The Philippines saw the U.S. Army for the first time using a systematic doctrine of counter-insurgency. Despite the ad hoc nature of the force deployed by Roosevelt the Army was able to end the insurgency by 1902. Over the course of the war the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers built over 3000 miles of roads and worked to build an entire education system, even bringing in thousands of American teachers to spearhead the effort.


Roosevelt builds the canal and shovels dirt on Colombia


Roosevelt dramatically increased the size of the navy, forming the Great White Fleet, which toured the world in 1907. This display was  designed to impress the Japanese. Yet, the ships were almost forced to return because of the inadequacy of American ports in the Pacific. See Edward S Miller,War Plan Orange (Annapolis, 1991)   Roosevelt also added the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, which stated that the United States could intervene in Latin American affairs when corruption of governments made it necessary.


Roosevelt gained international praise for helping negotiate the end of the Russo-Japanese War, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Roosevelt later arbitrated a dispute between France and Germany over the division of Morocco. Some historians have argued these latter two actions helped in a small way to avert a world war. The Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia (2005).  "Theodore Roosevelt (1901â1909)". Retrieved March 6 2006.


Roosevelt's most famous foreign policy initiative, following the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, was the construction of the Panama Canal, which upon its completion shortened the route of freighters between San Francisco, California and New York City by 8,000 miles (13,000 km).


Colombia first proposed the canal in their country as opposed to rival Nicaragua, and Colombia signed a treaty for an agreed-upon sum. At the time, Panama was a province of Colombia. According to the treaty, in 1902, the U.S. was to buy out the equipment and excavations from France, which had been attempting to build a canal since 1881. While the Colombian negotiating team had signed the treaty, ratification by the Colombian Senate became problematic. The Colombian Senate balked at the price and asked for ten million dollars over the original agreed upon price. When the U.S. refused to re-negotiate the price, the Colombian politicians proposed cutting the original French company that started the project out of the deal and giving that difference to Colombia.


rence to Colombia.


The original deal stipulated the French company was to be reasonably compensated. Realizing the Colombian Senate was no longer bargaining in good faith, Roosevelt tired of these last-minute attempts by the Colombians to cheat the French out of their entire investment, and ultimately decided, with the encouragement of Panamanian business interests, to help Panama declare independence from Colombia in 1903.


A brief Panamanian revolution of only a few hours followed the declaration, as Colombian soldiers were bribed $50 each to lay down their arms.  On November 3, 1903, the Republic of Panama was created, with its constitution written in advance by the United States.  Shortly thereafter, the U.S. signed a protection treaty with Panama. And after the signing of the treaty, a man named Nathan Johnson Forest assisted Panama with the initial planning phases for the canal.  The U.S. then paid ten million to secure rights to build on, and control, the Canal Zone.  Construction began in 1904 and was completed in 1914.


It took a long time to build the Panama Canal because of the rampant spread of tropical diseases. Over 200 workers died of yellow fever and malaria, spread by mosquitoes. Roosevelt initiated work on clearing swamps and other areas in which the insects bred. As the health threat finally receded, this greatly facilitated the construction of the Canal.


Roosevelt, (on the 12" gun turret at right), addresses the crew of USS Connecticut (BB18), in Hampton Roads, Virginia, upon her return from the Fleet's cruise


As Roosevelt's administration drew to a close, the president dispatched a fleet consisting of four US Navy battleship squadrons and their escorts, on a world-wide voyage of circumnavigation from December 16, 1907, to February 22, 1909. With their hulls painted white (except for the beautiful gilded scrollwork) and red, white, and blue banners on their bows, these ships would come to be known as The Great White Fleet.  Roosevelt wanted to demonstrate to his country and the world that the US Navy was capable of operating in a global theater, particularly in the Pacific. This was extraordinarily important at a time when tensions were slowly growing between the United States and Japan. The latter had recently shown its navy's competence in defeating the Russians in the Russo-Japanese War, and the US Navy fleet in the west was relatively small. As a mark of the mission's success, the Atlantic


ating the Russians in the Russo-Japanese War, and the US Navy fleet in the west was relatively small. As a mark of the mission's success, the Atlantic Fleet battleships only later came to be known as the "Great White Fleet."


When the real Great White Fleet sailed into Yokahama, Japan, the Japanese went to extraordinary lengths to show that their country desired peace with the US. Thousands of Japanese school children waved American flags, purchased by the government, as they greeted the Navy brass coming ashore. In February 1909, the fleet returned home to Hampton Roads, Virginia, and Roosevelt was there to witness the triumphant return. His appearance indicated that he saw the fleet's long voyage as a fitting finish for his administration. Roosevelt said to the officers of the Fleet, "Other nations may do what you have done, but they'll have to follow you."  This parting act of grand strategy by Roosevelt greatly expanded the respect for, as well as the role of, the United States in the international arena.  However, the visit of the Great White Fleet to Tokyo also encouraged Japanese militarists. They had


f, the United States in the international arena.  However, the visit of the Great White Fleet to Tokyo also encouraged Japanese militarists. They had always argued for an even more aggressive Japanese ship building and naval expansion program, and the recent show of force by the U.S. convinced enough of their countrymen that they were right. In a real sense, this set in motion the chain of events leading to the U.S. & Japan confronting each other 30 years later - during WWII.


A Lincoln cent


Roosevelt thought American coins and currency were common and uninspiring. Roosevelt had the opportunity to pose for a young Lithuanian-born sculptor, Victor David Brenner, who, since arriving nineteen years earlier in the United States had become one of the nationâs premier medalists. Roosevelt had learned of Brenner's talents in a settlement house on New York City's Lower East Side and was immediately impressed with a bas-relief that Brenner had made of Lincoln, based on the early Civil War era photographer, Mathew Brady's photograph. Roosevelt, who considered Lincoln the savior of the Union and the greatest Republican President and who also considered himself Lincolnâs political heir, ordered the new Lincoln penny to be based on Brenner's work and that it go just in time to commemorate Lincolnâs 100th birthday in 1909. The likeness of President Lincoln on the obverse of the coin


ner's work and that it go just in time to commemorate Lincolnâs 100th birthday in 1909. The likeness of President Lincoln on the obverse of the coin is an adaptation of a plaque Brenner executed several years earlier and which had come to the attention of President Roosevelt in New York.   /ref>


Roosevelt took Cabinet members and friends on long, fast-paced hikes, boxed in the state rooms of the White House, romped with his children, and read voraciously. Hanson, David C. (2005).  "Theodore Roosevelt: Lion in the White House". Retrieved March 6 2006.  In 1908, he was permanently blinded in his left eye during one of his boxing bouts, but this injury was kept from the public at the time. Smith, Ira R. T.; Morris, Joe Alex (1949). "Dear Mr. President": The Story of Fifty Years in the White House Mail Room, p. 52. Julian Messner.  His many enthusiastic interests and limitless energy led one ambassador to wryly explain, "You must always remember that the President is about six." Kennedy, Robert C. (2005).  "'I hear there are some kids in the White House this year'". Retrieved March 6 2006.


in the White House this year'". Retrieved March 6 2006.


Roosevelt shoots holes in the dictionary as the ghosts of Chaucer, Shakespeare and Dr Johnson moan.


During his presidency, Roosevelt tried but did not succeed to advance the cause of simplified spelling. He tried to force government to adopt the system, sending an order to the Public Printer to use the system in all public documents. The order was obeyed, and among the documents thus printed was the President's special message regarding the Panama Canal. The New York World translated the Thanksgiving Day proclamation:


The reform annoyed the public, forcing him to rescind the order. Roosevelt's friend, literary critic Brander Matthews, one of the chief advocates of the reform, remonstrated with him for abandoning the effort. Roosevelt replied on December 16: "I could not by fighting have kept the new spelling in, and it was evidently worse than useless to go into an undignified contest when I was beaten. Do you know that the one word as to which I thought the new spelling was wrong   thru   was more responsible than anything else for our discomfiture?" Next summer Roosevelt was watching a naval review when a launch marked "Pres Bot" chugged ostentatiously by. The President waved and laughed with delight. Pringle 465â7


Roosevelt's oldest daughter, Alice, was a controversial character during Roosevelt's stay in the White House. When friends asked if he could rein in his elder daughter, Roosevelt said, "I can be President of the United States, or I can control Alice. I cannot possibly do both."  In turn, Alice said of him that he always wanted to be "the bride at every wedding and the corpse at every funeral."  (Some sources attribute this quote to one of Roosevelt's sons instead.) Thayer, Chapter XIII, p. 7.


Roosevelt's contribution to the White House was the construction of the original West Wing, which he had built to free up the second floor rooms in the residence that formerly housed the president's staff. He and Edith also had the entire house renovated and restored to the federal style, tearing out the Victorian furnishings and details (including Tiffany windows) that had been installed over the previous three decades.


1902 The Washington Post political cartoon that spawned the Teddy bear name.


#In the sphere of race relations, Booker T. Washington became the first black man to dine as a guest at the White House in 1901.


#Oscar S. Straus became the first Jewish person appointed as a Cabinet Secretary, under Roosevelt.


#In August, 1902, Roosevelt became the first U.S. president to take a public automobile ride. This occurred during a parade in Hartford, Connecticut


#In 1910 he became the first U.S. President to ride in an airplane.


#On August 25, 1905 he became the first U.S. President to ride in a military submarine when he boarded the USS Holland (SS-1) and ran submerged with her for 55 minutes.


#In 1906, he made the first trip, by a President, outside the United States, visiting Panama to inspect the construction progress of the Panama Canal on November 9.


#In 1902, in response to the assassination of President William McKinley on September 6 1901, Theodore Roosevelt became the first president to be under constant Secret Service protection.


# In 1906, Roosevelt became the first American to be awarded a Nobel Prize.


#In 2001, he became the first and only President up to date to receive a Medal of Honor, making him the only person to date to win the world's highest peace honor, as well as his nation's top military honor.


#He was the first and to date only president from Long Island, New York.


#He was the first President to officially refer to the White House as such, on his official stationery. This had been the common name (referring to the color of the building), but until then, the official name was "The Executive Mansion"


#He was the first President to wear a necktie for his official Presidential Portrait.


#He was the first President to approve a coin, the Lincoln cent, with a man's face on it, in 1909, just in time for the centennial of Lincoln's birth. Lincoln was Roosevelt's presidential hero.


