Ø²ÙØ±Ø©â, al-ÄazÄ«rÃ¤, [al.dÊaËziË.ra], meaning "The Peninsula") is a television network headquartered in Doha, Qatar. Al Jazeera initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel of the same name, but has since expanded into a network of several specialty TV channels.


According to the US State Department's Trafficking in Persons Report, men and women who are lured into Qatar by promises of high wages are often forced into underpaid labor. The report states that Qatari laws against forced labor are rarely enforced and that labor laws often result in the detention of victims in deportation centers pending the completion of legal proceedings  .


The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a bear native to the Arctic. Polar bears and Kodiak bears are the world's largest land carnivores, with most adult males weighing 300-600 kg (660-1320 lb); adult females are about half the size of males. Its fur is hollow and translucent, but usually appears as white or cream colored, thus providing the animal with effective camouflage.  Its skin is actually black in color. Its thick blubber and fur insulate it against the cold. The bear has a short tail and small ears that help reduce heat loss, as well as a relatively small head and long, tapered body to streamline it for swimming.


A semi-aquatic marine mammal, the polar bear has adapted for life on a combination of land, sea, and ice,


and is the apex predator within its range.  Polar Bears International  It feeds mainly on seals, young walruses, and whales, although it will eat anything it can kill.


The polar bear is a vulnerable species at high risk of extinction. Zoologists and climatologists believe that the projected decreases in the polar sea ice due to global warming will reduce their population by two thirds by mid-century.    Database entry includes a lengthy justification of why this species is listed as vulnerable.    .  Local long-term studies show that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced.   See also HTML excerpts:  population status reviews and  Table 1 summarizing polar bear population status per 2005.   Polar Bears and Conservation and    In the USA, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned to up-list the legal conservation status of polar bears to threatened species in 2005.   See also the Center's  website on the issue.  This petition is still under review.


lso the Center's  website on the issue.  This petition is still under review.


Polar bears rank with the Kodiak bear as among the largest living land carnivores, and male polar bears may weigh twice as much as a Siberian tiger. Most adult males weigh 350 650 kg (770 1500+ lb) and measure 2.5 3.0 m (8.2 9.8 ft) in length. Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 250 kg (330 550 lb), measuring 2 2.5 m (6.6 8.2 ft), but double their weight during pregnancy.  Stirling makes no mention of length, these are from  SeaWorld  The great difference in body size makes the polar bear among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the eared seals.    At birth, cubs weigh only 600 700 g or about a pound and a half. The largest polar bear on record was a huge male, allegedly weighing 1002 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.


02 kg (2200 lb) shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960.


A Polar Bear resting.


A polar bear's fur provides camouflage and insulation. Although the fur appears white, in fact the individual hairs are translucent, like the water droplets that make up a cloud; the coat may yellow with age. Stiff hairs on the pads of a bear's paws provide insulation and traction on the ice.


Polar bears gradually molt their hair from May to August; Kolenosky G. B. 1987. Polar bear. Pp. 475â485 in Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America (M. Novak, J. A. Baker, M. E. Obbard, and B. Malloch, eds.). Ontario Fur Trappers Association, North Bay, Ontario, Canada.  however, unlike other Arctic mammals, polar bears do not shed their coat for a darker shade to camouflage themselves in the


summer habitat. It was once conjectured that the hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat acted as fiber-optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed - a theory disproved by recent studies.  .


An infrared image of a polarbear.


The thick undercoat does, however, insulate the bears: they overheat at temperatures above 10 Â°C (50 Â°F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography; only their breath and muzzles can be easily seen.  When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, it is not unknown for the fur to turn a pale shade of green. This is due to algae growing inside the guard hairs   in unusually warm conditions, the hollow tubes provide an excellent home for algae. Whilst the algae is harmless to the bears, it is often a worry to the zoos housing them, and affected animals are sometimes washed in a salt solution, or mild peroxide bleach to make the fur white again.


The guard hair is 5-15 cm over most of the body of polar bears.    However, in the forelegs, males have significantly longer, increasing in length until 14 years of age. The ornamental foreleg hair is suggested as a form of an attractive trait for females, likened to the lion mane.


The polar bears ears and tail are smaller than other bears, and its legs are stocky, as expected from Allen's rule for a northerly animal. Its feet are very large, however, presumably to distribute load like snowshoes when walking on snow or thin ice.


The bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases with dermatitis caused sometimes by mites or other parasites. The bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism.  .  Sometimes excess heavy metals have been observed, as well as ethylene glycol (antifreeze) poisoning. Bears exposed to oil and petroleum products lose the insulative integrity of their coats, forcing metabolic rates to dramatically increase to maintain body heat in their challenging environment. Bacterial Leptospirosis, rabies and morbillivirus have been recorded. Interestingly, the bears are thought by some to be more resistant than other carnivores to viral disease.  The pollutant effect on the bears' immune systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challeng


e systems, however, may end up decreasing their ability to cope with the naturally present immunological threats it encounters, and in such a challenging habitat even minor weaknesses can lead to serious problems and quick death.


