8-9 Transport > Shipping Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Battery electric vehicle End-use and operations High Hide
In battery electric ships, the power for propulsion and auxiliaries
comes from batteries, which are charged while at berth from the on-shore
electricity grid. Given current limitations of the energy density of
batteries, battery electric ships will mostly find applications on short
distance routes.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Electrochemistry, Direct electrification
*Key countries:* Norway
*Key initiatives:*
* As of 2019 in Norway there were 18 electric ships and 80 more are
planned to become operative by the end of 2021 (Presentation by
Plugenergy, 2020)
* Norway has banned internal combustion ships to enter a Fjord from
2020. In Norway there are already some all-electric ships, such as
The Vision of the Fjord, Source
* Norway is planning on creating the first zero-emissions zone on
water. The parliament has accepted a resolution which would see non
zero-emission ships banned in the world heritage fjords “as soon as
technically possible and no later than 2026”, Source
* Kongsberg (Norway), ABB (Switzerland), Wartsila (Finland), Norwegian
Electric Systems as (Norway), Corvus Energy (Canada), General
Dynamics Electric Boat (US), MAN Energy Solutions SE (Germany), Vard
(Norway), Siemens (Germany), and Leclanché SA (Switzerland), among
others, are some of the players focusing on developing new electric
ships Source
* Yara is developing a fully electric and autonomous container ship,
which will be launched in 2020 "Birkeland", Source
* In Denmark some islands are connected via an electric ferry, Source
* Route between Helsingor (Denmark) and Helsinborg (Sweden) is also
served by two electric ferries, Source
*Deployment targets:*
* Possibly around 5% (expressed in terms of required energy for
shipping sector). See DNV GL, Source
* 10% for ''short sea'' ships In Norway, the governmental office for
coastal ferry infrastructure is requesting emission free solutions
for several new route licenses, Source
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* In line with the cost reduction potential of battery electric vehicles
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
8-9 Transport > Shipping Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Methanol-fuelled engine End-use and operations Moderate Details
Power for propulsion comes from engine(s) fuelled by methanol. Methanol
has relatively high energy density and is compatible with existing
engines after moderate adaptation, thus not posing problems for
bunkering, on-board storage and combustion. Attention has to be paid to
safety as methanol is toxic.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy, Hydrogen
*Key countries:* Denmark
*Key initiatives:*
* Maersk has placed an order for 8 large ocean-going containerships
capable of running with methanol. Hyundai Heavy Industries is going
to deliver the vessels by 2024, with the option of additional 4
vessels in 2025, Source
* Some methanol tankers are able to run on both methanol and
conventional fuels. They are fitted with MAN 6G50ME-B9.3-LGI engines
and a dual-fuel concept developed together with Marinvest, Source
* Stena Line has launched a ferry (''Stena Germanica'') that can be
fueled either by diesel or methanol, Source
Source
* There are also ocean-going vessels fitted with methanol-compatible
machinery, Source
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* The additional capital expenditure (CAPEX) for the dual fuel
capability, which enables the vessel to run on methanol, will be
about of 10-15% of the total price, Source
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
6 Transport > Shipping Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Methanol fuel cell electric vehicle End-use and operations Moderate
Details
In methanol fuel cells, power for propulsion and auxiliaries is
generated by a fuel cell supplied with methanol. The efficiency of
methanol fuel cells is currently quite low, around 20%. Methanol
contains more hydrogen on a volumetric basis than liquid molecular
hydrogen. Thus it could be a more suitable energy carrier for vehicles
than hydrogen.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy, Hydrogen
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* Wallenius Maritime, Wärtsilä, and their partners of the METAPU
consortium tested on Undine (a car carrier) a 20 kW SOFC fuelled by
methanol, Source
* RiverCell project gathering Meyer Werft, DNV-GL, Neptun Werft,
Viking Cruises. Demonstration on board a river cruise vessel, Source
* MS Mariella in Pa-X-ell project with 60 kW fuel cell (High
temperature methanol fuel cell), Source
9-10 Transport > Shipping Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Biogas-fuelled engine End-use and operations Moderate Details
In liquefied biogas internal combustion engine ships, propulsion and
auxiliaries are powered by an engine running on natural gas. As of
today, the majority of engines in operation are low-pressure dual fuel,
which are characterised by methane slips that limit the GHG mitigation
potential of this powertrain. The adoption of direct injection high
pressure engines could limit the slip, Source Source
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Several vessels are already fuelled by LNG. Given that liquefied biogas
is chemically equivalent to LNG, no major adaptations to the vessel's
powertrain are required.
*Deployment targets:*
Possibly up to 23% (expressed in terms of required energy for the
shipping sector). See DNV GL, Source
4-5 Transport > Shipping Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Hydrogen-fuelled engine End-use and operations High Details
This type of vessel is powered by an internal combustion engine fuelled
by hydrogen. Hydrogen engines available on the market use a blend of
diesel and H2, while pure hydrogen engines are currently under
development by several companies, Source
Compared to hydrogen fuel cells, internal combustion engines are characterised by high power density, which is indispensable for ocean going vessels. Therefore, this powertrain is more likely to be adopted by long distance open sea vessels.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* CMB's Hydroville: the world’s first sea-going vessel with dual fuel
diesel-hydrogen engines (it is not yet operating with 100% hydrogen,
but it simultaneously burns hydrogen and diesel), launched in 2017,
Source
* Hydrocat: new demonstration vessel, to be launched late 2020, Source
* Source
* Hyundai Heavy Industries has announced to develop a large scale
hydrogen ICE by 2022, Source
* Japanese cabinet office program (called SIP) has been subsidising
the development of hydrogen ICEs since 2015, Source
* The Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism
in 2020 formulated a roadmap for zero emissions international
shipping which aims at commercialising hydrogen ICE vessels by 2030,
Source
7 Transport > Shipping Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle > Proton Exchange Membrane End-use
and operations High Details
This type of vessel is operated by a hydrogen fuel cell. Due to limited
power output, this technology is likely to be used preferably for small
and medium vessels, as currently proven by the on-going demonstrations.
Different fuel-cell types exist and their names reflect the materials
used in the electrolyte membrane. DNV GL evaluated 7 fuel-cell
technologies and concluded that the following are the most promising for
maritime applications, Source
According to the study from DNV-GL, the proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell is considered a mature technology. Its operating temperature is 50-100 degrees Celsius, and has a typical efficiency of 50-60% and a moderate lifetime. It has medium sensitivity to impurity, thus requiring hydrogen as a fuel, and a low cost (compared to other fuel cell technologies for maritime applications). Manufacturing compact fuel cells with high output power is quite challenging. Thus this technology is likely to be used preferably for small and medium vessels.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Fuel Cell
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* FCS Alsterwasser 5-year lake demonstration project (GER), Source
* Hyseas III project (UK)
* Ballard & ABB have a joint demonstration project for a hydrogen FC
tugboat, Source
* Norwegian Public Roads Administration has initiated a development
project aiming to have the first hybrid H2 fuel cell ferry in
commercial operation in 2021, Source
* Water-Go-Round has been launched Source
* ABB is working on a megawatt-scale hydrogen fuel cell to power the
auxiliaries of a container ship, Source
* VINCI Energies have developed a prototype of a fuel cell 25-meter
ferry operating in France. Two 1 MW fuel cells are installed, Source
* Horizon2020 funded FLAGSHIP project aims at demonstrating the
technical feasibility of hydrogen fuel cell as powertrain on two
ships: a utility vessel on river and a passenger and car ferry. A
total of 1.2 MW of on-board fuel cells will be installed, Source
* The project of FC ship including fuel supply system was announced in
Japan, Source
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
6 Transport > Shipping Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle > High temperature proton exchange
membrane End-use and operations Moderate Details
High Temperature Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (HT-PEMFC) have low
sensitivity to impurities, thus being able to run with LNG, methanol,
diesel and hydrogen after an external reforming stage. The operational
temperature is 150-200 degrees Celsius and these HT-PEMFC have an
efficiency of 50-60%. They have a moderate cost (compared to other fuel
cell technologies for maritime applications), and can have modules of up
to 30 kW of power. There is uncertainty regarding their lifetime, Source
Due to limited power output, this technology is likely to be used preferably for small and medium vessels, as currently proven by the ongoing demonstrations.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Fuel Cell
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
High Temperature fuel cells are being developed and tested:
* Project MF Vågen, Norway, including a 12kW HT-PEM for small port
commuter ferry Source
7 Transport > Shipping Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle > Molten Carbonate End-use and
operations High Details
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) operate at very high temperature
(600-700 degrees Celsius). They have medium sensitivity to impurities
and are flexible with regards to fuel choice. MCFC are very costly
(compared to other fuel cell technologies for maritime applications).
They can have large modules (up to 500 kW of power) and have a good
lifetime. Their typical efficiency is around 50% and this can be
optimised to 85% with heat recovery, Source
Due to limited power output, this technology is likely to be used preferably for small and medium vessels, as currently proved by the ongoing demonstrations.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Fuel Cell
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
MCFC fuel cells are being developed and tested:
* Large prototype tested on-board the offshore supply vessel "Viking
Lady", Source
* MC-WAP Project (Fincantieri), MCFC fuelled by diesel, Source
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
7 Transport > Shipping Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle > Solid Oxide End-use and
operations Very high Details
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) run at very high temperature (500-1000
degrees Celsius). This fuel cell has low sensitivity to impurities, thus
being able to run with hydrogen, methanol, LNG and diesel. It has a high
cost (compared to other fuel cell technologies for maritime
applications), can have medium size and has a moderate lifetime. Typical
efficiency is 60% and this can be optimised to 85% with heat recovery,
Source
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Fuel Cell
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* SOFC development by Thyssenkrupp and Sunfire: MS Forester cargo
ship, in the framework of E4Ships SchIBZ project has received a
Diesel fuelled SOFC, Source
* Bloom Energy and Samsung Heavy Industries Team Up to Build Ships
Powered by Solid Oxide Fuel Cells, Source
* Samsung announced new SOFC ship, Source
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
4-5 Transport > Shipping Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Ammonia-fuelled engine End-use and operations Very high Details
Combustion engines fuelled with ammonia could represent a carbon free
solution for ship propulsion, particularly for long distance ocean going
merchant ships. Ammonia is the most traded chemical commodity, thus
operators already have expertise in handling it. Its storage and
transport infrastructure is well deployed. Ammonia is over 50% more
energy-dense per unit of volume than liquid hydrogen, therefore
potentially more suitable as a transport fuel than hydrogen. It is
stored at -33 degrees Celsius, which is higher than the storage
temperatures required for natural gas and hydrogen (-153 degrees Celsius
and -253 degrees Celsius, respectively). Nevertheless, challenges
remain, especially related to the hard-to-ignite combustion process and
a low flame speed.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:* Denmark, Finland
*Key initiatives:*
* Some engine manufacturers are committed to rapidly developing
ammonia ICEs:
* MAN ES is developing a two-stroke ammonia engine and aims at
commercialising it by 2024. This will be followed in 2025 by a
retrofit package that enables existing vessels to be retrofitted to
run on ammonia, Source
* Wartsila is doing similar work with both its mid-size dual fuel and
spark-ignited engines, with a view to producing them for marine and
generators. It expects to develop an engine capable of running
solely on ammonia by 2023, Source
, Source Various shipbuilders have announced the development of very large vessels running on ammonia with ICE, often in conjunction with MAN ES. Below some:
* the American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) projects the design of a
Chittagongmax container carrier of 2 700 TEU capacity, Source
* the Lloyds Register (LR) granted Approval in Principle to Dalian
Shipbuilding Industry Co. for an NH3-fuelled 23 000 twenty-foot
equivalent unit ultra-large containership concept design, Source
* LR awarded Approval in Principle to the Shanghai Merchant Ship
Design & Research Institute for the design of a 180 000 ton bulk
carrier – a design SDARI claims to have already completed. The
project also involves MAN ES.
* MISC, Samsung Heavy Industries, Lloyd’s and MAN joined forces in
2020 on to make an ammonia-fuelled tanker commercial by 2030, Source
, Source
4-5 Transport > Shipping Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Ammonia Solid Oxide fuel cell electric vehicle End-use and operations
High Details
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells can be designed to be fuelled with ammonia. They
operate at very high temperature (500-1000 degrees Celsius). This fuel
cell has low sensitivity to impurities, it has a high cost (compared to
other fuel cell technologies for maritime applications), can have medium
size and has a moderate lifetime. Typical efficiency is 60% and this can
be optimised to 85% with heat recovery, Source
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Ammonia Solid Oxide fuel cell electric vehicle Source
8-9 Transport > Shipping Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Kite
End-use and operations Moderate Details
Large towing kites are attached to the ship with long cables to access
strong winds a hundred meters above the ship. This way traction is
provided to the ship, in addition to the propulsion provide by the
ship's engine. This system can be fully automated and thus does not
require a dedicated crew on board to manage its operations.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Several companies are commercialising and installing kites:
* AIRSEAS is commercialising the technology, which is easy to
retrofit, Source
* On-board demonstration, Source
or Source
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 Transport > Shipping Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Foul
Release Hull Coating End-use and operations Moderate Details
Hull coatings are spread on the immersed body of the ship to reduce its
hydrodynamic drag. They reduce corrosion and hull roughness, also
preventing bio-fouling (e.g. algae, small animals) that increases drag
over time. New generations of coatings should enhance drag performance
while offering more environmentally friendly formulas. Indeed, most of
the current coatings can be harmful to the environment, due to their
chemical components.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Several companies are offering coatings that minimise the roughness of
the hull under-water surface and slows the growth of foul. Source
10 Transport > Shipping Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Rudder Bulb End-use and operations Moderate Details
Rudders are located behind the propellers, in highly turbulent flow
fields, and can lead to high drag losses. Thanks to their special shape,
rudder bulbs are optimising the water flow pattern between the propeller
and the rudder, thus reducing energy loss and the ship's fuel consumption.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Several companies are offering enhanced propulsive systems. See for
example the special designs proposed by Wartsila: Source
8-9 Transport > Shipping Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Rotor Sail-Sail End-use and operations High Details
Sails can alleviate engine requested power for ship propulsion. Flettner
Rotor Sails is a technology that exploits the Magnus effect, which
results from a pressure difference created by air speed differences on
each side of the rotor, resulting in a lift force perpendicular to the
wind flow direction. This force can be harnessed to reduce fuel
consumption. This technology offers higher efficiency when applied to
slow-steaming vessels.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* Some companies offer solutions to adopt sails on vessels, Source
, Source , Source
* Some companies have already installed Flettner Rotors on vessels and
are operating them, Source
* Example of demonstration vessels: MV Estraden (Ro-Ro) , Viking Grace
(Cruise), Pelican (Maersk tanker), Source
Source
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
6 Transport > Shipping Operations > Automated and connected ship
End-use and operations Moderate Details
Automated and connected ships may improve energy efficiency. Fully
autonomous ships may be able to take longer voyages at lower speeds and
greater fuel efficiency.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Digitalization
*Key countries:* Finland, Japan
*Key initiatives:*
* YARA is developing an autonomous electric ship called Birkeland,
which will do the first trip at the end of 2021 and become operative
in 2020, Source
* An early trial of an autonomous ship (Car and Truck Carrier) has
been performed on a route between China and Japan, Source
9 Transport > Shipping Operations > Cold Ironing End-use and
operations High Details
When at berth, a ship still requires energy: for hotelling (e.g. cruise
ships), refrigeration (refrigerated containers), on-board crane
operation, etc. Associated power can be in the order of several
megawatts. So-called ''cold ironing'' or Alternate Maritime Power (AMP)
consists of plugging-in the vessel to the grid instead of running the
auxiliary engine(s) of the ship. This also reduces on-board noise and
vibrations, extends machinery lifetime and reduces engine maintenance
needs. Dedicated installations, in the harbour and on-board are
required. These must manage the variations in electric features
(voltage, frequency, connectors). The use of fuel cells for port-side
power has already been demonstrated.
*Key countries:* United States, China, Europe
*Key initiatives:*
* Onshore: This technology is already available in at least about 100
berths worldwide: 64 in Europe, 24 in the US, 9 in Asia
* Onboard: All new cruise ships and all container ships bigger than 6
000 TEU are already equipped with provision for cold ironing. Major
shipping lines have also started retrofitting their ships
* Wartsila, Cavotec, ABB, Terasaki are the main industries for this
technology.
* Fuel cells have already been demonstrated for port-side power,
Source
*Deployment targets:*
* California has put in place regulations for cold-ironing since 2007,
Source
* In China, since 2019, some categories of new-building vessels are to
be equipped with a shore power system. Extended to other vessel
types in 2020, Source
* In Europe, all ports are requested to provide cold ironing by the
end of 2025 Directive 2014/94/EU
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Typical shore-side equipment provides 7-8 MW
7 Transport > Shipping Charging and refuelling > Fast charging
Infrastructure Moderate Details
A fast charging equipment is necessary to recharge the batteries of
electric ships. Chargers can be constituted by a plug or by a wireless
device. Battery-electric ferries are mainly recharged on each docking.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* Denmark and Sweden have finished the tests of the full scale
prototype for charging the electric ferries connecting the two
countries
* ABB 11 MW charger, Source
* Vattenfall or ABB charging stations, Source
, Source
* Mobinar 4 MW fast connection for ferry recharging, Source
*Announced development targets:*
* Possibly around 5% (expressed in terms of required energy for
shipping sector). See DNV GL, Source
* 10% for short-route ships
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 Transport > Shipping Charging and refuelling > Bunkering > Ammonia
Infrastructure Very high Details
Ammonia is easier to store than hydrogen. It can be stored in a liquid
form in pressurized tanks (1 Mpa, ambient temperature) or at ambient
pressure with a temperature of -33 degrees Celsius (instead of -253
degrees Celsius for H2). Refrigeration techniques are required, not
cryogenics. Ammonia offers a higher volumetric energy content compared
to hydrogen (+70%). Ammonia is already produced and transported in large
quantities around the world. Therefore bunker supplies could, in theory,
be readily accommodated.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* It benefits from an already existing infrastructure and distribution
network (due to its industrial use, mainly for fertilizer synthesis).
* A set of industries has signed a memorandum of understanding to
develop the supply chain for ammonia bunkering in Singapore, Source
*Deployment targets:*
Ammonia should represent more than 75% of the energy consumption of
shipping sector beyond 2050, Source
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Ammonia plant investment cost: 2.6 ~3.1 billion USD (7 000 tpd)
Source
3 Transport > Shipping Charging and refuelling > Bunkering > Hydrogen
Infrastructure High Details
Establishing a hydrogen bunkering infrastructure is an important step in
introducing hydrogen propulsion in ships. However, vessels have not yet
been designed, and there isn't currently a bunker vessel standard to
work to. The technology systems depend entirely on the method for
hydrogen storage (liquid or compressed gas). A vessel that has bunker
tanks for liquid hydrogen needs a liquefied hydrogen supply. Compressed
gas could be refuelled by a liquid hydrogen bunker vessel equipped with
a regasification plant, or if stored as gas in the port, transferred by
pressure balancing or compressing the gas into the ship. The choice of
the hydrogen storage method has implications for the technology used to
power the vessel. A gas engine is preferred for liquid hydrogen as the
excess heat from combustion can be used to evaporate hydrogen. Gaseous
hydrogen generally works better with on-board fuel cells, even if it can
also be made suitable for gas engines, particularly if co-fired with
natural gas. Cost-effective liquefaction chains for hydrogen are key for
bunkering, as liquid hydrogen is expected to offer advantages over
pressurised hydrogen gas in relation to transportation costs. In
contrast with LNG where the gas is transported into the port, the
economics of hydrogen mean that hydrogen liquefaction plants are likely
to be located close to port, requiring stronger integration between
systems.
*Key countries:*
9-11 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Battery
electric vehicle > Battery > Lithium-ion End-use and operations Very
high Details
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) is the dominant battery technology for electric
vehicle applications and portable electronics. The anode is typically
composed of graphite, and various cathode chemistries coexist (the most
common being the nickel-based chemistries - lithium nickel manganese
cobalt oxide (NMC) and lithium nickel cobalt aluminium oxide (NCA), or
lithium iron phosphate (LFP)). Within NMC cathodes, the elements can be
found in various proportions. These range, for example, from NMC333,
with equal shares of Ni, Mn and Co, to NMC811, with composition ratios
of Ni, Mn, and Co of 8:1:1 -- with a current trend towards moving to
lower cobalt content and higher nickel content. Li-ion is already a
fairly mature technology and is undergoing rapid cost decreases. Current
sales weighted average cost is around 130 USD/kWh at pack level. The
best energy density of this technology is around 200 Wh/kg at the pack
level. For LFP the current best energy density at pack level is
160Wh/kg. Battery re-use (e.g. second-life applications, for instance
for energy storage) and/or recycling technologies and policies will be
essential to ensure that batteries contribute to sustainability goals.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Electrochemistry, Materials, Systems
integration, Storage
*Key countries:* China, Korea, Sweden, Japan, Finland, United States
*Key initiatives:*
Several companies have manufacturing plants entirely dedicated to
producing this type of battery. The number and size of the plants are
both increasing. As of 2021 the average gigafactory size is about 35GWh.
There have been many announcements for further plant size increases in
the 2020s (reference: Global EV Outlook 2022).
*Deployment targets:*
The EV30@30 target of the Clean Energy Ministerial's Electric Vehicles
Initiative is supported by eleven national governments that collectively
aim at reaching 30% sales share for electric vehicles (to the exception
of 2- and 3- wheelers) by 2030. (Supporting countries: Canada, China,
Finland, France, India, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, the
United Kingdom). (Reference, Source
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Cost: US DOE: 60 USD/kWh at cell level, Source
4 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Battery
electric vehicle > Battery > Manganese-rich cathodes Production High
Details
Manganese-rich cathodes for Li-ion typically substitute significant
amounts of the expensive critical minerals such as nickel and cobalt
with low-cost manganese. These cathodes have significant advantages for
reducing commodity price exposure and reducing critical mineral demand.
Two significant manganese-rich chemistries include lithium nickel
manganese oxide (LNMO) and lithium-manganese-rich nickel manganese
cobalt oxide (LMR-NMC). LNMO contains no cobalt and has a notably higher
energy density than LFP (though lower than high-nickel chemistries).
LMR-NMC actually has a higher energy density than many high-nickel
chemistries due to being lithium-rich (increasing lithium exposure) but
it contains significantly less nickel than the top performance
high-nickel chemistries.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
LNMO being developed by: Nano One, Source
Arkema,
Source
The most significant challenge for LNMO is the very high operating voltage, which improves energy density but causes electrolyte decomposition, reducing cycle life.
5 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Battery
electric vehicle > Battery > Solid state + Li-metal End-use and
operations Very high Details
Solid state batteries present significant potential for major
performance improvements in energy density and thermal stability/safety,
in comparison to lithium-ion chemistries, thanks to an inorganic solid
electrolyte (lithium-ion batteries use organic liquid electrolytes). The
solid electrolyte would also enable the possibility of using lithium
metal (Li-metal) as an anode material, which would open prospects for
further, major energy density improvements (however the use of Li-metal
also poses additional development challenges). Energy densities above
400 Wh/kg at a cell level can be enabled by this technology. Battery
reuse (e.g. second-life applications, for instance for energy storage)
and/or recycling technologies and policies will be essential to ensure
that batteries contribute to sustainability goals.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Electrochemistry, Materials, Systems
integration, Storage
*Key countries:* United States, Japan, Korea, China
*Key initiatives:*
Several startups and battery makers are working on this technology
across the globe and some have unveiled prototype cells. Samsung
Advanced Institute of Technology (SAIT) and Samsung R&D Institute Japan
(SRJ) reported significant design and performance improvements in an
article in Nature Energy, Source
Toyota has showcased
a prototype vehicle running on solid-state batteries in 2021. General
Motors partnered with a startup to develop solid state batteries, Source
Battery500 Consortium, Source Advanced Battery Materials Research (BMR) Program, Source Various major battery makers in China, such as CATL and BYD, are developing solid-state technologies, and some breakthroughs have been reported by these and other companies, Source Nissan is starting pilot production in 2024 and aims to produce EVs with ASSBs in 2028, Source Volkswagen and Quantumscape have a JV and plan a pilot production plant in 2024, Source Samsung SDI began construction of pilot solid state production line in March 2022, aims for prototype cells by 2025 and mass production in 2027, Source , Source Significant sold-state companies include: QuantumScape (public), Solid Power (public), Factorial Energy, ProLogium
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* 75 USD/kWh by 2028 and 65 USD/kWh after at pack level (Nissan),
Source
Source
6 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Battery
electric vehicle > Battery > Sodium-ion End-use and operations High
Details
The working principle for sodium-ion (Na-ion) batteries is the same as
Li-ion; primarily the cation material differs (sodium instead of
lithium). Na-ion is currently one of the most viable chemistries,
capable of fulfilling some Li-ion functions, but it does not contain any
lithium, thus reducing lithium demand. Its leading anode and cathode
materials are composed of abundant and low-cost elements, containing no
nickel or cobalt. The leading anode and cathode materials are different
materials to Li-ion.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Electrochemistry, Materials, Systems
integration, Storage
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
CATL unveiled its first generation of Sodium-ion batteries with a
Prussian White cathode and hard carbon anode. CATL plans to form a basic
industrial supply chain by 2023. The Chinese government plans to promote
the development of the Na-ion battery industry in its 14th Five-Year
Plan, with industry standards to achieve scale, lower cost and improve
performance. Natron Energy and Altris announced Na-ion manufacture
facilities planning to start mass production in 2023, Source
Natron Energy in Michigan and Altris in Sweden. Natron was awarded $19m from ARPA-E to scale up its Na-ion batteries, Source The EU funded Na-ion research consortium project SIMBA was launched in 2021, Source
3 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Battery
electric vehicle > Battery > Potassium-ion End-use and operations High
Details
Potassium-ion (K-ion) also has the same working principle as Li-ion and
Na-ion with the cation being potassium. K-ion also relies on abundant
materials for its leading cathode and anode materials containing no
lithium, nickel and cobalt, with significant potential to reduce
critical mineral demand. Unlike Na-ion, K-ion can use graphite anodes
which means it can use the graphite anode supply chains developed for
Li-ion. There are indications that K-ion has superior rate capability
compared to Li-ion.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Electrochemistry, Materials, Systems
integration, Storage
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Most comparable to Li-ion after Na-ion and uses graphite anode.
Impressive performance (cycles, power and energy) demonstrated in lab
but typically using more expensive electrolyte solutions e.g. high
concentration electrolyte salt/ionic liquids etc. so not commercially
competitive. Can use graphite anode unlike Na-ion so anode material
already commercialised at scale/supply chains exist so will be quicker
to scale. Previous ARPA-E project on K-ion 2013-2014 $500k, Source
2 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Battery
electric vehicle > Battery > Multivalent ion End-use and operations
Moderate Details
The proposed concept for this technology is to use elements where each
constituent active ion is able to release more than one electron.
Commonly studied elements for this concept are magnesium, calcium, and
aluminium. These offer the potential for very high energy density and to
move away from reliance on lithium and other scarce materials. The
technology is still at early stages of development. Battery reuse (e.g.
second-life applications, for instance for energy storage) and/or
recycling technologies and policies will be essential to ensure that
batteries contribute to sustainability goals.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Electrochemistry, Materials, Systems
integration, Storage
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Cathode development a major universal challenge for multivalent
metal-ion batteries. Stability is a significant challenge. ARPA-E 2022
$3.4m grant awarded to group working on Mg multivalent metal-ion
batteries, Source
4 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Battery
electric vehicle > Battery > Li-S End-use and operations Very high
Details
This battery uses lithium as an anode while the cathode is made of
sulphur. This concept offers the prospect of achieving a very high
energy density and does not require expensive cathode materials, as
sulphur is very inexpensive and abundant. This chemistry already has a
long history of development but efforts to develop batteries for
commercial applications in mobility are currently ramping up. Prototype
cells have already been developed with energy densities above 400 Wh/kg
and the main challenges lie in improving the cyclability of the cell and
in realising even higher cell level energy densities. Battery reuse
(e.g. second-life applications, for instance for energy storage) and/or
recycling technologies and policies will be essential to ensure that
batteries contribute to sustainability goals.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Electrochemistry, Materials, Systems
integration, Storage
*Key countries:* United States, China, United Kingdom, Korea
*Key initiatives:*
EU funded projects focusing on this technology have recently concluded.
Some startups have been working this technology (Lyten - on
sulphur-graphene - raised $200m). Lyten aims to start pilot production
2022 200k cells/year and to scale production 2025 - deliver cells to
governments/customers (BNEF,2022). Most significant challenge is still
cycle life, Source
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* 80 USD/kWh (reference: Argonne National Laboratory)
2 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Battery
electric vehicle > Battery > Li-Air End-use and operations High Details
In this concept the oxygen in the air would act as the cathode and
lithium as the anode. This combination of materials offers a theoretical
energy density of the same order of magnitude as liquid fuels. However,
there are several significant technical barriers that prevent any design
from reaching such a high density. While this technology is very
promising in theory, its practical feasibility and viable performance
are still to be demonstrated. Battery reuse (e.g. second-life
applications, for instance for energy storage) and/or recycling
technologies and policies will be essential to ensure that batteries
contribute to sustainability goals.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Electrochemistry, Materials, Systems
integration, Storage
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
PolyPlus mainly on solid state but also lithium air. Mentions primary
Li-air (non-rechargeable so cannot be used EVs etc) on website but also
looking at rechargeable Li-air in future. Awarded a $5m from ARPA-E
2010-2012, Source
Mullen Technologies, Lithium Air Industries. Still very much in research. Cycle life main challenge. Electrolyte too unstable.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* 75-90 USD/kWh (reference: US DRIVE electrochemical energy storage
roadmap, Source
5-7 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Battery
electric vehicle > Battery > Medium-High Silicon content and Silicon
anodes End-use and operations High Details
Silicon is a promising anode material that can either be integrated with
conventional graphite anode, or substitute for it. The capacity of
silicon is roughly ten times higher than that of graphite, meaning that
it holds great potential for increased energy density. Higher silicon
content in graphite anodes above 10-15% still has technical challenges
to be solved. Medium silicon content 10 - 50%. High silicon content
around or greater than 50% significantly improves anode energy density.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Electrochemistry, Materials
*Key countries:* United States, Germany
*Key initiatives:*
There are several startups and major chemical companies developing this
technology, focusing both on automotive and consumer electronics
applications. Sila nanotechnology has recently released the first
consumer electronics product using high silicon shares in the anode.
Solid Power (publicly traded) is working on silicon anodes and high
silicon content anodes. Sionic energy – $30m funding (BNEF startups).
OneD – $125m funding (BNEF startups).
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
11 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Battery
electric vehicle > Battery > Low Silicon content graphite anode End-use
and operations Moderate Details
Silicon is a promising anode material that can either be integrated with
conventional graphite anode, or substitute for it. The capacity of
silicon is roughly ten times higher than that of graphite, meaning that
it holds great potential for increased energy density. Low silicon
content (<10%) provides an incremental improvement in anode energy density.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Electrochemistry, Materials
*Key countries:* United States, Germany
*Key initiatives:*
Tesla and Audi already use 5-10% silicon doping in their graphite anodes
and Chinese company Gotion High-Tech are also introducing anodes with
silicon doping (BNEF EVO22).
9 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Battery
electric vehicle > Passenger car End-use and operations Very high Details
See Lithium-ion battery
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:*
9 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Battery
electric vehicle > Light commercial vehicle End-use and operations
Very high Details
See Lithium-ion battery
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:* China, Germany, France
*Key initiatives:*
In 2019, there were almost 377 000 e-LCVs on world’s roads. China has
the largest electric LCV fleet worldwide (65% of the fleet). Many major
postal and package delivery companies, among them Amazon, DHL, DB
Schenker, FedEx, the Ingka Group (owned by Ikea), UPS, and the Swiss and
Austrian postal services, have pledged to expand their electric fleets,
through retrofits or outright purchases, in the near future.
9 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Battery
electric vehicle > Urban transit bus End-use and operations Very high
Details
See Lithium-ion battery
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:* China
*Key initiatives:*
In 2019, there were 513 000 e-Buses on world’s roads. China has the
largest electric bus fleet worldwide (95% of the fleet).
7 Transport > Road Operations > Platooning and road train End-use and
operations Moderate Details
Platooning and road trains are solutions to reduce energy consumption in
road freight transport by reducing aerodynamic drag. Platooning refers
to trucks that closely follow each other and are equipped with
state-of-the-art driving support, forming a platoon of trucks driven by
smart vehicle communication and automation (CAV) technologies. This
allows trucks to drive closer together at near-constant speeds, which
reduces air resistance (and thereby fuel consumption) and increases the
capacity of roads. The fuel savings of truck platooning are estimated to
range from 5% (at 20 meters distance) to 15% (at 4 meters between
trucks) for a three-truck platoon travelling at 80 km/h. Among the
challenges is the operation of multi-brand trucks in a single platoon,
requiring communication standards. A road train consists of several
trailers hauled by a single tractor.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Digitalization
*Key countries:* Netherlands, United States
*Key initiatives:*
2008: Japan Energy ITS demos CAV platoons. 2011: California PATH
programme. 2014: NREL SmartTruck demonstrations. 2016: European Truck
Platooning Challenge; US: Caltrans/Volvo, Auburn/Peterbilt demos. 2017:
The EU’s SARTRE project demos V2V.
* In 2016, the Dutch government initiated the ”European Truck
Platooning Challenge”, Source
* US DOT Research in Truck Platooning, Source
; Source
*Announced development targets:*
Several startups are working on this technology across the globe and
some have unveiled prototype cells.
* Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology (SAIT) and Samsung R&D
Institute Japan (SRJ) reported significant design and performance
improvements in an article in Nature Energy, Source
* Toyota is expected to showcase a vehicle using solid state batteries
in the Tokyo Olympics
* Battery500 Consortium, Source
* Advanced Battery Materials Research (BMR) Program, Source
* Various major battery makers in China, such as CATL and BYD, are
developing solid-state technologies, and some breakthroughs have
been reported by these and other companies, Source
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
8-9 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Battery
electric vehicle > Truck End-use and operations Very high Details
See Lithium-ion battery
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:* China, United States, Germany, France
*Key initiatives:*
In 2020, cumulative global deliveries of electric heavy-duty trucks
totaled more than 30 000; the vast majority in China. Most of these are
battery electric trucks, and most are MFTs. BYD, Cummins, Daimler,
Emoss, and Fuso were the earliest manufacturers with models entering
customer trials or the market. The Tesla Semi is perhaps the most
well-known BEV HDT model soon on the market.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Gas-fuelled engine > Truck > Compressed biogas End-use and operations
Moderate Details
This technology can be applied in vehicles (typically heavy duty)
powered by an internal combustion engine, fuelled by biomethane. The
biomethane is stored in a tank kept at high pressure (20-25 MPa).
Technical challenges that apply to this technology mostly relate to
methane slip (leakage) in the engine, which occurs at the inlet manifold
(before the actual air supply to the cylinder) and from the cylinder due
to incomplete combustion. Low pressure premixed injection engines have
higher slip (5% unburnt methane in the exhaust gas) than direct
injection high pressure gas engines (reference: Advanced Motor Fuels
Technology Collaboration Programme Annex 51). For this technology to
deliver net emissions reductions, the methane would need to be produced
from renewable sources (e.g. biomethane or synthetic methane) and burned
in direct injection high pressure gas engines, as use of fossil methane
in current engine technologies has no CO2 emissions benefit relative to
diesel powertrains. Further technology development to avoid gas slip
from the manifold are also required. Exhaust gas after-treatment
catalysts should also be enhanced to compensate for the fact that
oxidising of methane molecules is difficult, especially at low
temperatures (e.g. during engine warm-up, or when the engine is running
at low loads). Indeed, since after-treatment of stoichiometric
combustion is a far more cost-effective option for reducing methane and
other pollutant emissions than both direct injection and diesel lean
combustion, most current research efforts focus on enhancing
after-treatment systems. As an example, Source
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:* Italy, Sweden
*Key initiatives:*
Already available products and prototypes from truck manufacturers:
* Volvo has developed a truck equipped by a direct injection high
pressure gas engine, Source
* Westport has developed a high pressure direct injection engine,
Source
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Current CNG powertrain costs (including tank) are about 70% higher
than conventional diesel powertrains, Source
9 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Gas-fuelled engine > Truck > Liquefied biogas End-use and operations
Moderate Details
This technology can be applied in vehicles (typically for heavy-duty
applications) powered by an internal combustion engine, and fuelled by
biomethane. The biomethane is stored in cryogenic tanks, which enables
it to be stored at a higher energy density than compressed methane and
is a cost-efficient solution for long-haul trucks. The liquefied
biomethane powertrain, including dedicated piston engine, direct
injection device and cryogenic tank, faces some technological
challenges: * insulation of on-board liquefied biogas (LBG) storage in
cryogenic tank (-162 degrees Celsius) * risk of methane slip and
incomplete methane combustion (requires combustion system optimisation
and dedicated exhaust after-treatment) Methane slip can also occur from
liquefied natural gas (LNG) tank, which releases the evaporative phase
methane under high pressure if the engine is not capable of using it.
For this technology to deliver net emissions reductions, the methane
should be produced from renewable sources, as use of fossil methane in
current engine technologies has no CO2 emissions benefit relative to
diesel powertrains. Exhaust gas after-treatment catalysts should also be
enhanced to compensate for the fact that oxidising of methane molecules
is difficult, especially at low temperatures (e.g. during engine
warm-up, or when the engine is running at low loads). Indeed, since
after-treatment of stoichiometric combustion is a far more
cost-effective option for reducing methane and other pollutant emissions
than both direct injection and diesel lean combustion, most current
research efforts focus on enhancing after-treatment systems. As an
example, Source
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Some truck manufacturers are offering liquefied gas trucks (which can
work with 100% biomethane). There are available products and prototypes
from e.g. Volvo, Scania, Iveco (truck manufacturers) and from Westport
(LNG technology supplier). See for example:
* VOLVO FH LNG, Source
* IVECO Stralis NP 460, Source
* SCANIA, Source
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Current LNG powertrain costs (including tank) are about twice as
high as conventional diesel powertrains, Source
9 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Hydrogen
fuel cell electric vehicle > Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell
End-use and operations High Details
A hydrogen fuel cell system generates electric power from hydrogen. Fuel
cell electric vehicles (FCEV) have much smaller batteries than battery
electric vehicles (at least by a factor of 10), as the energy is stored
in the hydrogen. By exploiting the higher gravimetric energy density of
hydrogen, FCEVs can offer a higher range than BEVs. However their
continuing deployment faces multiple technical and economic challenges,
including: safety of hydrogen handling (refuelling, residual leakage),
on-board hydrogen storage (see the dedicated entry below) and the high
cost of the fuel cell stack (the electrochemical reaction inside the
stack requires a proton exchange membrane (PEM) coated with a
platinum-based catalyst, a costly material) and system. Costs of the
fuel cell stack and system are expected to decline significantly with
economies of scale. For FCEVs to be competitive with other powertrain
technologies, hydrogen must be delivered to hydrogen refuelling stations
at prices that bring per kilometre costs into the same range as
conventional ICEs, or of battery electric vehicles powered by grid
electricity. This will require further cost reductions in technologies
for low- and zero-carbon hydrogen production technologies (e.g. SMR with
CCS, renewable electricity generation such as wind and solar coupled to
electrolysers), as well as in hydrogen transmission and distribution
networks and in hydrogen refueling stations (HRS).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Electrochemistry, Hydrogen, Fuel Cell
*Key countries:* Japan, Korea, North America
*Key initiatives:*
* Fuel cell manufacturers: Ballard, Symbio (joint venture between
Michelin and Faurecia), among others
*Deployment targets:*
More targets here: Source
By 2030:
* 1% Fuel cell truck sales in Europe Source
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* In the US: USD 30/kW for passenger cars USD 60/kW for medium- and
heavy-duty trucks (US DOE, 2019, Source
(slides 28-30), with revision for durability emerging from the DOE's latest end-of-year review). In Europe: EUR 40/kW for passenger cars EUR 600 / kW for busses Source
7 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Hydrogen
fuel cell electric vehicle > Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell as
range-extender End-use and operations Moderate Details
Same as PEM fuel cell, but sized to only provide range extension to the
battery electric powertrain.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Electrochemistry, Hydrogen, Fuel Cell
*Key countries:* Japan, Korea, North America
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Hydrogen
fuel cell electric vehicle > Passenger car End-use and operations
Moderate Details
See PEM fuel cell
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Fuel Cell
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* Several commercially-available cars (e.g. Hyundai, Toyota, Honda)
*Deployment targets:*
See PEM fuel cell
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* See PEM fuel cell
9 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Hydrogen
fuel cell electric vehicle > Light commercial vehicle End-use and
operations Moderate Details
See PEM fuel cell
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Fuel Cell
*Key countries:* United States, China
*Key initiatives:*
At the end of 2020, there were only about 50 fuel cell light commercial
vehicles worldwide, Source
*Deployment targets:*
See PEM fuel cell
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* See PEM fuel cell
9 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Hydrogen
fuel cell electric vehicle > Urban transit bus End-use and operations
Moderate Details
See PEM fuel cell
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Fuel Cell
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
China has the majority of FCEV buses and truck projects, with fleets in
2020 of around 5 300 FCEV buses (GEVO 2021).
*Deployment targets:*
See PEM fuel cell
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* See PEM fuel cell
7-8 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Hydrogen
fuel cell electric vehicle > Truck End-use and operations High Details
See PEM fuel cell
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Fuel Cell
*Key countries:* Japan, Korea, Germany, United States, Sweden
*Key initiatives:*
* The first-of-a-kind commercial hydrogen fuel cell truck developed by
Hyundai has obtained 1 600 orders for the Swiss market, Source
* Daimler, Fuso, Hyundai, Fuso, Toyota, Scania, Volkswagen, and PSA
are developing FCEV trucks, ranging from prototypes to commercial
models. The California-based truck start-up Nikola has managed to
secure substantial funding and many pre-orders for its semi-trucks.
Scania has recently delivered class 7 FCEV trucks to Norway. Hyundai
Motor and H2 Energy aim to provide 1 000 fuel cell electric trucks
to the Swiss market by 2023. Scania, Daimler, and California-based
Nikola also have models at various stages between prototype and
customer trials. FedEx and UPS are trialling fuel cell
range-extender Class 6 delivery vehicles, and in Europe, the h2Share
project is demonstrating several heavy trucks over 12 t
*Deployment targets:*
See PEM fuel cell
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* See PEM fuel cell
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
8-9 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Hydrogen
fuel cell electric vehicle > Hydrogen tank End-use and operations High
Details
Hydrogen tanks are needed to store hydrogen on board vehicles in a
gaseous form. Due to its low volumetric energy density, hydrogen
requires very high pressure storage (between 35 and 70 Mpa). The
challenges related to hydrogen tanks are safety (as H2 under pressure
poses a fire risk, especially in case of leakage), durability (materials
and components are needed that allow hydrogen storage systems with a
lifetime of 1500 cycles, according to the US DOE, Source
,
certification and standardisation by component suppliers for vehicle
Original Equipment Manufacturers, further reductions in tank weight and
optimisation of shape and space in the vehicle (e.g. through
alternatives to the current cylindrical shape). The industry response to
the tank safety challenge is standardisation and modularity, which
translates into, for example, buses being fitted with up to 10
individual cylindrical tanks.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Fuel Cell
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
There are a number of established hydrogen tank manufacturers (e.g.
Faurecia, Cevotec, Doosan).
*Deployment targets:*
10 million FCEV by 2030 (2nd Hydrogen Energy Ministerial Meeting)
* Global Action Agenda, Source
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Hydrogen storage tank production costs: The costs of current
on-board storage systems (including fittings, valves and regulators)
are estimated at USD 23/kWh of useable hydrogen storage at a scale
of 10 000 units per year, decreasing to USD 14–18/kWh at a scale of
500 000 units per year, Source
. The US DOE has an ultimate target of USD 8/kWh Hydrogen storage system cost (DOE ultimate target): USD 8/kWh H2
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
6 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Hydrogen-fuelled engine > Passenger car End-use and operations
Moderate Details
Combusting hydrogen directly in an engine is an alternative use of
hydrogen in transport, one that does not rely on fuel cells. Although
less energy efficient than fuel cells today (40-50% efficiency for
hydrogen engines vs. 50-60% for fuel cells), the hydrogen engine does
not require rare materials like platinum and could represent a
cost-effective solution. Hydrogen internal combustion engines may also
offer transient behaviour that performs better and is easier to regulate
than fuel cells. Safety, engine power density, and exhaust NOx emissions
are however current challenges to the deployment of this technology.
Research and development (at TRL 5-6) is currently underway to improve
fuel efficiency, which is another key area of future development for
this technology.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* The Munich-based start-ups KEYOU and DEUTZ are intensifying their
co-operation. Both sides intend to expand their existing development
partnership and enter into co-operation for the joint development,
industrialisation and commercialisation of CO2-free hydrogen engines
for off
* and on-road applications, Source
* The Aachen-based FEV is developing engine, powertrain, and
aftertreatment components for H2 ICE engines, Source
* Dual fuel (diesel/H2) engine conversion, Source
* Toyota has developed an H2 powered engine to be tested in a
sportscar, Source
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Powertrain and engine costs are difficult to estimate, but are
likely to be similar in terms of mark-up relative to conventional
spark-ignition or compression ignition engines as natural gas
powertrain costs (see 'Compressed biogas').
6 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Hydrogen-fuelled engine > Light commercial vehicle End-use and
operations Moderate Details
Combusting hydrogen directly in an engine is an alternative use of
hydrogen in transport, one that does not rely on fuel cells. Although
less energy efficient than fuel cells today (40-50% efficiency for
hydrogen engines vs. 50-60% for fuel cells), the hydrogen engine does
not require rare materials like platinum and could represent a
cost-effective solution. Hydrogen internal combustion engines may also
offer transient behaviour that performs better and is easier to regulate
than fuel cells. Safety, engine power density, and exhaust NOx emissions
are however current challenges to the deployment of this technology.
Research and development (at TRL 5-6) is currently underway to improve
fuel efficiency, which is another key area of future development for
this technology.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* The Munich-based start-ups KEYOU and DEUTZ are intensifying their
cooperation. Both sides intend to expand their existing development
partnership and enter into co-operation for the joint development,
industrialisation and commercialisation of CO2-free hydrogen engines
for off
* and on-road applications, Source
* The Aachen-based FEV is developing engine, powertrain, and
aftertreatment components for H2 ICE engines, Source
* Dual fuel (diesel/H2) engine conversion, Source
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Powertrain and engine costs are difficult to estimate, but are
likely to be similar in terms of mark-up relative to conventional
spark-ignition or compression ignition engines as natural gas
powertrain costs (see 'Compressed biogas').
6 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Hydrogen-fuelled engine > Truck End-use and operations Moderate Details
Combusting hydrogen directly in an engine is an alternative use of
hydrogen in transport, one that does not rely on fuel cells. Although
less energy efficient than fuel cells today (40-50% efficiency for
hydrogen engines vs. 50-60% for fuel cells), the hydrogen engine does
not require rare materials like platinum and could represent a
cost-effective solution. Hydrogen internal combustion engines may also
offer transient behaviour that performs better and is easier to regulate
than fuel cells. Over the longer term it could also reach up to 55%
energy efficiency for trucks; as such it could be particularly suitable
for heavy-duty applications. Safety, engine power density, and exhaust
NOx emissions are however current challenges to the deployment of this
technology. Research and development (at TRL 5-6) is currently underway
to improve fuel efficiency, which is another key area of future
development for this technology.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* A start-up has developed a kit to convert diesel engines into
hydrogen engines for truck and bus applications. The kit includes
dedicated fuel, ignition and after-treatment systems, and adapts
existing powertrain components, as well as a turbocharger and
combustion chamber, Source
* The Aachen-based FEV is developing engine, powertrain, and
aftertreatment components for H2 ICE engines, Source
* The Munich-based start-ups KEYOU and DEUTZ are intensifying their
cooperation. Both sides intend to expand their existing development
partnership and enter into a cooperation for the joint development,
industrialisation and commercialisation of CO2-free hydrogen engines
for off
* and on-road applications, Source
* Dual fuel (diesel/H2) engine conversion, Source
* Cummins is testing a hydrogen fuelled internal combustion engine,
Source
* MAN is also testing hydrogen combustion engines, Source
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Powertrain and engine costs are difficult to estimate, but are
likely to be similar in terms of mark-up relative to conventional
spark-ignition or compression ignition engines as natural gas
powertrain costs (see 'Compressed biogas').
6 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Hydrogen-fuelled engine > Urban transit bus End-use and operations
Moderate Details
Combusting hydrogen directly in an engine is an alternative use of
hydrogen in transport, one that does not rely on fuel cells. Although
less energy efficient than fuel cells today (40-50% efficiency for
hydrogen engines vs. 50-60% for fuel cells), the hydrogen engine does
not require rare materials like platinum and could represent a
cost-effective solution. Hydrogen internal combustion engines may also
offer transient behaviour that performs better and is easier to regulate
than fuel cells. Over the longer term it could also reach up to 55%
energy efficiency for trucks; as such it could be particularly suitable
for heavy-duty applications. Safety, engine power density, and exhaust
NOx emissions are however current challenges to the deployment of this
technology. Research and development (at TRL 5-6) is currently underway
to improve fuel efficiency, which is another key area of future
development for this technology.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* A start-up has developed a kit to convert diesel engines into
hydrogen engines for truck and bus applications. The kit includes
dedicated fuel, ignition and after-treatment systems, and adapts
existing powertrain components, as well as a turbocharger and
combustion chamber, Source
* The Munich-based start-ups KEYOU and DEUTZ are intensifying their
co-operation. Both sides intend to expand their existing development
partnership and enter into a co-operation for the joint development,
industrialisation and commercialisation of CO2-free hydrogen engines
for off
* and on-road applications, Source
* The Aachen-based FEV is developing engine, powertrain, and
aftertreatment components for H2 ICE engines, Source
* Dual fuel (diesel/H2) engine conversion, Source
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Powertrain and engine costs are difficult to estimate, but are
likely to be similar in terms of mark-up relative to conventional
spark-ignition or compression ignition engines as natural gas
powertrain costs (see 'Compressed biogas').
6 Transport > Road Operations > Automated and connected vehicles
(level 4+) End-use and operations High Details
Automated and connected vehicles can achieve improved energy efficiency
compared to human-driven vehicles (e.g. through eco-driving and
platooning), and are also more likely to be electrified. If these
vehicles are shared and pooled, further reductions in per-passenger
efficiency are possible. Additional advances in software (AI and machine
learning) as well as hardware (sensors, communications and computing)
are needed for widespread deployment.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Digitalization
*Key countries:* United States, Singapore, Netherlands, Finland, China
*Key initiatives:*
Ongoing trials for shared, automated, and connected fleets around the world.
8-9 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Methanol-fuelled engine End-use and operations Moderate Details
Methanol engines (so-called ''M100'', as vehicles fuelled by 100%
methanol) are similar in design to gasoline engines, with moderate
changes: material compatibility to prevent corrosion, adapted injection
system, a dedicated cold start device and strategy, and adapted
after-treatment for exhaust gas. Due to the high octane of the fuel,
methanol engines can benefit from a high compression ratio, thus
increasing thermal efficiency, possibly up to higher levels than for
diesel engines. Methanol engines generate very low particulate emissions
levels due to the molecule's specificity of having a single carbon atom
- just as in the case of methane. The methanol is in liquid form at
standard temperature and pressure, making it relatively easy to handle
and store, although it is toxic for humans. Methanol can be produced as
a biofuel or as a synthetic fuel (from electrolysis from low-carbon
electricity with a carbon source). However, the availability of
sustainably sourced biomass to produce methanol is limited.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy, Hydrogen
*Key countries:* China
*Key initiatives:*
Methanol-adapted combustion engines are a technically-validated
technology. In 2012, the Chinese government initiated a methanol vehicle
pilot program led by the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
(MIIT). In 2019 a government plan was launched to expand the ''M100''
fleet, Source
">Source The Chinese car manufacturer Geely has invested in factories with production capacity of more than 300 000 methanol cars annually, http://www.methanol.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/A-Brief-Review-of-Chinas-Methanol-Vehicle-Pilot-and-Policy-20-March-2019.pdf In Europe, only R&D programs are still running. These aim to address concerns on material compatibility to prevent corrosion, adapted injection system, a dedicated cold start device and strategy, and adapted after-treatment for exhaust gas.
*Deployment targets:*
By 2050, Concawe targets adoption of e-fuels (excluding hydrogen) of up
to 30% of the fuel demand in Europe. E-methanol is one of these e-fuels,
Source
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 Transport > Road Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Ethanol-fuelled diesel engine End-use and operations High Details
Specifically applied to heavy duty tracking that can use bioethanol,
ED95 engines can be fuelled by 95% ethanol and 5% additives (including
ignition improvers). They are adapted diesel engines with high
compression ratios, which are required to ignite the fuel. A dedicated
injection system is also needed, to compensate for the lower energy
density of ethanol.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:* Sweden
*Key initiatives:*
Scania has been producing commercially-available trucks using ED95 for
several years. They are currently producing the third generation of ED95
engines, Source
*Deployment targets:*
Depends on ED95 fuel availability (fuel production and distribution)
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* This technology does not show particular additional costs in
comparison to diesel engines, Source
8 Transport > Road Charging and refuelling > Charging > Dynamic
charging or electric road system > Conductive Infrastructure High Details
Dynamic charging, or Electric Road Systems (ERS), relies on vehicles
that can receive electricity from power transfer installations along the
road upon which the vehicles are driving. Multiple options for power
transfer are being explored. These can be most generally classified into
conductive and inductive transfer. Conductive power transfer concepts
can use catenary systems coupled with a pantograph arm (as is being
trialled by Siemens and truck OEM partners), or via in-road or road-side
rail systems with a connector arm. Such systems can enable high power
transfer efficiency. At the end of the electrified segment of road the
vehicle can continue to draw from its batteries, switching to its engine
when operations warrant doing so or when the batteries are fully
depleted. This allows EVs to become more flexible, reduces the need for
on-board energy capacity in the vehicles themselves, and can accelerate
the operations for which electrification is technically viable and
economically competitive (i.e. of long-distance freight and other heavy
duty modes). The vehicles using ERS can be hybrid, battery-electric, or
hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and can conduct normal driving operations,
such as overtaking and driving autonomously outside of electric roads.
With a small but growing number of demonstrations in Sweden and Germany,
truck operators like Scania are working with Siemens to gain real-world
experience operating catenary ERS systems. Installation costs are around
USD 1 million or more per lane-km when dimensioned for traffic flows on
the core part of the road network (starting at around 2 000 trucks/day),
and may fall from that level somewhat in the long term, approaching the
magnitudes of rail electrification infrastructure upgrades.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:* Germany, Sweden, United States
*Key initiatives:*
* South Coast Air Quality Management District and Siemens demonstrated
ERS in the Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach, Source
In Sweden, the Volvo automotive test track near Gothenburg is developing technology for trucks and buses through a current collector in the form of an upside-down pantograph. Other test pilots include INTIS in Germany, or the Siemens-developed eHighway working in tandem with Volvo and the Scania hybrid truck developed by VW Group
* Siemens Mobility and Continental will co-operate, aiming to achieve
serial production of trucks equipped with pantographs, capable of
running on ERS, Source
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* North Carolina State University have modelled that about 10% of road
surfaces in the US would be amenable to installation of dynamic
charging In Sweden, Trafikverket have studied the financial impact
on ERS compared with diesel:
* Excel model, Source
* Business model report, Source
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
4 Transport > Road Charging and refuelling > Charging > Dynamic
charging or electric road system > Inductive Infrastructure High Details
Inductive power transfer was developed early in the 20th century, but
the high capacity, safety and reliability required by EVs is still in
early stages of development. Static wireless EV charging (i.e. parking
spots, and not an ERS technology concept) provides a relatively
user-friendly and safe avenue to charge electric cars, increasing
convenience of use and facilitating adoption. Dynamic inductive power
transmission could also be implemented if many inductive units (coils)
are installed under the road surface of traffic lanes. Inductive
charging has a number of advantages over conductive charging, but also
several disadvantages, including lower efficiency, higher material
requirements per lane-km, more invasive changes to the existing
infrastructure, and more complex components. Dynamic wireless electric
charging holds huge potential as it can address classical EV range
concerns through 'in-motion' wireless charging, which allows an EV to
charge wirelessly as it’s driving down the road. This also allows for
smaller and lighter batteries to be used in EVs, benefitting from
charging infrastructure embedded within road infrastructure. At the end
of the electrified segment of road the vehicle can continue to draw from
its batteries, switching to its engine when operations warrant doing so
or when the batteries are fully depleted. This allows EVs to become more
flexible, reduces the need for on-board energy capacity in the vehicles
themselves, and can accelerate the operations for which electrification
is technically viable and economically competitive (i.e. of
long-distance freight and other heavy duty modes). The vehicles using
ERS can be hybrid, battery-electric, or hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and
can conduct normal driving operations, such as overtaking and driving
autonomously outside of electric roads. With a small but growing number
of demonstrations in Sweden and Germany, truck operators like Scania are
working with Siemens to gain real-world experience operating catenary
ERS systems. Installation costs are around USD 1 million or more per
lane-km when dimensioned for traffic flows on the core part of the road
network (starting at around 2 000 trucks/day), and may fall from that
level somewhat in the long term, approaching the magnitudes of rail
electrification infrastructure upgrades.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:* Germany, Sweden, United States
*Key initiatives:*
* Korean KAIST institute has tested inductive charging of two buses
* Research and demonstration of inductive system at SELECT in Utah,
Source
* Pilot of inductive high-power (500 kW) transfer for drayage
operations at the Port of Los Angeles, Source
* Research on wireless charging, both stationary and dynamic at ORNL,
Source
For more information about ERS activities in the United States please contact the SELECT team. They organise the CERV conference every other year where US and international actors meet to present ERS and electrification, Source
* Qualcomm recently developed and tested one of the world’s first DEVC
(Dynamic EV Charging) test tracks, proving EV charging dynamically
at up to 20 kW at highway speeds (100 km/h)
* ElectReon has started trials with a 40 t electric truck in Sweden,
Source
* A French ITS research centre is developing technology for vehicles
moving into and out of charging lanes, while the EC-funded
'Feasibility' analysis is developing on-road charging solutions
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* For inductive technologies, performance targets have not been
specified but are in the tens of kW at highway speeds
5 Transport > Road Charging and refuelling > Charging > Smart charging
Infrastructure High Details
Smart charging refers to the co-ordinated and managed charging of the
batteries in electric vehicles in a way that benefits the system,
avoiding peak demand or congestion on the grid. While it does not
require a very different infrastructure, innovation is needed to
integrate IT and OT (Operational Technologies), including remote
sensing, big data analytics, remote sensing and control. The simplest
strategy for deployment, from a technology perspective, would be to
develop back-end systems that would work without much involvement from
consumers, rather than relying on time-of-use tariffs or other direct
price signals.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification, Digitalization, Systems
integration
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
A number of small-scale pilot projects have emerged since 2018.