#He was the first President to coin an internationally recognized trademark, although not deliberately. His offhand remark, "good to the last drop," about some coffee drunk at the Maxwell House hotel in Tennessee,  see Maxwell House coffee.


#He is the only president to have a famous toy named after him (the Teddy bear, named after a bear he refused to shoot in a 1902 hunt in Mississipi).


John Singer Sargent, Theodore Roosevelt, 1903; click on painting for background story.


Roosevelt appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:


Roosevelt standing next to a dead elephant during a safari


In March 1909, shortly after the end of his second term, Roosevelt left New York for a safari in east and central Africa. Roosevelt's party landed in Mombasa, British East Africa (now Kenya), traveled to the Belgian Congo (now Democratic Republic of the Congo) before following the Nile up to Khartoum in modern Sudan. Financed by Andrew Carnegie and by his own proposed writings, Roosevelt hunted for specimens for the Smithsonian Institution and for the American Museum of Natural History in New York. His party, which included scientists from the Smithsonian and was led by Frederick Selous, the famous big game hunter and explorer, and they killed or trapped over 11,397 animals, from insects and moles to hippopotamuses and elephants. 512 of the animals were big game animals, including six rare white rhinos. 262 of these were consumed by the expedition. Tons of salted animals and their skins


animals were big game animals, including six rare white rhinos. 262 of these were consumed by the expedition. Tons of salted animals and their skins were shipped to Washington; the quantity was so large that it took years to mount them all, and the Smithsonian was able to share many duplicate animals with other museums.


Regarding the large number of animals taken, Roosevelt said, "I can be condemned only if the existence of the National Museum, the American Museum of Natural History, and all similar zoological institutions are to be condemned." O'Toole, Patricia (2005) When Trumpets Call, p. 67, Simon and Schuster, ISBN 0-684-86477-0   However, although the safari was ostensibly conducted in the name of science, there was another, quite large element to it as well. In addition to many native peoples and local leaders, interaction with renowned professional hunters and land owning families made the safari as much a political and social event, as it was a hunting excursion. Roosevelt wrote a detailed account of the adventure in the book "African Game Trails", where he describes the excitement of the chase, the people he met, and the flora and fauna he collected in the name of science.


, where he describes the excitement of the chase, the people he met, and the flora and fauna he collected in the name of science.


Roosevelt certified William Howard Taft to be a genuine "progressive" in 1908, when Roosevelt pushed through the nomination of his Secretary of War for the Presidency. Taft easily defeated three-time candidate William Jennings Bryan. Taft had a different progressivism, one that stressed the rule of law and preferred that judges rather than administrators or politicians make the basic decisions about fairness. Taft usually proved a less adroit politician than Roosevelt and lacked the energy and personal magnetism, not to mention the publicity devices, the dedicated supporters, and the broad base of public support that made Roosevelt so formidable. When Roosevelt realized that lowering the tariff would risk severe tensions inside the Republican Party pitting producers (manufacturers and farmers) against merchants and consumers he stopped talking about the issue. Taft ignored the risks and


an Party pitting producers (manufacturers and farmers) against merchants and consumers he stopped talking about the issue. Taft ignored the risks and tackled the tariff boldly, on the one hand encouraging reformers to fight for lower rates, and then cutting deals with conservative leaders that kept overall rates high. The resulting Payne-Aldrich tariff of 1909 was too high for most reformers, but instead of blaming this on Senator Nelson Aldrich and big business, Taft took credit, calling it the best tariff ever. Again he had managed to alienate all sides. While the crisis was building inside the Party, Roosevelt was touring Africa and Europe, so as to allow Taft to be his own man. Thayer, Chapter XXI, p. 10.


1909 cartoon: TR hands his policies to the care of Taft while William Loeb carries the "Big Stick"


Unlike Roosevelt, Taft never attacked business or businessmen in his rhetoric. However, he was attentive to the law, so he launched 90 antitrust suits, including one against the largest corporation, U.S. Steel, for an acquisition that Roosevelt had personally approved. Consequently, Taft lost the support of antitrust reformers (who disliked his conservative rhetoric), of big business (which disliked his actions), and of Roosevelt, who felt humiliated by his protÃ©gÃ©. The left wing of the Republican Party began agitating against Taft. Senator Robert LaFollette of Wisconsin created the National Progressive Republican League (precursor to the Progressive Party (United States, 1924)) to defeat the power of political bossism at the state level and to replace Taft at the national level. More trouble came when Taft fired Gifford Pinchot, a leading conservationist and close ally of Roosevelt. P


and to replace Taft at the national level. More trouble came when Taft fired Gifford Pinchot, a leading conservationist and close ally of Roosevelt. Pinchot alleged that Taft's Secretary of Interior Richard Ballinger was in league with big timber interests. Conservationists sided with Pinchot, and Taft alienated yet another vocal constituency.


Roosevelt, back from Europe, unexpectedly launched an attack on the federal courts, which deeply upset Taft. Not only had Roosevelt alienated big business, he was also attacking both the judiciary and the deep faith Republicans had in their judges (most of whom had been appointed by McKinley, Roosevelt or Taft.) In the 1910 Congressional elections, Democrats swept to power, and Taft's reelection in 1912 was increasingly in doubt. In 1911, Taft responded with a vigorous stumping tour that allowed him to sign up most of the party leaders long before Roosevelt announced.


The battle between Taft and Roosevelt bitterly split the Republican Party; Taft's people dominated the party until 1936.


Late in 1911, Roosevelt finally broke with Taft and LaFollette and announced himself as a candidate for the Republican nomination. But Roosevelt had delayed too long, and Taft had already won the support of most party leaders in the country. Because of LaFollette's nervous breakdown on the campaign trail before Roosevelt's entry, most of LaFollette's supporters went over to Roosevelt, the new progressive Republican candidate.


Roosevelt, stepping up his attack on judges, carried nine of the states with preferential primaries, LaFollette took two, and Taft only one. The 1912 Primaries represented the first extensive use of the Presidential Primary, a reform achievement of the progressive movement. However, these primary elections, while demonstrating Roosevelt's popularity with the electorate, were in no ways as important as primaries are today. First of all, there were fewer states where the common voter was given a forum to express himself, such as a primary.  Many more states selected convention delegates either at party conventions, or in caucuses, which were not as open as today's caucuses.  So while the man in the street still adored Roosevelt, most professional Republican politicians were supporting Taft, and they proved difficult to upset in non-primary states.


onal Republican politicians were supporting Taft, and they proved difficult to upset in non-primary states.


At the Republican Convention in Chicago, despite being the incumbent, Taft's victory was not immediately assured.  But after two weeks, Roosevelt, realizing he would not be able to win the nomination outright, asked his followers to leave the convention hall.  They moved to the Auditorium Theatre, and then Roosevelt, along with key allies such as Pinchot and Albert Beveridge created the Progressive Party, structuring it as a permanent organization that would field complete tickets at the presidential and state level. It was popularly known as the "Bull Moose Party," which got its name after Roosevelt told reporters, "I'm as fit as a bull moose." Carl M. Cannon, The Pursuit of Happiness in Times of War, Rowman & Littlefield: 2003, p. 142. ISBN 0742525929.  At the convention Roosevelt cried out, "We stand at Armageddon and we battle for the Lord." Roosevelt's platform echoed his 1907â08


BN 0742525929.  At the convention Roosevelt cried out, "We stand at Armageddon and we battle for the Lord." Roosevelt's platform echoed his 1907â08 proposals, calling for vigorous government intervention to protect the people from the selfish interests. Thayer, Chapter XXII, pp. 25 31.


The bullet-damaged speech and eyeglass case on display at the Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace


While campaigning in Milwaukee, Wisconsin on October 14, 1912, a saloonkeeper named John Schrank failed in an assassination attempt on Roosevelt.  Schrank did shoot the former President, but the bullet lodged in Roosevelt's chest only after penetrating both his steel eyeglass case and passing through a thick (50 pages) single-folded copy of the speech he was carrying in his jacket.   Accessed Dec. 21, 2007  . Roosevelt, as a very experienced hunter and anatomist, decide the fact he wasn't coughing blood meant the bullet had not completely penetrated the chest wall to his lung (he was correct), and so declined suggestions he go to the hospital immediately. Instead, he delivered his scheduled speech with blood seeping into his shirt.    He spoke for ninety minutes. His opening comments to the gathered crowd were, "I don't know whether you fully understand that I have just been shot; but it


oke for ninety minutes. His opening comments to the gathered crowd were, "I don't know whether you fully understand that I have just been shot; but it takes more than that to kill a Bull Moose." Afterwards, doctors determined by probe and X-ray the bullet had traversed three inches of tissue and lodged in Roosevelt's chest muscle but did not penetrate the pleura, and it would be more dangerous to attempt to remove the bullet than to leave it in place.  Roosevelt carried it with him until he died.  Roosevelt Timeline


Due to the bullet wound, Roosevelt was taken off the campaign trail in the final weeks of the race (which ended election day, November 5). Though the other two campaigners stopped their own campaigns in the week Roosevelt was in the hospital, they resumed it once he was released. The overall effect of the shooting was uncertain. Roosevelt for many reasons failed to move enough Republicans in his direction. He did win 4.1 million votes (27%), compared to Taft's 3.5 million (23%). However, Wilson's 6.3 million votes (42%) were enough to garner 435 electoral votes. Roosevelt had 88 electoral votes to Taft's 8 electoral votes.  (This meant that Taft became the only incumbent President in history to actually come in third place in an attempt to be re-elected.)  But Pennsylvania was Roosevelt's only Eastern state; in the Midwest he carried Michigan, Minnesota and South Dakota; in the West, Cal


be re-elected.)  But Pennsylvania was Roosevelt's only Eastern state; in the Midwest he carried Michigan, Minnesota and South Dakota; in the West, California and Washington; he did not win any Southern states. Although he lost, he won more votes than former presidents Martin Van Buren and Millard Fillmore who also ran again and also lost. More important, he pulled so many progressives out of the Republican party that it took on a much more conservative cast for the next generation.


The initial party. From left to right (seated): Father Zahm, Rondon, Kermit, Cherrie, Miller, four Brazilians, Roosevelt, Fiala. Only Roosevelt, Kermit, Cherrie, Rondon and the Brazilians traveled down the River of Doubt.