The ursidae family is believed to have differentiated from other carnivora about 38 million years ago. The ursinae genus originated some 4 million years ago. According to both fossil and DNA evidence, the polar bear diverged from the brown bear roughly 200 thousand years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is less than 100 thousand years old. Fossils show that between 10 and 20 thousand years ago the polar bear's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear.


However, more recent genetic studies have shown that some clades of Brown Bear are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear is not a true species according to some species concepts. Marris, E. 2007. Nature 446, 250-253.  Linnaeus at 300: The species and the specious  In addition, polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzlyâpolar bear hybrids,  .   .  indicating that they have only recently diverged and are not yet truly distinct species. But neither species can survive long in the other's niche, and with distinctly different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviors, and other phenotypic characters, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.


A comparison of the DNA of various brown bear populations showed that the brown bears of Alaska's ABC islands shared a more recent common ancestor with polar bears than with any other brown bear population in the world.    Polar bears still have vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood, but they do not hibernate in the winter as the brown bear does. Only female polar bears enter a dormant state referred to as "denning" during pregnancy, though their body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation.   .


A Polar Bear in Churchill, Manitoba


When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter S. Pallas in 1776.  .  This distinction has since been invalidated. The IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group (PBSG), the pre-eminent international scientific body for research and management of polar bears, recognizes only one species distributed in nineteen discrete subpopulations across five countries.


#Canadian Arctic Archipelago


#Greenland, Denmark


#Svalbard, Norway


#Central Siberia and Franz-Josef Land, Russia


#Alaska, USA


The 19 subpopulations show seasonal fidelity to geographic areas, but DNA studies show significant interbreeding among them.  .


Three Polar Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu   from the North Pole.


Mother and two cubs climbing up Guillemot Island, Ukkusiksalik National Park.


Though it spends time on land and ice, the polar bear is regarded as a marine mammal due to its intimate relationship with the sea.  The circumpolar species is found in and around the Arctic Ocean, its southern range limited by pack ice. Their southernmost point is James Bay in Canada. While their numbers thin north of 88 degrees, there is evidence of polar bears all the way across the Arctic. Population is estimated to be between 20,000 to 25,000.


The main population centers are:


Their range is limited by the availability of sea ice which they use as a platform for hunting seals, the mainstay of their diet. Seals and polar bears tend to gather around fissures in the ice called polynyas.  .  The destruction of its habitat on the Arctic ice threatens the bear's survival as a species.           T. Appenzeller and D. R. Dimick, "The Heat is On," National Geographic 206 (2004): 2-75. cited in


Tourists watching Polar Bears from a "tundra buggy" near Churchill, Manitoba.


The most severe and topically recognized threats to the polar bear are the drastic changes taking place in their natural habitat, which is literally melting away due to global warming.   .  The United States Geological Survey, for example, in November 2006, stated that the Arctic shrinkage in the Alaskan portion of the Beaufort Sea has led to a higher death rate for polar bear cubs.


A 1999 study by scientists from the Canadian Wildlife Service of polar bears in the Hudson Bay showed that global warming is threatening polar bears with starvation. Rising temperatures cause the sea-ice from which the bears hunt to melt earlier in the year, driving them to shore weeks before they have caught enough food to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall    and leading to a 22% decline in the local subpopulation.


There is a photographically confirmed case  from the beginning of the 20th century of a Svalbard polar bear drifting on ice as far south as the northern coast of the Norwegian mainland.  It was found and killed near the village of Berlevag.  More recent sightings in Berlevag, including one in the summer of 2005, remain unconfirmed.


Polar bears are enormous, aggressive, curious, and potentially dangerous to humans. Wild polar bears, unlike most other bears, are barely habituated to people and will quickly size up any animal they encounter as potential prey. Males are normally solitary except for mating season, and females are usually social towards one another. Despite a recurring internet meme that all polar bears are left-handed,  .   .  there is no scientific evidence to support such a contention. Researchers studying polar bears have failed to find any evidence of left-handedness in all bears and one study of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right-handedness.  .


The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family. It feeds mainly on seals, especially ringed seals that poke holes in the ice to breathe,  .  but will eat anything it can kill: birds, eggs, rodents, shellfish, crabs, beluga whales, walrus calves, muskox, reindeer, and other polar bears. Although carnivorous, they have been observed to eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp, however these do not form a significant part of their diet.  Its biology is specialized to digest fat from marine mammals and cannot derive much nutrition from terrestrial food.   ,    Most animals can easily outrun a polar bear on the open land or in the open water, and polar bears overheat quickly: thus the polar bear subsists almost entirely on live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live


n live seals and walrus calves taken at the edge of sea-ice in the winter and spring, or on the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales. They live off of their fat reserves through the late summer and early fall when the sea-ice is at a minimum.  They are enormously powerful predators, but they rarely kill adult walruses, which are twice the polar bear's weight, although such an adult walrus kill has been recorded on tape.  Polar bear vs Walrus   Humans are the only regular predators of polar bears, although the bears have occasionally been found in the stomachs of Orcas.  Orcinus orca Orca (Killer Whale)


As a carnivore which feeds largely upon fish-eating carnivores, the polar bear ingests large amounts of vitamin A, which is stored in their livers. The resulting high concentrations make the liver poisonous to humans, causing Hypervitaminosis A.  .