* Through its eMotorWerks, Enel X platforms provide smart charging
solutions for an additional cost to the charger itself, with pilots
in the US, including in Colorado where WattTime, a Google-backed
renewable mapping tool, is used to optimise charging and RE generation
* Other pilots are being advanced in the Netherlands, by Enexis and
Elaad (for both residential and commercial charging), or the Smart
Hubs Demonstrator in the UK (focused on commercial areas)
* Pilots of smart charging in Shanghai include co-ordinating delayed
charging at public charging stations (V1G, a specific instance of
demand response) to make EVs a flexible energy resource for the
power grid, Source
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Green eMotion in the US proved a grid reinforcement reduction cost
of 50%, while the Sacramento Municipal utility showed 70% reduction
in grid upgrade costs
8 Transport > Road Charging and refuelling > Charging > Fast Charging
Infrastructure High Details
Fast charging networks today max out at around 100-150 kW. Ultra-fast
charging technology of 350 kW and above is a key driver for faster EV
deployment, to increase the convenience of inter-city travel and reduce
range anxiety. In particular, fast charging hubs are required for
electric road freight and larger EV passenger models. A number of
innovations are needed to go beyond high capacity thresholds, including
battery and ultracapacitor combinations and integration of high capacity
charging equipment within passenger EV and truck frames. Charging
stations must provide high power output with minimal impact on the grid,
which also will require further integration efforts including
application of battery storage, capacitors or smart management systems.
Finally, battery chemistries and designs will need to be developed that
can be rapidly charged by ultrafast charging systems without risking
accelerated degradation (e.g. via dendrite formation). Innovations are
also needed on materials that also achieve ultrahigh discharge rates,
comparable to those of supercapacitors.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Tritium is able to add over 200 miles to a standard EV in 10 minutes,
while ABB already has developed 350 kW charging stations (TRL 9) that
are being deployed by Ionity, the largest ultrafast charging network in
Europe, surpassing even the Tesla supercharger. Tesla is also boosting
its technology to be able to provide 75 miles in 5 minutes. On the
battery side, Enevate (bought by LG Chem) and CATL are developing
technology for improved charging speeds. Repsol has been able to deliver
up to 400 kW of power for buses in 2019. On the battery side, rates
equivalent to supercapacitors are being targeted. Research in Nature
(Kang et al.) shows a rate capability equivalent to full battery
discharge in 10–20 s can be achieved.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 Transport > Road Charging and refuelling > Hydrogen Refuelling
Station Infrastructure Moderate Details
Normally, hydrogen refuelling stations (HRS) operate at 350 or 700 bar.
Most of the stations for passenger cars are designed for operating at
700 bar, while stations for buses typically use 350 bar. For this
reason, currently the majority of the stations operate at 700 bar, with
many of them operating on a dual basis, being able to deliver fuel to
both at 350 and 700 bar. Hydrogen refuelling can be standalone, or
linked to a hydrogen production station. If the hydrogen is delivered to
the station in intermediary form, storage and compression systems are
needed. Hydrogen storage systems are generally low pressure, around
50-200 bar. Compressors overcome the pressure difference between storage
and refuelling (which can be up to 1 000 bar), and they are a central
area of innovation in hydrogen refuelling stations. Most of the time,
storage buffers (at 450 or 950 bar) are used to refuel vehicles (without
a direct connection of vehicles to compressor outlet). A range of
technologies can be employed for compressing H2 from low pressure states
to up to those needed at the point of use, depending on whether hydrogen
is in gaseous or liquid form, and on the throughput vehicle type. High
levels of purity are needed in fuel cell applications, so technologies
like ionic compressors are needed to reduce the possibility of
contamination. During compression the hydrogen gas heats up, and
precooling systems are needed to stay within the limits of the vehicle’s
fuel storage system. These systems add complexity and increase energy
consumption, and are a key area of development in improving the
efficiency and reducing costs of hydrogen refuelling systems.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
At the end of 2020, 540 hydrogen refuelling stations (HRS) were in
operation worldwide. There has been a considerable increase when
compared with the number of stations available in operation at the end
of 2019 (460). Japan remains the leading country in this sector with 137
stations, followed by Germany (90) and China (85). Both Japan and China
have considerably expanded the number of stations in operation (24
each). Leading countries have announced targets to build a total of 1
000 hydrogen refuelling stations during 2025-30. Technology leaders
include Linde, Air Liquide, or Nikola Motors which has announced a
refuelling network for trucks in the US.
4 Transport > Road Operations > Physical internet End-use and
operations Moderate Details
The Physical Internet is an open and interconnected global logistics
system that aims to improve efficiencies across the system compared to
traditional, proprietary systems. Goods are delivered through
standardised and smart modular packages across all transport modes (e.g.
planes, trucks, barges, drones and private cars) and nodes (shared
ports, warehouses, and distribution and consolidation centres).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Digitalization
*Key countries:* Netherlands, Norway
*Key initiatives:*
* There are early trials of a physical internet on last-mile
operations, e.g. DHL trial in Netherlands on containerised process;
Bring trial on containerisation in Norway; DB Schenker "semi
containerised process"
3-4 Transport > Rail Hyperloop Infrastructure High Details
The hyperloop concept was advanced in an open source paper by Elon Musk,
Tesla co-founder. It has been described as a completely alternative
transport mode to aircraft, ships, road or rail, and is based on three
key components: carriages levitating magnetically or by air; linear
motor propulsion, initially proposed as compressed air propulsion; and a
vacuum-based enclosure to dramatically reduce air friction. A number of
companies since then have developed alternative technology designs based
on the fundamental principles of the hyperloop, for instance using
electromagnetic propulsion. Hyperloop variants remain to be tested at
any significant scale.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Hyperloop Transport Technologies (HTT) is building test facilities in
France, and has reached a number of agreements in China and the US to
develop the technology. Transpod has released initial cost studies and
is planning development of a 3 km test track in France of its
electromagnetic-based propulsion and levitation variant, through linear
electromagnetic induction.
7 Transport > Rail Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Gas hybrid
train (internal combustion engine and battery) End-use and operations
Moderate Details
When catenary lines are available, energy is drawn from them and then is
stored in high capacity batteries. In other cases, the power can be
provided either by the batteries or by gas engine(s). Batteries also
store recovered energy when the train is braking, thus reducing overall
energy consumption. For this technology to deliver net emissions
reductions, the gas needs to be produced from renewable sources.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy, Direct electrification
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* Alstom ''Regiolis'' hybrid regional train (2021, Diesel hybrid),
Source
* MTU hybrid PowerPack for railcars (Diesel hybrid), Source
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
8 Transport > Rail Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Hydrogen
fuel cell electric vehicle End-use and operations Moderate Details
A hydrogen fuel cell system generates electric power to run an electric
motor, providing tractive energy. This technology represents an
alternative to diesel for trains running on non-electrified tracks.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:* Germany, Japan, Korea, Italy, France, Spain, China,
Canada, United States
*Key initiatives:*
* Europe leads in this area, having introduced fuel cell drivetrains
in the rail sector, and having successfully deployed large scale
infrastructure and formulated regulations that allow the use of
hydrogen on railways, Source
* Alstom is running two hydrogen fuel cell trains on a short route in
Germany and is now testing one hydrogen fuel cell train in the
Netherlands, Source
and one in Austria, Source . Sweden has just started operating one exemplar of Alstom's hydrogen train, Source . In addition, France and Italy have placed an order to Alstom to deliver, respectively, 12 and 6 hydrogen FCEV trains in 2023. Taunus region in Germany (Frankfurt area) has ordered 27 hydrogen FCEV trains for 2022, Source
* Canada and the US have also launched demonstration projects, Source
,
and Source
* The UK, Source ,
Korea, Source
, Japan, Source , China, Source , and Spain, Source , are planning or have just launched FCEV train trials with other technology developers
* In addition, a fuel cell tram has started operating in Foshan
(China) during 2019 and China is exploring further possibilities for
H2-fueled rail
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* A H2 drivetrain for a train is less than 150% diesel in capital
costs. Under low hydrogen costs, the operating costs of a hydrogen
fuel cell train could be lower than for a diesel one
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
7 Transport > Rail Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Battery
electric vehicle End-use and operations Moderate Details
On non-electrified tracks, ''pure'' battery electric trains (no ICE
on-board) will be a solution for zero pollutant emission and low CO2
operations (with CO2 emissions depending on the carbon intensity of
electricity generation). Due to their limited range, this technology
will likely be dedicated to suburban and intercity (i.e. short route)
applications.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Electrochemistry, Direct electrification
*Key countries:* Germany
*Key initiatives:*
* In 2021, Alstom held a demonstration journey of its battery-power
train. This train will begin operations in Baden-Württemberg and
Bavaria in December 2021, Source
* World Premiere: Bombardier Transportation Presents a New
Battery-Operated Train (September 2018), Source
First generation train offers a range of 40 km. Next generation already being prepared with a 100 km range capability
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Directly linked to progress in battery technology and cost reduction
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 Transport > Rail Magnetic levitation Infrastructure Moderate Details
Magnetic levitation trains or maglevs are floating vehicles that are
supported either by electromagnetic attraction or repulsion. They were
initially conceptualised in the early 1900s, and have been in commercial
use in some form since 1984. Maglev trains remove friction between the
wheels and the rails, allowing for much higher speeds, reducing
operating costs from fewer moving parts and rolling friction. In turn
this means the main driver impeding forward movement becomes air
resistance, driving technology development. They can also improve safety
and prevent derailment. Further, they allow for wider trains to be
built, increasing convenience; and they reduce the need for civil
engineering projects as they can operate on higher inclines (of up to
10%) than traditional trains. Two key technology areas are currently
deployed: (i) electromagnetic suspension (EMS), which harnesses the
attractive forces between magnets on the train's side and underside and
on the guideway; and (ii) electromagnetic suspension systems, where
magnets, generally placed in the undercarriage of the train, repel the
train from the guideway, which allows for higher levitation. These are
generally based on superconducting and supercooled technology systems.
The need to build dedicated infrastructure from scratch, bypassing
conventional infrastructure and high capital expenditures, remain
obstacles to further deployment.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
The Korean Rotem Maglev runs in the city of Taejeon; a 9 km system is in
operation in Japan since 2005; the Shanghai to Pudong airport maglev is
the longest line in operation, 30 km in length, while another line in
China, the Hunan Changsha line, operates at more moderate speeds (around
160 km/h). Recent projects include the unmanned EcoBee shuttle in
Korea's Incheon airport, and Japan has ambitious plans for a 500+ km
maglev line connecting Osaka and Tokyo.
3-4 Transport > Aviation Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Battery electric vehicle End-use and operations Moderate Details
Battery-electric planes operate with an on-board battery as the sole
motive power source. They have no direct emissions, yet the current
energy density of batteries restricts the range of battery electric
flights, as well as the size of pure battery electric aircraft. A
nine-seater seaplane, retrofitted with a battery and electric engine,
held its inaugural flight in 2019 in Vancouver, Canada, trailblazing the
development for small battery-electric aircraft on very short distances
(the aircraft has a range of about 160 km), Source
In addition, a handful of prototypes of electric air taxis have been developed, Source . However these are for individual passenger transport and do not substitute for commercial passenger aviation. The weight of the current state-of the art batteries prohibits battery-electric aircraft of larger size and range than air taxis. The energy density of today’s Li-ion batteries reaches 200 Wh/kg at cell level, which is almost 50 times less than the energy density of jet fuel. For a battery-electric short-haul aircraft with a range of over 1 000 km, a battery pack with at least 800 Wh/kg is needed. As this battery energy density is four times that of available battery technology, the future viability and potential range and weight of battery-electric aircraft will depend on significant breakthroughs in battery chemistry research.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* MagniX in Canada (9-seater), Uber and several others for electric
air taxis, Source
* Major OEMs are considering the development of early prototypes over
the coming years
* NASA’s X-57 Maxwell prototype, Source
* see also, Source: Source
* Airbus Source
* Rolls Royce Source
4 Transport > Aviation Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components > Open
Rotor End-use and operations High Details
Open rotor jet engine designs could significantly increase jet engine
efficiency (by as much as 28% on aircraft of size class 2-3). The
concept has been under development for decades but major barriers
remain, including: noise generation (however the technology would still
comply with noise standards) and safety. Moreover, this technology has
an optimum speed of 0.75 Mach, which is lower than the common 0.85 Mach.
This implies that the technology is impractical for size class 4-5 with
long distance operations (for instance, a previously 10-hour flight
would take over 12 hours, preventing airlines operating one return
flight per day. Additionally, the large diameter of open rotor engines
makes them incompatible with current aircraft design (the engine could
not be mounted on the wing, but would have to be installed at the rear
of the aircraft). The efficiency improvement potential of open rotors is
similar to ultra-high bypass ratio engines, yet the latter seems to be
more compatible with current aircraft design.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
The first prototype was built in 1989 in the United States on a
McDonnell Douglas aircraft, and the program was discontinued when oil
prices dropped. The latest generation of open rotor engines is being
developed mostly in Europe. Safran (France) has tested an on-ground
prototype in 2017 and claims efficiency improvements of 30% compared to
a CFM56 engine. The company has worked on open rotor technology since 2008.
*Announced development targets:*
Safran claims the technology will be ready by 2030, the UK paper claims 2040
6-9 Transport > Aviation Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Geared Turbo Fan- Ultra-High Bypass Ratio engine End-use and operations
High Details
Ultra-high bypass ratio (UHBR) enables an increase in the bypass-airflow
(i.e. the airflow not entering the core engine) to enhance propulsion
efficiency. This requires an increased fan diameter which cannot be
directly mounted on the main shaft of the engine (otherwise its
rotational speed would be too high), and hence requires changes to the
design of the airframe itself. The fan is driven through a mechanical
reducer. Other challenges associated with UHBR include reduced
reliability, higher weight, and under-the-wing integration (need to
respect ground clearance requirements which are more challenging to
ensure with a large-diameter engine). Increased engine size (due to the
size of the fan) may be accommodated through adjusting aircraft design,
in particular for large-size aircraft, such as the Boeing 737MAX, for
which the landing gear is taller and the engine is attached in front of
the wing. A UK study mentions energy saving potential of 25-28%,
depending on size class. The energy savings potential also depends on
cruising speed (optimised at mach 0.72), leading to similar barriers as
for open rotors. Several major OEMs are working on geared turbo fans and
UHBR engines, including Safran and Rolls Royce, among others.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* Pratt & Whitney existing product (TRL 9, bypass ratio 12), Source
* Rolls Royce UltraFan development (TRL 6, targeted bypass ratio 15),
Source
* Safran developments (TRL 6, targeted bypass ratio >15), Source
*Deployment targets:*
Achieve a by-pass ratio of 15 in 2030 -2035 (the current technology's
bypass ratio is 9, e.g. LEAP engine)
3-4 Transport > Aviation Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Hydrogen-fuelled engine End-use and operations Moderate Details
There are two aircraft designs that use hydrogen as an energy carrier;
hydrogen can either be used to operate a fuel cell on an electric
aircraft or used as combustion fuel to power a jet engine. Neither
produces direct CO2 emissions during the operation of the aircraft
(although the upstream emissions depend on the technologies used to
produce and transport the hydrogen). Combustion of hydrogen produces
water vapour, which can contribute to global warming. In electric
aircraft designs with fuel cell technology, batteries are typically used
to regulate power output or as back-up fuel source, but not as primary
energy storage. The reduced battery capacity requirements, together with
the high energy density of hydrogen per unit mass, alleviate a major
constraint of electric flying (related to the low energy density of
current batteries that prohibit electric flights beyond short-haul
flights). Major manufacturers are exploring fuel cell electric aircraft
designs and several small aircraft have been tested. Aircraft designs
that use hydrogen as a direct combustion fuel are currently not being
tested in passenger aircraft. The low volumetric energy density of
hydrogen, about a quarter that of jet kerosene, together with the need
to keep cryogenic hydrogen at low temperature, calls for new aircraft
design. Fuel tanks may be located in the fuselage rather than in wings
to meet flying range requirements, which would reduce the space
available for passengers. Existing programmes prioritise cryogenic
hydrogen over pressurised hydrogen at ambient temperature, allowing for
longer ranges. Hydrogen aircraft are at an early development stage and
commercial application in small regional jets is only expected in the
long term. An early application of hydrogen in aircraft will be in
auxiliary power units (APU) for non-propulsion applications such as
lighting, HVAC, or cabin pressurisation.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* Airbus announced three concept hybrid aircraft. The aircraft, which
Airbus aims to bring to the commercial market by 2030, are to be
powered by liquid hydrogen using modified gas turbine engines, as
well as by hydrogen fuel cells to generate electrical power to
complement the gas turbine, Source
* Boeing demonstrators (engine or auxiliary power unit), Source
see also Source
Boeing hydrogen combustion aircraft programme, Source Boeing fuel cell electric aircraft, Source DLR fuel cell electric aircraft, Source
3 Transport > Aviation Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Blended Wing Body Design End-use and operations Moderate Details
Blended-wing-body (BWB) designs feature no clear distinction between the
aircraft's fuselage and wings, and optimised aerodynamics, such as the
B-2 warplane. A passenger aircraft with this design may be 20% more
efficient than a conventional tubular design. Boeing, together with
NASA, tested BWB passenger aircraft models on small-scale prototypes
(Boeing X-48). BWB design is a proven technology which still faces
barriers. Introducing a clean sheet design aircraft would disrupt common
industry practice of "incremental improvements" to existing models, and
incur much higher development costs and uncertainty. The high
wingspan-to-height ratio of BWB design makes it only suitable for large
aircraft, meaning that development costs cannot be split over a model
family of different sizes. Other challenges are passenger acceptance for
an aircraft without windows and incorporating emergency exits in a
theatre-like seating layout, Source
Double-bubble - developed by MIT (N+3, narrowbody), however this was bought by Boeing's drone program in 2017 and there has been no mention of it since. In Europe, Airbus presented a demonstration prototype (a small model) at the Singapore air show in 2020. It has been under testing since 2019, demonstrating that this concept continues to receive interest. Airbus also estimates an energy efficiency improvement potential of 20% relative to current aircraft design, Source , Source
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Small scale prototypes have been developed by Boeing and NASA, as well
as by Airbus as recently as 2019
*Announced development targets:*
Neither of the programmes give a target year for introduction. The
concept is proven (fighter planes with such designs exist), yet for
passenger aircraft this is a radically disruptive design
3 Transport > Aviation Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Propulsion-Airframe Integration End-use and operations Moderate Details
The integration of the engines close to the fuselage would reduce the
aerodynamic drag generated by conventional nacelles under the wings.
Moreover, the turbulent airflow generated by the fuselage results in
drag. The integration of the engines at the back of the plane, by the
fuselage, would allow for ''boundary layer ingestion'', i.e. ingestion
of the turbulent airflow by the engines which reduces drag and enhances
energy efficiency. In the long term, blended wing body designs are
well-adapted to propulsion-airframe integration. In association with
distributed propulsion (i.e. propulsive force being generated by
multiple small engines/fans), this would pave the way for further energy
consumption reductions. Among the challenges of this solution are the
difficulties in introducing disruptive designs, safety (from the engines
being close to each other and to the cabin), trim control, core engine
and fan ability to intake turbulent air, and integration of large
diameter engines (see UHBR engines).
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Major aeronautics companies and research centers are evaluating concepts:
* NASA and MIT: ''Double-Bubble'' configuration with integrated
engines at the back of a special-shape fuselage or ''Hybrid Wing
Body'' design, Source
and Source
* Airbus' Nautilius concept, Source
* Examples of distributed propulsion systems, Source
3-4 Transport > Aviation Vehicle-aircraft-vessel and components >
Hybrid vehicle End-use and operations Moderate Details
In hybrid electric aircraft, an on-board generator powers an electric
motor to generate propulsion. Hybrid electric aircraft use jet fuel and
may be equipped with a small battery to moderate power output. The
electric motor enjoys higher conversion efficiency than a combustion
engine (e.g. turboprop or turbofans), thus increasing the overall
efficiency of the aircraft. Airbus, together with Rolls Royce, was
developing a prototype for a hybrid-electric aircraft under the E-Fan X
program. Prior to April 2020, they aimed at launching a test flight by
2021 with an aircraft fitted with one electric motor and three regular
jet engines. Wright Electric is developing a 186-seat electric aircraft
for short-haul range and aims for market introduction in 2030. The
company collaborates with EasyJet and Airbus and at this stage does not
specify how the electric engine would be powered – considering available
batteries it seems safe to assume that this will be hybrid-electric.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:*
*Deployment targets:*
Rolls Royce Source
6-7 Transport > Aviation Operations > Electric taxiing and ground
operations End-use and operations Moderate Details
Another electrification effort that would reduce fuel use and emissions
is electric taxiing. Safran is developing an electric taxiing system in
which an electric motor, mounted to the landing gear, is used rather
than the aircraft engine on ground operations. This is more energy
efficient than using the aircraft's main engines and makes the aircraft
autonomous from towing trucks, thus reducing delays at airports. The
electric engine is operated with the APU (auxiliary power unit) and the
equipment increases aircraft weight by 400 kg. Safran estimates possible
fuel savings of 4% per flight and aircraft, for short-haul aircraft that
do six-seven flights a day and spend a significant amount of time at
airports. Safran, together with Airbus, intended to start offering this
system in the A320 family to airlines in the near future. However the
project was shelved in late 2019. The additional equipment weight makes
electric taxiing attractive for aircraft with many short flights and
long taxiing times, but recent industry trends are towards fewer,
non-stop flights over longer distances.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Safran and Airbus were at a late stage where they proposed this
technology to airlines
*Deployment targets:*
* Amsterdam Schiphol airport has introduced and is piloting an
electric tug, the Taxibot, which conducts gate and ground
operations, which can reduce fuel burn for these operations by
50-85%, Source
* Currently there is no deployment target for the Safran/Airbus
project, as that project is shelved. However, OEMs were ready to
offer this in the near future to airlines. Needs better integration
in airlines operations.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 Industry > Pulp and paper End-of-life > Waste product conversion to
chemicals and bioenergy > Black liquor gasification End-of-life
Moderate Details
The process uses water under supercritical conditions to crack carbon
bonds within end-of-life plastic, thus breaking down polymers into
shorter chain hydrocarbons.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* Canada, United States
*Key initiatives:*
Demonstration of the entrained flow reactor technology has been
undertaken in two plants, one in the US, and one in Sweden that ended in
2013 due to lack of funding.
*Deployment targets:*
A number of commercial plants operated black liquour gasification with
steam reforming technology for a time, but faced challenges and it
appears that most or all have now closed. This includes the following:
* At a Norampac containerboard mill in Trenton, Canada, with start-up
in 2003. The project operated for many years but faced technical
challenges related to scaling up the deep fluidized bed. It appears
to have since closed.
* At a Georgia-Pacific mill in Big Island, United States, with
start-up in 2004. The project only operated for a couple years
before closing, after encountering issues with higher than expected
tar yields.
* At a Weyerhauser mill in New Bern, United States. It ran for about a
decade, but closed due to problems related to erosion and finding a
suitable metallurgy for the operating environment.
5 Industry > Pulp and paper End-of-life > Waste product conversion to
chemicals and bioenergy > Lignin extraction-Organic solvent End-of-life
Moderate Details
Isolating lignin from wood pulp could enable use of lignin for new
industrial products, such as chemicals, or for use as a biofuel in
boilers or lime kilns. Solvent-based pulping is one of the methods under
exploration.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* United States, Netherlands
*Key initiatives:*
A pilot plant in Wisconsin US extracts lignin using uses Organosolv, an
organic solvent developed by American Science and Technology, and was
scaled up to commercial scale of 2 ton/day in 2016. In 2017, AST agreed
to begin sending the Organosolv lignin to the Energy Research Center in
Netherlands to speed up development.
9 Industry > Pulp and paper End-of-life > Waste product conversion to
chemicals and bioenergy > Lignin extraction-Precipitation and
acidification End-of-life Moderate Details
Isolating lignin from wood pulp could enable use of lignin for new
industrial products, such as chemicals, or for use as a biofuel in
boilers or lime kilns. Precipitation and acidification is one of the
methods under exploration.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* United States, Canada, Finland
*Key initiatives:*
Two technologies, the Finnish-developed LignoBoost process and the
Canadian-developed LignoForce system - have been developed to allow for
lignin to be isolated and extracted from black liquor.
*Deployment targets:*
West Fraser’s Hinton pulp mill has been using LignoForce since 2016,
while LignoBoost is being used in four different pulp mills.
Collectively, the five mills produce over 85,000 tons of lignin per year.
4 Industry > Pulp and paper Production > Pulping > Deep eutectic
solvent Production High Details
A deep eutetic solvent is a liquid mixture of two components that has an
unusually low freezing point and have high lignin solubility, which
could make them suitable as novel pulping solvents. Their use could have
significantly lower energy needs for pulping compared to traditional
chemical pulping processes, as they enable pulp production at low
temperatures and atmospheric pressure. They function by dissolving wood
into lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* Europe
*Key initiatives:*
The Institute for Sustainable Process Technology coordinated a
Europe-wide project to research and develop deep eutectic solvents,
called ProviDES. ProviDES ran from 2016-2018, developing more than 100
deep eutectic solvents with two developing further into delignifying
agents. It proved that the technology process can be run at operational
costs similar to those of kraft pulping. The PriDES is the successor
project's next phase, PriDES, began in 2019 focusing on recovery and
recycling of the deep eutectic solvents and isolation of valuable lignin
and hemicellulose fractions. It will continue research working towards a
pilot project.
*Announced development targets:*
The goal for commercial implementation of deep eutectic solvents for
delgnification and recovery process is 2030.
9 Industry > Pulp and paper End-of-life > Waste product conversion to
chemicals and bioenergy > Pyrolysis of by-product streams Production
Moderate Details
In pyrolysis, biomass is heated in the absence of oxygen and decomposes
into bio-oil and biochar. The side streams of pulp and paper processing
can be subject to pyrolysis depending on the various levels of water
content.
*Key countries:* Finland, Sweden
*Key initiatives:*
Finnish paper producers Valmet and Fortum have been working to
developing a technology to produce lignocellulosic fuels for
transportation and refinery cofeed. Swedish fuel company Preem is
involved in the process, upgrading pyrolysis oil into transportation
fuels under refinery conditions. Following successful earlier trials,
larger scale testing is being pursued.
*Deployment targets:*
Preem is aiming to produce 3 million tonnes a year of renewable
transportation fuel by 2030
5 Industry > Pulp and paper Production > High temperature heating >
Boilers with CCUS Production Very high Details
CCS can potentially be applied in the pulp and paper sector to capture
emissions from the boilers used for producing steam, along with
emissions streams from other ancillary units. As significant amounts of
bioenergy is used by the pulp and paper industry, there is a high
capacity for BECCS to be performed in this industry, allowing for
offsets against other CO2 emissions.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* Finland, Sweden, the United States
*Key initiatives:*
* Fortum Oslo Värme, Northern Lights, Stockholm Exergi, Stora Enso and
Vattenfall are cooperating in a project funded by the Swedish Energy
Agency with co-financing from the participating industrial companies
and IVL and carried out by researchers at IVL, KTH and the German
think tank Perspective's Climate Research. The project will examine
conditions for a Nordic BECCS market, with the aim for pulp mills to
be one of the main potential applications
* Commodity firm Marubeni has signed memorandum of understanding
alongside Indonesian energy company PT Pertamina on the installation
of CCUS at one of Marubeni's pulp mills in Indonesia. Announced in
2021, the project would result in carbon-negative pulp production in
the mill as a result of biomass used as fuel there.
* While no CCS pilot or demonstration projects in the pulp and paper
industry are known to already be operating, application could likely
build on developments in other sectors (such as power), and thus the
main components are considered to have been proven (thus the TRL 5
assessment).
9 Industry > Pulp and paper Production > High temperature heating >
Electric boiler Production Very high Details
Producing steam for drying with electricity instead of incineration of
natural gas or coal
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* Europe, China
*Key initiatives:*
Electric boilers applicable to multiple industries have reached
commercialisation, and are being considered by many pulp and paper mills
5-7 Industry > Pulp and paper Production > High temperature heating >
Heat pumps Production Very high Details
Sustainable application of high temperature heat pumps in the paper
industry requires both dedicated heat pumps and adaptation of the paper
making process: lower air content in the drying hood (to increase
dewpoint and thus heat pump source) and lower starting pressures for
steam (+ subsequent steam compression steps for the higher steam
pressures needed in the different drying sections).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* Europe
*Key initiatives:*
In 2022 the Confederation of European Paper Industries (Cepi) and the
European Heat Pump Association (EPHA) have installed a joint working
group with EHPA to solve the mutual challenges, a.o. by designing
potential common application processes for heat pumps in the paper
industry. This will allow the heat pump manufacturers to set and certify
a few standard compressors thus significantly decreasing costs for heat
pumps. Moreover, agreement on common efficient application processes
will improve mutual understanding and de-risk the implementation.
Learnings from other sectors should speed application to pulp and paper,
where challenges with integration may still return to achieve large
scale deployment.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
3-5 Industry > Pulp and paper Production > Pulping > Mild repulping
technologies Production Moderate Details
During repulping dry pulp or paper for recycling is dispersed in water
to isolate the individual fibres. Milder technologies may lead to energy
savings in this repulping process, reduce fibre damage thus reducing
water retention value and drying energy. Moreover, it may decrease fibre
losses.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* Slovenia, Sweden
*Key initiatives:*
ICP Ljubljana and Lulea University of Technologies are both working on
pulping technology based on cavitation. Significant energy savings can
be achieved in any mechanical processing part in the pulp and paper
industry (pulping, disperging, refining, separation).
5-7 Industry > Pulp and paper Production > Paper dewatering and drying
> Compression refining Production Moderate Details
Fibre refining is a key operation to create sufficient fibre surface
area for bonding, thus increasing the strength of paper. However,
refining also ‘damages the fibres’ thereby reducing dewatering
efficiency and increasing the water retention value of paper. By
reducing the shear forces through compression, refining the fibre damage
is reduced and energy efficiency is improved.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* France, the Netherlands
*Key initiatives:*
* The technology was originally developed by WageningUR in the
Netherlands assisted by Techino.
* CTP in France has a project to demonstrate the savings on pilot scale
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
5-7 Industry > Pulp and paper Production > Paper dewatering and drying
> Innovative mechanical dewatering technologies Production Moderate
Details
Removing 1% more water in the press section (mechanical dewatering)
results in at least 3% reduction of required drying energy. Innovative
mechanical dewatering technologies may include ultrasound-assisted
dewatering, vacuum controlled pressing, impulse dewatering, displacement
pressing, steel belts and air assisted forming.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Energy
*Key countries:* Finland, Sweden, the United States
*Key initiatives:*
Several research institutes, among them RISE and VTT, have several
research projects focused on ultrasound-assisted dewatering, vacuum
controlled pressing, impulse dewatering, steel belts and air assisted
forming. Most development projects are currently on pilot level.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
4 Industry > Pulp and paper Production > Paper dewatering and drying >
Superheated steam Production High Details
Drying in only steam (air-free) environment enables total recovery of
thermal energy, to be used in subsequent processes. The challenge is to
combine the steam-condensation system with wet paper/water vapour
system, requiring advanced steam cleaning technologies and solutions to
prevent steam leakage from the system
*Cross-cutting themes:* Energy
*Key countries:* Austria, Finland, the Netherlands, Sweden
*Key initiatives:*
VTT, Valmet, WFBR, RISE and AIT together are developing a breakthrough
drying technology based on superheated steam. The projects builds on the
results achieved in the EU-Joule II programme that ran in 1990s that
already proved potential 80% energy savings in drying. The consortium
aims to start a large European R&D project in 2023 to pilot the
technology towards 2026, together with some major pulp and paper companies.
*Announced development targets:*
The VTT, Valmet, WFBR, RISE and AIT consortium are aiming for
commercialisation by 2030.
2 Industry > Pulp and paper Production > Paper dewatering and drying >
Supercritical CO2 drying Production Moderate Details
Liquid-like characteristics of supercritical CO2 allow for substitution
of steam-heated cylinders with supercritical CO2 in the "extraction
drying" process.
*Key countries:* Austria
*Key initiatives:*
The supercritical CO2 concept is one of the concepts resulting from the
Cepi Two Team Project. The Austrian Institute of Technology (AIT) is
researching the potential.
3-5 Industry > Pulp and paper Production > Paper dewatering and drying
> Paper making without water Production High Details
70% of the energy need for papermaking is the use of heat for drying.
When water could be eliminated there is no need for drying. The
challenge is to obtain inter-fibre bonding and also dry defibration of
pulp or paper for recycling without damaging the fibre. This is
challenging since 1) paper owes its strength due to hydrogen bonds that
are formed during the removal of water and 2) during repulping of dry
pulp or paper for recycling the hydrogen bonds are normally mildly
broken upon the addition of water.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, energy
*Key countries:* Finland, Germany, Sweden
*Key initiatives:*
* In Germany the paper industry has joined forces with research
institutes, universities and suppliers in the Modellfabrik Papier to
develop future papermaking concepts, including the possibility of
papermaking without water
* Finnish research company VTT has set up a lab to investigate the use
of aqueous foam instead of water in the papermaking process. The
project began in 2013, with 2018 seeing the development of a pilot
to produce various unpressed products, such as insulation materials,
filters and technical textiles.
*Deployment targets:*
* Dry Molded Fiber, invented and patented by the Swedish company
PulPac, is ready for market deployment (TRL 8) for production of
molded fibre products. While promising, these products are less than
1% of products made from pulp, and thus the dry papermaking for the
vast majority of paper products remains only valided at the lab
scale (TRL 3 to 5)
4 Industry > Pulp and paper Production > Paper dewatering and drying >
Reduction of water in size press Production Moderate Details
Currently sized paper products are dried before being rewetted in the
size process, thus requiring a second drying step. Decreasing water
content in the sizing agent (while obtaining low viscosity) would
significantly reduce energy consumption from the second drying phase.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, energy
*Key countries:* Netherlands
*Key initiatives:*
In the Heat is On project, sponsored by the Institute for Sustainable
Process Technology in the Netherlands, NIZO and Schut Papier are working
towards increased process efficiency in unit operations, through
efficient separation and drying processes that decrease the amount of
water to be evaporated and increase the heat upgrading potential and
smart process optimisation and control. They estimate this could lead to
a 30% reduction in energy usage in papermaking.
*Announced development targets:*
The Heat is On aims to have their technology deployed by 2030
2 Industry > Pulp and paper Production > Paper dewatering and drying >
Water removal without evaporation Production High Details
The main mechanism for water removal during drying is evaporation.
Avoiding this phase change would lead to significant energy savings.
Using electric forces like electro-osmosis could lead to up to 90%
saving of drying energy.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* Netherlands
*Key initiatives:*
In 2022 a consortium of technical universities in the Netherlands
started a fundamental R&D project to develop non thermal water removal
technologies based on electric forces. This project (ELECTRIFIED) is
coordinated by Wageningen University is supported by the Dutch paper
industry, as well as by the agro-food and specialty chemicals industry
that also use a lot of energy for thermal water removal. The project is
also supported by Andritz. By 2024, the industry partners in the
consortium aim to identify some key technologies for the set-up of an
applied project to translating the fundamental physical principles
towards industrial equipment.
9 Industry > Iron and steel Manufacturing - reducing metal forming
losses and lightweighting through additive manufacturing Production
Moderate Details
Reducing yield losses in manufacturing (e.g. sheet metal in the
automotive industry) would reduce material demand and in turn emissions
from material production. Additive manufacturing, a digitalized
production process in which three-dimensional objects are produced by
successively adding material by layer, by its nature leads to minimal
material losses compared to processes that cut an object from larger
pieces of material. It also facilitate design of lighter-weight parts.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Material efficiency
*Key countries:* United States, Germany
*Key initiatives:*
In the StaVari research project, EDAG and a number of other research
partners developed technologies for additive manufacturing of vehicle
components, included the required steel powder alloy, the additive
manufacturing process, thermal treatment and post-processing . This has
been made first at the laboratory level and then scaled up to industrial
demonstration. There are plans to test the demonstrator in a real test
as the project progresses, since so far the test have been realized in a
variant-intensive vehicle structure manufactured in cooperation with all
the partners.
5 Industry > Iron and steel Production > Blast furnace > Process gas
hydrogen enrichment and CO2 removal for use or storage (CCUS via
chemical absorption) Production Very high Details
Process gas hydrogen enrichment and CO2 removal are options, used alone
or in combintion, to reduce emissions from blast furnaces - the current
dominant primary steelmaking technology that relies primarily on coal
and coke (which is derived from coal). Hydrogen enrichment involves
capturing process gases and recirculating them after reheating (to 900
°C) into the blast furnace as a reducing agent to lower requirements for
coke and other fuels. The re-circulated gas can be any CO and H2 source,
with CO and H2 from coke oven gas and basic oxygen furnace gas the
easiest to recover. Additionally, CO2 from blast furnace gas can be
recovered and reformed into CO and H2, for use in the blast furnace or
for external uses. Surplus CO2 could be transported for storage, further
reducing emissions.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS
*Key countries:* Japan, Korea, France, Sweden, India, Australia
*Key initiatives:*
* Under the COURSE 50 programme, the first phase of the demonstration
programme involving testing of this technology in an experimental
blast furnace was completed in 2017 in Japan with an overall budget
of USD 94 million (YEN 10 billion) combining public and private
funds. Test are ongoing. The second phase of the prorgramme is
planned to be completed before 2026 with the objective to reach
sucessful commercial scale demonstration by 2030, and with an
estimated budget of USD 141 million (YEN 15 billion).
* This technology was explored under ULCOS (Ultra Low CO2
Steelmaking), a European project launched in 2004 including 48 major
steel producers, with the aim to reduce CO2 emission by 50%. After
the experimental tests at Luleå, Sweden as part of the ULCOS
programme, trials at commercial scale were prepared for a steel
plant in Florange, France, including a request for public funding
through the NER-300 programme. These were cancelled as the
industrial plant where the tests were going to take place shut down
due to the economic crisis in 2008. It was later taken forward at
ArcelorMittal site in Dunkirk, France, where the IGAR project is
testing reforming with plasma torches, with a lab-scale pilot
successfully completed in 2017 and an industrial-scale demonstration
likely to be completed by 2025-27. The ‘3D’ project launched in
mid-2019 by a consortium of 11 stakeholders will test solvent-based
carbon capture (DMX solvent) for blast furnace off gases at the
Dunkirk site. A pilot plant began operating in March 2022 (4 kt/yr
CO2). In the final arrangement, the plasma torches would be fed with
recovered CO2 from steel off gases.
* The company ROGESA (a joint subsidiary of steel companies Dillinger
and Saarstahl), is aiming to use hydrogen-rich coke oven gas in a
blast furnace in Germany. In 2019, the company announced a EUR 14
million investment to set up the relevant infrastructure for
hydrogen-rich coke oven gas use in two blast furnaces. As of spring
2021, the pilot plant has been under construction.
* The STEPWISE project is piloting a technology in Sweden to
decarbonise blast furnace gas for use in power production, with a la
capacity of 14 t/day CO2 removal.
* In September 2021, Tata Steel commissioned a demonstration unit that
captures 5 tonnes of CO2 per day from blast furnace gases at the
Jamshedpur steel plant in India. The offgases are then recirculated
for use, having an increased calorific value.
* In October 2021, BHP and POSCO signed a memorandum of understanding
on decarbonising steelmaking, including plans to undertake pilot
trials to assess CCUS options in the blast furnace. POSCO also
announced plans to explore the feasibility of CCUS on coke ovens,
which are a component of the blast furnace-based steelmaking route.
*Announced development targets:*
* The 3D project is aiming for an industrial-scale plant (1 Mt/yr CO2)
by 2025.
* The COURSE 50 programme has the objective to reach sucessful
commercial scale demonstration by 2030.
7 Industry > Iron and steel Production > Blast furnace > Electrolytic
hydrogen partially replacing injected coal Production Moderate Details
Hydrogen can be used to some extent in blast furnaces - the current
dominant primary steelmaking technology that relies primarily on coal
and coke (which is derived from coal). Hydrogen can replace a portion of
injected coal, thus reducing needs for coal.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Hydrogen
*Key countries:* Germany, Austria, China
*Key initiatives:*
Beginning in 2019, Thyssenkrupp has been testing use of hydrogen in a
blast furnace in Germany, replacing a portion of injected coal
* Under the H2Future project, a 6 MW electrolyser is providing
hydrogen for blending in a blast furnance at a voestalpine steel
plant in Austria. It has been operational since 2019.
* Baowu steel is performing a second-stage test of a hydrogen-rish
carbon cycle blast furnace with tuyere injection of hydrogen and
ultra-high oxygen enrichment.
*Announced development targets:*
* thyssenkrupp announced in March 2021 plans for a 500 MW electrolyser
in Germany (HydrOxy Hub Walsum). A feasibility study will be
undertaken, with aims to be online in 2025 with hydrogen to be used
in a DRI plant.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
7 Industry > Iron and steel Production > Blast furnace > Torrefied
biomass partially replacing injected coal Production Moderate Details
Biomass can be converted to a coal-like material through torrefaction,
in which biomass is heated to temperates in the range of 200 to 400 °C
in the absence of oxygen. The 'bio-coal' has characteristics more
similar to coal than the original biomass. Such bio-coal can be used in
blast furnaces to replace a portion of injected coal.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Bioenergy
*Key countries:* Belgium
*Key initiatives:*
The Torero partnership project is testing use of bio-coal (torrefied
waste wood) in Arcelormittal’s plant in Ghent, Belgium; the large-scale
demonstration is expected to be operational by end of 2020
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
7 Industry > Iron and steel Production > Smelting reduction > CCUS
Production Very high Details
A new oxygen-rich smelting reduction technology for producing steel is
being developed, consisting of a reactor in which iron ore is injected
at the top while powder coal at the bottom. The powder coal reacts with
the molten ore to produce liquid iron that is the base material to
produce high quality steel. The use of pure oxygen makes the new
smelting reduction process well suited to integrate CCUS as it generates
a high concentration of CO2 off-gas and emissions are delivered in a
single stack compared to a standard steel mill plant with multiple
emission points. CCUS could also be applied to existing smelting
reduction technologies, although the offgases of the process still
contain considerable energy content along with CO2, so capture would
also likely be needed on a power plant using those offgases to realize
near-zero emission levels.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS
*Key countries:* Netherlands
*Key initiatives:*
* The HIsarna process was originally developed and tested under the
Ultra-Low-CO2 Steelmaking (ULCOS) programme. A pilot plant in
IJmuiden, Netherlands, was developed by Tata Steel, with testing of
the innovative smelting reduction technology successfully completed
in 2018-2019. The longest run was 19 days long and produced 2 kt of
pig iron. Carbon capture and storage was not implemented. In
September 2021, Tata Steel announced that it would instead pursue
hydrogen direct reduced iron at the Ijmuiden plant. This suggests a
pivot away from pursuing Hisarna in its European operations. Plans
are still underway to develop a second large-scale pilot plant (0.5
Mt) employing the Hisarna smelting reduction technology in India,
which could open in the 2025-2030 period. However, there are no
announced plans to include CO2 storage in that demo plant, nor has a
target date been officially announced by Tata for a CCUS-equipped
installation.
* Initial testing of amine-based CO2 scrubbing in FINEX plant.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Hisarna is aiming to eventually achieve production costs lower than
convetional steel production, due to reduced energy inputs, not
needing to preprocess ores and metallurgical coal, and use of
cheaper raw materials
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
4 Industry > Iron and steel Production > Smelting reduction > Smelting
reduction based on hydrogen plasma Production Moderate Details
The smelting reduction based on hydrogen plasma (HPSR) is the process of
using hydrogen in a plasma state to reduce iron oxides, through the
generation of a hydrogen plasma arc between a hollow graphite electrode
and liquid iron oxide.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Hydrogen
*Key countries:* Austria
*Key initiatives:*
SuSteel research project at voestalpine Donawitz, Austria steel plant,
by Project partners voestalpine, K1-MET, Primetals, and MUL. The project
has worked to scale up from a small-scale test (100 g) to small
pilot-scale (90 kg), with the prototype plant successfully operating for
the first time in Janurary 2020. Work is currently underway to optimise
the facility to enable continous operation and to adjust to different
types of iron ore.
9 Industry > Iron and steel Production > Direct reduced iron > CCUS >
Chemical absorption Production Very high Details
Direct reduced iron plants - in which iron ore is reduced to iron
without melting typically using natural gas or coal - could be equipped
with chemical absorption-based CO2 capture, a common process operation
based on the reaction between CO2 and a chemical solvent (e.g.
amine-based). The CO2 is released at temperatures typically in the range
120°C to 150°C and the solvent regenerated for further operation.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS
*Key countries:* Mexico, United Arab Emirates, Venezuela
*Deployment targets:*
* Two operating plants of Ternium in Mexico since 2008 capturing 5% of
emissions (0.15-0.20 Mt/yr combined) for use in the beverage
industry, with planning underway to upscale capture capacity
(Ternium, 2018)
* A first commercial CCUS project integrated with a natural gas-based
DRI for enhanced oil recovery was commissioned in United Arab
Emirates in 2016 with 0.8 Mt CO2/yr capacity. The project is a joint
venture between Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (Adnoc), Masdar and
Emirates Steel Industries.
* Commercial Finmet plant since 1998 at Orinoco Iron, Venezuela with
an amine-based CO2 separation achieving close to 100% CO2
concentrations as an integral part of the process, but captured CO2
is not currently used or stored.
5 Industry > Iron and steel Production > Direct reduced iron > CCUS >
Physical adsorption Production Very high Details
Direct reduced iron plants - in which iron ore is reduced to iron
without melting typically using natural gas or coal - could be equipped
with physical adsorption-based CO2 capture, in which molecules are
captured on the surface of selective materials called adsorbents.
Desorption of the CO2 (release from the surface) may be achieved using
pressure swing adsorption (PSA), performed at high pressure, or vacuum
swing adsorption (VSA), which operates at ambient pressure. A hybrid
configuration also exists, known as Vacuum Pressure Swing Adsorption (VPSA).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
The existing commercial DRI natural gas project with CCS uses chemical
absorption technologies, but it is possible and would likely be less
costly to use VPSA. This CCS technology has been proven in other
applications.
7 Industry > Iron and steel Production > Direct reduced iron > Based
on natural gas with high levels of electrolytic hydrogen blending
Production High Details
Direct reduced iron plants - in which iron ore is reduced to iron
without melting - typically use natural gas or coal. The emissions of
the process are strongly reduced by substituting a portion of the
natural gas or coal with hydrogen, produced by electrolysis of water
using fossil-free electricity. The current commercial technology is
already suited to work with up to 30% natural gas displacement by
hydrogen, without significant changes, but higher blends are also under
exploration.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Hydrogen
*Key countries:* Mexico, Germany, Spain, France, China
*Key initiatives:*
* In the 1990s, Tenova carried out testing of 90% hydrogen (by volume)
in a direct reduction shaft in Mexico, producing 1 tonne of DRI per
hour (equivalent to about 9 kt/yr).
* The Salcos project (Salzgitter Low CO2 Steelmaking) is investigating
use of hydrogen in steelmaking. It consists of three building
blocks: 1) electrolyser demonstration at the megawatt scale at
Salzgitter, 2) onsite production of electolytical hydrogen from
wind, and 3) a feasibility study (called MACOR) involving numerical
modeling and profitability analysis for integrating a hydrogen DRI
plant into the facility. The project is currently in stage 1, with
the elctrolyser trials having begun in late 2020.
* AreclorMittal has also tested the use of hydrogen at its plant in
Contrecoeur, Quebec. Hydrogen replaced 6.8% of the natural gas
normally used, leading to lower emissions intensity.
*Announced development targets:*
* ArcelorMittal has announced plans to convert its plant in Gijon,
Spain to DRI (2.3 Mt DRI production), including plans to transition
the plant to use electrolytic hydrogen if available at affordable
rate, with the expectation that the hydrogen would be produced
off-site and transported to the plant by a consortium of companies.
The plant would also supply DRI to the nearby plant in Sestao.
* Liberty, Paul Wurth and SHS are undertaking a feasibility study for
2 Mt DRI plant in France, which will include a 1 GW hydrogen plant
* Baosteel is developing a 1 Mt DRI plant in Zhanjiang Economic and
Technological Zone, Guangdong Province, China, using a combination
of hydrogen, natural gas and coke oven gas.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
6 Industry > Iron and steel Production > Direct reduced iron > Based
on 100% electrolytic hydrogen Production Very high Details
The 100% electrolytic hydrogen DRI route involves direct reduction of
iron ore - that is, reducing iron ore to iron without melting - using
only electrolytic hydrogen gas rather than natural gas or coal.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Hydrogen
*Key countries:* Sweden, Germany, China
*Key initiatives:*
* The project HYBRIT (Hydrogen Breakthrough Ironmaking Technology)
began operation of pilot line in summer 2020 in Luleå and the
Norrbotten, Sweden. The first direct reduced iron was produced in
June 2021, and a trial delivery of the first fossil-free steel took
place in August 2021. Construction costs are estimated at about USD
2.5 million (SEK 20 million), half financed by the Swedish Energy
Agency and half through private funds from SSAB, LKAB and
Vattenfall. The pre-feasibility phase was already supported with
around USD 7 million (SEK 60 million) by the Swedish Energy Agency.
They are planning to build an industrial-scale demonstration plant
by 2026.
* ArcelorMittal intends to launch a new project in its Hamburg plant
to use hydrogen for the direct reduction of iron ore in the steel
production process, on an industrial pilot scale. It will initially
take place on a demonstration scale (100 kt/year) with grey hydrogen
(from gas separation) and in the future with green hydrogen (from
renewable sources) when it will be available in sufficient
quantities. In fall 2019, ArcelorMittal announced that it had
commissioned Midrex Technologies to design the demonstration plant,
which is expected to be built by 2030. ArcelorMittal is also
planning to convert its Bremen and Eisenhüttenstadt plants in
Germany to DRI, for an eventual transition to electrolytic hydrogen.
* thyssenkrupp is also planning to transition towards eventually full
hydrogen reduction
* HBIS is developing a hydrogen DRI demonstration plant in Zhangjiakou
City, Hebei province, China. Construction began in 2021 on the first
phase of the project, which will produce 0.6 Mt of iron per year
using hydrogen from coke oven offgases. The second phase plans to
expand capacity an additional 0.6 Mt per year using hydrogen
produced from renewables through electrolysis.
* In September 2021, Tata Steel announced that it would pursue the
hydrogen route at its plant in IJmuiden, Netherlands. Under the
H2ermes project, Tata Steel is cooperating with HyCC and the Port of
Amsterdam on a 100 MW hydrogen plant towards this end, with the
first hydrogen deliveries expected by 2025-2026.
* Baosteel in China is working with the China National Nuclear Corp to
develop a pilot project to supply green hydrogen to the steel industry.
* Circored was the first process using 100% hydrogen for fine iron ore
direct reduction proven in an industrial-scale demonstration plant.
The first and only plant, in Trinidad, commenced in 1999 with annual
capacity of 500,000 tonnes of hot briquetted iron (HBI) per annum.
Operations ceased after a couple of months, having produced 300,000
tonnes of high-grade HBI. The technology provider reported normal
function during that time and cited changes in ownership, political
issues and natural gas scarcity as reasons for the stoppage. Renewed
interest in hydrogen-based DRI has led to a relaunching of the
Circored process by developer Metso Outotec.
* Sinosteel has contracted Tenova to build a 1 Mt per year DRI plant
in Zhangjiang. The new plant will use mainly hydrogen as reducing
gas with the possibility to mix it with natural gas or coke oven
gas. It will also be designed to capture and sell CO2.
*Announced development targets:*
* H2 Green Steel in Sweden broke ground with the construction of its
plant in summer 2022, aiming for completion of its first commericial
plant by 2025, producing 250 kt of steel per year. Plans for
continued expansion include producing 5 Mt of steel through hydrogen
DRI online by 2030.
* In early 2020, SSAB (involved in the Hybrit project) declared that
it aims to make fossil-carbon-free steel available for commerical
sale in the European and North-American markets in 2026 (a
considerable move forward from a previous target of 2035). The
company is planning to have all of its production be fossil free by
2040.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* HYBRIT pre-feasibility study concluded that fossil-free steel would
be 20-30% more expensive, given today's price of electricity, coal
and CO2 emissions.
3 Industry > Iron and steel Production > Direct reduced iron > Based
on biogenic reduction gas Production Moderate Details
Using a reduction agent of biogenic origin would eliminate fossil-based
CO2 emissions from iron production.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* Sweden, Australia, United Kingdom
*Key initiatives:*
RioTinto is developing a technology along with researchers from the
University of Nottingham that mixes iron ore fines with sustainable raw
biomass, heats it with a combination of the gas from the biomass and
high efficiency microwaves, and produces metallic iron. The technology
has been validated in the lab and they are planning to scale up.
* The Swedish project FerroSilva - involving Ovako, Sandvik Materials
Technology, Uddeholm, Sveaskog and Lantmännen - is conducting a
feasibility study over the course of 2021 and 2022 on the
possibility to use biogenic material as the reduction agent in DRI.
The Swedish Energy Agency provided partial funding.
5 Industry > Iron and steel Production > Hydrogen for high-temperature
heat for ancillary steelmaking processes Production Moderate Details
Hydrogen can be used to provide high temperature heat for anciliary
processes, such as finishing processes (ex. rolling), material
pre-heating, etc., and to replace the small about of natural gas used in
electric arc furnaces.
*Key countries:* Sweden, Norway, Netherlands, Italy
*Key initiatives:*
In early 2020 Ovako and Linde completed a successful trial using
hydrogen to heat steel before rolling in Sweden • CELSA (a recycled
steel producer), Statkraft and Mo industrial park in Norway signed an
agreement in mid-2020 to produce hydrogen to replace fossil fuels used
in steel production
* Tata steel is planning to build a 100 MW electrolyser to supply
hydrogen to its steelmaking operation in the Netherlands
* Tenaris is undertaking a trial to replace natural gas used in an
electric arc furnace with hydrogen produced by a 20 MW electrolyser
at its plant in Dalmine, Italy. It plans to later convert other
steelmaking processes at the plant to hydrogen.
4 Industry > Iron and steel Production > Ore electrolysis > Low
temperature alkaline electrolysis (110°C) Production Moderate Details
The electrolytic steelmaking process uses renewable elctricity to
transform iron oxides into pure metals. Low temperature alkaline
electrolysis (110°C) is one of the two main types of such electrolysis.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Direct electrification
*Key countries:* France, Belgium, Greece
*Key initiatives:*
The SIDERWIN (Development of new methodologieS for InDustrial CO2-freE
steel pRoduction by electroWINning) began construction of an
engineering-scale pilot in early 2021 in France. As of 2022,
construction is essentially complete and comissioning efforts are
underway. This builds on the ULCOWIN process deveveloped by the ULCOS
programme, which produced iron at in a small-scale prototype. This is
private-public programme with the support of the European Commission
programme Horizon 2020
5 Industry > Iron and steel Production > Ore electrolysis > High
temperature molten oxide electrolysis (> 1500°C) Production Moderate
Details
Molten oxide electrolysis (MOE) is an electrometallurgical process used
to produce liquid metal directly from oxide feedstocks. Electrons are
the reducing agents, and the products of the reaction are pure metal and
oxygen. The steelmaking process requires high temperatures of up to 2000°C.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Direct electrification
*Key countries:* United States
*Key initiatives:*
* The ULCOS research consortium (2004-2012) proposed a molten iron by
direct electrolysis of iron ore concept, referred to as MIDEIO.
* In parallel, research into a similar concept at MIT (funded also by
NASA) and led to the foundation of Boston Metal Company in 2012 in
Woburn, MA. A lab-scale prototype cell was commissioned in 2014, and
since then progressively larger semi-industrial cells have been
sucessfully tested (250A capable of producing less than 10 kg per
day, followed by 2,500 A capable of producing 10's key per day),
with the latest cell comprising a full anode module validated in
2021 with successful steel production. The team has now begun work
on an industrial-scale pilot cell that will be comprised of multiple
anode modules (25k A, capable of producing 100's kg per day),
targeting validation and moving to industrial demonstration (200 kA)
by 2024-2025. In addition to the facility in Massachusetts, trials
are underway for niobium production at a CBMM plant in Brazil.
*Announced development targets:*
Boston metal is aiming for commercial plant deployment starting from 2026.
4 Industry > Iron and steel Production > Reduction via alkali metal
looping Production Moderate Details
In a novel process, iron ore is reduced by using a combination of alkali
metals to separate out oxygen and iron. The alkali metals are recycled
to release the oxygen and the reduction process starts again in a closed
loop. The process requires thermal energy and occurs at temperatures of
300-900 degrees celsius, depending on the part of the loop.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* Israel
*Key initiatives:*
The company Helios, based in Israel, is developing a process to separate
oxygen and metals from surfaces found in space (the moon, Mars, etc.).
It has discovered that the technology could also be applied for
decarbonised steel produced on earth, and is continuing to work to
further develop it. They have developed a working prototype that can
reduce several kilograms of iron ore.
8 Industry > Iron and steel Production > Blast furnace > CCUS >
Conversion of steel offgases to fuel Production Moderate Details
This technology 'recycles' waste gases from steel plants (ex. blast
furnace gas and coke oven gas) into synethic fuels, thus using the CO2
twice and delaying its release.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS
*Key countries:* Belgium, China
*Key initiatives:*
* The process was validated in industial environment in China by the
LanzaTech BaoSteel New Energy Company, 2012 and Shougang LanzaTech
New Energy Technology Company, 2013. Lanzatech also has test
facilities in New Zealand and Taiwan.
* Large-scale demonstration plant under construction in Ghent, Belgium
under the Steelanol project by Arcelormittal and Lanzatech with a
capacity of 80 million litres of ethanol upon completion. The
process has been previously successfully tested at the site in 2016.
*Announced development targets:*
* First commercial plant began operation in 2018 in China, by Lanza
Tech, Shougang Group and TangMing; produced 30 million litres of
ethanol for commercial sale in its first year of operation
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
7 Industry > Iron and steel Production > Blast furnace > CCUS >
Conversion of steel offgases to chemicals Production Moderate Details
This technology would 'recycle' waste gases from steel plants (ex. blast
furnace gas and coke oven gas) into chemicals, thus using the CO2 twice
and delaying its release.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS
*Key countries:* Germany
*Key initiatives:*
The Carbon2Chem initiative led by Thyssenkrupp aims to commercially
demonstrate the production of chemicals (e.g. ammonia and methanol) from
steel off-gases in Europe on a balancing load approach, in which
chemicals production would fluctuate to alleviate electricity grid loads
(and electricity prices). On the low activity periods of chemicals
production, steel off-gases would be used to satisfy the energy
requirements of the steel plant, which is the current general practice.
The German government is contributing with over EUR 60 million to this
project. The construction of the pilot plant in Duisburg has been
completed and in September 2018 Thyssenkrupp has produced for the first
time methanol from the steel mill gases.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
4-6 Industry > Iron and steel Production > Direct reduced iron >
Improved ore refining methods Production Very high Details
The direct reduced iron (DRI) process offers one potential pathway to
zero-emission steelmaking, as it can use green hydrogen as a reducing
agent compared to other methods which are reliant on metallurgical coal.