Roosevelt's popular book Through the Brazilian Wilderness describes his expedition into the Brazilian jungle in 1913 as a member of the Roosevelt-Rondon Scientific Expedition co-named after its leader, Brazilian explorer CÃ¢ndido Rondon. The book describes all of the scientific discovery, scenic tropical vistas and exotic flora, fauna and wild life experienced on the expedition. A friend, Father John Augustine Zahm, had searched for new adventures and found them in the forests of South America. After a briefing of several of his own expeditions, he convinced Roosevelt to commit to such an expedition in 1912. To finance the expedition, Roosevelt received support from the American Museum of Natural History, promising to bring back many new animal specimens. Once in South America, a new far more ambitious goal was added: to find the headwaters of the Rio da Duvida, the River of Doubt, and t


imal specimens. Once in South America, a new far more ambitious goal was added: to find the headwaters of the Rio da Duvida, the River of Doubt, and trace it north to the Madiera and thence to the Amazon River. It was later renamed Rio Roosevelt (Rio Teodoro today, 640 km long) in honor of the former President. Roosevelt's crew consisted of his 24-year-old son Kermit, Colonel CÃ¢ndido Rondon, a naturalist sent by the American Museum of Natural History named George K. Cherrie, Brazilian Lieutenant Joao Lyra, team physician Dr. JosÃ© Antonio Cajazeira, and sixteen highly skilled paddlers (called camaradas in Portuguese). The initial expedition started, probably unwisely, on December 9, 1913, at the height of the rainy season. The trip down the River of Doubt started on February 27, 1914.


e River of Doubt started on February 27, 1914.


Roosevelt, wearing sun helmet, barely survived an expedition in 1913 into the Amazonian rain forest to trace the River of Doubt later named the Rio Roosevelt.


During the trip down the river, Roosevelt contracted malaria and a serious infection resulting from a minor leg wound. These illnesses so weakened Roosevelt that, by six weeks into the expedition, he had to be attended day and night by the expedition's physician, Dr. Cajazeira, and his son, Kermit. By this time, Roosevelt considered his own condition a threat to the survival of the others. At one point, Kermit had to talk him out of his wish to be left behind so as not to slow down the expedition, now with only a few weeks rations left. Roosevelt was having chest pains when he tried to walk, his temperature soared to 103 Â°F (39 Â°C), and at times he was delirious.  He had lost over fifty pounds (20 kg). Without the constant support of his son, Kermit, Dr. Cajazeira, and the continued leadership of Colonel Rondon, Roosevelt would likely have perished.  Despite his concern for Roosevelt,


son, Kermit, Dr. Cajazeira, and the continued leadership of Colonel Rondon, Roosevelt would likely have perished.  Despite his concern for Roosevelt, Rondon had been slowing down the pace of the expedition by his dedication to his own map-making and other geographical goals that demanded regular stops to fix the expedition's position via sun-based survey.


Upon his return to New York, friends and family were startled by Roosevelt's physical appearance and fatigue. Roosevelt wrote to a friend that the trip had cut his life short by ten years. He might not have really known just how accurate that analysis would prove to be, because the effects of the South America expedition had so greatly weakened him that they significantly contributed to his declining health. For the rest of his life, he would be plagued by flareups of malaria and leg inflammations so severe that they would require hospitalization.  Thayer, Chapter XXIII, pp. 4â7.


When Roosevelt had recovered enough of his strength, he found that he had a new battle on his hands. In professional circles, there was doubt about his claims of having discovered and navigated a completely uncharted river over 625 miles (1,000 km) long. Roosevelt would have to defend himself and win international recognition of the expedition's newly-named Rio Roosevelt. Toward this end, Roosevelt went to Washington, D.C., and spoke at a standing-room-only convention to defend his claims. His official report and its defense silenced the critics, and he was able to triumphantly return to his home in Oyster Bay.


Despite his weakened condition and slow recovery from his South America expedition, Roosevelt continued to write with passion on subjects ranging from foreign policy to the importance of the national park system. As an editor of Outlook magazine, he had weekly access to a large, educated national audience. In all, Roosevelt wrote about 18 books (each in several editions), including his Autobiography, Rough Riders and History of the Naval War of 1812, ranching, explorations, and wildlife. His most ambitious book was the 4 volume narrative The Winning of the West, which attempted to connect the origin of a new "race" of Americans (i.e. what he considered the present population of the United States to be) to the frontier conditions their ancestors endured in throughout the 17th, 18th, and early 19th centuries.


tors endured in throughout the 17th, 18th, and early 19th centuries.


Roosevelt angrily complained about the foreign policy of President Wilson, calling it "weak." This caused him to develop an intense dislike for Woodrow Wilson. When World War I began in 1914, Roosevelt strongly supported the Allies of World War I and demanded a harsher policy against Germany, especially regarding submarine warfare. In 1916, he campaigned energetically for Charles Evans Hughes and repeatedly denounced Irish-Americans and German-Americans who Roosevelt said were unpatriotic because they put the interest of Ireland and Germany ahead of America's by supporting neutrality. He insisted one had to be 100% American, not a "hyphenated American" who juggled multiple loyalties. When the U.S. entered the war in 1917, Roosevelt sought to raise a volunteer infantry division, but Wilson refused. Brands 781â4; Cramer, C.H. Newton D. Baker (1961) 110â113


o raise a volunteer infantry division, but Wilson refused. Brands 781â4; Cramer, C.H. Newton D. Baker (1961) 110â113


Roosevelt's attacks on Wilson helped the Republicans win control of Congress in the off-year elections of 1918. Roosevelt was popular enough to seriously contest the 1920 Republican nomination, but his health was broken by 1918, because of the lingering malaria. His son Quentin, a daring pilot with the American forces in France, was shot down behind German lines in 1918. Quentin was his youngest son and probably the most liked by him. It is said the death of his son distressed him so much that Roosevelt never recovered from his loss. Dalton, (2002)p 507


Theodore Roosevelt Grave in Youngs Memorial Cemetery Oyster Bay, New York


Twenty-six steps leading to Roosevelt's grave, commemorating his service as 26th President


Despite his debilitating diseases, Roosevelt remained active to the end of his life. He was an enthusiastic proponent of the Scouting movement. The Boy Scouts of America gave him the title of Chief Scout Citizen, the only person to hold such title. One early Scout leader said, "The two things that gave Scouting great impetus and made it very popular were the uniform and Teddy Roosevelt's jingoism." Larson, Keith (2006).  "Theodore Roosevelt". Retrieved March 6 2006.


On January 6, 1919, Roosevelt died in his sleep of a coronary embolism at Oyster Bay, and was buried in nearby Youngs Memorial Cemetery. Upon receiving word of his death, his son, Archie, telegraphed his siblings simply, "The old lion is dead." Dalton, (2002) p. 507  Woodrow Wilson's vice president at the time Thomas R. Marshall said of his death "Death had to take Roosevelt sleeping, for if he had been awake, there would have been a fight." Manners, William. TR and Will: A Friendship that Split the Republican Party. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1969.


Roosevelt Family in 1903 with Quentin on the left, TR, Ted, Jr., "Archie", Alice, Kermit, Edith, and Ethel


Roosevelt intensely disliked being called "Teddy," and was quick to point out this fact to those who used the nickname, though it would become widely used by newspapers during his political career. He attended the Madison Square Presbyterian Church until the age of 16. Later in life, when Roosevelt lived at Oyster Bay he attended an Episcopal church with his wife. While in Washington he attended services at Grace Reformed Church.  "The Religious Affiliation of Theodore Roosevelt U.S. President". Retrieved March 7 2006.  As President he firmly believed in the separation of church and state and thought it unwise to have In God We Trust on currency, because he thought it sacrilegious to put the name of the Deity on something so common as money. Reynolds, Ralph C. (1999).  "In God We Trust: All Others Pay Cash". Retrieved March 7 2006.  He was also a Freemason, and regularly attended the Mat


. Reynolds, Ralph C. (1999).  "In God We Trust: All Others Pay Cash". Retrieved March 7 2006.  He was also a Freemason, and regularly attended the Matinecock Lodge's meetings. He once said that "One of the things that so greatly attracted me to Masonry that I hailed the chance of becoming a Mason was that it really did act up to what we, as a government, are pledged to   namely to treat each man on his merit as a man." Matinecock Masonic Historical Society.  "History". Retrieved March 12 2006.


Roosevelt had a lifelong interest in pursuing what he called, in an 1899 speech, "the strenuous life." To this end, he exercised regularly and took up boxing, tennis, hiking, rowing, polo, and horseback riding. As governor of New York, he boxed with sparring partners several times a week, a practice he regularly continued as President until one blow detached his left retina, leaving him blind in that eye (a fact not made public until many years later). Thereafter, he practiced jujutsu and continued his habit of skinny-dipping in the Potomac River during winter. Thayer, Chapter XVII, pp. 22 24.  Shaw, K.B. & Maiden, David (2006).  "Theodore Roosevelt".


Retrieved March 7 2006.


Sagamore Hill, Roosevelt's estate


He was an enthusiastic singlestick player and, according to Harper's Weekly, in 1905 showed up at a White House reception with his arm bandaged after a bout with General Leonard Wood. Amberger, J Christoph, Secret History of the Sword Adventures in Ancient Martial Arts 1998, ISBN 1-892515-04-0.   Roosevelt was also an avid reader, reading tens of thousands of books, at a rate of several a day in multiple languages. Along with Thomas Jefferson Roosevelt is often considered the most well read of any American politician. David H. Burton, The Learned Presidency 1988, p 12.


Roosevelt's face on Mt. Rushmore


1910 cartoon shows Roosevelt's multiple roles to 1898


1910 cartoon shows Roosevelt's multiple roles from 1899 to 1910


For his gallantry at San Juan Hill, Roosevelt's commanders recommended him for the Medal of Honor, but his subsequent telegrams to the War Department complaining about the delays in returning American troops from Cuba doomed his chances. In the late 1990s, Roosevelt's supporters again took up the flag on his behalf and overcame opposition from elements within the U.S. Army and the National Archives. On January 16, 2001, President Bill Clinton awarded Theodore Roosevelt the Medal of Honor posthumously for his charge up San Juan Hill, Cuba, during the Spanish-American War. Roosevelt's eldest son, Brigadier General Theodore Roosevelt, Jr., received the Medal of Honor for heroism at the Battle of Normandy in 1944. The Roosevelts thus became one of only two father-son pairs to receive this honor.


of only two father-son pairs to receive this honor.