Polar bear diving in a zoo.


Polar bears are excellent swimmers and have been seen in open Arctic waters as far as   from land. In some cases they spend half their time on ice floes. Their 12 cm (5 in) layer of fat adds buoyancy in addition to insulating them from the cold. Recently, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005.  .


Polar bears, being both curious and scavengers   will, where they come into contact with humans, investigate and consume garbage.  This has been documented at the dump in Churchill, Manitoba prior to its closure.  .  Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil.  .   .  To protect the bears, the Churchill dump was closed in 2006. Garbage is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba.  Hudson Bay Post


Polar bears accumulate high levels of artificial halocarbons such as PCBs and pesticides because of their diet. Their position at the top of the food pyramid tends to concentrate pollutants, particularly halocarbons because of their lipophilicity: halocarbons are soluble in the blubber which makes up the bulk of the polar bear's diet. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. The overall significance to population health is uncertain because of unique features of polar bear biology such as summertime fasting. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency.  .  Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of h


ystem deficiency.  .  Polar bears in Svalbard have the highest concentrations of PCBs, and biologists suggest this may explain the high incidence of hermaphroditic bears in the area.  .


The relevant chemicals have been classified as persistant organic pollutants by the UN, with the aim of discouraging their production. The most notorious of these, PCBs, DDT and other, have been banned, but their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades as these chemicals spread upwards on the food pyramid. The most recent data now indicates a decreasing trend.  .


Mother with cub at Svalbard


A mother and cubs in Churchill, Manitoba


Polar bears mate in April/May over a one week period needed to induce ovulation. The fertilized egg then remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these 4 months, the females then eat prodigial amounts in preparation for pregnancy, doubling their body weight or more. When food becomes scarce in August because of ice breakup, they dig a maternity den in a snow drift and enter a dormant state similar to hibernation. In areas where food is available year-round, they may not enter a den until October. Cubs are born in December without awakening the mother. She remains dormant while nursing her cubs until the family emerges from the den in March. Cubs are weaned at two or three years of age and are separated from their mother. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.


r. Sexual maturity typically comes at the age of four, but may be delayed by up to two years.


In the 1990's less than 20% cubs in the Western Hudson Bay were weaned at eighteen months, as opposed to 40% of cubs in the early 1980's.


In Alaska, the United States Geological Survey reports that 42 percent of cubs now reach 12 months of age, down from 65 percent 15 years ago.  In other words, less than two of every three cubs that survived 15 years ago are now making it past their first year.


The USGS has also published research which purports that the percentage of Alaskan polar bears that den on sea ice has changed from 62% between the years 1985-1994, to 37% over the years 1998-2004. The Alaskan population thus now more resembles the world population, in that it is more likely to den on land.  .


Projected change in polar bear habitat from 2001â2010 to 2041â2050.  From USGS


The World Conservation Union listed polar bears as a vulnerable species, one of three sub-categories of threatened status, in May 2006.    Their latest estimate is that 7 out of 19 subpopulations are declining or already severely reduced.  The United States Geological Survey forecasts that two-thirds of the world's polar bears will disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by global warming.    The bears would disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Arctic archipelago of Canada and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080 they would disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic archipelago.


chipelago.


Global warming has already had an impact on polar bear population health and size. Recent declines in polar bear numbers can be linked to the retreat of sea ice and its formation later in the year. Ice is also breaking up earlier in the year, forcing bears ashore before they have time to build up sufficient fat stores, or forcing them to swim long distances, which may exhaust them, leading to drowning.  The results of these effects of global warming have been thinner, stressed bears, decreased reproduction, and lower juvenile survival rates.   The Humane Society of the United States "Threats to the Polar Bear's Survival"


Polar bear


Because of the inaccessibility of the Arctic, there has never been a comprehensive global survey of polar bears, making it difficult to establish a global trend. The earliest preliminary estimates of the global population were around 5,000-10,000 in the early 1970s, but this was revised to 20,000-40,000 in the 1980s.    Part of this increase may indicate recovery as a result of conservation measures implemented in the early 1970s, but it is principally a revised estimate based on a growing base of data.  Current estimates bound the global population between 20,000-25,000.  Long-term studies of local populations of polar bears show they have been shrinking in the Western Hudson Bay and Baffin Bay areas, and are under stress in the Southern Beaufort Sea area.   In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004.  .


eaufort Sea area.   In the Western Hudson Bay in Canada, for example, there were an estimated 1194 polar bears in 1987, and 935 in 2004.  .