The DRI is then charged into an electric arc furnace (EAF) to turn it
into steel. One problem with the pathway of DRI with an electric arc
furnace, however, is that it relies on higher quality iron ore, with an
iron content of at least 67%. Overall iron ore quality has been in
decline for 20 years with iron content dropping and the level of
impurities rising. Several solutions to this problem have emerged. These
include: -using a submerged arc furnace (SAF) melting stage after DRI
production before sending it to a basic oxygen furnace -developing
methods of producing direct reduced iron using lower quality ore
-Reducing iron throuh hydrogen-based fluidised bed reduction - a method
that has demonstrated effectiveness in dealing with lower grade iron
ore, and which does not require pelletisation
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, hydrogen
*Key countries:* United States, South Korea, Italy, France, Germany
*Key initiatives:*
* South Korean steelmaker POSCO is developing a hydrogen-based
reduction method, HyREX, using 100% hydrogen, based on its existing
FINEX fluidised reduction technology.
* Tenova is developing a new process to produce direct reduced iron
using lower quality pellets. The company is developing iBLUE, a
combination of direct reduction ironmaking technology and a new
melting process – an open slag bath furnace.
* HYFOR (hydrogen-based fine ore reduction), a technology being
developed by Primetals, uses iron ore concentrate with particle
sizes smaller than 0.15mm. In April 2021, the pilot plant was
commissioned at the Voestalpine plant in Donawitz, Austria. The
technology uses 100% hydrogen as a reduction agent. Providing green
hydrogen and green electricity to power the EAF could allow
potentially zero emissions steel production. Testing is being
carried out with various iron ore grades
* BlueScope is also investigating a DRI-Melter-BOF steelmaking route
to allow the use of lower-grade ores. In October 2021, the company
announced an MoU with Rio Tinto to investigate technology that would
allow the use of Rio’s blast furnace-grade Pilbara iron ore in DRI
processes. For Rio Tinto, this represents a potential pathway for
continued use of its Pilbara ores in a decarbonising global steel
industry
*Deployment targets:*
* Thyssenkrupp is planning a new steelmaking route that adds a
submerged arc furnace (SAF) melting stage after DRI production
before sending it to an existing BOF. The company’s plan is to
replace four BFs with new DRI-SAF installations by 2045, with the
first two to be replaced in 2025 and 2030 respectively. The proposed
DRI-SAF-BOF configuration will allow Thyssenkrupp to use blast
furnace grade iron ore in its DRI processes. BF-grade pellets
contain 65% iron or less.
* Global steel giant ArcelorMittal is also looking at the DRI-SAF
technology route. In March 2021 the company announced a memorandum
of understanding (MoU) with Air Liquide to examine using this
technology combination at ArcelorMittal’s Dunkirk site using
hydrogen as the reductant. The Dunkirk plant currently has three
blast furnaces with a total annual capacity of 7Mt. The new plant is
envisaged to start by 2025 with a capacity of 2Mt hot metal per year
and will use low carbon hydrogen in the process. The project is
planned to reduce yearly CO2 emissions at the Dunkirk site by 2.85Mt
by 2030.
7 Industry > Cross-cutting Metallic products > Manufacturing >
Reducing metal forming losses > Ring rolling with variable wall
thickness Production Moderate Details
The process uses control of roll gaps and speeds to achieve variable
wall thickness of metal rings. This could reduce by about half the
material losses from conventional processes, in which non-axisymmetric
rings are cut from larger rings and anywhere from 50 to 90% of metal can
be lost. The technology would be applicable to ring-formed components,
including aerospace engines, rotating machinery (ex. steam and wind
turbines), bearings and pipes. It could likely be used for most formed
metals.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Material efficiency
*Key countries:* United Kingdom
*Key initiatives:*
The technology was developed at Cambridge University, and has been
proven at the lab-scale on a limited number of shapes using model
material. Options are being explored to develop a small-scale pilot.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
4 Industry > Cross-cutting Metallic products > Manufacturing >
Reducing metal forming losses > Folding-shearing Production Moderate
Details
The process applies the mechanics of spinning to sheet metal forming. It
involves first folding a sheet along its axis and then drawing it in a
way that reduces its width without reducing its average thickness. If
proven, the technology could have potential to cut metal scrappage from
process like car body manufacturing by up to two-thirds.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Material efficiency
*Key countries:* United Kingdom
*Key initiatives:*
The concept is being explored through a 5-year research project
involving researchers from the University of Cambridge, University of
Bath and TED University. Simulations have been undertaken and a
lab-scale prototype is under development.
3 Industry > Cross-cutting Metallic products > End-of-life > New
recycling techniques for better separation and reduced contamination >
X-ray transmission End-of-life Moderate Details
While the separation of ferrous metals from non-ferrous metals is
relatively easy thanks to the magnetic properties of the ones containing
iron, recovering precious and valuable metals takes more technologically
advanced and sophisticated recycling equipment. X-ray tranmission
technologies sort materials according to differences in their density,
enabling detection of grains of metals with much smaller sizes than before.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Material efficiency
*Key countries:* Germany
*Announced development targets:*
* The company TOMRA Sorting launched in 2019 a new machine, X-TRACT X6
FINES, that improves the sorting of high-purity mixed non-ferrous
metal fractions. The unit incorporates enhanced high-speed X-ray
transmission (XRT) technology, which can detect and sort grains of
metal that are almost half the size of what was previously sortable.
This process identifies the atomic density of the materials
regardless of their thickness. Extensive testing in high throughput
applications demonstrated the unit’s ability to consistently achieve
unrivalled purity levels of 98-99%.
9 Industry > Cross-cutting Metallic products > End-of-life > New
recycling techniques for better separation and reduced contamination >
Novel physical separation End-of-life Moderate Details
While the separation of ferrous metals from non-ferrous metals is
relatively easy thanks to the magnetic properties of the ones containing
iron, recovering precious and valuable metals takes more technologically
advanced and sophisticated recycling equipment. New physical separation
techniques can better sort materials, such as through shredding with
more selective component breaking and and mechanisms to reduce entangling.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Material efficiency
*Key countries:*
*Deployment targets:*
* The company BHS-Sonthofen has developed a new procedure to increase
the amount of copper recovered from internal winding of electric
motors. This new procedure features a Rotorshredder for this
process, subsequent materials separation, and the purification of
copper in a rotor impact mill. In particular, the rotor impact mill
(RPMX) from BHS is well suited to removing impurities from copper
fractions extracted from the material. This is an upgrade to the
traditional rotor impact mill, a high-performance crusher with a
vertical shaft, a higher circumferential speed and a smaller milling
gap. Copper wires can also be processed, even though their small
size had made it difficult to recycle them until now.
10 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > High temperature heating >
Electromagnetic heating for large-scale industrial processes > Induction
Production High Details
During induction, an electromagnetic field is generated when AC current
flows through an inductor: this induces a current flow in a conductive
material appositely placed nearby. The higher the current flow, the more
the heat generated inside the object itself. If the field is raised
enough to overcome the melting point, the material changes phase: this
technology is used commonly for the melting of metals. While already
commercial for some applications, research and development could expand
the range of applications, further improve efficiency and reduce costs.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:*
*Deployment targets:*
* The National Steel Company (NASCO) in Saudi Arabia upgraded its
technology to achieve a capacity of 1 million Mt, partly through an
Induction Furnace of 20 t in combination with Electric Arc Furnace
(EAF).
* The Indian company Viraj, one of the largest manufacturers of
stainless steel, runs induction furnaces since its establishment in
1992, providing high quality products worldwide.
* The German Company ABP is a global induction technology manufacturer
and provides several steel producers with induction furnaces, such
as the chinese one Tisco with the installation of the world's
strongest medium-frequency induction furnace system (with six 60 t
induction furnaces and a 42 MW power supply)
* Inductotherm is a leading producer of induction furnace technologies.
* Induction heating is also being investigated for non-metals related
applications. For example, Boeing has developed an induction process
for molding thermoplastic composites, which significantly reduces
energy requirements.
9 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > Low to medium temperature
heating > Electromagnetic heating for large-scale industrial processes >
Radio waves Production Moderate Details
The use of radio waves allows the generation of heat, internally, in
non-conductive materials. The object is placed between two electrodes
connected with a high-frequency generator (operative frequency is in the
1 to 100 MHz range). The excitement of the molecules generates heat
inside the material itself. The advantages are a rapid heat transfer,
the absence of combustion products and the high speed of switching on
the systems. RF systems are less expensivecompared to microwave systems,
but they are not as well suited for products with irregular shapes. Its
potential for application includes drying, sintering, calcining,
cooking, curing, pre-heatingand speeding up chemical reactions.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:* United States
*Deployment targets:*
Radio wave heating is used commercially in various low to medium
temperature heating applications. Examples include:
* The Danish company Kallesøe Machinery uses radio-wave heating to
cure and set engineered wood products such as cross laminated
timber. The process allows for fasting curring than alternative
processes.
* In the yarn manufacturing process the use of radio frequency
technology can speed up the drying process and add flexibility to
the production. A company in South Carolina applied this technology
to its lines and the result was a decrease in energy related costs,
faster drying and a contained payback time in the range of 3 to 4 years.
3 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > High temperature heating >
Electromagnetic heating for large-scale industrial processes > Radio
waves Production Moderate Details
The use of radio waves allows the generation of heat, internally, in
non-conductive materials. The object is placed between two electrodes
connected with a high-frequency generator (operative frequency is in the
1 to 100 MHz range). The excitement of the molecules generates heat
inside the material itself. The advantages are a rapid heat transfer,
the absence of combustion products and the high speed of switching on
the systems. RF systems are less expensivecompared to microwave systems,
but they are not as well suited for products with irregular shapes. Its
potential for application includes drying, sintering, calcining,
cooking, curing, pre-heatingand speeding up chemical reactions.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Radio wave heating is used commercially in various low to medium
temperature heating applications. Exploration of its potential use for
higher temperature heating appears to be so far relatively limited.
9 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > Low to medium temperature
heating > Electromagnetic heating for large-scale industrial processes >
Microwaves Production Moderate Details
Microwave heating is the generation of heat, internally, in
non-conductive materials. The object is placed between two electrodes
connected with a high-frequency generator (operative frequency is in the
100 to 10000 MHz range). The excitement of the molecules generates heat
inside the material itself. The advantages are a rapid heat transfer,
the absence of combustion products and the high speed of switching on
the systems.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:* United States, Germany
*Deployment targets:*
* Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in Germany has developed the
HEPHAISTOS microwave system for curing composite materials, such as
carbon fiber reinforced prepreg laminates (required temperature of
125 to 175 degrees Celcius). The technology is now commercially
available.
* In the rubber production process, steam is used to cure gaskets,
moldings and strips, with some conrains on the length and shape of
the pieces. A manufacturer in Pawling, New York, installed
succesfully microwave systems in its lines. The application of this
technologies has brought several advantages: energy savings due to
an higher efficiency, increased flexibility in the products shape,
material and labour cost savings.
5 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > High temperature heating >
Electromagnetic heating for large-scale industrial processes >
Microwaves Production Very high Details
Microwave heating is the generation of heat, internally, in
non-conductive materials. The object is placed between two electrodes
connected with a high-frequency generator (operative frequency is in the
100 to 10000 MHz range). The excitement of the molecules generates heat
inside the material itself. The advantages are a rapid heat transfer,
the absence of combustion products and the high speed of switching on
the systems.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:* United States, Europe
*Key initiatives:*
* Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the US has developed a Microwave
Assisted Plasma (MAP) process to carbonize PAN fibres, a set of
carbon fibre production. MAP offers considerable time and energy
savings over the current thermal pyrolysis process, which requires
1000-1500 degree celcius heat. The technology concept has been
validated in the lab and is ready for scaling up to a 25 tonne per
year pilot.
* A EU-funded research project DAPHNE (Development of adaptive
ProductioN systems for Eco-efficient firing processes) from
2012-2015 demonstrated a package of integrated solutions for energy
intensive processes, based on substituting high temperature heating
with micro-wave technology. The DAPhNE project brings together three
manufacturing sectors (ceramic, glass and cement) seeking common
solutions via the implementation of high temperature microwaves
technologies based on self-adaptive control and monitoring systems.
Researchers first produced a lab-scale prototype and then a
successful semi-industrial prototype.
9 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > Low to medium temperature
heating > Electromagnetic heating for large-scale industrial processes >
Infrared Production High Details
Infrared radiation transmits heat through electromagnetic waves, heating
objects directly, without the need to first heat the air in order to
transmit heat to a product. It means higher heat transfer rates and
faster time response, producing zero on-site emissions. Electric
infrared radiation (IR) ovens offer an efficient and cost-effective
alternative to convection ovens. In addition, they can provide fine
control of IR wavelength in order to match specific requirements of an
application. While already commercial for some applications, research
and development could expand the range of applications, further improve
efficiency and reduce costs.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:* United States
*Deployment targets:*
* A pipe fitting plant located in Anniston, Al, with the support from
Alabama Power, recently introduced electric infrared heating at
their facility to dry products after the painting process. They
replaced a gas-fired convection oven that was causing several stops
to the production lines (due to maintainance of gas filters and
emissions), and saw significant productivity increase as well as
reduction in maintenance. The estimated payback time is less than 1
year.
3 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > High temperature heating >
Electromagnetic heating for large-scale industrial processes > Infrared
Production High Details
Infrared radiation transmits heat through electromagnetic waves, heating
objects directly, without the need to first heat the air in order to
transmit heat to a product. It means higher heat transfer rates and
faster time response, producing zero on-site emissions. Electric
infrared radiation (IR) ovens offer an efficient and cost-effective
alternative to convection ovens. In addition, they can provide fine
control of IR wavelength in order to match specific requirements of an
application. While already commercial for some applications, research
and development could expand the range of applications, further improve
efficiency and reduce costs.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:* United States
*Key initiatives:*
A US-based partnership (between Oakridge National Laboratory, Queen City
Queen City Forging, Komtek, Infrared Heating Technologies, Northeastern
University, and the Forging Industry Association) has demonstrated an
infrared furnace for industrial forging. The technology applied in
aluminium billet pre-heating, which normally requires temperature of
about 400 degress Celsius, resulted in 75% energy savings and
significantly reduced preheating times from 1-6 hours to 14-18 minutes.
9 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > Low to medium temperature
heating > Electromagnetic heating for large-scale industrial processes >
Ultra-violet Production Moderate Details
Ultraviolet radiation (UV) is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum
between 40 and 400 nm, with higher frequency and higher energy than the
visible light. The use of UV light to heat objects is a pothochemical
process used to cure or instantly harden special compounds. The use of
an UV lamp provides the radiant energy necessary to drive the
polymerization reaction. This technology can be applied in several
industrial processes like the automotive part manufacturing, printing,
food packaging and electronics.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:* Germany
*Deployment targets:*
UV curing can be used to replace curing processes requiring medium
temperature heat:
* Ultraviolet curing has been applied to a can production facility,
replacing a gas oven. The UV radiation is used in the curing and
coating process, increasing the speed of the production lines, with
less energy usage and also a reduction in the space floor needed (UV
oven occupies less space than the gas convection oven).
* The German company Heraeus provide several products and solutions
for industrial process applications, from UV to infrared technologies.
3 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > High temperature heating >
Electromagnetic heating for large-scale industrial processes >
Ultra-violet Production Moderate Details
Ultraviolet radiation (UV) is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum
between 40 and 400 nm, with higher frequency and higher energy than the
visible light. The use of UV light to heat objects is a pothochemical
process used to cure or instantly harden special compounds. The use of
an UV lamp provides the radiant energy necessary to drive the
polymerization reaction. This technology can be applied in several
industrial processes like the automotive part manufacturing, printing,
food packaging and electronics.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
UV curing can be used to replace curing processes requiring medium
temperature heat. Its ability to replace higher temperature heat is more
limited.
3 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > High temperature heating >
Electric arc and plasma arc furnaces applied to new large-scale
industrial applications Production High Details
Electric arc furnaces are already commonly used in secondary steel
production, while electric glass melting furnaces are used in glass
production. Plasma arc furnaces are a special type of electric arc
furnace that can produce heat as high as 5000 degrees celcius, by
passing a powerful electric current through particular gases such as
argon. These furnaces are used today in some applications, mainly
hazardous waste incineration and processing some metals (ex. titanium,
tungsten). The technology offers the possibility to be adapted to other
high temperature heat processes that are currently difficult to
electrify, such as cement and alumina production.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
The CemZero project is currently investigating use of a plasma arc
furnace to electrify cement kilns. As feasibility study has indicated
that electrification of the heating process is technically possible adn
that any future electrification of Cementa’s factory on Gotland would
work well together with the planned expansion of wind energy on Gotland.
The project is continuing with an investigation on how a pilot plant can
be built.
6 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > High temperature heating >
Direct heat from variable renewables Production Moderate Details
A concentrated solar power (CSP) plant uses mirrors to concentrate solar
radiation and convert it in high temperature heat. This can be used in
different industrial processes that need high temperature, such as
non-metallic particles treatment and clinker production.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Direct electrification
*Key countries:* France, United States
*Key initiatives:*
* The EU-funded project SOLPART in the French Pyrenees aims to develop
and implement a high-temperature (up to 1000°C) 24h/day process for
use in energy-intensive non-metallic mineral industries. The main
challenges are the circulation of the particles inside the reactor
vessel, the application to large scale, the stability of the
reactor's materials at this temperature. A pilot-scale calcination
solar reactor was successfully commissioned in mid 2019, with a 1 MW
solar furnace.
* HELIOGEN is a U.S. based startup funded by Bill Gates that unveiled
in 2019 its new CSP technique that has proven capable of generating
heat above 1000°C. The robotic heliostats use an Artificial
Intelligence algorithm to position and redirect all the sunlight to
a single point. The challenge is now to scale up the test facility
(in the Mojave desert) to commercialization (including industrial
production from the heat generated).
* Paul Scherrer Institute, ETH Zurich and LafargeHolcim are performing
a long-term research into the use of concentrated solar power in
cement manufacturing. The aim is to produce a synthetic gas to
substitute fossil fuels in the cement kilns.
*Announced development targets:*
* SOLPART is aiming to open a partially solar-powered cement plant by
2025.
9 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > Low to medium temperature
heating > Large-scale heat pump Production Very high Details
Large, industrial sized heat pumps can use renewable energy from air,
water or ground but also waste energy from buildings and processes to
provide heating and cooling. Heat pumps are considered large if they
exceed capacities of 100 kW. Current technology can easily reach the one
to several megawatt range with the largest units providing 35 MW in a
single machine.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable heat, District energy, Direct
electrification
*Key countries:* Denmark, Sweden, Germany, Norway
*Key initiatives:*
Skjern has a total capacity of 5,2 MW, and achieves a plant COP between
6,5 and 7
* Seawater is used in the first DHC project using an ultra-low GWP
refrigerant, in a heat pump of 16 MW and a COP of 4.4
* Nagold heating and cooling system is highly innovative, providing
100% of building heating and cooling demands by regenerative energy
source through a 101 kW heat pump
*Deployment targets:*
Deployment: 25% share in DH by 2050 (Heat Roadmap Europe)
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Performance: Targets focus on perfomance of components
8-9 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > Low to medium temperature
heating > Biomethane-based large-scale heating for industrial processes
Production Moderate Details
Biomethane, also called renewable natural gas, can provide heat to
various industrial processes in place of natural gas. **See Supply
Technology Map for biomethane production options**
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable heat
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* The European Commission has announced a Biomethane industrial
partnership, uniting 30 companies and organisations, coordinated by
European Biogas Association and Common Futures. The partnership will
work towards scaling up biomethane production and usage. Its
announcement highlighted the use of biomethane as an alternative to
creating heat with fossil fuels in industry.
* Biomethane is currently injected into the gas grid of several
European countries, including Germany, Austria, Sweden, Switzerland
and the UK.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
8-9 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > High temperature heating >
Biomethane-based large-scale heating for industrial processes
Production Moderate Details
Biomethane, also called renewable natural gas, can provide heat to
various industrial processes in place of natural gas. **See Supply
Technology Map for biomethane production options**
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable heat
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* The European Commission has announced a Biomethane industrial
partnership, uniting 30 companies and organisations, coordinated by
European Biogas Association and Common Futures. The partnership will
work towards scaling up biomethane production and usage. Its
announcement highlighted the use of biomethane as an alternative to
creating heat with fossil fuels in industry.
* Biomethane is currently injected into the gas grid of several
European countries, including Germany, Austria, Sweden, Switzerland
and the UK.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > Low to medium temperature
heating > Bio-coal-based heating for large-scale industrial processes >
Torrefaction Production Moderate Details
Biomass can be converted to a coal-like material through torrefaciton,
in which biomass is heated to temperates in the range of 200 to 400 °C
in the absence of oxygen. The 'bio-coal' has characteristics more
similar to coal than the original biomass, and thus could be used in
various industrial processes where higher quality fuels are needed.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable heat
*Key countries:*
*Deployment targets:*
Various commercial biomass torrefaction facilities are in operation in
Europe and North America. However, process improvements are required to
increase commercial viability and expand to additional industrial
applications.
9 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > High temperature heating >
Bio-coal-based heating for large-scale industrial processes >
Torrefaction Production Moderate Details
Biomass can be converted to a coal-like material through torrefaciton,
in which biomass is heated to temperates in the range of 200 to 400 °C
in the absence of oxygen. The 'bio-coal' has characteristics more
similar to coal than the original biomass, and thus could be used in
various industrial processes where higher quality fuels are needed.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable heat
*Key countries:*
*Deployment targets:*
Various commercial biomass torrefaction facilities are in operation in
Europe and North America. However, process improvements are required to
increase commercial viability and expand to additional industrial
applications.
9 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > Low to medium temperature
heating > Bio-coal-based heating for large-scale industrial processes >
Pyrolysis Production Moderate Details
Biomass can be converted to a coal-like material through torrefaciton,
in which biomass is heated to temperates in the range of 400 to 800 °C
in the absence of oxygen. The 'bio-coal' has characteristics more
similar to coal than the original biomass, and thus could be used in
various industrial processes where higher quality fuels are needed.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable heat
*Key countries:*
*Deployment targets:*
Various commercial facilities are in operation. However, process
improvements are required to increase commercial viability and expand to
additional industrial applications.
9 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > High temperature heating >
Bio-coal-based heating for large-scale industrial processes > Pyrolysis
Production Moderate Details
Biomass can be converted to a coal-like material through torrefaciton,
in which biomass is heated to temperates in the range of 400 to 800 °C
in the absence of oxygen. The 'bio-coal' has characteristics more
similar to coal than the original biomass, and thus could be used in
various industrial processes where higher quality fuels are needed.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable heat
*Key countries:*
*Deployment targets:*
Various commercial facilities are in operation. However, process
improvements are required to increase commercial viability and expand to
additional industrial applications.
11 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > Low to medium temperature
heating > Fluidized-bed boiler fueled with biomass Production Moderate
Details
Biomass fuels - such as wood, crop residues, wood pulp and chips, and
municipal solid waste - are difficult to burn efficiently in
conventional industrial furnaces due to their lower heating value and
higher moisture content. Fluidized-bed boilers help overcome this
challenge. They operate by burning the fuel within a hot bed of sand or
other inert particles, which are fluidized by passing a pressurized
fluid through them. This enables oxygen to reach the fuel more easily
and thus improved combustion.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable heat
*Key countries:*
*Deployment targets:*
The technology is commercially available
11 Industry > Cross-cutting Production > High temperature heating >
Fluidized-bed boiler fueled with biomass Production Moderate Details
Biomass fuels - such as wood, crop residues, wood pulp and chips, and
municipal solid waste - are difficult to burn efficiently in
conventional industrial furnaces due to their lower heating value and
higher moisture content. Fluidized-bed boilers help overcome this
challenge. They operate by burning the fuel within a hot bed of sand or
other inert particles, which are fluidized by passing a pressurized
fluid through them. This enables oxygen to reach the fuel more easily
and thus improved combustion.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable heat
*Key countries:*
*Deployment targets:*
The technology is commercially available
9 Industry > Cross-cutting Systems integration > Hybrid flexible
demand and battery network Infrastructure High Details
A hybrid network is a portfolio of energy-consuming equipment and
batteries that come together to provide demand response services to the
electricity grid. Using smart grid principles, the system intelligently
rotates energy-consuming equipment based on their ability for flexible
energy consumption, and fills in any gaps with the network's batteries.
In this way, the system ensures reliability to energy-consuming
industries without them necessarily needing to install batteries on-site.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Systems integration
*Key countries:* United Kingdom, Ireland
*Deployment targets:*
The technology was developed by the UK-based company GridBeyond. It is
now being applied commercially in the UK and Ireland. The company
recently launched an office in the US.
8 Industry > Chemicals and plastics Ammonia > Production >
Electrolytic hydrogen-based produced with variable renewables
Production Very high Details
Ammonia production involves combining nitrogen with hydrogen in the
Haber-Bosch process. While the conventional method produces the hydrogen
via methane steam reforming, this process produces the hydrogen through
electrolysis. While applied in the past using large-scale
hydro-eletricity, a key remaining challenge will be the apply the
process using variable renewable energy sources.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Hydrogen, Renewable electricity,
Electrochemistry
*Key countries:* Spain, Norway, Netherlands, Australia, United States,
Chile, New Zealand, Denmark, Trinidad and Tobago, Fermany, Oman, Morocco
*Key initiatives:*
For a long time, the only operating plant in the world using
electrolytic hydrogen to make ammonia has been the Industrias Cachimayo
plant in Cusco, Peru, operating since the 1970s, although reliant on
hydropower rather than variable renewable energy. In recent years, many
new projects using electrolytic hydrogen from variable renewables for
ammonia production have been announced or planned. Several projects are
first testing smaller pilot/demo-scale installations, with plants to
transition to larger commercial-scale installations. See deployment
section for project examples.
*Announced development targets:*
* Fertiberia and Iberdrola; Puertollano, Spain; a 20MW electrolyser
came online in 2021, considered to be a first successfully operating
project at full commercial scale. Additional projects are planned
for a total of 800MW of electrolysis of hydrogen planned for 2027
* Yara, NEL Porsgrunn, Norway, 25 MW electrolyser expected online in
2023; expanded electrolyser capacity to fully shift 0.5 Mt/yr of
ammonia production away from natural gas in 2026-2028 (in
partnership with Statkraft and Aker Clean Hydrogen); grid-connected
hydropower
* Yara and Ørsted; Sluiskil, Netherlands; at feasibility stage,
expected online 2025; 100 MW electrolyser, 70 kt/yr ammonia; powered
by offshore wind
* Yara and Engie; Pilbara, Australia; 10 MW electrolyser by 2023;
solar-powered
* CF Industries; Donaldsonville, LA, United States; completion by
2023; 20 MW electrolyser, 20 kt/yr ammonia; grid-connected
* Enaex and Engie (Hyex project); Mejillones district, Chile; pilot
with 26 MW electrolyser and 18 kt/yr ammonia expected online by
2024; full scale operation with 1.6 GW electrolyser and 124 kt per
year of ammonia by 2030; solar-powered
* Balance Agri-Nutrients and Hiringa Energy; Kapuni, New Zealand;
expected online mid-2020s; 7 kt urea per year; wind-powered. Other
pilot to commercial-scale projects are also at various stages of
planning and development, including some that would use ammonia for
fuel. They are located around the world, including in Australia
(Queensland Nitrates; Dyno Nobel; H2U; BP; Fortescue Metals Group;
Origin Energy), Denmark (Skovgaard Invest; Copenhagen Infrastructure
Partners), Trinidad and Tobago (Kenesjay Green Ltd), Germany (RWE),
Chile (AES Gener; CORFO; Austria Energy), Oman (ACME) and Morocco
(OCP Group).
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Green ammonia production from electricity priced at $20 per MWh
would reach operating cost parity with fossil ammonia at natural gas
prices of $6.25 per MMBtu (assuming a specific energy consumption
per ton of 10 MWh and 32 MMBtu natural gas). [Related to Port
Lincoln's project in Australia]
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
8 Industry > Chemicals and plastics Ammonia > Production > Methane
pyrolysis Production High Details
The process involves using very high temperature heat provided by
electrical plasma to split methane into its constituent hydrogen and
carbon atoms, without burning it.
*Key countries:* Germany, Australia, United States, United Kingdom,
Netherlands, Korea
*Key initiatives:*
* Several projects are working towards using methane pyrolysis to
produce hydrogen. While some are already planning to use the
hydrogen to produce ammonia, for others the intended use of hydrogen
is not yet determined. Projects include:
* BASF is pilot testing in Ludwigshafen, Germany; first
industrial-scale plant expected around 2030; technology expected to
be used for producing chemicals such as ammonia and methanol
* Hazer Group is preparing for construction of a commercial
demonstration project in Munster, Australia
* C-Zero is working on commercialising a methane pyrolysis technology
developed at the University of California, Santa Barbara in the
United States; in early 2021 funds were raised for a first pilot plant
* A number of other companies and research institutions have done
lab-scale testing, with a few – including HiiROC in the United
Kingdom, TNO in the Netherlands and KIT in Germany – working towards
pilot plants.
*Announced development targets:*
* Monolith completed pilot testing in Redwood City, CA, United States
during 2013-15. First commercial unit - Olive Creek 1, 14 kt/yr
carbon black capacity; Hallam, NE; operation began in 2021 with
successful production and customer deliveries of carbon black.
Second phase to begin construction on same site, Olive Creek 2;
production expected to begin 2023/24; will produce 275 kt/yr ammonia
and 180 kt/yr carbon black. Expanded production globally is
planning, including through a memorandum of understanging signed
with SK Inc. in Korea in late 2021.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
5 Industry > Chemicals and plastics Ammonia > Production > Biomass
gasification Production Moderate Details
Ammonia production involves combining nitrogen with hydrogen in the
Haber-Bosch process. While the conventional method produces the hydrogen
via methane steam reforming, this process gasifies biomass to produce a
syntethic fuel (syngas) rich in hydrogen.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Bioenergy
*Key countries:* Sweden
*Key initiatives:*
Techno-economic evaluation of producing ammonia via biomass gasification
completed, but suggests it is not yet economically viable. Higher TRLs
for other applications (for example biomethane, ethanol and methanol
production), but not yet applied to ammonia.
11 Industry > Chemicals and plastics Ammonia > Production > CCUS >
Chemical absorption Production Very high Details
Chemical absorption of CO2 is a common process operation based on the
reaction between CO2 and a chemical solvent (e.g. amine-based). The CO2
is released at temperatures typically in the range 120°C to 150°C and
the solvent is regenerated for further operation.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS, CO2 removal
*Key countries:* Malaysia, Japan, India, United Arab Emirates, Pakistan,
Viet Nam, China, United Kingdom, Norway
*Deployment targets:*
Capture technology widely used commercially as part of the SMR hydrogen
production process, capturing concentrated process emissions stream (TRL
11 for capture technology) Multiple commercial plants in operation
capture CO2 for use, often for urea (TRL 10-11 for CCU). For example: -
Petronas Fertilizer; Kedah, Malaysia; operational 1999; 60 kt CO2/yr -
Indian Farmers Fertilizer Co-op; Aonla, India; operational 2006; 0.2 Mt
CO2/yr Several commercial plants in operation, storing captured CO2 via
EOR (TRL 9 for full CCS chain). Known projects are: - Koch Nitrogen;
Enid, OK, United States; operational 1982; 0.7 Mt CO2/yr - Nutrien
(formerly Agrium); Geismar, LA, United States; operational 2013; 0.25 Mt
CO2/yr with capacity up to 0.6 Mt CO2/yr - PCS Nitrogen (subsidiary of
Nutrien); Geismar, LA, United States; operational 2013; 0.3 Mt CO2/yr -
Sinopec; Zhongyuan, Henan Province, China; operational 2015; 0.1 Mt
CO2/yr Some projects are also in the development stages, for example: -
CF Fertilisers; Ince, United Kingdom; at early development stage; 0.33
Mt CO2/yr; part of the Hynet North West industrial cluster that will
store CO2 in a dedicated geological storage site - Horisont Energi;
Hammerfest, Norway; concept study has begun, expected to be operational
by 2025; 1 Mt ammonia/yr capacity, ammonia may be used for fuel rather
than fertilisers; dedicated geological storage. In a much more limited
number of cases, CO2 capture is also being applied to the dilute CO2
stream from fuel combustion for heat provision. Two known ammonia plants
are capturing dilute emissions for use (TRL 9 for CCU): - GCIP; Sitra,
Bahrain; operational 2010; 0.16 Mt CO2/yr - Engro; Daharki, Pakistan;
operational 2010; 0.12 Mt CO2/yr No known ammonia plants are capturing
dilute emissions for permanent storage, although based on other related
experience there would be no major technology hurdles to overcome (TRL 8
for full CCS chain).
9 Industry > Chemicals and plastics Ammonia > Production > CCUS >
Physical absorption Production High Details
Physical absorption uses a liquid solvent to absorb CO2 from flue gases
that have high CO2 partial pressures, without a chemical reaction
occurring. Common physical solvents include Selexol (dimethyl ethers of
polyethylene glycol) and Rectisol (methanol).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS, CO2 removal
*Key countries:* United States, Canada
*Deployment targets:*
Capture technology widely used commercially as part of the SMR hydrogen
production process (TRL 11 for capture technology) Several commercial
plants in operation, storing captured CO2 via EOR (TRL 9 for full CCS
chain). Known projects are: - Coffeyville Resources Nitrogen
Fertilizers; Coffeyville, KS, United States; operational 2013; 1 Mt
CO2/yr - Nutrien; Redwater, AB, Canada; operational 2020; 0.3 Mt CO2/yr;
part of the Alberta Carbon Trunk Line project
7 Industry > Chemicals and plastics Ammonia > Production > CCUS >
Cryogenic capture Production High Details
Cryogenic capture is a refrigeration-based system of separating CO2.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS, CO2 removal
*Key countries:* New Zealand
*Key initiatives:*
Kairos-at-C, a major operation funded in part by the EU, will be
applying cryogenic process to capture CO2 from industrial sources on the
Zandvliet industrial complex, including two hydrogen plants, two
ethylene oxide (EO) plants, and one ammonia plant.
*Announced development targets:*
* Pouakai NZ (subsidiary of 8 Rivers Capital) is developing a
zero-emission hydrogen project in Taranaki, New Zealand, set to come
online in 2024 capturing 1 Mt CO2/yr. It will produce fertilisers,
hydrogen and power. Through use of a cryogenic CO2 capture system
and a process called the Allam-Fetvedt Cycle, which uses
high-pressure CO2 instead of steam, the project is aiming to store
100% of CO2 generated
* Kairos-at-C is planned to be operational by 2025
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
5 Industry > Chemicals and plastics Ammonia > Production > CCUS >
Physical adsorption Production High Details
In physical adsorption, molecules are captured on the surface of
selective materials called adsorbents. Desorption of the CO2 (release
from the surface) may be achieved using pressure swing adsorption (PSA),
performed at high pressure, or vacuum swing adsorption (VSA), which
operates at ambient pressure. A hybrid configuration also exists, known
as Vacuum Pressure Swing Adsorption (VPSA).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS, CO2 removal
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Physical adsorption is being commercially applied in other applications;
however, we are not aware of its application so far for ammonia.
7 Industry > Chemicals and plastics Benzene, toluene and xylenes >
Production > Methanol-based Production Moderate Details
Benzene, toluene and xylenes (BTX) can be produced from methanol via a
catayltic conversion process.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* China
*Key initiatives:*
Three pilot plants were developed in 2013, and commercial scale
demonstration projects are under development. Actors involved include
Mobil, Sinopec Engineering Group, Zhejiang University, and Tschinghua
University.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
6 Industry > Chemicals and plastics Benzene, toluene and xylenes >
Production > Lignin (biomass) Production Moderate Details
BTX aromatics can be produced from lignin via several different routes,
including cracking of de-oxygentated lignin, catalytic conversion,
production from sugars (by the Diels-Alder reaction), or a hydrolysis
plus nanofiltration or pervaporation process.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Bioenergy
*Key countries:* Germany, Belgium, Netherlands
*Key initiatives:*
* The Dutch company BioBTX has proven at the pilot scale the
feasibility of its technology, called Integrated Cascading Catalytic
Pyrolysis (ICCP), to form aromatics from non-food biomass.
* The Aromatics from LIGNin (ALIGN) project was launched by 8 project
partners from Belgium and Germany in 2018. It aims to upscale three
lignin extraction processes. Some members of the consortium launched
the LignoValue Pilot project in Flanders, which will have a capacity
of 200 kg/day.
* A team at RWTH Aachen University is working on a route to produce
aromatics from lignin, publiching their process in Green Chemistry
in 2019.
8 Industry > Chemicals and plastics End-of-life > New recycling
techniques with reduced downcycling > Chemical depolymerization for PET
End-of-life Moderate Details
This chemical recycling technology uses chemicals to break down polymers
into monomers. Techniques vary in the amount of heat and pressure used,
but generally considerably less heat is used compared to pyrolysis.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Material efficiency
*Key countries:* Canada, United States
*Key initiatives:*
* Loop Industries is developing a low energy depolymerization
technology using low heat and no pressure to convert polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) plastic into its base monomers (Monoethylene
glycol [MEG] and Dimethyl Terephthalate [DMT]). A pilot plant has
been built in Quebec, Canada.
* BP and several partners companies are developing an enhanced
recycling technology, BP Infinia, which aims to recycle opaque and
difficult-to-recycle PET plastic wastes into virgin-quality
plastics. Details about the propriety depolymerization process are
not publically available. A pilot plant is planned to come online in
the United States.
* The French company Carbios has developed an enzyme-based process to
depolymerize PET packaging. In mid 2019, it first successfully
produced PET bottles using its technology. It is now working to
scale up the technology with several partners.
*Announced development targets:*
* The American Chemical company Eastman has developed a
depolymerization process based on methanolysis (using heat, pressure
and methanol) to recycle PET. After completely pilot testing at its
site in Tennessee, commercial operation of the plant began in late
2019. They are also planning a large-scale plant able to recycle
160mt of plastic per year in france by 2025.
* Loop Industries is undertaking a joint venture with Indorama
Ventures to retrofit a PET manufacturing plant in South Carolina
estimated to prdocue 40,000 tonnes per year. Loop's goal is to
further construct ten facilities by 2030.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 Industry > Chemicals and plastics End-of-life > New recycling
techniques with reduced downcycling > Chemical depolymerization for
polystyrene End-of-life Moderate Details
This chemical recycling technology uses chemicals to break down polymers
into monomers. Techniques vary in the amount of heat and pressure used,
but generally considerably less heat is used compared to pyrolysis.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Material efficiency
*Key countries:* Canada, United States
*Deployment targets:*
* Agilyx Corporation and INEOS Styrolution have developed a recycling
process based on depolymerization of polystyrene waste, which is now
commercially available. The first plant opened in 2018 in Oregon in
the United States. Several other plants are at different stages of
development.
8 Industry > Chemicals and plastics End-of-life > New recycling
techniques with reduced downcycling > Solvent dissolution for PP
End-of-life Moderate Details
Solvent is used to separate out the polymer, then it is purified in a
liquid state (similar to purifying drinking water). The polymer is not
depolymerized (broken into its component monomers), but rather
purification removes colour, odor and contaminants from plastic waste in
order to extract a virgin-quality polymer.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Material efficiency
*Key countries:* United States
*Announced development targets:*
* PureCycle has developed a process to recycle polypropylene (PP)
plastic into virgin-quality plastic. It's first commercial-scale
plant is under construction in Ohio, US, scheduled to be online
towards the end of 2022.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
7 Industry > Chemicals and plastics End-of-life > New recycling
techniques with reduced downcycling > Solvent dissolution for PET
End-of-life Moderate Details
Solvent is used to separate out the polymer, then it is purified in a
liquid state (similar to purifying drinking water). The polymer is not
depolymerized (broken into its component monomers), but rather
purification removes colour, odor and contaminants from plastic waste in
order to extract a virgin-quality polymer.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Material efficiency
*Key countries:* United Kingdom
*Key initiatives:*
The British company Worn Again Technologies is developing a pilot R&D
facility to validate and develop its proprietary process, which will
separate, decontaminate and extract PET polymer from polyester textiles,
bottles and packaging. The technology uses a solvent at an elevated
temperature.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 Industry > Chemicals and plastics End-of-life > New recycling
techniques with reduced downcycling > Thermal decontamination in a
vacuum reactor with integrated nitrogen flushing for PET End-of-life
Moderate Details
The process produces new food-grade bottles from used bottles, through a
melting and decontamination process in a reactor. Moisture is removed
from PET flakes under vacuum conditions, and nitrogen flushing to reduce
coloration. Rising temperature causing the polymer structure to open,
enabling removal of contaminants and internal moisture. Pellets are then
formed in a centrifuge, then undergo solide state polycondensation,
before being extruded into new plastic.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Material efficiency
*Key countries:*
*Deployment targets:*
* The company EREMA developed the Vacunite and Vacurema technologies,
which can be used in combination. They are now commercially available.
9 Industry > Chemicals and plastics End-of-life > New recycling
techniques with reduced downcycling > Pyrolysis End-of-life Moderate
Details
Pyrolysis is the breakdown of material at high temperatures in the
absense of oxygen. Pyrolysis can be used to convert mixed plastics
wastes into liquid hydrocarbons, which can be used again by the
petrochemical industry.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Material efficiency
*Key countries:* Italy, Finland, Germany, Belgium, US, Netherlands,
Austria, Spain, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, Norway
*Key initiatives:*
* Versalis, a chemical company owned by Italy oil company Eni,
launched in early 2020 the Hoop project, in which it will build a
pilot scale plant (6 kt/yr) in Mantova using a pyrolysis technology
developed by engineering company Servizi di Ricerche e Sviluppo.
* The Finish refining company Neste anncouned in 2019 partnerships
with Germany waste management company Remondis and Belgian recycler
Ravago in order to develop thermochemical recycling technologies.
The project aims to process over 1Mt of waste plastics per year by
2030 onwards
* LyondellBasell (a US-run company with headquarters in Netherlands)
is building a small-scale pilot plant in Italy to test its
proprietary pyrolisis-based recycling technology, MoReTec, developed
in partnership with Germany's Karlsruhe Institute of Technology.
* Austrian oil company OMV is testing its thermal cracking recycling
process, called ReOil, at a pilot plant that began operation in
2018. Chemical company Borealis is partnering with OMV on developing
the technology.
*Deployment targets:*
* The Thermal Anaerobic Conversion (TAC) technology, which was
developed by UK-based company Plastic Energy and converts
end-of-life plastics to oil (called Tacoil), is in use at two
commercial-scale plants in Spain (operational since 2014 and 2017).
Plans are underway to develop another plant in Netherlands in
cooperation with Saudi Arabian company SABIC, as well as a plant in
Malaysia in partnership with Petronas.
* Norwegian company Quantafuel has developed a technology that
combines pyrolysis with catalysis to convert mixed plastic wastes to
synthetic fuels. Its first commercial plant started operating in
late 2019 in Denmark and will process 18 kt of plastic waste a year.
The company has backing from companies such as major chemical
producer BASF.
* Dutch company Fuenix Ecogy Group has developed a pyrolysis-based
recycling technology. In mid 2019, it entered into a parternship
with the chemical company Dow to supply its pyrolysis oil feedstock
to Dow's production facility in Terneuzen Netherlands.
7 Industry > Chemicals and plastics End-of-life > New recycling
techniques with reduced downcycling > Hydrothermal upgrading
End-of-life Moderate Details
The process uses water under supercritical conditions to crack carbon
bonds within end-of-life plastic, thus breaking down polymers into
shorter chain hydrocarbons.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Material efficiency
*Key countries:* Australia, UK
*Key initiatives:*
Licella's Hydrothermal Reactor (Cat-HTR) technology has been proven at
its large pilot plant in Somersby, Australia. It converts mixed plastics
waste into synthetic oil.
*Announced development targets:*
* The UK-based company Mura is aiming to establish over 2 million tons
capacity with Licella's Cat-HTR technology by 2030.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 Industry > Chemicals and plastics Ethylene > Production > Bioethanol
route > Fermentation Production Moderate Details
Ethylene (C2H4) can be produced from bio-ethanol (C2H6O) via dehydration
processes. The bio-ethanol could be produced from sugary biomass (e.g.
sugarcane) by fermenation or from starchy biomass (e.g. corn) by
hydrolysis followed by fermentation (first generation biofuel production
technologies).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Bioenergy
*Key countries:* Brazil, India
*Deployment targets:*
* Several commercial plants are currently in operation in multiple
countries, two of the largest being the Braskem plant (0.2 Mt/yr)
which opened in Brazil in 2010 and produces ethylene from sugarcane
based feedstocks, and the India Glycols plant (0.175 Mt/yr) in India
which opened in 1989 and uses molasses as a feedstock. Several
technologies for producing ethylene from bioethanol are currently
commercially available, including:
* In 2014, Axens, Total and IFP Energies Nouvelles announced for
commericial sale a technology for ethylene production through
dehydration of bioethanol under the technology brand name Atol™ to
produce of polymer grade bio-ethylene. However, most of the capacity
under construction is directed to non-polymer ethylene derivatives,
such as ethylene oxide, which could later be used for producing
polymers. The technology can use either first or second-generation
bioethanol.
* BP's Hummingbird technology for conversion of ethanol to ethylene
was commercially released in 2013.
* Applications so far are using bioethanol produced from fermentation
(first generation), as far as we are aware.
5 Industry > Chemicals and plastics Ethylene > Production > Bioethanol
route > Lignocellulosic gasification Production Moderate Details
Ethylene (C2H4) can be produced from bio-ethanol (C2H6O) via dehydration
processes. The bio-ethanol could be produced from lignocellulosic
biomass (e.g. woody crops, agricultural residues) through gasification
to produce a syngas and subsequent conversion into ethanol by
fermentation or catalytic conversion.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Bioenergy
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
The process of converting bioethanol to ethylene would be the same for
bioethanol produced from fermentation (first generationbioethanol) or
lignocellulosic gasification (second generation bioethanol), and thus
this aspect of the technology is already commercially available.
However, bioethanol produced through lignocellulocis gasification is
currently less advanced and more costly, and as such has not yet been
linked to bioethylene production.
7 Industry > Chemicals and plastics High value chemicals > Production
> CCUS > Chemical absorption Production High Details
Chemical absorption of CO2 is a common process operation based on the
reaction between CO2 and a chemical solvent (e.g. amine-based). The CO2
is released at temperatures typically in the range 120°C to 150°C and
the solvent regenerated for further operation.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS, CO2 removal
*Key countries:* China
*Key initiatives:*
Sinopec developed a small-scale (50 kt CO2/yr) carbon capture project at
chemicals plant, referred to as the East China Oilfield project. It has
been operational since 2005. Information could not be found on the type
of capture technology used, but it is assumed it may be chemical absorption.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
7 Industry > Chemicals and plastics High value chemicals > Production
> CCUS > Physical absorption Production High Details
Physical absorption uses a liquid solvent to absorb CO2 from flue gases
that have high CO2 partial pressures, without a chemical reaction
occurring. Common physical solvents include Selexol (dimethyl ethers of
polyethylene glycol) and Rectisol (methanol).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS, CO2 removal
*Key countries:* China
*Key initiatives:*
Yanchang Petroleum built a small-scale capture plant at the Yulin
coal-to-chemical plant (50 kt CO2/yr), which began operation in 2013. It
later began building a large-scale unit (0.36 Mt CO2/yr) at a second
plant, which is expected to come online soon. The projects use Rectisol
acid gas removal and the CO2 is stored through use for enhanced oil
recovery.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
4 Industry > Chemicals and plastics High value chemicals > Production
> Steam cracker electrification Production Moderate Details
Steam cracking is a process in which long-chain hydrocarbons are broken
into simpler ones, for example splitting naphtha into olefins and
aromatics for further processing. Due to high temperature requirements,
steam crackers are currently fossil fuel-fired. However, exploration is
underway to run steam crackers on electricity.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Direct electrification
*Key countries:* Belgium, Germany, Netherlands
*Key initiatives:*
* Six petrochemical companies in Flanders, Belgium, North
Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, and Netherlands (Trilateral Region)
announced, in the summer of 2019, the creation of a consortium to
jointly investigate how naphtha or gas steam crackers could be
operated using renewable electricity instead of fossil fuels. The
Cracker of the Future Consortium, which includes BASF, Borealis, BP,
LyondellBasell, SABIC and Total, aims to produce base chemicals
while also significantly reducing carbon emissions. The companies
have agreed to invest in R&D and knowledge sharing as they assess
the possibility of transitioning their base chemical production to
renewable electricity. In 2021, BASF, SABIC and Lince announced they
have developed concepts for an electric cracker and are evaluating
construction of a multi-megwatt demonstration plant, starting up as
early as 2023.
* VoltaChem is also working on the Electric Cracking option to make
the chemicals production more sustainable, in the framework of the
Power-2-Heat technologies. The project is looking at conceptual
design of an experimental facility.
* Dow and Sheel announced in mid 2020 they will work together to
develop an electric cracking technology, starting with lab and pilot
operations to prove the technology.
* Finnish startup Coolbrook, in partnership with Cambridge University,
is developing Roto Dynamic Reactor technology, which runs on
electricity, to power a steam cracker. They are building a pilot
plant in Geleen, the Netherlands, with 400 kg/h of capacity, aiming
to start up in the first half of Testing began in late 2022, with a
broader commercial launch planned for 2024
7 Industry > Chemicals and plastics High value chemicals > Production
> Synthetic hydrogen-based fuels in a conventional steam cracker
Production Moderate Details
Synthetic fuels, produced using CO2 and hydrogen, would be directly
integrated into a conventional steam cracker.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Various demonstration projects have been under development since 2009.
See entry in fuel supply section for more information.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 Industry > Chemicals and plastics High value chemicals > Production
> Naptha catalytic cracking Production Moderate Details
Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) is the second largest source of
propylene, which is essentially a byproduct of refinery gasoline
production. While the usual feed to an FCC unit is heavy hydrocarbons,
the use of naphta as feedstock improves the yield of the process and
increase the capability to control the composition of olefins.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* Korea
*Deployment targets:*
* SK Energy, in partnership with KBR, has developed a process called
Advanced Catalytic Olefins® (ACO). A first commercial plant (40
kt/yr) is in operation at KBR’s plant in Ulshan, Korea.
7 Industry > Chemicals and plastics Methanol > Production > CO2- and
electrolytic hydrogen-based produced with variable renewables
Production High Details
A synthetic gas (or syngas) composed predominantly of CO and hydrogen is
produced from methane. Under particular conditions, the CO and hydrogen
react together to produce methanol. This process relies on hydrogen
produced from water electrolysis. With waste CO2 from industrial
processes, the yield of methanol is increased.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Hydrogen, Renewable electricity,
Electrochemistry
*Key countries:* Japan, Iceland, Germany, China, Norway, Australia
*Key initiatives:*
* The George Olah Renewable Methanol Plant was commissioned by Carbon
Recycling International in 2011 in Iceland and designed for a 4kt/yr
capacity with a EUR 7.1 million investment. There are plans for
scaling up this plant to 40kt/yr.
* Mitsui Chemicals has developed a pilot plant in Japan (capacity of
100 tonne per years), which began operation in 2009.
* DOW is undertaking a demonstration project to produce methanol by
combining CO2 from a gas power plant with hydrogen, at a site
Germany near Hamburg. The project was awarded funding by the Germany
government in 2019. It is would produce 42 kt of methanol per year.
* The GreenHydroChem project (by a consortium involving Siemens,
Linde, and Fraunhofer) is undertaking a demonstration project at a
chemical site in Leuna, Germany. A 50 MW electrolyzer will produce
hydrogen using renewable electricity, for conversion into methanol
and other chemicals at local refineries. The project was awarded
funding by the Germany government in 2019, and has been partially up
and running using a 1MW electrolyser since 2021. Siemens is also
looking into developing a large-scale wind power-to-methanol project
in Patagonia, Argentina.
* Wacker and Lind received funding in March 2021 for a 20 MW
electrolysis plant and a 15 kt synthesis plant for producing methanol.
*Announced development targets:*
* In April 2021, Ningxia Baofeng Energy began operation of a hydrogen
production facility partially powered by 200-MW solar power plant
(100 MW electrolyser capacity) in Northwest China's Ningxia Hui
autonomous region. The hydrogen replaces a portion of coal as a
feedstock for producing methanol; however it is less than half of
the total energy needs, and thus is not yet considered a full
commericial-scale example of methanol production from variable
renewables. The 16kt/yr of hydrogen production is enough to produce
about 0.1 Mt methanol/yr.
* CRI is building its first commerical plant (0.1 Mt methanol/yr) in
Henan, China. They are also planning a commercial plant (0.1 Mt
methanol/yr) in Finnfjord, Norway, expected to begin operation in 2024.
* ABEL Energy is conducting a feasibility study for a large-scale
electrolysis-based hydrogen and methanol facility at the Bell Bay
Advanced Manufacturing Zone in Tasmania, Australia. The 100 MW
electrolysis plant would produce 60-70 kt of methanol per year, with
production expected to begin in 2023.
* Ten private-and public-sector partners have launched the
North-C-Methanol project on the Rodenhuize peninsula in North Sea
Port in Belgium. The plan is to build a 65MW electrolyzer for the
production 44kt of near-zero emission methanol per year. Already
under construction, the site is planned to be fully online by 2030
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
8 Industry > Chemicals and plastics Methanol > Production > Biomass
and waste gasification Production Moderate Details
Biomass can replace oil, natural gas and coal as a feedstock for
methanol production. The biomass feedstock is converted into syngas,
which is then conditioned for methanol sythesis.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Bioenergy
*Key countries:* Canada, Sweden, Netherlands, Denmark
*Key initiatives:*
The Canadian company Enerkem operates a full-scale commercial facility
in Edmonton as well as both an innovation centre and a pilot facility in
Quebec. Since 2000, Enerkem has tested and validated a number of
different feedstocks – from solid waste to dozens of other types of
residues and its proprietary technology was scaled up from pilot to
demonstration to commercial stage during a period of 10 years. The
process converts the carbon contained in non-recyclable waste into a
pure synthesis gas (syngas), which is then turned into biofuels and
chemicals, using commercially available catalysts.
* BioMCN produces bioemthanol at the Chemical Park Delfzijl in
Netherlands, with a capacity of 15kt of bioemethanol
* The Spanish-based ECOPLANTA project was announced in late 2021.
Funded by the European Commission, the project is a groundbreaking
illustration of the circular economy. It involves a new plant that
will process some 400,000 tonnes of non-recyclable municipal solid
waste from nearby municipalities and will produce around 220,000
tonnes of methanol annually. This methanol will be used as a
feedstock to produce renewable chemicals or advanced biofuels,
cutting GHG emission by some 200,000 tonnes each year and reducing
waste that would otherwise end up in landfills.
*Announced development targets:*
* A commercial scale biomethanol plant was announced in 2012 by
VärmlandsMetanol AB in Hagfors, Sweden. In 2016 VärmlandsMetanol AB,
together with ThyssenKrupp Industrial Solutions as technology
supplier and engineering partner, announced that the Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) and the Risk Assessment had been completed
as required by the Municipal Planning and Building Act and the
Swedish Environmental Act. The latest available information suggests
the project may still be pending permit approvals and funding in
order to commence construction.
* Vordingborg biofuels in Denmark are working towards a facility that
produces 300kt/y of biomethanol, with the goal being an operational
facilitiy in 2024
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 Industry > Chemicals and plastics Methanol > Production > CCUS >
Chemical absorption Production High Details
Chemical absorption of CO2 is a common process operation based on the
reaction between CO2 and a chemical solvent (e.g. amine-based). The CO2
is released at temperatures typically in the range 120°C to 150°C and
the solvent regenerated for further operation.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS, CO2 removal
*Key countries:* Brazil, Bahrain
*Key initiatives:*
We are not aware of projects currently use this capture technology in
methanol production linked with CO2 storage - thus the technology is at
TRL 5 for the full CCS chain, in contrast to TRL 9 for CCU.
*Deployment targets:*
Multiple commercial coal-based methanol plants use chemical absorption
as part of the production process, putting the capture technology itself
at TRL 11. We are aware of two projects subsequently using the CO2,
putting the CCU chain at TRL 9.
* A QPC Quimica methanol plant in Brazil has been capturing CO2 since
1997 using amine-base capture. Food-grade CO2 is supplied to local
soft drink manufacturers.
* At a methanol plant in Bahrain, owned by Gulf Petrochemicals
Industries Company, a CO2 capture project began in 2007, using the
Mitsubishi KS-1 amine-based solvent. The CO2 is used to enhance
methanol and urea production.
7 Industry > Chemicals and plastics Methanol > Production > CCUS >
Physical absorption Production High Details
Physical absorption uses a liquid solvent to absorb CO2 from flue gases
that have high CO2 partial pressures, without a chemical reaction
occurring. Common physical solvents include Selexol (dimethyl ethers of
polyethylene glycol) and Rectisol (methanol).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS, CO2 removal
*Key countries:* United States
*Announced development targets:*
* Lake Charles Methanol is aiming to develop an industrial scale (4 Mt
CO2/yr) methanol plant with 90% CCS in the US. It will use Rectisol
physical acid gas removal and CO2 will be stored in the course of
its use for enhanced oil recovery, putting the full CCS chain
currently at TRL 7 (since the project is not yet operational).
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
8 Industry > Chemicals and plastics Methanol > Production > CCUS >
Physical adsorption Production High Details
Physical separation is based on adsorption, in which molecules are
captured on the surface of selective materials called adsorbents.
Desorption of the CO2 (release from the surface) may be achieved using
pressure swing adsorption (PSA), performed at high pressure, or vacuum
swing adsorption (VSA), which operates at ambient pressure. A hybrid
configuration also exists, known as Vacuum Pressure Swing Adsorption (VPSA).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS, CO2 removal
*Key countries:* China
*Key initiatives:*
* Changqing Oil Field EOR project in China, capturing 50 kt CO2/yr
since 2015. Capture type unknown but assumed to be physical adsorption.
*Announced development targets:*
* Xinjiang Dunhua 0.1 Mt CO2/year capture project using PSA relaxation
gas from a methanol plant, was commissioned in 2016. The captured
CO2 was used for enhanced oil recovery in Karamay oilfield (putting
the TRL of the full CCS chain at 8).
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
7 Industry > Chemicals and plastics Methanol > Production > Methane
pyrolysis Production Moderate Details
Methane splitting/pyrolysis/cracking is a thermochemical process in
which methane is decomposed in H2 and solid carbon in the presence of a
catalyst, thus generated CO2-free H2 since the carbon present in the
methane is separated as a solid carbon that can be used in different
applications. In methanol production, methane pyrolysis can be used to
generate the required syngas without emitting CO2; the subsequent
process steps - methanol synthesis and distillation - can be carrier out
nearly unchanged.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* Germany, Australia, United States, United Kingdom,
Netherlands, Korea
*Key initiatives:*
* Several projects are working towards using methane pyrolysis to
produce hydrogen. While some are already planning to use the
hydrogen to produce methanol, for others the intended use of
hydrogen is not yet determined. Projects include:
* BASF is pilot testing in Ludwigshafen, Germany; first
industrial-scale plant expected around 2030; technology expected to
be used for producing chemicals such as ammonia and methanol
* Hazer Group is preparing for construction of a commercial
demonstration project in Munster, Australia
* C-Zero is working on commercialising a methane pyrolysis technology
developed at the University of California, Santa Barbara in the
United States; in early 2021 funds were raised for a first pilot plant
* A number of other companies and research institutions have done
lab-scale testing, with a few – including HiiROC in the United
Kingdom, TNO in the Netherlands and KIT in Germany – working towards
pilot plants.