Roosevelt's legacy includes several other important commemorations.  Roosevelt was included with George Washington, Thomas Jefferson and Abraham Lincoln at the Mount Rushmore Memorial, designed in 1927.  The United States Navy named two ships for Roosevelt: the USS Theodore Roosevelt (SSBN-600), a submarine was in commission from 1961 to 1982; and the USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71), an aircraft carrier that has been on active duty in the Atlantic Fleet since 1986.


The Roosevelt Memorial Association (later the Theodore Roosevelt Association) or "TRA", was founded in 1920 to preserve Roosevelt's legacy. The Association preserved TR's birthplace, "Sagamore Hill" home, papers, and video film.


Overall, historians credit Roosevelt for changing the nation's political system by permanently placing the presidency at center stage and making character as important as the issues. His notable accomplishments include trust-busting and conservationism.  However, he has been criticized for his interventionist and imperialist approach to nations he considered "uncivilized". Even so, history and legend have been kind to him. His friend, historian Henry Adams, proclaimed, "Roosevelt, more than any other living man ....showed the singular primitive quality that belongs to ultimate matter   the quality that mediaeval theology assigned to God   he was pure act." Historians typically rank Roosevelt among the top five presidents. The Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia (2005).  "Biography: Impact and Legacy". Retrieved March 7 2006.   "Legacy". Retrieved March 7 2006.


itors of the University of Virginia (2005).  "Biography: Impact and Legacy". Retrieved March 7 2006.   "Legacy". Retrieved March 7 2006.


Roosevelt has been quoted by virtually all the major Republican and Democratic candidates for the 2008 US Presidential Election.      Political pundits have brought up Roosevelt's name in book after book. The degree of discussion ranges from a single sentence by democrat Bill Richardson talking about him as "BR" breaking Roosevelt's (or "TR") 1907 single handshaking record, John Edwards mentioning Roosevelt in a fall of 2007 speech to John McCain devoting an entire chapter to him in his main background book. Even the lone candidate that did not mention Roosevelt in an autobiographical book, democrat, Joe Biden, nevertheless, began mentioning Roosevelt's taking on of corporate interests speeches in New Hampshire in the summer of 2007.


Roosevelt's 1901 saying "Speak Softly and Carry a Big Stick" is still being occasionally quoted by politicians and columnists in different countries - not only in English but also in translation to various other languages. For example, following the Second Lebanon War of August 2006, opponents of Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert accused him of "Speaking loudly and carrying a small stick".


The well-known Nicaraguan poet RubÃ©n DarÃo published in 1905 a poem entitled A Roosevelt (To Roosevelt)      which was included in Cantos de Vida y Esperanza (Songs of Life and Hope)


As a charismatic President often considered larger than life, Roosevelt has appeared in numerous fiction books, television shows, films, and other media of popular culture. Roosvelt was played by Robin Williams in the box office hit Night at the Museum and its upcoming sequel.


Drawing the Line in Mississippi, by Clifford Berryman, referring to Roosevelt's sparing the bear.


Filmmaker John Milius also directed two films in which Roosevelt was a central character: The Wind and the Lion (1975) in which he was played by Brian Keith; and Rough Riders (1997) in which he was played by Tom Berenger. Keith's performance is widely considered to be the definitive screen depiction of Roosevelt.


Roosevelt's lasting popular legacy, however, is the stuffed toy bearsâteddy bearsânamed after him following an incident on a hunting trip in 1902. Roosevelt famously refused to kill a captured black bear simply for the sake of making a kill. Bears and later bear cubs became closely associated with Roosevelt in political cartoons thereafter.  "History of the Teddy Bear". Retrieved March 7 2006.


On June 26, 2006, Roosevelt, once again, made the cover of TIME magazine with the lead story, "The Making of AmericaâTheodore RooseveltâThe 20th Century Express": "At home and abroad, Theodore Roosevelt was the locomotive President, the man who drew his flourishing nation into the future."


The Washington Nationals major league baseball team has a fan tradition called the Presidents Race. In it four caricatures of presidents Abraham Lincoln, George Washington, Thomas Jefferson and Theodore Roosevelt race against each other. A running gag has been Theodore Roosevelt's inability to win a single Presidents Race.


In 2006 Roosevelt' likeness was used in "Night at the Museum (The movie).


Theodore Roosevelt was one of the first presidents whose voice was recorded for posterity. Several of his recorded speeches survive.  Vincent Voice Library at Michigan State University. Retrieved September 23, 2007.


*Harbaugh, William ed. The Writings Of Theodore Roosevelt (1967). A one-volume selection of Roosevelt's speeches and essays.


*Morison, Elting E., John Morton Blum, and Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., eds., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt, 8 vols. (1951â1954). Very large, annotated edition of letters from TR.


*Roosevelt, Theodore (1999).  Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography. online at Bartleby.com.


* Chace, James.  1912: Wilson, Roosevelt, Taft, and Debs - The Election That Changed the Country. (2004). 323 pp.


* Fehn, Bruce. "Theodore Roosevelt and American Masculinity." Magazine of History (2005) 19(2): 52â59. Issn: 0882-228x Fulltext online at Ebsco. Provides a lesson plan on TR as the historical figure who most exemplifies the quality of masculinity.


*Gluck, Sherwin.  "T.R.'s Summer White House, Oyster Bay."  (1999)  Chronicles the events of TR's presidency during the summers of his two terms.


*Keller, Morton, ed., Theodore Roosevelt: A Profile (1967) excerpts from TR and from historians.


*Morris, Edmund The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt, to 1901 (1979); vol 2: Theodore Rex 1901â1909. (2001); Pulitzer prize for Volume 1. Biography.


* O'Toole, Patricia.  When Trumpets Call: Theodore Roosevelt after the White House. (2005). 494 pp.


*Putnam, Carleton Theodore Roosevelt: A Biography, Volume I: The Formative Years (1958), only volume published, to age 28.


*Strock, James M. Theodore Roosevelt on Leadership. Random House, 2003.


* Watts, Sarah.  Rough Rider in the White House: Theodore Roosevelt and the Politics of Desire.  2003. 289 pp.


*  Holmes, James R.  Theodore Roosevelt and World Order: Police Power in International Relations. 2006. 328 pp.


* David McCullough. The Path between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870â1914 (1977).


* Tilchin, William N. and Neu, Charles E., ed.  Artists of Power: Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, and Their Enduring Impact on U.S. Foreign Policy. Praeger, 2006. 196 pp.


*  My Brother Theodore Roosevelt, 1921 By Corinne Roosevelt Robinson, a bestseller with a woman's and sister's point of view on TR. Full text and Full text Search, Free to Read and Search.


*  Roosevelt podcasts Audio Recording of Roosevelt's Progressive Party Acceptance Speech, "Progressive Covenant with the People" with text included.


*  Theodore Roosevelt cylinder recordings, from the Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library.


*  On Theodore Roosevelt's progressive vision from  the Roosevelt Institution, a student think tank inspired in part by Theodore Roosevelt.


Romania ( ,  ) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova to the northeast, and Bulgaria to the south. Romania has a stretch of sea coast along the Black Sea. It is located roughly in the lower basin of the Danube and almost all of the Danube Delta is located within its territory.


Romania is a semi-presidential unitary state. As a nation-state, the country was formed by the merging of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and it gained recognition of its independence in 1878. Later, in 1918, they were joined by Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia. At the end of World War II, parts of its territories (roughly the present day Moldova) were occupied by USSR and Romania became a member of Warsaw Pact. With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, Romania started a series of political and economic reforms that peaked with Romania joining the European Union.


Romania has been a member of the European Union since January 1 2007, and has the ninth largest territory in the EU and with 22 million people      it has the 7th largest population among the EU member states. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest (   ), the sixth largest city in the EU with almost 2.5 million people. In 2007, Sibiu, a large city in Transylvania, was chosen as European Capital of Culture.    Romania joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and is also a member of the Latin Union, of the Francophonie and of OSCE.


The name of Romania (RomÃ¢nia) comes from RomÃ¢n (Romanian) which is a derivative of the word Romanus ("Roman") from Latin. The fact that Romanians call themselves a derivative of Romanus ( ) is mentioned as early as the 16th century by many authors among whom were Italian Humanists travelling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia.  "nunc se Romanos vocant" A. Verres, Acta et Epistolae, I, p. 243     "...si dimandano in lingua loro Romei...se alcuno dimanda se sano parlare in la lingua valacca, dicono a questo in questo modo: Sti Rominest ? Che vol dire: Sai tu Romano,..." Cl. Isopescu, Notizie intorno ai romeni nella letteratura geografica italiana del Cinquecento, in Bulletin de la Section Historique, XVI, 1929, p. 1- 90     âAnzi essi si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quÃ¬ quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini des


i si chiamano romanesci, e vogliono molti che erano mandati quÃ¬ quei che erano dannati a cavar metalli...â in Maria Holban, CÄlÄtori strÄini despre Å¢Ärile RomÃ¢ne, vol. II, p. 158 161    "Tout ce pays la Wallachie et Moldavie et la plus part de la Transivanie a estÃ© peuplÃ© des colonie romaines du temps de Traian lâempereurâ¦Ceux du pays se disent vrais successeurs des Romains et nomment leur parler romanechte, c'est-Ã -dire romain â¦ " Voyage fait par moy, Pierre Lescalopier lâan 1574 de Venise a Constantinople, fol 48 in Paul Cernovodeanu, Studii si materiale de istorie medievala, IV, 1960, p. 444


The oldest surviving document written in the Romanian language is a 1521 letter (known as "NeacÅu's Letter      from CÃ¢mpulung") which notifies the mayor of BraÅov about the imminent attack of the Ottoman Turks. This document is also notable for having the first occurrence of "Rumanian" in a Romanian written text, Wallachia being here named The Rumanian Land - Å¢eara RumÃ¢neascÄ (Å¢eara (Latin Terra = land). In the following centuries, Romanian documents use interchangeably two spelling forms: RomÃ¢n and RumÃ¢n. "am scris aceste sfente cÇrÅ£i de Ã®nvÄÅ£Äturi, sÇ fie popilor rumÃ¢nesti... sÇ Ã®nÅ£eleagÇ toÅ£i oamenii cine-s rumÃ¢ni creÅtini" "Ãntrebare creÅtineascÇ" (1559), Bibliografia romÃ¢neascÇ veche, IV, 1944, p. 6.