The need for species protection has been disputed by two professionals: H. Sterling Burnett and Mitchell K. Taylor. Burnett, a Senior Fellow of the right-wing advocacy group National Center for Policy Analysis, has claimed that the total global population of polar bears increased from 5,000 to 25,000 between the 1970s and 2007.    Mitchell Taylor, the Nunavut Government Manager of Wildlife Research, wrote a letter to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service arguing that local studies are insufficient evidence for global protection at this time.    These two people have attracted disproportionate media attention, even though their views are refuted by all polar bear scientists.  .   PBI Ask the Experts


First polar bear shot in the S. A. AndrÃ©e's Arctic balloon expedition of 1897.


Hunters from around the Arctic have harvested hundreds of polar bears annually since at least the 18th century.  The harvest grew rapidly in the 1960's, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1250 bears that year.    Although the polar bear was not deemed endangered at the time, the growing threat encouraged countries to regulate polar bear hunting around that time. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. The U.S. began regulating in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973 the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (known as the Oslo Agreement among experts) was signed by the five nations whose Arctic territory is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement


ry is inhabited by polar bears: U.S., Canada, Norway, Denmark (via its territory Greenland) and Russia (then the Soviet Union). Although the agreement is not enforceable in itself, member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, completely ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers), and conduct further research.  International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, November 15, 1973, Oslo    Climate Change, Polar Bears, and International Law, Nigel Bankes, University of Calgary Faculty of Law. (DRAFT. Not for quotation.)  The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods," although this has been liberally interpreted by member nations. All nations except Norway allow hunting by the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.


the Inuit, and Canada and Denmark allow trophy hunting by tourists.


Many environmental and animal protection groups fear that global warming will have a tremendous impact on the viability of polar bear populations and fear that continued trophy hunting will have further negative consequences.


Play fight


About 60% of the world's polar bears live in Canada,  where conservation laws are a provincial jurisdiction. Hunting quotas and restrictions relating to Indian status are in effect, but vary by province. About 500 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada,    a rate believed by scientists to be unsustainable in some areas, notably Baffin Bay.  Canada has allowed recreational hunters accompanied by local guides and dog-sled teams since 1970,    but the practice was not common until the 1980s.  Conservation initiatives conflict with northern resident's income from fur trade and recreational hunting, which can bring in $20,000 to $35,000 Canadian dollars per bear, mostly from American hunters.    Inuit are skeptical of conservation concerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.


cerns because of increases in bear sightings near settlement in recent years.


The territory of Nunavut accounts for 80% of Canadian kills.  Their government has condemned the American initiative to grant threatened status to polar bears,    and northern residents are strongly concerned about it.     In 2005 the Government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears,  CBC News, 10 Jan 2005, "Nunavut hunters can kill more polar bears this year"  despite protests from some scientific groups.  CBC News, 4 Jul 2005, "Rethink polar bear hunt quotas, scientists tell Nunavut hunters"  While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8% in the 1970s, 7.1% in the 1980s, and 14.6% in the 1990s)  .  Nunavut polar bear biologist, M.K. Taylor, who is responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.


sponsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, insists that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits.


The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 - 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters.


Polar bears at the Detroit Zoo.


Because many marine mammal populations had plummeted due to over-hunting, the United States passed the federal Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, which prohibited the harassment, injuring or killing of all marine mammal species, including polar bears. This prohibited the importation of polar bear trophies into the U.S. by sport hunters.  The Humane Society of the United States "What You Can Do to Protect Polar Bears"


In 1994, the United States modified the Marine Mammal Protection Act, allowing the importation of sport-hunted polar bear trophies into the country and clearing the way for an increase in polar bear hunting. Since 1994, more than 800 sport-hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S.  The Humane Society of the United States "Support the Polar Bear Protection Act"  In May 2007, legislation was introduced in both houses of the United States Congress (H.R. 2327, called the Polar Bear Protection Act) to reverse the 1994 legislation and ban the importation of dead polar bears.  The Humane Society of the United States "The Polar Bear Protection Act" . On June 27 this legislation was defeated in congress and not passed.


American Hunter


In February 2005 the environmental group, Center for Biological Diversity, with broad support from environmentalists, petitioned the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), part of the Department of the Interior to use the Endangered Species Act and list the bears as a threatened species.     The FWS did not respond to the petition, despite being required to do so within 90 days under United States law.  On December 14 2006 the Center for Biological Diversity along with Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council filed a lawsuit in California.