*Announced development targets:*
* Monolith completed pilot testing in Redwood City, CA, United States
during 2013-15. First commercial unit - Olive Creek 1, 14 kt/yr
carbon black capacity; Hallam, NE; operation began in 2021 with
successful production and customer deliveries of carbon black.
Second phase to begin construction on same site, Olive Creek 2;
production expected to begin 2023/24; will produce 275 kt/yr ammonia
and 180 kt/yr carbon black. Expanded production globally is
planning, including through a memorandum of understanging signed
with SK Inc. in Korea in late 2021.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 Industry > Cement and concrete End-of-life > Unhydrated cement
recycling End-of-life Moderate Details
In the process of concrete curing, some portion of cement does not come
in contact with water and is left unhydrated (some estimates suggest
that up to 50% of cement could remain unhydrated). New concrete crushing
technologies are under development that would enable recovering this
unhydrated cement from end-of-life concrete for direct reuse as new cement.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Material efficiency
*Key countries:* Netherlands
*Deployment targets:*
* The SmartCrusher/SmartLiberator machine, developed in Netherlands,
crushes concrete such that it separately yields sand and gravel,
hydrated cement (which can be used as a filler for new concrete) and
unhydrated cement (which can be directly reused as cement, known
commercially as Freement). The technology was initially patented by
its inventor in 2011 and a prototype was developed in 2013; it has
since been scaled up by the companies Rutte Group and New Horizon
Urban Mining, which are now offering Freement for commerical sale.
Currently available information does not specify the amount of
unhydrated cement that it has been possible to recover.
6 Industry > Cement and concrete End-of-life > Concrete recycling
End-of-life Moderate Details
Multiple processes have been developed for the recycling of concrete.
Concrete fine recycling produces crushed concrete fines (grain size of 0
- 4 mm), which account for about 40% of recycled concrete. Calcium oxide
(CaO) can be recovered from these fines and used in cement kilns to
replace a portion of limestone (CaCO3) inputs, which reduces process
emissions (by an estimated factor of three). It could also be used as a
filler in blended cements. Meanwhile, crushing concrete into its
constituent parts yields old cement powde which can be used first as a
replacement for lime flux in steelmaking, and then as zero-emission
clinker in cementmaking.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Material efficiency
*Key countries:* France, Netherlands, United Kingdom
*Key initiatives:*
* The University Lorraine and cement manufacturer Vicat in France are
conducting tests of the use of concrete fines in cement production.
In 2018, they undertook an industrial scale trial using recycled
aggregates produced by Belgian company Tradecowall and Agregats du
Centre in France to produce 5 kt of raw meal. They were able to
incorporate 14% concrete fines into the raw material mix for clinker
production and produced clinker with similar free lime content as
standard clinker production.
* As part of the Horizon 2020 VEEP project, researchers from Delft
University in Netherlands have pilot tested a technology called
"HAS", which removeds moisture and contaminants from fine aggregates
to improve their quality for used in new cements.
* Lab scale testing has been carried out by other institutions, such
as at the University of La Rochelle in France. and Delft University
in Netherlands.
* Engineers at Cambridge University have invented a method of cement
recycling that could lower emissions from both the cement and steel
sectors. Taking waste from demolished buildings and seperating it
into its constituent parts, the process yields old cement powder
which can then be used instead of lime-flux in steel-making, after
which (being nearly identical to the clinker that serves as the
basis of Portland cement) it can be re-used in cement-making,
lowering the emissions of both industrial processes.
8 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Cement kiln > CCUS >
Chemical absorption, partial capture rates (less than 20%) Production
Moderate Details
Chemical absorption of CO2 is a common process operation based on the
reaction between CO2 and a chemical solvent (e.g. amine-based). The CO2
is released at temperatures typically in the range 120°C to 150°C and
the solvent regenerated for further operation. It can be applied to
kilns, the main unit producing clinker for cement production.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS
*Key countries:* United States, Spain
*Announced development targets:*
* Commercial-scale post-combustion CCU facility opened in 2014 at
Capitol Aggregates plant in Texas, capturing 15% of cement
production emissions (75 kt CO2/yr) for use in materials like baking
soda, bleach and hydrochloric acid
* In January 2022, Lafarge Holcim announced a joint venture with
Carbon Clean and Sistemas de Calor, called ECCO2, to adopt CO2
capture at its Carboneras plant in Almeria, Spain. The project aims
for commissioning in early 2023 and would capture 10% of the plant's
emissions.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
7 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Cement kiln > CCUS >
Chemical absorption (full capture rates) Production Very high Details
Chemical absorption of CO2 is a common process operation based on the
reaction between CO2 and a chemical solvent (e.g. amine-based). The CO2
is released at temperatures typically in the range 120°C to 150°C and
the solvent regenerated for further operation. It can be applied to
kilns, the main unit producing clinker for cement production.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS
*Key countries:* Norway, Canada, India, China, Sweden, United Kingdom
*Key initiatives:*
* A feasibility study from July 2016 showed that CO2-capture is
feasible at an industrial scale in Norcem's cement factory in
Brevik, Norway.
* Pilot plant (50 kt CO2/yr) began operation in 2018 by Anhui Conch in
China
*Announced development targets:*
* Lehigh Cement (a subsidiary of Heidelberg Cement) is conducting a
feasibility study of a commercial-scale CCS project in the Edmonton,
Alberta cement plant (0.6 Mt CO2/yr). The study is conducted in
collaboration with the International CCS Knowledge Centre and it
will encompass engineering designs, cost estimation and a fulsome
business case analysis. The plant could be in service as early as 2025.
* Norcem (a subsidiary of HeidelbergCement) is working on a full scale
project (0.4 Mt CO2/yr) in Brevik, which received funding approval
from the Norweigan government in late 2020; it is expected to be
able to commence operations by 2024. It will capture half of the
plants CO2 emissions.
* Hanson UK (a subsidiary of Heidelberg Cement) announced in spring
2021 that it is undertaking a feasibility study to adopt carbon
capture at its Padeswood plant, as part of the Hynet North West
consortium project. Commercial operation is targeted by 2027
(capturing 0.8 Mt CO2/yr).
* Cementa (a subsidiary of HeidelbergCement) announced in June 2021
plans to apply carbon capture and storage (0.8 Mt CO2/yr) to its
plant in Slite on the island of Gotland in Sweden. It aims to
capture all of the cement plants emissions (1.8 Mt CO2/yr) by 2030.
* Dalmia Cement announced in 2019 it will undertake large-scale
demonstration (0.5 Mt CO2/year) using the CDRMax capture process at
its plant in Tamil Nadu, India
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* ECRA has estimated that installation costs for a 2Mt facility could
decrease to 100-300 million EUR by 2030 and 80-250 million EUR by
2050; for retrofitting, the cost would be 100-300 million by 2030
and 80-250 million EUR by 2050
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
7 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Cement kiln > CCUS >
Calcium looping Production Very high Details
Calcium looping is a technology that involves CO2 capture at high
temperature using two main reactors. In the first reactor, lime (CaO) is
used as a sorbent to capture CO2 from a gas stream to form calcium
carbonate (CaCO3). The CaCO3 is subsequently transported to the second
reactor where it is regenerated, resulting in lime and a pure stream of
CO2. The lime is then looped back to the first reactor. Nearly pure
oxygen is typically used (oxyfuel combustion) to supply a large heat
flow to the second reactor. A main benefit of calcium looping is
potentially lower overall process energy consumption compared to other
capture technologies. The technology is well suited for application to
the flue gases from kilns, the main unit producing clinker for cement
production.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS
*Key countries:* Germany, Italy, Chinese Taipei
*Key initiatives:*
* Pilot-scale demonstration completed by CEMCAP at University of
Stuttgart (Germany); the technology is being taken forward as a
pre-commercial retrofit demonstration at BuzziUnicem plant (1.3 Mt
cement/yr) in Italy by CLEANKER project. The demo plant was
inaurgurated in October 2020, with testing to take place over the
subsequent year.
* Taiwan Cement has been testing calcium looping capture at its Heping
Plant in Hualien, Taiwan since 2017, with successful pilot-scale
trials completed. The technology, called High Efficiency Calcium
Looping Technology (HECLOT) was developed by Taiwan's Industrial
Technology Research Institute.
*Announced development targets:*
* In 2019, Taiwan Cement committed USD 19 million to expand its CCUS
technology program, aiming for commercial-scale (0.45 Mt CO2
capture) by 2025.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Costs in the European context have been estimated at 36 EUR/tonne
clinker.
* The Taiwan Cement project is aiming for capture costs of
USD10-15/tonne CO2 by 2025
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
6 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Cement kiln > CCUS >
Oxy-fuelling Production High Details
Oxyfuel CO2 capture involves combusting a fuel using nearly pure oxygen
instead of air. The flue gas will be composed of CO2 and water vapour,
which can be dehydrated to obtain a high-purity CO2 stream. Oxygen is
commonly produced by separating oxygen from air in an air separation
unit. Advanced concepts with potential for cost reduction include
oxyfuel gas turbines and pressurised oxyfuel CO2 capture, which require
fewer materials and are potentially cheaper to operate. The technology
can be applied to kilns, the main unit producing clinker for cement
production.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS
*Key countries:* Italy, Austria, Denmark, Germany
*Key initiatives:*
* The development of oxyfuel capture and oxygen production
technologies has been driven by several research centres,
universities and private companies, in particular industrial gas
producers (e.g. Air Liquide, Air Products, Linde, Praxair).
* In Dania, Denmark, oxy-fuel capture was successfully piloted in a
kiln precalciner (cooperation between Airliquide and FLSmidth)
* The joint research corporation Cement Innovation for Climate –
initiated by the four European cement producers Buzzi Unicem -
Dyckerhoff, HeidelbergCement AG, SCHWENK Zement KG and Vicat – will
build and operate an oxyfuel test facility on a semi-industrial
scale at the premises of the Mergelstetten cement plant in Southern
Germany. The project was launched in late 2019 with the name
'catch4climate'.
* While there were plans to convert two European cement plants to
oxyfuel technology in order to test it in industrial-scale
operations (the Colleferro plant of HeidelbergCement in Italy and
the Retznei plant of LafargeHolcim in Austria), funding has faced
challenges and it is uncertain if the projects will be realized.
* Working with Holcim Deutschland GmbH, Carbon2Business will deploy a
second generation oxyfuel carbon capture process at Holcim’s
Lägerdorf cement plant in Germany, capturing over 1 million t CO2eq
annually and will provide it as a raw material for further
processing into synthetic methanol.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* ECRA has estimated that installation costs for a 2Mt facility could
decrease to 355-380 million EUR by 2030 and 290-312 million EUR by
2050; for retrofitting, the cost would be 105-130 million by 2030
and 86-107 million EUR by 2050
6 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Cement kiln > CCUS >
Novel physical adsorption (silica or organic-based) Production
Moderate Details
The technology involves a new structured adsorbent, which has a large
surface area and can catch and release CO2 at very rapid rates (60
seconds, compared to hours for other technologies). The adsorbents are
made from new classes of materials such as functionalized-silica or
metal-organic frameworks. Among its various applications, it can be
applied to kilns, the main unit producing clinker for cement production.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS
*Key countries:* Canada, United States, Switzerland
*Key initiatives:*
* The CO2MENT project in Canada launched trials in 2019 of Svante’s
(formerly Inventys) CO2 capture technology at a LafargeHolcim cement
plant, and has successfuly captured CO2; the project completed its
second phase in early 2021, capturing 1 tonne of CO2 per day, and in
its third phase trials will be undertaken to use the CO2 for
low-carbon fuels and concrete
* CEMEX has started a collaborative project (with Univ Nottingham,
Ulster Univ, BASF, among others) financed by the BFE called “ABSALT
- Accelerating Basic Solid Adsorbent Looping Technology”. The
project is evaluating the performance of silica-based adsorbent for
use in cement and lime production through a pilot-scale facility,
running from late 2021 to 2024.
*Announced development targets:*
* In early 2020, Svante, LafargeHolcim, Oxy Low Carbon Ventures, and
Total announced a joint study to assess the viability, design and
cost of a commercial-scale carbon-capture facility at the Holcim
Portland Cement Plant in Florence, Colorado, U.S (0.75 Mt CO2/yr)
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* The technology is aiming for capital costs that are half that of
existing solutions
6 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Cement kiln > CCUS >
Direct separation Production Moderate Details
Direct separation involves indirectly heating limestone for clinker
production in a calciner using a special steel vessel. This enables pure
CO2 from limestone (process emissions) to be captured as it is released
since fuel combustion emissions are kept separate.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS
*Key countries:* Belgium
*Key initiatives:*
Successful pilot-scale demonstration of the technology, developed by
Calix, at Heidelberg Cement plant in Lixhe, Belgium by LEILAC project in
2019, targeting large scale demonstration in 2025. In early 2021, a
decision was taken for the demo to occur at the Hanover plant in
Germany, and the Financial Investment Decision milestone was passed in
March 2022, enabling the project to move forward with implementation.
The demo with capture 0.1 Mt CO2/yr, or 20% of the plant's emissions.
*Announced development targets:*
* The LEILAC project is targeting commercial application in 2030
4 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Cement kiln > CCUS >
Membrane separation Production Moderate Details
Membrane separation uses a semi-selective membrane (a polymeric membrane
that allows some gases to pass through but not others) to concentrate
CO2 on one side of the membane, thus separating it from a stream. It can
be applied to kilns, the main unit producing clinker for cement production.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Laboratory scale trials have been carried out, but the technology
remains in early development stages
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Cost information published by the UNESCO Centre for Membrane Science
and Technology predicted costs as low as 25 euros/tonne CO2 avoided
could be possible by the 2030-2050 timeframe.
5 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Cement kiln >
Electrification (direct) Production Moderate Details
Kilns - the main unit producing clinker for cement production - require
high temperature heat and typically run on fossil fuels. Exploration is
underway to electrify the heating process, through technologies such as
the plasma arc or resistance-based heating.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Direct electrification
*Key countries:* Sweden, United Kingdom, Norway, Finland
*Key initiatives:*
* In its Decarbonate project, VTT conducted trials in late 2021/early
2022 of a pilot electric kiln in Finland that successfully produced
clinker (100 kg/hr capacty). They have plans to continue scaling up
the technology in the coming years.
* CemZero is a project developed by Swedish cement producer Cementa
and energy utility major Vattenfall, launched in June 2017 with the
aim to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. As feasibility study has
indicated that electrification of the heating process is technically
possible and that any future electrification of Cementa’s factory on
Gotland would work well together with the planned expansion of wind
energy on Gotland. The feaisbility study involved a test in a
small-scale rotary kiln, in which clinker was produced with plasma
heating. The project is continuing with an investigation on how a
pilot plant can be built. It will test plasma technology in order to
reduce technical risks and provide important information prior to
scaling up and implementation.
* In February 2020, the Mineral Products Association (a UK trade
association) was awarded 3.2 million pounds by the UK government to
test hydrogen, biomass and electricity use in cement production.
Physical trials were launced at two sites operated by Tarmac and
Hanson Cement - one of hydrogen and biomass used together, and the
other of electrical plasma energy and biomass used together. The
trials follow a 2019 feasibility study that found a combination of
70% biomass, 20% hydrogen and 10% plasma energy could eliminate
fossil fuel CO2 emissions from cement manufacturing. In September
2021, the Hanson Cement project reported successful completion of
the trial, having operated the kilns using only net zero fuels (a
mix of meat and bone meal, glycerine and tanker-delivered hydrogen).
* The ELSE project, a collaboration between Norcem, the University of
Southeastern Norway and SINTEF, was initiated in Norway in 2018 to
investigate the possibility and conditions for partially
electrifying cement production. The technical feasibility study
found that electrification of the calcination process in a
precalcincer cement kiln is likely possible using resistance-based
heating. Work on the project is ongoing, including developing an
outline of a pilot plant.
* Finish-based Coolbrook that is developing an electrification
technology called the Roto Dynamic Heater signed memorandums of
understanding with Cemex and UltraTech Cement in spring of 2022,
likely to work towards implementing the technology in a cement plant.
3 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Cement kiln >
Electrolyser-based process for decarbonating calcium carbonate prior to
clinker production in the kiln Production Moderate Details
Calcination of limestone, in which calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is
converted to calcium oxide (CaO) and carbon dioxide (CO2), is a key
process of cement production that takes place in a kiln. A process is
under development to instead electrochemically convert calcium carbonate
into calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) in an electrolyzer, producing a
concentrated CO2/O2 steam (to which CO2 capture could be applied) and
hydrogen (that could be used in subsequent stages of production). The
calcium hydroxide can then be converted to calcium silicates needed for
cement in a kiln.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS, Materials, Electrochemistry
*Key countries:* United States
*Key initiatives:*
The concept has been developed and proven through laboratory-scale
testing at MIT. The results of the lab-scale test were published in fall
of 2019 in Processing of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America (PNAS).
4 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Cement kiln > Partial
use of hydrogen Production Moderate Details
Kilns - the main unit producing clinker for cement production - require
high temperature heat and typically run on fossil fuels. Exploration is
underway to replace a portion of the fossil fuels with hydrogen; the
properties of hydrogen are such that it is not expected it could fully
replace fossil fuel requirements.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Hydrogen
*Key countries:* United Kingdom
*Key initiatives:*
* In February 2020, the Mineral Products Association (a UK trade
association) was awarded 3.2 million pounds by the UK government to
test hydrogen, biomass and electricity use in cement production.
Physical trials were launced at two sites operated by Tarmac and
Hanson Cement - one of hydrogen and biomass used together, and the
other of electrical plasma energy and biomass used together. The
hydrogen triel with be at the Hason Ribbelsdale plant. The trials
follow a 2019 feasibility study that found a combination of 70%
biomass, 20% hydrogen and 10% plasma energy could eliminate fossil
fuel CO2 emissions from cement manufacturing. In September 2021, the
Hanson Cement project reported successful completion of the trial,
having operated the kilns using only net zero fuels (a mix of meat
and bone meal, glycerine and tanker-delivered hydrogen).
* CEMEX has piloted use of hydrogen in a kiln in Spain, and is now
using hydrogen in its fuel mix in Europe, blended in small
quantites. In 2022, Cemex's Rugby plant in the UK was the first
plant to eliminate the use of fossil fuels, operating on 100%
alterantive fuels. Further, the Rudersdorft plant in Germany is to
be carbon neutral by 2030 as part of the Carbon Neutral Alliance
project.
6 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Cement kiln > Direct
heat from variable renewables Production Moderate Details
A concentrated solar power (CSP) plant uses mirrors to concentrate solar
radiation and convert it in high temperature heat. This can be used in
different industrial processes that need high temperature, such as
non-metallic particles treatment and clinker production.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Renewable heat
*Key countries:* France, United States
*Key initiatives:*
* The EU-funded project SOLPART in the French Pyrenees aims to develop
and implement a high-temperature (up to 1000°C) 24h/day process for
use in energy-intensive non-metallic mineral industries. The main
challenges are the circulation of the particles inside the reactor
vessel, the application to large scale, the stability of the
reactor's materials at this temperature. A pilot-scale calcination
solar reactor was successfully commissioned in mid 2019, with a 1 MW
solar furnace.
* HELIOGEN is a U.S. based startup funded by Bill Gates that unveiled
in 2019 its new CSP technique that has proven capable of generating
heat above 1000°C. The robotic heliostats use an Artificial
Intelligence algorithm to position and redirect all the sunlight to
a single point. The challenge is now to scale up the test facility
(in the Mojave desert) to commercialization (including industrial
production from the heat generated).
* Paul Scherrer Institute, ETH Zurich and LafargeHolcim are performing
a long-term research into the use of concentrated solar power in
cement manufacturing. The aim is to produce a synthetic gas to
substitute fossil fuels in the cement kilns.
*Announced development targets:*
* SOLPART is aiming to open a partially solar-powered cement plant by
2025.
6-9 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Advanced grinding
technologies Production Moderate Details
A range of more efficient raw material and fuel grinding technologies
for cement production are under research and development. They include
contact-free grinding systems, ultrasonic-comminution, high voltage
power pulse gragementation, low temperature comminution.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* Europe
*Key initiatives:*
Various new grinding technologies are at different stages of
development, including development of prototypes and industrial-scale
development in a number of cases.
*Deployment targets:*
* Commercialisation is expected within the next few years for some
processes, but less-developed processes will likely have longer
timeframes.
9 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Raw materials >
Supplementary cementious materials/alternative cement constituents >
Calcined clay Production High Details
Calcined clay is an alternative cement constituent that can be used
instead of clinker in blended cements.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* Brazil, China
*Key initiatives:*
* Limestone calcined clay cement was developed through a collaboration
of researchers from the Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de LaUnited
Statesnne (EPFL) in Switzerland, the University of Las Villas in
Cuba and three Indian Institutes of Technology - IIT Delhi, IIT
Madras and IIT Bombay.
* A more energy-efficient large-scale flash calciner is being
developed in China, which should considerably improve the
energy-efficiency of calcinating clay. This would make calcined clay
use even more attractive by reducing its energy consumption. Two 300
tonnes per day lines have already been built.
* Danish company FUTURECEM has developed a method of combining
calcined clay and limsetone filler, allowing for more than 40%
clinker replacement in cement
*Deployment targets:*
* Use of calcined clay is limited to a number of countries (especially
in locations with existing stockpiles of suitable clays from
ceramics industries, as Brazil) and in low proportions. Challenges
remain to be overcome regarding early compressive strength.
3 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Raw materials > Ordinary
Portland Cement from non-carbonate calcium sources Production Very
high Details
Orindary Portland Cement from non-carbonate calcium sources like calcium
silicate rocks (eg. basalt), recycled cement, mine tailing or other
calcium containing industry waste results in no process emissions. It
can also co-produce supplementary cementious materials that improve the
economics of the process, and may produce waste products that sequester
CO2 and thus yield negative emissions. Since these processes achieve the
same chemical composition as Ordinary Portland Cement, there are not
limitations to the applications for which they can be used and they do
not face major regulatory barriers to adoption.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* United States
*Key initiatives:*
* US-based start-up Brimstone has successfully tested the technology
in the lab in 2021 in its laboratories in Idaho and California,
producing about 1 kg of Ordinary Portland Cement clinker.
*Announced development targets:*
* In 2022 Brimstone announced plans to build a first-of-a-kind
demonstration plant in the United States (with capacity of several
hundred or thousand tonnes), with the aim for it to by running by
the end of 2024.
8 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Raw materials >
Alternative binding material > Carbonation of calcium silicates
Production Moderate Details
Cements based on carbonation of calcium silicates can sequester CO2 as
they cure. Therefore, even if they are based on similar raw materials to
PC clinker, these types of cement can yield zero process CO2 emissions
in net terms, as the emissions would essentially be re-absorbed during
the curing process. As alternative binding materials, they would have a
different chemical composition compared to Ordinary Portland Cement.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* United States
*Key initiatives:*
* The technology was first produced in 2014 by Solidia Technologies at
the Lafarge Whitehall plent in Pennsylvania, United States, and has
since expanded production with additional runs at the Whitehall
plant and also at the Pecs plant in Hungary.
* Fortera has developed a process for making cement with significantly
fewer emissions than traditional portland cement. Instead of the
traditional mix of materials, they use just limestone, allowing
their kilns to operate at lower temperatures and handle higher
throughputs at the same scale. Further, their ReCarb process
re-carbonates Calcium Oxide without losing its cementitious
properties. The result is a cementitious mineral that is rich in
CO2, and 60% fewer emissions than traditional cement production.
*Announced development targets:*
* In 2019 Solidia Technologies and LafargeHolcim launched the first
commercial venture, suppling EP Henry's paver and block plant in the
US with their cement.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
3 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Raw materials >
Alternative binding material > Magnesium oxides derived from magnesium
silicates Production Moderate Details
Cements based on magnesium oxides derived from magnesium silicates
(MOMSs) are, in principle, able to counterbalance or even absorb more
CO2 than the amount released in the manufacturing process while curing
(i.e. yielding net negative CO2 emissions). This characteristic would
only be a true environmental advantage if the magnesium oxides are
provided from natural magnesium sources free of carbon, such as
magnesium silicate rocks, in contrast to magnesium carbonate.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* United Kingdom
*Key initiatives:*
* R&D largely remains in university labs, and at present apparently
seems to be largely on hold
* A commercial venture (UK company Novacem) to develop an industrial
manufacturing process began in 2008 but ended in 2012 due to lack of
funding
* Currently, there is no industrial-scale optimised process developed,
and the unresolved issue that is most critical is the production at
industrial scale of magnesium oxides from basic magnesium silicates
with acceptable energy efficiency levels
9 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Raw materials >
Alternative binding material > Alkali-activated binders (geopolymers)
Production Moderate Details
Alkali-activated binders are produced by the reaction of an
alumino-silicate (the precursor) with an alkali activator. They rely on
materials similar to those used in blended cement to reduce the clinker
to cement ratio.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* United States, Canada, Switzerland
*Key initiatives:*
North America-based Terra CO2 is working to develop a geopolmer cement
that may be able to fully replace Portland Cement. They are targetting
comercial availability by late 2024
*Deployment targets:*
Some cements based on alkali-activated binders are already commercially
available, although have been primarily used in non-structural
applications.
* As one example, CEMEX offers a geopolymer-based cement, called
Vertua Ultra Zero and developed in its research centre in
Switzerland, which it claims reduces CO2 emissions by 70% relative
to standard cement. Its applications include foundations, roads and
groundworks.
9 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > CO2 sequestration in
inert carbonate materials (mineralisation) Production Moderate Details
CO2 from industrial emitters can be used as a raw material in the
production of building materials. The most mature applications involve
the replacement of water with CO2 during the formation of concrete,
called CO2 curing, and the reaction of CO2 with waste materials from
power plants or industrial processes (e.g. iron slag, coal fly ash),
which would otherwise be stockpiled or stored in landfill, to form
construction aggregates (small particulates used in building materials).
The CO2 used in building materials is permanently stored in the product.
CO2-cured concrete can deliver lower costs compared to
conventionally-produced concrete, while building materials from waste
and CO2 can be competitive in some cases as it avoids the cost
associated with conventional waste disposal. Producing building
materials from waste can be energy intensive, in particular the
pre-treatment and post-treatment steps. For structural applications of
building materials (e.g. building, bridges, etc), multi-year trials
projects are required to demonstrate safe and environmental-friendly
performance
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS
*Key countries:* United Kingdom, United States, Canada, France, Germany,
China, Netherlands, Japan
*Key initiatives:*
* The CO2Min project, led by HeidelbergyCement and RWTH Aachen
University, are exploring absorption of CO2 from flue gas by the
minerals olivine and basalt; the concept has been proven but needs
piloting
* The FastCarb project (accelerated carbonation of recycle concrete
aggregate), which originated in 2018 in France, is investigating
accelerated carbonation in recycled concrete aggregates (which have
properites that could enable them to carbonated more quickly than
concrete in structures). The project is still at the laboratory
stages and is aiming for demonstration at the pre-industrial scale.
*Deployment targets:*
A number of companies have built commercial plants producing CO2-derived
materials, such as:
* The British company Carbon8 uses around 5 kt/yr of high-purity CO2
to convert around 60 kt/yr of air pollution control residues into
lightweight aggregates as a component of building materials in the
United Kingdom. According to Carbon8, the process fixes more CO2 in
the aggregate than it emits over its life cycle, resulting in
carbon-negative aggregate. Demonstration projects have been
successfully completed in Canada and the United States. In November
2020, the first commercial project was commissioned at Vicat’s
Montalieu cement plant in southern France. It is also piloting a
system than combines industrial waste (fly ash from an energy from
waste plant) with captured CO2 emissions to produce aggregates, at
AVR's plant in Duiven, Netherlands.
* In China, Sinoma International and CNBM completed a project in 2016
that uses CO2 to produce precipated barium carbonate (capacity of 50
kt/year).
* Canadian company CarbonCure has developed a commercial CO2 curing
process that is available in around 150 concrete plants. The company
claims that their product has better compressive strength and is
more cost-effective than concrete from Portland cement. The
technology is available for ready mix applications.
* US-based company BluePlanet produces a CO2-sequestered aggregate
produced through mineralisation.
* CO2-SUICOM (CO2-Storage Utilization, for Infrsatructure by Concrete
Materials) a product developed by Kajima Corporation, The Chugoku
Electric Power Company, Denka Company and Landes Corporation was
developed in 2011. A powder made of calcium hydroxide and silica,
when applied to concrete it cuts 306kg of CO2 per cubic meter on
average, which exceeds the CO2 produced through cement production in
many cases. The product has recently become commercially available,
being marketed by Mitsubishi Corporation.
4 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Cement kiln > CCUS >
Cryogenic capture Production Moderate Details
Cryogenic capture is a refrigeration-based system of separating CO2.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS, CO2 removal
*Key countries:* Poland
*Key initiatives:*
The GO4ECOPLANET project aims to create an end-to-end CCS chain starting
from CO2 capture and liquefaction at the Kujawy cement plant,
transporting LCO2 by train to the Gdansk terminal and shipping the LCO2
to the offshore storage sites. Air Liquide will act as technological
provider bringing Cryocap technology adapted to direct capture of flue
gas. The aim of the project is to be the first CO2-negative cement plant
in Europe.
7 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Raw materials >
Supplementary cementious materials/alternative cement constituents >
Pozzolans Production High Details
Traditionally, industrial by-products like coal fly ash have been used
in those role, but the decarbonization of the power sector will likely
lead to a reduction in the amount of coal used. Absent other
supplementary cementitious materials, the clinker-to-cement ratio will
need to increase, and emissions with it. Alternatives to traditional
supplementary cementitious can be developed to avoid a rise in emissions
from clinker.
*Key countries:* United States, Canada
*Key initiatives:*
* North America-based Terra CO2 has developed a process using
silicate-based igneous rocks (such as granite) and unconsolidated
sediment (such as sands and gravels) as a form of supplementary
cementing materials. Their OPUS Supplementary Cementitious Material
can act as a replacement for coal fly ash which has long been used
in the role, avoiding increased emissions that would come with a
higher clinker-to-cement ratio. They are targetting commercial
availability by end of 2022.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
6 Industry > Cement and concrete Production > Raw materials >
Alternative binding material > Raw clay Production High Details
An alternative concrete formula has been developed using raw clay as a
binding agent, along with an activator and a precursor.
*Key countries:* France
*Key initiatives:*
French company Materrup has developed Crosslinked clay cement - clay
cement containing up to 70% raw (not calcined) clay alongside an
activator and secondary precursor. It is currently in the pilot stage,
with plans to expand to a second facility.
2 Industry > Battery recycling Battery recycling > Battery design &
norms > Blockchain End-of-life Moderate Details
Using blockchain to monitor processes along the supply chain, from the
mine to recycling and to help reuse of old EV batteries for grid storage.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Volvo and Ford (with Everledger) want to follow their batteries with
blockchain.
5 Industry > Battery recycling Battery recycling > Battery design &
norms > Battery designed for recycling End-of-life Moderate Details
Designing batteries with recycling in mind, to make disassembly,
recycling or even rejuvenation easier, safer and more efficient.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
The ReCell Center coordinates recycling norms in the US and aims to
incorporate design for better recycling.
1-2 Industry > Battery recycling Cathode recycling > Sorting and
disassembly > Automatic battery recycling End-of-life Moderate Details
Having machines separating batteries reduces labour costs as well as the
risks encountered by workers. Requires complex AI. The heterogeneity of
battery design and lack of design for dissassembly increases the
complexity and is a barrier to this process.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Research is being conducted to allow robots to adapt to various battery
designs.
2-3 Industry > Battery recycling Cathode recycling > Sorting and
disassembly > Collaborative human-robot recycling End-of-life Moderate
Details
A human does the decision process and a robot arm help with the manual
task. Does not require elaborate AI but risks incurred by humans working
with machines must be managed.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Research in progress to develop a prototype in collaboration with Audi.
10-11 Industry > Battery recycling Cathode recycling > Sorting and
disassembly > Optisort End-of-life Moderate Details
A camera reads battery labels to sort them according to their chemistry.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Produced by REFIND Technologies and used in multiple countries (OBS 500).
9-10 Industry > Battery recycling Cathode recycling > Stabilisation
and passivation > Inert atmosphere End-of-life Moderate Details
Opening the battery in an inert atmosphere (CO2, N2 or Ar) creates a
passive layer on the lithium metal, protecting the battery.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Already used by recycling companies like Zenger (who have patents).
9-10 Industry > Battery recycling Cathode recycling > Stabilisation
and passivation > Water spraying End-of-life Moderate Details
Spraying water on the battery during the opening and crushing phase
prevents thermal runaway.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Already used by Retriev (who have patents).
4 Industry > Battery recycling Cathode recycling > Stabilisation and
passivation > Brine opening End-of-life Moderate Details
Battery is processed in a salt solution making the cell safe by corrosion.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Principle tested in laboratory.
2-3 Industry > Battery recycling Cathode recycling > Stabilisation and
passivation > Direct Ohmic discharge End-of-life Moderate Details
A circuit fully discharges the battery. Allows consuming the electricity.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
This concept may face hurdles, in particular resulting from uncertainty
regarding its economic feasibility.
9-10 Industry > Battery recycling Cathode recycling > Stabilisation
and passivation > Cryogenic End-of-life Moderate Details
Liquid nitrogen cools the battery thus reducing the reactivity.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Used by Toxco (Canada) (who have patents).
10-11 Industry > Battery recycling Cathode recycling > Physical
material separation > Battery shredding End-of-life Moderate Details
Once stabilised, battery components are shredded to be separated.
Magnetic, density or size separation process then allow the separation
of ferrous, plastics and other parts.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Used by most battery recycling companies.
3-4 Industry > Battery recycling Cathode recycling > Physical material
separation > Ultrasound End-of-life Moderate Details
Ultrasound allow for a faster and more efficient separation of LiCoO2
from the cathode.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Experiments are being conducted by a team from Tongji University .
11 Industry > Battery recycling Cathode recycling >
Pyrometallurgical-smelting End-of-life Moderate Details
Batteries are smelted (~1 700°C) to gather many of the most valuable
metals (CO, Cu, Ni). No need for passivation or sorting. Low risks. No
reclamation of plastic or lithium. Can be followed by hydrometallurgical
processes for further separation.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Used by most recycling companies (e.g. SONY).
11 Industry > Battery recycling Cathode recycling > Hydrometallurgical
> Leaching End-of-life Moderate Details
Aqueous solutions leach the desired metal from the rest. It can work on
slag or directly on battery components. The difficulty is that different
chain of leaching acids and reducing agents are required for each
element. The process is time consuming and mixing anode and cathode
elements can increase the complexity. Requires pretreatment, which can
either be a mechanical shredding process or pyrometallurgy.
Hydrometallurgy can recover lithium.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Used in commercial and pilot scale recycling by Valdi, GEM High Tech,
Brunp, JX Nippon Mining and Metals, NorthVolt, and Fortum. Umicore uses
a combination of pyro- and hydrometallurgy.
3-4 Industry > Battery recycling Cathode recycling >
Hydrometallurgical > Cathode healing End-of-life Moderate Details
Extraction of the cathode and re-activation by lithium addition. The
cathode represents 30-40% of the battery cost so this method could be
cost-effective. Needs to be adapted for each battery type.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
The study from Gaines-Sloop shows the way for industrial scalable direct
recycling of cathodes. The ReCell Center at the Argonne National Lab in
the US is developing a directy cathode recycling process
3-4 Industry > Battery recycling Cathode recycling > Biological metals
reclamation-Bioleaching End-of-life Moderate Details
This technology makes use of microorganisms to help in the recovery of
metals (Li, CO, Cu, Ni, Mn, Al). The efficiency can even be higher than
other methods, but the time required is much longer than
hydrometallurgical methods.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Investigated by multiple research teams. Still in early development.
11 Industry > Battery recycling Copper recycling > Extraction from
cables > Mechanical stripping or crushing End-of-life Moderate Details
The plastic layer is stripped off the cables by blades or cables, these
parts are then crushed into particles then separated between plastic and
copper. Easy to implement and low cost.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Mechanical stripping/crushing is among the most widely used methods; and
is often used as the first step in a series of processes.
4 Industry > Battery recycling Copper recycling > Extraction from
cables > Cryogenic grinding End-of-life Moderate Details
Freezing plastic helps to break it and separate it from copper. Liquid
nitrogen is often used to maintain a temperature below -100 degrees
Celsius. The process produces dust.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Already tested. Still need to get at an industrial stage.
10-11 Industry > Battery recycling Copper recycling > Extraction from
cables > Ultrasonic separation End-of-life Moderate Details
The ultrasound cavitation effect is used to separate the plastic. The
rapid succession of compression and vacuum waves generate cavitation
bubbles which help separate the different elements. Efficient and no
pollution.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Already in use by Hielscher. Only for small scale.
3-4 Industry > Battery recycling Copper recycling > Extraction from
cables > High-pressure water End-of-life Moderate Details
High-pressure water jets remove plastic. High efficiency, no waste.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Development needed for large-scale application.
11 Industry > Battery recycling Copper recycling > Extraction from
cables > Chemical recycling End-of-life Moderate Details
A leaching solution dissolves the plastic. Useful for non-uniformly
sized cables. Produces waste.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Improvement needed on efficiency.
11 Industry > Battery recycling Copper recycling > Extraction from
cables > Incineration End-of-life Moderate Details
Copper is recovered by burning the cables. Low quality copper is
recovered, and toxic gasses are emitted. Formelly used a lot, it is now
forbidden in many countries.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Formerly used extensively, it is now forbidden in many countries.
10-11 Industry > Battery recycling Copper recycling > Extraction from
cables > Thermal decomposition End-of-life Moderate Details
Cables are placed in a warm environment with no oxygen. The plastic
degrades into organic fuel. Highly efficient, no waste, fuel can be reused.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
This methods is gradually replacing incineration, and is still improving.
3-4 Industry > Battery recycling Copper recycling > Extraction from
printed circuits > Supercritical carbon dioxide End-of-life Moderate
Details
Supercritical CO2 and co-solvents leach the Cu from the printed circuit
much more rapidly than regular acid and generates less waste.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Still requires some research to reduce costs and improve process
efficiencies.
10-11 Industry > Battery recycling Copper recycling > Extraction from
printed circuits > Leaching End-of-life Moderate Details
Acid and solvents are used to recover Cu from circuits.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Method already in use.
3-4 Industry > Battery recycling Copper recycling > Extraction from
printed circuits > Bioleaching End-of-life Moderate Details
Bacteria recovers copper. Lower waste than use of chemical leaching
agents but takes much more time.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Tested in the laboratory.
4 Industry > Battery recycling Copper recycling > Extraction from
printed circuits > Freezing process End-of-life Moderate Details
Same as cables. Useful for flexible circuits.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Laboratory tests have been conducted, but no pilot or industrial scale
tests have yet been done.
1 Industry > Battery recycling Copper recycling > Smelting -
electrolysis of molten semiconductor End-of-life Moderate Details
Method to allow the production of metal through electrolysis thanks to a
secondary electrolyte. This method might be a way to reduce CO2
emissions and energy consumption. Still experimental.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
This method has only been tested for antimony. In theory, it can be
applied also to copper and other metals.
9 Industry > Aluminium Manufacturing > Reducing metal forming losses
and lightweighting through additive manufacturing Production Moderate
Details
Reducing yield losses in manufacturing (e.g. sheet metal in the
automotive industry) would reduce material demand and in turn emissions
from material production. Additive manufacturing, a digitalized
production process in which three-dimensional objects are produced by
successively adding material by layer, by its nature leads to minimal
material losses compared to processes that cut an object from larger
pieces of material. It also facilitate design of lighter-weight parts.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Material efficiency
*Key countries:* United States, Italy, Germany
*Deployment targets:*
* The HRL Laboratories has developed an aluminium power that enables
high-strength wrought alloys to be 3D printed for the first time.
The commercial production began in mid-2019 with the first sale
going to NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center.
* GE-Avio Aero produces 3D-printed blades and other turbine parts
using a titanium alumide powder. It weighs 50% less than the metal
alloys tipically used in aviation, involving less material and,
through additive manufacturing, the freedom of design is increased.
3 Industry > Aluminium Manufacturing > Hydrogen for high-temperature
heat for anciliary processes Production Moderate Details
Hydrogen can be used to provide high temperature heat for anciliary
processes, such as finishing processes (ex. rolling), and possibly also
for alumina refining.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* Norway
*Key initiatives:*
In May 2021, the aluminium company Hydro and hydrogen company Everfuel
signed a Memorandum of Understanding to establish a framework for
coordinated development and operation of electrolysers to produce
hydrogen from renewables, to replace natural gas for heating purposes at
Hydro's aluminium plants.
7 Industry > Aluminium Production > Primary smelting > Inert anode
Production Very high Details
Primary aluminium smelting currently relies on carbon anodes, which
produce CO2 as they are consumed during the electrolyis process: the
anodes themselves participate in the reaction (they 'pull' oxygen atoms
away from alumina - AL2O3 - to produce pure aluminium) and are used up
over time. CO2 is also emitted during the production of anodes, which
require baking in an oven or furnace. Inert anodes made from alternative
materials produce pure oxygen instead of CO2 and do not degrade.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* Russia, Canada
*Key initiatives:*
In 2018 Alcoa and Rio Tinto announced the development of a inert anode
technology and the forming of a joint venture called Elysis to further
develop the new technology. Construction of its first commercial-scale
protoype cells at a smelter in Quebec, Canada, began in June 2021, and
aluminium production began in late 2021. They are aiming to complete the
demonstration by 2024.
* RUSAL's Krasnoyarsk plant in Russia has produced primary aluminium
using inert anode technology at an industrial scale (1 tonne of
aluminium per day per cell). In spring 2021, test deliveries of a
pilot batch of aluminium commenced. Further technology improvements
are expected to decrease the production cost.
*Announced development targets:*
* Alcoa and Rio Tinto target making inert anodes available for
retrofitting existing smelters starting in 2024.
* RUSAL's is targetting mass scale production by 2023.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* The Elysis technology claims to be able to lower operating costs of
aluminium production by 15%, along with reducing capital intensity
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
5 Industry > Aluminium Production > Primary smelting > Multipolar cell
Production Moderate Details
While conventional Hall-Héroult cells used for aluminium electrolysis
have a single-pole arrangements, multipolar cells could be produced by
using bilpolar electrodes or having multiple anode-cathode pairs in the
same cell. They have lower operating temperatures and higher current
densities, potentially reducing energy consumption by 40%. Their
formulate requires pairing with inert anodes.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* United States
*Key initiatives:*
* A prototype plant with a multipolar cell was developed by Alcoa in
the 1970s; however, it shut down due to high costs and various
technical challenges.
* More recent exploratory research and testing have been conducted by
both Northwest Aluminum and Argonne Laboratory, although it is still
in the early stages.
4 Industry > Aluminium Production > Alumina refining through the use
of biomass, electricity or hydrogen in the Bayer process Production
Very high Details
The Bayer process - the main method to refine bauxite into alumina (the
input to aluminium smelting) - requires 100 to 250 °C heat and steam,
which is currently delivered using fossil fuels. Testing is underway to
use alternative fuels, such as biomass or concentrated solar thermal.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable heat
*Key countries:* Australia
*Key initiatives:*
* Australian company South32 succesfully tested the use of 30%
biomass, waste from pine logging, in its multi-fuel cogeneration
facility (MFC) at the Worsley alumina refinery.
* A consortium (Adelaide, CSIRO, Alcoa, Hatch, ITP and UNSW) is
working to identify a realistic path to achieve a 50 per cent solar
share (CST) in the commercial Bayer alumina process. Their initial
tests have demonstrated in a 5kW solar transport reactor than
alumina can be calcined using CTS radiation.
* Alcoa is testing the potential to use renewable electricity in
alumina refining through a process called Mechanical Vapor
Recompression. In May 2021, the Australia Renewable Energy Agency
granted Alcoa USD 8.8 million (AUD 11.3 million) for its work in
this area. If feasibility studies are successful, Alcoa plans to
install a 3 MW module at the Wagerup refinery in Western Australia.
In a seperate pilot at the Pinjarra Alumina Refinery in Western
Australia , Alcoa is attempting to electrify the calcination process
of alumina refining, including with support of USD 5.9 million (AUD
8.6 million) from the Australian Renewable Energy Agency announced
in 2022. The pilot testing is targetting completion by mid-2026.
* Rio tinto announced in 2022 that it is planning to undertake a trial
to assess using hydrogen for alumina refining at the Yarwun plant in
Queensland, Australia. The study is supported by the Australian
Government, and involves a preliminary engineering and design study
for a potential demonstration project and a simulation in a
lab-scale reactor.
8 Industry > Aluminium Production > Integration of heat exchangers to
vary energy consumption and production levels Production Moderate Details
The technology uses heat exchangers to control the heat loss of
aluminium smelting pots and vary production levels, thus enabling
increase or decreased electricity consumption by 25% for up to several
hours at a given time, without adverse impacts on the production
process. Thus, the smelter could increase power consumption at times
when demand and prices are low, effectively 'storing' electricity in
molten aluminium so that electricity consumption can be reduced at times
of high demand and prices. This would help with managing the power
grid's demand and supply fluctuations, particularly as increasing
amounts of variable renewable energy are added to the grid.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Systems integration
*Key countries:* Germany
*Key initiatives:*
In May 2019, TRIMET began the first successful industrial scale
operation of the EnPot demand-response technology, consisting of 120
pots at its plant in Essen, Germany, following a smaller 12 pot trial
that began five years earlier. A 10 pot trial installation is also
underway in Hamburg. This “virtual battery” concept relies on installing
adjustable heat exchangers that can maintain the energy balance in each
electrolytic cell irrespective of shifting power inputs.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
3 Industry > Aluminium Production > Primary smelting > Chloride
electrolysis Production High Details
By converting alumina to aluminium chloride prior to electrolysiss in a
process where chlorine and carbon are kept in a closed loop, carbon and
chlorine are recycled and reused, eliminating emissions of CO2 and
emitting oxygen instead.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* Norway
*Key initiatives:*
Norwegian aluminium producer Hydro is pursuing this method through its
HalZero technology. Work on the technology has been underway for the
past 6 years; as of 2022, laboratory testing was still underway. If
successful, the aim will be to produce pilot volumes by 2025. Prelinary
studies show that an industrial scale HalZero plant will have roughly
similar power consumption and operating expeindustires as those using
existing smelting technology.
*Announced development targets:*
* Hydro's goal is to have an industrial-scale pilot up and running by
2030, enabling the technology's viability for new electrolysis from
2030 onwards.
2 Industry > Aluminium Production > Primary smelting > CCUS
Production High Details
CCS could potentially be applied in the aluminium sector to capture
emissions from alumina refining (fuel combustion) and/or aluminium
smelting (electrolysis). However, until now its application (at least
for smelting) has been challenged by the very low concentration of CO2
in the exhaust gases from the process.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, CCUS
*Key countries:* France, Norway, Bahrain
*Key initiatives:*
* In France, Alvance is exploring possibilities to launch a carbon
capture project for aluminium. The plant in Dunkerque would likely
be the site of the project, given that a working group is active in
the area aiming to develop a CO2 storage hub. The industry group
Aluminium France has launched a project to define what capture
technology would be suitable for application to electrolytic
aluminium cells.
* The Norwegian company Hydro is in the early stages of looking into
closed pots, which would enable capture of more concentrated steams;
in 2022, they announced that they are aiming for industrial scale
pilots before 2030.
* Bahrainian aluminium smelter Alba has signed a memorandum of
understanding with Mitsubishi Heavy Industry to study the
implementation of carbon capture and storage for aluminium smelting.
7 Energy transformation > Synthetic hydrocarbon fuels Production >
Methane > Biological CO2 methanation Production Moderate Details
Biological CO2 methanation is the conversion of carbon dioxide to
methane through hydrogenation using biological catalysts, i.e.,
methanogenic microorganisms that convert CO2 and H2 into methane. A
source of carbon dioxide (CO2) is needed, which may come from exhaust
gases from combustion (industry, power generation), fermentation,
anaerobic digestion (biogas) or captured directly from the air.
Biological methanation is conducted at moderate temperature and pressure
without chemical catalysts, and it is more tolerant to feedstock
fluctuations and impurities than the chemical methanation process. The
key limitation of the biological route is the low hydrogen gas-to-liquid
mass transfer, which leads to lower space-time yields and the
requirement of bigger reactor dimensions.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Synthetic fuels, CCUS
*Key countries:* Germany, Denmark, Switzerland, United States
*Key initiatives:*
During 2016-2019, the P2G-BioCat project built and operated a biological
methanation facility at Avedøre waste water treatment plant (Denmark)
using Electrochaea’s technology (methanogenic archaea microorganisms,
62°C, 8.5 bar). Hydrogen from electrolysis (1 MW) and biogas were fed
into a stirred bubble methanation bioreactor, and the biomethane (97-99%
purity) was then injected into the distribution grid. Electrochaea
participated in other demonstration projects in Switzerland and the
United States, and is trying to scale-up the technology to 10 MW,
co-funded by the EIC Accelerator program. In 2018, Uniper commissioned a
demonstration methanation plant in Falkenhagen (Germany), where hydrogen
from electrolysis (1.5 MW) and CO2 from a bioethanol plant were fed into
a trickled-bed bioreactor, and in 2019, the plant started gas injection
in the grid (98% purity). In 2022, an industrial biological methanation
plant was inaugurated at Limeco’s waste water treatment plant
(Switzerland), using technology from Hitachi Zosen Inova Schmack.
Hydrogen from electrolysis (2.5 MW) and biogas are fed into a dedicated
methanation bioreactor, and the biomethane is then purified and fed into
the local gas grid. Carmeuse, Engie and John Cockerill have signed a
joint development agreement for a biological methanation project in
Belgium, using Electrochaea’s technology and CO2 captured from a lime
kiln. Hydrogen would be produced from a 75 MW electrolyser, and the
plant could start operating in 2025.
*Announced development targets:*
The REPowerEU plan proposes a Biomethane Action Plan to achieve a
production of 35 bcm of biomethane by 2030, encouraging biogas upgrading
into biomethane
7 Energy transformation > Synthetic hydrocarbon fuels Production >
Methane > Chemical methanation Production Moderate Details
Chemical methanation is the conversion of carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide to methane through hydrogenation in the presence of a catalyst,
particularly nickel, due to its high activity, selectivity, low cost and
abundance. For the methanation, a source of carbon is needed, such as
carbon monoxide (CO) in the syngas from gasification or pyrolysis (e.g.
biomass gasification), or carbon dioxide (CO2) from exhaust gases from
combustion (industry, power generation), fermentation, anaerobic
digestion (biogas) or captured directly from the air. CO and CO2
methanation processes have been investigated for more than 100 years,
originally to remove CO in ammonia production, as it acts as a catalyst
poison, and to purify hydrogen at refineries. Afterwards, CO methanation
gained importance during the oil crisis in the late 1970s, to produce a
natural gas substitute using syngas from coal gasification. CO2
methanation process developments primarily rely on CO methanation
research with basic studies performed in the 1980s. Even though
methanation has been applied by industry for many years, an optimisation
of state-of-the-art methanation technologies is needed, particularly for
direct CO2 methanation. Research seeks to improve the methanation
catalysts, varying gas compositions and to enhance process flexibility
associated to a variable production of hydrogen.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Synthetic fuels, CCUS
*Key countries:* Germany, France
*Key initiatives:*
Since 2013, and still in operation, the largest demonstration project in
chemical methanation is the e-gas plant in Audi’s site in Wertle
(Germany), owned by Kiwi and with technology from Hitachi Zosen Inova
(formerly ETOGAS). Hydrogen from electrolysis (6 MW) and CO2 from biogas
from organic waste are converted into methane through a chemical
methanation process. There have been other demonstration projects at
smaller scales in Germany, Denmark, Spain, Switzerland, etc. The
MéthyCentre project (France), led by Storengy, is building an anaerobic
digestion plant coupled to a chemical methanation reactor and an
electrolyser (0.25 MW). The plant is expected to be operational by the
end of 2022.
*Announced development targets:*
The REPowerEU plan proposes a Biomethane Action Plan to achieve a
production of 35 bcm of biomethane by 2030, encouraging biogas upgrading
into biomethane
6 Energy transformation > Synthetic hydrocarbon fuels Production >
Liquid fuels > CO2-Fischer Tropsch synthesis Production Very high Details
Synthetic liquid hydrocarbons can be produced by Fischer Tropsch
synthesis of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The catalytic process
integrates the reduction of CO2 from CCUS processes to CO via the
reverse water gas shift (RWGS) reaction and the hydrogenation of CO to
hydrocarbons via Fischer Tropsch synthesis. The catalyst must be active
for both the RWGS reaction and the Fischer Tropsch synthesis under the
same conditions. The main obstacles for this route are the thermal
stability of CO2 and the need for the process to be efficient for both
reactions; both stages can also be performed sequentially, but costs are
usually larger. Synthetic liquid hydrocarbons can also be produced by
co-electrolysis of CO2 with water and then Fischer Tropsch synthesis.
Syngas, i.e. a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, is produced
directly by high-temperature co-electrolysis, without the RWGS reaction.
The co-electrolysis uses heat released during the exothermic Fischer
Tropsch synthesis to achieve higher efficiencies. During the Fischer
Tropsch synthesis a wide range of hydrocarbons can be produced: light
olefins, e.g. C2-C4 alkenes, C5+ products, e.g. gasoline, kerosene and
diesel, and other value-added chemicals, e.g. aromatics and
isoparaffins. The hydrocarbons synthesised will depend on the conditions
as well as the structure and composition of the catalysts. Mostly iron-,
cobalt- and ruthenium-based supported catalysts are used, with
appropriate promoters.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Synthetic fuels, CCUS, Sustainable Aviation Fuels
*Key countries:* Germany, Norway, Finland, Netherlands, United States
*Key initiatives:*
In 2021, Atmosfair inaugurated the first project for the production of
synthetic fuels, which included an offtake agreement for 25 000 litres
of synthetic kerosene annually with the German flight operator
Lufthansa. During 2015-2017, Sunfire produced over 3 tons of synthetic
crude oil, operating their plant for more than 1 500 hours in Dresden
(Germany). A reversible electrolyser based on solid oxide electrolyser
cell (SOEC) was used. In 2019, the Sunfire-Synlink project (Germany)
used a co-electrolysis system from Sunfire (10 kW) combined with a
Fischer-Tropsch reactor from INERATEC and a hydrocracker unit to produce
synthetic fuels. The CO2 was obtained from direct air capture (DAC).
There are plans to upscale the process, e.g. in the MegaSyn project at
the Schwechat refinery (Austria). In 2021, KLM was the first airline in
the world to perform a passenger flight (Amsterdam-Madrid) using 500
litres of synthetic kerosene produced by Shell using recycled CO2 and
electrolytic hydrogen powered by renewables. VTT and Neste (Finland) are
building an e-fuel demonstration facility, including high-temperature
co-electrolysis, CO2 capture from flue gas and a Fischer Tropsch
synthesis unit. During the demonstration phase up to 2023, Neste aims to
receive 300 kg of synthetic fuel. In 2021, the United States Air Force
partnered with Twelve to produce e-jet fuel from the air, aiming to
enable decentralised production to reduce the logistical burden of
transporting fuel. In addition, Twelve produced polycarbonate sunglasses
made partially from CO2 and is also partnering with companies, such as
Mercedes-Benz and Procter & Gamble, and NASA, to scale-up the production
of materials from CO2 and electricity.
*Announced development targets:*
The ReFuelEU Aviation initiative approved by the European Parliament
(July, 2022) proposes rules that oblige that synthetic aviation fuels
should comprise at least 27% of aviation fuel demand by 2040 and 50% in
2045. Negotiations with Member States will shape the final legislation.
The Nordic Electrofuel project is building an e-kerosene plant in Herøya
(Norway) with a production capacity of 10 million litres of synthetic
fuels, expecting to start operation by 2024. The plant would have a
separated RWGS reactor and Fischer Tropsch synthesis unit. The Norsk
e-fuel industrial consortium plants to build an e-kerosene plant in
Mosjøen (Norway) to produce 12.5 million litres per year by 2024. E-fuel
production is expected to increase to 25 million by 2026 and 100 million
by 2029. The plant will use both alkaline electrolysers (connected to a
RWGS reactor) and SOEC co-electrolysis (Sunfire technology), connected
to a Fischer Tropsch synthesis unit. CO2 will come from DAC (Climeworks
technology) and industrial exhaust gases. In the Netherlands, Synkero
aims to build an e-kerosene plant at the port of Amsterdam (50 000
tonnes of fuel by 2027) and Zenid at Rotterdam using co-electrolysis.
3 Energy transformation > Synthetic hydrocarbon fuels Production >
Liquid fuels > Direct-CO2-to-DME Production Moderate Details
Dimethyl ether (DME) is used in the chemical industry and as an aerosol
propellant, and its role as fuel is being investigated. At ambient
conditions is a gas, and has similar handling requirements to propane.
DME can operate in compression ignition diesel engines (with some
adjustments in the fuel system to operate on DME), could replace LPG
(blends up to 20% generally require no modifications) or be used as a
feedstock for different chemicals. Currently, DME synthesis is based on
two routes: the initial conversion of syngas to methanol and its
subsequent dehydration to DME, or the direct synthesis of DME from
syngas in a single reactor. Research seeks to replace the syngas by CO2
from CCUS and hydrogen. Direct CO2-to-DME requires improved bifunctional
catalysts to promote first the hydrogenation of CO2 to methanol and then
methanol dehydration to DME, and the development of techniques for in
situ removal of water to increase the conversion rate.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Synthetic fuels, CCUS, Sustainable Aviation Fuels
*Key countries:* Netherlands
*Key initiatives:*
The iDME project (Netherlands) will test the conversion of CO2 and
hydrogen to DME in one reactor. iDME will use the technology SEDMES
(Sorption Enhanced DME Synthesis) for DME synthesis and in situ
separation of water. The SEDMES unit is being tested at TNO (Netherlands
Organisation for Applied Scientific Research) in Petten and will be
installed in Rotterdam, associated to a 100 kW electrolyser.