...cÄ vÄzum cum toate limbile au Åi Ã®nfluresc Ã®ntru cuvintele slÇvite a lui Dumnezeu numai noi romÃ¢nii pre limbÄ nu avem. Pentru aceia cu mare muncÇ scoasem de limba jidoveascÇ si greceascÇ si srÃ¢beascÇ pre limba romÃ¢neascÇ 5 cÄrÅ£i ale lui Moisi prorocul si patru cÄrÅ£i Åi le dÄruim voo fraÅ£i rumÃ¢ni Åi le-au scris Ã®n cheltuialÄ multÇ... Åi le-au dÄruit voo fraÅ£ilor romÃ¢ni,... Åi le-au scris voo fraÅ£ilor romÃ¢ni Palia de la OrÇÅtie (1581 1582), BucureÅti, 1968.


Ãn Å¢ara Ardealului nu lÄcuiesc numai unguri, ce Åi saÅi peste seamÄ de mulÅ£i Åi romÃ¢ni peste tot locul..., Grigore Ureche, LetopiseÅ£ul Å¢Ärii Moldovei, p. 133-134.   Socio-linguistic evolutions in the late 17th century led to a process of semantic differentiation: the form "rumÃ¢n", presumably usual among lower classes, got the meaning of "bondsman", while the form "romÃ¢n" kept an ethno-linguistic meaning.      After the abolition of serfdom in 1746, the form "rumÃ¢n" gradually disappears and the spelling definitively stabilises to the form "romÃ¢n", "romÃ¢nesc".  In his well known literary testament IenÄchiÅ£Ä VÄcÄrescu writes: "UrmaÅilor mei VÄcÄreÅti!/Las vouÄ moÅtenire:/CreÅterea limbei romÃ¢neÅti/Å-a patriei cinstire."


nstire."


In the "Istoria faptelor lui Mavroghene-VodÄ Åi a rÄzmeriÅ£ei din timpul lui pe la 1790" a Pitar Hristache writes: "Ãncep dupÄ-a mea ideie/Cu vreo cÃ¢teva condeie/Povestea mavrogheneascÄ/Dela Å¢ara RomÃ¢neascÄ.  The name "RomÃ¢nia" as common homeland of all Romanians is documented in the early 19th century.  The first known mention of the term "Romania" in its modern denotation dates from 1816, as the Greek scholar Dimitrie Daniel Philippide published in Leipzig his work "The History of Romania", followed by "The Geography of Romania".


On the tombstone of Gheorghe LazÄr in Avrig (built in 1823) there is the inscription: "Precum Hristos pe LazÄr din morÅ£i a Ã®nviat/AÅa tu RomÃ¢nia din somn ai deÅteptat."


Outline of the Dacian Kingdom at its greatest extent


In 2002, the oldest modern human (Homo sapiens sapiens) remains in Europe were discovered in the "Cave With Bones" (PeÅtera cu Oase) near Anina in present day Romania.    The remains (the lower jaw) are approximately 42,000 years old and have been nicknamed "John of Anina" (Ion din Anina). As Europeâs oldest remains of Homo sapiens, they may represent the first such people to have entered the continent.     The remains are especially interesting because they present a mixture of archaic, early modern human and Neanderthal morphological features.


Dacian wars depicted on Trajan's column


The earliest written evidence of people living in the territory of the present-day Romania comes from Herodotus in 513 BC.    In one of his books, he writes that the tribal confederation of the Getae were defeated by the Persian Emperor Darius the Great during his campaign against the Scythians.    Dacians are a branch of Thracians that inhabitanted Dacia (corresponding to modern Romania, Moldova and northern Bulgaria).  The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum expansion during King Burebista, around 82 BC.  Later, The region came under the scrutiny of Rome when the Roman province, bordering along the Danube, Moesia, was attacked by the Dacians in 87 AD during Emperor Domitian's reign.


The Dacians were eventually defeated by the Roman Empire under Emperor Trajan in two campaigns stretching from 101 AD to 106 AD,    and the core of their kingdom was turned into the Roman province of Dacia.


Roman Dacia


Because the province was rich in ores, and especially silver and gold ,    the Romans heavily colonized the province,     brought with them Vulgar Latin and started a period of intense romanization (giving birth to proto-Romanian).          But in the 3rd century AD, with the invasions of migratory populations such as Goths, the Roman Empire was forced to pull out of Dacia in 270 AD, thus making it the first province to be abandoned.


In either 271 or 275 the Roman army and administration left Dacia, which was invaded by the Goths   . The Goths lived with the local people until the 4th century, when a nomadic people, the Huns, arrived.     The Gepids         and the Avars and their Slavic subjects     ruled Transylvania until the 8th century. It was then invaded by Bulgarians    , thereafter being incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire (marking the end of Romania's Dark Age) where it remained a part until the 11th century. The Pechenegs,    the Cumans     and Uzes were also mentioned by historic chronicles on the territory of Romania, until the founding of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia by Basarab I around 1310 in the High Middle Ages,    and Moldavia by DragoÅ around 1352.


DragoÅ around 1352.


Putna Monastery, the burial site of Stephen the Great is now a famous pilgrimage place


Several competing theories have been generated to explain the origin of modern Romanians. Linguistic and geo-historical analyses tend to indicate that Romanians have coalesced as a major ethnic group both South and North of the Danube.       For further discussion, see Origin of Romanians.


In the Middle Ages, Romanians lived in three distinct principalities: Wallachia (Romanian: Å¢ara RomÃ¢neascÄ - "Romanian Land"), Moldavia (Romanian: Moldova) and Transylvania. Transylvania was part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 10-11th century until the 16th century,      when it became the independent. Principality of Transylvania     until 1711.


Bran Castle built in 1212, is commonly known as Dracula's Castle and is situated in the centre of present-day Romania.The first documentary attestation of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (BraÅov or BrassÃ³) the privilege to build the Citadel.


Independent Wallachia has been on the border of the Ottoman Empire since the 14th century and slowly fell under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire during 15th. One famous ruler in this period was Vlad III the Impaler  (also known as Vlad Dracula or  ,  ), Prince of Wallachia in 1448, 1456â62, and 1476.     |Vlad Tepes: The Historical Dracula  In the English-speaking world, Vlad is best known for the legends of the exceedingly cruel punishments he imposed during his reign and for serving as the primary inspiration for the vampire main character in Bram Stoker's popular Dracula (1897) novel. As king, he maintained an independent policy in relation to the Ottoman Empire, and in Romania he is viewed by many as a prince with a deep sense of justice     and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.


justice     and a defender of both Wallachia and European Christianity against Ottoman expansionism.


VoroneÅ£ Monastery built in 1488 by Stephen III of Moldavia (Stephen the Great) after his victory at the Battle of Vaslui.


The principality of Moldavia reached its most glorious period under the rule of Stephen the Great between 1457 and 1504.      His rule of 47 years was unusually long, especially at that time - only 13 rulers were recorded to have ruled for at least 50 years until the end of 15th century. He was a very successful military leader (winning 47 battles and losing only 2    ), and after each victory, he raised a church, managing to build 48 churches or monasteries,     some of them with unique and very interesting painting styles. For more information see Painted churches of northern Moldavia listed in UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites. Stephen's most prestigious victory was over the Ottoman Empire in 1475 at the Battle of Vaslui for which he raised the VoroneÅ£ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). Howeve


raised the VoroneÅ£ Monastery. For this victory, Pope Sixtus IV deemed him verus christianae fidei athleta (true Champion of Christian Faith). However, after his death, Moldavia would also come under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.


Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazul) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593-1601), of Transylvania (1599-1600), and of Moldavia (1600). Briefly, during his reign the three principalities largely inhabited by Romanians were for the first time united under a single rule.     After his death, as vassal tributary states, Moldova and Wallachia had complete internal autonomy and an external independence, which was finally lost in the 18th century.


Partium,Transylvania at the end of the XVIth century


During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule in Transylvania, and Ottoman suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, most Romanians were in the situation of being second-class citizens (or even non-citizens)    in a territory where they were forming the majority of the population.         In some Transylvanian cities, such as BraÅov (at that time the Transylvanian Saxon citadel of Kronstadt), Romanians were not even allowed to reside within the city walls.


After the failed 1848 Revolution, the Great Powers did not support the Romanians' expressed desire to officially unite in a single state, forcing Romania to proceed alone against the Turks.  The electors in both Moldavia and Wallachia chose in 1859 the same person   Alexandru Ioan Cuza   as prince (Domnitor in Romanian).     Thus, Romania was created as a personal union, albeit a Romania that did not include Transylvania, where although Romanian nationalism inevitably ran up against Hungarian nationalism at the end of the 19th century, the upper class and the aristocracy remained mainly Hungarian. As in the previous 900 years,  Austria-Hungary, especially under the Dual Monarchy of 1867, kept the Hungarians firmly in control, even in parts of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.


of Transylvania where Romanians constituted a local majority.


The Palace of Culture in IaÅi was built between 1906-1925 and hosts several museums


In a 1866 coup d'etat, Cuza was exiled and replaced by Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who became known as Prince Carol of Romania. During the Russo-Turkish War, Romania fought on the Russian side;      in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin,    Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers.     In return, Romania ceded three southern districts of Bessarabia to Russia and acquired Dobruja. In 1881, the principality was raised to a kingdom and Prince Carol became King Carol I.


The 1878-1914 period was one of stability and progress for Romania. During the Second Balkan War, Romania joined Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Turkey against Bulgaria. In the peace Treaty of Bucharest (1913) Romania gained Southern Dobrudja - the Quadrilateral (the Durostor and Caliacra counties).


PeleÅ Castle, retreat of Romanian monarchs


In August 1914, when World War I broke out, Romania declared neutrality. Two years later, under the pressure of Allies (especially France desperate to open a new front), on August 14/27 1916 it joined the Allies, for which they were promised support for the accomplishment of national unity, Romania declared war on Austria-Hungary.


The Romanian military campaign ended in disaster for Romania as the Central Powers conquered two-thirds of the country and captured or killed the majority of its army within four months. Nevertheless, Moldova remained in Romanian hands after the invading forces were stopped in 1917 and since by the war's end, Austria-Hungary and the Russian Empire had collapsed, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania were allowed to unite with the Kingdom of Romania in 1918. By the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, Hungary renounced in favour of Romania all the claims of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy over Transylvania.    The union of Romania with Bukovina was ratified in 1919 in the Treaty of Saint Germain,    and with Bessarabia in 1920 by the Treaty of Paris.