On December 27, 2006, the United States Department of the Interior in agreement with the three groups proposed that polar bears be added to the endangered species list, the first change of this type to be attributed to global warming. It will take up to a year to make the final determination.    The Natural Resources Defense Council contends that though it is "a big step forward" the proposal fails to identify global warming pollution as the cause of rising Arctic temperatures and vanishing sea ice. In addition, it says the proposal offered by Dr. Rosa Meehan, Supervisor of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, does not designate any of the land discussed as the kind of habitat that is essential for the polar bear's survival as "critical habitat" that could help the bear recover.  Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction!   Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears an


tat" that could help the bear recover.  Global Warming Threatens Polar Bears with Extinction!   Tell the Bush Administration to protect polar bears and their critical habitat


Russia declared a complete protection in 1955,  but allows hunting by the indigenous people on the basis that it is part of their culture. It signed the Agreement between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the Russian Federation on the Conservation and Management of the Alaska-Chukotka Polar Bear Population in October 2000.


Until 2005, Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. In 2005, it imposed a limit of 150 for 2006. It also allowed recreational hunting for the first time.  The Humane Society of the United States "Hitting Polar Bears When They Are Down"


Since 1973, Norway has had a complete ban on polar bear hunting.


thumbPolar bears have been made both controversial and famous for their distinctive white fur and their habitat. Companies like Coca-Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum and Good Humor-Breyers have used images of this bear in logos. The first has consistently displayed the bears as thriving near penguins, though the animals naturally live in opposite hemispheres. The Canadian 2-dollar coin (right) features the image of a polar bear. The panserbjÃ¸rne of the fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are polar bears with human-level intelligence. The TV series Lost has featured polar bears on a mysterious tropical island where they are portrayed as fearsome beasts. Also, a polar bear was chosen as mascot for the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the sh


Calgary, Canada. The Polar Bear is the mascot of Bowdoin college. Both the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada have a licence plate in the shape of a polar bear. East, a young adult book by prolific writer Edith Pattou weaves a story around a mysterious ice bear held in an enchantment by The Troll Queen. East is an ALA Notable Book and is a retelling of the classic story of Beauty and the Beast.


Charles Augustin de Coulomb (born June 14, 1736, AngoulÃªme, France - died August 23, 1806, Paris, France) was a French physicist. He is best known for developing Coulomb's law: the definition of the electrostatic force of attraction and repulsion. The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, was named after him.


Coulomb was born in AngoulÃªme, France, to a well to do family. His father, Henri Coulomb, was inspector of the Royal Fields in Montpellier. His mother, Catherine Bajet, came from a wealthy family in the wool trade. When Coulomb was a boy the family moved to Paris, and there Coulomb studied at the prestigious CollÃ¨ge des Quatre-Nations. The courses of mathematics there under Pierre Charles Monnier made him decide to pursue mathematics and the similar subjects as a career. From 1757 to 1759 he joined his father's family in Montpellier and took part in the work of the academy of the city, directed by the mathematician Augustin Danyzy. With his father's approval, Coulomb returned to Paris in 1759  to  successfully study for the entrance examination at the military school at MÃ©ziÃ¨res.


nation at the military school at MÃ©ziÃ¨res.


At his exit from the school in 1761, he initially took part in the survey for the British coastal charts, then was sent on mission to Martinique in 1764  to take part in the construction of the Fort Bourbon under the orders of the lieutenant-colonel of Rochemore, as the French colony was insulated in the middle of the English and Spanish possessions following the Seven Years' War. Coulomb spent eight years directing the work, contracting tropical fever. He carried out several experiments on the resistance of masonries and the behaviour of the walls of escarpe (supportings), which were inspired by the ideas of Pieter van Musschenbroek on friction.


Upon his return, with the rank of Captain, he was employed at La Rochelle, the Isle of Aix and Cherbourg. He discovered an inverse relationship of the force between electric charges and the square of its distance, later named after him as Coulomb's law.


In 1781, he was stationed permanently at Paris. On the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789, he resigned his appointment as intendant des eaux et fontaines, and retired to a small estate which he possessed at Blois. He was recalled to Paris for a time in order to take part in the new determination of weights and measures, which had been decreed by the Revolutionary government. He was one of the first members of the National Institute; he was appointed inspector of public instruction in 1802 . But his health was already very feeble, and four years later he died in Paris, France.


Coulomb leaves a legacy as a hero in the field of geotechnical engineering for his contribution to retaining wall design.


Coulomb is distinguished in the history of mechanics and of electricity and magnetism. In 1779  he published an important investigation of the laws of friction, ThÃ©orie des machines simples, en ayant Ã©gard au frottement de leurs parties et Ã  la roideur des cordages (Theory of simple machines with regard for the friction of their parts and the tension of the ropes), which was followed twenty years later by a memoir on viscosity.


In 1784  his Recherches thÃ©oriques et expÃ©rimentales sur la force de torsion et sur l'Ã©lasticitÃ© des fils de metal  Histoire de lâAcadÃ©mie Royale des Sciences, 229-269, 1784  (Theoretical research and experimentation on torsion and the elasticity of metal wire) appeared. This memoir contained a description of different forms of his torsion balance. He used the instrument with great success for the experimental investigation of the distribution of charge on surfaces, of the laws of electrical and magnetic force, and of the mathematical theory of which he may also be regarded as the founder.