4 Energy transformation > Synthetic hydrocarbon fuels Production >
Liquid fuels > Concentrating solar fuels Production Moderate Details
This technology involves the use of concentrated solar energy to
synthesise liquid hydrocarbon fuels from water and CO2 from CCUS. This
is done via a high-temperature thermochemical cycle based on metal oxide
redox reactions. The solar reactor thermally reduces the redox
materials, e.g. cerium oxide, at temperatures of around 1 500°C. The
cerium oxide then simultaneously reduces the CO2 and water as they enter
the reactor, generating syngas, i.e. CO and hydrogen. The syngas then
goes to a Fischer Tropsch synthesis unit to produce the desired liquid
hydrocarbons.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Synthetic fuels, CCUS, Sustainable Aviation Fuels
*Key countries:* Spain, Switzerland, Germany
*Key initiatives:*
In July 2022, in a world first, kerosene was synthesised using solar
energy, water and carbon dioxide in an integrated solar tower setup in
Madrid (Spain). An array of 169 spherical reflectors concentrated solar
radiation (50 kW) onto a reactor mounted on a tower, providing the
thermal energy for conversion. It generates around 1 litre of kerosene
per day. This demonstration is an order of magnitude larger scale than
previous setups. Synhelion (spin-out from ETH Zurich) is building the
world’s first industrial demonstration facility for the production for
kerosene in Jülich (Germany). The plant is expected to be commissioned
by 2023.
*Announced development targets:*
Synhelion (Switzerland) aims to commission the first commercial
production facility in Spain by 2025. By 2030, Synhelion plans to
produce 875 million litres of solar fuel
3-4 Energy transformation > Refining Production > Process heater,
hydrogen production > CCUS using post-combustion capture Production
Moderate Details
Process heaters, boilers and utilities account for around 30-60% of the
total CO2 emissions of a refinery. Processes needed to capture CO2 from
the flue gas of these processes is similar to those in power generation.
Hydrogen production is responsible for around 5-20% of the total CO2
emissions of a refinery. CO2 capture from natural-gas based hydrogen
production has been demonstrated on a commercial scale, but not yet been
applied to a refinery.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS
*Key countries:* Norway
3-4 Energy transformation > Refining Production > Fluid catalytic
cracker > Post-combustion carbon capture Production Moderate Details
The fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit is responsible for 20-55% of
total CO2 emissions from a typical refinery. Post-combustion technology
to capture the CO2 from the flue gas,with a volumetric CO2 concentration
of 10-20% is available, but has not yet been demonstrated in a refinery
context.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS
*Key countries:* Norway
5 Energy transformation > Refining Production > Fluid catalytic
cracker > Oxy-fuelling carbon capture Production Moderate Details
The fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit is responsible for 20-55% of
total CO2 emissions from a typical refinery. CO2 concentration in the
flue gas is around 8-20% (volumetric). Oxy-combustion enables the
concentration and capture of CO2 in the flue gas from FCC units.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS
*Key countries:* Brazil, Norway
*Key initiatives:*
A pilot scale demonstration of the oxy-FCC process was performed at a
Petrobras refinery in the CO2 Capture Project. The test showed that it
is technically feasible to operate an oxy-FCC unit.
9-10 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Solar > Photovoltaic >
Crystalline silicon Generation High Details
Today, the vast majority of PV modules are based on wafer-based
crystalline silicon (c-Si). The manufacturing of c-Si modules typically
involves growing ingots of silicon, slicing the ingots into wafers to
make solar cells, electrically interconnecting the cells, and
encapsulating the strings of cells to form a module. Modules currently
use silicon in one of two main forms: single- (sc-Si) or multi- (mc-Si)
crystalline modules. Current commercial single-crystalline modules have
a higher conversion efficiency of around 14 to 20%. Their efficiency is
expected to increase up to 25% in the longer term. Multi-crystalline
silicon modules have a more disordered atomic structure leading to lower
efficiencies, but they are less expensive. Their efficiency is expected
to increase up to 21% in the long term.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Renewable electricity, Systems
integration, Hydrogen, Synthetic fuels
*Key countries:* Australia, China, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Korea,
Mexico, Turkey, United States
*Key initiatives:*
* Crystalline silicon technology is the dominating technology today,
wih a share of around 95% in total PV cell production in 2020
*Deployment targets:*
Overall PV targets:
* India: 100 GW by 2022
* Japan: 118 GW by 2030
* Belgium: 11 GW by 2030
* France: 20 GW by 2023 and 35-44 GW by 2028
* Portugal: 13 GW by 2030
* Germany: 200 GW by 2030
* Spain: 39 GW by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* US-DOE SunShot target for utility-scale PV: 2025: USD 30/MWh 2030:
USD 20/MWh
8 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Solar > Photovoltaic >
Thin-film PV Generation Moderate Details
A thin-film solar cell is a second generation solar cell that is made by
depositing one or more thin layers, or thin film (TF)
of photovoltaic material on a substrate, such as glass, plastic or
metal. Although emerging thin-film solar technologies may be more
expensive to make than conventional silicon, their lighter weight and
greater resilience can fill niches in the energy sector.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Renewable electricity, Systems
integration, Hydrogen, Synthetic fuels
*Key countries:* Germany, Japan, United States
*Key initiatives:*
* Thin film technology accounted for around 5% of the PV cell
production in 2020
* Germany is a world leader, Bosch CISTech and Oxford PV, a spinoff
from Oxford University, are key initiatives
* The U.S. Office of Naval Research funds NREL’s newest research into
next generation thin film PV, to reduce reliance on batteries
* Thin film cells on vehicles are being explored by Toyota for small
power applications
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Cost: Under 0.2 USD/Wp by 2030 (Solliance)
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9-10 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Solar > Photovoltaic >
Concentrated PV Generation Moderate Details
Concentrated PV (CPV) technologies use an optical concentrator system
which focuses solar radiation onto a small high-efficiency cell. CPV
modules can achieve efficiencies of above 40%.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Renewable electricity, Systems
integration, Hydrogen, Synthetic fuels
*Key countries:* China, Italy, South Africa, Spain, United States
*Key initiatives:*
Cumulative installations (already grid-connected) in 2016: >370 MWp
Several power plants with capacity = 30 MWp:
* Golmud, China, built by Suncore: 60 (2012) and 80 MWp (2013)
* Touwsrivier, South Africa, built by Soitec: 44 MWp (2014)
* Alamosa, Colorado, US, built by Amonix: 30 MWp (2012)
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Based on Fraunhofer ISE and NREL report, CAPEX CPV systems above 10 MW:
* 2017: USD 1580-2485/kWp
* 2030: USD 790-1240/kWp
9 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Solar > Photovoltaic >
Multi-junction cell Generation Moderate Details
Multi-junction cell design involves superposing several cells in a
stack. In the case of two cells, it will form a double junction, also
called a tandem cell. Stacking more cells together forms a triple or a
quadruple junction. In all cases, the upper cell(s) must be as
transparent as possible to enable the lower cells to still be active.
This approach enables a broader spectrum of sunlight to be captured, and
overall efficiency to be increased.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Renewable electricity, Systems
integration, Hydrogen, Synthetic fuels
*Key countries:* Germany, United States, France, Japan, Spain
*Key initiatives:*
Multi-junction PV modules are mainly used for satellite PV and
concentrating PV (CPV) systems. Some tandem and multi-junction cells are
commercially available. Flexible PV laminates based on amorphous silicon
are also marketed by Uni-Solar as tandem cells. The maximum module
output is 144 Wp and has an efficiency of 7.1 %. Installation of high
efficiency multi-junction PV on vehicles has been studied at the R&D and
demonstration phases. Hydrogen synthesis using high efficiency cells is
also studied and demonstrated. Germany, United States, France, Japan and
Spain are continuously conducting R&D activities on high efficiency
multi-junction PV cells/modules.
5-6 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Solar > Photovoltaic >
Organic thin-film solar cell Generation Moderate Details
Organic thin-film PV (OPV) cells use dye or organic semiconductors as
the light-harvesting active layer. This technology has created
increasing interest and research over the last few years and is
currently the fastest-advancing solar technology. Despite the low
production costs, stable products are not yet available for the market,
nevertheless development and demonstration activities are underway.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Renewable electricity, Systems
integration, Hydrogen, Synthetic fuels
*Key countries:* Germany, Australia
*Key initiatives:*
The German company Heliatek has been able to show demonstration systems
on various surfaces (steel, concrete, glass) integrated into existing
architecture or technical systems. According to the homepage, the
largest system, with an output of 22.5 kWp, is installed on the roof of
a school in France. With an area of 500 m², standard test conditions
(1000 W/m²) yield an average system efficiency of 4.5%. The manufactured
cells have an efficiency of 7-8% (laboratory cells > 13%). CSIRO in
Australia developed printable solar cells using an organic light
absorber, prepared in ink form and deposited by commercial printing
presses, as is one of the electrodes, by using silver-based ink.
Efficiencies are much lower than silicon-based PV systems, but
production costs are also expected to be much lower.
4-5 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Solar > Photovoltaic >
Perovskite solar cell Generation Moderate Details
A non-silicon based thin-film PV technology, which uses Perovskite, a
type of mineral very good at absorbing light. In the lab, efficiencies
of 25% have been reached, but so far only with small cell areas, efforts
to achieve similar efficiencies have not been successful so far.
Perovskite solar cells also still suffer from short durability.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Renewable electricity, Systems
integration, Hydrogen, Synthetic fuels
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
The technology is still at demonstration stage. The instability of
perovskite solar cells continues to present the greatest problem. The
crystal lattice is very sensitive to environmental influences. In
conditions with too much moisture, heat or UV light, it changes, losing
its ability to transform light into power. Also, the production
processes for large-area modules have not yet been developed. In China,
construction of a 12-MW utility-scale solar project started, using
perovskite solar modules from Microquanta Semiconductor. The Chinese
company with a Perovskite production capacity of 100 MW/yr plans to
expand its production to 5 GW/yr. GCL Optoelectronics also runs a 100 MW
Perovskite production capacity in China. UtmoLight, another Chinese
company, plans to build a 50 MW production line by 2022 and a 6 GW
production capacity. Wonder Solar announced the plan to establish a 200
MW/yr pilot line aiming at developing a 1 GW factory. Saule Technologies
(Poland) completed a manufacturing facility for flexible perovskite
solar cells in May 2021. Oxford PV completed a 100 MW/yr production line
for perovskite/ crystalline Si tandem PV cells in July 2021.
8 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Solar > Photovoltaic >
Floating solar PV Generation Moderate Details
Floating PV systems are mounted on a structure that floats on a water
surface and can be associated with existing grid connections, for
instance in the case of dam vicinity.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Renewable electricity, Systems
integration, Hydrogen, Synthetic fuels
*Key countries:* China, France, India, Japan, Korea, Netherlands,
Singapore, United Kingdom, United States
*Key initiatives:*
Starting from the world's first floating PV plant of 20 kWp in 2007 in
Japan, the technology has rapidly developed in past years, with the
largest plant having a capacity of 320 MW. The total installed capacity
stood at 3023 MWp in 2021.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Current CAPEX for floating solar PV installations has been estimated
to range between USD 1.05-1.68/W for system sizes of 2-50 MW.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Solar > Solar thermal
electricity > Solar tower Generation High Details
Solar towers, also known as central receiver systems (CRS), use hundreds
or thousands of small reflectors (called heliostats) to concentrate the
sun’s rays on a central receiver placed atop a fixed tower. The
concentrating power of the tower concept achieves very high
temperatures, thereby increasing the efficiency at which heat is
converted into electricity and reducing the cost of thermal storage.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Renewable electricity, Systems
integration
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Solar towers accounted in 2021 with a capacity of 1314 MW for around 20%
of global solar thermal electricity capacity.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* US-DOE SunShot 2030 targets: Peaker CSP plant (< 6h storage): USD
50/MWh Baseload CSP plant (> 12h storage): USD 100/MWh CAPEX solar
tower with 10h of thermal storage: USD 7100/kWel in 2019 and USD
3900/kWel in 2050
9 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Solar > Solar thermal
electricity > Parabolic trough Generation High Details
Parabolic trough systems consist of parallel rows of mirrors
(reflectors) curved in one dimension to focus the sun’s rays. Stainless
steel pipes (absorber tubes) with a selective coating serve as the heat
collectors and are insulated in an evacuated glass envelope. The
reflectors and the absorber tubes move in tandem with the sun as it
crosses the sky. A synthetic oil transfers the heat from the collector
pipes to heat exchangers, producing superheated steam to run a steam
turbine and produce electricity.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Renewable electricity, Systems
integration
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Parabolic troughs accounted in 2021, with a capacity of 4929 MW, for
more than three-quarters of global solar thermal electricity capacity.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* US-DOE SunShot 2030 targets: Peaker CSP plant (< 6h storage): USD
50/MWh Baseload CSP plant (> 12h storage): USD 100/MWh
7 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Solar > Solar thermal
electricity > Linear Fresnel reflector Generation Moderate Details
Linear Fresnel reflectors (LFRs) approximate the parabolic shape of
trough systems but by using long rows of flat or slightly curved mirrors
to reflect the sun’s rays onto a downward-facing linear, fixed receiver.
The main advantage of LFR systems is that their simple design of
flexibly bent mirrors and fixed receivers requires lower investment
costs and facilitates direct steam generation, thereby eliminating the
need for – and cost of – heat transfer fluids and heat exchangers. LFR
plants are, however, less efficient than troughs in converting solar
energy to electricity and it is more difficult to incorporate storage
capacity into their design.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable electricity, Systems integration
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Linear fresnel reflectors accounted in 2021, with a capacity of 255 MW,
for 4% of global solar thermal electricity capacity.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* US-DOE SunShot 2030 targets: Peaker CSP plant (< 6h storage): USD
50/MWh Baseload CSP plant (> 12h storage): USD 100/MWh
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9-10 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Wind > Onshore
Generation High Details
Wind turbines harness the kinetic energy of wind to produce electricity.
The rotor converts the wind energy into rotational energy, which is then
used in a generator to produce electricity. Onshore wind turbines are
located on land in almost all kinds of locations and regions – at the
coast, in flat and complex terrain, in hot and cold climates, forests,
deserts – and are an established innovative technology, still growing in
size, performance and ancillary services capabilities.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable electricity, Systems integration,
Hydrogen, Synthetic fuels
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Global installed onshore wind capacity increased by 73 GW in 2021 to a
total of 775 GW. The trend towards larger wind turbines, e.g. higher hub
heights and larger rotor diameters, continues to improve the capacity
factors and reduce generation costs, allowing the installation of
turbines in low-wind speed areas.
4-6 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Wind > Airbone wind
energy system Generation Moderate Details
Airborne wind energy systems (AWES) convert wind energy into electricity
through autonomous kites or unmanned aircraft, linked to the ground by
one or more tethers. There is a diversity of designs of AWES but these
can be broadly categorised as either lift type devices creating torque
on a ground generator via their tether, or drag type devices with
airborne generators and conductive tethers. AWES offer several potential
advantages over conventional wind turbines. They require less material
than tower-based turbines, have the potential to be manufactured at
lower cost, can be deployed faster and can harness stronger and steadier
winds by flying at higher altitudes. AWES technologies are at varying
stages of maturity for a variety of applications ranging from small
scale off grid power provision in remote locations to large scale
offshore power production.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable electricity, Systems integration,
Hydrogen, Synthetic fuels
*Key countries:* Netherlands, United States
*Key initiatives:*
After successful onshore tests Makani Power started to test in 2019 a
600 kW kite offshore in non-power generating flight. After one
successful flight, the prototype crashed. The technology holding
company, Alphabet, announced that it would cease funding Makani. The
Dutch company Ampyx Power developed a 20 kW prototype of an automatic
aircraft, tethered to a generator on the ground to produce electricity.
Ampyx and Eon will collaborate to develop a test site to test larger
prototypes in Ireland. The aim is to develop a 2 MW commercial product.
The EU-funded project MegaAWE (2020-23) aims to demonstrate key enabling
modules at MW-scale and to derisk planning for commercial demonstration
projects.
9 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Wind > Offshore > Seabed
fixed offshore wind turbine Generation High Details
Seabed fixed offshore wind turbines represent the overwhelming majority
of the currently installed offshore wind generating capacity. The energy
capture and power generation technology is fundamentally similar to that
onshore. Offshore turbines are marinised and configured for optimal
operation in the offshore environment. There is a diversity of
foundation types including monopiles, multi-piles, gravity foundations
and suction caissons. These may be associated with particular support
structures including tubular towers, jackets, tripods, lattice towers
and hybrids.
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Global installed offshore wind capacity increased by 21 GW in 2021 to a
total of 56 GW. There is likely to be a further divergence of offshore
technologies from onshore in the future as the Offshore Wind Power Plant
(including the grid connection) is further optimised for offshore
operations. Offshore wind turbines do not face similar transport size
limitations to onshore wind turbines so a divergence in maximum size is
also likely to continue.
*Deployment targets:*
Overall offshore wind targets:
* Chinese Taipei: 5.6 GW by 2025 and 20.6 GW by 2035
* Germany: 30 GW by 2030
* India: 5 GW by 2022 and 30 GW by 2030
* Japan: 10 GW by 2030 and 35-45 GW by 2040
* Korea: 12 GW by 2030
* Netherlands: 22.2 GW by 2030
* UK: 50 GW by 2030
* Belgium: 5.7 GW by 2030 (8 GW proposed)
* France: 6.2 GW by 2028 (and 40 GW by 2050 announced)
* Spain: 3 GW by 2030
* Portugal: 3-4 GW by 2026
* Denmark: 7.2 GW by 2030 (an additional 3 GW announced)
* Norway: 30 GW by 2040
* Ireland: 5 GW by 2030
* United States: 30 GW by 2030
* Victoria (Australia): 2 GW by 2030, 4 GW by 2030 and 9 GW by 2040
8 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Wind > Offshore >
Floating offshore wind turbine Generation High Details
Compared with mainstream offshore fixed structure mounted turbines,
floating offshore wind turbines have no foundation on the sea-floor, but
are instead based on either floating (barge), semi-submersible, tension
leg or spar platforms, kept in place by different mooring and anchoring
systems. Floating offshore turbines offer the potential for lower seabed
impact, simplified installation and decommissioning, and access to
additional wind resource at water depths exceeding 50 to 60 metres.
Floating platforms may also be attractive for mid-depth projects, where
saturation of onshore or near-shore potential or the possibility of
standardising floating platform designs do not necessarily need
heavy-lift vessels to transport platforms or install turbine towers and
nacelles. They may therefore ultimately permit greater upscaling of wind
turbines than seabed fixed technology.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Renewable electricity, Systems
integration, Hydrogen, Synthetic fuels
*Key countries:* Germany, France, Japan, Korea, Norway, Portugal, Spain,
Sweden, United Kingdom, United States
*Key initiatives:*
16 projects are in operation, with a combined capacity of 141 MW, with
project size having increased from 0.08 MW in 2009 to 48 MW by 2020. By
2025, global capacity could grow by around 1 GW, based on 14 projects
currently under construction or planned. The US National Offshore Wind
R&D consortium allocated USD 41 million in total to offshore wind
research, including developing innovative mooring and anchoring
technologies for floating wind.
*Announced development targets:*
UK: 5 GW by 2030 South Korea: 6 GW by 2030 Spain: 3 GW by 2030 Portugal:
3-4 GW by 2026
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
5 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Wind > Offshore >
Offshore renewable hydrogen production Generation High Details
Offshore wind energy can become a source for hydrogen production in
regions with good resource conditions. Instead of transporting the
electricity via cable to an onshore electrolyser, hydrogen can be
produced offshore, with the hydrogen being transported through a
pipeline to the coast. Advantages of offshore hydrogen production are
the lower costs and better reliability of pipelines compared to cables.
In addition to the electrolyser, offshore hydrogen production also
requires a seawater desalination unit. Various approaches are being
explored, from retrofitting an electrolyser to an oil and gas platform,
over using a man-made island or a new platform close to the wind farm,
to integration of the electrolyser and the desalination unit into the
wind turbine.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Renewable electricity, Systems
integration, Hydrogen, Synthetic fuels
*Key countries:* France, Netherlands, UK, Germany, Denmark, Norway
*Key initiatives:*
In France, a hydrogen production sytem will be installed on a floating
platform by 2022, using electricity from the already existing 2-MW
Floatgen wind turbine. The OYSTER project with funding from the Fuel
Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking plans to develop and test a
MW-scale electrolyser for offshore conditions and complete a design for
an integrated offshore wind turbine-electrolysis module by 2024. The
Dutch PosHYdon project aims to demonstrate the integration of offshore
wind electricity generation, hydrogen production and hydrogen transport
via pipeline. The 1 MW electrolyser will be located on an offshore
platform in the Dutch North Sea. The German H2Mare project aims to
investigate the possibilities of offshore production of green hydrogen
and other hydrogen-derivatives without grid connection. To achieve this,
the H2Mare project partners want to integrate the water electrolyser
directly into the offshore wind turbines. Several commercial projects
for offshore hydrogen production in the North Sea have been announced:
AquaVentus: 10 GW electrolyser capacity by 2035 H2opZee: 300-500 MW
electrolyser capacity by 2030
11 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Hydropower Generation
High Details
Hydropower converts the energy from falling water into electricity. It
is a mature and cost-competitive technology, providing today 16% of
global electricity generation. Hydropower plants can be classifed in
three functional categories: run-of-river, reservoir (or storage), and
pumped storage plants.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable electricity, Systems integration
*Key countries:* Brazil, Canada, China, Ethiopia, India, Norway, Russia,
United States
*Key initiatives:*
Global installed hydropower capacity, including pumped storage plants,
stood at 1359 GW in 2021, with 32 GW added this year. The Baihetan hydro
reservoir power plant with a capacity of 16 GW is expected to start
operation at full capacity in 2022.
11 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Geothermal > Dry steam
Generation Moderate Details
Dry steam plants, which make up about a quarter of geothermal capacity
today, directly utilise dry steam that is piped from production wells to
the plant and then to the turbine.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable electricity, Renewable heat, Systems
integration
*Key countries:* Indonesia, Italy, Japan, United States
*Key initiatives:*
The capacity of dry steam plants stood at around 3000 GW in 2020.
11 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Geothermal > Flash
process Generation Moderate Details
Flash steam plants, making up about two-thirds of geothermal installed
capacity today, are used where water-dominated reservoirs have
temperatures above 180°C. In these high-temperature reservoirs, the
liquid water component boils, or “flashes,” as pressure drops. Separated
steam is piped to a turbine to generate electricity and the remaining
hot water may be flashed again twice (double flash plant) or three times
(triple flash) at progressively lower pressures and temperatures, to
obtain more steam.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable electricity, Renewable heat, Systems
integration
*Key countries:* Nicaragua, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Iceland, Turkey,
Kenya, Japan, New Zealand, Mexico, Indonesia, United States, Philippines
*Key initiatives:*
The capacity of flash steam plants stood at around 7500 GW in 2020.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* CAPEX of flash plant with hydrothermal reservoir: USD 6260-6600/kWel
in 2021, USD 4325-5700/kWel in 2050
11 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Geothermal > Organic
rankine cycle Generation Moderate Details
Organic Rankine cycle (ORC) is one cycle option to use low-temperature
geothermal resources, typically operating with temperatures varying from
as low as 73°C to 180°C. The heat is recovered from the geothermal fluid
using heat exchangers to vaporise a working fluid with a low boiling
point (butane or pentane) and drive a turbine.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable electricity, Renewable heat, Systems
integration
*Key countries:* Croatia, Japan, Nicaragua, Portugal, Germany, Honduras,
Chile, Guatemala, Philippines, Costa Rica, Kenya, Indonesia, New
Zealand, Turkey, United States
*Key initiatives:*
The capacity of ORC plants stood at around 2200 GW in 2020.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* CAPEX of ORC plant with hydrothermal reservoir: USD 8100-8450/kWel
in 2021, USD 5800-7300/kWel in 2050
6 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Geothermal > Kalina
process Generation Moderate Details
Kalina cycle is one cycle option to use low-temperature geothermal
resources, typically operating with temperatures varying from as low as
73°C to 180°C. The heat is recovered from the geothermal fluid using
heat exchangers to vaporise a working fluid with a low boiling point
(ammonia-water mixture) and drive a turbine.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable electricity, Renewable heat, Systems
integration
*Key countries:* Germany, Iceland, Japan
*Key initiatives:*
Iceland: Husavik plant with an electric capacity of 2 MW and 20 MW for
heat Germany: Unterhaching plant with an electric capacity of 3.4 MW
electric and 38 MW for heat; Bruchsal facility with an electric capacity
of 580 kW Japan: 50 kW EcoGen units for hot springs
5 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Geothermal > Closed-loop
and Hybrid Closed-loop Systems Generation Moderate Details
Closed-Loop Geothermal Systems cover a range of new, closed or partially
closed-loop (Hybrid) technology trials for power generation. These
trials largely rely on thermal conduction in rock (a poor conductor)
along long wellbores and often rely on the use of supercritical CO2 or
other new working fluids. CLGS allows for applications in
low-temperature sedimentary resources with from about 100°C to 180°C.
This allows expansion of geothermal from a limited conventional
geothermal supply into sedimentary basins leading to a growth in
geothermal supply of several magnitudes and locations.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable electricity, Renewable heat, Systems
integration
*Key countries:* United States, Germany, Canada, United Kingdom
*Key initiatives:*
Canada: Eavor-Lite Eavor-Loop Demonstration Project (Sylvan Lake) 4MWe
for every 10 km2 (heat: 4-6x) United States: Greenfire Demonstration
Project (CA), Sage Geosystems Pilot Projects (City of McAllen (South
Texas) pilot power plant (2-3MW)) Germany: Eavor Loop Demonstration
Project w/ENEX (Bavaria) 4MWe for every 10 km2 (heat: 4-6x) United
Kingdom: CeraPhi - oil and gas well conversion (kWs/well)
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* USD 5750 - 14375/kWel in 2020; USD 2700 - 7000/kWel by 2050
6 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Geothermal > Enhanced
geothermal systems Generation Moderate Details
Enhanced or engineered geothermal systems aim at using the heat of the
earth where no or insufficient steam or hot water exists and where
permeability is low. EGS technology is centred on engineering and
creating large heat exchange areas in hot rock. The process involves
enhancing permeability by opening pre-existing fractures and/or creating
new fractures. Heat is extracted by pumping a transfer medium, typically
water, down a borehole into the hot fractured rock and then pumping the
heated fluid up another borehole to a power plant, from where it is
pumped back down (recirculated) to repeat the cycle.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable electricity, Renewable heat, Systems
integration
*Key countries:* Austria, Belgium, Croatia, El Salvador, France,
Germany, Hungary, Netherlands, United Kingdom, United States
*Key initiatives:*
* 32 EGS plants worldwide, with 14 of them still in operation
(Austria, El Salvador, France, Germany, United Kingdom, United States)
* Majority of the plants are or were research facilities, but also 14
commercial plants
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* CAPEX of ORC plant with EGS: USD 17000-46000/kWel in 2021, USD
4400-40000/kWel in 2050
10-11 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Nuclear > Large-scale
light-water reactor Generation High Details
A Generation III nuclear reactor incorporates evolutionary improvements
in design developed during the lifetime of the Generation II reactor
designs, such as improved fuel technology, superior thermal efficiency,
improved safety features including passive and active safety systems and
standardised design for reduced maintenance and capital costs. Typically
large scale (>1GW) based on light water reactor technology. Usually
operated in baseload but all Generation III designs have the ability to
operate flexibly (load following).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Systems integration, District energy
*Key countries:* China, Russia, France, United States, Japan
*Key initiatives:*
Third generation reactor designs operational:
* EPR (Areva/now Framatom): 1650 MW; 2 units operating in China; units
under construction in Finland (1), France (1) and UK (2)
* AP1000 (Westinghouse): 1250 MW; 4 units operating in China; 2 units
under construction in the United States
* ABWR (GE Hitachi): 1380 MW; 4 units operating in Japan; 2 units
under construction in Japan and 2 units in Chinese Taipei
* APR1400 (KHNP): 1450 MW; 1 unit about to start in UAE; 2 units
operating in Korea; 4 units under construction in Korea and 3
additional units in UAE
* VVER-1200 (Rosatom): 1200 MW; 2 units operating in Russia; units
under construction in Turkey and Bangladesh and others in advanced
planning (Finland, Egypt) Third generation reactor designs under
construction:
* VVER-TOI (Rosatom): 1300 MW; 1 unit in Russia
* Hualong One (CNNC and CGN): 1170 MW; 2 units in China and 1 unit in
Pakistan
*Deployment targets:*
India: 63 GW by 2032 (in 2018 government stated rather 22.5 GW by 2031)
Russia: 25-30% nuclear share in electricity generation by 2030, 45-50%
in 2050 and 70-80% by 2100 (Federal Target Programme) Saudi Arabia: 17
GW by 2040 China: 75 GW by 2025
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* US: USD 5000/kW in 2018 and USD 4500/kW in 2050 EU: USD 6600/kW in
2018 and USD 4500/kW in 2050 China: USD 2800/kW in 2018 and USD
2500/kW in 2050 India: USD 2800/kW in 2018 and USD 2800/kW in 2050
Russia: USD 3000/kW in 2018 and USD 2000/kW in 2040
8-9 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Nuclear > Sodium-cooled
fast reactor Generation Moderate Details
Several sodium-cooled fast reactors (SFRs) have already been built and
operated in several countries, making it one of the best established
Generation IV technologies. SFRs feature a fast neutron spectrum, liquid
sodium coolant, and a closed fuel cycle. Full-sized designs (up to 1 500
MW ) mostly use mixed uranium plutonium oxide fuel, as part of future
closed nuclear fuel cycles with multi-recycling of nuclear materials.
France operated for a number of years the 1200 MWe Superphenix
industrial prototype that demonstrated the operational performance of
the technology with MOX fuel at industrial scale. Russia has operated
commercial SFRs for many years. The 600 MW BN-600 has been operating
since 1980, and the 800 MW BN-800 was connected to the grid in 2015.
Small designs in the 100 MW range are also being considered. SFRs have a
higher (550C) outlet temperature than light water reactors, increasing
the range of possible non-electricity applications. Reducing capital
costs and increasing passive safety are important R&D aims, together
with the industrial deployment of advanced fuel reprocessing technologies.
*Key countries:* China, France, India, Japan, Russia, United States
*Key initiatives:*
Russia: two units in operation: Beloyarsk-3, a BN-600 reactor with a
gross capacity of 600 MW and first grid connection in 1980 and
Beloyarsk-4, a BN-800 reactor with a gross capacity of 885 MW and first
grid connection in 2016. Al larger BN-1200 is under development. China:
a 600 MW reactor (CFR-600) is being planned India: Kalpakkam PFBR with a
capacity of 500 MW under construction United States: recently reinforced
its SFR program , with a test reactor (Versatile Test Reactor) to be
constructed at INL France: restructured its programme and revised the
timeframe for the deployment of an industrial prototype (ASTRID project
terminated due to revised estimates regarding uranium price up to 2050)
Most research efforts focus on the fuels and reactor core design. The
SFR utilises depleted uranium as the fuel matrix and has a coolant
temperature of 500-550°C enabling electricity generation via a
intermediate sodium loop, the primary one being at near atmospheric
pressure. Three variants are proposed: a 50-150 MWe modular type with
actinides incorporated into a U-Pu metal fuel requiring
electrometallurgical processing (pyroprocessing) integrated on site; a
300-1500 MWe pool-type version of this; and a 600-1500 MWe loop-type
with conventional MOX fuel, potentially with minor actinides, and
advanced aqueous reprocessing in central facilities elsewhere.
Development is usually led by government and public R&D organisations
(because of the high specialization of the required research
infrastructures). But, also private companies are promoting SFR-type
designs for large scale or SMR type reactors, for example Framatome, GE
Hitachi (PRISM reactor, on which the technology of the US Versatile Test
Reactor is based) and several SMR companies (for example ARC in Canada
or Terrapower in the US ). Generation IV International Forum (GIF):
Inter-governmental cooperation are taking place on the SFR system, along
with the other 5 reference systems.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
7-8 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Nuclear >
High-temperature reactor and very high temperature reactor Generation
Moderate Details
A key attribute of the very high temperature reactor (VHTR) concept is
its ability to produce the higher temperatures (up to 1 000°C) needed
for large scale hydrogen production using thermo-chemical cycles and
some high temperature process heat applications. Also, the high
temperatures allow for very high efficiencies together with a Brayton
cycle. However, VHTRs would not permit use of a closed fuel cycle.
Reference designs are for around 250 MW of electricity, or 600 MW of
heat, with a helium coolant and a graphite-moderated thermal neutron
spectrum. Fuel would be in the form of coated particles, formed either
into rods or pebbles according to the core design adopted. VHTR designs
are based on prototype high-temperature gas-cooled reactors built and
operated in the United States and Germany, and much R&D has been
completed. Key challenges for the VHTR (temperature 1000 deg) include
developing improved high temperature-resistant materials, and the fuel
design and manufacture. In the meantime, the technology exists to build
and operate High Temperature Reactors (with outlet temperatures up to
750-900 deg). China has constructed the HTR-PM (750°C, with Rankine
cycle) to be connected to the grid in 2020. Japan has a test reactor
(HTTR) which operated for several hours with 950°C outlet temperatures.
It is due to restart in 2020.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Hydrogen, Systems integration,
District energy
*Key countries:* Australia, France, Japan, China, Korea, Switzerland,
United States
*Key initiatives:*
Japan: a graphite-moderated gas-cooled research reactor with a thermal
capacity of 30 MW is in operation since 1999. China: two
high-temperature reactor-pebble-bed modules (HTR-PM) with a combined
power capacity of 211 MW are expected to be connected to the grid by the
end of 2021. Plans to develop a scaled-up version with a power capacity
of 600 MW have been announced. Korea: up to the recent change of
government in Korea, a major industrial initiative involving steel maker
POSCO and research organisation KAERI to develop an HTR to produce
hydrogen and process steam for the steel industry. Poland: strong
interest to replace its fleet of gas-fired boilers for industrial heat
applications by 2035 with a low carbon option (and looking at HTR).
Russia: 4 small co-generation units with a combined power capacity of 11
MW and thermal capacity of 62 MW. Strong interest by vendors (private
sector); many SMR and microreactor (<10 MWe) designs are based on HTR
technology, e.g. X-energy in the United States or Ultrasafe in Canada
and U-battery in UK. Generation IV International Forum (GIF):
Inter-governmental co-operation is taking place on the VHTR system,
along with the other 5 reference systems.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
6-9 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Nuclear > Light water
reactor-based small modular reactor Generation Moderate Details
Small modular reactors are defined as reactors with an electric
generating capacity of up to 300 MW. Light water reactor (LWR) SMR
designs are based on existing commercial LWR technology but are
generally small enough to allow all major reactor components to be
placed in a single pressure vessel (i.e. integral designs). The reactor
vessel and its components are designed to be assembled in a factory and
transported to the plant site for installation, potentially reducing
construction time and costs compared to those of large LWRs.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Hydrogen, Systems integration,
District energy
*Key countries:* Argentina, Canada, China, France, India, Russia, United
Kingdom, United States, Finland
*Key initiatives:*
Argentina: CAREM-25, a PWR, is under construction. Canada: SMR roadmap
released; CNSC reviewing ten designs, including water-cooled,
helium-cooled and molten-salt-cooled technologies. Application for the
first micro modular reactor (MMR) received (very small high temperature
reactor). China: ACP100 SMR scheduled to start construction in 2020,
with 125 MWe capacity by 2025. China: helium-cooled high-temperature
reactor HTR-PM (210 MWe), full power operation scheduled for 2020.
France: NUWARD, an innovative 170 MWe LWR SMR design is under
development by a French consortium. This SMR can be installed with plant
configuration of two reactors (total capacity 340 MWe), to be duplicated
according to customers needs. Russia: two floating reactors with a power
capacity of 35 MW each were connected to the grid in 2019; RITM-200
units with a 50 MW power capacity are being used for icebreakers and
could be deployed and land-based reactors. United Kingdom: Rolls Royce
is leading a UK consortium to develop a 440 MWe standalone LWR SMR.
United States: NuScale, a 60 MWe 12-module LWR SMR plant under licensing
by the NRC and planned to be operational in the late-2020s. United
States: the BWRX-300 concept, a single-unit 300 MWe LWR SMR developed by
GE Hitachi, and that submitted a design licence application to the NRC
in January 2020. United States: Aurora, a 1.5 MWe micro-reactor
developed by Oklo, which submitted a combined license application to the
NRC in March 2020.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Specific per-MW costs of SMRs are likely to be higher than those of
large third generation reactors; however, economies of series could
compensate economies of scale if a sufficiently large number of
identical SMR designs are built and replicated in factory assembly
workshops. Achieving regulatory and industrial harmonisation is key
to foster the economies of volume through a global market. Lower
overall investment costs and shorter construction times for SMRs
could potentially facilitate the financing of such reactors compared
to large nuclear plants.
1-3 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Nuclear > Fusion
Generation Moderate Details
Nuclear fusion, the process that takes place in the core of the sun
where hydrogen is converted into helium at temperatures over 10 million
°C, offers the possibility of generating base-load electricity with
virtually no CO2 emissions, with a virtually unlimited supply of fuel
(deuterium and tritium, isotopes of hydrogen), small amounts of
short-lived radioactive waste and no possibility of accidents with
significant off-site impacts.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials
*Key countries:* China, European Union, India, Japan, Korea, Russia,
United Kingdom, United States
*Key initiatives:*
Several Tokamaks have been built, e.g.
* Joint European Torus (JET)
* the Mega Amp Spherical Tokamak (MAST) in the UK
* the tokamak fusion test reactor (TFTR) at Princeton in the United
States Tokamaks under construction:
* ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) project
currently under construction in Cadarache, France will be the
largest tokamak when it operates in the 2020s
* Chinese Fusion Engineering Test Reactor (CFETR) is a tokamak which
is reported to be larger than ITER, and due for completion in 2030
Existing Stellarators:
* Large Helical Device at Japan's National Institute of Fusion
Research, began operating in 1998
* Germany: Wendelstein 7-AS between 1988 and 2002, being progressed as
the Wendelstein 7-X in 2015
* Spain: TJII is in operation in Madrid Private companies also have
started to work on fusion, .e.g.:
* Commonwealth Fusion Systems: Developing high-temperature
superconducting magnets to confine plasma in a small tokamak
called Sparc
* General Fusion: Developing magnetised-target fusion machine in which
plasma is injected into a cavity surrounded by swirling molten metal
and then compressed by synchronised pistons to create fusion
* TAE Technologies: Developing beam-driven field-reversed
configuration machine, which fires two plasmas into each other in a
confinement vessel so that their magnetic field holds them while
heated by particle beams
8-9 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Coal > CCUS >
Post-combustion: chemical absorption Generation High Details
At a coal-fired power plant with post-combustion capture using chemical
absorption, the carbon dioxide is separated from the combustion flue gas
by using a chemical solvent (e.g. amine-based). The CO2 is released at
elevated temperatures, the solvent regenerated and recycled back for
further operation.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS
*Key countries:* Canada, United States
*Key initiatives:*
Following multiple pilot and small-scale demonstration in many countries
that deploy coal for power, two large-scale demonstration projects are
now in operation:
* Boundary Dam Carbon Capture Project , Canada
* Petra Nova Carbon Capture, United States
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
6 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Coal > CCUS >
Post-combustion: membranes polymeric Generation Moderate Details
At a coal-fired power plant with post-combustion capture using chemical
absorption, the carbon dioxide is separated from the combustion flue gas
by membranes, which are polymeric films and act as a selective barrier
able to separate CO2 from a stream. They can also act, in a
non-selective way, as a contacting device between the gas stream and the
liquid solvent (i.e. membrane absorption).
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS
*Key countries:* Australia, Brazil, Norway, United States
*Key initiatives:*
Membrane-based separation of carbon dioxide has been performed at
demonstration and large scale (respectively in Australia and Brazil )
for natural gas processing. Moreover, the Polaris membrane is available
commercially for CO2 separation from syngas , while NTNU has been
developing Fixed Site Carrier (FSC) membrane technology, which can be
used (under a license agreement signed in 2017) by Air Product in
conjunction with Air Products' proprietary PRISM membrane technology
(Bui et al., 2018). A number of membrane technologies for CO2 separation
have been tested through collaboration between NCCC and various partners
including the Gas Technology Institute, DOE/NETL, Air Liquide.
7 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Coal > CCUS >
Oxy-fuelling Generation Moderate Details
An oxy-fuelling coal-fired power plant involves the combustion of coal
using nearly pure oxygen instead of air, resulting in a flue gas
composed of CO2 and water vapour, which can be dehydrated to obtain a
high-purity CO2 stream. Typically, oxygen is commercially produced via
low-temperature air separation. Lowering the energy consumption and cost
for oxygen production (via improved low-temperature air separation or
air-separating membranes, or by generating oxygen during periods of
low-cost power, e.g. during night time), and the overall oxyfuel
process, are key factors in reducing capture costs.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS
*Key countries:* Australia, Spain
*Key initiatives:*
The development of oxyfuel capture and oxygen production technologies
have been driven by several research centres, universities and private
companies, in particular industrial gas producers (e.g. Air Liquide, Air
Products, Linde, Praxair). Most R&D has focused on oxyfuel capture for
power generation. Several demonstration plants reached advanced stages
of planning but were cancelled prior to construction. A number of pilot
plants have emerged over time: Atmospheric oxyfuel capture technology:
* Three large-scale pilots of the atmospheric oxyfuel process have
been successfully operated: at the coal-fired Callide power station
(30 MW) in Australia, at a circulating fluidised bed coal-fired
boiler (30 MW) in Spain (Compostilla project), and at the Schwarze
Pumpe lignite power station (30 MW) in Germany. The Callide project
was a joint-venture of companies and research centres from Japan and
Australia; the Compostilla project was an alliance consisting of
ENDESA, CIUDEN, Foster Wheeler (IEAGHG, 2019); the Schwarze Pumpe
project was an alliance consisting of Vattenfall and Gaz de France.
Smaller pilot plants have been testing pre-treatment, atmospheric
oxyfuel combustion and post-treatment technologies.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
7 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Coal > CCUS >
Pre-combustion: physical absorption Generation Moderate Details
In an integrated gasification combined-cycle coal power plant, coal is
gasified into a synthesis gas, consisting of hydrogen and carbon
monoxide. The synthesis gas is shifted in a water-gas-shift (WGS)
reaction to produce additional hydrogen and convert the carbon monoxide
into carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide is then captured from the
shifted syngas using physical separation processes, such as adsorption,
and afterward, the remaining hydrogen (H2) is combusted in a
combined-cycle gas turbine that generates power.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS
*Key countries:* China, Japan, United States
*Key initiatives:*
Pre-combustion capture has been demonstrated at existing coal-fired IGCC
power plants:
* Spain: Pre-combustion capture was tested between September 2010 and
June 2011 at a 14-MW pilot plant, being part of the larger
Puertollano IGCC power plant (335 MW). The pilot plant treated
around 2% of the total syngas produced at the power plant, resulting
in 100 tonnes per day of CO2 being captured and 2 tonnes per day of
hydrogen being produced.
* Belgium: A 20-MW pilot plant tested pre-combustion capture at the
253-MW Buggenum IGCC power plant between May 2011 and October 2013.
United States: Completion of the 582-MW coal-fired IGCC Kemper power
plant with pre-combustion capture has been abandoned in 2017, after
technical difficulties, cost overruns and low natural gas prices.
Japan: CO2 capture tests started end of 2019 at an oxygen-blown IGCC
power plant (160 MW). As a final step of the project, it is planned
to demonstrate the use of the hydrogen not only in the
combined-cycle power plant, but also in a solid oxide fuel cell
system (IGCF
* integrated gasification fuel cell).
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
4-5 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Coal > CCUS > Chemical
looping combustion Generation Moderate Details
Chemical looping is a technology that involves CO2 capture at high
temperatures using two main reactors. Chemical looping systems use small
particles of metal (e.g. iron, manganese) to bind oxygen from the air to
form a metal oxide (1st reactor), which is then transported to the other
reactor where it releases the oxygen for the combustion of the fuel,
thus generating energy and a concentrated stream of CO2 (2nd reactor).
The metal is then looped back to the first reactor. A main benefit of
solid looping is the potentially lower overall process energy
consumption. Challenges include reducing the cost and degradation of the
metal carrier (IEAGHG, 2019).
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Chemical looping technologies are being progressed by academia, research
organisations and several companies, including power manufacturers. This
has led to the development and operation of several projects. Around 40
pilot plants with varying capacities (0.2 kW to 3 MW) have operated
chemical looping combustion under various conditions relevant for
combustion of coal, gas, oil and biomass (TRL 4-5). Large-scale
demonstration projects are required to progress to TRL 6 or 7. Little
information on cost estimates has been published.
5-6 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Coal > CCUS >
Supercritical CO2 cycle Generation Moderate Details
While in conventional power plants flue gas or steam is used to drive
one or multiple turbines, in supercritical CO2 (sCO2) cycles
supercritical CO2 is used, i.e. CO2 at or above its critical temperature
and pressure, where liquid and gaseous phases of CO2 are
indistinguishable. sCO2 cycles offer many potential advantages,
including higher plant efficiencies, lower air pollutant emissions,
lower investment costs and high CO2 capture rates. In some cases, they
could also allow for reduced water consumption. sCO2 cycles typically
use nearly pure oxygen to combust the fuel gas in order to create a flue
gas stream comprised primarily of CO2 and water vapour.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Two sCO2 technologies are currently being progressed to an industrial
scale by US-based companies, and currently use natural gas: NET Power,
which uses the Allam cycle, and Clean Energy Systems, which uses the
Trigen cycle.
* NET Power’s 50 MWth clean energy plant, located in La Porte, Texas,
started operations in 2018 and is a first-of-a-kind natural
gas-fired power plant, employing Allam Cycle technology (TRL 5-6).
The plant uses equipment already proven in industry, apart from the
turbine, combustor and heat exchanger. NET Power reports a net
efficiency of 59% (LHV) when using natural gas (51% for coal) and a
CO2 capture rate of nearly 100% (Allam et al., 2016). The cost of
electricity is estimated to be around $90/MWh (IEAGHG, 2015). A 300
MW commercial plant is currently in the design phase.
* Clean Energy Systems’ 150 MWe energy plant at the Kimberlina Power
Plant, Bakersfield, California, uses a steam-rich working fluid (80%
water, 20% CO2) to drive a high-pressure steam turbine (TRL 5).
Estimations show a net efficiency of 48.9% (LHV, natural gas) and
cost of electricity of around $105/MWh (IEAGHG, 2015).
5-6 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Natural gas > CCUS >
Supercritical CO2 cycle Generation Moderate Details
While in conventional power plants flue gas or steam is used to drive
one or multiple turbines, in supercritical CO2 (sCO2) cycles
supercritical CO2 is used, i.e. CO2 at or above its critical temperature
and pressure, where liquid and gaseous phases of CO2 are
indistinguishable. sCO2 cycles offer many potential advantages,
including higher plant efficiencies, lower air pollutant emissions,
lower investment costs and high CO2 capture rates. In some cases, they
could also allow for reduced water consumption. sCO2 cycles typically
use nearly pure oxygen to combust the fuel gas in order to create a flue
gas stream comprised primarily of CO2 and water vapour.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Two sCO2 technologies are currently being progressed to an industrial
scale by US-based companies, and currently use natural gas: NET Power,
which uses the Allam cycle, and Clean Energy Systems, which uses the
Trigen cycle.
* NET Power’s 50 MWth clean energy plant, located in La Porte, Texas,
started operations in 2018 and is a first-of-a-kind natural
gas-fired power plant, employing Allam Cycle technology (TRL 5-6).
The plant uses equipment already proven in industry, apart from the
turbine, combustor and heat exchanger. NET Power reports a net
efficiency of 59% (LHV) when using natural gas (51% for coal) and a
CO2 capture rate of nearly 100% (Allam et al., 2016). The cost of
electricity is estimated to be around $90/MWh (IEAGHG, 2015). A 300
MW commercial plant is currently in the design phase.
* Clean Energy Systems’ 150 MWe energy plant at the Kimberlina Power
Plant, Bakersfield, California, uses a steam-rich working fluid (80%
water, 20% CO2) to drive a high-pressure steam turbine (TRL 5).
Estimations show a net efficiency of 48.9% (LHV, natural gas) and
cost of electricity of around $105/MWh (IEAGHG, 2015).
8 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Natural gas > CCUS >
Post-combustion: chemical absorption Generation High Details
At a natural gas-fired power plant with post-combustion capture using
chemical absorption, the carbon dioxide is separated from the combustion
flue gas by reaction of CO2 with a chemical solvent (e.g. amine-based)
to form a weakly bonded intermediate compound, which may be regenerated
with the application of heat to produce the original solvent (for
further operation) and a concentrated CO2 stream.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
In the United States, post-combustion capture was demonstrated at a 320
MW gas-fired power plant in Bellingham, Massachusetts. The facility used
an amine-based capture process, with a recovery rate of 85-95% from the
flue gases. The captured gas was suitable for sale to the food industry.
The capture plant ran from 1991 to 2005, but was closed due to the
increase in natural gas prices.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
3 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Biomass > CCUS >
Pre-combustion: physical absorption Generation High Details
In an integrated gasification combined-cycle biomass power plant,
biomass is gasified into a synthesis gas, consisting of hydrogen and
carbon monoxide. The synthesis gas is shifted in a water-gas-shift (WGS)
reaction to produce additional hydrogen and convert the carbon monoxide
into carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide is then captured from the
shifted syngas using physical separation processes, such as adsorption,
and afterward, the remaining hydrogen (H2) is combusted in a
combined-cycle gas turbine that generates power.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS, CO2 removal
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Biomass integrated gasification combined-cycle technology has been
demonstrated in Sweden at a CHP power plant with 6 MW of electricity and
9 MW of heat output, but not yet in combination with CCUS.
6-7 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Biomass > CCUS >
Post-combustion: chemical absorption Generation High Details
At a biomass-fired power plant with post-combustion capture using
chemical absorption, the carbon dioxide is separated from the combustion
flue gas by using a chemical solvent (e.g. amine-based). The CO2 is
released at high temperature and the solvent regenerated for further
operation.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS, CO2 removal
*Key countries:* United Kingdom, Japan
*Key initiatives:*
Pilot and demonstration scale:
* Drax Power Station, UK. Four of Drax’s six 660 MWe units have been
converted from coal to 100% biomass, with the other two units
remaining on coal. CO2 capture is being piloted at Drax, with the
intention for the biomass units to operate in the future as BECCS
units. In 2020, Drax announced a partnership with Mitsubishi Heavy
Industries (MHI) to pilot MHI's carbon capture technology. Source
.
* Mikawa power plant, Japan: original 50-MW coal power plant with CO2
capture has been converted to 100% biomass, and began
commercial-scale operation of carbon capture in October 2020. No CO2
usage or storage plans have been announced as of Sept 2022.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
4 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Ocean (all) Generation
High Details
Ocean technologies are a broad technology family, encompassing a range
of designs to generate electricity from energy in the sea, generally
either in wave or tidal form. Tidal power harnesses energy from tides in
a similar way to wind power. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
draws thermal energy from the deep ocean and converts it into
electricity or commodities. Salinity gradient power is energy produced
from the chemical pressure that results from the difference in salt
concentration between fresh water and saltwater. This can therefore be
exploited at river mouths where fresh and saline water meet. Two
technologies are being developed to convert this energy into
electricity: pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO) and reverse electrodialysis
(RED). Finally, ocean current technology can harvest energy from sea
currents, which always flow in one direction and are driven by wind,
water temperature, water salinity and density among other factors; they
are part of the thermohaline convection system that moves water around
the world.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable electricity
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Leading initiatives (all ocean): The International Energy Agency's Ocean
Energy Systems (IEA-OES) Technology Collaboration Programme brings
international governments together on on a global scale. Launched in
2001 in response to increased activity around the development of ocean
energy technology, IEA-OES facilitates the co-ordinated advancement of
research, development and demonstration of this technology. With members
from 25 countries it is overseen by an Executive Committee formed of
representatives from governmental departments, national energy agencies,
research and scientific bodies and academia [19]. The European
Commission's Horizon 2020 (H2020) programme devotes significant funding
to the development of ocean energy technology, under the the Seventh
Framework Programme (FP7). The European Union has devoted an average of
EUR32m per year (1998-2015) to R&D for ocean energy under FP7 [1]. The
Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) awards
funding to wave and tidal energy research projects in the UK. EPSRC has
funded 20 projects with a total of £25,449,996 [23]. The United States
is the second largest source of funding for the energy sector with an
average of EUR 13 million per year (1998-2015) [1]. The U.S. Department
of Energy (DOE) National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) has a
dedicated ocean energy research programme. Research focuses on design,
analysis, validation, characterisation of resource and sites, grid
integration, and market acceleration for wave, tidal stream, river and
ocean current technologies [6]. In the United States, the Water Power
Program supports the development of ocean energy devices [5]. The
programme supports all stages of technology development, from design,
testing and demonstration, in addition to the creation of supporting
technology such as instrumentation, modelling and simulation tools [5].
The Norwegian Marine Technology Research Institute (SINTEF-MARINTEK)
conducts research into design, monitoring and application of devices,
and tests at small scale in its wave tank [9]. Dedicated investments
(all ocean): The Ocean Energy ERA-NET Cofund (OCEANERA-NET COFUND),
running from 2017 to 2021 and supported by H2020, supports eight
national and regional government agencies from six European countries
[3]. The Australian Renewable Energy Agency has devoted approximately AU
$373 million and funded 14 projects between 2010 and 2019 to support the
development of wave and tidal energy [12]. China has a EUR 116.6 million
fund dedicated to the development of renewables, which contributed to
three recent marine energy test sites, among numerous other
public-financed programmes for marine energy [9]. In 2018, a total
budget of RMB 79 million was granted for 2 marine renewable energy
demonstration projects, the 1 MW Zhoushan tidal current energy
demonstration project and the optimisation and application of a highly
reliable MRE system. China has a Special Funding Programme for Marine
Renewable Energy that has invested above RMB 1.3 billion since 2010 and
funded 114 marine renewable energy projects [3]. In France, the France
Energies Marines Institute will receive up to EUR 34.3 million from the
French government over the decade of 2012 to 2022. Under France's agency
for energy and the environment, ADEME, two tidal stream and one wave
energy project received a share of EUR 40 million from the Investment
for the Future programme [9]. Enova, the Norwegian Energy Agency offers
grants towards full-scale pilot projects, dedicating over EUR 14 million
towards the Hywind project (a floating wind farm) and an additional 5MW
tidal power pilot project [9]. The Sustainable Energy Authority of
Ireland (SEAI) runs a Prototype Development Fund. Founded in 2009, the
Prototype Development Fund is intended to accelerate and reinforce
support of the research, development, testing and deployment of wave and
tidal devices. SEAI has funded 125 ocean energy projects, of which 113
were within this Fund, totaling EUR 20,301,085 [22]. To promote the
development and utilisation of ocean energy, China established the
Special Funding Programme for Marine Renewable Energy (SFPMRE) in 2010.
In 2018, a total budget of RMB 79 million was granted for 2 marine
renewable energy demonstration projects, the 1 MW Zhoushan tidal current
energy demonstration project and the optimisation and application of a
highly reliable MRE system. SFPMRE has invested over RMB 1.3 billion
since 2010 and funded 116 marine renewable energy projects.
*Announced development targets:*
Deployment targets (all ocean): IEA-OES estimates a global potential
installed capacity of wave, tidal stream and range, OTEC and salinity
gradient of 337 GW by 2050 [9]. In Europe, Ocean Energy Europe states a
target of 100 GW of installed capacity by 2050 [8]. Korea's 2030
strategy for the development of ocean infrastructure states a deployment
target for ocean energy (tidal, wave, hybrid and tidal current) of 1.5
GW installed capacity by 2030. Of this 1.5 GW:
* 700 MW of tidal stream
* 300 MW of hybrid
* 254 MW of tidal range
* 220 MW of wave Australia has a Renewable Energy Target (RET) which
aims to achieve at least 33,000 GWh of demand from renewable sources
[9]. Canada's Marine Renewable Energy Technology Roadmap lays out
wave and tidal energy capacity targets of 250 MW by 2030 and 2000 MW
by 2050 [9]. Indonesia has a deployment target of a 31% renewables
share of the primary energy mix by 2050 [9]. Ireland's White Paper
'Ireland's Transition to a Low Carbon Energy Future 2015-2030'
reiterates their commitment to ocean energy as playing a role in
their energy transition in the medium to long term [9].
9 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Tidal > Tidal
stream-Ocean current Generation High Details
Tidal stream turbines harness the flow of ocean currents in the same way
that wind turbines harness the flow of wind. Tidal stream turbines can
be mounted directly on the seabed, or floating and moored to the seabed.
Technologies are approaching commercialisation, with the testing of
full-scale devices in real-sea conditions, led by European companies.
The design of tidal stream turbines is approaching design convergence.
Converging designs generally comprise two- to three-bladed
horizontal-axis turbines. Alternative designs include: vertical axis
turbines, which work under the same principles as horizontal axis
turbines, except the rotor turns on a vertical axis; oscillating
hydrofoils, that have a hydrofoil attached to an oscillating arm, which
is lifted by the tidal stream to generate power; enclosed tips, or
Venturi Effect devices increase the velocity of the tidal stream by
funnelling it through a duct; tidal kites, which are tethered to the
seabed with a turbine attached below its ‘wing’, and ‘flies’ in a
figure-of-eight path to exaggerate the speed of the waterflow through
the turbine; and Archimedes screws, a helical corkscrew device which
draws power from the tidal stream as the water flows up the spiral,
turning the turbine [1]. Tidal stream has reached a Technology Readiness
Level (TRL) of between 6 and 8, depending on device type. Devices and
their auxiliary technology are expected to reach commercialisation
following around ten years (estimated) of further research, development
and real-sea experience. The rated power of existing tidal technology
ranges between smaller-scale devices of 0.1-0.25 MW, and larger scale of
1 and 2 MW, with scope to increase by 50% or more in coming years. Tidal
stream’s progress in recent years is demonstrated by the operating hours
accumulated, capacity deployed and electricity generated, with companies
operating at all scales active in Europe and globally. Since 2010, over
26.8 MW of tidal stream has been deployed in Europe, and more globally.
11.9 MW of this is currently operating, and 14.9 MW has now been
decommissioned [1].
*Cross-cutting themes:* Systems integration, Renewable electricity
*Key countries:* Canada, China, France, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands,
Norway, Korea, Sweden, United Kingdom, United States
*Key initiatives:*
Dedicated investments Saltire Tidal Energy Challenge Fund in Scotland is
a £10 million prize to help the commercial deployment of tidal projects
[7]. Interreg France (Channel) England Programme has approved the Tidal
Stream Industry Energiser Project (TIGER), a EUR 46.8 million project
seeking to install 8MW of new tidal capacity at sites in and around the
Channel region [13]. Technology demonstration: Many countries have tidal
resources and therefore deployment potential. To date, many of the
deployments have been launched in the UK, illustrated by the following
examples: Nova Innovation's 0.3MW array of three horizontal axis
turbines equipped with a Tesla battery storage system, demonstrating
tidal stream's value to grid balancing [3]. Nova Innovation have been
granted licences, funding and revenue support to deploy a 1.5 MW tidal
array in the Bay of Fundy area of Nova Scotia, Canada [10]. SIMEC
Atlantis' four turbine 6 MW Meygen project has generated over 10 GWh of
generation in Scotland's Pentland Firth. Project STROMA will connect two
additional turbines, uprated to 2 MW each, to a new subsea hub that will
also be connected via the MeyGen substation to the National Grid [13].