The Romanian expression RomÃ¢nia Mare (literal translation "Great Romania", but more commonly rendered "Greater Romania") generally refers to the Romanian state in the interwar period, and by extension, to the territory Romania covered at the time (see map). Romania achieved at that time its greatest territorial extent (almost 300,000 kmÂ²    STATUL NATIONAL UNITAR (ROMÃNIA MARE 1919 - 1940) ), managing to unite all the historic Romanian lands.


Romanian territory during the 20th century: purple indicates the Old Kingdom before 1913, orange indicates Greater Romania areas that joined or were annexed after the Second Balkan War and WWI but were lost after WWII, and rose indicates areas that joined Romania after WWI and remained so after WWII.


During the Second World War, Romania tried again to remain neutral, but on June 28 1940, it received a Soviet ultimatum with an implied threat of invasion in the event of non-compliance.   Soviet Ultimata and Replies of the Romanian Government in Ioan Scurtu, Theodora StÄnescu-Stanciu, Georgiana Margareta Scurtu, Istoria RomÃ¢nilor Ã®ntre anii 1918-1940 (in Romanian), University of Bucharest, 2002  Under pressure from Moscow and Berlin, the Romanian administration and the army were forced to retreat from Bessarabia as well from Northern Bukovina to avoid war.       This, in combination with other factors, prompted the government to join the Axis. Thereafter, southern Dobruja was awarded to Bulgaria, while Hungary received Northern Transylvania as result of an Axis arbitration.  The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power w


ania as result of an Axis arbitration.  The authoritarian King Carol II abdicated in 1940, succeeded by the National Legionary State, in which power was shared by Ion Antonescu and the Iron Guard. Within months, Antonescu had crushed the Iron Guard, and the subsequent year Romania entered the war on the side of the Axis powers. During the war, Romania was by the most important source of oil for Nazi Germany,    which attracted multiple bombing raids by the Allies. By means of the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union, Romania recovered Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from the Soviet Russia, under the leadership of general Ion Antonescu. The Antonescu regime played a major role in the Holocaust, Note: follow the World War II link:


following to a lesser extent the Nazi policy of oppression and massacre of the Jews, and Romas, primarily in the Eastern territories Romania recovered or occupied from the Soviet Union (Transnistria) and in Moldavia.


In August 1944, Antonescu was toppled and arrested by King Michael I of Romania. Romania changed sides and joined the Allies, but its role in the defeat of Nazi Germany was not recognized by the Paris Peace Conference of 1947.    With the Red Army forces still stationed in the country and exerting de facto control, Communists and their allied parties claimed 80% of the vote, through a combination of vote manipulation, |Federal research Divison, Library of Congress - Romania:Country studies - Chapter 1.7.1 "Petru Groza's Premiership"  elimination, and forced mergers of competing parties, thus establishing themselves as the dominant force. By the end of the war, the Romanian army had suffered about 300,000 casualties.  Michael Clodfelter. Warfare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582  ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.


fare and Armed Conflicts- A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500-2000. 2nd Ed. 2002, p. 582  ISBN 0-7864-1204-6.


; (1947-1989)


In 1947, King Michael I was forced by the Communists to abdicate and leave the country, Romania was proclaimed a republic , and remained under direct military and economic control of the USSR until the late 1950s. During this period, Romania's resources were drained by the "SovRom" agreements: mixed Soviet-Romanian companies established to mask the looting of Romania by the Soviet Union.


After the negotiated retreat of Soviet troops in 1958, Romania, under the new leadership of Nicolae CeauÅescu, started to pursue independent policies. Such examples are the condemnation of the Soviet-led 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia (being the only Warsaw Pact country not to take part in the invasion), the continuation of diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967 (again, the only Warsaw Pact country to do so), the establishment of economic (1963) and diplomatic (1967) relations with the Federal Republic of Germany, and so forth.  "countrystudies.us - Romania: Soviet Union and Eastern Europe"  Also, close ties with the Arab countries (and the PLO) allowed Romania to play a key role in the Israel-Egypt and Israel-PLO peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel.  "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania"  A short-lived period


peace processes by intermediating the visit of Sadat in Israel.  "countrystudies.us: Middle East policies in Communist Romania"  A short-lived period of relative economic well-being and openness followed in the late 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s.  As Romania's foreign debt sharply increased between 1977 and 1981 (from 3 to 10 billion US dollars),    the influence of international financial organisations such as the IMF or the World Bank grew, conflicting with Nicolae CeauÅescu's autarchic policies.  CeauÅescu eventually initiated a project of total reimbursement of the foreign debt (completed in 1989, shortly before his overthrow).  To achieve this goal, he imposed policies that impoverished Romanians and exhausted the Romanian economy.  He greatly extended the authority police state  and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity


nomy.  He greatly extended the authority police state  and imposed a cult of personality . These lead to a dramatic decrease in CeauÅescu-popularity  and culminated in his overthrow and death in the bloody Romanian Revolution of 1989.


During this period, many people were arbitrarily killed or imprisoned for political, economic or unknown reasons:     detainees in prisons or camps, deported, persons under house arrest, and administrative detainees. There were hundreds of thousands of abuses, deaths and incidents of torture against a large range of people, from political opponents to ordinary citizens.  Cicerone IoniÅ£oiu, Victimele terorii comuniste. ArestaÅ£i, torturaÅ£i, Ã®ntemniÅ£aÅ£i, uciÅi. DicÅ£ionar. Editura MaÅina de scris, BucureÅti, 2000. ISBN 973-99994-2-5.  Between 60,000,    and 80,000 political prisoners were detained as psychiatric patients and treated in some of the most sadistic ways by communist doctors. Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, Speech at the Plenary session of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961  Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were free


ession of the Central Committee of the Romanian Workers' Party, 30 November 1961  Even though between 1962 and 1964 some political prisoners were freed in a series of amnesties   it is estimated that, in total, the regime directly killed up to two million people. RecensÄmÃ¢ntul populaÅ£iei concentraÅ£ionare din RomÃ¢nia Ã®n anii 1945-1989 - report of the "Centrul InternaÅ£ional de Studii asupra Comunismului", Sighet, 2004  Raportul Comisiei PrezidenÅ£iale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din RomÃ¢nia - report of the "Comisia PrezidenÅ£ialÄ pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din RomÃ¢nia", 15 December 2006


After the fall of CeauÅescu, the National Salvation Front (FSN), led by Ion Iliescu, restored civil order and took partial democratic and free market measures.        Several major political parties of the pre-war era, such as the National Christian Democrat Peasant's Party (PNÅ¢CD), the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Romanian Social Democrat Party (PSDR) were resurrected. After several major political rallies (especially in January), in April 1990, a sit-in protest contesting the results of the recently held parliamentary elections began in University Square, Bucharest. The protesters accused the FSN of being made up of former Communists and members of the Securitate. The protesters did not recognize the results of the election, which they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest


ch they deemed undemocratic, and were asking for the exclusion from the political life of the former high-ranking Communist Party members. The protest rapidly grew to become an ongoing mass demonstration (known as the Golaniad). The peaceful demonstrations degenerated into violence. After the police failed to bring the demonstrators to order, Ion Iliescu called on the "men of good will" to come and defend the State institutions in Bucharest.        Coal miners of the Jiu Valley answered the call and arrived in Bucharest on June 14. Their violent intervention is remembered as the June 1990 Mineriad.


The subsequent disintegration of the FSN produced several political parties including the Romanian Democrat Social Party (PDSR, later  Social Democratic Party, PSD), the Democratic Party (PD) and the ApR (Alliance for Romania). The PDSR party governed Romania from 1990 until 1996 through several coalitions and governments with Ion Iliescu as head of state. Since then there have been three democratic changes of government: in 1996, the democratic-liberal opposition and its leader Emil Constantinescu acceded to power; in 2000 the Social Democrats returned to power, with Iliescu once again president; and in 2004 Traian BÄsescu was elected president, with an electoral coalition called Justice and Truth Alliance (DA). The government was formed by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.


by a larger coalition which also includes the Conservative Party and the ethnic Hungarian party.


Post-Cold War Romania developed closer ties with Western Europe, eventually joining NATO in 2004.    The country applied in June 1993 for membership in the European Union (EU). It became an Associated State of the EU in 1995, an Acceding Country in 2004, and a member on January 1, 2007.


Topographic map of Romania.


With a surface area of 238,391 kmÂ², Romania is the largest country in southeastern Europe and the twelfth-largest in Europe. A large part of Romania's border with Serbia and Bulgaria is formed by the Danube. The Danube is joined by the Prut River, which forms the border with the Republic of Moldova. The Danube flows into the Black Sea within Romania's territory forming the Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe,  and a biosphere reserve and a biodiversity World Heritage Site. Other important rivers are the Siret, running north-south through Moldavia, the Olt, running from the oriental Carpathian Mountains to Oltenia, and the MureÅ, running through Transylvania from East to West.


Romania's terrain is distributed roughly equally between mountainous, hilly and lowland territories. The Carpathian Mountains dominate the center of Romania, with fourteen of its mountain ranges reaching above the altitude of 2,000 meters. The highest mountain in Romania is Moldoveanu Peak (2544 m). In south-central Romania, the Carpathians sweeten into hills, towards the BÄrÄgan Plains. Romania's geographical diversity has led to an accompanying diversity of flora and fauna.


Lake Bucura in the Retezat Mountains


A high percentage of natural ecosystems (47% of the land area of the country) is covered with natural and semi-natural ecosystems.  Since almost half of all forests in Romania (13% of the country) have been managed for watershed conservation rather than production, Romania has one of the largest areas of undisturbed forest in Europe.  The integrity of Romanian forest ecosystems is indicated by the presence of the full range of European forest fauna, including 60% and 40% of all European brown bears and wolves, respectively.    There are also almost 400 unique species of mammals (of which Carpathian chamois are best known), birds, reptiles and amphibians in Romania.  |"EarthTrends:Biodiversity and Protected Areas - Romania"


There are almost 10,000 kmÂ² (almost 5% of the total area) of protected areas in Romania.    Of these, Danube Delta Reserve Biosphere is the largest and least damaged wetland complex in Europe, covering a total area of 5800 kmÂ².