Coulomb's torsion balance


In 1785  Coulomb presented his three reports on Electricity and Magnetism:


- Premier MÃ©moire sur lâElectricitÃ© et le MagnÃ©tisme  Histoire de lâAcadÃ©mie Royale des Sciences, 569-577, 1785 . In this publication Coulomb describes âHow to construct and use an electric balance (torsion balance) based on the property of the metal wires of having a reaction torsion force proportional to the torsion angleâ.  Coulomb also experimentally determined the law that explains how âtwo bodies electrified of the same kind of Electricity exert on each otherâ.


- SÃ©cond MÃ©moire sur lâElectricitÃ© et le MagnÃ©tisme  Histoire de lâAcadÃ©mie Royale des Sciences, 578-611, 1785 . In this publication Coulomb carries out the âdetermination according to which laws both the Magnetic and the Electric fluids act, either by repulsion or by attractionâ.


- TroisiÃ¨me MÃ©moire sur lâElectricitÃ© et le MagnÃ©tisme  Histoire de lâAcadÃ©mie Royale des Sciences, 612-638, 1785 . âOn the quantity of Electricity that an isolated body loses in a certain time period , either by contact with less humid air, or in the supports more or less idio-electricâ.


Four subsequent reports were published in the following years:


- QuatriÃ¨me MÃ©moire  "Where two principal properties of the electric fluid are demonstrated: first, that this fluid does not expand into any object according to a chemical affinity, or by an elective attraction, but that it divides itself between different objects brought into contact; second, that in conducting objects, the fluid, having achieved a state of stability, expands on the surface of the body and does not penetrate into the interior." (1786)


- CinquiÃ¨me MÃ©moire  "On the manner in which the electric fluid divides itself between conducting objects brought into contact, and the distribution of this fluid on the different parts of the surface of this object." (1787)


- SixiÃ¨me MÃ©moire "Continuation of research into the distribution of the electric fluid between several conductors. Determination of electric density at different points on the surface of these bodies." (1788)


- SeptiÃ¨me MÃ©moire. "On magnetism" (1789)


Coulomb explained the laws of attraction and repulsion between electric charges and magnetic poles, although he did not find any relationship between the two phenomena.  He thought that the attraction and repulsion were due to different kinds of fluids.


*  French National Library The MÃ©moires of Coulomb available in pdf format.


Turtles are reptilians of the Order Testudines (all living turtles belong to the crown group Chelonia), most of whose body is shielded by a special bony or cartilaginous shell developed from their ribs. The Order Testudines includes both extant (living) and extinct species, the earliest known turtles being from around 215 million years ago,  /ref> making turtles one of the oldest reptile groups, and a much more ancient group than lizards and snakes.  About 300 species are alive today; some are highly endangered.


Like other reptiles, turtles are ectothermic (or "cold-blooded" Reptile blood isn't necessarily cold, as reptiles sun themselves and take other measures to stay warm. ). Like other amniotes (reptiles, dinosaurs, birds, and mammals), they breathe air and don't lay eggs underwater, though many species live in or around water. The largest turtles are aquatic.


An American map turtle hatchling.


Even though many turtles spend large amounts of their lives underwater, all turtles and tortoises breathe air, and must surface at regular intervals to refill their lungs. They can also spend much of their lives on dry land. Aquatic respiration in Australian freshwater turtles is currently being studied. Some species have large cloacal cavities that are lined with many finger-like projections. These projections, called "papillae", have a rich blood supply, and serve to increase the surface area of the cloaca. The turtles can take up dissolved oxygen from the water using these papillae, in much the same way that fish use gills to respire.


Turtles lay eggs, like other reptiles, which are slightly soft and leathery. The eggs of the largest species are spherical, while the eggs of the rest are elongated. Their albumen is white and contains a different protein than bird eggs, such that it will not coagulate when cooked. Turtle eggs prepared to eat consist mainly of yolk. In some species, temperature determines whether an egg develops into a male or a female: a higher temperature causes a female, a lower temperature causes a male. Large numbers of eggs are deposited in holes dug into mud or sand. They are then covered and left to incubate by themselves.  When the turtles hatch they squirm their way to the surface and make for the water. There are no known species wherein the mother cares for the young.


er cares for the young.


Sea turtles lay their eggs on dry sandy beaches. Immature sea turtles are not cared for by the adults. Most are endangered largely as a result of beach development and over hunting.


Turtles can take many years to reach breeding age. Often turtles only breed every few years or more.


Researchers have recently discovered a turtleâs organs do not gradually break down or become less efficient over time, unlike most other animals. It was found that the liver, lungs and kidneys of a centenarian turtle are virtually indistinguishable from those of its immature counterpart. This has inspired genetic researchers to begin examining the turtle genome for longevity genes.  All but Ageless, Turtles Face Their Biggest Threat: Humans


Turtles are divided into three suborders, one of which, the Paracryptodira, is extinct. The two extant suborders are the Cryptodira and the Pleurodira. The Cryptodira is the larger of the two groups and includes all the marine turtles, the terrestrial tortoises, and many of the freshwater turtles. The Pleurodira are sometimes known as the side-necked turtles, a reference to the way they withdraw their heads into their shells. This smaller group consists primarily of various freshwater turtles.