Furthermore, Atlantis aims at building an additional 49 (73.5MW)
turbines at MeyGen at an estimated cost of £420 million. The project has
already the grid capacity for such an expansion and SIMEC Atlantis has
already been granted all the necessary consent and permission for this
Phase1C of the project [14]. Orbital Marine Power achived 3 GWh of
generation by their floating SR2000 2 MW device in the Pentland Firth,
in Scotland [3]. Minesto and SEV, the main power generator and
distributor on the Faroe Islands, agreed to install two grid-connected
units of Minesto's DG100 model. The first planned installation will take
place in Vestmannasund in early 2020 [15]. The Minesto-SEV ambition is,
nevertheless, a build-out up to 70MW of tidal installed capacity. The
following unit is to be installed later in 2020. Two new turbines were
deployed near Xiushan island in December 2018, and the capacity of LHD
Tidal Current Energy Demonstration Project reached 1.7 MW. In 2018, LHD
was funded RMB 72 million by SFPMRE to press ahead with the next phase
project, including (4.1MW) #2 platform and a 1 MW turbine. The full
capacity of LHD project across all phases will be up to 7 MW. Mexico is
beginning with the development of hydrokinetic turbines for marine
streams currently, these designs are between TRL 2 and 3.
*Deployment targets:*
Korea's 2030 strategy for the development of ocean infrastructure states
a deployment target for tidal stream energy of 700 MW by 2030. China set
a target of 100 MW commercial-scale tidal power plants to be initiated
by 2020 [9]. Mexico has plans to develop a tidal farm for the touristic
area of Cozumel in the southeast of the country. This farm has an
initial target to provide 10 % of Cozumel energy consumption which was
274.75 GWh in 2016 [24]; according to this, approximately 300 turbines
of 10 kW each should be installed.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* The Strategic Energy Technology Plan Ocean Energy Implementation
Plan (SET-Plan) outlines cost reduction targets for tidal stream of
Levelised Cost of Energy (LCOE) of EUR 15ct/kWh by 2025 and EUR
10ct/kWh by 2030 [4]. Mexico: In the Cozumel area, the average cost
of energy is EUR 4.4ct/kWh.
9 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Tidal > Tidal range
Generation High Details
Tidal range adopts conventional hydropower principles to harvest energy
from the difference in sea level between high and low tides [1]. Tidal
range development is focused in the UK, the Netherlands, France and the
Republic of Korea.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Systems integration, Renewable electricity
*Key countries:* Canada, China, France, United Kingdom, Netherlands,
Russia, Korea
*Key initiatives:*
Leading initiatives Covered in All Ocean Dedicated investments Covered
in All Ocean Technology demonstration The La Rance tidal range plant in
France generates 500GWh annually for the European electricity grid [2].
*Deployment targets:*
Korea's 2030 strategy for the development of ocean infrastructure states
a deployment target for tidal range energy of 254 MW by 2030.
4 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Ocean > Ocean thermal
Generation High Details
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC), including Sea-Water Air
Conditioning (SWAC), exploits temperature differences found at different
ocean depths. The technology can also be harnessed to deliver SWAC and
desalination. Beyond power production, SWAC is commercially competitive
in commercial and data centre cooling in Europe [1].
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Systems integration, Renewable
electricity
*Key countries:* Japan, India, Indonesia, China, Korea, France, Netherlands
*Key initiatives:*
Dedicated investments/leading initiatives: OTEC is being demonstrated at
plants in EU overseas territories. To address the research and
development challenge of creating materials that survive the corrosive
conditions of the oceans, Ocean ERA-NET has funded a project aimed at
the development of advanced materials which will improve the
survivability, durability and reliability of ocean thermal energy
converters. OTEC is being applied at an industrial level to aquaculture,
cooling and desalination processes in order to improve its commercial
viability. French AFD has granted EUR 0.5 million to OTEC projects in
Indonesia. The Philippines have a feed-in tariff of around EUR0.37/kWh
dedicated to OTEC. Technology demonstration: The Netherlands nurtures
academic and private enterprise collaboration on OTEC development. OTEC
company Bluerise, signed a Joint Venture agreement with partner New Leaf
Power in 2017 for the development and construction of a seawater
district cooling system servicing the Jamaica Montego Bay Freeport Area.
Japan's Okinawa Prefecture Deep Sea Water Power Generation demonstration
plant opened in June 2013. The project includes two generating units,
each with a 50kW installed capacity. India has commissioned a
demonstration OTEC-powered desalination plant in Kavaratti, Lakshadweep
Islands, and has an established OTEC laboratory. Korea has installed a
barge 1MW OTEC demonstration plant. Hawaii in the United States is home
to an OTEC Test Site. India is planning to set up an OTEC-powered
desalination plant in Kavaratti, Lakshadweep Islands, and has
established a laboratory for OTEC and desalination.
6-7 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Ocean > Ocean wave
Generation High Details
Wave Energy Converters (WECs) harness the energy contained in the
movement of the waves. WEC placement is flexible; WECs can be deployed
on or near the shoreline, or at a distance of over 100 metres from the
shore. Wave technology remains at an earlier stage of development than
tidal stream technology, with novel device prototypes undergoing testing
in real sea conditions. A range of innovative wave device design
concepts are in testing globally; wave energy is comparatively further
from technological convergence. Successful design convergence may not
resemble that of tidal technology; instead, a wider variety of different
designs may be successful, given the broad spectrum of feasible ways to
harness energy from the waves. Wave prototypes are currently found in
four main forms. The point absorber is a floating structure that absorbs
energy through the movement of the waves at the water’s surface. The
attenuator sits across the wave front, capturing energy by selectively
constraining the movement caused by the passing wave. The hinged flap is
mounted on the seabed in shallower water, and harnesses energy through
an oscillating flap. Finally, the Oscillating Water Column (OWC) is a
partially-submerged, hollow structure open to the sea water below the
surface, trapping air above the water. The rising and falling waves
compress and decompress this air, which is channelled through an air
turbine. WEC technology developers are seeking to improve the power
rating of their devices through design optimisation. This will allow
proving of the technology at higher TRLs, and proceed to
commercialisation [1].
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Systems integration, Renewable
electricity
*Key countries:* Canada, China, Denmark, India, Norway, Portugal,
Sweden, United Kingdom, Korea, Japan, Spain, United States
*Key initiatives:*
Leading initiatives: Wave Energy Scotland (WES) is a funding body
subsidiary of the Scottish Government driving the search for innovative
solutions to technical challenges facing the wave energy sector. To
date, WES has invested £38.6 million into 86 contracts across 13
different countries [11]. Portugal's 2017 Industrial Strategy for Ocean
Renewable Energies (EI-ERO) aims to both stimulate the export and value
added through investment, and derisk the industry [3]. Within the United
States' Water Power Program's technology division runs an active MHK
programme with a number of supporting initiatives [5]. Technology
demonstration: In Portugal, AW-Energy's H2020 MegaRoller project has
deployed its 1 MW Waveroller device in Peniche [3]. CorPower Ocean
completed testing of its 25kW WEC, C3, at EMEC in Scotland in 2018
through the Wave Energy Scotland Novel Devices funding programme [3].
The device is now being prepared for open-water testing in Portugal.
Korea's 200 kW Floating Pendulum Wave Energy Converter (FPWEC) has been
under testing since 2012 and was subsequently grid connected in 2012
[3]. Based on the previous wave energy research, the SFPMRE supported
the construction of China’s first MW-level wave energy demonstration
project in 2017. The total project budget is RMB 151 million [3]. The
construction of WEC devices will be completed and deployed near Wanshan
Island in 2020. The National Insititute of Ocean Technololgy (NIOT) in
India has developed a wave powered navigational buoy which can be
utilised as navigational aid in ports/harbours and also be used as an
oceanographic observation buoy. Technology has been transferred to
industry. The OE Buoy is a wave energy converter developed in Ireland. A
500-kw prototype arrived end of 2019 in Hawaii for a one-year testing cycle.
*Deployment targets:*
Korea's 2030 strategy for the development of ocean infrastructure states
a deployment target for wave energy of 220 MW by 2030 [20].
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* The Strategic Energy Technology Plan Ocean Energy Implementation
Plan (SET-Plan) outlines cost reduction targets for wave of
Levelised Cost of Energy (LCOE) of EUR 20ct€/kWh by 2025 and EUR
15ct€/kWh by 2030 [4]. WES has a cost target of £150/MWh by 100 MW
of Scottish deployment.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
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4 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Ocean > Salinity gradient
Generation Moderate Details
Salinity gradient exploits the osmotic pressure between seawater and
fresh water. While there is significant potential for deployment,
salinity gradient technology requires further development before this
will be possible. Countries around the world are developing and testing
this technology – the Netherlands and Mexico are key participants [1].
*Cross-cutting themes:* Materials, Renewable electricity
*Key countries:* Mexico, Netherlands
*Key initiatives:*
Leading initiatives Covered in All Ocean Dedicated investments Covered
in All Ocean Technology demonstration: Salinity gradient is currently in
the prototypical stages [2] REDstack, a company from the Netherlands,
has tested Reverse Electro Dialysis (RED) technologies at a pilot
facility in Afsluitdijk, and is in an advanced stage to build a 1 MW
Blue Energy demo plant along the Dutch coast near Katwijk. At this
location the plant can use salt water from the sea and fresh water from
an inland drainage channel. The Blue Energy demo plant will be developed
to produce electricity [18]. In Mexico, the Salinity Gradients Group and
CEMIE-Océano are developing the Reverse Electro Dialysis (RED) technique
while promoting the development of additional prototypes, specifically
research into new materials in design and membranes [3].
8 Energy transformation > Power Storage > Battery storage > Redox flow
Storage High Details
Flow batteries are a unique category of batteries, composed of two
electrolytes separated by an ion-selective membrane that allows only
specific ions to pass during the charging or discharging process. The
electrolyte can be stored in separate tanks and pumped into the battery
as needed. Energy and power components are separated and facilitate
scaling: larger storage tanks increase energy storage capacity. Several
chemistries can be used, but VRB appear the most mature. Flow batteries
are less sensitive to higher depth of discharge, have a long life cycle,
and unlimited energy capacity. However they also have low energy
density, and are not yet commercially mature.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Systems integration, Storage, Electrochemistry
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
A number of projects underway. In 2019, SoftBank invested USD 30 million
in iron flow battery startup ESS. RedT Energy has a 1 MW system in
Australia. Avalon, Lockheed Martin and U.S. Vanadium are also advancing
projects at different scales, but the lack of demand for longer term
storage durations is hampering progress.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
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9 Energy transformation > Power Storage > Battery storage >
Lithium-ion (grid-scale or behind-the-meter) Storage Very high Details
Li-ion batteries, due to their high performance and rapidly dropping
costs, are already used for many power stationary applications. In the
power sector, their modularity allows them to provide a range of
services from frequency regulation and ancillary services, to
transmission and distribution investment deferral. Spillover effects
from the transport sector are driving technology development towards
higher densities, while power sector applications are benefiting from
idling capacity or less performing designs. Research in the post Li-ion
era is already under way with new systems such as lithium-sulphur,
lithium-air and sodium-ion batteries. Key advantages compared to other
technologies are its high performing attributes including high-energy
density, highest cycle life, and an effective and scalable manufacturing
process for small scale.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Systems integration, Storage, Electrochemistry
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Lithium ion batteries are broadly deployed. Targets include mandates or
other procurement means, or targets for flexibility or capacity where
lithium ion can compete, either at regional level (California, Oregon),
or at national level (South Africa, UK)
9 Energy transformation > Power Storage > Mechanical storage >
Flywheel Storage Moderate Details
Flywheels are powered by electricity and can store electrical energy as
rotating inertia. The discharging process transforms the flywheel
movement back into electricity through a generator. Air friction is
commonly reduced by putting the flywheel inside a vacuum and rotating
friction minimised by using magnetically levitated bearings, leading to
high efficiencies of 90%-95%. The energy output tends to be small, so
flywheels are limited to short-time applications such as area regulation
or load following. The rapid response time, low maintenance requirements
and very high cycle life (i.e. can undergo a large number of charging
and discharging cycles) are also important characteristics for
short-term applications to maintain power quality. Also, flywheel
storage can provide both up and down regulation during the same time
period (although not simultaneously).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Systems integration, Storage
*Key countries:*
11 Energy transformation > Power Storage > Mechanical storage > Pumped
storage Storage High Details
PHS plants comprise a lower and higher water reservoir. Water is pumped
using electricity up to the higher reservoir, thus converting the
electrical energy into potential energy. The stored energy can be
transformed back into electricity by letting the water fall from the
higher reservoir to drive a turbine. PHS is a mature technology that has
been used widely on large scale at a commercial level. A few
improvements are enhancing some of their basic characteristics,
including re-purposing and retrofitting for increased flexibility to
accommodate variable renewables; expanding the reach of pumped hydro
plants to seawater plants, or to underground and smaller-scale modular
projects.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Systems integration, Storage
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Nearly 96% of global storage capacity is pumped hydro, with over 150 GW
deployed around the world. The largest plant in the world is in Virginia
at 3 GW, but the Fengning plant in China, currently under construction,
is set to surpass it with 3.6 GW planned in two phases, ending in 2021.
Other key projects include seawater pumped hydro plants, which greatly
expand the geographical scope of PSH. The world's first plant was in
Okinawa, Japan, completed in 1999, but more recent plans include
EnergyAustralia's 225 MW Cultana plant, which aims to be the world's
largest seawater PSH system.
8 Energy transformation > Power Storage > Mechanical storage >
Compressed air energy storage Storage Moderate Details
CAES involves compressing and storing air, either in geological
underground voids (e.g. salt caverns) or in designated above-ground
vessels. Electricity is transformed into thermal and mechanical energy
as hot pressurised air. Later, the compressed air is heated by burning
natural gas and then expanded in a gas turbine to generate electricity.
The process of compressing air for storage generates heat. In diabatic
CAES plants like those currently in existence, the generated heat is
dissipated as waste. Research is being carried out into the use of
adiabatic CAES, in which heat generated during the gas compression phase
is stored and used for heating the compressed air before it enters the
turbine, drastically reducing or even eliminating the requirement for fuel.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Systems integration, Storage
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Two CAES plants are in existence, both using diabatic technology - one
in Germany and one in the United States. A world-first advanced CAES
system in Canada of 1.75 MW was completed in 2019. Progress in the Adele
project, a world-first adiabatic plant, was halted in 2017.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
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9 Energy transformation > Power Storage > Mechanical storage > Liquid
air energy storage Storage Moderate Details
Liquid Air Energy Storage (LAES) is an energy storage technology that
uses liquid air as a storage medium. The charging system is an
industrial air liquefaction plant where electricity is used to liquefy
air. The liquid air is stored in an insulated tank at low pressure. When
power is required, liquid air is drawn from the tank, pumped to high
pressure, and evaporated. This produces gaseous air that can be used to
drive a piston engine or turbine to do valuable work that can be used to
generate electricity. The stored compression heat can be used to
increase the work output. Alternatively, (waste) heat from an industrial
process, a gas turbine or other conventional power station can be used
to heat up the air before expansion. The stored cold can be used to
reduce the power consumption of the liquefaction process.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Systems integration, Storage
*Key countries:* United Kingdom, Japan
*Key initiatives:*
LAES has been demonstrated in two pilot scale plants by Mitsubishi Heavy
Industries Ltd and Highview Power Storage. A 5MW/15MWh plant, also by
Highview Power, was connected to the grid in the UK in 2018.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* EU SET-Plan targets:
* Today: 250-600 €/kWh or 2000-3500€/kW (LAES size dependent)
* 2030: 150-400 €/kWh or 1000-2000 €/kW (LAES size dependent)
* 2050 : <150€/kWh or < 1000 €/kW
7 Energy transformation > Power Infrastructure > Integration > Virtual
inertia-fast frequency response Infrastructure High Details
Conventional power systems include large numbers of power plants with
rotating machines that operate at system frequency (synchronous
generators), that provide strong inertia to the system in case of sudden
changes in demand, supply or system stability in general. The increase
of share of non-synchronous generators in the form of solar
photovoltaics and wind farms results in a decrease of system inertia and
more frequency instability. Virtual inertia can be a solution that
addresses these concerns, when utilised with appropriate control
structures and technologies. Virtual inertia can be developed for
variable renewables by using a short term energy storage together with a
power inverter/converter and a proper grid forming mechanism. This is
known as virtual synchronous generator, virtual synchronous machine or
synchronverters.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Systems integration, Grid infrastructure,
Digitalization
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Commercial wind turbine manufacturers can already provide some level of
virtual intertia response. SGCC has developed a virtual synchronous
generator demonstrator in China. DTU is exploring EVs to provide system
inertia. Behind-the-meter energy storage devices and virtual power
plants are also being explored as providers of virtual inertia in
Australia.
* Hornsdale, Australia: BESS co-located Wind Farm in South Australia.
100 MW/129 MWh provided energy and FCAS Installed in 2017. In 2020
further expanded to 150 MW/194 MWh.
* Dalrymple Bay, Australia : Dalrymple/ESCRI is proof of concept of
virtual inertia and represents the worlds largest, grid connected
micro/mini grid mostly acting as part of the main grid in South
Australia. It can provide to the network 30 MW for 20 minutes out of
its battery.
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8 Energy transformation > Power Infrastructure > Integration > Smart
inverter Infrastructure High Details
Inverters convert the direct current output of solar photovoltaic
generation units to alternating current that can be fed into the grid or
used directly by consumers. Smart inverters provide functionality that
facilitates the integration of PV in electricity systems. These include
voltage support at the distribution level, frequency regulation,
fault-ride-through capabilities. Large numbers of smart inverters can be
operated autonomously, either statically or dynamically reacting to
changes on the grid, or in the future remotely controlled through active
and reactive power management to provide addtional services to the
distribution (or transmission) operator.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Systems integration, Storage
*Key countries:*
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
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11 Energy transformation > Power Infrastructure > Transmission >
Ultra-High Voltage Infrastructure High Details
A power line is considered ultra-high voltage (UHV) DC at 800 kV and
above. UHVDC lines transmit electricity at lower costs over long
distances than conventional AC, due to lower unit cost per km and
reduced line loss rates. The higher the voltage, the lower the losses,
but challenges remain in increasing voltages further and making UHVDC
lines flexible and controllable.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Digitalization, Systems integration, Materials,
Grid infrastructure
*Key countries:* China, India, Brazil, United States, Denmark, Sweden
*Key initiatives:*
* China has a leading programme on UHV - the Changji-Guquan ±1,100 kV
UHV DC Transmission Project is the largest in the world
* India plans a 1,200 kV UHV AC transmission line from Wardha to
Aurangabad in collaboration with Alstom India and Power Grid
Corporation of India Limited (PGCIL)
* Brazil is also developing ±800 kV UHV DC projects in the Amazon
*Deployment targets:*
Deployment: 300 GW target in China by 2030 15% Interconnection target in
the EU by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Cost: Under USD 1 million/mile for both UHV lines and electrical
equipment by 2030 (SGCC)
11 Energy transformation > Power Infrastructure > Transmission > HVDC
power transmission Infrastructure Very high Details
A high-voltage direct current (HVDC) electric power transmission system
uses direct current (DC) for the transmission of electrical power
instead of the more common alternating current (AC). HVDC allows
efficient electricity transmission across long distances and supports
offshore wind farm integration, particularly for distant off-shore farms
where underwater AC cabling is not feasible. Most HVDC links use today
voltages between 320 kV and 800 kV, but there are also installations up
to 1100kV with transmission capacity of up to 12GW.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Systems integration, Grid infrastructure
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
China has implemented unique HVDC topologies such as multi-terminal VSC
projects, paralleled LCC and VSC, and a hybrid LCC and VSC project. In
2014 the first meshed HVDC project was implemented in China, connecting
five terminals using VSC HVDC. Multi-terminal projects are also in
operation in India (North East Agra multi-terminal DC project).
Interconnection is a particular focus market for demonstrations and
dedicated investments: Skagerrak 4 between Norway and Denmark, and the
350-kV Caprivi interconnector in Namibia, are among the highest voltage
flexible HVDC interconnectors.
7 Energy transformation > Power Infrastructure > Transmission >
Superconducting high-voltage Infrastructure Moderate Details
Superconducting high-voltage DC (HVDC) allows transfer of large amounts
of power (GW level, at currents of 5-10 kA, voltages upt o 400 kV) over
long distances (100s of km) with minimal line losses compared to
traditional resistive counterparts. HTS wires today can conduct more
than 150 times the power of copper or aluminium wires of the same
dimensions. A main benefit of using superconducting materials for HVDC
applications is the ability to transfer high currents, which minimises
line losses and allows for a very compact system footprint that eases
permitting requirements, and reduces construction costs. Materials
currently known to conduct at ordinary pressures become superconducting
at temperatures far below ambient, and therefore require cooling.
Metallic superconductors usually work below -200 °C. So called
high-temperature superconductors (HTS) usually work at temperatures
above 77 Kelvin (196.2°C), the boiling point of liquid nitrogen.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Systems integration, Grid infrastructure
*Key countries:* Europe, United States
*Key initiatives:*
* The Best Paths first-of-a-kind demonstration project funded by the
EU and led by Nexans successfully completed in 2018, proving a 320
kV and 10 kA (total 3.2 GW) superconducting cable made of magnesium
diboride material with a cryogenic helium cooling system.
* Russia:2.5km, 50 MW, 20 kV HTS DC cable energised 2016
* Germany :AmpaCity project, 1 km, 10 kV HTS cable energised 2014
* South Korea: 1 km, 23 kV AC HTS cable connecting the 154 kV
substations of Shingal and Heungdeok, energised 2019
* United States: Columbus HTS Power Cable, 200m, 69MVA, 13.2kV, 3,000A
energised 2006 Albany, 350m, 48MVA, 34.5kV, 800A energised 2006 Long
Island, 600m, 574MVA, 138kV, 2400A energised 2007 Chicago, 200m,
62MVA, 12kV, 3000A energised 2021
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11 Energy transformation > Power Infrastructure > Transmission >
Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems Infrastructure High
Details
Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems (FACTS) is an umbrella
term for a suite of technologies that has the ability to provide
reactive power support, enhance controllability, improve stability and
increase power transfer capability of AC transmission systems. These
technologies are key to continue developing the flexibility of AC grids,
which comprise the vast majority of power grid line-kilometers, to
accommodate the evolution towards variable renewables, distributed
generation and newly electrified sources of demand. Among these, Series
Compensation systems allow for the increase of power transfer
capabilities, when including thyristor control also load flow and grid
control is added, Synchronous Condensers provide inertia and both static
and dynamic support to the overall system, Static Synchronous
Compensators use Voltage Source Converters to provide reactive power
support at many different voltage levels, Static VAr Compensators
provide a combination of power transfer capacities, and mechanically
switched capacitor damping networks are highly economical for providing
reactive power compensation under steady state conditions.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Systems integration, Grid infrastructure,
Digitalization
*Key countries:* China, Germany, Sweden, United States
*Key initiatives:*
* Germany, Stadorf: In order to relieve chronically overloaded lines
between north and south the construction of the TCSC system in
Stadorf creates the possibility of increasing and control of load flow
* Germany, Mannheim: 3 Statcoms +/- 600MVAr in Mannheim, Lampertheim
und Gelsenkirchen for Amprion
* Canada, Chénier: 2 SVCs in a 735 kV substation close to Montréal,
each rated at 300 MVAr inductive to 300 MVAr capacitive (-300/+300
MVAr)
* South Africa, Impala/Illovo/Athene: 3x +100/-200MVAr SVCs
10 Energy transformation > Power Infrastructure > Transmission >
Dynamic Line Rating Infrastructure High Details
Line ratings dictate the amount of current (and therefore power) allowed
through a transmission line, and are calculated from a combinations of
factors, including amount of current flow, conductor size and
resistance, conductor distance to the ground, and ambient weather
conditions (temperature, solar irradiation, wind speed). Transmission
cables are traditionally operated using a static line rating, assuming
conservative conditions to minimise the risk of dangerous line failures.
However, static line ratings cause significant under-utilisation of
transmission assets, as conservative conditions rarely come to fruition
beyond a few hours a day. Dynamic line rating (DLR) systems change in
response to real-time weather conditions and allow transmission system
operators (TSOs) to efficiently and effectively utilise assets by
varying the amount of current that can flow through a line. This helps
TSOs manage congestion and increases a grid's resilience and
reliability. According to ENTSO-E a maximum capacity increase of + 40%
and + 100% has been observed compared to static line rating. Typical
capacity gains of 10 –15% can be expected over 90% of the time. DRL
systems include measurement of an indicator (e.g. tensile strength,
temperature, clearance), communication to a control system, and
subsequent response to the signal.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Systems integration, Grid infrastructure,
Digitalisation
*Key countries:* Belgium, France, Germany, United States
*Key initiatives:*
* The US DOE's Smart Grid Demonstration Program (SGDP) successfully
demonstrated DRL technology in New York and Texas in 2014, involving
the New York Power Authority (NYPA), Oncur Electric Delivery Company
(Oncur), Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), and Nexans
* According to Nexans, over one-third of large utilities in North
American use DLR systems, and it is installed in over 20 countries
* DLR systems are installed on 27 lines in Belgium and France
* DLR is used on many heavily loaded OHL in Germany
* The DLR system covers 27 lines in Slovenia: (6 × 400 kV, 4 × 220 kV
and 17 × 110 kV)
5 Energy transformation > Power Infrastructure > Distribution >
Transactive energy Infrastructure Moderate Details
Transactive energy refers to the exchange of energy between consumers
within the area of operation of an existing electric power system. It is
enabled by the deployment of distributed energy resources close to the
point of demand, as well as a suite of digital monitoring and control
techniques that develop. On the one hand, transactive energy sources are
generally intermittent (mainly solar PV) and distributed, and are not
evenly deployed, which brings with it challenges for integration and
management. On the other, transactive energy opens up opportunities for
the accelerated adoption of renewables and other distributed energy
resources, as well as new means to manage the power system, optimise
flows and provide greater stability to grids. Transactive energy
requires both a digital platform and an energy asset platform to
function. The digital platform requires two-way communication, advanced
metering infrastructure, remote sensing and control technologies on the
grid, and software trading platforms.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Systems integration, Grid infrastructure,
Digitalization
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Community energy is fairly widespread, and sets the stage for some of
the more advanced options for transactive energy. LO3 is a microgrid in
Brooklyn that is one of the first implementations of transactive
platforms, based on distributed ledger technology. Electron in the UK or
Powerledger in Australia are advancing the concept further. In addition:
* Pacific Northwest Demonstration Project, United States: The Pacific
Northwest Demonstration Project is a 5-year U.S. Department of
Energy (DOE) funded research and development project created for the
purpose of exploring transactive energy concepts at the regional
scale that was completed in June 2015. The project participants
included 11 utilities, two universities, and multiple technology
companies to span five Pacific Northwest states: Washington, Oregon,
Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming. The project evaluated 55 different
technologies that could help reduce energy use and power bills,
including smart meters, advanced energy storage, and voltage
controls. It also tested and determined the potential benefits of
transactive controls within a regional power grid. Public
involvement was determined as a key parameter for smart grid
deployment. Participants of the project emphasised the importance of
customer engagement when new technologies are being implemented.
* Lumenaza, Germany : Lumenaza’s “utility-in-a-box” energy platform
enables P2P energy sharing and communities on a local, regional and
national level. The software connects producers of electricity with
consumers, controls demand and supply (e.g., by loading batteries)
and includes balance group management, aggregation, billing and
visualisation of energy flows. It allows energy communities to
participate in electricity market design.
* Transactive Energy Initiative Colombia, Medellin: The energy trading
pilot in Medellín, as part of the Transactive Energy Colombia
Initiative, is an innovative trial designed to test the application
of user-centred models based on distributed energy resources and the
digitalisation of the electricity sector. It consists of a virtual
microgrid with thirteen participants connected by smart meters
through a virtual trading app developed by NEU. The app allows
participants to track their consumption, generation, and how surplus
energy is allocated to other participants in the virtual market.
(Grid Singularity, 2022)
* CommUNITY Project, United Kingdom : This initiative enables P2P
energy trading by allowing residents at a social housing complex in
London to exchange energy generated from solar panels installed on
the rooftop. Using a mobile app, residents are assigned an amount of
solar energy that they can use, share or sell to their neighbours.
This project is part of the innovation trials approved by the UK
regulator as part of its sandbox (Innovation Link) and aims to
assess how people make decisions about P2P considering their
understanding of the model, different tariff structures and their
relationship with other members of the project. This pilot is being
developed by EDF, Repowering London and University College London.
8 Energy transformation > Power Infrastructure > Transmission > HVDC
Breaker – Meshed HVDC Grid Infrastructure Moderate Details
HVDC circuit breakers can enable the expansion of high-voltage direct
current lines by tuning HVDC point-to-point connections into a network.
This would improve reliability, enable load balancing, reduce
transmission losses and facilitate cross-border energy trading. HVDC
circuit breakers are crucial because, in the event of a fault on one of
the lines, it can isolate it by cutting off the energy, even when
extremely high power is required, while the rest of the transmission
system can keep the energy flowing.
*Key countries:* China, Europe
*Key initiatives:*
PROMOTioN: Aiming to unlock the full potential of Europe's offshore
resources, PROMOTioN addresses technical, legal, regulatory, economic
and financial barriers to the implementation of a meshed offshore HVDC
transmission grid. Zhangbei flexible DC power grid test demonstration
project: Applies HVDC transmission technology to connect 4 converter
stations in Zhangbei, Kangbao, Fengning and Beijing with a rated voltage
of ±500kV and a total converter power of 9 million kW to a DC power grid
including DC circuit breakers.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
7 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Geothermal > Direct
lithium extraction (brine) (DLE) Production or (Battery) Storage High
Details
Extract lithium directly (DLE) from brine at concentrations from 50 to
over 500 mg/l using adsorption (acid solution required for exchange),
ion exchange or solvent extraction (organic liquid exchange). Proven
pilot projects in Canada, France, United States, Germany and Argentina.
Columbia and UK projects 2022/23 (UK deployment 2022). Traditional
geothermal lithium brine extraction involves evaporative brine
processing. Brine is pumped into a series of large ponds at the surface,
occupying large tracts of land (1000 m2) where water evaporates leaving
a highly concentrated lithium brine (>6000 mg/kg) that is then sent
onwards for processing.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Geothermal
*Key countries:* United States, Germany, France, Canada, Argentina
*Key initiatives:*
US: SRI International, Standard Lithium, Controlled Resources, Anson
Resources, Pure Energy Minerals Germany: Vulcan Energy Resources E3
Metals Corp Argentina: Lake Resources France: GeoLITH
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* 3217 - 4545 USD/mt (2021, Warren/NREL)
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
7 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Hydrogen > Hydrogen-fired
gas turbine > Pure hydrogen Generation Moderate Details
Gas turbines can run on pure hydrogen or a hydrogen-rich syngas/natural
gas mixtures. Gas turbines using hydrogen-rich mixtures have accumulated
millions of hours of operation at large scale, whereas in the case of
using pure hydrogen, it has reached thousands of operating hours at
precommercial scale. There are technical challenges associated with the
high combustion temperature of hydrogen (NOx emissions,
reliability/flame instabilities). In addition, the combustor of the gas
turbine needs to be modified for gases with high hydrogen contents.
Burning gas mixtures with hydrogen concentrations of 5-60% is possible
in certain gas turbines, depending on the degree to which they have been
modified.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Systems integration
*Key countries:* Japan, United States
*Key initiatives:*
Italy: A 12 MW turbine operated in Fusina hydrogen power station between
2010 and 2013, using hydrogen from a near-by petrochemical complex
Japan: Combustion of pure hydrogen or of flexible mixtures with natural
gas has been demonstrated with a 1 MW class gas turbine for heat and
power supply in 2018 France: The HYFLEXPOWER power is aiming to
demonstrate the use of renewable hydrogen (mixing up to 100%) for power
generation in gas turbines Korea: Doosan Heavy Industries & Construction
is looking at converting a gas turbine that has been in operation for 25
years into a 270 MW hydrogen gas turbine by 2027
*Announced development targets:*
Most gas turbines today can handle up to 3-5% hydrogen. The turbines
themselves should be even able to run on 30% hydrogen, but constraints
in the peripheral infrastructure, such as seals or valves, may prohibit
this. Industry expects to provide by 2030 standard turbine designs being
able to run on 100% hydrogen.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Hydrogen > Hydrogen-fired
gas turbine > Hydrogen-rich syngas or natural gas mixtures Generation
Moderate Details
Gas turbines can run on pure hydrogen or a hydrogen-rich syngas/natural
gas mixtures. Gas turbines using hydrogen-rich mixtures have accumulated
millions of hours of operation at large scale, whereas in the case of
using pure hydrogen, it has reached thousands of operating hours at
precommercial scale. There are technical challenges associated with the
high combustion temperature of hydrogen (NOx emissions,
reliability/flame instabilities). In addition, the combustor of the gas
turbine needs to be modified for gases with high hydrogen contents.
Burning gas mixtures with hydrogen concentrations of 5-60% is possible
in certain gas turbines, depending on the degree to which they have been
modified.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Systems integration
*Key countries:* Italy, Japan, Korea, United States
*Key initiatives:*
Japan: Combustion of pure hydrogen or of flexible mixtures with natural
gas have been demonstrated with a 1 MW class gas turbine for heat and
power supply in Japan in 2018 Gas turbines have been running for years
with hydrogen-rich syngas/natural gas mixtures in steel industry,
petrochemical plants and refineries
*Deployment targets:*
Most gas turbines today can handle up to 3-5% hydrogen. The turbines
themselves should be even able to run on 30% hydrogen, but constraints
in the peripheral infrastructure, such as seals or valves, may prohibit
this. Industry expects to provide by 2030 standard turbine designs being
able to run on 100% hydrogen.
7-9 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Hydrogen >
High-temperature fuel cell > Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Generation Moderate
Details
Fuel cells are a further option to convert hydrogen into electricity and
heat, producing only water and no direct emissions. Fuel cells can
achieve high electric efficiencies of over 60% (above 80% overall
efficiency when also including the heat output) and reveal a higher
efficiency in part load than full load, which makes them particularly
attractive for flexible operations such as load balancing. Molten
carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) operate
with 600°C and 800-1 000°C, respectively, at higher temperatures, which
allows them to run on different hydrocarbon fuels, without the need for
an external reformer to produce hydrogen first. MCFCs are used in the MW
scale for power generation (due to their low power density, resulting in
a relatively large size). The produced heat can be used for heating or
cooling purposes in buildings and industrial applications. SOFCs have
similar application areas, but are used at smaller scale in the kW
range, such as micro CHP units or for off-grid power supply.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Systems integration, Electrochemistry
*Key countries:* Generation
*Key initiatives:*
Capacity additions in 2020 (largely natural-gas fired fuel cell
systems): 150 MW globally Companies: Bloom Energy, Sunfire Fuel Cells,
Elcogen, SolidPower, Bosch, Ceres, Wärtsilä/Convion,Viessmann, SOFCMAN,
CNFC, Toshiba, Doosan
*Deployment targets:*
Korea:
* 1.5 GW by 2022 and 8 GW (and 7 GW more for exports) by 2040 for
district grid systems (1-30 MW)
* 50 MW by 2020 for small to medium systems (up to 400 kW)
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* State-of-the-art costs and future cost targets of the FCH 2 JU for
large-scale fuel cells systems (0.4-30 MW) for converting hydrogen
or renewable methane into electricity: 2017: USD 3 390-3 955/kW
2020: USD 2 260-3 390/kW 2024: USD 1 695-2 825/kW 2030: USD 1 356-1
977/kW
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
7-9 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Hydrogen >
High-temperature fuel cell > Molten Carbonates Fuel Cell Generation
Moderate Details
Fuel cells are a further option to convert hydrogen into electricity and
heat, producing only water and no direct emissions. Fuel cells can
achieve high electric efficiencies of over 60% (above 80% overall
efficiency when including also the heat output) and reveal a higher
efficiency in part load than full load, which makes them particularly
attractive for flexible operations such as load balancing. Molten
carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) operate
with 600°C and 800-1 000°C, respectively, at higher temperatures, which
allows them to run on different hydrocarbon fuels, without the need for
an external reformer to produce hydrogen first. MCFCs are used in the MW
scale for power generation (due their low power density, resulting in a
relatively large size). The produced heat can be used for heating or
cooling purposes in buildings and industrial applications. SOFCs have
similar application areas, but are used at smaller scale in the kW
range, such as micro CHP units or for off-grid power supply.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Systems integration, Electrochemistry
*Key countries:* Generation
*Key initiatives:*
Capacity additions in 2020 (largely natural-gas fired fuel cell
systems): 9 MW globally Companies: FuelCell Energy
*Deployment targets:*
Korea:
* 1.5 GW by 2022 and 8 GW (and 7 GW more for exports) by 2040 for
district grid systems (1-30 MW)
* 50 MW by 2020 for small to medium systems (up to 400 kW)
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* State-of-the-art costs and future cost targets of the FCH 2 JU for
large-scale fuel cells systems (0.4-30 MW) for converting hydrogen
or renewable methane into electricity: 2017: USD 3 390-3 955/kW
2020: USD 2 260-3 390/kW 2024: USD 1 695-2 825/kW 2030: USD 1 356-1
977/kW
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
6 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Hydrogen > Hybrid fuel
cell-gas turbine system Generation Moderate Details
In a solid oxide fuel (SOFC)-gas turbine (GT) system, the fuel (natural
gas, syngas) is burnt in an SOFC. The exhaust of the SOFC is rich with
fuel and unburned hydrogen, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor and can
be burned directly with oxygen in the GT to produce more carbon dioxide
and water, which then runs the GT. After condensing the water in the
exhaust gas of the GT, one obtains a relatively pure CO2 stream for
storage or use. Alternatives for removing the CO2 are possible, e.g.
removing the CO2 from the SOFC exhaust and combusting the remaining fuel
with air, though leading to lower CO2 capture rates.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Systems integration, Electrochemistry
*Key countries:* Japan
*Key initiatives:*
Japan: Mitsubishi Hitachi Power Systems has installed 8 hybrid SOFC-GT
demonstration units with a size of 250 kW and an electrical efficiency
of 55%. MHPS plans to grow the unit to 1 MW, and eventually to integrate
it with gas and steam turbines to create utility scale power generation
plants capable of electrical efficiencies of above 70%.
5 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Ammonia > Co-firing in
coal power plants Generation Moderate Details
Co-firing of ammonia in existing coal power plants can be an option to
reduce the CO2 emissions impact of these plants in the near term.
Blending shares of up to 20% in energy terms are considered feasible
with only minor adjustments to a coal power plant. In smaller furnaces
with a capacity of 1 MWth, blending shares of 20% have been achieved
without any problems, in particular no ammonia slip.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Systems integration
*Key countries:* Japan
*Key initiatives:*
Japan: in 2017 Chugoku Electric Power Corporation has successfully
demonstrated the co-firing of ammonia with a 1% blending share (in terms
of the energy content of ammonia and coal) at one of their commercial
coal power stations (120 MW) Japan: JERA has started work on
demonstrating a 20% co-firing share of ammonia at a 1 GW coal-fired
unit, with the aim of completing tests by 2025
4-6 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Ammonia > Cracking into
hydrogen for gas turbines Generation Moderate Details
Ammonia in can be cracked into hydrogen and nitrogen (a technology
platform similar to steam methane reforming), so that hydrogen is burnt
in the combustor of the gas turbine. The heat required for decomposing
(or cracking) the ammonia at temperature levels of 600-1000°C, depending
on the catalyst, can be supplied by the gas turbine, slightly reducing
the electricity generation efficiency of the overall process.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Synthetic fuels, Systems integration
*Key countries:* Japan
*Key initiatives:*
Japan: Mitsubishi Heavy Power Systems is developping an ammonia cracker
unit. A first demonstration plant for co-firing hydrogen from cracked
ammonia is planned for the 2025-30 period, while for 2030-35 a
demonstration with 100% hydrogen is planned. Australia: CSIRO has
developed an ammonia cracking unit, though as part of an
ammonia-to-hydrogen fueling system for vehicles. Argentina: Large-scale
ammonia cracking is being used for the production of heavy water. In the
Arroyito Heavy Water Production Plant, 3 000 t/d of ammonia are cracked
into hydrogen and nitrogen, corresponding to an hydrogen output capacity
of 0.7 GW (0.2 MtH2 per year).
4 Energy transformation > Power Generation > Ammonia > Ammonia turbine
Generation Moderate Details
The direct use of ammonia has been successfully demonstrated in micro
gas turbines with a power capacity of up to 50 kW. In larger gas
turbines, the slow reaction kinetics of ammonia with air, the flame
stability and the NOx emissions are issues being investigated in ongoing
research activities.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Synthetic fuels, Systems integration
*Key countries:* Japan
*Key initiatives:*
Japan: the direct use of ammonia has been successfully demonstrated in
micro gas turbines with a power capacity of up to 50 kW Japan:
Mitsubishi Power announced plans to commercialise a 40 MW gas turbine
directly combusting 100% ammonia by around 2025
6 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Biomass-waste
gasification > Without CCUS Production Low Details
Gasification is a thermochemical process in which a solid feedstock (in
this case biomass or waste) is heated at high temperatures in the
presence of an oxidant (oxygen, air and/or steam, under stoichiometric
conditions to avoid complete combustion) to be transformed into a gas
mixture of H2, CO, CO2 and other light hydrocarbons (called syngas),
along with other byproducts (char and tars). The gaseous fraction is
treated to maximise H2 and CO proportions. Following treatment, the gas
is passed through a water gas shift reactor in which steam reacts with
CO in the presence of a catalyst to generate H2 and CO2. Then, the CO2
is captured and a high-purity H2 stream is obtained (99.9 vol% if
Pressure Swing Adsorption is used). This technology has the potential to
produce low carbon H2 and even to generate negative emissions if the
captured CO2 is stored. Biomass has an inherent low (< 1) hydrogen to
carbon ratio, so the hydrogen yield from this feedstock is fundamentally
lower than methane (100 g of H2 per kg of biomass as opposed to 300 g of
H2 per kg of methane) requiring a higher intake of (limited) biomass if
the goal is to produce a fixed hydrogen amount, but representing an
attractive option if the goal is to sequestrate CO2 (although production
of power and heat might be more attractive).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, CCUS
*Key countries:* United States, Netherlands
*Key initiatives:*
France/Japan: Veolia (France) and Ways2H Inc. (Japan) started operating
demonstration plants for the production of hydrogen from wastewater
sludge gasification in 2021 United Kingdom/Hungary/Greece: Powerhouse
Energy/Waste2Tricity have announced plans to deliver a FOAK plant in the
United Kingdom and is working on other projects in Hungary and Greece
United States: Solena Group announced the construction of a FOAK plant
of plasma enahanced biomass gasification in Lancaster with the aim of
starting operations by 2023 United States: OMNI Conversion Technologies
announced the construction of a FOAK plant of waste gasification in
California with the aim of starting operations by 2023 United States:
Yosemite Clean Energy announced the construction of a FOAK plant of
biomass gasification in California with the aim of starting operations
by 2024
*Announced development targets:*
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Australia Roadmap: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg
for H2 production. Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel
Cells: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg)
by 2030 and JPY 20/m3 (~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada
Hydrogen Strategy: target for the cost of delivered hydrogen
(including the cost of transport to final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg
(CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets
for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg by 2030.
5 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Biomass-waste
gasification > with CCUS Production Low Details
Gasification is a thermochemical process in which a solid feedstock (in
this case biomass or waste) is heated at high temperatures in the
presence of an oxidant (oxygen, air and/or steam, under stoichiometric
conditions to avoid complete combustion) to be transformed into a gas
mixture of H2, CO, CO2 and other light hydrocarbons (called syngas),
along with other byproducts (char and tars). The gaseous fraction is
treated to maximise H2 and CO proportions. Following treatment, the gas
is passed through a water gas shift reactor in which steam reacts with
CO in the presence of a catalyst to generate H2 and CO2. Then, the CO2
is captured and a high-purity H2 stream is obtained (99.9 vol% if
Pressure Swing Adsorption is used). This technology has the potential to
produce low carbon H2 and even to generate negative emissions if the
captured CO2 is stored. Biomass has an inherent low (< 1) hydrogen to
carbon ratio, so the hydrogen yield from this feedstock is fundamentally
lower than methane (100 g of H2 per kg of biomass as opposed to 300 g of
H2 per kg of methane) requiring a higher intake of (limited) biomass if
the goal is to produce a fixed hydrogen amount, but representing an
attractive option if the goal is to sequestrate CO2 (although production
of power and heat might be more attractive).
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS, Hydrogen, CO2 removal
*Key countries:* United States
*Key initiatives:*
Unied States: Yosemite Clean Energy announced the construction of a FOAK
plant of biomass gasification with CCS in California with the aim of
starting operations by 2024
*Announced development targets:*
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Australia Roadmap: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg
for H2 production. Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel
Cells: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg)
by 2030 and JPY 20/m3 (~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada
Hydrogen Strategy: target for the cost of delivered hydrogen
(including the cost of transport to final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg
(CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets
for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg by 2030.
6 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Biomass-waste
pyrolysis Production Low Details
Pyrolysis is a thermochemical process in which a solid feedstock (in
this case biomass or waste) is heated at high temperatures in the
absence of any oxidant to be transformed into a gas mixture of H2, CO,
CO2 and other light hydrocarbons (called syngas), along with other
byproducts (char and tars). The gaseous fraction is treated to maximise
H2 and CO proportions. Following treatment, the gas is passed through a
water gas shift reactor in which steam reacts with CO in the presence of
a catalyst to generate H2 and CO2. Then, the CO2 is captured and a
high-purity H2 stream is obtained (99.9 vol% if Pressure Swing
Adsorption is used). This technology has the potential to produce low
carbon H2 and even to generate negative emissions if the captured CO2 is
stored and the char (whose production is significantly larger than in
the case of gasification) is used in applications that prevent its
carbon content to be released in the form of CO2. Biomass has an
inherent low (< 1) hydrogen to carbon ratio, so the hydrogen yield from
this feedstock is fundamentally lower than methane (40 g of H2 per kg of
biomass as opposed to 300 g of H2 per kg of methane) requiring a higher
intake of (limited) biomass if the goal is to produce a fixed hydrogen
amount, but representing an attractive option if the goal is to
sequestrate CO2 (although production of power and heat might be more
attractive).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:* United Stated
*Key initiatives:*
United States: SoColGas and Kore Infrastructure started in August 2021
the operation of a demonstration plant producing 1 000 kg H2/d
*Announced development targets:*
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Australia Roadmap: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg
for H2 production. Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel
Cells: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg)
by 2030 and JPY 20/m3 (~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada
Hydrogen Strategy: target for the cost of delivered hydrogen
(including the cost of transport to final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg
(CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets
for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg by 2030.
9 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Electrolysis >
Electrolyser design > Alkaline Production Very high Details
Electrolysis uses electricity to split water into its basic components
(H2 and O2) by means of redox reactions in the electrodes of the system.
Alkaline electrolysers are a type of electrolyser that use an alkaline
solution as electrolyte in which the anode and the cathode are submerged
to promote the redox reactions that facilitate the water splitting. It
is a well developed technology that has already been used for many
decades in the chlor-alkali process.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable electricity, Systems integration,
Hydrogen, Electrochemistry, Nuclear
*Key countries:* China, Germany, France, Norway
*Key initiatives:*
Peru: Industrial Cachimayo has been operating a 20 MW alkaline
electrolyser powerd by hydropower since 1975 China: Ningxia Baofeng
Energy Group has put in operation a 150 MW alkaline electrolyser in
2021. The electrolyser uses solar PV topped up with electricity from the
grid China: Sinopec is building a 260 MW plant of alkaline electrolysers
powered by solar PV Germany Uniper is building in the Bad Lauchstädt
energy park a 30 MW alkaline electrolyser Japan: The Fukushima Hydrogen
Energy Research Field has been operating a 10 MW alkaline electrolyser
power by solar PV since 2020
*Deployment targets:*
European Union: 40 GW of electrolysis by 2030 Chile: 25 GW of
electrolysis by 2030 Germany: 10 GW of electrolysis by 2030 France: 6.5
GW of electrolysis by 2030 Denamrk: 4-6 GW of electrolysis by 2030
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030 Spain: 4
GW of electrolysis by 2030 Netherlands: 3-4 GW of electrolysis by 2030
Portugal: 1.75-2GW of electrolysis by 2030 Colombia: 1-2 GW of
electrolysis by 2030 Poland: 2 GW of electrolysis by 2030 Hungary: 0.2
GW of electrolysis by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* FCH JU (Europe): CAPEX EUR 400/kW, OPEX EUR 16/(kg/d)/yr (2030).
Japan: cost pof electrolyser JPY 50 000/kW. Australia Roadmap: cost
target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg for H2 production.
Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells: cost target for
low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg) by 2030 and JPY 20/m3
(~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada Hydrogen Strategy: target for
the cost of delivered hydrogen (including the cost of transport to
final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg (CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US
Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg
by 2030.
9 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Electrolysis >
Electrolyser design > Polymer electrolyte membrane Production Very
high Details
Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysers use a polymer membrane
permeable to protons that are transported towards the cathode where they
accept an electron and recombine as H2. While it is currently a
commercially less-developed technology than alkaline electrolysers, its
cost-reduction potential is considerably larger while presenting other
advantages such as higher flexibility, higher operating pressure (lower
need for compression), smaller footprint (relevant for coupling with
offshore wind), faster response and lower degradation rate with load
changes so they have more potential to contribute to the integration of
variable renewable energy generation. PEM electrolysers need, however,
expensive electrode catalysts (platinum, iridium) and membrane
materials, and their lifetime is currently shorter than that of alkaline
electrolysers.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable electricity, Systems integration,
Hydrogen, Electrochemistry, Nuclear
*Key countries:* Germany, Norway, United Kingdom, United States
*Key initiatives:*
Germany: Shell and ITM put in operation a 10 MW PEM electrolyser
(connected to the electric grid) in the Rhineland Refinery in 2021. ITM
PEM technology installed at Shell hydrogen refuelling stations for
vehicles. Canada: Air Liquide and Hydrogenics put in operation a 20 MW
PEM electrolyser (powered with hydropower) to generate 3 000 t H2/year
to both industry and mobility usage. United States: Plug Power is
building a 15 t H2/d plant (expected to start operating in 2022) and a
120 MW plant (expected to start operating in 2025) in two locations in
the US. Spain: Iberdrola is building a 20 MW electrolyser (expected to
start operating in 2022) which will be powered with solar PV topped up
with grid electricity.
*Deployment targets:*
European Union: 40 GW of electrolysis by 2030 Chile: 25 GW of
electrolysis by 2030 Germany: 10 GW of electrolysis by 2030 France: 6.5
GW of electrolysis by 2030 Denmark: 4-6 GW of electrolysis by 2030
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030 Spain: 4
GW of electrolysis by 2030 Netherlands: 3-4 GW of electrolysis by 2030
Portugal: 1.75-2GW of electrolysis by 2030 Colombia: 1-2 GW of
electrolysis by 2030 Poland: 2 GW of electrolysis by 2030 Hungary: 0.2
GW of electrolysis by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* FCH JU (Europe): CAPEX EUR 400/kW, OPEX EUR 16/(kg/d)/yr (2030).
Japan: cost pof electrolyser JPY 50 000/kW. Australia Roadmap: cost
target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg for H2 production.
Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells: cost target for
low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg) by 2030 and JPY 20/m3
(~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada Hydrogen Strategy: target for
the cost of delivered hydrogen (including the cost of transport to
final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg (CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US
Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg
by 2030.
7 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Electrolysis >
Electrolyser design > Solid oxide electrolyser cell Production
Moderate Details
Solid oxide electrolysers (SOEC) use a ceramic solid oxide membrane
across which O2- ions formed in the cathode along with H2 are
transported towards the anode to complete the electrolytic process. This
is the most efficient way to produce hydrogen but is the least developed
type of electrolyser and has not yet reached commercial scale; they are
also less flexible than PEM electrolysers. They operate at high
temperatures and require a source of heat (such as waste heat, bioenergy
or nuclear energy) which means they may well be attractive for
co-location and integration with other industrial or chemical processes.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable electricity, Systems integration,
Hydrogen, Electrochemistry, Nuclear
*Key countries:* Germany
*Key initiatives:*
Germany: Sunfire and Total are partnering to install 1 MW scale SOEC for
its use in the Total Mitteldeutschland refinery
*Announced development targets:*
European Union: 40 GW of electrolysis by 2030 Chile: 25 GW of
electrolysis by 2030 Germany: 10 GW of electrolysis by 2030 France: 6.5
GW of electrolysis by 2030 Denamrk: 4-6 GW of electrolysis by 2030
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5GW being for
electrlysys and 5GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030 Spain: 4
GW of electrolysis by 2030 Netherlands: 3-4 GW of electrolysis by 2030
Portugal: 1.75-2GW of electrolysis by 2030 Colombia: 1-2 GW of
electrolysis by 2030 Poland: 2 GW of electrolysis by 2030 Hungary: 0.2
GW of electrolysis by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* FCH JU (Europe): CAPEX EUR 750/kW, Opex EUR 75/(kg/d)/yr (2030) US
Department of Energy ultimate target:
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
6 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Electrolysis >
Electrolyser design > Anion exchange membrane electrolyser Production
Moderate Details
Anion exchange membrane electrolyser (AEM) electrolysis combines some of
the benefits of alkaline and PEM electrolysis. Using a transition metal
catalyst (CeO2-La2O), it does not require platinum (unlike PEM
electrolysis). A key advantage is that the anion exchange membrane
itself serves as solid electrolyte, avoiding the corrosive electrolytes
used in alkaline electrolysers.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable electricity, Systems integration,
Hydrogen, Electrochemistry, Nuclear
*Key countries:* Germany, Italy
*Key initiatives:*
Enapter and Alchemr have already prototypes at kW scale
*Announced development targets:*
France: 10% of low-carbon H2 in industry by 2023 and 20-40% in 2028 (all
low carbon H2 technologies)
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* FCH JU (Europe): CAPEX EUR 400/kW, OPEX EUR 16/(kg/d)/yr (2030).
Japan: cost pof electrolyser JPY 50 000/kW. Australia Roadmap: cost
target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg for H2 production.
Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells: cost target for
low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg) by 2030 and JPY 20/m3
(~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada Hydrogen Strategy: target for
the cost of delivered hydrogen (including the cost of transport to
final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg (CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US
Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg
by 2030.
3 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Electrolysis >
Seawater electrolysis Production Moderate Details
Electrolysis uses electricity to split water into its basic components
(H2 and O2) by means of redox reactions in the electrodes of the system.
The use of seawater in electrolysis is still at early stages of
development. It can involve a two stage process of desalinisation
followed by electrolysis, with technologies that are already developed
but by also increasing CAPEX needs and efficiency losses; or it can be
done in a one-stage process using water directly in the electrolyser,
operating at low power densities and electrolysing only part of the
water put in contact with the electrodes, although this technology is
still at lab-scale. Seawater electrolysis can be an enabler for
electrolysis in geographical regions that present high water-stress.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable electricity, Systems integration,
Hydrogen, Electrochemistry, Nuclear
*Key countries:* Australia, United States
*Key initiatives:*
Australia: The Australian Renewable Energy Agency announced AUD 995 000
in funding to Yara to support a feasibility study for the production of
renewable hydrogen and ammonia United States: Stanford researchers
create hydrogen fuel from seawater
*Announced development targets:*
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* FCH JU (Europe): CAPEX EUR 400/kW, OPEX EUR 16/(kg/d)/yr (2030).
Japan: cost pof electrolyser JPY 50 000/kW. Australia Roadmap: cost
target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg for H2 production.
Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells: cost target for
low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg) by 2030 and JPY 20/m3
(~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada Hydrogen Strategy: target for
the cost of delivered hydrogen (including the cost of transport to
final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg (CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US
Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg
by 2030.
3 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Thermochemical water
splitting-Nuclear Production Moderate Details
Thermochemical water splitting uses high temperatures and cycles of
chemical reactions to produce hydrogen and oxygen from water. Nuclear
and concentrated solar can be used for the generation of these high
temperatures.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Nuclear, Systems integration, Hydrogen
*Key countries:* Canada, Japan, United States
*Key initiatives:*
Canada, Japan, Korea, United States and the European Union developed
several research programmes but no demonstrator has been developed yet
*Announced development targets:*
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* FCH JU (Europe): CAPEX EUR 400/kW, OPEX EUR 16/(kg/d)/yr (2030).
Japan: cost pof electrolyser JPY 50 000/kW. Australia Roadmap: cost
target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg for H2 production.
Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells: cost target for
low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg) by 2030 and JPY 20/m3
(~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada Hydrogen Strategy: target for
the cost of delivered hydrogen (including the cost of transport to
final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg (CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US
Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg
by 2030.
4 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Chemical looping with
CCUS Production Low Details
Chemical looping is a process in which two reactors work in parallel to
generate hydrogen and a high purity CO2 stream. In the first reactor, an
oxygen carrier (a metal oxide) is oxidised with steam, thus producing
H2. The oxidised oxygen carrier is sent to the second reactor where it
is put in contact with a fuel. The fuel is oxidized generating CO2 while
reducing the oxygen carrier, which is sent back to the first reactor,
working in a loop.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, CCUS
*Key countries:* United States
*Key initiatives:*
United States: Ohio State University 25 kWth pilot demonstrator
*Announced development targets:*
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030
Colombia: 50 kt of hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCUS by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Australia Roadmap: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg
for H2 production. Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel
Cells: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg)
by 2030 and JPY 20/m3 (~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada
Hydrogen Strategy: target for the cost of delivered hydrogen
(including the cost of transport to final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg
(CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets
for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg by 2030.
9 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Coal gasification with
CCUS > Partial capture Production Low Details
Coal gasification is a very mature technology that has been in operation
in China for many years for the generation of H2 to be used as a
feedstock. It consists of a thermochemical process that transforms coal
into syngas (H2, CO, CO2 and other light hydrocarbons) which is then
upgraded to maximise H2 and CO proportions. The upgraded syngas is used
in a water gas shift process to increase H2 production while
transforming CO into CO2, which separates more easily than CO from H2.
Finally, CO2 is separated to produce high purity H2. The CO2 separated
from H2 can be captured and stored to minimise the carbon footprint of
the process. Partial capture is widely used in ammonia production plants
where co-production of urea takes place. In addition, two demonstration
plants in China are storing CO2 underground for EOR.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, CCUS
*Key countries:* Australia, China
*Key initiatives:*
Significant deployment in China for ammonia production
*Deployment targets:*
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030
Colombia: 50 kt of hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCUS by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Australia Roadmap: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg
for H2 production. Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel
Cells: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg)
by 2030 and JPY 20/m3 (~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada
Hydrogen Strategy: target for the cost of delivered hydrogen
(including the cost of transport to final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg
(CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets
for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg by 2030.