The significance of the biodiversity of the Danube Delta has been internationally recognised. It was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990, a Ramsar site in May 1991, and over 50% of its area was placed on the World Heritage List in December 1991. Within its boundaries is one of the most extensive reed bed systems in Europe. Besides the delta, there are two more biosphera reserves: Retezat National Park and Rodna National Park.


Typical landscape in the Danube Delta


Owing to its distance from the open sea, Romania has a moderate continental climate. Summers are generally very warm to hot, with summer (June to August) average maximum temperatures in Bucharest being around 28 Â°C,  WorldTravels on the monthly average climate parameters in Bucharest  with temperatures over 35 Â°C fairly common in the lower-lying areas of the country. Minima in Bucharest and other lower-lying areas are around 16 Â°C, but at higher altitudes both maxima and minima decline considerably. On the Romanian seaside the climate is slightly warmer (in annual average) and also less prone to extreme phenomena like summer heatwaves and winter severe cold spells. Winters are cold, with average maxima even in lower-lying areas being no more than 2 Â°C (36 Â°F) and below -15 Â°C (5 Â°F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.


more than 2 Â°C (36 Â°F) and below -15 Â°C (5 Â°F) in the highest mountains, where some areas of permafrost occur on the highest peaks.


Precipitations are average over 750 mm per year only on the highest western mountains - much of it falling as snow which allows for an extensive skiing industry. In the south-centern parts of the country (around Bucharest) the level of precipitation drops to around 600 mm,    The 2004 yearbook of Romanian National Institute of Statistics  while in the Danube Delta, rainfall levels are very low, and average only around 370 mm..


According to the 2002 census, Romania has a population of 21,698,181 and, similarly to other countries in the region, is expected to gently decline in the coming years as a result of sub-replacement fertility rates. Romanians make up 89.5% of the population. The largest ethnic minorities are Hungarians, who make up 6.6% of the population and Roma, or Gypsies, who make up 2% of the population. By the official census 535,250 Roma live in Romania. 2002 census data, based on  Population by ethnicity, gives a total of 535,250 Roma in Romania. This figure is disputed by other sources, because at the local level, many Roma declare a different ethnicity (mostly Romanian, but also Hungarian in the West and Turkish in Dobruja) for fear of discrimination. Many are not recorded at all, since they   do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regio


ion. Many are not recorded at all, since they   do not have ID cards. International sources give higher figures than the official census( UNDP's Regional Bureau for Europe,  World Bank,  International Association for Official Statistics).   usatoday: European effort spotlights plight of the Roma  Hungarians, who are a sizeable minority in Transylvania, constitute a majority in the counties of Harghita and Covasna. Ukrainians, Germans, Lipovans, Turks, Tatars, Serbs, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Greeks, Russians, Jews, Czechs, Poles, Italians, Armenians, as well as other ethnic groups, account for the remaining 1.4% of the population.  Official site of the results of the 2002 Census


The population density of the country as a whole has doubled since 1900 although, in contrast to other central European states, there is still considerable room for further growth. The overall density figures, however, conceal considerable regional variation. Population densities are naturally highest in the towns, with the plains (up to altitudes of some 700 ft) having the next highest density, especially in areas with intensive agriculture or a traditionally high birth rate (e.g., northern Moldavia and the âcontactâ zone with the Subcarpathians); areas at altitudes of 700 to  , rich in mineral resources, orchards, vineyards, and pastures, support the lowest densities. The number of Romanians and individuals with ancestors born in Romania living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.


nia living abroad is estimated at around 12 million.


The official language of Romania is Romanian, an Eastern Romance language related to Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Catalan. Romanian is spoken as a first language by 91% of the population, with Hungarian and Romani being the most important minority languages, spoken by 6.7% and 1.1% of the population, respectively.  Until the 1990s, there was also a substantial number of German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons, even though many have since emigrated to Germany, leaving only 45,000 native German speakers in Romania. In localities where a given ethnic minority makes up more than 20% of the population, that minority's language can be used in the public administration and justice system, while native-language education and signage is also provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 mil


o provided. English and French are the main foreign languages taught in schools. English is spoken by 5 million Romanians, French is spoken by 4-5 million, and German, Italian and Spanish are each spoken by 1-2 million people.   Outsourcing IT Ã®n RomÃ¢nia, Owners Association of the Software and Service Industry, retrieved November 13 2005  Historically, French was the predominant foreign language spoken in Romania, even though English has since superseded it. Consequently, Romanian English-speakers tend to be younger than Romanian French-speakers. Romania is, however, a full member of La Francophonie, and hosted the Francophonie Summit in 2006.   Chronology of the International Organization La Francophonie  German has been taught predominantly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.


ntly in Transylvania, due to traditions tracing back to the Austro-Hungarian rule in this province.


TimiÅoara Orthodox Cathedral (Timiá¹£oara, Hung. TemesvÃ¡r). It was built romanians between 1937 and 1940.


St. Michael's Catholic Church in Cluj-Napoca (hung:KolozsvÃ¡r, germ:Klausenburg). It was built by Hungarians between 1316 and 1545.


Romania is a secular state, thus having no national religion. The dominant religious body is the Romanian Orthodox Church; its members make up 86.7% of the population according to the 2002 census. Other important religions include Roman Catholicism (4.7%), Protestantism (3.7%), Pentecostal denominations (1.5%) and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church (0.9%).  Romania also has a historically significant Muslim minority concentrated in Dobrogea, mostly of Turkish ethnicity and numbering 67,500 people.     Romanian Census Website with population by religion  Based on the 2002 census data, there are also 6,179 Jews, 23,105 people who are of no religion and/or atheist, and 11,734 who refused to answer. On December 27, 2006, a new Law on Religion was approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of R


as approved under which religious denominations can only receive official registration if they have at least 20,000 members, or about 0.1 percent of Romania's total population.  Romania President Approves Europe's "Worst Religion Law"


Bucharest is the capital and the largest city in Romania. At the census in 2002, its population was over 1.9 million. |World Gazetteer: Population of the largest cities and towns in Romania  The metropolitan area of Bucharest has a population of about 2.2 million. There are several plans the further increase its metropolitan area to about 20 times the area of the city proper.    "Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest will be ready in 10 years"    "Official site of Metropolitan Zone of Bucharest Project"


There are 4 more cities in Romania, with a population of around 310,000 that are also present in EU top 100 most populous cities. These are: Cluj-Napoca, TimiÅoara, ConstanÅ£a and IaÅi. Other cities with a population of at least 200,000 people are Craiova, GalaÅ£i, BraÅov, PloieÅti, BrÄila and Oradea.


There are 25 cities with a population of at least 100,000. Until now, several of the largest cities have a metropolitan area: ConstanÅ£a (550,000 people), BraÅov, IaÅi (both with around 400,000) and Oradea (260,000) and several others are planned: TimiÅoara (400,000), Cluj-Napoca (400,000), GalaÅ£i-Braila (600,000), Craiova (370,000), Bacau and PloieÅti.    "Map of Romanian municipalities that can have metorpolitan areas in maroon"


University of Bucharest


Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the Romanian education system has been in a continuous process of reformation that has been both praised and criticized. UNESCO report on Romania:  The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition  According to the Law on Education adopted in 1995, the Educational System is regulated by the Ministry of Education and Research. Each level has its own form of organization and is subject to different legislations. Kindergarten is optional between 3 and 6 years old. Schooling starts at age 7 (sometimes 6), and is compulsory until the 10th grade (which usually corresponds to the age of 17 or 16). UNESCO report on Romania:  The Romanian Educational Policy in Transition  Primary and secondary education are divided in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.


d in 12 or 13 grades. Higher education is aligned onto the European higher education area.


Aside from the official schooling system, and the recently-added private equivalents, there exists a semi-legal, informal, fully private tutoring system (meditaÅ£ii). Tutoring is mostly used during secondary as a preparation for the various examinations, which are notoriously difficult. Tutoring is wide-spread, and it can be considered a part of the Education System. It has subsisted and even prospered during the Communist regime.


In 2004, some 4.4 million of the population was enrolled in school. Out of these, 650,000 in kindergarten, 3.11 million (14% of population) in primary and secondary level, and 650,000 (3% of population) in tertiary level (universities).    Romanian Institute of Statistics Yearbook - Chapter 8  In the same year, the adult literacy rate was 97,3% (45th worldwide), while the combined gross enrollment ratio for primary, secondary and tertiary schools was 75% (52nd worldwide).  UN Human Development Report 2006  The results of the PISA assessment study in schools for the year 2000 placed Romania on the 34th rank out of 42 participant countries  with a general weighted score of 432 representing 85% of the mean OECD score.    OECD International Program for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15  According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Rom


gram for Evaluation of Students, National Report, BucureÅti, 2002 p. 10 - 15  According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, in 2006 no Romanian university was included in the first 500 top universities world wide.  "Academic Ranking World University 2006: Top 500 World University"  Using similar methodology to these rankings, it was reported that the best placed Romanian university, Bucharest University, attained the half score of the last university in the world top 500.   RÄzvan Florian,  Romanian Universities and the Shanghai rankings Cluj-Napoca, RomÃ¢nia, p. 7-9


Tower Center International in Bucharest is the tallest building in Romania


With a GDP per capita (PPP) of $11,800  GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity Economic Indicators for Romania, 2004-2007, IMF World Economic Outlook, April 2007  estimated for 2007, Romania is considered an upper-middle income economy  World Bank Country Classification Groups, 2005  and has been part of the European Union since January 1, 2007. After the Communist regime was overthrown in late 1989, the country experienced a decade of economic instability and decline, led in part by an obsolete industrial base and a lack of structural reform. From 2000 onwards, however, the Romanian economy was transformed into one of relative macroeconomic stability, characterised by high growth, low unemployment and declining inflation. In 2006, according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe.    GDP in 2006, Natio


according to the Romanian Statistics Office, GDP growth in real terms was recorded at 7.7%, one of the highest rates in Europe.    GDP in 2006, National Institute of Statistics, Romania  Unemployment in Romania was at 3.9% in September 2007    Main Macroeconomic Indicators, September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania  which is very low compared to other middle-sized or large European countries such as Poland, France, Germany and Spain. Foreign debt is also comparatively low, at 20.3% of GDP.  "Romania CIA World Factbook 2006"  Exports have increased substantially in the past few years, with a 25% year-on-year rise in exports in the first quarter of 2006. Romania's main exports are clothing and textiles, industrial machinery, electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agr


electrical and electronic equipment, metallurgic products, raw materials, cars, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables, and flowers). Trade is mostly centred on the member states of the European Union, with Germany and Italy being the country's single largest trading partners. The country, however, maintains a large trade deficit, importing 37% more goods than it exports.