Different animals are called turtles, tortoises, or terrapins in different varieties of English


Turtles, particularly small terrestrial and freshwater turtles, are commonly kept as pets. Among the most popular are Russian Tortoises, Greek spur-thighed tortoises and red-ear sliders (or terrapin). David Alderton (1986). An Interpet Guide to Reptiles & Amphibians, Salamander Books Ltd., London & New York.


*Addyaita: a giant turtle of Aldabra. It was reportedly 250-years old when it died at Kolkata Zoo on March 24, 2005.


* Iskandar, DT (2000). Turtles and Crocodiles of Insular Southeast Asia and New Guinea. ITB, Bandung.


* Pritchard, Pether C H (1979). Encyclopedia of Turtles. T.F.H. Publications.


*  Turtles of the World: Extensive information on all known turtles, tortoises and terrapins, including key and quiz.


*  - A website on all pet turtle species including a guide on caring for your turtles.


*  - Gulf Coast Turtle & Tortoise Society, A group dedicated to education & proper captive husbandry of turtles and tortoises.


Singapore ( ;  ;  ,  ), officially the Republic of Singapore ( ;  ;  ,  ), is an island nation located at the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula. It lies 137 kilometres (85 mi) north of the Equator, south of the Malaysian state of Johor and north of Indonesia's Riau Islands. At 704.0 kmÂ² (272 sq mi), it is one of the few remaining city-states in the world and the smallest country in Southeast Asia.


The British East India Company established a trading post on the island in 1819. The main settlement up to that point was a Malay fishing village at the mouth of the Singapore River. Several hundred indigenous Orang Laut people also lived around the coast, rivers and smaller islands. The British used Singapore as a strategic trading post along the spice route.    It became one of the most important commercial and military centres of the British Empire. Winston Churchill called it "Britain's greatest defeat" when it was occupied by the Japanese during World War II.    Singapore reverted to British rule in 1945. In 1963, it merged with Malaya, Sabah and Sarawak to form Malaysia. Less than two years later it split from the federation and became an independent republic on 9 August 1965. Singapore was admitted to the United Nations on September 21 that same year.


e an independent republic on 9 August 1965. Singapore was admitted to the United Nations on September 21 that same year.


Since independence, Singapore's standard of living has increased progressively. A state-led industrialization drive, aided by foreign direct  investment has created a modern economy based on electronics manufacturing, petrochemicals, tourism and financial services alongside the traditional entrepÃ´t trade. Singapore is the 17th wealthiest country in the world in terms of GDP per capita.


Singapore is 44th (as on 2006).  The small nation has a foreign reserve of S$222 billion (US$147 billion).


The Constitution of the Republic of Singapore established the nation's political system as a representative democracy, while the country is recognized as a parliamentary republic.      The People's Action Party (PAP) dominates the political process and has won control of Parliament in every election since self-government in 1959.


The name Singapura is derived from the Sanskrit words singa à®à®¿à®à¯à®     ("lion") and   à®ªà¯à®°   ("city").    According to the Malay Annals, this name was given by a 14th century Sumatran prince named Sang Nila Utama, who, landing on the island after a thunderstorm, spotted an auspicious beast on the shore that his chief minister identified as a lion.


Recent studies of Singapore indicate that lions have never lived there (not even Asiatic lions), and the beast seen by Sang Nila Utama was likely a tiger, most likely the Malayan Tiger.


The Downtown Core of Singapore at dusk


The first records of settlement in Singapore are from the second century AD.    The island was an outpost of the Sumatran Srivijaya empire and originally bore the Javanese name Temasek ('sea town'). Temasek (Tumasek) rapidly became a significant trading settlement, but declined in the late 14th century. There are few remnants of old Temasek in Singapore, but archaeologists in Singapore have uncovered artefacts of that and other settlements. Between the 16th and early 19th centuries, Singapore island was part of the Sultanate of Johor. During the Malay-Portugal wars in 1613, the settlement was set ablaze by Portuguese troops.    The Portuguese subsequently held control in that century and the Dutch in the 17th, but throughout most of this time the island's population consisted mainly of fishermen.


me the island's population consisted mainly of fishermen.


On January 29 1819, Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles landed on the main island. Spotting its potential as a strategic geographical trading post in Southeast Asia, Raffles signed a treaty with Sultan Hussein Shah on behalf of the British East India Company to develop Singapore as a British trading post and settlement, marking the start of the island's modern era. Raffles's deputy, William Farquhar, oversaw a period of growth and ethnic migration, which was largely spurred by a no-restriction immigration policy. The British India office governed the island from 1858, but Singapore was made a British crown colony in 1867, answerable directly to the Crown. By 1869 the island boasted a sizeable community of 100,000.