5 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Coal gasification with
CCUS > High capture rates Production Low Details
Coal gasification is a very mature technology that has been in operation
in China for many years for the generation of H2 to be used as a
feedstock. It consists of a thermochemical process that transforms coal
into syngas (H2, CO, CO2 and other light hydrocarbons) which is then
upgraded to maximise H2 and CO proportions. The upgraded syngas is used
in a water gas shift process to increase H2 production while
transforming CO into CO2, which separates more easily than CO from H2.
Finally, CO2 is separated to produce high purity H2. The CO2 separated
from H2 can be captured and stored to minimise the carbon footprint of
the process. There are no demonstration or commercial plants operating
with high capture rates (>90%).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, CCUS
*Key countries:* Australia, China
*Key initiatives:*
Australia: HySTRA project aims to produce 100 nm3 H2/h from brown coal
gasification in Australia to be traded to Japan. In the first phase, the
project will not include CCUS technology, which is planned, however, for
the commercial phase (2030) China: the Sinopec Zhongyuan Oilfield EOR
and Changqing Oil Field EOR projects are demonstrating the technology
with underground storage for EOR
*Announced development targets:*
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030
Colombia: 50 kt of hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCUS by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Australia Roadmap: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg
for H2 production. Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel
Cells: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg)
by 2030 and JPY 20/m3 (~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada
Hydrogen Strategy: target for the cost of delivered hydrogen
(including the cost of transport to final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg
(CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets
for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg by 2030.
8 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Methane
pyrolysis-cracking > Plasma decomposition Production Low Details
Methane splitting/pyrolysis/cracking is a thermochemical process in
which methane is decomposed at high temperatures in H2 and solid carbon
in the presence of a catalyst, thus generating CO2-free H2 since the
carbon present in the methane is separated as a solid carbon that can be
used in different applications. In thermal-plasma pyrolysis processes,
the energy demand of the pyrolysis is supplied by electricity. The
electric energy ignites the plasma (an ionised gas), which reaches
temperatures in the range of 1 000- 2 000°C and splits CH4 into its
elements.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Specialty materials
*Key countries:* Australia, Germany, United States
*Key initiatives:*
United States: Monolith has demonstrated at pilot scale this technology
for the production of carbon black and H2 during four years (till 2018)
and has now under commissioned a commercial demonstration plant in
Nebraska (United States) in operation since 2021
*Announced development targets:*
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030
Colombia: 50 kt of hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCUS by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Australia Roadmap: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg
for H2 production. Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel
Cells: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg)
by 2030 and JPY 20/m3 (~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada
Hydrogen Strategy: target for the cost of delivered hydrogen
(including the cost of transport to final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg
(CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets
for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg by 2030.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
6 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Methane
pyrolysis-cracking > Catalytic decomposition Production Low Details
Methane splitting/pyrolysis/cracking is a thermochemical process in
which methane is decomposed at high temperatures in H2 and solid carbon
in the presence of a catalyst, thus generating CO2-free H2 since the
carbon present in the methane is separated as a solid carbon that can be
used in different applications. In catalytic pyrolysis, methane breaks
down into hydrogen and carbon over a metal catalyst, which is typically
nickel- or iron-based, at temperatures typically under 1 000°C.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Materials
*Key countries:* Australia
*Key initiatives:*
Australia: HazerGroup is building a demonstration plant in Perth for the
production of graphene and hydrogen using a catalytic process. The
latest update is that the plant is expected to be in operation by the
end of 2022
*Announced development targets:*
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030
Colombia: 50 kt of hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCUS by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Australia Roadmap: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg
for H2 production. Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel
Cells: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg)
by 2030 and JPY 20/m3 (~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada
Hydrogen Strategy: target for the cost of delivered hydrogen
(including the cost of transport to final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg
(CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets
for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg by 2030.
3-4 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Methane
pyrolysis-cracking > Thermal decomposition Production Low Details
Methane splitting/pyrolysis/cracking is a thermochemical process in
which methane is decomposed at high temperatures in H2 and solid carbon
in the presence of a catalyst, thus generating CO2-free H2 since the
carbon present in the methane is separated as a solid carbon that can be
used in different applications. In thermal pyrolysis, methane breaks
down into hydrogen and carbon in reactors that reach temperatures in the
range of 1 000-1 500°C.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Materials
*Key countries:*
*Deployment targets:*
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030
Colombia: 50 kt of hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCUS by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Australia Roadmap: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg
for H2 production. Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel
Cells: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg)
by 2030 and JPY 20/m3 (~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada
Hydrogen Strategy: target for the cost of delivered hydrogen
(including the cost of transport to final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg
(CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets
for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg by 2030.
9 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Methane reforming >
Steam reforming with CCUS > Partial capture Production Low Details
Steam methane reformation is a catalytic reaction in which CH4 reacts
with high temperature (800°C) steam to generate H2 and CO (syngas). The
reforming process is followed by a water gas shift process in wich the
CO reacts with water at lower temperatures to generate more H2 and CO2.
Then, CO2 is captured and a stream of high-purity H2 is obtained. When
capture is applied only to this CO2-concentrated process stream, only
around 60% of the CO2 produced can be captured. The remaining 40% of the
CO2 is produced (diluted with nitrogen) in the reformer since natural
gas is combusted to provide the heat needed for the process. This
technology is widely used in ammonia plants with co-production of urea.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, CCUS
*Key countries:* Canada, Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, United Kingdom,
United States
*Key initiatives:*
Widely deployed in ammonia plants with co-production of urea United
States: Air Product has demonstrated this technology for hydrogen
production with underground CO2 storage since 2013 in their Port Arthur
project Canada: the Quest project (Shell) has demonstrated the
technology for hydrogen production and underground CO2 storage since
2015 France: Air Liquide demonstrated this technology (with CO2
utilisation) at Port Jerome since 2015
*Deployment targets:*
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030
Colombia: 50 kt of hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCUS by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Australia Roadmap: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg
for H2 production. Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel
Cells: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg)
by 2030 and JPY 20/m3 (~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada
Hydrogen Strategy: target for the cost of delivered hydrogen
(including the cost of transport to final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg
(CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets
for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg by 2030.
5 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Methane reforming >
Steam reforming with CCUS > High capture rates Production High Details
Steam methane reformation is a catalytic reaction in which CH4 reacts
with high temperature (800and C) steam to generate H2 and CO (syngas).
This process requires an external input of heat, which leads to lower
efficiencies and a diluted CO2 stream which is costly to capture. The
reforming process is followed by a water gas shift process in wich the
CO reacts with water at lower temperatures to generate more H2 and CO2.
Then, CO2 is captured and a stream of high-purity H2 is obtained. When
capture is applied to both the CO2-concentrated process stream and the
diluted stream produced in the reformer, capture rates above 90% can be
achieved.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, CCUS
*Key countries:* Canada, Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, United Kingdom,
United States
*Key initiatives:*
Several projects around the world are targeting the production of
hydrogen using natural gas with CCUS and high capture rates, but most of
them have not disclosed the technology that they are considering using
*Announced development targets:*
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030
Colombia: 50 kt of hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCUS by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Australia Roadmap: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg
for H2 production. Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel
Cells: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg)
by 2030 and JPY 20/m3 (~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada
Hydrogen Strategy: target for the cost of delivered hydrogen
(including the cost of transport to final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg
(CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets
for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg by 2030.
5 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Methane reforming >
Autothermal reforming with CCUS > Single reformer Production High Details
Autothermal reformation is a variation of SMR in which the methane
reacts in an O2-deficit atmosphere instead of using high temperature
steam, avoiding the need for an external input of heat and, therefore,
avoiding the production of a diluted CO2 stream. Once the syngas is
produced, the rest of the process is similar to SMR with the difference
that the H2/CO ratios are different and the operating and designing
conditions of downstream processes have to be adapted. CO2 capture above
90% can be achieved by applying capture only to the concentrated process
stream.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, CCUS
*Key countries:* United Kingdom
*Key initiatives:*
Several auto-thermal reforming plants have been in operation without
CCUS in methanol production facilities for several years, but there has
been no demonstration of the whole concept of ATR+CCUS
*Announced development targets:*
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030
Colombia: 50 kt of hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCUS by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Australia Roadmap: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg
for H2 production. Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel
Cells: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg)
by 2030 and JPY 20/m3 (~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada
Hydrogen Strategy: target for the cost of delivered hydrogen
(including the cost of transport to final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg
(CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets
for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg by 2030.
5 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Methane reforming >
Autothermal reforming with CCUS > With gas heated reformed Production
High Details
The combination of authothermal refoming (ATR) with a Gas Heated
Reformer (GHR) is an improved design of ATR that allows achieving higher
efficiencies, lower CO2 production and lower oxygen consumption. The ATR
and GHR are in series and the GHR acts both as a pre-heater and cooler
of the inlet/outlet of the ATR. The GHR benefit is that it pre-reforms
the gas going to ATR using the heat from the exhaust gases of the ATR
and performs part of the reforming that would otherwise take place in
the ATR. The main technical challenge for GHR is carbon deposition
(metal dusting) on the shell side (high temperature from the ATR outlet
at around 1 100°C to 600-800°C). This can be solved by either material
selection that can withstand the conditions and thermal cycling (cost)
or by either decreasing the operating pressure or adding more steam,
both of which come with penalty in process efficiency.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, CCUS
*Key countries:* United Kingdom
*Key initiatives:*
United Kingdom: HyNet and Acorn projects have recently announced the
development of FEED studies to assess the viability of commissioning two
ATR-GHR plants for H2 production with CCS Some projects around the world
are aiming to deploy ATR with CCUS processes at large scale but are
still at early stages of development (e.g., Air Products Net-Zero
Hydrogen Energy Complex in Canada, 2024; or H-Vison in the Netherlands,
2026)
*Announced development targets:*
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030
Colombia: 50 kt of hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCUS by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Australia Roadmap: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg
for H2 production. Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel
Cells: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg)
by 2030 and JPY 20/m3 (~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada
Hydrogen Strategy: target for the cost of delivered hydrogen
(including the cost of transport to final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg
(CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets
for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg by 2030.
4 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Methane reforming >
Sorption enhanced steam reforming with CCUS Production Low Details
Sorption Enhanced Steam Reforming (SESR) is a pre-combustion CO2 capture
process in which natural gas is reacted with steam in the presence of a
CO2 sorbent and reforming catalyst. The CO2 is absorbed continuously
over the absorbent, thus removed from the reaction, which allows
shifting the reaction equilibrium towards the products, increasing
conversions, it allows the production of decarbonised H2 and a
concentrated CO2 stream suitable for transport and geological storage
(or reuse).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, CCUS
*Key countries:* United Kingdom, United States
*Key initiatives:*
The HyPER project (United Kingdom) is building an state-of-the-art 1.5
MWth hydrogen production pilot plant at Cranfield University
*Announced development targets:*
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030
Colombia: 50 kt of hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCUS by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Australia Roadmap: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg
for H2 production. Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel
Cells: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg)
by 2030 and JPY 20/m3 (~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada
Hydrogen Strategy: target for the cost of delivered hydrogen
(including the cost of transport to final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg
(CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets
for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg by 2030.
4-6 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Methane reforming >
Underground reforming with CCUS Production Low Details
In underground reforming, air or oxygen is pumped into an underground
gas reservoir then ignited to set fire to the hydrocarbons. Once the
fire reaches 500°C, the water vapor or injected steam reacts with the
hydrocarbons producing syngas. Then, more water is added to the syngas
to increase hydrogen production and shift the CO in the syngas to CO2.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, CCUS
*Key countries:* Canada
*Key initiatives:*
Proton Technologies (Canada) is in the process of commercialising the
technology and began distributing hydrogen produced via their process
*Deployment targets:*
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030
Colombia: 50 kt of hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCUS by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Australia Roadmap: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg
for H2 production. Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel
Cells: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg)
by 2030 and JPY 20/m3 (~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada
Hydrogen Strategy: target for the cost of delivered hydrogen
(including the cost of transport to final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg
(CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets
for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg by 2030.
6 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Partial oxidation with
CCUS Production High Details
In partial oxidation, natural gas reacts with a limited amount of oxygen
that is not enough to completely oxidise it to carbon dioxide and water.
With less than the stoichiometric amount of oxygen available, the
reaction products are primarily hydrogen and CO. The process is followed
by a water gas shift process in wich the CO reacts with water to
generate more H2 and CO2. The partial oxidation is an exothermic
process, which avoids the need for an external input of heat and,
therefore, avoiding the production of a diluted CO2 stream.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, CCUS
*Key countries:* Netherlands, Middle East
*Key initiatives:*
Shell has a POx commercial technology that uses in its gas-to-liquids
plants which is being adapted for the production of hydrogen
*Announced development targets:*
United Kingdom: 10 GW of low-carbon hydrogen production (5 GW being for
electrolysis and 5 GW not technology specific) capacity by 2030
Colombia: 50 kt of hydrogen from fossil fuels with CCUS by 2030
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Australia Roadmap: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg
for H2 production. Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel
Cells: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg)
by 2030 and JPY 20/m3 (~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada
Hydrogen Strategy: target for the cost of delivered hydrogen
(including the cost of transport to final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg
(CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets
for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg by 2030.
3 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Production > Natural hydrogen
extraction Production Low Details
The Earth continuously produces natural H2 through several chemical
reactions that are mainly related to outgassing of Earth’s interior,
oxidation of Fe(II)-minerals or radiolysis of water. This can allow its
geological exploration and extraction in a similar manner as it is done
for hydrocarbons.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:* Brazil, Mali, Oman
*Key initiatives:*
The Bourakebougou site (Mali) has 12 boreholes with pure H2 (98%) for a
surface of 50 square kilometres
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Australia Roadmap: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of AUD 2-3/kg
for H2 production. Japan Strategic Roadmap for Hydrogen and Fuel
Cells: cost target for low-carbon hydrogen of JPY 30/m3 (~USD 3/kg)
by 2030 and JPY 20/m3 (~USD 2/kg) in the longer term. Canada
Hydrogen Strategy: target for the cost of delivered hydrogen
(including the cost of transport to final users) of CAN 1.5-3.5/kg
(CAN 1.1-2.6/kg) after 2030. The US Hydrogen Earthshot: cost targets
for low-carbon hydrogen of USD 1/kg by 2030.
9-10 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Storage > Underground geologic
storage > Salt cavern Storage High Details
Salt caverns are artificial cavities in underground salt formations,
created by the controlled dissolution of rock salt by injection of water
that returns to the surface as brine and must be disposed of in a
suitable way. Salt caverns are adequate for storing pure hydrogen due to
their low cushion gas requirement (typically about 30% of capacity), the
large sealing capacity of rock salt and the inert nature of salt
structures, limiting the contamination of the hydrogen stored. The
geographical availability of salt caverns is limited. Storage capacity
is smaller compared to depleted reservoirs and aquifers, but cavern
storage is flexible and would allow for multiple cycles of gas injection
and withdrawal per year. Ongoing research on hydrogen storage in salt
caverns aims to demonstrate the possibility of reusing caverns that have
been used for natural gas and oil storage, mainly about the risks of
contamination and loss of stored hydrogen due to microbial activity.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Systems integration, Storage
*Key countries:* United Kingdom, United States, Netherlands, Germany, France
*Key initiatives:*
Pure hydrogens storage at low-cyclic operations is operationally and
commercially demonstrated at sites in the United Kingdom since 1972, and
in the United States. There are three salt caverns in Teesside (United
Kingdom), with a total capacity of 28 GWh of working storage, and three
others in the Texas Gulf Coast (United States): Clemens Dome (1983, 81
GWh), Moss Bluff (2007, 123 GWh) and Spindletop (2016, 274 GWh).
Repurposing salt caverns used for natural gas storage to hydrogen or
repurposing part of the storage facility, such as wells, will be tested
in HyStock during 2021-2022 (Gasunie, Netherlands), in Krummhörn from
2024 (Uniper, Germany), in H2CAST Etzel from 2024 (STORAG ETZEL,
Germany), in HyGéo (Teréga and Hydrogène de France, France), etc.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* US Department of Energy Technical Targets for Hydrogen Delivery
(ultimate targets), installed capital cost: USD 4.5/kg H2 (working
gas capacity) Clean Hydrogen Joint Undertaking – Strategic Research
and Innovation Agenda 2021 – 2027 (2030 target), capital cost: EUR
30/kg H2 (working gas capacity)
5 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Storage > Underground geologic
storage > Fast-cycling salt cavern Storage High Details
Salt caverns are artificial cavities in underground salt formations,
created by the controlled dissolution of rock salt by injection of water
that returns to the surface as brine and must be disposed of in a
suitable way. Salt caverns are adequate for storing pure hydrogen due to
their low cushion gas requirement (typically about 30% of capacity), the
large sealing capacity of rock salt and the inert nature of salt
structures, limiting the contamination of the hydrogen stored. The
geographical availability of salt caverns is limited. Storage capacity
is smaller compared to depleted reservoirs and aquifers, but cavern
storage is flexible and would allow for multiple cycles of gas injection
and withdrawal per year. Ongoing research on hydrogen storage in salt
caverns aims to demonstrate salt integrity when subject to fast cycling.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Systems integration, Storage
*Key countries:* France
*Key initiatives:*
Storage in fast-cycling salt caverns will be tested in the demonstration
project HyPSTER (Storengy, France), with tests planned to start in 2023
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* US Department of Energy Technical Targets for Hydrogen Delivery
(ultimate targets), installed capital cost: USD 4.5/kg H2 (working
gas capacity) Clean Hydrogen Joint Undertaking – Strategic Research
and Innovation Agenda 2021 – 2027 (2030 target), capital cost: EUR
30/kg H2 (working gas capacity)
5 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Storage > Underground geologic
storage > Lined hard rock cavern Storage Moderate Details
Lined hard rock caverns are artificial structures consisting of caverns
created in metamorphic or igneous rocks. The caverns are lined with a
layer of concrete to create smooth walls, which are then lined with
steel or plastic. Because they are carefully lined, hard rock caverns
have no risks of impurities and can be operated at higher pressures than
the other structures; however, steel embrittlement due to hydrogen
exposure must be avoided. Hard rock caverns can experience several
injection and withdrawal cycles per year, making them well-suited for
peaking purposes. They require relatively little cushion gas but they
are costly to develop.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Systems integration, Storage
*Key countries:* Sweden
*Key initiatives:*
HYBRIT’s demonstration facility, 100 m3 hard rock cavern, inaugurated in
June 2022 by SSAB, LKAC and Vattenfall (Sweden). At a later stage, a
full-scale facility of around 100 000 m3 (65 GWh H2) could be constructed
4 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Storage > Underground geologic
storage > Depleted gas fields Storage High Details
Depleted natural gas reservoirs are underground geological structures
that naturally contained hydrocarbons and, once depleted, can be used to
store gas. Depleted reservoirs consist of porous, permeable sedimentary
rocks located underneath an impermeable cap rock and sealed on all sides
by impermeable rocks. The injection and withdrawal rates of porous
structures are limited by the permeability of the rock, being generally
more adequate for balancing seasonal fluctuations and less for
short-term variations. Hydrogen’s higher compressibility factor,
diffusivity, and lower viscosity should be considered as it may be more
difficult to contain than natural gas. Hydrogen is also more reactive
than natural gas, and in the presence of sulphate-reducing bacteria
reacts with sulphate-containing minerals to produce hydrogen sulphide, a
contaminant, leading also to hydrogen losses. It also reacts with CO2
and carbon containing minerals in the presence of methanogenic bacteria
to produce methane. The proportion of cushion gas in pore storages is
typically 50-60% of their total gas capacity, higher as compared to salt
caverns. Advantages to depleted gas fields as hydrogen storage are that
they are larger in volume than salt caverns, and their geology is
already well understood from being operated for natural gas. Compared to
the development of new salt caverns, they already have a well
infrastructure for natural gas, some of which can be potentially
retrofitted or repurposed for hydrogen. Gas fields are also more
widespread than salt caverns.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Systems integration, Storage
*Key countries:* Argentina, Austria, Italy, Ireland
*Key initiatives:*
Depleted natural gas reservoirs have been used for storage for decades
and make up about 76% of the total natural gas storage capacity in the
world. Town gas (50-60% hydrogen content) was stored in the depleted gas
field of Kirchheilingen (Germany) in the 1970s. Two projects have tested
hydrogen blends in depleted gas fields, Underground Sun Storage in
Austria (up to 20%) and Hychico in Argentina. Snam (Italy) has conducted
a series of tests that confirmed the possibility of storing hydrogen in
its depleted gas fields, with tests underway to assess the impact of
100% hydrogen. Underground Sun Storage 2030 in Argentina and Green
Hydrogen @Kinsale in Ireland are also planning to test 100% hydrogen in
depleted gas fields.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Clean Hydrogen Joint Undertaking – Strategic Research and Innovation
Agenda 2021 – 2027 (2030 target), capital cost: EUR 5/kg H2 (working
gas capacity)
3 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Storage > Underground geologic
storage > Aquifer Storage High Details
Aquifers are similar structures to natural gas reservoirs in that they
are porous sedimentary rock structures; however, they contain water
instead of natural gas. The main prerequisites for storage are the
presence of a reservoir with a dome shape or structural fault to enable
the gas to be trapped at the top of the structure, and the presence of a
seal overlaying the reservoir consisting of an impermeable formation.
Unlike depleted gas fields, which are known to be tight because they
were originally filled with gas, aquifers may not be tight on all sides,
and extensive geological surveys are required to determine whether there
are ways for the gas to escape. As with depleted gas fields, the average
cushion gas volume is approximately 50% of the total gas volume and
sulphate and carbonate-containing minerals can result in the production
of contaminants and hydrogen losses.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Systems integration, Storage
*Key countries:* France
*Key initiatives:*
Aquifers are common for natural gas storage, representing about 13% of
existing capacity in Europe. Town gas (50-60% hydrogen content) was
stored in the saline aquifers of Lobodice (Czech Republic), Engelbostel,
Hähnlein, Eschenfelden and Ketzin (Germany), and Beynes (France) in the
1970s. Pure hydrogen storage in aquifers has not yet been tested. The
RINGS (Research on the Injection of New Gases into Storage facilities)
project aims to analyse the impact of adding hydrogen and biomethane to
the natural gas flow injected into Teréga’s aquifers in France.
11 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Storage > Aboveground physical
storage > Pressure vessel Storage High Details
Pressure vessels are the most established hydrogen storage technology
and involve the physical storage of compressed hydrogen gas in
high-pressure vessels for stationary or mobile (such as tube trailers)
applications. The pressure rating and internal volume of the container
determines the quantity of hydrogen it can hold, and they are often
classified into four types: I) vessel made of metal, usually steel
(around 1 wt% hydrogen); II) vessel made of a thick metallic liner hoop
wrapped with a fiber-resin composite; III) vessel made of a metallic
liner fully-wrapped with a fiber-resin composite; IV) vessel made of
polymeric liner fully-wrapped with a fiber-resin composite (around 5.3
wt% hydrogen) and V) fully composite vessel (under consideration). The
choice of pressure vessel will depend on the final application, being a
compromise between volumetric density and cost. Pressure vessels are
already used in the chemicals industry and at hydrogen refuelling
stations, mostly all-steel tanks. Trucks that haul gaseous hydrogen
compress it to pressures of around 180-250 bar into steel vessels (long
tubes) carrying approximately 380 kg onboard and limited by the weight
of the vessel. However, recently light-weight composite storage vessels
have been developed that have capacities of 560-900 kg of hydrogen per
trailer, increasing considerably the hauling efficiency per trip. Types
III-IV have gravimetric capacities that exceed four times that of steel
vessels working on the same pressure, can endure high pressures and are
used in the vehicle industry.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Systems integration, Storage
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
Pressure vessels are already used in the chemical industry and at
hydrogen refuelling stations. The low-emission electrolysis plant in
Puertollano (3 000 tpa, Spain) has 11 hydrogen storage tanks, each tank
has a volume of 133 m3, weighs 77 tonnes empty and can store around 250
kg H2 at 60 bars.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* US Department of Energy Technical Targets for Hydrogen Delivery
(ultimate targets) – capital cost low -pressure tank (160 bar, 400
kg H2): USD 450/kg H2, capital cost moderate and high-pressure tank
(430-925 bar, 65 kg H2): USD 600/kg H2 Clean Hydrogen Joint
Undertaking – Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda 2021 – 2027
(2030 target), capital cost (20 t H2, including compression): EUR
600/kg H2
7-9 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Storage > Aboveground physical
storage > Liquid hydrogen storage tank Storage High Details
The density of pure hydrogen is increased via its liquefaction to 70
kg/m3 at 1 bar. Due to the low boiling point of hydrogen (-253°C)
compared to natural gas (-162°C), the design of cryogenic storage tanks
seeks to minimise boil-off gas, preventing heat inleak. If hydrogen is
evaporated, it must be vented to avoid an increase in the pressure in
the storage tank. Small tanks are usually cylindrical but for larger
volumes spherical tanks are used, as it minimises the surface-to-volume
ratio, decreasing heat transfer. Liquid hydrogen storage tanks often
feature a double-shell vacuum insulation, which minimises heat transfer
via conduction and convection, and the space between the tank walls
contains additional insulation materials. Cryogenic tanks are lighter
than pressure vessels; however, liquefaction is an energy-intensive
process compared to compression. Today, large-scale liquid hydrogen
storage technology is relatively similar to that of the 1960s; however,
design innovation is still needed to scaleup further the tank size.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Systems integration, Storage
*Key countries:* United States, Japan
*Key initiatives:*
NASA Kennedy Space Center owns the largest cryogenic storage tank in the
world (Florida, USA), constructed in the mid-1960s with a capacity of 3
800 m3 (270 t LH2), which is used for flight and space applications.
Construction of a new spherical tank at NASA Kennedy Space Center with a
capacity of 4 732 m3 is near completion, with innovations in the thermal
insulation system (glass bubbles) and an integrated refrigeration and
storage heat exchanger to minimise boil-off gas. In 2020, a spherical
double-shell liquefied hydrogen storage tank with a capacity of 2 250 m3
(150 t LH2) was constructed by Kawasaki in Kobe airport (Japan),
especially designed for transferring liquefied hydrogen between LH2
ships and land-based facilities. In 2021, CB&I announced the completion
of a conceptual design for a 40 000 m3 storage sphere. A Shell-led
consortium of public, private and academic experts will assess the
feasibility and conduct a demonstration project of a large-scale liquid
hydrogen storage tank with a capacity of 20 000-100 000 m3.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* US Department of Energy Technical Targets for Hydrogen Delivery
(ultimate targets) – uninstalled hydrogen storage tank (3 500 m3
tank): 14 USD/kg Clean Hydrogen Joint Undertaking – Strategic
Research and Innovation Agenda 2021 – 2027 (2030 targets), capital
cost (7 000 t H2, including installation):
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
11 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Storage > Aboveground physical
storage > Ammonia storage Storage High Details
Ammonia has been stored as a liquid since ammonia production on an
industrial scale began about 100 years ago. Ammonia was initially stored
in pressurised systems, typically of around 2 000 tonnes. Today,
atmospheric ammonia storage tanks are used to store up to 50 000 tonnes.
Low-pressure ammonia storage has been widely accepted for two reasons,
as it requires much less capital per unit of volume. There are different
types of atmospheric tanks for ammonia operating at -33°C, but the
current practice recommends using double-wall double integrity tanks,
which can have insulation in the annular space or on the outer tank. As
ammonia may be used as a fuel, new ammonia storage units may function as
fuel bunker.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Systems integration, Storage
*Key countries:* Japan, Norway
*Key initiatives:*
In 2022, Mitsubishi (Japan) completed a conceptual study for the first
floating storage and regasification unit for ammonia. In the “Ammonia
fuel bunkering network” project Azana and Yara (Norway) are planning to
build ammonia fuel bunkering units at ports, land- and- barge-based. The
project seeks to provide some operational and safety recommendations.
3-5 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Storage > Materials-based storage
> Metal hydrides Storage Moderate Details
Chemical storage of hydrogen through absorption/desorption, which
involves the chemical binding of atomic hydrogen within the structure of
a solid material. Hydrogen release from metal hydrides can be achieved
in two main ways, mostly via heating (thermolysis) or through reaction
with water (hydrolysis). Storage materials should have certain
characteristics such as rapid kinetics, good reversibility, high safety,
affordable price and high storage capacity at moderate operating
temperature and pressure. Several metallic/metallic-based materials have
the ability to absorb hydrogen with those characteristics, and hydrides
of lightweight elements such as boron and aluminium and some transition
metals, such as manganese, iron, cobalt and nickel have shown potential
for use as hydrogen storage materials. Metallic based hydrides suitable
for hydrogen storage are elemental hydrides (e.g. MgH2), interstitial
hydrides (e.g. LaNi5, TiFe, ZrFe2) and complex metal hydrides (e.g.
NaAlH4, LiAlH4, LiBH4, NaBH4). Challenges associated with the use of
hydrides are high weight and low hydrogen storage capacity for
low-temperature hydrides and slow kinetics and high temperatures for
relatively lighter hydrides. Latest research seeks to enhance hydrogen
absorption/desorption kinetics at moderate temperatures and high storage
capacity by adding catalysts, alloying with other elements,
nano-structuring and/or nano-confinement.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Systems integration, Storage
*Key countries:* Australia, Norway, Italy, United States
*Key initiatives:*
The use of low-temperature metal hydrides for hydrogen storage in mobile
applications was established in 2003 with the completion of the first
submarines of the U212A series by HDW (now Thyssen Krupp Marine Systems)
and its export class U214 in 2004. GKN hydrogen (Italy) has a
low-temperature metal hydride storage system for decentralised
solutions, and have tested their storage unit with a capacity of 10-25
kg H2 (10 feet container) in several off-grid projects since 2018
(Italy, Germany and Australia). Two large units (250 kg H2/unit) will be
tested at the NREL campus in Colorado, which is planned to start in late
2022. The Australian company Carbon280’s Hydrilyte will build a
prototype in Holyhead Hydrogen Hub (North Wales, United Kingdom) during
2022-2024 to show the potential to store hydrogen in a metal hydride
(metal dust suspended in mineral oil) and its transport in standard fuel
tankers. In 2022, Hybrid Energy – Hystorsys (Norway) was awarded the
contract for the installation of a hydrogen storage facility based on
metal hydride in Kongsberg (1 kg H2, 17 L tank, 20 bar).
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* US Department of Energy Technical targets for onboard hydrogen
storage for light-duty vehicles (ultimate targets) – gravimetric
capacity (usable energy from H2): 65 kg H2/t system, volumetric
capacity (usable energy from H2): 50 kg H2/m3 system, storage system
cost: USD 266/kg H2, etc.
2-3 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Storage > Materials-based storage
> Adsorbents Storage Moderate Details
The hydrogen storage capacity of sorbent-based systems is in an
intermediate level between compressed gas and intermetallic compounds
(metal hydrides), involving the transfer of hydrogen molecules to the
surface of the pores of solid materials through physical interaction
(van der Waals bonding) and the subsequent release of hydrogen, whenever
required, by thermal stimulation or other techniques. Different
materials have been investigated for their potential use in the storage
of hydrogen through adsorption, among them; metal-organic frameworks
(MOFs), carbon-based materials, zeolites and polymers of intrinsic
microporosity (PIMs) have been some of the most extensively studied due
to their fast kinetics, good reversibility and high stability over many
cycles. However, due to the weak interactions between hydrogen molecules
and the surface of these solid materials, high hydrogen storage
capacities are generally achieved at cryogenic temperatures (around
-196°C) and relatively high pressures. At ambient temperature and
pressure conditions, hydrogen adsorption capacities are usually very low
(<1 wt%.). Some materials, such as MOFs or PIMs, can be designed,
assembled and modified on the atomic or molecular levels, and research
looks at designing cost-efficient storage solutions with acceptable
volumetric and gravimetric densities.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen, Systems integration, Storage
*Key countries:* Austria, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Morocco,
Spain, United Kingdom
*Key initiatives:*
The research project on “Efficient hydrogen storage by adsorption with
new metal-organic frameworks” (MOST-H2, 2022-2026) aims to design and
validate experimentally monolithic MOFs to bring the technology to TRL 5
by the end of the project. The Task 40 on “Energy storage and conversion
based on hydrogen” (2019-2024) of the Hydrogen Technology Collaboration
Programme (TCP) of the IEA has a working group on porous materials,
including polymer framework compounds, MOFs, zeolite imidazolate
frameworks (ZIFs), covalent-organic frameworks (COFs) and carbon-based
compounds.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* US Department of Energy Technical targets for onboard hydrogen
storage for light-duty vehicles (ultimate targets) – gravimetric
capacity (usable energy from H2): 65 kg H2/t system, volumetric
capacity (usable energy from H2): 50 kg H2/m3 system, storage system
cost: USD 266/kg H2, operating ambient temperature: -40/60°C, etc
8 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Transport > Transport technology >
Repurposed natural gas pipelines Transport High Details
Repurposing implies converting an existing natural gas pipeline into a
dedicated hydrogen pipeline. The main elements of the conversion process
include nitrogen purging to remove undesirable parts, replacement of
compressors, a thorough inspection of the pipeline and the integrity of
its components, and replacements of valves and other leak-prone parts,
and reconfiguring or replacing gas meters. Due to differences in
chemical properties, hydrogen can accelerate pipe degradation through a
process known as hydrogen embrittlement, whereby hydrogen induces cracks
in the steel. A range of solutions exists to combat this: monitor
regularly the integrity of the pipeline, e.g. through in-line
inspections (ILI) and pigging; apply a hydrogen barrier coating to
protect the pipeline; lower the pipeline pressure until the required
threshold value for safe operation is met; and minimise pressure swings.
The optimal approach will depend on transport capacity requirements,
status of the existing pipeline, e.g. existing fractures, and trade-offs
between capital and operating expenditure. There are still challenges on
the repurposing of offshore gas pipelines, as the monitoring of the
pipeline with the current technology is difficult, sometimes there is no
detailed documentation on the pipeline operation over the years and
there is no standard for offshore hydrogen pipelines, unlike the ASME
B31.12 for onshore hydrogen pipelines.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Piping infrastructure, Hydrogen
*Key countries:* Netherlands
*Key initiatives:*
There is only a 12-kilometre repurposed pipeline, transporting more than
4 ktpa of hydrogen in the Netherlands. In 2022, the Dutch government
announced the investment of EUR 750 million to develop a national
hydrogen transmission network through to 2031, consisting of 1 400 km
and 85% of repurposed gas pipelines. Gas transmission system operators
(TSOs) of United Kingdom, Germany, Denmark, Spain or Italy have shared
plants to repurpose relatively large parts of their natural gas
transmission network to hydrogen. The PosHYdon project in the
Netherlands is analysing the feasibility of repurposing offshore gas
pipelines in the North Sea.
*Announced development targets:*
28 European countries are part of the European Hydrogen Backbone
initiative, which suggest a pan-European network with a length of almost
53 000 km by 2040, with a share of repurposed natural gas pipelines over
60%. The REPowerEU plan states that the European Commission will support
the development of three major hydrogen import corridors via the
Mediterranean, the North Sea area and, as soon as conditions allow, with
Ukraine. Part of the infrastructure requirements will be repurposed
infrastructure, whenever feasible.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
10 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Transport > Transport technology >
New hydrogen pipelines Transport High Details
The construction of inland hydrogen transmission pipelines is regulated
by the standard ASME B31.12, and is a mature technology. However, there
is no standard for the construction of offshore hydrogen pipelines, and
research seeks to identify criteria that will ensure the highest levels
of safety while reducing costs.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Piping infrastructure, Hydrogen
*Key countries:* United States, Netherlands, Spain, Germany
*Key initiatives:*
Hydrogen has been transported by pipeline since 1938, with the
construction of the first hydrogen pipeline, made of a standard grade of
steel, with a 250-300 mm diameter and a length of 240 km. Since then,
there are above 4 600 km of hydrogen pipelines, mainly in the United
States and Europe. New hydrogen pipelines, supplying low-emission
hydrogen, are planned in the Netherlands and Germany (e.g. Delta
Corridor project), Spain (e.g. HyDeal España, 900 km), and Finland and
Sweden (e.g. Nordic Hydrogen route-Bothnian Bay, 1 000 km). In 2021, DNV
launched the H2PIPE project to assess how their standard for submarine
pipelines, DNV ST-F101, could integrate additional aspects for hydrogen.
New dedicated offshore pipelines are planned in the AquaDuctus project
(Germany) from offshore electrolysers up to the shore. Germany and
Norway agreed to conduct a feasibility study on the potential of an
offshore hydrogen pipeline between the two countries.
*Deployment targets:*
28 European countries are part of the European Hydrogen Backbone
initiative, which suggest a pan-European network with a length of almost
53 000 km by 2040, with a share of new natural gas pipelines around 40%.
The REPowerEU plan states that the European Commission will support the
development of three major hydrogen import corridors via the
Mediterranean, the North Sea area and, as soon as conditions allow, with
Ukraine. Part of the infrastructure needed for hydrogen transport will
be new pipelines.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Clean Hydrogen Joint Undertaking – Strategic Research and Innovation
Agenda 2021 – 2027 (2030 target), total capital cost (120 bar): EUR
0.9 million/km
7 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Transport > Transport technology >
Hydrogen blending in natural gas network Transport Moderate Details
Hydrogen blending is the injection of certain amounts of hydrogen into a
natural gas stream using existing natural gas infrastructure. Studies
indicate that integrating blended hydrogen into the gas networks is
feasible at levels of around 5-10 v% (volumetric share) with relatively
minor upgrading, while in distribution networks, with polymer-based
pipelines, share of up to 20% would not require significant changes in
the infrastructure, although the gas chromatographs should at least be
adapted. While a 20% threshold will require some infrastructure
upgrading, such as retrofitting the compressors, it seems to be the
technical upper limit above which significant investments may be needed,
in particular for some downstream installations and end-use equipment,
although higher concentrations could be reached through R&D.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Piping infrastructure, Hydrogen
*Key countries:* United Kingdom, United States, Denmark, Italy,
Australia, Netherlands, Germany
*Key initiatives:*
Hydrogen blends of 20% in the distribution grid have been tested in
Netherlands, Germany, France, the United States, etc. Snam (Italy)
tested hydrogen blends of 5% and 10% in a high-pressure transmission
network, and Denmark tested up to 15% in a closed-loop high-pressure
system (40-80 bar). Hydrogen blends of up to 30% were tested in an
offline test loop to evaluate changes on an existing transmission
pipeline in the HyNTS Hydrogen Flow Loop project (United Kingdom) and it
is also being tested in Denmark. Australia is already blending hydrogen
at a distribution network level and there are several other blending
projects under consideration in Australia, Korea, Singapore (currently
transporting town gas, with 50% hydrogen content), United States,
Slovakia, Greece, United Kingdom, etc.
*Announced development targets:*
In 2023, the United Kingdom will make a decision on blending up to 20%
of hydrogen into parts of the gas distribution grid. The REPowerEU plan
acknowledges that blending hydrogen into the natural gas grid requires
careful consideration, but suggests the possibility of blending up to 3%
in the transmission network.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
4 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Transport > Transport technology >
Hydrogen deblending Transport Moderate Details
Hydrogen deblending extracts pure hydrogen for dedicated uses as well as
reasonably hydrogen-free natural gas from blended hydrogen and natural
gas streams. Deblending allows extracting pure hydrogen for dedicated
uses (e.g. hydrogen fuel cells, feedstock) as well as reasonably
hydrogen-free natural gas for gas quality-sensitive consumers (e.g. some
industrial applications, feedstock, compressed natural gas refuelling
stations). Deblending involves the separation of hydrogen from the
methane-rich gas stream through different technologies or combinations
among them, including gas permeation (e.g. polymer membrane, palladium
membrane, carbon membrane, metal membranes, glass/ceramic membranes),
pressure swing adsorption (PSA or membrane-PSA) or cryogenic separation,
with different degrees of selectivity and efficiency. Although gas
separation technologies have been used in the industry for decades, the
technology has not yet been used on a large scale, such as in a
distribution network.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Piping infrastructure, Hydrogen
*Key countries:* United Kingdom
*Key initiatives:*
HyNTS deblending (United Kingdom) is planning to build an offline
demonstration facility for deblending in refuelling stations , providing
hydrogen with >99.97% purity.
6 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Transport > Transport technology >
Hydrogen turbo compressors Transport High Details
Hydrogen has a lower molar mass and a higher volumetric flow than
natural gas, which requires higher compression effort, and its smaller
molecular size also poses an additional sealing challenge to minimise
external leakage. For relatively large volumetric flows and moderate
pressure lifts (<200 bar), such as for hydrogen pipeline transmission
and underground storage, centrifugal type turbo-compressors will be
needed, and although they have been used for petrochemical applications,
their efficiency remains low. In a centrifugal compressor, the
high-speed rotation of the impeller imposes high-velocity energy into
the gas, which is then converted to pressure. Research is testing
hydrogen-resistant impeller materials that can withstand higher
centrifugal forces (i.e. increase tip speed) and hydrogen embrittlement.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:* Japan, Germany, United States
*Key initiatives:*
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (Japan) is conducting research on its
hydrogen centrifugal compressor to handle larger flows, avoid
embrittlement and increase the rotation speed. Siemens (Germany) is
testing alloys for high-speed impellers that also avoid hydrogen
embrittlement.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* US Department of Energy Technical Targets for Hydrogen Delivery
(ultimate targets) – pipeline, terminal and geologic storage
compressors (~200 t H2/day peak flow, 20 bar inlet, 120 bar outlet)
– compressor specific energy: 0.84 kWh/kg H2, uninstalled capital
cost (~200 t H2/day): USD 1.8 million and losses: <0.5% of H2
throughput. Clean Hydrogen Joint Undertaking – Strategic Research
and Innovation Agenda 2021 – 2027 (2030 targets), CAPEX for the
compressor pipeline: EUR 650/kW and energy consumption pipeline (30
to 200 bar): 2 kWh/kg.
11 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Transport > Transport technology >
Ammonia tanker Transport High Details
Ammonia is shipped in fully refrigerated, non-pressurised vessels, often
designed to carry liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), as it has a lower
boiling point [-42°C] compared to ammonia [-33°C]. LPG carriers can be
used provided there are no parts containing copper or zinc or their
alloys in contact with the cargo. While currently ammonia shipments are
around 20 million tonnes per annum (Mtpa), and it is a mature
technology, research is looking at the use of ammonia as fuel by
carrying ships, particularly with separate cargo tanks so that they can
carry LPG and ammonia at the same time, adjusting flexibly to demand
patterns.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:* Korea, Japan, China
*Key initiatives:*
Currently there are about 200 gas tankers that can take ammonia as cargo
and typically 40 of them are deployed with ammonia cargo at any point in
time. In 2021, MOL, Namura Shipbuilding and Mitsubishi Shipbuilding
(Japan) announced an agreement on the joint development of a large-size
ammonia carrier powered by ammonia fuel. In 2021, Jiangnan Shipyard and
China Shipbuilding Trading signed a memorandum of co-operation for
acquiring several very large ammonia carriers with a cargo capacity of
93 000 m3, which would be the largest ammonia carrier in the world. The
carrier will be equipped with an ammonia powered main engine. The vessel
would be ready from 2025.
*Deployment targets:*
The REPowerEU plan considers the possibility of importing up to 4
million tonnes per annum (Mtpa) of hydrogen as ammonia to the European
Union, which would be equivalent to rising their ammonia imports from 4
Mtpa to 22 Mtpa by 2030
7 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Transport > Transport technology >
Liquid hydrogen tanker Transport Moderate Details
A liquid hydrogen tanker is a ship designed to transport liquefied
hydrogen (LH2). Shipping LH2 is similar to liquefied natural gas (LNG),
but as the boiling point of hydrogen (-253°C) is much lower than that of
natural gas (-162°C), special thermal insulation is needed to minimise
high boil-off gas rates, for example, using double-shell vacuum
insulation tanks or membrane-based insulation systems. In addition, LH2
ships aim to use hydrogen boil-off gas as fuel for the loaded leg of the
journey, providing a low emission shipping fuel and at the same time
preventing venting it.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:* Japan, Korea, France, Netherlands
*Key initiatives:*
The Hydrogen Energy Supply Chain project has been the first
demonstration facility to test LH2 shipping from Australia to Japan, in
a world first LH2 carrier, Suiso Frontier (Kawasaki Heavy Industry
[KHI]), with a capacity of 1 250 m3 (75 tonnes of LH2 per trip) and
double-shell vacuum insulation tanks (2021-2022). KHI (Japan) has
received approval in principle (AIP) from the classification society
ClassNK for a large LH2 carrier of up to 160 000 m3 (approximately 10 kt
of H2 per trip), using hydrogen as fuel, including BOG. C-Job Naval
Architects in partnership with LH2 Europe (Netherlands) are planning to
build a 37 500 m3 ship powered by hydrogen fuel cells, including BOG,
expected to be available by 2027. The shipbuilder Korea Shipbuilding &
Offshore Engineering (KSOE) and its shipyard Hyundai Mipo Dokyard
received AIP to build a LH2 carrier of 20 000 m3, which will use
hydrogen BOG as fuel for fuel cells, expected to be ready by 2025-2027.
In 2022, GTT (France) obtained two AIPs from DNV for the design of a
membrane-based LH2 containment system and for the preliminary concept
design of an LH2 carrier.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Clean Hydrogen Joint Undertaking – Strategic Research and Innovation
Agenda 2021 – 2027 (2030 target), hydrogen carrier delivery cost
(for 3 000 km ship transfer): less than EUR 2/kg H2 and hydrogen
carrier specific energy consumption (including shipping): 12 kWh
input/kg H2 recovered. CIF cost of hydrogen; JPY 30/Nm3 in Japan in
commercial phase.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
11 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Transport > Transport technology >
Liquid organic hydrogen carrier tanker Transport Moderate Details
Liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs) can be transported using
existing ships and port infrastructure. LOHC can be transported in
chemical tankers, whose tanks are specially coated, for example, with
phenolic epoxy, stainless steel or zinc paint, and may have dedicated
piping arrangements to carry different cargoes. The type of coating may
determine the chemical that can be transported. Product tankers, which
are a type of oil tanker, carry refined oil and are often designed to
carry chemical cargoes as well, and may be capable of transporting
LOHCs. Chemical tankers typically range in size from 5 000 to 35 000
deadweight tonnage (dwt), while product tankers range in size from 35
000 to 120 000 dwt. Depending on the chemicals used as LOHCs, the type
of tanker that can be used may differ and there may also be some size
restrictions at ports due to safety.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:* Japan
*Key initiatives:*
In 2020, the Advanced Hydrogen Energy Chain Association for Technology
Development (AHEAD) project shipped hydrogen as methylcyclohexane (MCH)
from Brunei Darussalam to a TOA refinery in Japan for the first time,
using 24-m3 ISO tank containers. In 2022, the AHEAD project shipped MCH
to an ENEOS oil refinery in Japan using, for the first time, an
oil/chemical tanker with a size of around 12 500 dwt
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Clean Hydrogen Joint Undertaking – Strategic Research and Innovation
Agenda 2021 – 2027 (2030 target), hydrogen carrier delivery cost
(for 3 000 km ship transfer): less than EUR 2/kg H2 and hydrogen
carrier specific energy consumption (including shipping): 12 kWh
input/kg H2 recovered. CIF cost of hydrogen; JPY 30/Nm3 in Japan in
commercial phase.
11 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Transport > Transport technology >
Trucks Transport Moderate Details
Hydrogen can be transported to consumers with relatively small demands
in multi-element gas container trailers, such as steel high-pressure
tubes and in lighter composite pressure vessels (types II and III).
Trucks that haul gaseous hydrogen in steel tubes compress it to
pressures of around 180-250 bar, carrying approximately 380 kg onboard
and limited by the weight of the tubes. However, recently light-weight
composite storage vessels are increasingly used, with capacities of
560-900 kg of hydrogen per trailer (350-500 bar), increasing
considerably the hauling efficiency per trip. In addition, larger
volumes of hydrogen can also be transported in cryogenic vessel
trailers, which can carry around 1 500-3 000 kg of hydrogen per trip.
Liquid hydrogen trailers are thermo-insulated to minimise hydrogen
boil-off rate.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:*
9 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Transport > Conditioning processes
> Hydrogen liquefaction Transport Moderate Details
Hydrogen liquefaction involves a multi-stage process of compression and
cooling to -253°C, so that it is liquefied and stored in cryogenic
tanks, increasing its volumetric density. The process starts with
hydrogen compression and an optional (liquid nitrogen) pre-cooling to
-193°C, followed by cryogenic cooling to -243°C (including heat
exchangers and ortho- to para- catalytic conversion) and a final
isenthalpic expansion to bring hydrogen to liquid phase at -253°C and 1
bar. Hydrogen liquefaction is an energy-intensive process, especially
for compression. The most recent hydrogen liquefaction plants have an
electricity consumption of approximately 10 kWh/kg, equivalent to around
30% of the energy content (LHV) of hydrogen, and while hydrogen
liquefaction is considered an established technology, efficiency
improvements to values around 6 kWh/kg are expected in larger plants.
Electricity costs are only a fraction of the hydrogen liquefaction costs
and the capital cost for liquefaction is also expected to decrease with
further innovations.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:* United States, Japan, Korea, Germany, France
*Key initiatives:*
Global installed liquefaction capacity of around 500 tonnes per day
(tpd) Largest plant in the world in operation of 34 tpd at NASA
(Florida, United States), constructed in the late 1950s Korea is
constructing the largest liquefaction facility in the world with a
capacity of 90 tpd to start operation in 2023
*Deployment targets:*
Large hydrogen liquefaction plants are being planned at future pure
hydrogen export terminals in Victoria, Queensland and Perth (Australia),
and in Sines (Portugal), with capacities ranging from 100 to 1 000 tpd
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* US Department of Energy Technical Targets for Hydrogen Delivery
(ultimate targets), installed capital cost: USD 0.5 million/tpd and
liquefaction energy intensity: 6 kWh/kg H2. Clean Hydrogen Joint
Undertaking – Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda 2021 – 2027
(2030 targets), liquefaction cost: less than EUR 1/kg H2 and
liquefaction energy intensity: 6-8 kWh/kg H2.
4 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Transport > Conditioning processes
> Ammonia cracking Transport Moderate Details
Ammonia can be decomposed into nitrogen and hydrogen at a cracking unit.
Ammonia cracking at small scale (1-2 ton per day [tpd]) and high
temperature (600-900°C) using inexpensive materials, such as iron, is
already commercially available. However, the energy consumption of
high-temperature ammonia cracking is around 30% of the energy content of
the ammonia and rarely includes hydrogen purification. Ammonia cracking
at lower temperatures (~450°C) would decrease energy consumption, but
currently involves the use of precious-metal catalysts, such as
ruthenium. Low temperature ammonia cracking without the use, or with a
limited use, of precious metals as catalysts is yet at low maturity
levels. In addition, the technology for separation and purification of
hydrogen after ammonia cracking also needs to become less costly and
more efficient, e.g. complying with the composition requirements set out
for fuel cells (H2>99.97%, NH3<0.1 ppmv, N2<1000 ppmv). Innovation
around ammonia cracking needs to address challenges on efficiencies,
costs, purity and scale.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:* United Kingdom, Spain, Germany, Denmark, Switzerland
*Key initiatives:*
The Tyseley Ammonia to Green Hydrogen Project will build a demonstration
ammonia cracking unit of 0.2 tpd to supply hydrogen to a refuelling
station in Birmingham (United Kingdom). The project will use a
palladium-based membrane reactor developed by H2SITE (Spain), which
produces hydrogen from ammonia, complying with purity requirements, with
a cost range of 0.8-1.5 USD/kg at a small-medium scale. The AmmoRef
research network of the TransHyDE project (Germany) aims to develop new
catalysts and technologies for ammonia cracking at scale with lower
costs and higher efficiency, with companies such as Clariant and
Thyssenkrupp Uhde. Haldor Topsøe has different ammonia cracking
catalysts, and is working on the design of a 5-500 tpd H2 plant to
provide fuel cell quality hydrogen (>99.97%).
*Announced development targets:*
The REPowerEU plan considers the possibility of importing up to 4
million tonnes per annum (Mtpa) of hydrogen as ammonia to the European
Union, which would be equivalent to rising their ammonia imports from 4
Mtpa to 22 Mtpa by 2030, and ammonia cracking technology may be needed
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Clean Hydrogen Joint Undertaking – Strategic Research and Innovation
Agenda 2021 – 2027 (2030 target), hydrogen carrier delivery cost
(for 3 000 km ship transfer): less than EUR 2/kg H2 and hydrogen
carrier specific energy consumption (including shipping): 12 kWh
input/kg H2 recovered.
5-7 Energy transformation > Hydrogen Transport > Conditioning
processes > Liquid organic hydrogen carriers Transport Moderate Details
Liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs) are organic molecules that can
store hydrogen through a catalytic exothermic hydrogenation reaction at
a certain pressure and mild temperature to produce a hydrogen-rich
molecule, releasing heat. Subsequently, this hydrogen-rich molecule will
be dehydrogenated in an endothermic catalytic reaction, which requires
high temperature and mild pressure to produce the original organic
molecule and hydrogen. Although there is some degradation during the
dehydrogenation process, the original organic molecule is reused in the
following hydrogenation stages. LOHCs must allow reasonably high
hydrogen storage capacity (>5.5 wt%), and should be safe to handle
(non-toxic, non-flammable, non-explosive), abundant and cheap. Some
LOHCs are cycloalkanes, N-substituted heterocycles, 1,2-BN-heterocycles,
liquid inorganic hydrides, and methanol and formic acid. Currently,
however, the hydrogenation and dehydrogenation processes require energy,
corresponding to around 35-40% of the energy content of the stored
hydrogen, because, among other things, dehydrogenation temperatures are
high. Research seeks to improve the overall efficiency of using LOHCs by
looking for improved catalysts that enable dehydrogenation at lower
temperatures (<150°C) with limited use of precious metals, efficient
heat management and higher hydrogen recovery rates after purification.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Hydrogen
*Key countries:* Japan, Germany, Finland, Brunei Darussalam
*Key initiatives:*
In 2020, the Advanced Hydrogen Energy Chain Association for Technology
Development (AHEAD) project sent a LOHC, using Chiyoda’s technology
(toluene/methylcyclohexane [MCH]), from a demonstration facility in
Brunei Darussalam to Japan, where it was dehydrogenated and used in a
gas turbine at TOA Oil Co Keihin refinery. Toluene was shipped back from
Japan to Brunei Darussalam and re-used. In 2021, The HySTOC project
(Finland) commissioned a LOHC hydrogenation and storage facility, using
Hydrogenious LOHC technology (dibenzyltoluene/perhydro-dibenzyltoluene)
(Germany), to supply hydrogen to a refuelling station. Dehydrogenation
and PSA purification takes place at the refuelling station, producing
high-purity hydrogen for fuel cells (>99.97%).
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Clean Hydrogen Joint Undertaking – Strategic Research and Innovation
Agenda 2021 – 2027 (2030 target), hydrogen carrier delivery cost
(for 3 000 km ship transfer):
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 Energy transformation > Heat Generation > Large-scale heat pump
Generation Very high Details
Large, industrial sized heat pumps can use renewable energy from air,
water or ground but also waste energy from buildings and processes to
provide heating and cooling. Heat pumps are considered large if they
exceed capacities of 100 kW. Current technology can easily reach the one
to several megawatt range with the largest units providing 35 MW in a
single machine.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable heat
*Key countries:* Denmark, Sweden, Germany, Norway
*Key initiatives:*
* Skjern has a total capacity of 5,2 MW, and achieves a plant COP
between 6,5 and 7
* Seawater is used in the first DHC project using an ultra-low GWP
refrigerant, in a heat pump of 16 MW and a COP of 4.4
* Nagold heating and cooling system is highly innovative, providing
100% of building heating and cooling demands by regenerative energy
source through a 101 kW heat pump
*Deployment targets:*
Deployment: 25% share in DH by 2050 (Heat Roadmap Europe)
10 Energy transformation > Heat Generation > Solar thermal district
heating Generation Moderate Details
Solar district heating plants employ sizeable fields of solar thermal
collectors to supply or upgrade the heat in district heating networks.
The technology is highly modular, and can therefore be applied - subject
to space - to district heating networks from block to city sizes. The
solar collector fields can be deployed on the ground, but can also be
integrated into building-roofs. The technology necessary provides only a
share of all heat, which typically hovers around 10-50% of system needs.
A key constraint is the space required for renewable energy such as
solar thermal. In order to keep costs to a minimum, they need to be
installed close to the heat consumers, where land availability is the
most scarce.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Renewable heat, District energy
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
In the European Union there are close to 300 systems over 350 kWth in
size, feeding into district heating. The total capacity installed
amounts to 1 100 MW. Small scale solar thermal DH in 'Energy villages'
in Germany are a strong market segment, with over 40 MWth planned. The
HELIOS plant is a flagship project by Energie Graz, a large-scale
thermal storage built on a former domestic refuse landfill. Denmark
continues to lead in solar thermal DH with over 700 MW installed thermal
capacitiy.
8-9 Energy transformation > Heat Storage > Sensible heat storage
Storage High Details
Sensible heat storage is of fairly widespread use in solar thermal power
plants, where concentrated sunlight produces temperatures of
approximately 550°C to 1500°C that can be directly used or stored.
Integrating high temperature storage systems into thermal power plants
allows power to be generated in line with demand. Molten nitrate salt is
frequently the storage medium of choice. While it is a clear advantage
in solar plants to overcome the constraints on sunlight availability,
solutions are being developed for standalone sensible heat storage.
Storage concepts involve combining different storage units and
optimising the charging and discharging performance and the storage
capacity for the given power plant.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Storage, Systems integration
*Key countries:*
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 Energy transformation > Heat Storage > Latent heat storage > Ice
storage > Storage Moderate Details
Latent heat storage (LHS) takes advantage of the energy absorbed or
released at constant temperature during a phase change of the material.
In most cases, solid/liquid phase change is utilised, with melting used
to store heat and solidification used to release heat. For low
temperature storage, water (ice storages) and aqueous salt solutions
(for temperatures below 0°C) have been commercialised and deployed on a
large scale, e.g. the phase change of water at 0°C is used for storage
of cold for air conditioning and supply of process cold. Many
low-temperature products using latent heat technology in buildings,
mini-storage for food, and cooling for medication have been
commercialised (TRL 9).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Storage, Systems integration
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
The business district of Paris La Défense is fed with cold from a
centralised production and through a distribution network of cold water.
Coupled with this production, a storage system allows for the modulation
of production and consumption, to increase the performance coefficient
of refrigeration groups and to improve the reliability of the network.
5-7 Energy transformation > Heat Storage > Latent heat storage >
High-temperature Storage High Details
Latent heat storage (LHS) takes advantage of the energy absorbed or
released at constant temperature during a phase change of the material.
In most cases, solid/liquid phase change is utilised, with melting used
to store heat and solidification used to release heat. Applications in
the power sector are solar thermal power plants, allowing the plant to
provide electricity after sunset. Salt hydrate and paraffin wax systems
are partly commercialised for temperatures below 100 C (TRL 6-8).