After a series of privatisations and reforms in the late 1990s and early 2000s, government intervention in the Romanian economy is somewhat lower than in other European economies.  Index of Economic Freedom: Romania  In 2005, the government replaced Romania's progressive tax system with a flat tax of 16% for both personal income and corporate profit, resulting in the country having the lowest fiscal burden in the European Union,  Taxation trends in the EU, Eurostat, 26 June 2007  a factor which has contributed to the growth of the private sector. The economy is predominantly based on services, which account for 55% of GDP, even though industry and agriculture also have significant contributions, making up 35% and 10% of GDP, respectively. Additionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe.  Since 2000, Romani


dditionally, 32% of the Romanian population is employed in agriculture and primary production, one of the highest rates in Europe.  Since 2000, Romania has attracted increasing amounts of foreign investment, becoming the single largest investment destination in Southeastern and Central Europe. Foreign direct investment was valued at â¬8.3 billion in 2006.  Romania: FDI reached over EUR 8.3 bn  According to a 2006 World Bank report, Romania currently ranks 49th out of 175 economies in the ease of doing business, scoring higher than other countries in the region such as Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic.  Economy Ranking, Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank  Additionally, the same study judged it to be the world's second-fastest economic reformer in 2006.  Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank  The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007,    Avera


omic reformer in 2006.  Doing Business 2007 Report, World Bank  The average gross wage per month in Romania is 1411 lei as of September 2007,    Average wage in September 2007, National Institute of Statistics, Romania  equating to â¬403.3 (US$597.3) based on international exchange rates, and $1001.1 based on purchasing power parity.  Implied PPP conversion rate for Romania, IMF, 2006  The percentage of computers connected to the internet in the country reaches almost 70% and more than 50% have broadband connections reaching a 4 Mbit/s (megabits per sec) average. From this aspect, Romania is the 10th country in the world with a bigger percentage of people connected to the internet than the USA.   "RomÃ¢naÅul High-Tech" A C.U.R.S. poll published in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:


lished in the Jurnalul NaÅ£ional newaspaper:


Romania's Road Network


Due to its location, Romania is a major crossroad for international economic exchange in Europe. However, because of insufficient investment, maintenance and repair, the transport infrastructure does not meet the current needs of a market economy and lags behind Western Europe. Nevertheless, these conditions are rapidly improving and catching up with the standards of Trans-European transport networks. Several projects have been started with funding from grants from ISPA and several loans from International Financial Institutions (World Bank, IMF, etc.) guaranteed by the state, to upgrade the main road corridors. Also, the Government is actively pursuing new external financing or public-private partnerships to further upgrade the main roads, and especially the country's motorway network.


and especially the country's motorway network.


World Bank estimates that the railway network in Romania comprised in 2004 22,298 km of track, which would make it the fourth largest railroad network in Europe.   Romanian Railways Purchases More Than $1 Million in RADâs MAP and Last Mile Products  The railway transport experienced a dramatic fall in freight and passenger volumes from the peak volumes recorded in 1989 mainly due to the decline in GDP and competition from road transport. In 2004, the railways carried 8.64 billion passenger-km in 99 million passenger journeys, and 73 million metric tones, or 17 billion ton-km of freight.    The combined total transportation by rail constituted around 45% of all passenger and freight movement in the country.


Bucharest is the only city in Romania which has an underground railway system. The Bucharest Metro was only opened in 1979. Now is one of the most accessed systems of the Bucharest public transport network with an average ridership of 600,000 passengers during the workweek.


The official logo of Romania, used to promote the tourist attractions in the country


Tourism focuses on the country's natural landscapes and its rich history and is a significant contributor to the Romania's economy.  In 2006, the domestic and international tourism generated about 4.8% of gross domestic product and 5.8% of the total jobs (about half a million jobs).  World Economic Forum - Country/Economy Profiles: Romania, Travel&Tourism  Following commerce, tourism is the second largest component of the services sector. Tourism is one of the most dynamic and fastest developing sectors of the economy of Romania and characterized by a huge potential for development. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council Romania is the fourth fastest growing country in the world in terms of travel and tourism total demand with a yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016.  WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential  Number of touri


yearly potential growth of 8% from 2007-2016.  WTTC spells out policy recommendations for Romania to tap travel and tourism potential  Number of tourists grew from 4.8 million in 2002 to 6.6 million in 2004. Similarly, the revenues grew from 400 million in 2002 to 607 in 2004. The Europa World Year Book 2007, 48th edition,  volume II, published by Routledge, London 2007, page 3746  In 2006, Romania registered 20 million overnight stays by international tourists, an all-time record,  20 million overnight stays by international tourists  but the number for 2007 is expected to increase even more.  Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing an increase from the previous year of 8.7% to 16.5 million (for first 9 months)


.5 million (for first 9 months)


Tourism in Romania attracted â¬400 million in investments in 2005.   Archive from Gandul Newspaper - Tourism attracted in 2005 investments worth 400 million euros


Mamaia, at the Black Sea shore


Over the last years, Romania has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans (more than 60% of the foreign visitors were from EU countries  Romanian National Institute of Statistics published a report for the first 9 months of 2007 showing 94.0% of visitors coming from European countries and 61.7% from EU ), thus attempting to compete with Bulgaria, Greece, Italy and Spain. Romania destinations such as Mangalia, Saturn, Venus, Neptun, Olimp, Constanta and Mamaia (sometimes called the Romanian Riviera) and are among the most popular attraction during summer.  During winter the skiing resorts along the Valea Prahovei and Poiana BraÅov are booming with visitors. Several cities in Transylvania (such as Sibiu, BraÅov, SighiÅoara, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and ca


ra, Cluj-Napoca and several others) have become important touristic attractions for foreign tourists - especially for their medieval atmosphere and castles.  Rural tourism focused on folklore and traditions, has become a major issue for the authorities recently,  and is targeted to promote such sites as Bran and its Dracula's Castle, the Painted churches of Northern Moldavia, the Wooden churches of MaramureÅ, or the Merry Cemetery in MaramureÅ County. There are several major natural attractions in Romania - such as Danube Delta, Iron Gates (Danube Gorge), ScÄriÅoara Cave and several other caves in the Apuseni Mountains - that have not received great attention from the authorities and whose potential has not been fully tapped.


Saxon medieval city of Sibiu (Nagyszeben), European Capital of Culture in 2007


The Saxon city of SighiÅoara (SegesvÃ¡r) first attested in the 12th century, is nowadays famous for its Medieval Festival


Romania has its unique culture, which is the product of its geography and of its distinct historical evolution. Like Romanians themselves, it is fundamentally defined as the meeting point of three regions: Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, but cannot be truly included in any of them.  ROMANIA - CULTURE  The Romanian identity formed on a substratum of mixed Roman and quite possibly Dacian elements,    with many other influences. During late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, the major influences came from the Slavic peoples who migrated and settled in nearby Bulgaria, Serbia, Ukraine and eventually Russia;  from medieval Greeks and the Byzantine Empire;  from a long domination by the Ottoman Empire;  from the Hungarians;  and from the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Weste


the Germans living in Transylvania. Modern Romanian culture emerged and developed over roughly the last 250 years under a strong influence from Western culture, particularly French  and German culture.


Mihai Eminescu, national poet of Romania and Moldova


The older classics of Romanian literature such as Mihai Eminescu, George CoÅbuc, Ioan Slavici, remain very little known outside Romania. Eminescu is considered the most important and influential Romanian poet, and is still very much loved in today (especially his poems).    Mihai Eminescu at ici.ro  The revolutionary year 1848 had its echoes in the Romanian principalities and in Transylvania, and a new elite from the middle of the 19th century emerged from the revolutions: Mihail KogÄlniceanu (writer, politician and the first prime minister of Romania), Vasile Alecsandri (politician, playwright and poet), Andrei MureÅanu (publicist and the writer of the current Romanian National Anthem) and Nicolae BÄlcescu (historian, writer and revolutionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National The


tionary). Other classic Romanian writers whose works are still widely read in their native country are playwright Ion Luca Caragiale (the National Theatre Bucharest is officially named in his honor) and Ion CreangÄ (best known for his children's stories).


In the period between the two world wars, authors like Tudor Arghezi, Lucian Blaga or Ion Barbu made efforts to synchronize Romanian literature with the European literature of the time. Gellu Naum was the leader of the surrealist movement in Romania. In the Communist era, valuable writers like Nichita StÄnescu, Marin Sorescu or Marin Preda managed to escape censorship, broke with "socialist realism" and were the leaders of a small "Renaissance" in Romanian literature. ÅtefÄnescu, Alex. - "Nichita StÄnescu, Ãngerul cu o carte Ã®n mÃ¢ini" (Nichita StÄnescu, The Angel With A Book In His Hands"), Edit. MaÅina de scris, 1999 - pag.8


Brancusi's Endless Column in Targu Jiu


Romanian literature has recently gained some renown outside the borders of Romania (mostly through translations into German, French and English).  Some modern Romanian authors became increasingly popular in Germany, France and Italy, especially Eugen Ionescu, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Constantin Noica, Tristan Tzara and Mircea CÄrtÄrescu.  Other literary figures who enjoy broad acclaim outside of the country include poet Paul Celan and Nobel laureate Elie Wiesel, both survivors of the Holocaust.


Among the best known Romanian musicians is George Enescu,  International Enescu Society - George Enescu, the composer  a 20th century composer, violinist, pianist, conductor, teacher, and one of the greatest performers of his time.  George Enescu (1881 - 1955)  George Enescu Festival, an annual classical music festival held in Bucharest, is named after him. Other Romanian musicians are Ciprian Porumbescu, a 19th century composer, Gheorghe Zamfir, a virtuoso of the pan flute that is reported to have sold over 120 million albums worldwide   Sounds Like Canada feat. Gheorghe Zamfir   Gheorghe Zamfir, master of the pan pipe , and the folk artist Tudor Gheorghe.