The early onset of town planning in colonial Singapore came largely through a "divide and rule" framework where the different ethnic groups were settled in different parts of the South of the island. The Singapore River was largely a commercial area that was dominated by traders and bankers of various ethnic groups with mostly Chinese and Indian coolies working to load and unload goods from barge boats known locally as "bumboats". The Malays, consisting of the local "Orang Lauts" who worked mostly as fishermen and sea-farers, and Arab traders and scholars were mostly found in the South-east part of the river mouth, where Kampong Glam stands today. The European settlers, who were few then, settled around Fort Canning Hill and further upstream from the Singapore River. Like the Europeans, the early Indian migrants also settled more inland of the Singapore River, where Little India stands t


m from the Singapore River. Like the Europeans, the early Indian migrants also settled more inland of the Singapore River, where Little India stands today. Very little is known about the rural private settlements in those times (known as kampongs), other than the major move by the post-independent Singapore government to re-settle these residents in the late 1960s.


Statue of Thomas Stamford Raffles by Thomas Woolner, erected at the location where he first landed at Singapore. He is recognized as the founder of modern Singapore.


During World War II, the Imperial Japanese Army invaded Malaya, culminating in the Battle of Singapore. The ill-prepared British were defeated in six days, and surrendered the supposedly impregnable "Bastion of the Empire" to General Tomoyuki Yamashita on 15 February 1942 in what is now known as the British Empire's greatest military defeat. The Japanese renamed Singapore  , from Japanese  , or "southern island obtained in the age of ShÅwa", and occupied it until the British repossessed the island on September 12 1945, a month after the Japanese surrender.


The name ShÅnantÅ was, at the time, romanized as "Syonan-to" or "Syonan", which means "Light of the South".


Singapore became a self-governing state in 1959 with Yusof bin Ishak its first Yang di-Pertuan Negara and Lee Kuan Yew its first Prime Minister. Following the 1962 Merger Referendum of Singapore, Singapore joined Malaya, along with Sabah and Sarawak, to form the Federation of Malaysia on September 16 1963, but separated from it two years later after heated ideological conflict between the state's PAP government and the federal Kuala Lumpur government. Singapore officially gained sovereignty on 9 August 1965.    Yusof bin Ishak was sworn in as the first President of Singapore and Lee Kuan Yew remained prime minister.


The fledgling nation had to be self-sufficient, and faced problems like mass unemployment, housing shortages, and a dearth of land and natural resources. During Lee Kuan Yew's term as prime minister from 1959 to 1990, his administration attacked widespread unemployment, raised the standard of living, and implemented a large-scale public housing programme. The country's economic infrastructure was developed, the threat of racial tension was curbed, and an independent national defence system, centring around compulsory male military service, was created.


In 1990, Goh Chok Tong succeeded Lee as Prime Minister. During his tenure, the country tackled the impacts of the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the 2003 SARS outbreak, and terrorist threats posed by the Jemaah Islamiyah group after the September 11 attacks.


In 2004, Lee Hsien Loong, the eldest son of Lee Kuan Yew, became the third prime minister.    Amongst his more notable decisions is the plan to open casinos to attract more foreign tourists.


Parliament House


Singapore is a republic with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government representing different constituencies. The bulk of the executive powers rests with the Cabinet, headed by the Prime Minister. The office of President of Singapore, historically a ceremonial one, was granted some veto powers as of 1991 for a few key decisions such as the use of the national reserves and the appointment of judiciary positions. Although the position is to be elected by popular vote, only the 1993 election has been contested to date. The legislative branch of government is the Parliament.


Parliamentary elections in Singapore are plurality-based for group representation constituencies since the Parliamentary Elections Act was modified in 1991.


The Istana, the official residence and office of the President of Singapore


Singaporean politics have been controlled by the People's Action Party (PAP) since self-government was attained.  Worthington (2002), Mauzy and Milne (2002).  In consequence, foreign political analysts and several opposition parties like the Workers' Party of Singapore, the Singapore Democratic Party (SDP) and the Singapore Democratic Alliance (SDA) have argued that Singapore is essentially a one-party state. Many analysts consider Singapore to be more of an illiberal or procedural democracy than a true democracy. The Economist Intelligence Unit, while admitting that "There is no consensus on how to measure democracy" and that "definitions of democracy are contested", does not list Singapore as either a "democracy" or a "flawed democracy" but as a "hybrid regime" of democratic and authoritarian elements.    Freedom House ranks the country as "partly free".    Though general elections are


ut as a "hybrid regime" of democratic and authoritarian elements.    Freedom House ranks the country as "partly free".    Though general elections are free from irregularities and vote rigging, the PAP has been criticised for manipulating the political system through its use of censorship, gerrymandering, and civil libel suits against opposition politicians. Francis Seow, the exiled former Solicitor-General of Singapore, is a prominent critic. Seow and opposition politicians such as J.B. Jeyaretnam and Chee Soon Juan claim that Singapore courts favour the PAP government, and there is no separation of powers.