High-temperature LHS with integrated finned-tube heat exchangers has
been constructed and operated with variable phase-change temperatures
between 140°C and 305°C (TRL 7).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Storage, Systems integration
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
TESS-GRID in Australia aims to develop latent heat storage solutions for
power applications.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
3-4 Energy transformation > Heat Storage > Thermochemical heat storage
> Chemical reaction Storage Moderate Details
This thermochemical heat storage is based on gas-gas or gas-solid
reactions, by using thermal energy to dissociate compounds (“AB”) into
two reaction products (“A” and “B”). Upon subsequent recombination of
the reactants, an exothermic reverse reaction occurs and the
previously-stored heat of reaction is released. This allows for the
theoretically lossless storage of thermal energy. 95% of the installed
systems are in R&D and have reached a TRL of 3-4.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Storage, Systems integration
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
CEA in France has built a 15-kWh demonstration storage for concentrating
solar thermal power plant at its COCHYSE facility.
5-7 Energy transformation > Heat Storage > Thermochemical heat storage
> Sorption process Storage Moderate Details
Sorption processes can be used to absorb and release heat through
adsorption (physical bonding) and absorption (uptake/dissolution of a
material). In adsorption, the reactants (e.g. zeolite and water) are
separated during charging and the heat of reaction is released after
recombination. The sorption principle can be applied for thermal energy
storage as well as for chemical heat pumps. Whereas sorption heat pumps
are commercially available, sorption-based thermal energy storage with
discharging cycles of more than 1 hour are still in research and
development. Sorption storage systems are at a TRL 5-7, with the
exception of sorption heat pumps which have been fully commercialised
(TRL 9).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Storage, Systems integration
*Key countries:*
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
4 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biodiesel and
biokerosene > Micro-algae > Transesterification Production Moderate
Details
Micro-algae are grown to produce lipids. They can be grown in open
ponds, closed photobioreactors, or in heterotrophic bioreactors (no
light required). Once the lipids (oils) are extracted from the algae,
the process is similar to traditional fatty acid methyl ester (FAME)
biodiesel production, in which the oil feedstock is reacted with
methanol in the presence of a catalyst to produce biodiesel and
glycerine. The main challenge with micro-algae is the high cost of
cultivation and harvesting (lipid extraction) compared to terrestrial
biomass; other issues arise from lipid content, reducing
energy/water/nutrient/land footprint, and integrating the full process
pathway at demonstration scale. On the other hand, algae can be grown on
non-arable land, avoiding competition with food. It can also be grown
rapidly, and exhibits high photosynthetic efficiency, potentially
leading to greater biofuel per unit area yields compared to terrestrial
biomass.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:* Brazil, China, France, India, Japan, Spain, Korea,
United States
*Key initiatives:*
* There are various lab and pilot-scale projects for micro-algae
production, but no successfully integrated processes at commercial
scale.
* Total is partnering with a university in Grenoble, France and the
Qingdao Institude of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology in China,
to accelerate research on optimising micro-algae strains and
developing enzymes for biofuels production.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* The US Department of Energy (Biomass Energy Technologies Office,
BETO) has set a 2022 cost target for algal biomass production of USD
0.54/kg. This does not include further upgrading to biodiesel or
other biofuels.
4 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biodiesel and
biokerosene > Micro-algae > Hydrotreating Production Moderate Details
Micro-algae are grown to produce lipids. They can be grown in open
ponds, closed photobioreactors, or in heterotrophic bioreactors (no
light required). Once the lipids (oils) are extracted from the algae,
the process is similar to traditional hydrogenated or hydrotreated
vegetable oil (HVO). Hydrogen is added to the oil feedstock in the
presence of a catalyst to convert triglycerides into long-chained
hydrocarbons that can be be considered a renewable diesel (drop-in). The
main technical challenge with this technology is producing algae with
high lipid content and then extracting the lipids efficiently. A major
beneft of algae-based biofuels is their potential to produce biofuels
without competition with food, as algae can be grown on non-arable land,
though it has high land/nutrient/energy/water usage.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* Total is partnering with a university in Grenoble, France and the
Qingdao Institude of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology in China,
to accelerate research on optimising micro-algae strains and
developing enzymes for biofuels production.
3-4 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biodiesel and
biokerosene > Micro-algae > Hydrothermal liquefaction and upgrading
Production Moderate Details
Micro-algae can be grown in open ponds, closed photobioreactors, or in
heterotrophic bioreactors (no light required). Once grown, the whole
algae cell is hydrothermally liquefied (HTL) via the same process used
for terrestrial biomass. The algal bio-oil is separated from the
remaining products and can be sent to hydrotreatment (common in
petroleum refineries) to be upgraded to a drop-in biodiesel (renewable
diesel). The remaining solids, water and carbon dioxide are treated and
recycled to the cultivation step, while remaining off-gases provide
heat, electricity or hydrogen. As with all algal biofuel systems, the
main challenge arises from the high cost of harvesting and cultivation,
as well as reducing the energy/water/nutrient/land footprint of the
system. However, algae can be grown on non-arable land, avoiding
competition with food. Benefits of using the HTL route with micro-algae
is HTL's ability to handle wet feedstocks, and its use of all algae
components (lipids, carbohydrates, proteins), removing the need to
cultivate high lipid content and extraction.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* Total is partnering with a university in Grenoble, France and the
Qingdao Institude of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology in China,
to accelerate research on optimising micro-algae strains and
developing enzymes for biofuels production.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) in the United
States performed a modelled design case to set process conditions
required to meet a minimum fuel selling price (MFSP) of 4.49 2011
USD/gasoline gallon equivalent (GGE)
3-4 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biogas > Anaerobic
digestion > Micro-algae and Macro-algae Production Moderate Details
Similar to anaerobic digestion of non-algae feedstock, except that the
feedstock is either the remnants of micro-algae after lipid extraction
or macro-algae (seaweed). The bacteria break down the algae without
oxygen and in the process produce biogas, composed mostly of methane
(50-75%) and carbon dioxide (25-45%). Biomass can be in the form of
animal manure, organic portion of municipal solid waste (MSW),
industrial waste such as dry distillers grain (DDG) from ethanol
production, agricultural residues, and energy crops. The biogas can be
burned directly, without upgrading to biomethane.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:*
9-10 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biogas > Anaerobic
digestion > Non-algae feedstock Production Moderate Details
In an anaerobic digestor, bacteria break down to biomass without oxygen
and in the process produce biogas, composed mostly of methane (50-75%)
and carbon dioxide (25-45%). Biomass can be in the form of animal
manure, organic portion of municipal solid waste (MSW), industrial waste
such as dry distillers grain (DDG) from ethanol production, agricultural
residues, and energy crops. The biogas can be burned directly, without
upgrading to biomethane.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* Biogas production via anaerobic digestion is a commercially deployed
technology, consisting of small-scale (micro) digestors to produce
biogas for cooking in rural developing areas, medium-scale digestors
to produce heat and electricity (CHP), and large-scale digestors
that produce electricity from biogas and upgrade biogas to
biomethane, which can be injected into the gas grid.
* Globally, there are around 50 million micro-digestors, with 42
million in China producing 13 million Nm3/yr, and another 4.9
million in India producting 2 million Nm3/yr.
* In 2016, 87.5 TWh of electricity was produced from medium- to
large-scale biogas systems. Germany is a leader of biogas with 10.5
GW installed, followed by France, Switzerland and the UK. In the
United States, just under 1 GW of medium- to large-scale AD are
installed, while India has 300 MW and Canada has 196 MW.
* Typical biogas plant capacity for electricity ranges between 0.5 to
2.7 MW in Europe.
9 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biomethane > Biomass
gasification - small-scale Production Moderate Details
Biomass can be thermally converted to gaseous products via gasification.
Biomass with a high lignocellulosic content (e.g. wood, straw, residues
from forestry and agriculture, municipal solid waste) is heated, but not
combusted, in an oxygen-restricted environment, producing a mixture of
mostly hydrogen (H2) (20-30%), carbon monoxide (CO) (~20%), carbon
dioxide (CO2) (~15%), and other hydrocarbons. Small-scale gasifiers (<
200 kWe) can provide fuel to create heat and electricity for remote
villages. It can replace burning biomass directly for cooking in the
home, avoiding negative health impacts.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:* China, Japan, India, Thailand, Germany, Denmark, Sweden
*Key initiatives:*
* Myriad institutes in China are developing small-scale biomass
gasification technologies, under the auspices of the China Biomass
Development Center (CBDC). Recently commercialised technologies use
sawdust and rice husk as feedstock.
7 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biomethane > Biomass
gasification and catalytic methanation Production Moderate Details
Often referred to as the bio-synthetic natural gas (bioSNG) route,
biomass is first gasified into syngas and the syngas is then converted
into biomethane via methanation. Biomass with a high lignocellulosic
content (e.g. wood, straw, residues from forestry and agriculture,
municipal solid waste) is gasified via heating in an oxygen-restricted
environment, producing a mixture of mostly hydrogen (H2), carbon
monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and other hydrocarbons. This
"syngas" is then cleaned, CO2 is removed and vented, and the remaining
syngas is dried before undergoing catalytic methanation. Prior to
methanation, a partial water-gas shift (WGS) reaction may be used to
adjust the H2/CO ratio. Technical challenges revolve around tar buildup
and removal during gasification.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:* Sweden, United Kingdom, Germany
*Key initiatives:*
* The GoBiGas project in Gothenburg, Sweden, was a first-of-its-kind
20 MW bioSNG demonstration plant, using woody biomass as feedstock.
It successfully completed 12 000 hours of operation before its
decommissioning in 2018.
* The GoGreenGas project in Swindon, UK, was taken over by Advanced
Biofuel Solutions Ltd (ABSL) in 2019. It is set to be the world's
first waste-to-bioSNG plant, taking 8 000 tonnes/yr of local
municipal solid waste (MSW) and converting it to 22 GWh of bioSNG.
Addtionally, the CO2 from the process will be captured, liquefied
and sent to industry for utilisation. It is set to be operational by
the second half of 2020.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
4 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biomethane > Biomass
gasification and biological methanation Production Moderate Details
Similar to the catalytic methanation route to produce bioSNG, biomass is
first gasified into syngas, and then the CO, CO2 and H2 in the syngas
are biologically converted into biomethane via the use of microbes.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:*
5 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biomethane > Biomass
gasification and methanation with CCUS Production Moderate Details
Similar to the biomass gasification and catalytic methanation route (aka
the bioSNG route), but with the addition of CO2 capture and compression
following the CO2 removal step during syngas cleaning prior to
methanation. Adding carbon capture and storage (CCS) is relatively easy
given the pure stream of CO2 inherently produced in the process. Storing
the CO2 rather than utilising it creates negative emissions that can
offset hard-to-abate emissions elsewhere in the energy system. See
non-CCUS variant for more detail.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy, CO2 removal
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* The GoBiGas project in Gothenburg, Sweden, was a first-of-its-kind
20 MW bioSNG demonstration plant, using woody biomass as feedstock.
It successfully completed 1 2000 hours of operation before its
decommissiong in 2018.
* The GoGreenGas project in Swindon, UK, was taken over by Advanced
Biofuel Solutions Ltd (ABSL) in 2019. It is set to be the world's
first waste-to-bioSNG plant, taking 8 000 tonnes/yr of local
municipal solid waste (MSW) and converting it to 22 GWh of bioSNG.
Addtionally, the CO2 from the process will be captured, liquefied
and sent to industry for utilisation. It is set to be operational by
the second half of 2020.
9 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biomethane > Anaerobic
digestion and CO2 separation > without CCUS Production Moderate Details
In an anaerobic digestor, bacteria break down to biomass without oxygen
and in the process produce biogas, composed mostly of methane (50-75%)
and carbon dioxide (25-45%). Biomass can be in the form of animal
manure, organic portion of municipal solid waste (MSW), industrial waste
such as dry distillers grain (DDG) from ethanol production, agricultural
residues, and energy crops. The biogas is upgraded by removing CO2 and
other impurities such as hydrogen sulphide, producing what is commonly
referred to as biomethane. Biomethane can be used directly or injected
into the gas grid if it meets the required specifications. In some
cases, biomethane needs to be mixed with LPG to increase its calorfic
potential before being injected.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:* Germany, France, Sweden, Netherlands, Denmark, United
Kingdom, United States, China, Canada
*Key initiatives:*
* Although biogas production coupled with upgrading to biomethane is
recent technology, there are still around 700 biogas upgrading
plants worldwide, with rapid growth taking place in Europe. The
majority are found in Europe, with Germany again taking the lead at
195 plants, followed by the UK (92), Sweden (70) and France (67),
producing a total of 19.3 TWh of biomethane in 2017.
* The United States is home to 50 such plants, while China and Canada
each have around 20 plants, and Japan, Korea, Brazil and India each
having a handful.
* Upgraded biogas can be injected into the gas grid or used in
vehicles - this has been practiced in Germany since 2006. Technical
standards for the produced biomethane are being developed in Europe
under the auspices of the European Biogas Association.
*Deployment targets:*
* France aims to install 1000 biomethane plants (for injection into
gas grid) by 2020. Between 2017 and 2018, it installed 23 new biogas
upgrading plants.
8 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biomethane > Anaerobic
digestion and CO2 separation > with CCUS Production Moderate Details
Similar to biomethane production from anaerobic digestion, with the
addition of a a CO2 capture and compression unit integrated into the CO2
separation inherent to biogas upgrading. If the CO2 is stored, negative
emissions are created that can offset hard-to-abate emissions elsewhere
in the energy system. Larger digestors (> 5 MW) are suitable for carbon
capture and storage (CCS) to justify the additional capital expense. See
non-CCUS variant for more detail.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy, CCUS, CO2 removal
*Key countries:* Italy
*Key initiatives:*
* In Italy, Tecno Project Industriale has constructed an anaerobic
digestion plant with upgrading that captures the CO2 and sends it
for use at a nearby industrial site.
* Germany is home to the largest commerically-operating power-to-gas
plant, built and operated by Audi and using CO2 from an adjacent
biogas plant. Hydrogen from water electrolysis and CO2 are fed into
the catalytic methanation reactor to produce biomethane for use in
road vehicles. The plant has been operating since 2013.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
8 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biomethane > Anaerobic
digestion and catalytic methanation with hydrogen Production Moderate
Details
Similar to biomethane production from anaerobic digestion, with the
addition of a methanation step to further convert the carbon content in
the biogas CO2 to methane rather than venting or capturing the CO2. The
CO2 is reacted with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst. The benefit
is a more effective use of biogenic carbon present in biogas, which can
displace fossil-derived methane.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy, Hydrogen
*Key countries:* Germany, United States, China, Switzerland,
Netherlands, France, Austria, Japan
*Key initiatives:*
* Germany is home to the largest commerically-operating power-to-gas
plant, built and operated by Audi and using CO2 from an adjacent
biogas plant. Hydrogen from water electrolysis and CO2 are fed into
the catalytic methanation reactor to produce biomethane for use in
road vehicles. The plant has been operating since 2013.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
7 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biomethane > Anaerobic
digestion and biological methanation with hydrogen Production Moderate
Details
Clean hydrogen (from renewable-powered water electrolysis) is combined
with raw biogas from anaerobic digestion to produce methane via
biological conversion. Micro-organisms convert the CO2 in raw biogas and
the H2 to biomethane via hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis, avoiding the
need to vent or capture the CO2 in the biogas. The biological
methanation can occur either within the anaerobic digester, or in a
separation reactor. Biological methanation is more resilient to feed gas
impurities.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy, Hydrogen
*Key countries:* Germany, Austria, United States, Denmark
*Key initiatives:*
* In Germany, a demonstration plant has successfully shown a
power-to-gas via biological methanation route. Hydrogen from
renewably-powered electrolysis is combined with CO2 from raw biogas
(from anaerobic digestion) and biologically converted to biomethane
via micro-organisms. The demo plant can produce up to 15 Nm3/h.
* The BioCat Project, funded by the Danish Energy Agency (EUDP) and
located in Copenhagen, Denmark,, brings together 7 companies to
create a commercial-scale demonstration plant using Electrochaea's
BioCat biological methanation system and Avedøre's biogas plant,
which uses waste water to feed the anaerobic digestor. A separate
reactor is used for the methanation. The plant had successfully
operated for >3 000 hours as of January 2018.
* The National Renewable Energy Lab, in collaboration with SoCal Gas
and Electrochaea, are operating a pilot scale (700L) biomethanation
reactor which can convert to CO2 in the feed stream to biomethane
when co-fed hydrogen which is produced from a 250kW electrolyser.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
7-8 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Bioethanol > Syngas
fermentation Production Moderate Details
Syngas (a mixture of mostly hydrogen [H2], carbon monoxide [CO], and
carbon dioxide [CO2]) is fermented to ethanol and other biofuels (e.g.
butanol, acetic acid, etc.) using micro-organisms that function as
bio-catalysts. Syngas can either be produced via multiple routes,
including gasification of biomass with high lignocellulosic content
(e.g. wood, straw, residues from forestry and agriculture, municipal
solid waste) via heating in an oxygen-restricted environment. Syngas can
also be produced using off-gases from industrial processes like iron and
steel manufacturing. However, when using fossil-derived syngas, the
emissions reductions potential tend to be lower than using renewable
sources of syngas.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* United States-based LanzaTech is the first company to commercialise
syngas fermentation to produce ethanol, though the syngas is not
sourced from bioass gasification but rather iron and steel mill
offgases. LanzaTech teamed up with Chinese iron and steel producer
the Shougang Group. The current facility, located in Hebei Province
in China, can produce up to 16 million gallons of ethanol per year.
LanzaTech also operates an MSW gasification facility in Japan and is
currently planning a biomass gasification and syngas fermentation
effort in California in collaboration with Aemetis. In Sept 2021,
LanzaTech annouced a collaboration with Argonne National Laboratory
to demonstrate ethanol from biogenic CO2 captured from an ethanol
plant and electrolytic hydrogen from solar PV. The demo will produce
about 130 litres per day of ethanol that will then be converted to
biokerosene via LanzaTech's alcohol-to-jet (ATJ) process.
* INEOS operated an 8M gal/year syngas fermentation to ethanol plant
at Vero Beach in Florida from roughly 2013 to 2016. Despite
difficulties in syngas generation and cleanup, the fermentation
process proved feasible at scale.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
8 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Bioethanol >
Lignocellulosic > Enzymatic fermentation > without CCUS Production
Moderate Details
Lignocellulosic ethanol via enzymatic fermentation is an advanced
(second generation) biofuel where lignocellulosic biomass is broken down
into sugars via enzymatic hydrolysis. From there, the fermentation
process to produce ethanol is the same as conventional (first
generation) ethanol production. Though more expensive than conventional
ethanol, lignocellulosic ethanol uses a biomass feedstock that is
considered residue and therefore does not have direct competition with
food resources. Like conventional ethanol, its drawbacks are ethanol
blend limits with gasoline (15% for use in gasoline engines, 85% for use
in flex fuel vehicles, and 95% for use in compression ignition engines).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:* Brazil, United States, Europe
*Key initiatives:*
* There are several lignocellulosic ethanol plants in commercial
operation, resulting in a total global capacity of 95 million
gallons (359 million L).
* One of the largest is the joint venture between Poet LLC and Royal
DSM; its facility, located in the United States, has a production
capacity of around 20 million gallons of ethanol (76 million L), and
has been operating since 2014. However, operations are currently
paused as Poet-DSM focus on R&D.
* Brazil is home to another large facility, GranBio in Alagoas. The
cellulosic ethanol facility has the capacity to produce just under
22 million gallons (82 million L) using corn stover and sugarcane
bagasse from a first generation ethanol plant located nearby.
*Announced development targets:*
* India's National Biofuel Policy 2018 targets an ethanol blending of
10% by 2022, increasing to 30% by 2030.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* The US DOE had previously set a cost target of $2.15/gallon of
ethanol ($3.27/gallon gasoline equivalent, in USD2007) for 2012,
which was achieved
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
5 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Bioethanol >
Lignocellulosic > Enzymatic fermentation > with CCUS Production
Moderate Details
During the fermentation step, a pure stream of CO2 is emitted that can
be captured and compressed at relatively low cost due to the high purity
of the stream. As the captured CO2 is biogenic, it can provide negative
emissions if it is subsequently stored. This can help offset CO2
emissions in other parts of the energy system. See non-CCUS variant for
more detail.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy, CO2 removal
*Key countries:*
*Announced development targets:*
* India's National Biofuel Policy 2018 targets an ethanol blending of
10% by 2022, increasing to 30% by 2030.
9-10 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Bioethanol > Sugar
and starch from agricultural crops > Enzymatic fermentation > without
CCUS Production Moderate Details
Bioethanol from sugar and starch crops is considered a conventional
(first generation) biofuel. Carbohydrates (sugars) are enzymatically
fermented into ethanol, producing a liquid biofuel that can be blended
up to 15% with gasoline for any gasoline engine, and up to 85% for flex
fuel vehicles, and 95% for dedicated (compression ignition) ethanol
engines. However, in addition to challenges around blend limits, there
are sustainability concerns with using food crops for ethanol
production, which can lead to competition with food and undesirable land
use change.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* Global production of first generation ethanol reached 27 billion
gallons (102 billion L) in 2017. The United States and Brazil
account for 85% of production, with the United States alone
accounting for over 58%
* Poet LLC and Archer Daniels Midlands (ADM) are the largest ethanol
producers in the United States
* Brazil's largest ethanol producer is Copersucar, producing 1.3
billion gallons (4.8 billion L) in 2017
*Deployment targets:*
* India's National Biofuel Policy 2018 targets an ethanol blending of
10% by 2022, increasing to 30% by 2030.
8 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Bioethanol > Sugar and
starch from agricultural crops > Enzymatic fermentation > with CCUS
Production Moderate Details
During the fermentation step, a pure stream of CO2 is emitted that can
be captured and compressed at relatively low cost due to the high purity
of the stream. As the captured CO2 is biogenic, it can provide negative
emissions if it is subsequently stored. This can help offset CO2
emissions in other parts of the energy system. See non-CCUS variant for
more detail.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS, Bioenergy, CO2 removal
*Key countries:* Canada, United States, United Kingdom, Belgium, Netherlands
*Key initiatives:*
* Currently, first generation ethanol with CCUS exists in North
America and Europe. Archer Daniels Midland (ADM) own and operate the
largest plant, located in Decatur, Illinois, and first facility
dedicated to storing the CO2 rather than utilising it. It captures
up to 1 million tonnes of CO2/year. A second plant, the Red Trails
Energy BECCS Project in North Dakota, began capturing and storing
CO2 in July 2022, with a capacity to store 180 kilotonnes of CO2 per
year.
* All other ethanol plants in the US smaller-scale plants who send
their captured CO2 for use in enhanced oil recovery (EOR) fields or
for use in greenhouses for crop cultivation. These include two in
Kansas and one in California.
* In Europe, CO2 from ethanol plants is captured and sent to
greenhouses in the United Kingdom, Belgium and Sweden, all with
capacities between 100 to 200 kilotonnes CO2 per year.
* The Midwest Carbon Express project in the United States is bringing
together 30 ethanol facilities across the midwest to create a CO2
capture and storage network. Development is still in early stages.
*Announced development targets:*
* India's National Biofuel Policy 2018 targets an ethanol blending of
10% by 2022, increasing to 30% by 2030.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9-10 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biodiesel and
biokerosene > Fatty acid methyl ester Production Moderate Details
Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) biodiesel is produced by reacting either
vegetable oil (soybean, palm, rapeseed) or waste oils (animal fats, used
cooking oils) with methanol in the presence of a catalyst. The
transesterification reaction of the triglycerides found within the oils
produces biodiesel and glycerine. The biodiesel and glycerine undergo a
series of purification and separation steps to clean the final products
and to recover the catalyst and any remaining methanol. Glycerine can be
sold to the pharmaceutical industry. The biodiesel can be blended up to
5-7% with fossil diesel for use in road transport, or can be blended up
to 100% for use in marine diesel engines.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:* Europe, Indonesia, United States, Brazil, Germany,
Argentina, France
*Key initiatives:*
* FAME biodiesel is produced at a commercial scale across the world.
In 2019, a total of 38.5 million tonnes of FAME were produced. Four
countries dominate in FAME production, contributing to 55% of global
production. This includes Indonesia (18.2%), United States (15.6%),
Brazil (12.5%) and Germany (8.8%). As a region, Europe is the
largest producer, accounting for 33.3% of global FAME production.
*Deployment targets:*
* Indonesia recently increased their blending targets from 20% to 30%,
with the aim of increasing blending to 40% no later than mid-2021.
* India's National Biofuel Policy 2018 sets a target of 5% blending by
2039 for biodiesel.
9-10 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biodiesel and
biokerosene > Hydrogenated vegetable oil / Hydroprocessed esters and
fatty acids Production Moderate Details
Hydrogenated vegetable oil (HVO) - also known as hydroprocessed esters
and fatty acids (HEFA) - is a type of renewable diesel while HEFA is a
type of drop-in biokerosene, meaning it is a drop-in fuel and
theoretically has no upper blend limit with fossil diesel and kerosene,
though it is currently capped at 50% blend for use in aviation. HVO is
produced via well-known hydrotreatment commonly used at petroleum
refineries. An oil feedstock (vegetable oil such a soybean, palm or
rapeseed, or waste oils such as animal fats and used cooking oils) is
reacted with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst to remove oxygen and
break the triglycerides in the oil into three separate hydrocarbon
chains. When compared to FAME biodiesel, HVO/HEFA has better storage
stability, cold flow properties and higher cetane number (higher
ignitibility).
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:* Finland, Singapore, United States, France, Italy,
Netherlands, China
*Key initiatives:*
* As a relatively new but enthusiastically expanding industry, there
are a variety of commercially operating dedicated new builds and
refinery conversions and co-processing HVO/HEFA plants globally,
with a cumulative production capacity of 8 million tonnes/year (10.3
billion L/yr).
* The first HVO plant operator and current global capacity leader is
Neste, responsible for 3.2 million tonnes per year across its four
sites (Finland, Singapore and the Netherlands), with a 1.3 million
tonnes per year extension currently under development in Singapore.
Neste's feedstock now consists of over 80% waste oils such as used
cooking oil (UCO), animal and fish fats, and residues from vegetable
oil refining.
* In France, Total recently started operations (2019) in a refinery
converted to HVO/HEFA biodiesel and biojet production, at a capacity
of 0.5 million tonnes per year.
* Italy, Eni similarly has recently (2019) begun operation of a
converted refinery with a production capacity of 0.75 million tonnes
per year, with the ability to use waste oils and residues.
* In the United States, Diamond Green Diesel (Louisiana) has the
largest production capacity at 800 000 tonnes per year, while World
Energy's AltAir facility (California) has a 125 000 tonnes total
capacity, and is the only facility in the world continuously
producing HVO/HEFA jet fuel. Renewable Energy Group recently
cancelled a 250 000 tonnes/yr plant that had been planned for
Washington state.
* China has a total HVO production capacity of 220 000 tonnes/yr split
between two sites, SINOPEC and ECO/Yangzou Jianuyan/Huanyu.
* In the Netherlands (Sept 2021), Shell reached a final invesment
decision to convert an existing petroleum refinery into a
biorefinery that can will produce 820 kilotonnes per year of
renewable diesel and biokerosene in 2024. The facility will use both
waste oils and sustainable vegetable oils. It has ambitions to
produce 2 million tonne/yr by 2025.
*Deployment targets:*
Since 2020, numerous airlines, fuel suppliers, and airports have pledged
to be net zero by 2050 or earlier in some cases, with sustainable
aviation fuels (SAF) like HEFA/HVO playing a leading role. Several SAF
blending mandates are under consideration across Europe, with a target
of 0.5% SAF already adopted by Norway. The ReFuelEU Aviation initiative
in the EU proposes blending obligations at EU airports, starting with 2%
SAF in 2025 and rising to 63% by 2050. Additionally, the US has launched
its Sustainable Aviation Fuel Grand Challenge, targeting 3 billion
gallons of SAF per year by 2030, and 35 billion gallons by 2050. The
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has set a goal for
carbon-neutral growth from 2020 onwards, and has adopted the Carbon
Offsetting and reduction for International Aviation (CORSIA) framework,
which includes SAF as an option for carbon emissions reduction. HVO/HEFA
kerosene/jet fuel is an American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM)-certified SAF pathway.
7 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biodiesel and
biokerosene > Pyrolysis and upgrading Production Moderate Details
In pyrolysis, biomass is heated in the absence of oxygen and decomposes
into bio-oil and biochar. Fast pyrolysis (on the order of seconds) of
dry biomass (up to 10% moisture content) is typically used to produce an
output that is mostly bio-oil. Once produced, the pyrolysis bio-oil can
then be refined to higher quality fuels such as diesel via standard
petroleum refining units (fluid catalytic crackers, hydrocrackers). The
bio-oil can be co-fed into refineries with crude fossil-based oil.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* In 2021, the Swedish company Pyrocell (a joint venture of the
Swedish refinery Preem and wood products company Setra Group) began
production of pyrolysis oil from sawdust sourced from a nearby
sawmill. The bio-oil (also known as bio-crude) is then sent to be
co-processed in Preem's refinery, creating a portion of renewable
diesel and gasoline mixed with fossil fuels. The plant is set to
produce 25 000 tonnes of non-fossil pyrolysis oil per year. The
pyrolysis technology was provided by the Dutch company BTG-BTL.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
4 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biodiesel and
biokerosene > Hydrothermal liquefaction and upgrading Production
Moderate Details
In hydrothermal liquefaction, biomass decomposes into gases and bio-oil
using water under high pressure (150 to 350 bar) and high temperature
(250 - 450 oC), often in the presence of an alkali catalyst. A variety
of biomass can be used and the biomass does not need to be dry, an
advantage over pyrolysis and other thermochemical conversion processes.
The bio-oil is separated from the gaseous and aqueous products, and can
then be refined into high quality fuel such as diesel using typical
petroleum refining processes. It can be co-fed with fossil-based oil
into refineries. As this version of bio-oil has lower oxygen content
than pyrolysis oil, it can be blended into heavy fuel oil for use in the
shipping industry.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:* Denmark
*Key initiatives:*
* Aarhus University in Denmark has developed a large prototype of a
HTL plant using lignocellulosic feedstocks and waste feedstocks. The
plant produces 1 tonne of bio-oil per year. It is possible to
scale-up the lab-scale plant to a demonstration and eventually
full-scale plant.
*Announced development targets:*
Since 2020, numerous airlines, fuel suppliers, and airports have pledged
to be net zero by 2050 or earlier in some cases, with sustainable
aviation fuels (SAF) like HEFA/HVO playing a leading role. Several SAF
blending mandates are under consideration across Europe, with a target
of 0.5% SAF already adopted by Norway. The ReFuelEU Aviation initiative
in the EU proposes blending obligations at EU airports, starting with 2%
SAF in 2025 and rising to 63% by 2050. Additionally, the US has launched
its Sustainable Aviation Fuel Grand Challenge, targeting 3 billion
gallons of SAF per year by 2030, and 35 billion gallons by 2050. The
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has set a goal for
carbon-neutral growth from 2020 onwards, and has adopted the Carbon
Offsetting and reduction for International Aviation (CORSIA) framework,
which include SAF as an option for carbon emissions reduction. HTL with
upgrading is a American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM)-certified SAF pathway.
6 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biodiesel and
biokerosene > Gasification and Fischer-Tropsch > without CCUS
Production Very high Details
The biomass-based Fischer Tropsch pathway (bio-FT) is typically referred
to as a biomass-to-liquid (BTL) route, though this umbrella term can
apply to any route which produces liquid fuel from biomass. In the
bio-FT route, biomass is first gasified into syngas and the syngas is
then converted into hydrocarbon liquids via the Fischer-Tropsch process.
Biomass with a high lignocellulosic content (e.g. wood, straw, residues
from forestry and agriculture, municipal solid waste) is gasified via
heating in an oxygen-restricted environment, producing a mixture of
mostly hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and
other hydrocarbons. This "syngas" is then sent to a water-gas shift
(WGS) reactor to increase the H2/CO ratio required for Fischer-Tropsch
(FT) synthesis, and CO2 is separated and vented. The syngas is fed into
the FT reactor, and the resulting liquid hydrocarbons are cleaned,
refined, and separated into diesel, jet fuel, naptha and other products.
The biomass used to produce bio-FT are not food crops, avoiding direct
competition with food and unwanted land-use change. Fuels resulting from
bio-FT are "drop-in" and can therefore use existing fossil fuel
infrastructure and technology without blending limits. Technical
challenges revolve around tar buildup and removal during gasification.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:* United States, United Kingdom, Japan, France
*Key initiatives:*
* Velocys is a technology provider for FT reactors for gasified
biomass. They have successfully demonstrated their FT reactors in
Oklahoma, United States and fully integrated with biomass
gasification of wood residues in North Carolina, United States. They
are currently in the planning stages of an FT biodiesel plant (25
million gallons/yr) in Mississippi, United States, using wood
residues as well as a FT biojet fuel and naptha plant (20 million
gallons/yr) in Immingham, UK using municipal solid wastes. The
latter plant is done in collaboration with British Airways, and the
UK Department of Transport.
* Velocys has also provded FT reactors to biojet projects in Oregon,
United States (Red Rock Biofuels) and Nagoya, Japan (involving Toyo
Engineering and the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development
Organization, NEDO).
* In France, the BioTfueL project (involving Axens, CEA, IFPEN, Avril,
ThyssenKrupp Industrial Solutions and Total) commenced operation of
two small-scale demonstration plants, one for biomass pretreatment
and the other for gasification, syngas cleaning, FT synthesis and
upgrading. The project aims to illustrate flexibility in using a
variety of lignocellulosic feedstocks (agricultural and forestry
residues, energy crops), and targets full demonstration in 2020.
* In Nevada,United States, Fulcrum Bioenergy is using municipal solid
waste (MSW) as its feedstock to produce a bioderived "syncrude" from
bio-FT. The syncrude is then sent to a nearby petroleum refinery
(Marathon Petroleum) to be upgraded into diesel and other
transportation fuels. Operations are expected to commence in 2020,
and produce 11 million gallons/yr from 175 000 tons of MSW. Fulcrum
recently announced plans for a secont waste-derived bio-FT plant in
Indiana, that will produce roughly 33 million gallons/yr of FT fuels.
*Announced development targets:*
Fulcrum Bioenergy (waste bio-FT) has signed offtake aggreements with
AirBP, Cathay Pacific, and United airlines for a total of 178 million
gallons (0.5 million tonnes) per year from 2020 to 2030. RedRock
Biofuels (using Velocys bio-FT technology) has signed offtake agreements
with FedEx (7 years) and Southwest (1 year) airlines for a total of 3.5
million gallons per year. Since 2020, numerous airlines, fuel suppliers,
and airports have pledged to be net zero by 2050 or earlier in some
cases, with sustainable aviation fuels (SAF) like HEFA/HVO playing a
leading role. Several SAF blending mandates are under consideration
across Europe, with a target of 0.5% SAF already adopted by Norway. The
ReFuelEU Aviation initiative in the EU proposes blending obligations at
EU airports, starting with 2% SAF in 2025 and rising to 63% by 2050.
Additionally, the US has launched its Sustainable Aviation Fuel Grand
Challenge, targeting 3 billion gallons of SAF per year by 2030, and 35
billion gallons by 2050. The International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) has set a goal for carbon-neutral growth from 2020 onwards, and
has adopted the Carbon Offsetting and reduction for International
Aviation (CORSIA) framework, which include SAF as an option for carbon
emissions reduction. Bio-FT kerosene (biojet) is a American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM)-certified SAF.
5 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biodiesel and
biokerosene > Gasification and Fischer-Tropsch > with CCUS Production
Very high Details
The biomass-based Fischer Tropsch pathway (bio-FT) is typically referred
to as a biomass-to-liquid (BTL) route, though this umbrella term can
apply to any route which produces liquid fuel from biomass. In the
bio-FT route, biomass is first gasified into syngas and the syngas is
then converted into hydrocarbon liquids via the Fischer-Tropsch process.
Biomass with a high lignocellulosic content (e.g. wood, straw, residues
from forestry and agriculture, municipal solid waste) is gasified via
heating in an oxygen-restricted environment, producing a mixture of
mostly hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and
other hydrocarbons. This "syngas" is then sent to a water-gas shift
(WGS) reactor to increase the H2/CO ratio required for Fischer-Tropsch
(FT) synthesis. In the CCUS variant, the CO2 is separated from the
syngas prior to FT synthesis, resulting in a pure stream of CO2 that can
be captured and compressed for utilisation or storage rather than
vented. If stored, negative emissions are created. The resulting liquids
from the FT reactor are further cleaned and separated into their
hydrocarbon products (diesel, jet, naptha, wax, etc). Technical
challenges revolve around tar buildup and removal during gasification.
The biomass used to produce bio-FT are not food crops, avoiding direct
competition with food and unwanted land-use change. Fuels resulting from
bio-FT are "drop-in" and can therefore use existing fossil fuel
infrastructure and technology without blending limits. Technical
challenges revolve around tar buildup and removal during gasification.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy, CO2 removal
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* There are currently a handful of small commercial-scale projects in
the pipeline, all located in the United States. These includes the
Aemetis CCS Riverbank facility, the Illinois Clean Fuels Project,
the Louisiana Green Fuels Project and the Velocys Bayou Fuels
project. The first plant is set to operate in late 2024 or early 2025.
* The Velocys Bayou Fuels project has a capture capacity of 0.5
million tonnes of CO2 per year, destined for EOR. The Illinois Clean
Fuels project is set to capture and store more than 6 million tonnes
of biogenic CO2 at full capacity.
*Announced development targets:*
Fulcrum Bioenergy (waste bio-FT) has signed offtake aggreements with
AirBP, Cathay Pacific, and United airlines for a total of 178 million
gallons (0.5 million tonnes) per year from 2020 to 2030 RedRock Biofuels
(using Velocys bio-FT technology) has signed offtake agreements with
FedEx (7 years) and Southwest (1 year) airlines for a total of 3.5
million gallons per year Since 2020, numerous airlines, fuel suppliers,
and airports have pledged to be net zero by 2050 or earlier in some
cases, with sustainable aviation fuels (SAF) like HEFA/HVO playing a
leading role. Several SAF blending mandates are under consideration
across Europe, with a target of 0.5% SAF already adopted by Norway. The
ReFuelEU Aviation initiative in the EU proposes blending obligations at
EU airports, starting with 2% SAF in 2025 and rising to 63% by 2050.
Additionally, the US has launched its Sustainable Aviation Fuel Grand
Challenge, targeting 3 billion gallons of SAF per year by 2030, and 35
billion gallons by 2050. The International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) has set a goal for carbon-neutral growth from 2020 onwards, and
has adopted the Carbon Offsetting and reduction for International
Aviation (CORSIA) framework, which include SAF as an option for carbon
emissions reduction. Bio-FT kerosene (biojet) is a American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM)-certified SAF.
5 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biodiesel and
biokerosene > Gasification and hydrogen enhacement and Fischer-Tropsch
Production High Details
The biomass-based Fischer Tropsch pathway (bio-FT) is typically referred
to as a biomass-to-liquid (BTL) route, though this umbrella term can
apply to any route which produces liquid fuel from biomass. In the
bio-FT route with hydrogen enhancement, biomass is first gasified into
syngas (mostly hydrogen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide). Instead of
sending the syngas to a water-gas shift (WGS) reactor, as is done in the
usual bio-FT route, low-carbon hydrogen is added to the syngas to drive
a reverse water-gas shift (rWGS) reaction, converting hydrogen (H2) and
carbon dioxide (CO2) into water and carbon monoxide (CO). Sufficient
hydrogen is added to ensure a desired H2/CO ratio for Fischer-Tropsch
(FT) synthesis. The liquids from the FT reactor are further cleaned and
separated into their drop-in hydrocarbon products (diesel, jet, naptha,
etc). The benefit of adding hydrogen is a more efficient use of the
carbon in biomass, as the carbon in CO2 is converted into hydrocarbon
fuels rather than being either vented (bio-FT route) or captured and
stored (bio-FT w/ CCS route). Rather than providing negative emissions,
the additionally converted carbon can displace fossil carbon within the
energy system. Technical challenges revolve around tar buildup and
removal during gasification.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:* European Union
*Key initiatives:*
* In 2021, the project FLEXCHX in the European Union (funded by the EU
Horizon 2020 programme) successfully met its objective to
demonstrate a flexible production of power and heat using an
hydrogen-enhanced biomass gasification with Fischer-Tropsch system.
A variety of companies across the entire value chain took part. A
solar plant was used to power a water electrolyser for hydrogen
production during the summer months to maximize FT-syncrude that
could be sent for upgrading at a refinery. The success of the
project has elevated the TRL of this route to 5.
6 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biodiesel and
biokerosene > Alcohol-to-Jet Production High Details
This process integrates several individually well-known steps to convert
an alcohol (methanol, ethanol, butanol) into a drop-in renewable diesel
or jet fuel. The feedstock alcohol undergoes dehydration to remove
water, oligomerisation to create longer chain hydrocarbons out of
shorter chains, hydrogenation through the addition to hydrogen to
convert the hydrocarbons into desired fuels, and finally distillation to
separate the products into diesel, jet fuel, and other streams.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:* United States, Japan, Sweden
*Key initiatives:*
* Gevo, a United States-based biofuels company, produces ethanol and
isobutanol at its facility in Minnesota. It has developed a
proprietary process for upgrading the isobutanol into biojet fuel (8
million gallons per year) and isooctane (2 million gallons per year)
at a demonstration facility in Texas.
* In 2019, Swedish BioFuels AB, a producer of ATJ biojet from ethanol,
teamed up with Cortus Energy AB, a biomass gasification technology
provider, to announce plans for an ATJ demonstration plant. The
plant will take forestry residues, gasify them to syngas and, in
combination with alcohols, convert them to biojet via an ATJ pathway.
* LanzaTech, a United States-based biofuels company that has achieved
commercial operation of syngas fermentation to ethanol, is planning
two demonstration factilies for an ATJ pathway developed by the US
Department of Energy's Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL).
The first demo plant will be in Georgia, United States, and a second
demo plant is planned for Japan, in collaboration with Japan's All
Nippon Airways (ANA) airline and the New Energy and Industrial
Technology Development Organization (NEDO). In Sept 2021, LanzaTech
annouced a collaboration with Argonne National Laboratory to
demonstrate ethanol from biogenic CO2 captured from an ethanol plant
and electrolytic hydrogen from solar PV. The demo will produce about
130 litres per day of ethanol that will then be converted to
biokerosene via LanzaJet's (a subsidiary of LanzaTech)
alcohol-to-jet (ATJ) process. In the same month, LanzaTech announced
an additional partnership with the sustainable aviation fuels (SAF)
aggregator and supplier SkyNRG Americas to produce biokerosene from
landfill gas (a mixture of methane [CH4], CO2 and nitrogen [N2])
using renewably-powered electrolytic hydrogen. The project is dubbed
LOTUS, and has secured funding from the US DOE as part of its
Sustainable Aviation Fuel Grand Challenge.
*Announced development targets:*
* Lufthansa airline has signed a 5-year offtake aggreement with Gevo
for its ATJ-biojet fuel at 8 million gallons per year.
* ANA airlines has signed an offtake agreement with LanzaTech for its
yet-to-be-demonstrated ATJ-biojet.
7 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biodiesel and
biokerosene > Synthetic Iso-Paraffins Production High Details
Also known as the "sugars to hydrocarbons" route, this pathway converts
sugars from biomass directly into hydrocarbons similar to diesel and jet
fuel. Biological routes use micro-organisms to perform the conversion,
while catalytic routes use catalysts under high temperature conditions.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:* United States, France
*Key initiatives:*
* Amyris, an industrial biosciences company based in the United
States, teamed up with Total to produce farnesene (a
sugar-to-hydrocarbon) that can be blended up to 10% with fossil jet
kerosene. Airbus and Cathay Pacific signed a two-year offtake
agreement with Amyris and Total from 2016 to 2018. In 2016, Amyris,
Total and Renmatix won a 3 year contract with the US Department of
Energy to develop an integrated cellulosic sugar-to-farnesene process.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Amyris, Renmatix and Total set a production cost target of 2 USD/L
for the 3-year contract with the US DOE
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
7 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Biorefining
Production High Details
Similar to petroleum refineries, but solely using biomass resources. A
biorefinery is an integrated system that converts a variety of biomass
resources via several biofuel production processes into multiple
biofuels and bioproducts.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:*
*Key initiatives:*
* The Crescentino Biorefinery in Italy is a demonstration plant that
produces 40,000 tonnes of lignocellulosic bioethanol per year, and
includes a 13 MW lignin boiler for green electricity production and
biogas production from an on-site wastewater treatment facility.
* Total recently completed the conversion of La Mède petroleum
refinery into a biorefinery, producing HVO/HEFA biodiesel and biojet
and plans to produce Avgas (fossil fuel aviation gasoline) and
AdBlue (additive for road diesel engines that reduces nitrogen oxide
emissions), showcasing biofuel and well as fossil fuel products.
* World Energy/AltAir converted biorefinery in Paramount California
signed a deal with Amazon in May 2020 to provide up to 6 million
gallons of biofuel, Source
* Aemetis, a United States company, is expanding its current scope of
ethanol production to include biogas upgrading to biomethane,
production of HVO diesel and HEFA biojet fuel using biomass-based
hydrogen, and carbon capture and storage at both of its facilities
in California. The new site will be operationat around 2024.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* The US DOE has set a target of $3/gallon gasoline equivalent (GGE)
in 2022 and $2.50/GGE by 2030 for an integrated biorefinery approach
to produce hydrocarbons from lignocellulosic ethanol and lignin
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
4-5 Energy transformation > Biofuels Production > Double-cropping
(sequential cropping) Production High Details
Double-cropping is the practice of planting a second crop (cover crop)
during the idle season of the first (main) crop. If the main crop is a
food crop and the cover crop is an energy crop, it reduces competition
between food and energy, and can potentially increase the amount of
sustainable biomass that can be produced for energy. Having a cover crop
also prevents soil erosion. However, more fertiliser is required to
provide nutrients for the second crop.
*Cross-cutting themes:* Bioenergy
*Key countries:* Finland, Uruguay
*Key initiatives:*
* UPM Biofuels is conducting a pilot field test on double-cropping in
Uruguay on 9000 hectares. They are using the Caranita energy crop as
the secondary cover crop.The Caranita crop is currently sent
elsewhere in Europe for processing into HVO/HEFA.
7 CO2 management > Direct air capture Solid DAC (S-DAC) Production
Moderate Details
Solid direct air capture (S-DAC) is a technology aiming at capturing CO2
from the atmosphere and either using it as a feedstock or storing it
underground. S-DAC is based on solid adsorbents operating through an
adsorption/desorption cycling process. While the adsorption takes place
at ambient temperature and pressure, the desorption happens through a
temperature–vacuum swing process, where CO2 is released at low pressure
and medium temperature (80-120°C). A single adsorption/desorption unit
has a capture capacity of several tens of tonnes of CO2 per year and can
be used to extract water from the atmosphere where local conditions
allow. An S-DAC plant is designed to be modular and can include as many
units as needed.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS, CO2 removal
*Key countries:* Switzerland, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Netherlands,
United States, Oman, Chile, Norway, Canada, United Kingdom
*Key initiatives:*
Companies that are leading the commercialisation of S-DAC technologies
include:
* Climeworks AG, founded in Switzerland in 2009 as a spin-off of the
research university ETH Zurich. The company has to date commissioned
15 plants worldwide and has been supported by both public and
private investors (including the largest private investment to date
in DAC), while also acquiring the competing company Antecy BV in
2019. Active collaborations include a joint development agreement
with Svante Inc. on carbon capture and participation within the
Norsk e-Fuel AS consortium (aiming to convert renewable electricity
resources and captured CO2 into renewable synthetic fuels). Further
collaborations include one with Carbfix and Northern Lights to
explore the potential for a DAC and CO2 removal project, and another
with 44.01 to test their DAC technology in Oman.
* Global Thermostat, founded in the United States in 2010 by two
academics from Columbia University. The company has so far
commissioned two DAC pilot plants and is collaborating with
ExxonMobil to advance and scale up its capture technology. In April
2021 Global Thermostat signed an agreement with HIF to supply DAC
equipment to the Haru Oni eFuels pilot plant in Chile, which will
utilise captured CO2 blended with electrolytic hydrogen to produce
synthetic gasoline. The plant is designed to capture up to 250 kg of
CO2 per hour, equivalent to around 2 000 tCO2/year.
*Announced development targets:*
Around 0.5 MtCO2/year by 2030 (global target).
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Climeworks expects the cost of its direct air capture technology to
drop as low as USD 250-300/MtCO2 by 2030.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
6 CO2 management > Direct air capture Liquid DAC (L-DAC) Production
Moderate Details
Liquid direct air capture (L-DAC) is a technology aiming at capturing
CO2 from the atmosphere and either using it as a feedstock or storing it
underground. L-DAC is based on two closed chemical loops. The first loop
takes place in a unit called the contactor, which brings atmospheric air
into contact with an aqueous basic solution (such as potassium
hydroxide) capturing CO2. The second loop releases the captured CO2 from
the solution in a series of units operating at high temperature (between
300°C and 900°C). A large-scale L-DAC plant can capture around 0.5-1
MtCO2/year from the atmosphere. Water top-up may be required depending
on local weather conditions.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS, CO2 removal
*Key countries:* Canada, United States, United Kingdom, Norway
*Key initiatives:*
Companies that are leading the commercialisation of L-DAC technologies
include:
* Carbon Engineering Ltd, founded in 2009 in Squamish (British
Columbia, Canada) from academic work conducted on carbon management
technologies at the University of Calgary and Carnegie Mellon
University. The company is currently privately owned and is funded
by investment or commitments from private investors and government
agencies in both Canada and the United States. Carbon Engineering
has so far commissioned one pilot plant, and has recently signed a
licensing agreement with 1Point5 to finance and deploy the world’s
largest DAC facility (which should start capturing CO2 from the
atmosphere by 2024). It has also commenced pre-FEED (front-end
engineering and design) with Pale Blue Dot Energy (a Storegga group
company) on the development of a DAC facility in Scotland, United
Kingdom. Carbon Engineering has just started engineering on an
air-to-fuel plant that is due to become operational in Canada in 2026.
*Announced development targets:*
Up to 70 MtCO2/year by 2035 (global target) in collaboration with Oxy.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* Oxy expects the levelised cost of capture for its first large-scale
DAC plant (DAC-1, based on Carbon Engineering's DAC technology) to
be in the range of 300-430 USD/tCO2.
10 CO2 management > CO2 transport Pipeline CO2 transport Very high
Details
Pipelines are a cost effective way to connect sites where CO2 is
captured with sites where CO2 is stored or used. Pipelines are an
effective method to transport large volumes of CO2 and depending on
pipeline design CO2 can be transported in gaseous, liquid, dense-phase,
or supercritical forms. Before pipeline transport, CO2 is compressed to
increase the density of the CO2, thereby making it easier and less
costly to transport. Certain impurities may also be removed depending on
the specifications required by pipeline operators.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS
*Key countries:* United States, Norway, Canada, Netherlands, United Kingdom
*Key initiatives:*
* In North America, an extensive network of over 7 000 km of pipelines
transports around 60 MtCO2 per year, primarily for enhanced oil
recovery.
* Experience with CO2 pipeline transport also exists in other
countries, either for CO2-EOR purposes (e.g. Brazil, Canada, China)
or dedicated geological storage of CO2 (e.g. Australia, Canada,
Norway), but on a smaller scale.
* The Alberta Carbon Trunk Line provides a model for constructing
oversized pipeline infrastructure to account for future needs. That
pipeline has a capacity of 14.6 Mt/year even though only a fraction
of that capacity is currently used.
* Pipeline reuse/repurposing wherein existing oil or gas pipelines are
adapted to transport CO2, or existing routes are fitted with new CO2
pipelines is being explored in a number of places as a cost saving
mechanism.
*Deployment targets:*
* Several projects around the world involve development of CO2
clusters and hubs in which CO2 transport infrastructure could be
shared.
* In its ACCA21 Roadmap, the Chinese Ministry of Science and
Technology targets having a pipeline transportation capacity of 20
Mtonnes/year of CO2 with a total length in excess of 2 000 km. By
2050, those targets increase to 1 Gtonne/year capacity and a total
length of more than 20 000 km.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* No cost reduction targets have been identified.
4-7 CO2 management > CO2 transport Shipping CO2 transport Moderate
Details
Shipping can be used as a long distance transportation method for CO2
and it offers more flexibility than pipelines over long distances. CO2
can be shipped at low, medium, and high pressure conditions depending on
the design of the tanker. Low pressure and medium pressure conditions
are similar to those found in LPG shipping. Shipping can be port-to-port
or port-to-offshore. Infrastructure for CO2 liquification, loading, and
temporary storage of CO2 is required at the port of departure and
similar infrastructure is required at the receiving port in the case of
port-to-port shipping. When CO2 is shipped from port to an offshore
location, ships need to be able to interface with offshore
infrastructure to unload CO2 into temporary storage, or directly inject
it into the storage site. The TRL of ship-based transport of CO2 with
direct injection is the lowest, followed by port-to-offshore shipping
and then port-to-port shipping.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS
*Key countries:* United States, Norway, Netherlands
*Key initiatives:*
* Ship transport of CO2 exists today, but on a very small scale (1 to
2 kt capacity tankers) because of limited demand. Both Yara and
Anthony Veder have been operating small dedicated food-grade CO2
carriers with a capacity of 900-1250 ton, for decades.
* The Northern Lights project in Norway is investing in at least 2 CO2
tankers for Phase 1 of the project and will construct additional
ships as capacity expands. 1.5 Mt/year of CO2 transported by ship as
part of Northern Lights starting in 2024, this will increase to 5
Mt/year when the project enters Phase 2.
* 300 kt/year of CO2 transported by ship as part of Carbfix's Coda
terminal, to start in 2025. That project follows a port-to-port
model for shipping.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* No cost reduction targets have been identified.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
9 CO2 management > CO2 storage Saline formation CO2 storage Very
high Details
CO2 storage involves permanent retention of CO2 in underground
geological reservoirs (> 800 metres deep). The main types of geological
reservoirs suitable for CO2 storage are deep saline formations and
depleted oil and gas reservoirs.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS
*Key countries:* United States, Canada, Norway, China, Australia, Saudi
Arabia, UAE, Brazil
*Key initiatives:*
* Saline formations have been used for CO2 storage at commercial scale
in a number of CCUS projects (Sleipner, Snøhvit, Quest). The
following projects exemplify the ambition of leading players to
develop much larger (5 to 50 MtCO2/yr) storage operations:
* The Northern Lights project involves an offshore saline storage site
beneath the Northern North Sea. The project involves two phases: for
phase 1, a storage rate of up to 1.5 MtCO2/year is planned; during
phase 2 the storage rate will rise to 5 MtCO2/yr.
* The CarbonNet project is developing a deep saline CO2 storage site
within the Gippsland Basin in Victoria, Australia, with a capacity
of 125 MtCO2. A hub-based network centred on a large capacity
pipeline will be capable of delivering 5 MtCO2/yr.
* CarbonSAFE is a United States initiative focused on development of
geological storage sites with CO2 capacities of over 50 MtCO2 across
the continental US. The development of CarbonSAFE storage sites is
expected to lead to injection by 2026.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* No cost reduction targets have been identified.
7 CO2 management > CO2 storage Depleted oil and gas reservoir CO2
storage High Details
CO2 storage involves permanent retention of CO2 in underground
geological reservoirs (> 800 metres deep). The main types of geological
reservoirs suitable for CO2 storage are deep saline formations and
depleted oil and gas reservoirs.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS
*Key countries:* United States, Canada, Norway, China, Australia, Saudi
Arabia, UAE, Netherlands
*Key initiatives:*
Full-scale demonstration has been implemented, as part of the Regional
Carbon Sequestration Partnership in the United States, as part of an
initiative to stimulate regional CO2 storage. Examples of projects in
development that plan to inject CO2 into depleted oil or gas reservoirs
include:
* The VNZ CO2 Transportation and Storage System in the United Kingdom
which intends to inject CO2 into depleted gas reservoirs in the
Viking gas field
* The Porthos project in the Netherlands
* The Moomba project in Australia
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* No cost reduction targets have been identified.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
5 CO2 management > CO2 storage Mineral storage > Dissolved CO2
injections CO2 storage Moderate Details
Mineral storage, based on injection of CO2 into rock formations with
high concentrations of reactive minerals, is under development. Basalts
and peridotites are targeted since both are rich with metals that react
with CO2 to form carbonate minerals. There is very limited experience
with this type of storage but it can be done either with supercritical
CO2 or with CO2 dissolved in water.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS
*Key countries:* Iceland, United States
*Key initiatives:*
* Aqueous injections, where CO2 is dissolved in water and then
injected, have been piloted and demonstrated by the Carbfix
Consortium in Iceland. Injection of CO2 continues at one of
Carbfix's sites. Carbfix announced the development of the Coda
terminal which targets storing 300 ktonnes/year of CO2 starting in
2025.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* No cost reduction targets have been identified.
3 CO2 management > CO2 storage Mineral storage > Supercritical CO2
injections CO2 storage Moderate Details
Mineral storage, based on injection of CO2 into rock formations with
high concentrations of reactive minerals, is under development. Basalts
and peridotites are targeted since both are rich with metals that react
with CO2 to form carbonate minerals. There is very limited experience
with this type of storage but it can be done either with supercritical
CO2 or with CO2 dissolved in water.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS
*Key countries:* Iceland, United States
*Key initiatives:*
* Supercritical injection of CO2 for mineral storage was piloted in
the United States during the Wallula Basalt Pilot Demonstration
Project which injected 1 kilotonne of CO2 during a 3 week period in
2013.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* No cost reduction targets have been identified.
7-8 CO2 management > CO2 storage Advanced monitoring technologies CO2
storage High Details
Advanced monitoring technologies are improving the ability to track the
movement of the CO2 plume within a reservoir, check for leaks, and
monitor reservoir pressure. These technologies are an integral part of
safe and secure operations of a storage site. How they are deployed is
in part determined by regulatory requirements within a jurisdiction and
the specific characteristics of storage sites.
*Cross-cutting themes:* CCUS, Digitalization
*Key countries:* Australia, Canada, United Kingdom
*Key initiatives:*
* Advanced monitoring technologies have been developed and tested at
several demonstration and commercial sites including Otway (SE
Australia), CaMI (Alberta Canada), Quest (Alberta, Canada) and
InSahal (Algeria), Goldeneye (United Kingdom).
* Several technologies have been evaluated for their efficacy and cost
effectiveness including distributed acoustic sensors (DAS) and InSAR.
*Announced cost reduction targets:*
* The IEAGHG has a working group on monitoring technologies that
addresses cost reduction, development, and optimisation of
monitoring technologies.
Explore demonstration projects related to this sector in the Clean
Energy Demonstration Projects database
.
11 CO2 management > CO2 storage CO2-enhanced oil recovery CO2 storage
Moderate Details
CO2 injections can occur during tertiary production at oil fields to
enhance oil recovery. Called CO2-EOR, this technique was pioneered in
the United States. Following CO2-EOR operations, the majority of
injected CO2 may remain permanently trapped in the reservoir where it
was injected. However, conventional CO2-EOR operations require
additional activities to confirm that injected CO2 remains stored
underground. The IEA calls this CO2-EOR+, Source